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+Project Gutenberg's The Booklover and His Books, by Harry Lyman Koopman
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Booklover and His Books
+
+Author: Harry Lyman Koopman
+
+Release Date: September 15, 2007 [EBook #22606]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOKLOVER AND HIS BOOKS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, Meghan, and the booksmiths
+at http://www.eBookForge.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+    +------------------------------------------------------------+
+    | Transcriber's Note:                                        |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Obvious typographical errors have been corrected in        |
+    | this text. For a complete list, please see the bottom of   |
+    | this document.                                             |
+    |                                                            |
+    +------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+THE BOOKLOVER AND HIS BOOKS
+
+[Illustration: From the _Digestum Novum_ of Justinian, printed at Venice
+by Jenson in 1477. The type page of which this is a reduction measures
+12-1/2 by 8-1/2 inches. The initials in the original have been filled in
+by hand in red and blue.
+
+_From the copy in the Library of Brown University_]
+
+
+
+
+THE BOOKLOVER AND
+HIS BOOKS
+
+BY
+
+HARRY LYMAN KOOPMAN, LITT.D.
+
+LIBRARIAN OF BROWN UNIVERSITY
+
+BOSTON
+THE BOSTON BOOK COMPANY
+1917
+
+_Copyright, 1916,_
+BY THE BOSTON BOOK COMPANY
+
+THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE, U. S. A.
+
+
+TO
+THE AUTHORS AND THEIR PRINTERS
+WHO HAVE GIVEN US
+THE BOOKS THAT WE LOVE
+
+
+
+
+PREFATORY NOTE
+
+
+The following chapters were written during a series of years as one
+aspect after another of the Book engaged the writer's attention. As they
+are now brought together, the result is not a systematic treatise, but
+rather a succession of views of one many-sided subject. In consequence
+there is considerable overlapping. The writer hopes, however, that this
+will be looked upon not as vain repetition but as a legitimate
+reinforcement of his underlying theme, the unity in diversity of the
+Book and the federation of all who have to do with it. He therefore
+offers the present volume not so much for continuous reading as for
+reading by chapters. He trusts that for those who may consult it in
+connection with systematic study a sufficient clue to whatever it may
+contain on any given topic will be found in the index.
+
+Most of these chapters appeared as papers in "The Printing Art"; two
+were published in "The Graphic Arts," and some in other magazines. The
+writer expresses his thanks to the proprietors of these periodicals for
+the permission to republish the articles in their present collective
+form. All the papers have been revised to some extent. They were
+originally written in rare moments of leisure scattered through the busy
+hours of a librarian. Their writing was a source of pleasure, and their
+first publication brought him many delightful associations. As they are
+presented in their new attire to another group of readers, their author
+can wish for them no better fortune than to meet--possibly to
+make--booklovers.
+
+BROWN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY,
+Commencement Day, 1916
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+BOOKS AND BOOKLOVERS                               3
+FITNESS IN BOOK DESIGN                             9
+PRINT AS AN INTERPRETER OF MEANING                14
+FAVORITE BOOK SIZES                               19
+THE VALUE OF READING                              28
+THE BOOK OF TO-DAY AND THE BOOK OF TO-MORROW      33
+A CONSTRUCTIVE CRITIC OF THE BOOK                 38
+BOOKS AS A LIBRARIAN WOULD LIKE THEM              44
+THE BOOK BEAUTIFUL                                49
+THE READER'S HIGH PRIVILEGE                       63
+THE BACKGROUND OF THE BOOK                        79
+THE CHINESE BOOK                                  87
+THICK PAPER AND THIN                              92
+THE CLOTHING OF A BOOK                            97
+PARCHMENT BINDINGS                               102
+LEST WE FORGET THE FEW GREAT BOOKS               104
+PRINTING PROBLEMS FOR SCIENCE TO SOLVE           115
+TYPES AND EYES: THE PROBLEM                      120
+TYPES AND EYES: PROGRESS                         128
+EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULE OF LEGIBILITY             134
+THE STUDENT AND THE LIBRARY                      139
+ORTHOGRAPHIC REFORM                              145
+THE PERVERSITIES OF TYPE                         152
+A SECRET OF PERSONAL POWER                       162
+INDEX                                            171
+
+
+
+
+THE BOOKLOVER AND HIS BOOKS
+
+
+
+
+THE BOOKLOVER AND HIS
+BOOKS
+
+
+
+
+BOOKS AND BOOKLOVERS[1]
+
+
+The booklover is distinguished from the reader as such by loving his
+books, and from the collector as such by reading them. He prizes not
+only the soul of the book, but also its body, which he would make a
+house beautiful, meet for the indwelling of the spirit given by its
+author. Love is not too strong a word to apply to his regard, which
+demands, in the language of Dorothy Wordsworth, "a beautiful book, a
+book to caress--peculiar, distinctive, individual: a book that hath
+first caught your eye and then pleased your fancy." The truth is that
+the book on its physical side is a highly organized art object. Not in
+vain has it transmitted the thought and passion of the ages; it has
+taken toll of them, and in the hands of its worthiest makers these
+elements have worked themselves out into its material body. Enshrining
+the artist's thought, it has, therefore, the qualities of a true art
+product, and stands second only to those which express it, such as
+painting and sculpture; but no other art product of its own order, not
+the violin nor the jewel-casket, can compare with the book in esthetic
+quality. It meets one of the highest tests of art, for it can appeal to
+the senses of both beauty and grandeur, either separately, as in the
+work of Aldus and of Sweynheym and Pannartz, or together, as in that of
+Jenson.
+
+Books have doubtless had their lovers in all ages, under all their
+forms. Even the Assyrian clay tablet, if stamped with the words of poet
+or sage, might have shared the affection which they inspired. So might
+the papyrus roll of the Egyptian, and so does even to-day the parchment
+book of the middle ages, whenever its fortunate owner has the soul of a
+booklover. From this book our own was derived, yet not without a break.
+For our book is not so much a copy of the Roman and medieval book as a
+"substitute" for it, a machine product made originally to sell at a
+large profit for the price of hand-work. It was fortunate for the early
+printed book that it stood in this intimate if not honored relation to
+the work of the scribes and illuminators, and fortunate for the book of
+to-day, since, with all its lapses, it cannot escape its heritage of
+those high standards.
+
+Mr. John Cotton Dana has analyzed the book into forty elements; a
+minuter analysis might increase the number to sixty; but of either
+number the most are subsidiary, a few controlling. The latter are those
+of which each, if decided upon first, determines the character of the
+rest; they include size, paper, and type. The mention of any size,
+folio, quarto, octavo, twelvemo, sixteenmo, calls up at once a distinct
+mental picture of an ideal book for each dimension, and the series is
+marked by a decreasing thickness of paper and size of type as it
+progresses downward from the folio. The proportions of the page will
+also vary, as well as the surface of the paper and the cut of the type,
+the other elements conforming to that first chosen.
+
+Next to size, paper determines the expression of a book. It is the
+printing material par excellence; but for its production the art could
+never have flourished. It is as much preferred by the printer as
+parchment was by the scribe. Its three elements of body, surface, and
+tint must all be considered, and either body or surface may determine
+the size of the book or the character of the type. A smooth surface may
+be an element of beauty, as with the paper employed by Baskerville, but
+it must not be a shiny surface. The great desideratum in modern paper
+from the point of view of the book-buyer is a paper that, while opaque
+and tough, shall be thin enough to give us our books in small compass,
+one more akin to the dainty and precious vellum than to the heavier and
+coarser parchment. It should also be durable.
+
+Type gives its name to the art and is the instrument by which the spoken
+word is made visible to the eye. The aims in its design should be
+legibility, beauty, and compactness, in this order; but these are more
+or less conflicting qualities, and it is doubtful if any one design can
+surpass in all. Modern type is cleaner-cut than the old, but it may be
+questioned whether this is a real gain. William Morris held that all
+types should avoid hair-lines, fussiness, and ugliness. Legibility
+should have the right of way for most printed matter, especially
+children's books and newspapers. If the latter desire compactness, they
+should condense their style, not their types.
+
+A further important element, which affects both the legibility and the
+durability of the book, is the ink. For most purposes it should be a
+rich black. Some of the print of the early masters is now brown, and
+there have been fashions of gray printing, but the booklover demands
+black ink, except in ornaments, and there color, if it is to win his
+favor, must be used sparingly and with great skill. We are told that the
+best combination for the eye is ink of a bluish tint on buff-tinted
+paper; but, like much other good advice, this remains practically
+untried.
+
+Illustrations have been a feature of the book for over four hundred
+years, but they have hardly yet become naturalized within its pages. Or
+shall we say that they soon forgot their proper subordination to the
+type and have since kept up a more or less open revolt? The law of
+fitness demands that whatever is introduced into the book in connection
+with type shall harmonize with the relatively heavy lines of type. This
+the early black-line engravings did. But the results of all other
+processes, from copper-plate to half-tone, conflict with the
+type-picture and should be placed where they are not seen with it.
+Photogravures, for instance, may be put at the end of the book, or they
+may be covered with a piece of opaque tissue paper, so that either their
+page or the facing type-page will be seen alone. We cannot do without
+illustrations. All mankind love a picture as they love a lover. But let
+the pictures belong to the book and not merely be thrust into it.
+
+The binding is to the book what the book is to its subject-matter, a
+clothing and protection. In the middle ages, when books were so few as
+to be a distinction, they were displayed sidewise, not edgewise, on the
+shelves, and their covers were often richly decorated, sometimes with
+costly gems. Even the wooden cover of the pre-Columbian Mexican book had
+gems set in its corners. Modern ornamentation is confined to tooling,
+blind and gilt, and inlaying. But some booklovers question whether any
+decoration really adds to the beauty of the finest leather. It should be
+remembered that the binding is not all on the outside. The visible cover
+is only the jacket of the real cover on which the integrity of the book
+depends. The sewing is the first element in time and importance. To be
+well bound a book should lie open well, otherwise it is bound not for
+the reader but only for the collector.
+
+It cannot be too often repeated that properly made books are not
+extremely costly. A modern book offered at a fancy price means either a
+very small edition, an extravagant binding, or what is more likely, a
+gullible public. But most books that appeal to the booklover are not
+excessive in price. Never before was so much money spent in making books
+attractive--for the publisher always has half an eye on the
+booklover--and while much of this money is wasted, not all is laid out
+in vain. Our age is producing its quota of good books, and these the
+booklover makes it his business to discover.
+
+In order to appreciate, the booklover must first know. He must be a
+book-kenner, a critic, but one who is looking for excellencies rather
+than faults, and this knowledge there are many books to teach him. But
+there is no guide that can impart the love of books; he must learn to
+love them as one learns to love sunsets, mountains, and the ocean, by
+seeing them. So let him who would know the joys and rewards of the
+booklover associate with well-made books. Let him begin with the
+ancients of printing, the great Germans, Italians, Dutchmen. He can
+still buy their books if he is well-to-do, or see them in libraries and
+museums if he belongs to the majority. Working down to the moderns, he
+will find himself discriminating and rejecting, but he will be attracted
+by certain printers and certain periods in the last four hundred years,
+and he will be rejoiced to find that the last thirty years, though
+following a decline, hold their own--not by their mean but by their
+best--with any former period short of the great first half-century,
+1450-1500.
+
+Finally, if his book-love develops the missionary spirit in him, let him
+lend his support to the printers and publishers of to-day who are
+producing books worthy of the booklover's regard, for in no other way
+can he so effectually speed the day when all books shall justify the
+emotion which more than five hundred years ago Richard de Bury, Bishop
+of Durham, expressed in the title of his famous and still cherished
+work, the _Philobiblon_.
+
+
+
+
+FITNESS IN BOOK DESIGN
+
+
+"A woman's fitness comes by fits," said slanderous Cloten; but to say as
+much of fitness in book design would be on the whole a compliment.
+Fitness as applied to book design means, of course, that the material
+form of the book shall correspond to its spiritual substance, shall be
+no finer and no meaner, and shall produce a like, even if a slighter,
+esthetic impression. At the outset we have to surrender to commercialism
+more than half our territory. All agree that our kings should be clothed
+in purple and our commoners in broadcloth; but how about the
+intellectual riffraff that makes up the majority of our books? Are our
+publishers willing that these should be clothed according to their
+station? Hardly; for then would much of their own occupation be gone. It
+is recognized that for a large proportion of our publications the
+design--the outward appearance--is in great measure counted on to sell
+the book; and printers and publishers will not consent to send the
+paupers of literature forth upon the world in their native rags, for so
+they would find no one to welcome them. It will be useless to quarrel
+with the fact that the design of many books is meant as a bait and not
+as a simple interpretation of their meaning and worth. Design of this
+character, however, is relatively easy; it is really not design at all,
+but millinery. It is when his work becomes genuinely interpretative that
+the designer's difficulties begin.
+
+The first business of the designer, therefore, is to understand the book
+he is treating. Here, of course, his judgment, however sincere, may be
+mistaken or misled. A classical instance of this is found in connection
+with one of the most famous books in the history of modern
+printing,--Barlow's "Columbiad." This work, which first appeared in 1787
+under a different title, was enlarged to epic proportions during the
+next twenty years, and was finally given to the world in 1807 in the
+belief on the part of its author and in the hope at least on the part of
+its publisher that it would take rank and be honored for all time as the
+great American epic. Under this misconception the book was clothed in a
+form that might worthily have enshrined "Paradise Lost." Its stately
+quarto pages were set in a type specially designed for the work and
+taking from it the name of Columbian. The volume was embellished with
+full-page engravings after paintings in the heroic manner by Smirke; in
+short, it was the most pretentious book issued in America up to that
+time, and it still ranks, in the words of Professor Barrett Wendell,
+"among the most impressive books to look at in the world." But alas for
+the vanity of human aspirations! "The Columbiad" is now remembered as a
+contribution to typography rather than literature. The designer overshot
+his author.
+
+We have tacitly assumed that a book has but one interpretation and
+therefore but one most appropriate design. This, however, is far from
+the truth. When, after various more or less successful editions of
+Irving's "Knickerbocker" had appeared, Mr. Updike brought out some
+twenty years ago his comic edition, with the whole make-up of the book
+expressive of the clumsy and stupid Dutchmen depicted in Irving's
+mock-heroic, we felt at the moment that here was the one ideal
+"Knickerbocker." Yet, much as we still admire it, does it wholly
+satisfy us? Is there not as much room as ever for an edition that shall
+express primarily not the absurdity of its subject-matter, but the
+delicate playfulness of Irving's humor and the lightness and grace of
+his exuberant style? Has there ever been a final "Don Quixote"?
+Certainly not in the recent monumental editions with their quagmire of
+footnotes. Moreover, if _we_ had a final edition of the great romance it
+would not remain final for our children's children. Every age will make
+its own interpretations of the classics and will demand that they be
+embodied in contemporary design. Thus every age in its book design
+mirrors itself for future admiration or contempt.
+
+Obviously, in giving form to a single work a designer is freer than in
+handling a series by one or by various authors. In such cases he must
+seize upon more general and therefore less salient characteristics. The
+designer of "Hiawatha" or "Evangeline" has a fairly clear task before
+him, with a chance of distinct success or failure; but the designer of
+an appropriate form for the whole series of Longfellow's works, both
+prose and poetry, has a less individualized problem, and must think of
+the elements that run through all,--sweetness, grace, gentleness,
+dignity, learning. Yet, though general, these qualities in a series may
+be far from vague. We have only to consider the absurdity of a
+handy-volume Gibbon or a folio Lamb. On looking at the bulky,
+large-type, black-covered volumes of the Forman edition of Shelley and
+Keats one instinctively asks, "What crime did these poets commit that
+they should be so impounded?" The original edition of the life of
+Tennyson by his son, in two lumbering, royal octavo volumes, comes near
+to what Thackeray called the Farnese Hercules, "a hulking abortion."
+Contrast with it the dignity linked with charm of the original edition
+of Longfellow's life by his brother. But of all monstrosities of book
+design the British three-volume novel mania is responsible for some of
+the worst. Henry Ward Beecher's one novel, "Norwood," which appeared in
+America becomingly clad in a single volume, received in England the
+regulation three-volume dress, in which it looks as ridiculously
+inflated as did a slender miss of that period in the crinoline then in
+vogue. There is one abomination in book design for which I owe a
+personal grudge to commercialism, and that is the dropsical book form
+given to Locker-Lampson's "My Confidences." If ever there was a winsome
+bit of writing it is this, and it should have made a book to take to
+one's heart, something not larger than a "Golden Treasury" volume, but
+of individual design. My comfort is that this will yet be done, and my
+belief is that art will justify itself better in the market than
+commercialism did. A more modern instance of expansion for commercial
+reasons defeating fitness in design is furnished by Waters' translation
+of "The Journal of Montaigne's Travels." Here we have three small
+volumes outwardly attractive, but printed on paper thick enough for
+catalogue cards, and therefore too stiff for the binding, also in type
+too large to be pleasant. The whole should have been issued in one
+volume of the same size in smaller type, and would then have been as
+delightful in form as it is in substance.
+
+It is not enough that all the elements of a book be honest, sincere,
+enduring; otherwise the clumsy royal octavos of Leslie Stephen's edition
+of Fielding would be as attractive as "the dear and dumpy twelves" of
+the original editions. Royal octavo, indeed, seems to be the pitfall of
+the book designer, though there is no inherent objection to it. Where in
+the whole range of reference books will be found a more attractive set
+of volumes than Moulton's "Library of Literary Criticism," with their
+realization in this format of the Horatian _simplex munditiis_? For
+extremely different treatments of this book size it is instructive to
+compare the slender volumes of the original editions of Ruskin with the
+slightly shorter but very much thicker volumes of the scholarly
+definitive edition, which is a monument of excellence in every element
+of book design except the crowning one of fitness. Our libraries must
+have this edition for its completeness and its editorship; its material
+excellence will insure the transmission of Ruskin's message to future
+centuries; but no one will ever fall in love with these volumes or think
+of likening them to the marriage of "perfect music unto noble words."
+
+Granted that the designer knows the tools of his trade,--grasps the
+expressional value of every element with which he has to deal, from the
+cut of a type to the surface of a binder's cloth,--his task, as we said,
+is first to know the soul of the book intrusted to him for embodiment;
+it is next to decide upon its most characteristic quality, or the sum of
+its qualities; and, lastly, it is so to use his physical elements as to
+give to the completed book an expression that shall be the outward
+manifestation of its indwelling spirit. This is all that can be asked of
+him; but, if he would add a touch of perfection, let him convey the
+subtle tribute of a sense of the value of his subject by reflecting in
+his design the artist's joy in his work.
+
+
+
+
+PRINT AS AN INTERPRETER OF MEANING
+
+
+The invention of printing, we have often been told, added to book
+production only the two commercial elements of speed and cheapness. As
+regards the book itself, we are assured, printing not only added
+nothing, but, during the four and a half centuries of its development,
+has constantly tended to take away. These statements are no doubt
+historically and theoretically true, yet they are so unjust to the
+present-day art that some supplementary statement of our obligations to
+printing seems called for, aside from the obvious rejoinder that, even
+if speed and cheapness are commercial qualities, they have reached a
+development--especially in the newspaper--beyond the dreams of the most
+imaginative fifteenth-century inventor, and have done nothing less than
+revolutionize the world.
+
+Taking the service of printing as it stands to-day, what does it
+actually do for the reader? What is the great difference between the
+printed word and even the best handwriting? It is obviously the
+condensation and the absolute mechanical sameness of print. The
+advantage of these differences to the eye in respect to rapid reading is
+hardly to be overestimated. Let any one take a specimen of average
+penmanship and note the time which he consumes in reading it; let him
+compare with this the time occupied in reading the same number of
+printed words, and the difference will be startling; but not even so
+will it do justice to print, for handwriting average in quality is very
+far from average in frequency. If it be urged that the twentieth-century
+comparison should be between typewriting and print, we may reply that
+typewriting _is_ print, though it lacks most of its condensation, and
+that the credit for its superior legibility belongs to typography, of
+which the new art is obviously a by-product. But we are not yet out of
+the manuscript period, so far as private records are concerned, and it
+still is true, as it has been for many generations, that print
+multiplies the years of every scholar's and reader's life.
+
+At this point we may even introduce a claim for print as a contributor
+to literature. There are certainly many books of high literary standing
+that never would have attained their present form without the
+intervention of type. It is well known that Carlyle rewrote his books in
+proof, so that the printer, instead of attempting to correct his
+galleys, reset them outright. Balzac went a step further, and largely
+wrote his novels in proof, if such an expression may be allowed. He so
+altered and expanded them that what went to the printing office as copy
+for a novelette finally came out of it a full-sized novel. Even where
+the changes are not so extensive, as in the proof-sheets of the Waverley
+Novels preserved in the Cornell University Library, it is interesting to
+trace the alterations which the author was prompted to make by the sight
+of his paragraphs clothed in the startling distinctness of print. Nor is
+this at all surprising when one considers how much better the eye can
+take in the thought and style of a composition from the printed page
+than it can even from typewriting. The advantage is so marked that some
+publishers, before starting on an expensive literary venture, are
+accustomed to have the copy set up on the linotype for the benefit of
+their critics. If the work is accepted, the revisions are made on these
+sheets, and then, finally, the work is sent back to the composing room
+to receive the more elaborate typographic dress in which it is to
+appear.
+
+But to return to the advantages of type to the reader. Handwriting can
+make distinctions, such as punctuation and paragraphing, but print can
+greatly enforce them. The meaning of no written page leaps out to the
+eye; but this is the regular experience of the reader with every
+well-printed page. While printing can do nothing on a single page that
+is beyond the power of a skillful penman, its ordinary resources are the
+extraordinary ones of manuscript. It might not be physically impossible,
+for instance, to duplicate with a pen a page of the Century Dictionary,
+but it would be practically impossible, and, if the pen were our only
+resource, we never should have such a marvel of condensation and
+distinctness as that triumph of typography in the service of
+scholarship.
+
+In ordinary text, printing has grown away from the distinctions to the
+eye that were in vogue two hundred years ago--a gain to art and perhaps
+to legibility also, though contemporary critics like Franklin lamented
+the change--but in reference books we have attained to a finer skill in
+making distinctions to the eye than our forefathers achieved with all
+their typographic struggles. Nor are our reference pages lacking in
+beauty. But our familiarity with works of this class tends to obscure
+their wonderful merit as time-savers and eye-savers. It is only when we
+take up some foreign dictionary, printed with little contrast of type,
+perhaps in German text, and bristling with unmeaning abbreviations, that
+we appreciate our privilege. Surely this is a marvelous mechanical
+triumph, to present the words of an author in such a form that the eye,
+to take it in, needs but to sweep rapidly down the page, or, if it
+merely glances at the page, it shall have the meaning of the whole so
+focused in a few leading words that it can turn at once to the passage
+sought, or see that it must look elsewhere. The saving of time so
+effected may be interpreted either as a lengthening of life or as an
+increased fullness of life, but it means also a lessening of friction
+and thus an addition to human comfort.
+
+We have been speaking of prose; but print has done as much or more to
+interpret the meaning of poetry. We have before us a facsimile of
+nineteen lines from the oldest Vatican manuscript of Vergil. The
+hexameters are written in single lines; but this is the only help to the
+eye. The letters are capitals and are individually very beautiful,
+indeed, the lines are like ribbons of rich decoration; but the words are
+not separated, and the punctuation is inconspicuous and primitively
+simple, consisting merely of faint dots. Modern poetry, especially
+lyric, with its wealth and interplay of rhyme, affords a fine
+opportunity for the printer to mediate between the poet and his public,
+and this he has been able to do by mere indention and leading, without
+resorting to distinction of type. The reader of a sonnet or ballad
+printed without these two aids to the eye is robbed of his rightful
+clues to the construction of the verse. It seems hardly possible that a
+poem could have been read aloud from an ancient manuscript, at sight,
+with proper inflection; yet this is just what printing can make possible
+for the modern reader. It has not usually done so, for the printer has
+been very conservative; he has taken his conception of a page from
+prose, and, not being compelled to, has not placed all the resources of
+his art at the service of the poet. Accents, pauses, and certain
+arbitrary signs might well be employed to indicate to the reader the
+way the poet meant his line to be read. Milton curiously gave us some
+metric hints by means of changes in spelling, but we have to read all
+our other poets in the light of our own discernment, and it is not to be
+wondered at if doctors disagree. Even the caesura, or pause in the
+course of a long line, is not always easy to place. Francis Thompson, in
+his poem "A Judgement in Heaven," has indicated this by an asterisk,
+giving an example that might well be followed by other poets and their
+printers. The regularity of eighteenth-century verse made little call
+for guide-posts, but modern free meter, in proportion to its greater
+flexibility and richness, demands more assistance to the reader's eye,
+or even to his understanding. For instance, to read aloud hexameters or
+other long lines, some of which have the initial accent on the first
+syllable and some later, is quite impossible without previous study
+supplemented by a marking of the page. Yet a few printed accents would
+make a false start impossible. Poetry will never require the elaborate
+aid from the printer which he gives to music; but it seems clear that he
+has not yet done for it all that he might or should.
+
+It is surely not an extreme assumption that the first duty of the
+printer is to the meaning of his author, and his second to esthetics;
+but shall we not rather say that his duty is to meet both demands, not
+by a compromise, but by a complete satisfaction of each? A difficult
+requirement, surely, but one that we are confident the twentieth-century
+printer will not permit his critics to pronounce impossible.
+
+
+
+
+FAVORITE BOOK SIZES
+
+
+In the following paper some account will be given of five book sizes
+that have taken rank as favorites. It should excite no surprise that all
+are small sizes. Nature's favorites are always small; her insect jewels
+outnumber her vertebrates a millionfold; and book-loving human nature
+takes the same delight in daintiness.
+
+There is, to be sure, a general impression that the first centuries of
+printing were given up to folios, the eighteenth century to quartos and
+octavos, and that only the present period has been characterized by
+twelvemos and sixteenmos. We think of the Gutenberg Bible, the Nuremberg
+Chronicle, the mighty editions of the Fathers, the polyglot Bibles of
+Paris, London, and Antwerp,--fairly to be called limp teachers'
+Bibles,--the 1611 Bible, the Shakespeare folios; then of the quarto
+editions of Addison, Pope, Walpole, and their contemporaries, and the
+stately octavo editions of the same writers; and finally of the myriad
+_infra_ that have swarmed from the press during the last century. But,
+when we walk through a library that offers a representative collection
+of books from the invention of printing to the present, we realize that
+the bigness of the folios and quartos has deceived us as to their
+relative number, all forms of literature being considered.
+
+The parent of our present book form, the Roman codex, split from an
+actual block of wood, had a surface hardly as large as the cover of a
+Little Classic. The vellum Books of Hours were dainty volumes. Even in
+the period between Gutenberg and Aldus, books of moderate size were not
+uncommon, and continuously, from the days of the great Venetian
+popularizer of literature to the present, the small books have far
+outnumbered their heavy-armed allies. Common sense, indeed, would tell
+us that this must be so, even if it had not inspired Dr. Johnson, its
+eighteenth century exponent, to declare: "Books that you may carry to
+the fire, and hold readily in your hand, are the most useful after all."
+
+Our account properly begins with Aldus. From 1494, the date of his first
+productions, until 1501 he printed his books in folio and quarto. But in
+the first year of the new century he began to use his famous cursive
+type, now called italic. The fineness of the new type, as has been
+suggested, called for a smaller size of book, which was also favored by
+considerations of economy and convenience; and so Aldus made up his
+sheets in a form which the fold compels us to call octavo, but which
+to-day would be called sixteenmo. Says Horatio F. Brown, in his "The
+Venetian Printing Press": "The public welcomed the new type and size.
+The College granted Aldus a monopoly for ten years for all books printed
+in this manner. The price of books was lowered at once. Didot calculates
+that an octavo of Aldus cost, on an average, two francs and a half,
+whereas a folio probably cost about twenty francs. These two innovations
+on type and on format constituted a veritable revolution in the printing
+press and in the book trade, which now began to reach a far more
+extensive market than it had ever touched before. With this wide
+diffusion of books came the popularization of knowledge at which Aldus
+aimed. Scholarship began to lose its exclusive and aristocratic
+character when the classics were placed within the reach of any student
+who chose to study, meditate, and interpret them for himself. And to
+Aldus belongs the credit of having, through his new type and size,
+opened the way to the democratization of learning."
+
+That the taste which Aldus so successfully hit was no merely temporary
+one, any person will be convinced if he will stand before a shelf full
+of these little Aldus classics, handle the light, well-proportioned
+volumes, and take in the esthetic charm of their type and page and form,
+which, in spite of their four hundred years, by no means savors of
+antiquity. In these books Aldus achieved one of the greatest triumphs
+possible in any art, a union of beauty and utility, each on so high a
+plane that no one is able to decide which is pre-eminent. In a copy
+which I have before me of his "Rhetoricorum ad C. Herennium Libri IIII,"
+1546, the fine proportions of the page appear in spite of trimming. Very
+noticeable are the undersized roman capitals; more curious is the letter
+printed in the otherwise blank square to indicate what initial the
+illuminator should insert in color, and the irregular use of capitals
+and small letters after a period. The catchword appears only on the last
+page of the signature, not on every page, as was the later practice.
+Modern usage wisely consigns italic to a subordinate place, but in point
+of beauty combined with convenience, it may well be questioned if four
+centuries of printing have made any advance upon this page.
+
+In nearly every library for scholars is to be found a row of plump
+little books that never fail to catch the eye of the sightseer. If the
+visitor does not know beforehand what they are, he is little enlightened
+on being told that they are "Elzevirs," and the attendant must needs
+supply the information that the Elzevirs were a family of Dutch printers
+who flourished during the century that closed with the arrival of
+William III in England, and that these tiny volumes represent their most
+popular productions. Says George Haven Putnam in his "Books and their
+Makers during the Middle Ages": "The Elzevirs, following the example set
+a century and a half earlier by Aldus, but since that time very
+generally lost sight of by the later publishers, initiated a number of
+series of books in small and convenient forms, twelvemo and sixteenmo,
+which were offered to book buyers at prices considerably lower than
+those they had been in the habit of paying for similar material printed
+in folio, quarto, or octavo.... These well-edited, carefully printed,
+and low-priced editions of the classics won for the Elzevirs the cordial
+appreciation of scholars and of students throughout Europe."
+
+Among the authors who acknowledged their indebtedness to the Elzevirs
+may be mentioned Galileo, the elder Balzac, and the poet Ménage. I have
+before me more than six feet of shelving filled with these tiny books.
+They are nearly all bound in vellum, and thus retain their antique
+appearance without as well as within. Their subject-matter is in the
+fields of literature, ancient and contemporary, and the history,
+geography, and political constitution of the principal countries. The
+books of the latter division are known as "Respublicæ Variæ." It is
+impossible to resist the conclusion that this book form was chosen not
+more to supply cheap books which could be sold to impecunious scholars
+than to provide portable volumes for travelers. The Elzevir
+"Commonwealths" were the predecessors of our "satchel guides," and the
+literary publications in this form were evidently designed to be pocket
+editions. It was to such books that Dr. Johnson referred when he advised
+his friends "never to go out without some little book or other in their
+pocket. Much time is lost by waiting, by travelling, etc., and this may
+be prevented by making use of every possible opportunity for
+improvement." When the positive doctor, on his journey to the Hebrides,
+paid his tribute to George Buchanan at St. Andrews, his acquaintance
+with the Latin poetry of the Scotch professor may well have arisen from
+his having thus made a pocket piece of one of the several Elzevir
+editions of the poet.
+
+The characteristics of the "Elzevirs" are that they range from about
+four to about five inches in height, are always narrow, 2-1/4 to 2-3/4
+inches in width, and are usually thick, in some cases even 1-1/2 inches.
+It is hardly necessary to say that the esthetic impression of these
+"jewels of typography" is wholly different from that produced by the
+"Alduses." It is the beauty of an infant compared with that of a youth,
+and, as in the case of the infant, plumpness is a part of the charm. The
+thinnest of the "Elzevirs" (about three-fourths of an inch thick) lack
+much of the characteristic quality. It is of course granted that no
+small portion of the charm exerted by these volumes is due to their
+type, which in artistic excellence and practical effectiveness has
+hardly been surpassed before or since.
+
+When William Pickering, in 1830, began to issue his Aldine edition of
+the British Poets in the most beautiful and appropriate form that he
+could devise, the design which he placed upon the title-page, a dolphin
+and an anchor, with the words "Aldi discip. Anglus," was an expression
+at once of pride and of obligation. He had gone back to Aldus for his
+model, and the book which he produced was in all but its change of type
+from italic to roman a nearly exact reproduction of the form which Aldus
+had employed so successfully three centuries before. Even the relative
+thinness of the volumes was preserved as an important element of their
+attractiveness to eye and hand. Whoever would learn what an enormous
+difference in esthetic effect can be produced by slight differences in
+style and size, especially in thickness, should compare the Pickering
+"Aldines" with the rival set of British Poets published by Little and
+Brown. The latter series is a noble one, often showing better presswork
+than Pickering's, and it was deservedly popular, but it is many degrees
+removed from the totality of esthetic charm that would entitle it to
+rank as a favorite.
+
+We said that Pickering went back to Aldus for his model, but he did not
+travel a lonely road. The book size in question had never ceased to be
+used, and in the eighteenth century it was in full favor. The writings
+of the novelists and essayists found ready buyers in this form, as
+witness, among others, the Strahan Fielding of 1783, the Rivington Idler
+of the same year, and the Rivington Sterne of 1788. The size of the
+printed page is usually larger, but that of the Sterne corresponds as
+closely to that of the two "Aldines" as the difference in the size of
+type will permit. Pickering's contemporaries and successors in the
+publishing field recognized the attractiveness of this book size, and
+the works of the poets generally were issued in this form; hence we
+have, for example, the Longman Southey, the Moxon Wordsworth, and the
+Murray Crabbe. The latest series to appeal for popular favor by the use
+of this book form is Everyman's Library, in which, though much has been
+sacrificed to cheapness, the outward proportions of the volumes are
+almost identical with those adopted by Aldus and Pickering.
+
+    Go, little book, whose pages hold
+      Those garnered years in loving trust;
+    How long before your blue and gold
+      Shall fade and whiten in the dust?
+
+This stanza from Dr. Holmes's introduction to his "Poems" of 1862 may
+well be claimed by the Blue and Gold edition of the poets as its
+passport to the recognition of future generations. But it will need no
+passport; its own enduring charm is sufficient. The volumes of this
+dainty series, while larger in all but thickness than the "Elzevirs,"
+yet make their appeal by much the same qualities, compactness and
+portability, with a suggestion of the Elzevirian plumpness. To the
+attraction of the size is added the contrasted charm of the blue cover
+and the gilt stamp and edges. That a Blue and Gold edition, in the
+absence of its name qualities, becomes something far inferior may be
+seen from a copy that has lost them in rebinding. In spite of the
+hardness of their blue and the crudeness of their stamped designs, these
+little volumes attract every reader and never remain long on the shelves
+of the second-hand bookstores. We should not expect a publisher to
+succeed were he now to put them upon the market for the first time or in
+an exact reproduction. But the publisher who shall so recombine their
+elements as to produce upon his public the effect which they made upon
+theirs, and which they still make as reminiscent of an earlier taste,
+will be the envy of his fellows. It is interesting to note that after
+fifty years these volumes show no sign of fading, so that Dr. Holmes
+might well have made his stanza an exclamation instead of a question.
+They seem likely to last as long as the "Elzevirs" or even the "Alduses"
+have already lasted, and possibly to outlast the fame, though hardly the
+memory, of the poet who sang them. The dimensions of the cover are 5-5/8
+by 3-3/8 inches; the thickness is about an inch. There was a larger Blue
+and Gold format, as well as several smaller, but only the standard is
+now valued.
+
+We cannot bring our list of favorite book sizes much nearer the present
+without running the risk of confusing the temporary and the permanent in
+popular approval. We will, therefore, close with a mention of the Little
+Classics. At about the time when the Blue and Gold series ceased to be
+published, more exactly in 1874, Mr. Rossiter Johnson designed for the
+now famous series which he was then editing a book form that sprang at
+once into a favor that it still retains. In this form, which appears to
+have no near counterpart in either earlier or later bookmaking, the
+volumes are closely six by four inches by three-quarters of an inch in
+thickness. The edges are colored red, whatever the color of the sides.
+The printed page is relatively wide, and the whole effect of the book is
+that of a tiny quarto, though in reality the dimensions are those of a
+rather small sixteenmo of normal proportions. Thus the volume produces
+upon the eye the charm of daintiness, while the page contains a
+sufficient amount of matter to make the volume profitable to the
+purchaser.
+
+This series naturally suggests comparison with the Tauchnitz editions,
+which consist of volumes only slightly larger. But really no comparison
+is possible. The Tauchnitz editions are merely convenient carriers of
+letterpress. The Little Classics are a genuine art product. That the
+latter book size has not been more widely used than it has, by its own
+and by other publishers, is perhaps due to commercial reasons. But there
+can be no question of the esthetic appeal which it makes upon the reader
+who is looking for compactness and beauty rather than for the greatest
+bulk for his money. With the modern demand for the saving of space in
+private libraries we may reasonably look for a revival of this condensed
+and charming book size.
+
+The adoption of a few standard sizes for all books was urged some years
+ago at a meeting of American librarians. Commenting on this proposal, a
+New York publisher remarked that he should be glad to have such standard
+sizes adopted by others, but he should take pains to avoid them in his
+own publications in order to gain the distinction of difference. The
+discussion stopped suddenly under the impact of this unexpected assault.
+But a second thought shows that the publisher's comment leaves the
+question still open. It is obvious that if we were to adopt standard
+sizes based upon nothing more fundamental than the librarian's desire
+for uniformity or the printer's mechanical convenience, without regard
+to the tastes and preferences of the reader, who is the final judge, the
+publisher might well find his gain in disregarding them. But if the
+standards adopted all represented sizes long tested and approved by
+popular favor, the publisher who should avoid them would display a
+confidence in the Spirit of the Perverse as sublime as it would be
+hazardous. Fortunately no formal standardization of book sizes is likely
+to be attempted. But, keenly as a publisher would resent any limitation
+upon his freedom in book design, he is just as keenly desirous that his
+books shall be favorites. To attain his coveted end he has two
+resources, experience and experiment, or a mixture of both. While the
+book sizes that have been discussed in this chapter do not include all
+the favorites, they certainly include some of the first favorites, and
+are worthy of study by everyone who is seeking public favor in the
+design of that complex art product known as a Book.
+
+
+
+
+THE VALUE OF READING, TO THE PUBLIC AND TO THE INDIVIDUAL
+
+
+Of what value is it to a community to contain--still more to be composed
+of--well-read people? We can best answer this question by picturing its
+opposite, a community without readers; this we are unfortunately able to
+do without drawing upon our imaginations, for we have only to turn to
+certain districts of countries like Spain or Russia. There we shall meet
+whole communities, large enough to form cities elsewhere, which are
+little more than aggregations of paupers. Shall we find in any of these
+homes a daily or a weekly paper, or a monthly magazine, or even a stray
+book? Not one, except perhaps in the house of a priest. These masses of
+people live on the earth, to be sure, but they do not live in the world.
+No currents of the great, splendid life of the twentieth century ever
+reach them; and they live in equal isolation from the life of the past.
+"The glory that was Greece and the grandeur that was Rome" have for them
+simply no existence. They are truly the disinherited of all the ages.
+Though they may not be unhappy, they can be called nothing less than
+wretched. Is the fault one of race, or government, or religion? Much
+could be said on all these points, both for and against; but one fact
+remains indisputable--these people do not read.
+
+Let us turn now to a different type of community, that represented by
+the ordinary New England village. How stands the cause of reading
+there? If there is any person of sound mind in the community who has
+never learned to read, he is pointed out as a curiosity. There is not a
+home in the length and breadth of the town that is without its paper,
+its magazine, or its books. In other words, literacy is taken for
+granted. Is it any wonder that in progress, wealth, and influence the
+one community starts where the other leaves off? In the illiterate towns
+just described there is often no man who has the slightest capacity for
+business or who can represent the interests of his community before even
+the humblest government official. But from towns of the other type come
+men who represent with honor their state and their nation; men who widen
+the bounds of freedom and who add new stars to the celestial sphere of
+knowledge. Is all this wholly a matter of reading? One would not dare to
+assert it absolutely, remembering the advantages of race, government,
+and religion enjoyed in New England. And yet we have only to fancy the
+condition of even such a town after one generation, supposing all its
+printed matter and its power to read were taken away, if we would
+realize what an impulse to progress and prosperity is given by the
+presence of the volumes that line the shelves of our public libraries.
+
+If the fortunes of a community in the modern world are bound up with the
+use that it makes of books and libraries, no less are those of the
+individual. This is true whether we refer to his private satisfaction or
+to his public advancement. The animal is endowed with instinct, which is
+sufficient for the guidance of his life, but it permits of no
+development. Man must depend upon judgment, experience, reason--guides
+that are often only too blind; but at least they admit of progress. In
+fact it is only in the field of knowledge that human progress appears to
+be possible. We have no better bodies than the ancient Greeks had--to
+put the case very mildly. We have no better minds than they had--to make
+an even safer assertion. But we _know_ almost infinitely more than they
+did. In this respect the ancient Greeks were but as children compared
+with ourselves. What makes this tremendous difference? Simply the fact
+that we know all that was known by them and the Romans and the men of
+the middle ages, and through this knowledge we have learned more by our
+own discovery than they knew, all put together. The path to success for
+men and races lies through the storehouse where this vast knowledge is
+garnered--the library. But it is something more than a storehouse of
+knowledge; it is an electrical battery of power. This knowledge, this
+power, can be obtained in its fullness only through books. The man,
+therefore, who aspires to lead his fellows, to command their respect or
+their votes, must not rely on native talent alone; he must add to it the
+stored-up talent of the ages.
+
+There is an old proverb: "No man ever got rich with his coat off." This
+is a puzzling assertion, for it seems to contradict so many accepted
+ideas. General Grant, for instance, when asked for his coat-of-arms,
+replied: "A pair of shirt sleeves." The answer showed an honorable pride
+in labor; but we must remember that it was not General Grant's arms but
+his brain that won his victories. Does not our proverb mean simply this:
+that the great prizes of life--of which riches is the symbol, not the
+sum--cannot be won by main strength and ignorance; that they can be won
+only by energy making use of knowledge? But it is not only in the public
+successes of life that books have a value for the individual. Public
+successes are never the greatest that men win. It is in the expansion
+and uplift of the inner self that books render their grandest service.
+Emily Dickinson wrote of such a reader:
+
+    He ate and drank the precious words,
+      His spirit grew robust;
+    He knew no more that he was poor,
+      Nor that his frame was dust.
+    He danced along the dingy days,
+      And this bequest of wings
+    Was but a book. What liberty
+      A loosened spirit brings!
+
+A final word on values. The philosophers make two great classes of
+values, which may be entitled respectively Property and Possessions.
+Under Property come money, houses, lands, carriages, clothing, jewels;
+under Possessions come love, friendship, morality, knowledge, culture,
+refinement. All are good things. There never were any houses or
+carriages or clothes too good for a human being. But these obviously
+belong to a different type of values from the other group--to a lower
+type. What is the test, the touchstone, by which we can tell to which
+class any value belongs? We shall find the test clearly stated in the
+Sermon on the Mount. Is the treasure in question one that moth and rust
+can corrupt or that thieves can break through and steal? If so, it
+belongs to the lower class, to Property. But if it is one that cannot be
+taken away, then it is a Possession and belongs to the higher type.
+There is another test, which is really a part of this: Can you share it
+without loss? If I own a farm, and give to another a half of it or a
+year's crop from it, I deprive myself of just so much. But, if I have
+knowledge or taste or judgment or affection, I can pour them all out
+like water for the benefit of my fellows, and yet never have any the
+less. On the contrary, I shall find that I have more; for they grow by
+sharing. But we have not yet done with the superiority of Possessions
+over Property. "Shrouds have no pockets," says the grim old proverb; and
+all Property must be laid down at the edge of the grave. But if man be
+immortal, as the wise in all ages have believed, then we do not have to
+lay down our Possessions with this mortal body. For, if the soul when
+freed from the flesh is to remain the soul, the self--and only so can
+immortality have any meaning--then it must keep all those inner
+acquisitions of knowledge, culture, and character which it has gathered
+on earth; nay, it then for the first time truly comes into the enjoyment
+of them. What were our earthly Possessions become Treasures laid up for
+ourselves in Heaven.
+
+
+
+
+THE BOOK OF TO-DAY AND THE BOOK OF TO-MORROW
+
+
+The book of to-day is not necessarily the parent of the book of
+to-morrow, just as it is itself not necessarily the child of the book of
+yesterday. The relation is apt to be one of succession and influence
+rather than anything suggesting biological evolution. Nature, according
+to Linnaeus's famous maxim, never goes by leaps, but the book is a human
+product, and human nature takes its chief pride in its leaps, calling
+them inventions and discoveries. Such a leap in book production was the
+substitution of parchment for papyrus, of paper for parchment, of
+mechanical for manual processes when writing was displaced by
+typography, of higher for lower mechanism in the creation of the power
+perfecting press. These inventions had behind them, to be sure, the
+impetus of economic demand, but no such partial explanation can be given
+for the advent of William Morris among the printers of the late
+nineteenth century, unless an unrecognized artistic need may be said to
+constitute an economic demand.
+
+The book of to-day in its best examples resembles not so much the book
+of yesterday as that of some earlier days, and we may count this fact a
+fortunate one, since it relegates to oblivion the books made in certain
+inartistic periods, notably of the one preceding the present revival. It
+is rather the best of the whole past of the book, and not the book of
+to-day alone, that influences the character to be taken by the book of
+to-morrow. This element is a historical one and a knowledge of it may be
+acquired by study; it is the possible inventions that baffle our
+prophecies. We know that any time some new process may be discovered
+that will transform the book into something as unlike its present
+character as that is unlike the papyrus roll. But because the element of
+invention is so uncertain we can only recognize it, we cannot take it
+into account. Our advantage in considering the book of to-day in
+connection with the book of to-morrow will be chiefly a negative one, in
+making the book as it is, so far as we find it defective, our point of
+departure in seeking the book as it ought to be.
+
+To-day, for our present purposes, may be taken as beginning with the
+great work of Morris. But its book includes the worst as well as the
+best. It is not only the book by which we in our jealousy for the
+reputation of our age should like to have our age remembered, but also
+the more frequent book that we have to see and handle, however much
+against our will, and sometimes even to buy. We may congratulate
+ourselves that this book will perish by its own defects, leaving after
+all only the best book to be associated with our age; but this does not
+alter the fact that in the present the undesirable book is too much with
+us, is vastly in the majority, is, in fact, the only book that the great
+mass of our contemporaries know. How bad it is most book buyers do not
+realize; if they did, a better book would speedily take its place. But,
+until they do, our only chance of relief is the doubtful one of an
+invention that shall make good books cheaper to make than poor ones, or
+the difficult one of educating the public in the knowledge of what a
+book should be. The latter is obviously our only rational hope; but
+before we turn to consider it, let us first look at the book of to-day
+to see exactly what it is.
+
+The book of to-day is first of all a novel. It has other forms, to be
+sure,--poetry, essays, history, travels, works of science and art,--but
+these do not meet the eye of the multitude. We may disregard them for
+the moment, and, in reply to the question, What is the book of to-day?
+we may say: It is a one-volume novel, a rather clumsy duodecimo, with a
+showy cover adorned with a colored picture of the heroine. It is printed
+on thick paper of poor quality, with type too large for the page, and
+ugly margins equal all around. Its binding is weak, often good for only
+a dozen readings, though quite as lasting as the paper deserves. For
+merits it can usually offer clear type, black ink, and good presswork.
+But its great fault is that in addressing the buyer it appeals to the
+primitive instinct for bigness rather than to the higher sense that
+regards quality. Such is the book of to-day, emphatically what Franklin
+over a hundred years ago called a "blown" book.
+
+But though the novel fills the multitude's field of vision, it is after
+all not the only contemporary book; there are others from which we may
+be able to choose one worthier to be the book of to-day than the
+self-elected novel. But we shall not find it where commercialism is
+rife. In the presence of that element we find still only an appeal to
+the many--which, if successful, means large profits--by an appearance of
+giving much while really giving little. In this game of illusion the
+sound principles of bookmaking are forsaken. Books are not designed on
+the basis of what they are, but on the basis of what they can be made to
+seem. The result is puffery, not merely in advertising, but still
+earlier in the dimensions of the book itself--the most modern and
+profitable instance of using the east wind for a filler.
+
+But at this point a new element is introduced, the public library. The
+ordinary buyer carries home the distended book, and after he and his
+family have read it, he cares not if it falls to pieces after the next
+reading. Neither does he care if it takes up thrice the room that it
+should, for he no longer gives it room. But the public library, under
+the existing inflationism, must not only pay too much for its popular
+books; it must also house them at a needless outlay, and must very early
+duplicate a serious percentage of their first cost in rebinding them. So
+burdensome has this last item become that our libraries are consenting
+to pay a slightly larger first cost in order to avoid the necessity of
+rebinding; and enterprising publishers, following the lead of a more
+enterprising bookbinder, are beginning to cater to this library demand,
+which some day, let us hope, may dominate the entire publishing world
+for all books worth preserving, and may extend to all the elements of
+the book.
+
+But fortunately there is here and there the uncommercial publisher and
+now and then an uncommercial mood in the ordinary publisher. To these we
+owe a small but important body of work of which no previous age need
+have been ashamed. Of these books we may almost say that they would be
+books if there were nothing in them. They have come into being by a
+happy conjunction of qualified publisher and appreciative buyers. They
+show what most books may be and what all books will strive to be if ever
+the majority of book buyers come to know what a good book is. This
+brings us finally to the book of to-morrow, what we hope it will be and
+how we can make it so.
+
+The book of to-morrow, the book as it ought to be, will be both better
+and cheaper than the book of to-day. It can afford to be cheaper, for it
+will have a large and appreciative public, and for the same reason it
+will have to be better. The question of supreme importance now, if this
+public is ever to exist, is: How to educate our book buyers. The answer
+is not easy, for our book buyers do not realize that they are untrained,
+and, even if they realized it, the task of training them in the
+knowledge and love of the well-made book would be difficult. But we can
+do at least three things: agitate--proclaim the existence of a lore to
+be acquired, an ignorance and its practices to be eschewed;
+illustrate--show the good book and the bad together, and set forth,
+point by point, why the good is superior; last and most important, we
+must vindicate--back up our words by our deeds, support the publisher
+who gives the world good books, and leave to starvation or reform the
+publisher who clings to the old unworthy methods of incapacity or fraud.
+Even now, if every enlightened booklover in America would carry out this
+plan as a matter of duty merely where he could do so without
+inconvenience, nothing less than a revolution would be upon us, and we
+should have the Book of To-morrow while it is still To-day.
+
+
+
+
+A CONSTRUCTIVE CRITIC OF THE BOOK
+
+
+At the meeting of the British librarians at Cambridge in 1882 a bomb was
+thrown into the camp of the book producers in the form of the question:
+Who spoils our new English books? In the explosion which followed,
+everybody within range was hit, from "the uncritical consumer" to "the
+untrained manufacturer." This dangerous question was asked and answered
+by Henry Stevens of Vermont, who, as a London bookseller, had for nearly
+forty years handled the products of the press new and old, had numbered
+among his patrons such critical booklovers as John Carter Brown and
+James Lenox, and had been honored with the personal friendship of
+William Pickering the publisher and Charles Whittingham the printer. He
+had therefore enjoyed abundant opportunity for qualifying himself to
+know whereof he spoke. If his words were severe, he stood ready to
+justify them with an exhibit of sixty contemporary books which he set
+before his hearers.[2]
+
+The truth is, however unwilling his victims may have been to admit it,
+that his attack was only too well timed. The men of creative power, who
+had ennobled English book production during the second quarter of the
+nineteenth century, had passed away, and books were being thrown
+together instead of being designed as formerly. The tradition of
+excellence in English bookmaking still held sway over the public, and,
+as their books sold, most producers saw no reason to disturb themselves.
+What to them was progress in other lands, or the claims of a future that
+could not be enforced? But after Mr. Stevens's attack they could at
+least no longer plead ignorance of their faults. It is certain that an
+improvement soon began, which culminated in the present great era of
+book design throughout the English world. If the famous bookseller's
+address were not the cause of the change, it at least marked a turning
+point, and it deserves to be studied as one of the historic documents of
+modern printing. It is more than this, however; it is a piece of
+creative criticism, and though teaching not by example but by
+contraries, it forms one of the best existing brief compends of what a
+well-made book must be.
+
+The critic of books as they were made a generation ago begins with the
+assertion of a truth that cannot be too often repeated: "The manufacture
+of a beautiful and durable book costs little if anything more than that
+of a clumsy and unsightly one." He adds that once a handsome book and a
+new English book were synonymous terms, but that now the production of
+really fine books is becoming one of England's lost arts. He indulges in
+a fling at "the efforts of certain recent printers to retrieve this
+decadence by throwing on to the already overburdened trade several big,
+heavy, and voluminous works of standard authors termed 'éditions de
+luxe.'" He assures his hearers that his judgments were not formed on the
+spur of the moment, but were based partly on long personal
+observations--Stevens was the author of that widely influential piece of
+selective bibliography, "My English Library," London, 1853--and on the
+results of the international exhibitions since 1851, especially those
+of Vienna (1874), Philadelphia (1876), and Paris (1878), in the last of
+which he was a juror. His conclusion is "that the present new English,
+Scotch, and Irish books, of a given size and price, are not of the
+average quality of high art and skill in manufacture that is found in
+some other countries." He reminds his hearers that "it is no excuse to
+say that the rapidity of production has been largely increased. That
+amounts merely to confessing that we are now consuming two bad books in
+the place of one good one."
+
+Mr. Stevens now comes to the direct question: Who spoils our new English
+books? He answers it by naming not less than ten parties concerned: (1)
+the author, (2) the publisher, (3) the printer, (4) the reader, (5) the
+compositor, (6) the pressman or machinist, (7) the papermaker, (8) the
+ink maker, (9) the bookbinder, and (10), last but not least, the
+consumer. There is no question of honesty or dishonesty, he says, but
+there is a painful lack of harmony, the bungling work of one or the
+clumsy manipulation of another often defeating the combined excellence
+of all the rest. The cure he foresees in the establishment of a school
+of typography, in which every disciple of these ten tribes shall study a
+recognized grammar of book manufacture based on the authority of the
+best examples.
+
+He now returns to the charge and pays his respects to each member of the
+"ten tribes" in turn. The author's offense is found to consist largely
+of ignorant meddling. The publisher is too often ignorant, fussy,
+unskilled, pedantic, shiftless, and money-seeking, willing to make books
+unsightly if their cheapness will sell them. The printer is the
+scapegoat, and many books are spoiled in spite of his efforts, while he
+gets all the blame. But he is apt to have faults of his own, the worst
+of which is a failure in the careful design of the books intrusted to
+him. "It was not so," says Mr. Stevens, "with our good old friends
+William Pickering and Charles Whittingham, publisher and printer,
+working for many years harmoniously together. It was their custom, as
+both used repeatedly to tell us, to each first sit upon every new book
+and painfully hammer out in his own mind its ideal form and proportions.
+Then two Sundays at least were required to compare notes in the little
+summer house in Mr. Whittingham's garden at Chiswick, or in the
+after-dinner sanctuary, to settle the shape and dress of their
+forthcoming 'friend of man.' It was amusing as well as instructive to
+see each of them, when they met, pull from his bulging side pocket
+well-worn title-pages and sample leaves for discussion and
+consideration. When they agreed, perfection was at hand, and the 'copy'
+went forward to the compositors, but not till then. The results, to this
+day, are seen in all the books bearing the imprint of William Pickering,
+nearly all of which bear also evidence that they came from the 'Chiswick
+Press.'"
+
+The reader, Mr. Stevens holds to be, under the printer, the real man of
+responsibility; but he too is often hampered by want of plan and due
+knowledge of the proportions of the book that he is handling. He also
+should go to the school of typography, and the readers of different
+offices should learn to agree. The compositor is pronounced "a little
+person of great consequence." His moral responsibility is not great, but
+too much is often thrust upon him; in fact he is, in many cases, the
+real maker of the book. "He ought to have a chance at the school of
+typography, and be better instructed in his own business, and be taught
+not to assume the business of any other sinner joined with him in the
+manufacture of books." Between the compositor and the pressman is a long
+road in which many a book is spoiled, but the responsibility is hard to
+place. Few people have any idea what constitute the essentials of a
+book's form and proportions. Yet our old standards, in manuscript and
+print, demand "that the length of a printed page should have relation to
+its width, and that the top should not exceed half the bottom margin,
+and that the front should be double the back margin."
+
+The papermaker comes in for a large share of blame, but the remedy lies
+only in the hands of the consumer, who must insist on receiving good and
+durable paper. "The ink-maker is a sinner of the first magnitude." The
+first printing inks are still bright, clean, and beautiful after four
+hundred years; but who will give any such warrant to even the best inks
+of the present day? Mr. Stevens pronounces the sallow inks of our day as
+offensive to sight as they are to smell. The bookbinder is adjudged
+equal in mischief to any other of the ten sinners, and the rest are
+called upon to combine to prevent their books from being spoiled in
+these last hands.
+
+The consumer, after all, is the person most to blame, for he has the
+power to control all the rest. Or, in the critic's closing words: "Many
+of our new books are unnecessarily spoiled, and it matters little
+whether this or that fault be laid to this or that sinner. The
+publisher, the printer, or the binder may sometimes, nay, often does, if
+he can, shift the burden of his sins to the shoulders of his neighbor,
+but all the faults finally will come back on the consumer if he
+tolerates this adulteration longer."
+
+The great constructive feature of Mr. Stevens's address, which is one
+that brings it absolutely up to date, is his call for a school of
+typography, which shall teach a recognized grammar of book manufacture,
+especially printing, a grammar as standard as Lindley Murray's. He
+believes that the art of bookmaking cannot be held to the practice of
+the laws of proportion, taste, and workmanship, which were settled once
+for all in the age of the scribes and the first printers, without the
+existence and pressure of some recognized authority. Such an authority,
+he holds, would be furnished by a school of typography. This, as we
+interpret it, would be not necessarily a school for journeymen, but a
+school for those who are to assume the responsibility too often thrown
+upon the journeymen, the masters of book production. With a large annual
+output of books taken up by a public none too deeply versed in the
+constituents of a well-made book, there would seem to be much hope for
+printing as an art from the existence of such an institution, which
+would be critical in the interest of sound construction, and one might
+well wish that the course in printing recently established at Harvard
+might at some time be associated with the name of its prophet of a
+generation ago, Henry Stevens of Vermont.
+
+
+
+
+BOOKS AS A LIBRARIAN WOULD LIKE THEM
+
+
+The librarian is in a position more than any one else to know the
+disabilities of books. The author is interested in his fame and his
+emoluments, the publisher in his reputation and his profits. To each of
+these parties the sales are the chief test. But the librarian's interest
+in the book begins after the sale, and it continues through the entire
+course of the book's natural life. His interest, moreover, is all-round;
+he is concerned with the book's excellence in all respects,
+intellectual, esthetic, and physical. He is the one who has to live with
+it, literally to keep house with it; and his reputation is in a way
+involved with its character. He may, therefore, be allowed for once to
+have his say as to how he would like to have books made.
+
+If a book is worth writing at all, it is worth writing three times:
+first to put down the author's ideas, secondly to condense their
+expression into the smallest possible compass, and thirdly so to arrange
+them that they shall be most easily taken into the mind, putting them
+not necessarily into logical order, but into psychological order. If the
+author will do this and can add the touch of genius, or--shall we
+say?--can suffuse his work with the quality of genius, then he has made
+an addition to literature. That, among all the books which the librarian
+has to care for, he finds so few that he can call additions to
+literature is one of his grievances. The three processes may, indeed,
+by a practiced hand be performed as one. The librarian is only anxious
+that they be performed and that he have the benefit.
+
+With the publisher the librarian feels that he can speak still more
+bluntly than with the author, for it is against the publisher that the
+librarian cherishes one of his greatest grievances, the necessity of
+supplying four times the amount of storage room that ought to be
+required. I have before me two books, one larger than the other in every
+way and four times as thick. Yet the smaller book is printed in larger
+type, has twice as many words on a page, and has twice as many pages.
+This is, of course, an exceptional contrast, but a difference of four
+times between the actual and the possible is by no means unusual. When
+one considers that in most of our libraries it costs, all told, a dollar
+to shelve a volume, one realizes that the librarian has against the
+publisher a grievance that can be put into the language of commerce. If
+every book is occupying a dollar's worth of space, which ought to
+accommodate three others, then, gentlemen publishers, in swelling your
+books to catch the public eye, you have taken from us far more than you
+put into your own pockets from your sales to us. You have made our book
+storage four times as costly and unwieldy as it ought to be; but you
+have done worse than this, you have sold us perishable instead of
+durable goods. You have cheapened every element of the book--paper, ink,
+and binding--so that, while we begin the twentieth century with some
+books on our shelves that are over four hundred years old and some that
+are less than one, the only books among them that have any chance of
+seeing the twenty-first century are those that will then be five hundred
+years old; the books that might have been a century old will then, like
+their makers, be dust. It seems to the librarian that you, who have
+taken it upon yourselves to direct the service to be rendered to men by
+the "art preservative of all arts," have assumed very lightly your
+responsibility for the future's knowledge of our time. You may and do
+answer that, as the records begin to perish, the most important of them
+will be reprinted, and the world will be the better off for the loss of
+the rest. To this it may be rejoined that you give the distant future no
+chance to revise the judgments of a rather near future, and that vast
+quantities of material which would be read with eagerness by future
+generations and which would be carefully preserved if it were durable,
+will not be reprinted, whatever its value. We may be sure that the daily
+papers of the present year will never be reprinted; the world of the
+future will be too busy, not to speak of the cost; yet what a series of
+human documents will disappear in their destruction! If a part of the
+professional obligation which you assumed in making yourselves
+responsible for the issues of the press is to transmit the record of
+this generation to later time, then it seems to me that you have in
+great measure betrayed your trust and have so far brought to naught the
+labors of your comrade, the librarian, in the conservation of
+literature. Also you compel him to pay for unnecessary rebindings which
+can hardly be made, so poor is the stock you furnish the binder; yet on
+this point you have shown some indications of a change of heart, and I
+will pass it over. Perhaps you have finally come to realize that every
+cent paid for rebinding is taken out of your gross receipts. I will not
+speak of the books that you ought never to have published, the books
+that are not books; most of these the librarian can avoid buying, but
+sometimes a book is just "ower gude for banning," and he has to take it
+and catalogue it and store it, and take account of it and rearrange it,
+and, after all, get scolded by his authorities or ridiculed by the
+public for housing so much rubbish. The author is responsible with you
+here, but your own individual responsibility is enough for any shoulders
+to bear.
+
+To the printer the librarian would say: since wishing is easy, let us
+imagine that what ought always to happen is happening regularly instead
+of rarely, namely, that the author produces a book worth printing and
+that the publisher leaves you free to put it into a worthy form. This is
+the opportunity that you have always been looking for. How are you going
+to meet it? Do you know all the elements that you deal with and can you
+handle them with a sure touch practically and esthetically? If so, you
+will not need any hints from the librarian, and he will order your book
+"sight unseen." But still, among the good and right ways of making
+books, there may be some that he prefers, and he will ask you, when you
+are making books for him and not for private buyers, at least to give
+his preferences a hearing. He wants his books no bigger physically than
+they need be, and yet he would like to have them of a convenient height,
+from seven to nine inches. He would rather have their expansion in
+height and width and not in thickness, for the former dimensions up to
+ten and a half inches by eight mean no increased demand upon shelf room,
+while the thickness of every leaf is taken out of his library's
+capacity. He would like to have no wasteful margins and no extreme in
+the size of type. If it is too large, the book takes up too much room;
+if it is too small, his readers will ruin their eyes over it or, what is
+more likely, refuse to read it and so make its possession a useless
+expense. For the sake of rapid reading he would like to have every wide
+page printed in columns. For the same reason he would like to have every
+possible help given to the eye in the way of paragraphs, headlines, and
+variation of type, so far as it can be given in consonance with the
+esthetic rights of the book. With these points observed, and the book
+printed on paper as thin and as light in weight as can be conveniently
+used and is consistent with opacity and strength, with clear type, clear
+and durable ink, and good presswork, the printer will have done his
+part, and a book will go to the binder that is worthy of his best
+treatment.
+
+What that treatment is the binder knows better than I can tell him. When
+he has applied it, the book will come out of his hands at once solid and
+flexible; unmutilated, either on the outer edges where mutilation can be
+seen, or at the back where it cannot be seen, but where it nevertheless
+hurts the integrity of the book; covered with honest boards that will
+stand use, and clad with a material, cloth or leather, that is both
+strong to resist wear and also contains within itself no seeds of
+deterioration. Besides this let it have a character, however
+unobtrusive, befitting the contents of the book, and the binder will
+have paid his full debt to the present and the future.
+
+While the librarian's ideals of bookmaking are not the only ones, they
+are in harmony with the best, and there cannot be progress in bookmaking
+without approaching his ideals. He is, therefore, by his very office
+committed to every undertaking for the improvement of the book, and
+because of the efforts of librarians and other booklovers there is
+ground for belief that the books of the present decade will be better
+than those of the last.
+
+
+
+
+THE BOOK BEAUTIFUL
+
+
+We who use books every day as tools of trade or sources of inspiration
+are apt to overlook the fact that the book, on its material side, is an
+art object. Not, indeed, that it ranks with the products of poetry,
+painting, sculpture, and other arts of the first grade; but it has a
+claim to our consideration on the level of the minor arts, along with
+jewelry, pottery, tapestry, and metal work. Moreover, its intimate
+association with literature, of which it is the visible setting, gives
+it a charm that, while often only reflected, may also be contributory,
+heightening the beauty that it enshrines.
+
+Using the word beauty for the result of artistic mastery, we may say
+that in the other arts beauty is the controlling factor in price, but in
+the book this is the case only exceptionally. As a consequence beautiful
+books are more accessible for purchase or observation than any other
+equally beautiful objects. For the price of a single very beautiful rug
+one can obtain a small library of the choicest books. Except in the case
+of certain masterpieces of the earliest printing, in which rarity is
+joined to beauty, high prices for books have nothing to do with their
+artistic quality. Even for incunabula one need pay only as many dollars
+as for tapestries of the same grade one would have to pay thousands. In
+book collecting, therefore, a shallow purse is not a bar to achievement,
+and in our day of free libraries one may make good progress in the
+knowledge and enjoyment of beautiful books without any expense at all.
+
+Public taste is probably as advanced in the appreciation of the book
+beautiful as of any other branch of art, but it is active rather than
+enlightened. This activity is a good sign, for it represents the first
+stage in comprehension; the next is the consciousness that there is more
+in the subject than had been realized; the third is appreciation. The
+present chapter is addressed to those--and they are many--who are in the
+second stage. The first piece of advice to those who seek acquaintance
+with the book beautiful is: Surround yourself with books that the best
+judges you know call beautiful; inspect them, handle them; cultivate
+them as you would friends. It will not be long before most other books
+begin to annoy you, though at first you cannot tell why. Then specific
+differences one after another will stand out, until at last you come to
+know something of the various elements of the book, their possibilities
+of beauty or ugliness, and their relations one to another. No one should
+feel ashamed if this process takes a long time--is indeed endless.
+William Morris pleaded to having sinned in the days of ignorance, even
+after he had begun to make books. So wide is the field and so many and
+subtle are the possible combinations that all who set out to know books
+must expect, like the late John Richard Green, to "die learning." But
+the learning is so delightful and the company into which it brings us is
+so agreeable that we have no cause to regret our lifelong
+apprenticeship.
+
+The first of all the qualities of the book beautiful is fitness. It must
+be adapted to the literature which it contains, otherwise it will
+present a contradiction. Imagine a "Little Classic" Josephus or a folio
+Keats. The literature must also be worthy of a beautiful setting, else
+the book will involve an absurdity. Have we not all seen presentation
+copies of government documents which gave us a shock when we passed from
+the elegant outside to the commonplace inside? But the ideal book will
+go beyond mere fitness; it will be both an interpretation of its
+contents and an offering of homage to its worth. The beauty of the whole
+involves perfect balance as well as beauty of the parts. No one must
+take precedence of the rest, but there must be such a perfect harmony
+that we shall think first of the total effect and only afterwards of the
+separate elements that combine to produce it. This greatly extends our
+problem, but also our delight in its happy solutions.
+
+The discerning reader has probably noticed that we have already smuggled
+into our introduction the notion that the book beautiful is a printed
+book; and, broadly speaking, so it must be at the present time. But we
+should not forget that, while the printed book has charms and laws of
+its own, the book was originally written by hand and in this form was
+developed to a higher pitch of beauty than the printed book has ever
+attained. As Ruskin says, "A well-written book is as much pleasanter and
+more beautiful than a printed book as a picture is than an engraving."
+Calligraphy and illumination are to-day, if not lost arts, at best but
+faint echoes of their former greatness. They represent a field of
+artistic effort in which many persons of real ability might attain far
+greater distinction and emolument than in the overcrowded ordinary
+fields of art. Printing itself would greatly benefit from a flourishing
+development of original bookmaking, gaining just that stimulus on the
+art side that it needs to counterbalance the pressure of commercialism.
+At present, however, we shall commit no injustice if, while remembering
+its more perfect original, we accept the printed book as the
+representative of the book beautiful; but, as a matter of fact, most
+that we shall have to say of it will apply with little change to the
+manuscript book.
+
+A final point by way of preface is the relation of the book beautiful to
+the well-made book. The two are not identical. A book may be legible,
+strong, and durable, yet ill-proportioned and clumsy, ugly in every
+detail. On the other hand, the book beautiful must be well made, else it
+will not keep its beauty. The point where the two demands tend most to
+conflict is at the hinge of the cover, where strength calls for
+thickness of leather and beauty for thinness. The skill of the good
+binder is shown in harmonizing these demands when he shaves the under
+side of the leather for the joint. Let us now take up the elements of
+the book one by one and consider their relations to beauty.
+
+To one who never had seen a book before it would seem, as it stands on
+the shelf or lies on the table, a curious rectangular block; and such it
+is in its origin, being derived from the Roman codex, which was a block
+of wood split into thin layers. When closed, therefore, the book must
+have the seeming solidity of a block; but open it and a totally new
+character appears. It is now a bundle of thin leaves, and its beauty no
+longer consists in its solidity and squareness, but in the opposite
+qualities of easy and complete opening, and flowing curves. This inner
+contradiction, so far from making the book a compromise and a failure,
+is one of the greatest sources of its charm, for each condition must be
+met as if the other did not exist, and when both are so met, we derive
+the same satisfaction as from any other combination of strength and
+grace, such as Schiller celebrates in his "Song of the Bell."
+
+The book therefore consists of a stiff cover joined by a flexible
+back--in the book beautiful a tight back--and inclosing highly flexible
+leaves. The substance of the board is not visible, being covered with
+an ornamental material, either cloth or leather, but it should be strong
+and tough and in thickness proportioned to the size of the volume. In
+very recent years we have available for book coverings really beautiful
+cloths, which are also more durable than all but the best leathers; but
+we have a right to claim for the book beautiful a covering of leather,
+and full leather, not merely a back and hinges. We have a wide range of
+beauty in leathers, from the old ivory of parchment--when it has had a
+few centuries in which to ripen its color--to the sensuous richness of
+calf and the splendor of crushed levant. The nature of the book must
+decide, if the choice is yet to be made. But, when the book has been
+covered with appropriate leather so deftly that the leather seems "grown
+around the board," and has been lettered on the back--a necessary
+addition giving a touch of ornament--we are brought up against the hard
+fact that, unless the decorator is very skillful indeed--a true artist
+as well as a deft workman--he cannot add another touch to the book
+without lessening its beauty. The least obtrusive addition will be blind
+tooling, or, as in so many old books, stamping, which may emphasize the
+depth of color in the leather. The next step in the direction of
+ornament is gilding, the next inlaying. In the older books we find metal
+clasps and corners, which have great decorative possibilities; but
+these, like precious stones, have disappeared from book ornamentation in
+modern times before the combined inroad of the democratic and the
+classic spirit.
+
+Having once turned back the cover, our interest soon forsakes it for the
+pages inclosed by it. The first of these is the page opposite the inside
+of the cover; obviously it should be of the same or, at least, of a
+similar material to the body of the book. But the inside of the cover is
+open to two treatments; it may bear the material either of the outer
+covering or of the pages within. So it may display, for instance, a
+beautiful panel of leather--doublure--or it may share with the next page
+a decorative lining paper; but that next page should never be of
+leather, for it is the first page of the book.
+
+As regards book papers, we are to-day in a more fortunate position than
+we were even a few years ago; for we now can obtain, and at no excessive
+cost, papers as durable as those employed by the earliest printers. It
+is needless to say that these are relatively rough papers. They
+represent one esthetic advance in papermaking since the earliest days in
+that they are not all dead white. Some of the books of the first age of
+printing still present to the eye very nearly the blackest black on the
+whitest white. But, while this effect is strong and brilliant, it is not
+the most pleasing. The result most agreeable to the eye still demands
+black or possibly a dark blue ink, but the white of the paper should be
+softened. Whether we should have made this discovery of our own wit no
+one can tell; but it was revealed to us by the darkening of most papers
+under the touch of time. Shakespeare forebodes this yellowing of his
+pages; but what was then thought of as a misfortune has since been
+accepted as an element of beauty, and now book papers are regularly made
+"antique" as well as "white." Even white does not please us unless it
+inclines to creamy yellow rather than to blue. But here, as everywhere,
+it is easy to overstep the bounds of moderation and turn excess into a
+defect. The paper of the book beautiful will not attract attention; we
+shall not see it until our second look at the page. The paper must not
+be too thick for the size of the book, else the volume will not open
+well, and its pages, instead of having a flowing character, will be
+stiff and hard.
+
+The sewing of the book is not really in evidence, except indirectly.
+Upon the sewing and gluing, after the paper, depends the flexibility of
+the book; but the sewing in most early books shows in the raised bands
+across the back, which are due to the primitive and preferable stitch.
+It may also show in some early and much modern work in saw-marks at the
+inner fold when the book is spread wide open; but no such book can
+figure as a book beautiful. The head band is in primitive books a part
+of the sewing, though in all modern books, except those that represent a
+revival of medieval methods, it is something bought by the yard and
+stuck in without any structural connection with the rest of the book.
+
+It is the page and not the cover that controls the proportions of the
+book, as the living nautilus controls its inclosing shell. The range in
+the size of books is very great--from the "fly's-eye Dante" to
+"Audubon's Birds"--but the range in proportion within the limits of
+beauty is astonishingly small, a difference in the relation of the width
+of the page to its height between about sixty and seventy-five per cent.
+If the width is diminished to nearer one-half the height, the page
+becomes too narrow for beauty, besides making books of moderate size too
+narrow to open well. On the other hand, if the width is much more than
+three-quarters of the height, the page offends by looking too square. In
+the so-called "printer's oblong," formed by taking twice the width for
+the diagonal, the width is just under fifty-eight per cent of the
+height, and this is the limit of stately slenderness in a volume. As we
+go much over sixty per cent, the book loses in grace until we approach
+seventy-five per cent, when a new quality appears, which characterizes
+the quarto, not so much beauty, perhaps, except in small sizes, as a
+certain attractiveness, like that of a freight boat, which sets off the
+finer lines of its more elegant associates. A really square book would
+be a triumph of ugliness. Oblong books also rule themselves out of our
+category. A book has still a third element in its proportions,
+thickness. A very thin book may be beautiful, but a book so thick as to
+be chunky or squat is as lacking in elegance as the words we apply to
+it. To err on the side of thickness is easy; to err on the side of
+thinness is hard, since even a broadside may be a thing of beauty.
+
+We now come to the type-page, of which the paper is only the carrier and
+framework. This should have, as nearly as possible, the proportion of
+the paper--really it is the type that should control the paper--and the
+two should obviously belong together. The margins need not be extremely
+large for beauty; an amount of surface equal to that occupied by the
+type is ample. There was once a craze for broad margins and even for
+"large-paper" copies, in which the type was lost in an expanse of
+margin; but book designers have come to realize that the proportion of
+white to black on a page can as easily be too great as too small. Far
+more important to the beauty of a page than the extent of the margin are
+its proportions. The eye demands that the upper margin of a printed page
+or a framed engraving shall be narrower than the lower, but here the
+kinship of page to picture ceases. The picture is seen alone, but the
+printed page is one of a pair and makes with its mate a double diagram.
+This consists of two panels of black set between two outer columns of
+white and separated by a column of white. Now if the outer and inner
+margins of a page are equal, the inner column of the complete figure
+will be twice as wide as the outer. The inner margin of the page should
+therefore be half (or, to allow for the sewing and the curve of the
+leaf, a little more than half) the width of the outer. Then, when we
+open the book, we shall see three columns of equal width. The type and
+paper pages, being of the same shape, should as a rule be set on a
+common diagonal from the inner upper corner to the outer lower corner.
+This arrangement will give the same proportion between the top and
+bottom margins as was assigned to the inner and outer. It is by
+attention to this detail that one of the greatest charms in the design
+of the book may be attained.
+
+We saw that the shape of the book is a rectangle, and this would
+naturally be so if there were no other reason for it than because the
+smallest factor of the book, the type, is in the cross-section of its
+body a rectangle. The printed page is really built up of tiny invisible
+rectangles, which thus determine the shape of the paper page and of the
+cover. A page may be beautiful from its paper, its proportions, its
+color effects, even if it is not legible; but the book beautiful, really
+to satisfy us, must neither strain the eye with too small type nor
+offend it with fantastic departures from the normal. The size of the
+type must not be out of proportion to that of the page or the column;
+for two or more columns are not barred from the book beautiful. The
+letters must be beautiful individually and beautiful in combination. It
+has been remarked that while roman capitals are superb in combination,
+black-letter capitals are incapable of team play, being, when grouped,
+neither legible nor beautiful. There has been a recent movement in the
+direction of legibility that has militated against beauty of type, and
+that is the enlarging of the body of the ordinary lowercase letters at
+the expense of its limbs, the ascenders and descenders, especially the
+latter. The eye takes little account of descenders in reading, because
+it runs along a line just below the tops of the ordinary letters, about
+at the bar of the small e; nevertheless, to one who has learned to
+appreciate beauty in type design there is something distressing in the
+atrophied or distorted body of the g in so many modern types and the
+stunted p's and q's--which the designer clearly did not mind! The
+ascenders sometimes fare nearly as badly. Now types of this compressed
+character really call for leading, or separation of the lines; and when
+this has been done, the blank spaces thus created might better have been
+occupied by the tops and bottoms of unleaded lines containing letters of
+normal length and height. Too much leading, like too wide margins,
+dazzles and offends the eye with its excess of white. The typesetting
+machines have also militated against beauty by requiring that every
+letter shall stand within the space of its own feet or shoulders. Thus
+the lowercase f and y and the uppercase Q are shorn of their due
+proportions. These are points that most readers do not notice, but they
+are essential, for the type of the book beautiful must not be deformed
+by expediency. On the other hand, it need not be unusual; if it is, it
+must be exceptionally fine to pass muster at all. The two extremes of
+standard roman type, Caslon and Bodoni, are handsome enough for any book
+of prose. One may go farther in either direction, but at one's risk. For
+poetry, Cloister Oldstyle offers a safe norm, from which any wide
+departure must have a correspondingly strong artistic warrant. All these
+three types are beautiful, in their letters themselves, and in the
+combinations of their letters into lines, paragraphs, and pages.
+Beautiful typography is the very foundation of the book beautiful.
+
+But beautiful typography involves other elements than the cut of the
+type itself. The proofreading must be trained and consistent, standing
+for much more than the mere correction of errors. The presswork must be
+strong and even. The justification must be individual for each line, and
+not according to a fixed scale as in machine setting; even when we hold
+the page upside down, we must not be able to detect any streamlets of
+white slanting across the page. Moreover, if the page is leaded, the
+spacing must be wider in proportion, so that the color picture of the
+rectangle of type shall be even and not form a zebra of black and white
+stripes. It is hardly necessary to say that the registration must be
+true, so that the lines of the two pages on the same leaf shall show
+accurately back to back when one holds the page to the light. Minor
+elements of the page may contribute beauty or ugliness according to
+their handling: the headline and page number, their character and
+position; notes marginal or indented, footnotes; chapter headings and
+initials; catch-words; borders, head and tail pieces, vignettes,
+ornamental rules. Even the spacing of initials is a task for the skilled
+craftsman. Some printers go so far as to miter or shave the type-body of
+initials to make them, when printed, seem to cling more closely to the
+following text. Indenting, above all in poetry, is a feature strongly
+affecting the beauty of the page. Not too many words may be divided
+between lines; otherwise the line endings will bristle with hyphens. A
+paragraph should not end at the bottom of a page nor begin too near it,
+neither should a final page contain too little nor be completely full.
+Minor parts of the book, the half-title, the dedication page, the table
+of contents, the preface, the index, present so many opportunities to
+make or mar the whole. Especially is this true of the title-page. This
+the earliest books did not have, and many a modern printer, confronted
+with a piece of refractory title copy, must have sighed for the good old
+days of the colophon. Whole books have been written on the title-page;
+it must suffice here to say that each represents a new problem, a
+triumphant solution of which gives the booklover as much pleasure to
+contemplate as any other single triumph of the volume.
+
+But what of color--splendid initials in red, blue, or green, rubricated
+headings, lines, or paragraphs? It is all a question of propriety,
+literary and artistic. The same principle holds as in decoration of
+binding. A beautiful black and white page is so beautiful that he who
+would improve it by color must be sure of his touch. The beauty of the
+result and never the beauty of the means by itself must be the test.
+
+But books are not always composed of text alone. We need not consider
+diagrams, which hardly concern the book beautiful, except to say that,
+being composed of lines, they are often really more decorative than
+illustrations fondly supposed to be artistic. The fact that an engraving
+is beautiful is no proof that it will contribute beauty to a book; it
+may only make an esthetic mess of the text and itself. As types are
+composed of firm black lines, only fairly strong black-line engravings
+have any artistic right in the book. This dictum, however, would rule
+out so many pictures enjoyed by the reader that he may well plead for a
+less sweeping ban; so, as a concession to weakness, we may allow
+white-line engravings and half-tones if they are printed apart from the
+text and separated from it, either by being placed at the end of the
+book or by having a sheet of opaque paper dividing each from the text.
+In this case the legend of the picture should face it so that the reader
+will have no occasion to look beyond the two pages when he has them
+before him. The printers of the sixteenth century, especially the Dutch,
+did not hesitate to send their pages through two presses, one the
+typographic press, and the other the roller press for copper-plate
+engravings. The results give us perhaps the best example that we have of
+things beautiful in themselves but unlovely in combination. As in the
+use of other ornamental features, there are no bounds to the use of
+illustration except that of fitness.
+
+We have spoken of margins from the point of view of the page; from that
+of the closed book they appear as edges, and here they present several
+problems in the design of the book beautiful. If the book is designed
+correctly from the beginning, the margins will be of just the right
+width and the edges cannot be trimmed without making them too narrow.
+Besides, the untrimmed edges are witnesses to the integrity of the book;
+if any exception may be made, it will be in the case of the top margin,
+which may be gilded both for beauty and to make easy the removal of
+dust. But the top should be rather shaved than trimmed, so that the
+margin may not be visibly reduced. The gilding of all the edges, or
+"full gilt," is hardly appropriate to the book beautiful, though it may
+be allowed in devotional books, especially those in limp binding, and
+its effect may there be heightened by laying the gilt on red or some
+other color. Edges may be goffered, that is, decorated with incised or
+burnt lines, though the result, like tattooing, is more curious than
+ornamental. The edges may even be made to receive pictures, but here
+again the effect smacks of the barbaric.
+
+We have now gone over our subject in the large. To pursue it with all
+possible degrees of minuteness would require volumes. William Morris,
+for instance, discusses the proper shape for the dot of the i; and even
+the size of the dot and its place above the letter are matters on which
+men hold warring opinions. We have not even raised the question of laid
+or wove paper, nor of the intermixture of different series or sizes of
+types. In short, every phase of the subject bristles with moot points,
+the settlement of one of which in a given way may determine the
+settlement of a score of others.
+
+But what is the use to the public of this knowledge and enjoyment of
+ours? Is it not after all a fruitless piece of self-indulgence? Surely,
+if bookmaking is one of the minor arts, then the private knowledge and
+enjoyment of its products is an element in the culture of the community.
+But it is more than that; it is both a pledge and a stimulus to
+excellence in future production. Artists in all fields are popularly
+stigmatized as a testy lot--_irritabile genus_--but their techiness does
+not necessarily mean opposition to criticism, but only to uninformed and
+unappreciative criticism, especially if it be cocksure and blatant.
+There is nothing that the true artist craves so much--not even
+praise--as understanding of his work and the welcome that awaits his
+work in hand from the lips of "those who know." Thus those who
+appreciate and welcome the book beautiful, by their encouragement help
+to make it more beautiful, and so by head and heart, if not by hand,
+they share in the artist's creative effort. Also, by thus promoting
+beauty in books, they discourage ugliness in books, narrowing the public
+that will accept ugly books and lessening the degree of ugliness that
+even this public will endure. Finally, it seems no mere fancy to hold
+that by creating the book beautiful as the setting of the noblest
+literature, we are rendering that literature itself a service in the
+eyes of others through the costly tribute that we pay to the worth of
+the jewel itself.
+
+
+
+
+THE READER'S HIGH PRIVILEGE
+
+
+In De Morgan's winsome story, "Alice for Short," the heroine of the
+earlier portion, Miss Peggy Heath, is made to feel what it would mean to
+her to be deprived of a certain companion, and thus realizes his
+importance to her life.
+
+It is this test of elimination that I shall ask you to apply to reading.
+Imagine yourselves deprived of the privilege, as many another has been
+by loss of sight or illness or poverty or removal from book centers. I
+have in mind such an instance. The late Professor William Mathews was
+injured by a fall when he was ninety years old, and until the end of his
+life, about a year later, was confined to his bed. You may know him as
+the author of various books of essays: "Getting on in the World," "Great
+Conversers," "Hours with Men and Books," "Words, their Use and Abuse,"
+and other volumes that testify a marvelous range of acquaintance with
+literature. He wrote to a friend that he was brightening his hours of
+loneliness by repeating to himself passages of poetry and prose that he
+had learned by heart in his earlier days. Few of us can ever have such
+stores of memory to draw upon as his, but how happy we should be if
+under such circumstances we might be able to turn to a like source of
+consolation. Yet we have a much more famous instance of a great scholar
+cut off from the privilege of reading. Milton has given us in his famous
+invocation to Light, with which he opens the third book of "Paradise
+Lost," a picture of his own deprivation, presented with a universal
+blank in place of Nature's fair book of knowledge. The passage is too
+long to quote here, but let the reader turn to it, if only to refresh
+his memory.
+
+This shows the privilege that we are now enjoying, and it may perhaps be
+sufficient to take our lesson at this point; but since it is always
+pleasanter to consider gain rather than loss, suppose we turn the
+subject around and imagine how it would seem if, after having been
+deprived all our lives of the privilege of reading, we suddenly had it
+thrust upon us. We should now find ourselves able to enjoy those
+wonderful works of literature which we had always been hearing about
+from the lips of others, but had never been able to know directly. How
+we should revel in the prospect before us! At last to be able to read
+the "Iliad"! To follow the fortunes of wandering Ulysses! To accompany
+Dante in his mystical journey through the three worlds! To dare with
+Macbeth and to doubt with Hamlet! Our trouble would be that we should
+not know which to select first. We should wish we had the eyes of an
+insect that we might read them all at once.
+
+We have a familiar expression in taking leave of our friends, "Be good
+to yourself!" which, it will be seen, is the modern man's translation of
+the old "farewell," with the truly modern implication that the question
+of his faring well will depend upon himself. But can we call a man good
+to himself who does not avail himself of advantages that are freely open
+to him and that others about him are embracing? The great men of the
+past have been such because to their natural abilities they added an
+acquaintance with the thought of the great men who preceded them. The
+same is true of the men whom we are glad to honor among our
+contemporaries. We may feel very sure that we are not heaven-descended
+geniuses, or even possessed of unusual talent; and yet, if we do not
+give ourselves the advantages that all those had who have won
+distinction, we have certainly not given ourselves a fair chance to show
+what is in us. Therefore, as a duty to ourselves, we must make the
+acquaintance of the books that the common judgment of the world has
+pronounced to be of the most value. They must become more than names to
+us. We may not indeed find in all of them food for our own spirits, but
+it is a part of our business in seeking a knowledge of mankind to know
+the thoughts and thought-forms that men have found of most worth. It is
+not to be supposed that we shall prize all these books equally; some of
+them will never be more to us than great monuments which, for some
+reason peculiar to our temperaments, do not appeal to us; but among
+their number we shall find some that will throw open to our souls the
+very gates of heaven--books that will raise our natures forevermore to a
+higher power, as if from two-dimensional Flatland creatures we had
+suddenly been advanced to three dimensions, or, in our own humdrum world
+of length, breadth, and thickness, we had received the liberty of the
+mysterious fourth dimension.
+
+Let us now take a brief inventory of our heritage. We can glance at only
+the most precious of these treasures, the crown jewels of the world's
+literature, which are all ours, whether we choose to wear them or not.
+But first let me make it plain that I am not assuming that all the great
+monuments of human genius are literary. I am not forgetful of the fact
+that literature is only one of the fine arts, that the Strassburg
+Cathedral, Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, Rembrandt's School of Anatomy,
+Michelangelo's Moses are all products of man's creative genius, records
+of the life of God in the soul of man. But I do insist that literature
+is the most inclusive and the most definite of all the arts, and that
+therefore books unlock to us a vaster world than obeys the spell of any
+other art. One man's soul may attain its transfiguration through
+architecture or music or painting or sculpture as another does through
+poetry; the great thing is to attain the transfiguration; and let us be
+thankful for the many ways in which God fulfills himself to man. I am
+not trying to make out a case for literature, but literature is my
+subject, and what I say of it must be taken as equally friendly to all
+the other great forms of human expression and often as equally
+applicable to them.
+
+We will not talk of a five-foot or a three-foot shelf, or one of any
+other exact dimension, though I suspect that no very long range of space
+would be required to hold all the supremely great books for whose
+contents we should have room in our souls. The limitation will prove to
+be in us rather than in the material of literature. The Bible, while
+containing supremely great literature, has still higher claims, and for
+the present discussion may be left to its special advocates. But
+meanwhile our treasures are waiting for their inventory.
+
+Literature for people of our race begins with Homer and is confined to
+Europe and English America. This means in a very true sense that all the
+literature which concerns us is modern, for the Greeks are the first and
+perhaps the greatest of the moderns. They present us as their first
+contribution the works that go under the name of Homer, and we need not
+disturb ourselves now with the question whether the "Iliad" and the
+"Odyssey" were both written by the same man, or even each written by a
+single hand. The point is that we have in them an imperishable picture
+of the life of a vanished world. Each is an epic of the natural man, the
+one national, the other personal. In the "Iliad" we are plunged into
+the thickening close of the ten years' war between the Greeks and
+Trojans, during which the beautiful cause of all the trouble, Helen,
+retains all her youthful bloom and, in fact, nobody seems to grow any
+older. We have a crowded stage with many episodes and interests. In the
+"Odyssey" we trace the fortunes of one man, Ulysses, during his return
+from the war, which occupies him ten years, so that he is away from
+home, as Rip Van Winkle was, twenty years; but, instead of finding
+everybody grown old or dead, as Irving's hero did, he finds his wife
+still young and attractive and beset by numerous suitors. We are very
+glad to have this so, because we are all children at heart and want just
+such an ending. The telling of these stories, while simple, is on a
+lofty plane; the gods themselves take part in the passions of the
+contestants and even in the warfare. The poet, no doubt, meant this for
+what it professes to be; but I cannot help seeing in the embroiling of
+Olympus a perhaps unrealized tribute of the poet to the greatness of the
+human soul in the scale of the universe, a suggestion that moral and
+spiritual values and powers outweigh the stars in their courses.
+
+Great as are the works of Homer, we are not to suppose them the only
+masterpieces in Greek literature. Certainly the three great dramatists
+cannot be omitted, all so great, yet so unlike. These three, together
+with two pastoral poets, one lyric poet, and the greatest of prose
+poets, are vividly pictured by Mrs. Browning in the glowing stanzas of
+her "Wine of Cyprus."
+
+    Oh, our Æschylus, the thunderous!
+      How he drove the bolted breath
+    Through the cloud, to wedge the ponderous
+      In the gnarlèd oak beneath.
+    Oh, our Sophocles, the royal,
+      Who was born to monarch's place,
+    And who made the whole world loyal,
+      Less by kingly power than grace.
+    Our Euripides, the human,
+      With his droppings of warm tears,
+    And his touches of things common
+      Till they rose to touch the spheres!
+    Our Theocritus, our Bion,
+      And our Pindar's shining goals!--
+    These were cup-bearers undying
+      Of the wine that's meant for souls.
+    And my Plato, the divine one,
+      If men know the gods aright
+    By their motions as they shine on
+      With a glorious trail of light!--
+
+It would not be surprising if some who read these lines should find more
+food for mind and soul in Plato than in any other of the Greek writers.
+Certainly those works of Plato and his contemporary, Xenophon, that
+relate to the life, teachings, and death of Socrates are contributions
+to a yet uncollected Bible of humanity, one more inclusive than that of
+Jew or Christian.
+
+It is one of the great misfortunes of Roman literature that the works of
+its chief writers are used as textbooks for schools, a misfortune shared
+to some extent by the Greek. Yet Homer and Xenophon, Vergil and Cicero,
+did not write for children or callow youth. They belong to Longfellow's
+
+            grand old masters,
+      Whose mighty thoughts suggest
+    Life's endless toil and endeavor,
+
+and their writings have no relation to adolescence. Yet it is to be
+feared that most people who have read their works remember them as seen
+through the cloudy medium of their own immaturity. Byron speaks of
+reading and hating Horace as a schoolboy, but no normal person can hate
+Horace any more than he can hate Washington Irving. It is possible,
+however, that pupils who have to read Irving's "Sketch Book" with the
+fear of a college entrance examination before their minds may have no
+affection even for him. So some of us may have something to unlearn in
+our reading of Vergil and Horace, for we must approach their works as
+strong meat for mature minds. Vergil's theme is nothing less than the
+glorification of the Roman state through its divinely ordered and heroic
+founding. School children seldom read more than the six books of the
+"Aeneid" required for college; but the other six, though of much less
+varied interest, are necessary for the appreciation of the poem. The
+whole is a work that no one can afford to pass over in his search for
+the burning words that keep alive the thought of other ages. Very
+different in theme and manner is the poetry of Horace. He is the most
+modern of all the men of old, far more modern than our own Puritan
+ancestors. His mixture of grace and shrewdness, poetic charm and worldly
+wisdom, we find nowhere else. The bulk of his work is not large, and
+this fact, as in the case of Gray and Keats and Poe, is rather in his
+favor, because the reader can easily become familiar with it all, though
+then he will sigh for more. Horace wears well; the older we grow the
+better we like him. He has love songs for youth, political poems for
+maturity, and satires for old age. After we have lived with him for half
+a century he becomes more real to us than most of our acquaintances in
+the flesh. Roman literature is not without other great names to attract
+the student; but these two must not be overlooked by the most general or
+the most selective reader.
+
+With Vergil the world always associates the still greater figure of one
+who was proud to call him master--that of Dante. More than is true of
+almost any other writer, his work is a compendium of the life of his
+time. The "Divine Comedy" is first of all poetry, and poetry of the
+loftiest order; but it is also an embodiment of the learning, the
+philosophy, and the theology of his age. It mirrors at once the
+greatness and the limitations of the medieval mind. Dante is not modern
+in the sense that Horace is, though he is thrice as near to us in time.
+Leigh Hunt said that his great poem ought to be called an infernal
+tragedy; but that is true only of the Inferno; the spiritual atmosphere
+clears as we follow his footsteps through the Purgatorio and the
+Paradiso. Of all the masterpieces of human genius the "Divine Comedy" is
+perhaps the one that asks the most self-surrender of the modern reader
+and--shall I add?--that repays it most richly. Longfellow's marvelous
+sonnet sequence, written while he was translating Dante, portrays at
+once the spirit in which we should approach the reading of the "Divine
+Comedy" and the wonders that we shall find there. It is a book that we
+never can outgrow. To know it is to be made a citizen of the moral
+universe.
+
+In 1616, within ten days of each other, there passed from earth two men,
+each the writer first thought of when his country's literature is
+mentioned, and one of them the first writer in the world's literature.
+Cervantes and Shakespeare very likely died in ignorance of each other's
+work. Stoddard has depicted them in Paradise,
+
+    Where sweet Cervantes walks,
+      A smile on his grave face ...
+    Where, little seen but light,
+      The only Shakespeare is.
+
+There is no injustice in saying that Shakespeare's nature included that
+of Cervantes. Not so inclusive was Dante's; what his nature most lacked
+we find in the author of "Don Quixote." Yet personally they are equally
+heroic figures, and, one an exile and the other a slave, both drained to
+the dregs the cup of human suffering. Cervantes has several great
+advantages over most of the world's classic writers: his masterpiece is
+a work of humor; it is written in a simple and graceful style, at once
+easy and winning; and it is written in prose, which, after all, does not
+make so severe a cultural demand on the reader as poetry. For these very
+reasons it cannot aspire to the highest rank, but what it loses in fame
+it makes up in popularity. Though in a few passages it is not parlor
+reading, "Don Quixote" is one of the cleanest of all the world's great
+books. It is not merely technically clean, but clean-minded. It has the
+form of a satire on chivalry, but its meaning goes much deeper. It is
+really a satire on a more persistent weakness of the Spanish character,
+visionary unrealism. We have this quality held up to ridicule in the
+learned man and the ignorant man, for Sancho Panza is as much of an
+unrealist as his master, only he is a groveling visionary while Don
+Quixote is a soaring one. This, too, is a book that one does not
+outgrow, but finds it a perpetually adequate commentary on his own
+widening experience of men and their motives.
+
+In regard to the supreme figure in literature, the least thing that we
+can do is to read him, and, having read him, to read him again and to
+keep his volumes next to our hands. We shall hardly read Shakespeare
+without having the question of commentators come up; and surely
+Shakespeare deserves all the attention that we can bestow upon him. But
+the general reader should clearly distinguish between the two kinds of
+commentary that have appeared regarding Shakespeare, the one having to
+do with his text, his historical accuracy, and his use of words, the
+other with his meaning. In Hudson's edition these two kinds of notes are
+kept separate. Surely it is the thought of Shakespeare that we want, and
+not the pedantry of minute scholarship regarding his material, useful as
+that is in its place. The reader who has mastered Hudson's
+introductions and has read Dowden's "Shakspere: His Mind and Art" or
+Brandes's "Critical Study" will have all that he will ordinarily need in
+the way of guidance. But remember that reading about Shakespeare is not
+reading Shakespeare; _that_ means, for the time at least, self-surrender
+to Shakespeare's leading. Shakespeare is perhaps the supreme example of
+a man who found the world interesting. He may not be sympathetic with
+evil, but he finds it so interesting that he makes us, for the time
+being, take a fratricidal usurper like Hamlet's uncle, or a gross,
+sponging braggart like Falstaff, at his own estimate. Shakespeare is
+never shocked at anything that happens in the world; he knows the world
+too well for that. He offends the Puritan in us by his indifference; he
+is therefore probably the best kind of reading for Puritans. Shakespeare
+is romantic in his literary methods, but in his portrayal of character
+he is an unsurpassed realist. If life were all thought and achievement,
+Shakespeare would be the last word in literature; but there is another
+side, the side which the Puritan represents, with which Shakespeare is
+but imperfectly sympathetic. His message accordingly needs to be
+supplemented; and it is interesting that his great successor, the man
+who still stands next to him in our literature, supplies that missing
+strain. If we could take but one book with us into banishment, it would
+be Shakespeare--thus proving Shakespeare's supremacy by Miss Peggy
+Heath's principle of elimination; but if we could take two, that second,
+I am frank to confess, would for me be Milton.
+
+It is Milton's literary glory that he appeared in the second generation
+following Spenser and Shakespeare--he was born in Shakespeare's
+lifetime--and carried off the palm, which he still keeps, for the
+greatest English poem. In spiritual kinship he is much nearer to Spenser
+than to Shakespeare. Shakespeare hides behind his pages; his
+personality makes no clear or at least ready impression upon us; but the
+colossal personality of Milton towers above all his works. He is Milton,
+the superman, and communion with him for the moment lifts us to
+something like his own level. In this personal inspiration lies Milton's
+greatest service to his readers. Over and above the poetic delights, of
+which he is a master unsurpassed, is the inspiration that comes from the
+man behind the poetry; or, to express the same thought in other words,
+above the organ music of his verse sounds clear and far the trumpet call
+of personality. Therefore Milton is destined to inspire generations by
+which his theology and his justification of the ways of God to man are
+swept into his own limbo of myth and delusion. Fortunately Milton's
+verse is not appallingly great in amount. If we cannot hope to know it
+all by heart, as Macaulay did, we can at least know it well enough to
+recognize any quotation from it, and rich will be the furnishing of our
+minds when we have made this true.
+
+In our beadroll of the world's greatest writers I shall mention only one
+more, Goethe. He is the modern man who touched life most widely,
+penetratingly, and sanely. His long life came down so near to ours that
+many of us have had friends who were in childhood or infancy his
+contemporaries. It is fair to say that since his death the world has
+moved much nearer to his mental attitude than it stood in his lifetime,
+and one of the agencies that have wrought the change is the living force
+of his own works, which led and still lead the thought of men. Goethe
+may be called the ideal creative critic of life. He held up a mirror,
+not to Nature, as Shakespeare did, but to society; and society can get
+away from the image which it sees reflected there only by growing away
+from it.
+
+Here let us close our list, not because there are no other great writers
+to choose from, but because it is long enough for our present purposes,
+and because, from this point on, every addition is open to challenge. I
+have intentionally pitched my counsel high; some of my readers may feel
+like calling it a counsel of perfection; but according to my way of
+thinking, no writer is too good for any of us to read. Moreover, I
+honestly think the list interesting. It is not chiefly reading for
+recreation, but for soul expansion, and it means intellectual effort.
+Unless we wrestle with an author as Jacob did with the angel, we shall
+not receive the highest blessing. But some one may plead that, while he
+does not wish to read wholly for amusement, he is not in a condition,
+either from training or circumstances, to engage in mental athletics. He
+cannot apply himself to an author as he recognizes that the greatest
+writers deserve; but he is willing to read with attention, and he should
+like to feel that what he is reading is good literature. This is a
+reasonable request, and, out of countless possible responses, I will
+make one that I hope may prove both profitable and attractive.
+
+Let us set out with the recognition of the fact that systematic reading
+is far more profitable than desultory reading, even on the same literary
+level. One excellent way to achieve system is to read by authors--to
+make the author a study, in his writings and his life. To read
+Hawthorne's "House of the Seven Gables," for instance, is to drink from
+a fountain of the purest spiritual delight; but we gain an additional
+delight, even if of a lower kind, when we know something of Hawthorne's
+life and his relations to the old town of Salem. In many cases it is
+necessary to know the author's life in order really to understand his
+book. Now I will suggest the reading, not merely of separate authors,
+but of a group. There are many such, of varying degrees of greatness:
+the Elizabethan group, the Lake poets, the Byron-Shelley-Keats group,
+the mid-nineteenth-century British novelists, to go no further than
+writers in English. But I am going to ask your interest in the New
+England group of authors who were writing fifty years ago. They comprise
+the well-known names of Emerson, Hawthorne, Longfellow, Whittier,
+Holmes, Thoreau, and Lowell. Each of these delightful writers deserves
+to be studied for his own sake, but, if we take them as a group, we
+shall gain still more in understanding and profit. How shall we approach
+the reading of them? They obviously cannot all be read at once; so let
+us begin with any one, say Hawthorne, read his life in Mrs. Field's
+brief Beacon Biography, dipping at the same time into his "Note-Books,"
+and then read some of his short stories and the "Scarlet Letter." His
+biography will already have brought us into contact with most of the
+other names, of Longfellow, his college classmate, and of Emerson and
+Thoreau, his neighbors at Concord. We may read the Beacon Biography of
+Longfellow, but Higginson's would be better, as fuller and more
+adequate. We may first read Longfellow's prose works, "Outre-Mer" and
+"Hyperion," and then his "Voices of the Night," besides following him in
+his "Life, with Extracts from his Journal and Correspondence," edited by
+his brother, which is one of the most delightful of books. We shall do
+well to read each author's writings in chronological succession; so they
+will stand in orderly relation with his life. Similarly we may take up
+Emerson first in Mr. Sanborn's Beacon Biography, or in Dr. Holmes's
+larger but still handy volume, and then we can apply ourselves with
+better understanding to Emerson's essays and poems. I particularly
+mention his poems, for I believe that Emerson will come to be rated
+higher as a poet than he has yet been. His poetry at its best is hardly
+below anyone's best; the only trouble is that there is so little of it;
+but ultimately all writers are judged by their best. In the same way we
+may take up all the writers of the group, learning something of the life
+of each and reading some of his works before passing on to another. Let
+me especially call your attention to the writings of Thoreau, who is
+less known to his countrymen than any of the others. He is a writer of
+great originality and freshness of view. He, too, wrote some exquisite
+poetry, worthy of any name in literature; but you will have to look for
+it among other verse that has more originality than charm. Obviously
+what I have recommended is not the work of one year's leisure, but the
+protracted delight of many years: for these books are not to be hurried
+over to get to the end of the chapter or to see how they are coming out;
+neither are they material for skipping. They are to be read attentively
+and reread; and if one or another fails to make a strong appeal to some
+reader, surely he cannot fail to find in most of them a source of lofty
+pleasure and spiritual enrichment. One fruit that we may expect from
+such reading is that we shall find ourselves drawn nearer to the supreme
+masters and shall end by surrendering ourselves to them. To know our New
+England group is not indeed to climb the Alps of literature, but it is
+at least to climb its White Mountains. Every gain will be a fresh
+incitement, and those who at the start join the literary Appalachian
+Club may be looked for some day in the ranks of the Alpinists.
+
+A word on the reading of contemporary writers; for even our second list
+did not bring us down to our own time. We shall, of course, read our
+contemporaries, and we have a right to, so long as we do not give them
+the time and attention that clearly belong to their betters. The truth
+is that contemporaries--unless they are contemporary poets--have a quite
+unfair advantage over their elders, our own in time and place being so
+much more attractive to us than anything more remote. Still, our
+contemporaries have a claim upon us--even, I am rash enough to assert,
+our contemporary poets--for they have a message that their predecessors
+cannot give us; it may not be the most important message for us, but it
+is a message of value, as we shall see if we return to De Morgan and his
+novels. These remarkable books we cannot miss without losing something
+that makes our own day fine and precious among earth's generations. But
+in this respect they are literally chosen from ten thousand, for we need
+constantly the caution that the near carries with it an appearance of
+importance that is an illusion; of this truth our periodical literature,
+from the newspaper up, is the illustrious example, and the lesson is all
+summed up in the one phrase, "back number." Let us be careful that in
+heeding contemporary voices we are not storing our minds with the
+contents of "back numbers." True literature as we have seen, never
+becomes out of date; Homer keeps up with the telegraph.
+
+I have but one final word, which has been provided for me by Charles
+Lamb, who says in his inimitable fashion: "I own that I am disposed to
+say grace upon twenty other occasions in the course of the day besides
+my dinner. I want a form for setting out upon a pleasant walk, for a
+moonlight ramble, for a friendly meeting, or a solved problem. Why have
+we none for books, those spiritual repasts--a grace before Milton--a
+grace before Shakespeare--a devotional exercise proper to be said before
+reading the Fairy Queen?" This is the spirit of a joyous but devoutly
+grateful expectance, in which I would have myself approach the reading
+of a great book. The gratitude I surely owe the author, for there is no
+great book but has come like refined gold out of the furnace fire. I owe
+it also to the Providence which has granted me this lofty privilege.
+Moreover, it is only in the humility born of such an attitude that I can
+make a complete approach to my author and gain that uplift and
+enrichment of the soul, which--and not pastime nor pleasure--is the true
+end, as it should be the aim of reading.
+
+
+
+
+THE BACKGROUND OF THE BOOK
+
+
+One of the greatest contributions that modern investigation has made to
+human knowledge is background. It was once thought a remarkable
+achievement to uncover the historic background of modern institutions,
+and this was all that, until lately, scholarship attempted. Dr. Samuel
+Johnson confidently remarked that we know no more about ancient Britain
+than the old writers have told us, nor can we ever know any more than
+this. Edward Clodd reminds us that at the very time when the great
+oracle voiced this assertion discoveries had already been made in
+England that, when interpreted as they have been since, were to make the
+landing of Caesar seem, by comparison, a contemporary occurrence. Now
+this inconceivably remote prehistoric era furnishes not merely
+arrowheads and stone chisels and burial mounds, but also other objects
+that are the background of that "picture of time" of which the book of
+to-day is the foreground.
+
+Very properly these are objects of art, and they afford the earliest
+illustrations in histories of art as they do in histories of the book.
+Thus the printer who questions what art has to do with his business
+stamps himself as two hundred thousand years behind the times. They are
+pictures, and the book of to-day has descended as directly from them as
+the printer of to-day has descended from the man who made them. They
+are, moreover, in some instances, works of very high art. The picture of
+the mammoth, scratched on a fragment of the mammoth's tusk, is a piece
+of drawing so skillful that only the greatest living masters can equal
+it. Not even Rembrandt's drawing of the elephant, which Dr. Holmes
+celebrates in one of his poems, is more expressive or wrought with more
+economy of effort. In the same district of southwestern France,
+Dordogne, that yielded the drawings are found long cave galleries of
+paintings representing the creatures of that period, all executed with
+great spirit and ability. But what are the steps in the descent from
+these ancient pictures to the printed book?
+
+Primitive man had one more string to his conversational bow than most
+civilized people have, namely, sign language. But gesture and speech
+alike prevail but little against space and time. Each is possible only
+at short range, and each dies on the eye or ear that receives it.
+Pictures may be carried to any distance and may be preserved for any
+length of time. They were probably made first in response to an instinct
+rather for art than for the communication of ideas; but their great
+advantage for communication must have been perceived very early, and, as
+we find picture writing employed by primitive races to-day, we have the
+right to infer that prehistoric peoples at the same stage of culture
+also employed it. Pure picture writing, however, does not suffice for
+all that men have to say. It is easy to represent a house, but how shall
+we represent a home? It is easy to represent a woman, but how shall we
+add the idea of wife? To do this we must pass from simple pictures to
+symbols. Chinese writing has never advanced beyond this stage. Its
+prodigious type-case of more than forty-two thousand characters
+contains, therefore, only a series of pictures, direct and symbolic, all
+highly conventionalized, but recognizable in their earlier forms. To
+represent "wife" the Chinaman combines the two signs for "woman" and
+"broom"; to represent "home" he makes a picture of a pig under a roof!
+The Egyptian and Mexican systems of writing, though very different to
+the eye, were both of this nature and represented ideas rather than
+words. Yet all true alphabets, which are representations of sound, have
+been derived from such primitive ideograms or pictures of ideas. What
+was the process?
+
+The rebus is the bridge from the writing of thoughts to the writing of
+sounds, and it came into use through the necessity of writing proper
+names. Every ancient name, like many modern ones, had a meaning. A
+king's name might be Wolf, and it would be indicated by the picture of a
+wolf. Ordinarily the picture would be named by everyone who saw it
+according to his language; he might call it "wolf," or "lupus," or
+"lykos"; but when it meant a man's name he must call it Wolf, whatever
+his own language. So such names as Long Knife and Strong Arm would be
+represented, and these pictures would thus be associated with the sound
+rather than the thing. By and by it was found convenient, where the word
+had several syllables, to use its picture to represent the sound of only
+the first syllable, and, still later, of only the first sound or letter.
+Thus the Egyptian symbol for F was originally a picture of the horned
+asp, later it stood for the Egyptian name of this venomous creature, and
+finally for the first sound in the name, being used as the letter F
+itself; and the reason why we have the barred cross-piece in the F, the
+two horns in U, V, and Y, and the four in W (VV) is because the Egyptian
+asp had two horns, as may be seen from the illustration in the Century
+Dictionary under the word cerastes; and every time that we write one of
+these letters we are making a faded copy of the old picture. We find
+systems of writing in all the stages from pure pictures to the phonetic
+alphabet; in Egyptian hieroglyphics we find a mixture of all the stages.
+So much for the background of the book as the bringer of a message to
+the eye, but the outward form or wrapping of that message has also a
+long and interesting history.
+
+No objects could be much more unlike than a Babylonian tablet, an
+Egyptian papyrus roll, and a Mexican book. They are as different as a
+brick, a narrow window-shade, and a lady's fan; they have nothing common
+in their development, yet they were used for the same purpose and might
+bring identically the same message to the mind. Inwardly, as regards
+writing or printing, all books have a parallel development; but
+outwardly, in their material and its form, they are the results of local
+conditions. In Babylonia, which was a fertile river-bottom, bricks were
+the only building material, and clay was therefore a familiar substance.
+Nothing was more natural than that the Babylonian should scratch his
+record or message on a little pat of clay, which he could afterwards
+bake and render permanent. Some day all other books in the world will
+have crumbled into dust, their records being saved only when reproduced;
+but at that remote time there will still exist Babylonian books, even
+now five thousand years old, apparently no nearer destruction than when
+they were first made.
+
+The Babylonian book carried its message all on the outside; the Egyptian
+book went to the opposite extreme, and we should find our chief
+objection to it in the difficulty of getting readily at its contents.
+There flourished on the banks of the Nile a stout reed, six feet high,
+called by the Egyptians "p-apa" and by the Greeks "papyros" or "byblos."
+It was the great source of raw material for Egyptian manufactures. Its
+tufted head was used for garlands; its woody root for various purposes;
+its tough rind for ropes, shoes, and similar articles--the basket of
+Moses, for instance; and its cellular pith for a surface to write on. As
+the stem was jointed, the pith came in lengths, the best from eight to
+ten inches. These lengths were sliced through from top to bottom, and
+the thin slices laid side by side. Another layer was pasted crosswise
+above these, the whole pressed, dried in the sun, and rubbed smooth,
+thus giving a single sheet of papyrus. As the grain ran differently on
+the two surfaces of the papyrus sheet, only one side was written on.
+Other sheets were added to this by pasting them edge to edge until
+enough for a roll had been made, usually twenty, a roller being fastened
+to the last edge and a protecting strip of wood to the front. The
+manuscript was unrolled by the right hand and rolled up by the left. It
+is obvious that a book of reference in this form would be subjected to
+great wear. In our dictionaries it is as easy to find Z as A; but in a
+papyrus book, to find the end meant to unroll the whole. The Latin word
+for roll was "volumen," hence our "volume." A long work could obviously
+not be produced conveniently in a single roll, therefore Homer's "Iliad"
+and "Odyssey," for instance, were each divided into twenty-four books,
+and that is why the divisions of an epic poem are still called books,
+though they are really chapters. The rolls composing a single work were
+kept together in a case something like a bandbox. The roll was the book
+form of the Greek and Roman as well as the Egyptian world, but it left
+no descendants. Our book form was derived from a different source, which
+we will now consider.
+
+Just as we speak of Russia leather, so the ancients spoke of Pergamum
+skins, or parchment. The story is that Eumenes II, King of Pergamum, a
+city of Asia Minor, tried to build up a library rivaling that of
+Alexandria, and the Ptolemies, seeking to thwart him, forbade the export
+of papyrus from Egypt. Eumenes, however, developed the manufacture of
+Pergamum skin, or parchment, or vellum, which not only enabled him to
+go on with his library, but also incidentally changed the whole
+character of the book for future ages. This material is not only much
+more serviceable than the fragile papyrus, but, being tough enough to
+stand folding and sewing, permitted the book to be made in its present
+or codex form, the original codex being two or three Roman waxed tablets
+of wood, fastened together like hinged slates, and thus opening very
+crudely in the manner of our books. This development of parchment
+occurred in the first half of the second century before Christ. The new
+material and book form gradually made their way into favor and came to
+constitute the book of the early Christian and medieval world. Though
+paper was introduced into Europe soon after the year seven hundred, it
+did not displace parchment until the invention of printing called for a
+material of its cheaper and more adaptable character.
+
+But, though we have traced the origin of our present book form, we have
+not yet filled in the background of its history. Several other notable
+types of the book deserve our attention; first of all that of China, one
+of the most attractive of all book forms, to which we devote our next
+chapter. Though it superficially resembles our own books, it is really
+the product of a different line of evolution. When we examine it
+closely, we find that in many respects it is the exact reverse of our
+practice. It is printed on only one side of the paper; it is trimmed at
+the back and folded on the fore edge; its wide margin is at the top; its
+running headline is on the folded fore edge; its sewing is on the
+outside; its binding is limp; its lines run up and down the page; and
+its pages, according to Western ideas, open from the back towards the
+front. Yet it is a thing of beauty, and let us hope that nothing in the
+modern reorganization of China will change its character to prevent it
+from remaining a joy forever.
+
+Just as Chinese paper is made from bamboo, which plays an even greater
+part in China than papyrus did in Egypt, so the book of India utilizes
+the leaves of that important tropical tree, the palm. The sheets of the
+book before me are strips of palm-leaf two inches wide and two feet
+long. They are written on both sides and, following the run of the
+grain, lengthwise. This makes an inordinate length of line, but, owing
+to the small number of lines on the page, the confusion of the eye is
+less than might be expected. The leaves composing the book are clamped
+between two boards of their own size, the block thus formed is pierced
+with two holes, through which pins are thrust, and the whole is wound
+with a cord. The dimensions vary, some books being larger and some much
+smaller. I have also before me a Burmese booklet in which the leaves are
+one inch wide and six inches long. Sometimes the sheets are of brass,
+beautifully lacquered, and the writing heavy and highly decorative.
+These books also vary greatly in size, some forming truly massive and
+sumptuous volumes. Birch bark was also employed as a book material in
+India, being used in what we should call quarto sheets, and in Farther
+India a peculiar roll is in use, made of Chinese paper, folded at the
+side, sewed at the top, and rolled up like a manifold banner in a cover
+of orange-colored or brown cotton cloth.
+
+We do not ordinarily associate books with pre-Columbian America; yet one
+of the most interesting of all book forms was current in Mexico before
+the Conquest. As in the case of the Chinese book, it looks superficially
+like ours; we think it is a tiny quarto until we see that its measure is
+rather that of an oblong twenty-fourmo; that is, its dimensions are just
+scant of five inches high and six inches wide. It has thin wooden covers
+and is, over all, an inch thick; but between these covers is a strip of
+deerskin twenty-nine feet long and, of course, nearly five inches wide.
+This is folded in screen or fan fashion, the first and last leaves being
+pasted to the inside of the covers. This attachment is really the only
+binding; the whole strip is capable of being opened up to its full
+length. It is read--by those who can read its vividly colored
+hieroglyphics--by holding it like a modern book, turning the leaves
+until what seems the end is reached, and then turning the cover for the
+next leaf, and continuing to turn until the first cover is reached
+again, but from the other side. Incredible as it may seem, there is a
+book of India which is almost identical in structure with the ancient
+Mexican book. It has the shape of the palm-leaf book, but it is made of
+heavy paper, blackened to be written on with a chalk pencil, and it
+opens like a fan exactly in the Mexican fashion. Each cover is formed by
+a double fold of paper, and the writing runs lengthwise of the page as
+in the palm-leaf volume. As the writing can be erased, the book serves
+the purpose of a slate.
+
+The variety of objects that men have used to write upon almost surpasses
+imagination, ranging from mountain walls to the ivory shoulders of Rider
+Haggard's heroine in his "Mr. Meeson's Will." Such unusual, if actual,
+writing materials belong, perhaps, rather to the penumbra than to the
+background of the book; but, as a final survey of our subject, running
+back to the time when there were no books and men must rely upon their
+memories, we may quote what Lane says of the sources from which the
+Kuran was derived after the death of Mohammed: "So Zeyd gathered the
+Kurán from palm-leaves, skins, shoulder-blades (of beasts), stones, and
+the hearts of men."
+
+
+
+
+THE CHINESE BOOK
+
+
+The naturalist, Lloyd Morgan, in one of his lectures threw together on
+the screen pictures of a humming bird and an insect of the same size,
+the two looking so much alike as to seem to the casual observer to
+belong to the same order. Yet they are anatomically far more different
+than the man and the fish. In much the same way we may be led to suppose
+that a Chinese book and an occidental paper-bound book are much the same
+thing in origin as they are to the eye. But here too the likeness is
+only apparent. One book form has descended from a block of wood and the
+other from a fold of silk.
+
+The Chinese book is such a triumph of simplicity, cheapness, lightness,
+and durability that it deserves a more careful study at the hands of our
+book producers than it has yet received. In fact we do not see why books
+made on nearly these lines should not be an attractive and popular
+innovation in our book trade. Approaches, to be sure, have been made to
+this peculiar book form, but they have been partial imitations, not
+consistent reproductions. In an illustrated edition of Longfellow's
+"Michael Angelo," published in 1885, Houghton, Mifflin and Company
+produced a small folio, the binding of which is obviously patterned
+after that of a Chinese book. But the printing is on every page, and the
+paper is so stiff that the book will not lie open. In the holiday
+edition which the same publishers issued in 1896 of Aldrich's poem,
+entitled "Friar Jerome's Beautiful Book," they produced a volume in
+which the front folds were not intended to be cut open; but they outdid
+the Chinese by printing on only one of the pages exposed at each opening
+of the book, instead of on both, as the Chinese do, thus utilizing only
+one-fourth of the possible printing surface of the volume. In this case
+again the paper was stiff and the binding was full leather with heavy
+tapes for tying. A much closer approach to the Chinese book form was
+afforded by "The Periodical," issued by Henry Frowde, in the form which
+it bore at first. Here we have what may fairly be called a
+naturalization of the Chinese book idea in the occident. But let us see
+exactly what that Chinese book form is.
+
+The standard book is printed from engraved wood blocks, each of which is
+engraved on the side of the board, not on the end like our wood blocks,
+and for economy is engraved on both its sides. Each of these surfaces
+prints one sheet of paper, making two pages. The paper, being unsized,
+is printed on only one side, and the fold is not at the back, as in our
+books, but at the front. The running headline, as we should call it,
+with the page number, is printed in a central column, which is folded
+through when the book is bound, coming half on one page and half on the
+other. There is always printed in this column a fan-shaped device,
+called the fish's tail, whose notch indicates where the fold is to come.
+It may be remarked in passing that the Chinese book begins on what to us
+is the last page, and that the lines read from top to bottom and follow
+one another from right to left. Each page has a double ruled line at top
+and bottom and on the inner edge. The top and bottom lines and the
+fish's tail, being printed across the front fold, show as black lines
+banding the front edge when the book is bound. The bottom line is taken
+by the binder as his guide in arranging the sheets, this line always
+appearing true on the front edge and the others blurred. The top margin
+has more than twice the breadth of the lower. After the sheets are
+gathered, holes are punched at proper distances from the back edge--four
+seems to be the regulation number whether the book be large or small,
+but large books have an extra hole at top and bottom towards the corner
+from the last hole. These holes are then plugged with rolls of paper to
+keep the sheets in position, and the top, bottom, and back edges are
+shaved with a sharp, heavy knife, fifty or more volumes being trimmed at
+the same stroke. A piece of silk is pasted over the upper and lower
+corners of the back. Covers, consisting of two sheets of colored paper
+folded in front like the pages, are placed at front and back, but not
+covering the back edge, or there is an outer sheet of colored paper with
+inside lining paper and a leaf of heavy paper between for stiffening.
+Silk cord is sewn through the holes and neatly tied, and the book is
+done--light in the hand and lying open well, inexpensive and capable
+with proper treatment of lasting for centuries.
+
+What are the chief defects of the Chinese book from an occidental point
+of view? The most obvious is that it will not stand alone. Another is
+that its covers, being soft, are easily crumpled and dog's-eared. A
+third is that it is printed on only one side of the paper and therefore
+wastes space. All these objections must be admitted, but it may be urged
+with truth that our books, in spite of their relatively costly binding,
+do not stand alone any too well, and in fact this is a function seldom
+asked of books anyway. Its covers are soft, but this means at least that
+they are not so hard and foreign to the material of the book as to tear
+themselves off after a dozen readings, as is the case with so many of
+our bindings. There is no danger of breaking the back of a Chinese book
+on first opening it, for it has no lining of hard glue. As to the
+utilization of only one side of the paper, it must be remembered that
+the Chinese paper is very thin, and that this practice makes it possible
+to secure the advantage of opacity without loading the paper with a
+foreign and heavy material. Moreover, the thickness of the pasteboard
+cover is saved on the shelves, and even if a substitute for it is
+adopted, it is in the form of a light pasteboard case that holds several
+volumes at once. Such a cover is capable of being lettered on the back,
+though the Chinese seem not to think this necessary, but put their title
+labels on the side. Really, the back of the Chinese book is to us its
+most foreign feature. It is a raw edge, not protected by the cover, and
+differs from the front only in consisting of the edges of single leaves
+instead of folds. It is in fact a survival from the days before the
+invention of paper, when books were printed on silk, the raw edge of
+which would fray and was therefore consigned to the position where it
+would have the least wear and would do the least harm if worn.
+
+But there is no reason why, in Europeanizing the Chinese book, the
+corner guard should not be extended the whole length of the back and
+bear the ordinary lettering. With this slight difference the Chinese
+book would be equipped to enter the lists on fairly even terms against
+the prevailing occidental type of book, which has come down to us from
+the ancient Roman codex through the parchment book, of which ours is
+only a paper imitation. In "The Periodical," referred to, four pages
+instead of two were printed at once, or, at least, four constitute a
+fold. The sheets are stitched through with thread--they might, of
+course, have been wire-stitched--and then a paper cover is pasted on, as
+in the case of any magazine or paper-bound book. But in this process the
+beauty of the Chinese binding disappears, though the Chinese do the
+same with their cheapest pamphlets. In these days, when lightness and
+easy handling are such popular features in books, what publisher will
+take up the book form that for two thousand years has enshrined the
+wisdom of the Flowery Kingdom, and by trifling adaptations here and
+there make it his own and ours?
+
+
+
+
+THICK PAPER AND THIN
+
+
+Sir Hiram Maxim, the knight from Maine, prophesies that we shall change
+our religion twenty times in the next twenty thousand years. In the last
+two thousand years we have changed our book material twice, from papyrus
+to parchment and from parchment to paper, with a consequent change of
+the book form from the roll to the codex. Shall we therefore change our
+book material twenty times in the next twenty thousand years? Only time
+itself can tell; but for five hundred years the book has never been in
+such unstable equilibrium as at present; the proverb "A book's a book"
+has never possessed so little definite meaning. This condition applies
+chiefly to the paper, but as this changes, the binding will also change
+from its present costly and impermanent character to something at once
+cheaper and more durable.
+
+The changes in modern paper have worked in two opposite directions,
+represented on the one hand by Oxford India paper, with its miraculous
+thinness, opacity, and lightness, and on the other hand by papers that,
+while also remarkably light, offer, as a sample book expresses it,
+"excellent bulk"; for instance, 272 pages to an inch as against 1500 to
+an inch of Oxford India paper.[3] The contrasted effects of these two
+types of material upon the book as a mechanical product are well worth
+the consideration of all who are engaged in the making of books.
+
+Some of these results are surprising. What, for instance, could be more
+illogical than to make a book any thicker than strength and convenience
+require? Yet one has only to step out into the markets where books and
+buyers meet to find a real demand for this excess of bulk. Though
+illogical, the demand for size in books is profoundly psychological and
+goes back to the most primitive instincts of human nature. The first of
+all organs in biological development, the stomach, will not do its work
+properly unless it has quantity as well as quality to deal with. So the
+eye has established a certain sense of relationship between size and
+value, and every publisher knows that in printing from given plates he
+can get twice as much for the book at a trifling excess of cost if he
+uses thicker paper and gives wider margins. That all publishers do not
+follow these lines is due to the fact that other elements enter into the
+total field of bookselling besides quantity, the chief of which is cost,
+and another of which, growing in importance, is compactness. But it is
+safe to say that to the buyer who is not, for the moment at least,
+counting the cost, mere bulk makes as great an appeal as any single
+element of attractiveness in the sum total of a book.
+
+This attraction of bulk receives a striking increase if it is associated
+with lightness. The customer who takes up a large book and suddenly
+finds it light to hold receives a pleasurable shock which goes far
+towards making him a purchaser. He seems not to ask or care whether he
+may be getting few pages for his money. The presence of this single,
+agreeable element of lightness at once gives a distinction to the book
+that appears to supplant all other requirements. The purchaser does not
+realize that the same lightness of volume associated with half the
+thickness would not seem to him remarkable, though the book would take
+up only half the room on his shelves. He feels that a modern miracle in
+defiance of gravitation has been wrought in his favor, and he is willing
+to pay for the privilege of enjoying it.
+
+Curiously and somewhat unexpectedly the results of neither extreme,
+thick paper nor thin, are wholly satisfactory in the library. The
+parvenu, who is looking only to the filling up of his shelves with
+volumes of impressive size, may find satisfaction in contemplating wide
+backs. But the scholar and the public librarian will grudge the space
+which this "excellent bulk" occupies. One single element in their favor
+he will be quick to recognize, the better space which they afford for
+distinct lettering. In a private library that is collected for use and
+not for show the thin-paper books are almost an unmixed blessing. They
+cost little for what they contain. Their reduction in thickness is often
+associated with a reduction in height and width, so that they represent
+an economy of space all round. A first-rate example of this is furnished
+by the Oxford India Paper Dickens, in seventeen volumes, printed in
+large type, yet, as bound, occupying a cubical space of only 13 by 7 by
+4-1/2 inches and weighing only nine pounds. A more startling instance is
+that of the novels of Thomas Love Peacock, which are issued in a pretty
+library edition of ten volumes. But they are also issued in a _single_
+volume, no higher nor wider, and only _three-fourths of an inch thick_.
+But it is at this point that the public librarian rises to protest. It
+is all very well, he says, for the private owner to have his literature
+in this concentrated form, but for himself, how is he to satisfy the
+eight readers who call for "Headlong Hall," "Nightmare Abbey," and the
+rest of Peacock's novels all at once? To be sure he can buy and
+catalogue eight single-volume sets of the author's works instead of one
+set in ten volumes, and when he has done this each reader will be sure
+to find the particular novel that he is looking for so long as a set
+remains; but the cost will naturally be greater. On the other hand, he
+welcomes equally with the private buyer the thin-paper edition of the
+Shakespeare Apocrypha, which needs only a third of the shelf space
+required for the regular edition, seven-sixteenths of an inch as against
+an inch and five-sixteenths. He also looks upon his magazine shelves and
+sees a volume of the "Hibbert Journal" with 966 pages in large type
+occupying the space of a volume of the "Independent" with 1788 pages in
+fine type, or again he sees by the side of his thin-paper edition of
+Dickens another on heavy paper occupying more than three times the
+lineal space with no advantage in clearness of type. By this time he is
+ready to vote, in spite of the occasional disability of overcompactness,
+for the book material that will put the least strain upon his crowded
+shelves. A conference with the booksellers shows him that he is not
+alone in this conclusion. Certain standard works, like the Oxford Book
+of English Verse and Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, have almost ceased
+to be sold in any but the thin-paper editions. Then there dawns upon him
+the vision of a library in which all books that have won their way into
+recognition shall be clothed in this garb of conciseness, and in which
+all that aspire to that rank shall follow their example. In short he
+sees what he believes to be the book of the future, which will be as
+different from the book of the present as that is from the parchment
+book of the early and middle ages of the Christian era, and as different
+in binding as it is in material. The realization of this vision will
+involve first of all a readjustment of values on the part of the
+public, an outgrowing of its childish admiration for bulk. But this
+change is coming so rapidly under the stress of modern conditions of
+crowding, especially in city life, as to reduce the vision from its
+prophetic rank to a case of mere foresight.
+
+
+
+
+THE CLOTHING OF A BOOK
+
+
+The binding of a book is its most conspicuous feature, the part which
+forms its introduction to the public and by which too often it is judged
+and valued; yet the binding is not an integral portion of the volume. It
+may be changed many times without essentially changing the book; but if
+the printed pages are changed, even for others identical to the eye, the
+book becomes another copy. The binding is, therefore, a part of a book's
+environment, though the most intimate part, like our own clothing, to
+which, indeed, it bears a curious resemblance in its purpose and its
+perversions.
+
+Human clothing is for protection and adornment. That of a book involves
+two other demands mutually so contradictory that bookbinding has always
+offered a most attractive challenge to the skill of the handicraftsman.
+The first demand is that the book when closed shall form a well-squared
+and virtually solid block, like the rectangle of wood from which its
+first predecessors were split, and shall be able to stand alone,
+unsupported. The second demand is that this same object, when open,
+shall lie flat at any point and display all its leaves in turn as fully,
+and far more conveniently, than if they had never been fastened
+together. Whatever may be true of other clothing, it is eminently true
+of a book's that the part which really counts is the part which is never
+seen. Only the ornamental portion of a book's covering is exposed. The
+portions which protect the book and render it at once firm and flexible
+are out of sight and unheeded by the ordinary reader. Hence the
+existence of so much bookbinding that is apparently good and essentially
+bad, and hence the perpetual timeliness of attempts like that of the
+present chapter, to point out what binding is and should be. The
+processes in bookbinding by which its different ends of utility and
+ornament are achieved are known under the two heads of Forwarding and
+Finishing.
+
+Forwarding includes many processes, literally "all but the finishing."
+It is to forwarding that a book owes its shapeliness, its firmness, its
+flexibility, and its durability. Forwarding takes the unfolded and
+unarranged sheets as delivered by the printer and transforms them into a
+book complete in all but its outermost covering of cloth or leather. The
+first process is to fold the sheets and reduce their strange medley of
+page numbers to an orderly succession. This is assuming that there is a
+whole edition to be bound. If it consists of a thousand copies, then
+there will be a certain number of piles of folded sheets, each
+containing a thousand copies of the same pages printed in groups, let us
+say, of sixteen each. These groups of pages are called sections or
+signatures. They are now rearranged, or gathered, into a thousand piles,
+each containing the signatures that belong to one book. The edition is
+thus separated into its thousand books, which the collator goes over to
+see that each is perfect. Let us follow the fortunes of a single one. It
+is not much of a book to look at, being rather a puffy heap of paper,
+but pressing, rolling, or beating soon reduces it to normal dimensions,
+and it is then carried forward to the important process of sewing. This
+is the very heart of the whole work. If the book is badly sewed, it will
+be badly bound, though a thousand dollars were to be spent upon the
+decoration of its covering. There is only one best method of sewing, and
+that is around raised cords, in the way followed by the earliest
+binders. There are modern machine methods that are very good, but they
+are only cheap substitutes for the best. The cords must be of good,
+long-fibered hemp, and the thread of the best quality and the right size
+drawn to the right degree of tension without missing a sheet. After the
+sewing the end papers are put in place, the back is glued and rounded,
+and the mill boards are fitted. Into these last the ends of the cords
+are laced and hammered. The book is then pressed to set its shape, being
+left in the press for some days or even weeks. After it is taken out, if
+the edges are to be treated, they are trimmed and then gilded, marbled,
+sprinkled, or otherwise decorated. The head band--for which many French
+binders substitute a fold in the leather--is now added. It was formerly
+twisted as the book was sewn, but at present is too often bought
+ready-made and simply glued on. The book is now forwarded.
+
+The business of the finisher is to cover and protect the work already
+done on the book, but in such a way as not to interfere with the
+strength and flexibility that have been gained, and, finally, to add
+such decoration as may be artistically demanded or within the means of
+the purchaser. If leather is employed, it must be carefully shaved to
+give an easily opening hinge, yet not enough to weaken it unnecessarily.
+This is a most important process and one that must be left largely to
+the good faith of the binder. If he is unworthy of confidence, his
+mistakes may long escape notice, but, though buried, they are doomed to
+an inglorious resurrection, albeit he may count on a sufficient lapse of
+time to protect himself.
+
+The next and last process of finishing is that of the decorator, whose
+work passes out of the sphere of handicraft into that of art. His
+problem is no easy one; it is to take a surface of great beauty in
+itself, as of calf or morocco, and so treat it as to increase its
+beauty. Too often, after he has done his utmost, the surface is less
+attractive to the eye than it was at the beginning. He, therefore, has a
+task quite different from that of the painter or sculptor, whose
+materials are not at the outset attractive. This condition is so
+strongly felt that many booklovers leave their bindings untooled,
+preferring the rich sensuous beauty and depth of color in a choice piece
+of leather to any effect of gilding or inlaying. This initial beauty of
+the undecorated book does not, however, form an impossible challenge, as
+witness the work of the Eves, Le Gascon, and the binders of such famous
+collectors as Grolier and de Thou.
+
+It may be well to consider more particularly what the problem of the
+book decorator is. Though perfectly obvious to the eye and clearly
+illustrated by the work of the masters, it has been sometimes lost sight
+of by recent binders. It is, in a word, flat decoration. In the first
+place he has a surface to work upon that is large enough to allow
+strength of treatment, yet small enough to admit delicacy; then,
+whatever in beautiful effects of setting, relief, harmony, and contrast
+can be brought about by blind tooling, gilding, and inlaying, or by
+rubbing the surface as in crushed levant, or variegating it as in "tree"
+or marbled calf, all this he can command. He has control of an infinite
+variety of forms in tooling; he has only to use them with taste and
+skill. There is practically no limit to the amount of work that he can
+put into the binding of a single book, provided that every additional
+stroke is an additional beauty. He may sow the leather with minute
+ornament like Mearne, or set it off with a few significant lines like
+Aldus or Roger Payne; all depends upon the treatment. If he is a master,
+the end will crown the work; if not, then he should have stopped with
+simple lettering and have left the demands of beauty to be satisfied by
+the undecorated leather. Above all, let every decorator stick to flat
+ornament. The moment that he ventures into the third dimension, or
+perspective, that moment he invades the province of the draftsman or
+painter. One does not care to walk over a rug or carpet that displays a
+scene in perspective, neither does one wish to gaze into a landscape
+wrought upon the cover of a book, only to have the illusion of depth
+dispelled upon opening the volume. Embossing is, to be sure, a literal
+not a pictorial invasion of the third dimension, but its intrusion into
+that dimension is very slight and involves no cheating of the eye. It
+has now practically gone out of use, as has the heavy medieval
+ornamentation of studs or jewels. In cloth covers, which are confessedly
+edition work and machine made, the rules of ornament need not be so
+sharply enforced. Here embossing still flourishes to some extent. But
+the decorative problem is essentially the same in cloth as in leather
+binding, and the best design will be one that triumphs within the
+conditions, not outside them. The machines and the division of labor
+have made sad havoc with binding as a craft. The men in America, at
+least, who are masters of every process and of all the skill and cunning
+of the early binders are few, and their thinning ranks are not being
+filled. Will bookbinding, in spite of a high economic demand, share the
+fate that has overtaken engraving, or shall we have a renascence of this
+fascinating handicraft and delightful art, to take its name from the
+present era?
+
+
+
+
+PARCHMENT BINDINGS
+
+
+There are certain things, the Autocrat informs us, that are "good for
+nothing until they have been kept a long while; and some are good for
+nothing until they have been long kept and _used_. Of the first, wine is
+the illustrious and immortal example. Of those which must be kept and
+used I will name three--meerschaum pipes, violins, and poems." May we
+present another representative of the class which gathers value with the
+"process of the suns," one as immortal and historic as wine and even
+richer in associations--the parchment book cover? In this case it
+matters not whether the object meets with use or neglect. So long as it
+is not actually worn to pieces on the one hand, nor destroyed by mold on
+the other, the parchment binding will keep on converting time into gold,
+until after a few hundred years it reaches a tint far surpassing in
+beauty the richest umber of a meerschaum, and approached only by the
+kindred hue of antique ivory.
+
+Here is a table full of old parchment-bound books, ranging from a tiny
+twenty-fourmo, which will stay neither open nor shut, to thin, limp
+folios that are instantly correspondent to either command. Those that
+are bound with boards have taken on a drumhead quality of smoothness and
+tension, especially the fat quartos and small octavos, while the larger
+volumes that received a flexible binding resemble nothing in surface so
+much as the wrinkled diploma on yonder wall, with its cabalistic
+signature now to be written no more, Carolus-Guil. Eliot; but all agree
+in a tint over which artists rave, the color that gold would take if it
+were capable of stain. But there is no stain here, or rather all stains
+are taken up and converted into beauty. Dust, dirt, smudges, all are
+here, and each is made to contribute a new element of charm. Is the
+resultant more beautiful than the spotless original? Compare it with the
+pearly tint of the diploma, or turn up the folded edge of one of those
+flexible bindings and note the chalky white of the parchment's protected
+under-surface. The same three hundred years that have made over Europe
+and made English America have, as it were, filled in the rhythmic pauses
+between their giant heart-beats by ripening Dr. Holmes's wine and
+touching with Midas caress these parchment bindings!
+
+It is surely a crime to keep such beauty of tint and tone hidden away in
+drawers or all but hidden on crowded shelves. Let them be displayed in
+open cases where all may enjoy them. But let us go softly; these
+century-mellowed parchments are too precious to be displayed to
+unappreciative, perhaps scornful, eyes. Put them away in their
+hiding-places until some gentle reader of these lines shall ask for
+them; then we will bring them forth and persuade ourselves that we can
+detect a new increment of beauty added by the brief time since last we
+looked on them. I once heard an address on a librarian's duty to his
+successors. I will suggest a service not there mentioned: to choose
+every year the best contemporary books that he can find worthily printed
+on time-proof papers and have them bound in parchment; then let him
+place them on his shelves to gather gold from the touch of the mellowing
+years through the centuries to come and win him grateful memory such as
+we bestow upon the unknown hands that wrought for these volumes the
+garments of their present and still increasing beauty.
+
+
+
+
+LEST WE FORGET THE FEW GREAT BOOKS
+
+
+One result of the stir that has been made in library matters during the
+last two generations, and especially during the latter, is the enormous
+increase in the size of our libraries. In 1875 the public libraries of
+the United States contained a little less than 11,500,000 volumes. In
+the five years from 1908 to 1913 the libraries of 5,000 volumes and over
+added nearly 20,000,000 volumes, making a total of over 75,000,000
+volumes, an increase of 35.7 per cent. In 1875 there were 3682 libraries
+of more than 300 volumes each; in 1913 there were 8302 libraries of over
+1000 volumes each. In 1875 there were only nine libraries containing
+100,000 volumes or over. These were the Library of Congress, 300,000;
+Boston Public Library, 300,000; New York Mercantile Library, 160,000;
+Harvard College Library, 154,000; Astor Library, 152,000; Philadelphia
+Mercantile Library, 126,000; House of Representatives Library, 125,000;
+Boston Athenaeum, 105,000; Library Company of Philadelphia, 104,000. In
+1913 there were in this class 82 libraries, or over nine times as many,
+including 14 libraries of 300,000 to 2,000,000 volumes, a class which
+did not exist in 1875.
+
+Meanwhile the individual book remains just what it always was, the
+utterance of one mind addressed to another mind, and the individual
+reader has no more hours in the day nor days in his life; he has no more
+eyes nor hands nor--we reluctantly confess--brains than he had in 1875.
+But, fast as our libraries grow, not even their growth fully represents
+the avalanche of books that is every year poured upon the reader's
+devoted head by the presses of the world. To take only the four
+countries in whose literature we are most interested we find their
+annual book publication, for the latest normal year, 1913, to be as
+follows: Germany, 35,078 volumes; France, 11,460; England, 12,379;
+America, 12,230. But Japan, Russia, and Italy are each credited with
+issuing more books annually than either England or the United States,
+and the total annual book publication of the world is estimated to reach
+the enormous figure of more than 130,000 volumes. In view of this
+prodigious literary output, what progress can the reader hope to make in
+"keeping up with the new books"? De Quincey figured that a man might
+possibly, in a long lifetime devoted to nothing else, read 20,000
+volumes. The estimate is easy. Suppose we start with one book a
+day--surely a large supposition--and count a man's reading years from 20
+to 80, 60 years in all; 60 times 365 is 21,900. This estimate makes no
+allowance for Sundays, holidays, or sickness. Yet, small as it is--for
+there are private libraries containing 20,000 volumes--it is manifestly
+too large. But whatever the sum total may be, whether 20,000 or 2,000,
+let us see, if I may use the expression, what a one must read before he
+can allow himself to read what he really wants to.
+
+First of all we must read the books that form the intellectual tools of
+our trade, and there is no profession and hardly a handicraft that does
+not possess its literature. For instance, there are more than ten
+periodicals in the German language alone devoted exclusively to such a
+narrow field as beekeeping. Such periodicals and such books we do not
+call literature, any more than we do the labors of the man or woman who
+supplies the text for Butterick's patterns. But they are printed matter,
+and the reading of them takes up time that we might have spent upon
+"books that are books."
+
+But besides this bread and butter reading there is another sort that we
+must admit into our lives if we are to be citizens of the world we live
+in, contemporaries of our own age, men among the men of our time, and
+that is reading for general information. The time has long since gone
+by, to be sure, when any man could, like Lord Bacon, take all knowledge
+for his province--we can hardly take a bird's-eye view of all knowledge
+to-day. No amount of reading will ever produce another Scaliger, learned
+in every subject. To be well informed, even in these days of the
+banyan-like growth of the tree of knowledge, is to be a miracle of
+erudition. Most of mankind must be content with the modest aim which Dr.
+Holmes set for the poet, to know enough not to make too many blunders.
+In carrying out this humble purpose, that of merely touching elbows with
+the thronging multitude of facts of interest to the civilized man, we
+have a task great enough to occupy the time of any reader, even if he
+made it his vocation; and with most of us it must be only a minor
+avocation. The very books about the books in this boundless field, the
+compends of the compends, the reviews of the reviews, form in themselves
+a library great enough to stagger human weakness. Besides all this--in a
+sense a part of it, yet a miscellaneous and irrational part--come the
+newspapers, with their daily distraction. This is after all our world,
+and we cannot live in it and be absolute nonconformists. So we must
+submit to the newspaper, though it makes a heavy addition to our daily
+load of reading for information. But there is still another kind of
+necessary reading that I wish to mention before we come to that which
+ranks chief in importance.
+
+The woman who takes out of the public or subscription library a novel a
+day is only suffering from the perversion of an appetite that in its
+normal state is beneficial. It is possible that her husband does not
+read enough for amusement, that his horizon is narrowed, his sympathies
+stunted by the lack of that very influence which, in excess, unfits his
+wife for the realities and duties of everyday existence. It came as a
+surprise to many to learn from Tennyson's "Life" that the author of "In
+Memoriam" was a great novel reader. But clearly in his case the novel
+produced no weakening of the mental fiber. President Garfield advised
+the student to mingle with his heavier reading a judicious proportion of
+fiction. The novel may rank in the highest department of literature and
+may render the inestimable service of broadening and quickening our
+sympathies. In this case it belongs to the class of the best books. But
+I have introduced it here as the most prominent representative of what
+we may call the literature of recreation. There is a further
+representative of this class that is peculiarly well fitted to bring
+refreshment and cheer to the weary and dispirited, and that is humor,
+which is often also the soundest philosophy.
+
+If the reader does not at the outset make provision in his daily reading
+for the best books, the days and the months will go by, and the unopened
+volumes will look down upon him from his shelves in dumb reproof of his
+neglect and reminder of his loss. In truth it is all a matter of the
+balance of gain. What we rate highest we shall find room for. If we
+cannot have our spiritual food and satisfy all our other wants, perhaps
+we shall find that some of our other wants can do with less
+satisfaction. That we should neglect the material side of life for the
+spiritual I do not say. But for our encouragement let me quote another
+estimate of what may be accomplished by persistent reading, and my
+authority shall be the late Professor William Mathews, the essayist, an
+author whose graceful style bears lightly as a flower a weight of
+learning that would appall, if it did not so delight us. Says Dr.
+Mathews:
+
+     Did you ever think of the sum total of knowledge that may be
+     accumulated in a decade, or score of years, or a lifetime by
+     reading only 10 pages a day? He who has read but that small
+     amount daily, omitting Sundays, has read in a year 3130
+     pages, which is equal to six volumes of 521 pages each,
+     enough to enable one to master a science. In five years he
+     will have read 15,650 pages, equivalent to 30 large volumes,
+     or to 60 of the average size. Now, we do not hesitate to say
+     that 30 volumes of 521 pages each of history, biography,
+     science, and literature, well chosen, well read, and well
+     digested, will be worth to nine persons out of ten more than
+     the average collegiate education is to the majority of
+     graduates.
+
+Our case for knowing the best books is, therefore, not hopeless. What we
+need for the achievement is not genius, but only a moderate amount of
+forethought and persistence. But who is there that has not tasted the
+joy of discovering a great book that seemed written for himself alone?
+If there is such a man, he is to be pitied--unless, indeed, he is to be
+congratulated on the unimagined pleasure in store for him. Discovery is
+not too strong a word for the feeling of the reader when he lights upon
+such a world-opening volume. He feels that no one else ever could have
+had the same appreciation of it, ever really discovered it, that he is
+
+          the first that ever burst
+    Into that silent sea.
+
+Keats, in his glorious sonnet, "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer,"
+has given the finest of all expressions to this sense of literary
+discovery.
+
+    Much have I travelled in the realms of gold
+      And many goodly states and kingdoms seen;
+      Round many western islands have I been
+    Which bards in fealty to Apollo hold.
+    Oft of one wide expanse had I been told
+      That deep-browed Homer ruled as his demesne:
+      Yet never did I breathe its pure serene
+    Till I heard Chapman speak out loud and bold:
+    Then felt I like some watcher in the skies
+      When a new planet swims into his ken;
+    Or like stout Cortez, when with eagle eyes
+      He stared at the Pacific--and all his men
+    Looked at each other with a wild surmise--
+      Silent, upon a peak in Darien.
+
+To describe such accessions of spiritual vision we turn instinctively to
+the narratives of Holy Writ, to Pisgah and its revelation of the
+Promised Land, to the ladder at Bethel with its angels ascending and
+descending, and to the lonely seer on Patmos with his vision of a new
+heaven and a new earth.
+
+But, questions a listener, do books ever really affect people like this?
+Most assuredly! We have only to turn to biography for the record, if we
+do not find living witnesses among our friends. It was said of Neander
+that "Plato is his idol--his constant watchword. He sits day and night
+over him; and there are few who have so thoroughly and in such purity
+imbibed his wisdom."
+
+The elder Professor Torrey, of the University of Vermont, found his
+inspiration, as many another has done, in Dante. In his youth he
+preferred the Inferno; in his middle life he rose to the calm heights of
+the Purgatorio; and he used to say with a smile that perhaps the time
+would come when he should be fitted to appreciate the Paradiso. Highly
+interesting is John Ruskin's tribute to Sir Walter Scott:
+
+     It is one of the griefs of my old age that I know Scott by
+     heart, but still, if I take up a volume of him, it is not
+     laid down again for the next hour.
+
+Beside this we may place Goethe's testimony, also written in old age:
+
+     We read many, too many, poor things, thus losing our time
+     and gaining nothing. We should only read what we can admire,
+     as I did in my youth, and as I now do with Sir Walter Scott.
+     I have now begun "Rob Roy," and I shall read all his
+     romances in succession. All is great--material, import,
+     characters, execution; and then what infinite diligence in
+     the preparatory studies! what truth of detail in the
+     composition! Here we see what English history is; what an
+     inheritance to a poet able to make use of it. Walter Scott
+     is a great genius; he has not his equal; and we need not
+     wonder at the extraordinary effect he has produced on the
+     reading world. He gives me much to think of; and I discover
+     in him a wholly new art with laws of its own.
+
+Of Goethe himself Carlyle confessed that the reading of his works made
+him understand what the Methodists mean by a new birth. Those who are
+familiar with the speeches and writings of Daniel Webster realize the
+inspiration that he owed to the grandeur of Milton. His great rival,
+Calhoun, honored everywhere as a statesman, was known in his own home as
+"the old man of the Bible." It was the reading of the Bible that
+equipped John Bunyan to become the author of "Pilgrim's Progress." The
+novelists have not failed to recognize the influence of some single book
+on a human life. It was the accidental possession of a folio volume of
+Shakespeare--in Blackmore's "Lorna Doone"--that transformed John Ridd
+from a hulking countryman to a man of profound acquaintance with the
+world. And who does not remember Gabriel Betteridge, the simple-hearted
+old steward in Wilkie Collins's "Moonstone," who finds for every
+occurrence a text to counsel or console in his favorite "Robinson
+Crusoe"?
+
+As the experience of Professor Torrey shows, different books appeal to
+us most strongly at different ages. Young men read Shelley, old men
+read Wordsworth. In youth "Hamlet" is to us the greatest of all plays;
+in old age, "Lear." I know of no more interesting account of the
+development of a mind in the choice of books than that presented in John
+Beattie Crozier's autobiographical volume entitled "My Inner Life." The
+author is an English philosopher, who was born and lived until manhood
+in the backwoods of Canada. He tells us how as a young man groping about
+for some clew to the mystery of the world in which he found himself, he
+tried one great writer after another--Mill, Buckle, Carlyle,
+Emerson--all to no purpose, for he was not ready for them. At this
+period he read with great profit the "Recreations of a Country Parson,"
+which, as he says, "gave me precisely the grade and shade of platitude I
+required." But more important were the weekly sermons of Henry Ward
+Beecher. Of him Crozier says:
+
+     For years his printed sermons were the main source of my
+     instruction and delight. His range and variety of
+     observation ... his width of sympathy; his natural and
+     spontaneous pathos; the wealth of illustration and metaphor
+     with which his sermons were adorned, and which were drawn
+     chiefly from natural objects, from his orchard, his farm,
+     his garden, as well as from machinery and from all kinds of
+     natural processes; his naturalism and absence of theological
+     bias; his knowledge of average men and their ways of looking
+     at things; in a word, his general fertility of thought,
+     filling up, as it did, the full horizon of my mind, and
+     running over and beyond it on all sides, so that wherever I
+     looked he had been there before me--all this delighted and
+     enchanted me, and made him for some years my ideal of
+     intellectual greatness; and I looked forward to the
+     Saturdays on which his weekly sermons reached me with
+     longing and pure joy.
+
+Later, in England, Crozier took up the works of the philosophers with
+better success. The chapter of most interest for us is the one on the
+group which he calls "The Poetic Thinkers"--Carlyle, Newman, Emerson,
+Goethe. Of these he places Goethe and Emerson highest. Indeed of
+Emerson's essay on "Experience" he says:
+
+     In this simple framework Emerson has contrived to work in
+     thoughts on human life more central and commanding, more
+     ultimate and final, and of more universal application than
+     are to be found within the same compass in the literature of
+     any age or time, thoughts which rise to the mind as
+     naturally and spontaneously when the deeper secrets of life
+     are in question, as proverbs do in its more obvious and
+     superficial aspects.... Nowhere, indeed, will you find
+     greater penetration and profundity, or greater refinement
+     and delicacy than in these essays (of Emerson).... After a
+     lapse of ten or fifteen years ... no increase of experience
+     or reflection has enabled me to add or suggest aught by way
+     of commentary on these great and penetrating observations on
+     human life that is not either more superficial or less
+     true.... Until Emerson is understood, no observer of human
+     life making any pretension to originality can, in my
+     judgment, consider his reputation safe, or his work free
+     from the danger of being undermined by this great master of
+     human thought.
+
+If some scholar on whose judgment we relied were to speak in these terms
+of a book that was only to be read in Persian or Icelandic, how
+cheerfully we should bend ourselves to the task of learning these
+difficult tongues for the sake of the reward--the possession of the
+coveted thought. But the writings of Emerson are in our own language and
+accessible in the cheapest editions. If to us personally Emerson does
+not make this supreme appeal, there are other writers, all at hand, set
+apart from the great multitude of lesser spirits by that final weigher
+of human talents whom Bacon calls Good Fame. It is not that among the
+myriad volumes of a library we must painfully and largely by accident
+discover the few of highest worth--scanning each doubtfully as one
+searches for an unknown visitor in the crowd alighting from a train. No,
+the best books are the best known, the most accessible. Lists of the
+ten, the fifty, the one hundred best books are at our disposal, and, if
+they do not always represent final judgments, are near enough for
+practical purposes. The will to read the best books is all that we need
+to supply--the rest has been done for us. And is there anyone who turns
+with indifference from the high and free privilege of making the
+greatest spirits that have ever lived his bosom friends, his companions
+and counselors? If there be such a one, would that I might repeat to him
+more of that glorious chant in praise of books that has been sung by the
+wise of all ages, from Socrates to Gladstone. I have given a few of
+these tributes already; I will close with one from an unexpected source.
+Says Walt Whitman, in his "Democratic Vistas," speaking of the books
+that have come down to us from antiquity:
+
+     A few immortal compositions, small in size, yet compassing
+     what measureless values of reminiscence, contemporary
+     portraitures, manners, idioms and beliefs, with deepest
+     inference, hint and thought, to tie and touch forever the
+     old, new body, and the old, new soul. These! and still
+     these! bearing the freight so dear--dearer than
+     pride--dearer than love. All the best experience of humanity
+     folded, saved, freighted to us here! Some of these tiny
+     ships we call Old and New Testament, Homer, Eschylus, Plato,
+     Juvenal, etc. Precious minims! I think if we were forced to
+     choose, rather than have you, and the likes of you, and what
+     belongs to and has grown of you, blotted out and gone, we
+     could better afford, appalling as that would be, to lose all
+     actual ships, this day fastened by wharf, or floating on
+     wave, and see them, with all their cargoes, scuttled and
+     sent to the bottom.
+
+     Gathered by geniuses of city, race or age, and put by them
+     in highest of art's forms, namely, the literary form, the
+     peculiar combinations, and the outshows of that city, age or
+     race, its particular modes of the universal attributes and
+     passions, its faiths, heroes, lovers and gods, wars,
+     traditions, struggles, crimes, emotions, joys (or the subtle
+     spirit of these) having been passed on to us to illumine our
+     own selfhood, and its experiences--what they supply,
+     indispensable and highest, if taken away, nothing else in
+     all the world's boundless storehouses could make up to us,
+     or ever again return.
+
+
+
+
+PRINTING PROBLEMS FOR SCIENCE TO SOLVE
+
+
+The book seems to have been regarded for hundreds of years--for
+thousands of years if we include its prototypes--as a thing apart,
+subject to its own laws of beauty, utility, and economy. But recently
+men have come to realize that the book has no special esthetic license,
+that what is barbarous art elsewhere is barbarous in the book; they also
+recognize that the book is within the domain of economics, that the
+invention of typography was primarily a reduction of cost, and that a
+myriad later processes, which make the book what it is to-day, are all
+developments of the same principle. What has not been so clearly seen is
+that in the field of utility the book is not independent, cannot impose
+conditions upon its users, but is an instrument strictly subordinate to
+human needs. The establishment of its efficiency has only begun when we
+have adapted it to the convenience of the hand and the bookshelf. The
+real tests of its utility are subtle, not gross, and are, in fact,
+beyond the range of ordinary haphazard experience. In this field popular
+judgment may be right or wrong; it offers merely an opinion, which it
+cannot prove. But here that higher power of common sense that we call
+science comes in and gives verdicts that take account of all the
+elements involved and can be verified. Rather this is what science has
+not yet done for printing, or has done only in part, but which we
+confidently expect it is about to do.
+
+What then are some of the points that we may call in science to settle?
+We know surely that fine type, bad presswork, pale ink on gray paper are
+all bad for the eyes. But there are a host of other matters connected
+with printing, we may even say most matters, in regard to which our
+knowledge is either uncertain or indefinite. In respect to this whole
+range of practical printing subjects we want to know just what practice
+is the best and by what percentage of superiority. This quantitative
+element in the solution is of great importance, for when rival
+considerations, the esthetic, the economic, for instance, plead for one
+choice as against another, we shall know just how much sacrifice of
+utility is involved. The tests for which we look to science cover
+everything that goes to make up the physical side of the book. The tests
+themselves, however, are psychological, for the book makes its appeal to
+the mind through one of the senses, that of sight, and therefore its
+adaptedness to the manifold peculiarities of human vision must be the
+final criterion of its utility.
+
+Beginning with the material basis of the book--paper--most readers are
+sure that both eggshell and glaze finish are a hindrance to easy reading
+and even hurtful to the eyes; but which is worse and how much? Is there
+any difference as regards legibility between antique and medium plate
+finish, and which is better and by what percentage? In regard to the
+color as well as the surface of paper we are largely at sea. We realize
+that contrast between paper and ink is necessary, but is the greatest
+contrast the best? Is the blackest black on the whitest white better,
+for instance, than blue-black on buff-white, and how much? Is white on
+black not better than black on white, and, if so, in what exact degree?
+Or is the real solution to be found in some other color contrast as yet
+untried? The very mention of some of these possibilities shocks our
+prejudices and stirs our conservatism to revolt in advance; yet, with or
+against our will, we may be perfectly sure that the changes which
+science finally pronounces imperative will be made.
+
+Who can tell what is the normal length of line for legibility, or
+whether there is one, and whether there is an ideal size of type, or
+what it is? Are the newspapers, for instance, right as to length of line
+and the books as to size of type, as many suppose? Has each size of type
+a length of line normal to it? How is this affected by leading, or is
+leading merely of imaginary value? Is large type desirable for the
+schoolbooks of the youngest children, and may the type be made smaller,
+down to a certain limit, without harm, as the children grow older, or is
+there one ideal size for all ages? It is frankly recognized that in
+certain works, like editions of the poets, legibility may properly be
+sacrificed in some degree to beauty, and in certain reference works,
+again, to economy of space; but we should like to know, as we do not now
+with any exactness, what amount of legibility is surrendered.
+
+It is easy, however, to see that one great battleground of controversy
+in any suggested reforms must be the design of the type itself. Here,
+fortunately, the English public starts with a great advantage. We have
+thrown overboard our old black letter with its dazzling contrasts of
+shading and its fussy ornament, and therefore can begin where the
+Germans must some day leave off. We have no accents or other diacritical
+marks, and in this respect are superior to the French also. We start
+with a fairly extended and distinct letter like Caslon for our norm, but
+even so the problem is in the highest degree complex and baffling.
+First, accepting the traditional forms of the letters, we must determine
+whether light or heavy, even or shaded, condensed or extended letters
+are the more legible, and always in what proportion. We shall then be in
+a position to decide the relative standing of the various commercial
+types, if such we find, that fairly well meet the conditions. It will
+also be obvious what changes can be introduced to improve the types that
+stand highest. By and by the limit of improvement will be reached under
+the traditional forms of the letters. It will next be the task of
+science to show by what modifications or substitutions the poorest
+letters, such as s z e a x o can be brought up to the visibility of the
+best letters, such as m w d j l p. Some of these changes may be slight,
+such as shortening the overhang of the a and slanting the bar of the e,
+while others may involve forms that are practically new. It is worth
+remembering at this point that while our capital letters are strictly
+Roman, our small or lowercase letters came into being during the middle
+ages, and many of them would not be recognized by an ancient Roman as
+having any relation to his alphabet. They therefore belong to the modern
+world and can be altered without sacrilege.
+
+There will remain other problems to be solved, such as the use of
+capitals at all; punctuation, whether to keep our present practice or to
+devise a better; the use of spacing between paragraphs, words, and even
+letters; besides numerous problems now hardly guessed. Many of the
+conclusions of science will be openly challenged, but such opposition is
+easiest to overcome. Harder to meet will be the opposition of prejudice,
+one of whose favorite weapons is always ridicule. But the results of
+science in the field of printing, as in every other, are sure to make
+their way into practice, and here their beneficent effect in the relief
+of eye strain and its consequent nervous wear and in the saving of time
+is beyond our present power to calculate or even imagine. The world at
+the end of the twentieth century will be a different world from this, a
+far better world, we trust; and one of the potent influences in bringing
+about that improvement will then be traced, we are confident, to the
+fact that, near the beginning of the century, science was called in to
+solve those problems of the book that belong to the laboratory rather
+than to the printing office.
+
+
+
+
+TYPES AND EYES: THE PROBLEM
+
+
+Our modern world submits with an ill grace to the nuisance of
+spectacles, but flatters itself that after all they afford a measure of
+civilization. Thirty-five years ago Dr. Émile Javal, a Parisian oculist,
+contested this self-complacent inference, believing the terrible
+increase of near sight among school children to be due rather to a
+defect than to an excess of civilization. He conceived that the trouble
+must lie in the material set for the eye to work upon, namely, the
+printed page. He therefore instituted a series of experiments to
+discover its defects from the point of view of hygiene. Being an
+oculist, he naturally adopted the test of distance to determine the
+legibility of single letters at the limit of vision, and he employed the
+oculist's special type. His conclusions cover a wide range. He decided
+that paper with a slightly buff tint printed with an ink tinged with
+blue was the most agreeable combination for the eye, though in absolute
+clearness nothing can surpass the contrast of black upon white. He held
+that leading is no advantage to clearness, and that it would be better
+to print the same words on the page in a larger type unleaded. He found
+the current type too condensed; this is particularly a fault of French
+type. But he favored spacing between the letters of a word, a conclusion
+in which he has not been followed by later investigators. He found
+shaded type a disadvantage and advocated a fairly black type in which
+all the lines are of uniform thickness. But most interesting are his
+conclusions regarding the letters themselves. He found that the eye in
+reading follows a horizontal line which cuts the words just below the
+tops of the short letters, the parts of the letters being indistinct in
+proportion as they are distant from this line. It is chiefly by their
+individuality on this line that letters acquire distinctness. But just
+here he found that an unfortunate tendency towards uniformity had been
+at work, flattening the rounded letters and rounding the square letters.
+In a series of articles he gives exhaustive studies of the various
+letters, their characteristics, and their possible reform.
+
+[Illustration: These ten-point lines in Della Robbia of the American
+Type Founders Company include the principal elements of reform advocated
+by Dr. Javal, as well as others mentioned below]
+
+A few years later Dr. Cattell, now a professor in Columbia, but then an
+investigator in Wundt's psychological laboratory in Leipsic, made a
+series of studies on brain and eye inertia in the recognition of
+letters. Like Dr. Javal he found some alphabets harder to see than
+others and the letters of the same alphabet different in legibility. He
+saw no advantage in having a mixture of capital and small letters. He
+condemned shading in types and opposed all ornament as an element of
+confusion. He regarded punctuation marks as hard to see and proposed
+that they should be displaced, or at least supplemented, by spaces
+between the words corresponding to the pause in the thought or the
+utterance.
+
+He tested the letters by their legibility when seen for a small fraction
+of a second through a narrow slit in a falling screen. Beginning with
+the capitals, he found that out of two hundred and seventy trials for
+each letter, W was recognized two hundred and forty-one times and E only
+sixty-three times, the former being much more distinct and the latter
+much less distinct than any other. Some letters, like S and C, were
+found hard to recognize in themselves, and certain groups of letters,
+such as O, Q, G, and C, were constantly confused with one another. Said
+Dr. Cattell, "If I should give the probable time wasted each day through
+a single letter, as E, being needlessly illegible, it would seem almost
+incredible; and, if we could calculate the necessary strain put upon eye
+and brain, it would be still more appalling."
+
+In regard to the small letters he found a like difference in legibility.
+Out of one hundred trials d was read correctly eighty-seven times, s
+only twenty-eight times. He found s, g, c, and x particularly hard to
+recognize by reason of their form; and certain pairs and groups were
+sources of confusion. The group of slim letters, i, j, l, f, t, is an
+instance. He suggested that a new form of l, perhaps the Greek [Greek:
+l], should be adopted; and he advocated the dropping of the dot from the
+i, as in Greek. He made experiments upon the German as well as the Roman
+alphabet, but he found the former so bad that he could only advise
+giving it up altogether.
+
+Somewhat later, in 1888, Mr. E. C. Sanford, now president of Clark
+College, published in the "American Journal of Psychology" an exhaustive
+study on "The Relative Legibility of the Small Letters." He studied
+simply the letter forms, to determine the order of legibility in the
+alphabet and the groups most liable to confusion, in order to discover
+what letters most need improvement and upon what clearness depends. He
+too employed a special type. He found the order under the distance test
+to be w m q p v y j f h r d g k b x l n u a t i z o c s e, and the order
+under the time test m w d q v y j p k f b l i g h r x t o u a n e s c z.
+It will be noticed that of the seven letters most largely represented in
+a full font of type, e t a i n o s, all fall in the last third of one or
+the other of these two groups, four are there in both groups, while e,
+the letter used most of all, stands at the very foot of the list in the
+distance group. Could there be any clearer call for the reform of our
+letters?
+
+Mr. Sanford enters at length into the question of the points that help
+and hinder legibility and that should therefore be considered in
+reforming the shapes of letters. Enlargement of size and increase of
+differences are obvious aids to clearness. Simplicity of outline and
+concentration of peculiarity upon one feature are important elements of
+legibility. Even a letter of small size, like v, is brought into the
+first group by a combination of these two qualities. Serifs are
+necessary to prevent irradiation, or an overflowing of the white on the
+black, but they should be stubby; if long, they take on the character of
+ornament and become confusing. The letters g and a are complicated
+without being distinctive and are therefore continually confused with
+other letters. The c e o group of much used letters can be made less
+liable to confusion if the gap on the right of the first two letters is
+made wider and the line of the e slants downward as in Jenson. Another
+group, a n u, are confused together. To avoid this the top and bottom
+openings of n and u should be made as open as possible and the a should
+go back to the old script form =a= as in the Humanistic type. The letter s
+is a source of great difficulty, being either not recognized at all in
+the tests or confused with other letters. It will be remembered that
+Franklin greatly deprecated the giving up of the long f, and a return to
+this form is now suggested, care being taken, of course, to
+differentiate it from f, especially by carrying it below the line. The
+dot of the i is of no use when the letter stands alone, but it is an
+important element of distinctness in words like "minim." The dot, as Dr.
+Javal suggests, should be set on a level with the top of the l rather
+than on a level with the top of the t. A reduction of serifs would
+lessen the confusion of x and z and of s and z.
+
+But it is unnecessary to trace these studies in all their minutiae. In
+the twenty-eight years that have followed the appearance of Mr.
+Sanford's article work along the same lines has been done by many
+investigators in various countries. Some of the conclusions that we have
+noticed have been sustained, others have been discredited. The most
+important conclusions of the investigators down to 1908 will be found
+scattered through the pages of Huey's "Psychology and Pedagogy of
+Reading," which appeared in that year. Such matters as the normal length
+of a line of print, the size of type appropriate to schoolbooks for
+children of different ages, the possibilities of future type design with
+reference solely to the reader's needs, are among the many subjects
+there set forth in an interesting fashion.
+
+In all these studies one obvious subject of investigation appears to
+have been overlooked, and that is the actual types of everyday print. Do
+they vary greatly in legibility? Are some of them so bad that they ought
+to be rejected _in toto_? On the other hand, have the designers of
+certain types attained by instinct or by happy accident a degree of
+legibility that approximates the best to be hoped for? If so, can we
+trace the direction to be followed in seeking further improvement? To
+answer these questions an extended investigation was undertaken at Clark
+University in 1911 by Miss Barbara Elizabeth Roethlein under the
+direction of Professor John Wallace Baird. Her results were published by
+Clark University Library in January, 1912, under the title "The Relative
+Legibility of Different Faces of Printing Types." The pamphlet abounds
+in tables made clear by the use of the very types under consideration.
+The following are the conclusions reached:
+
+     1. Certain faces of type are much more legible than other
+     faces; and certain letters of every face are much more
+     legible than other letters of the same face.
+
+     2. These differences in legibility prove to be greater when
+     letters are presented in isolation from one another than
+     when they are presented in groups.
+
+     3. Legibility is a product of six factors: (1) the form of
+     the letter; (2) the size of the letter; (3) the heaviness of
+     the face of the letter (the thickness of the lines which
+     constitute the letter); (4) the width of the white margin
+     which surrounds the letter; (5) the position of the letter
+     in the letter group; (6) the shape and size of the adjacent
+     letters. In our experiments the first factor seemed to be
+     less significant than any of the other five; that is, in the
+     type-faces which were employed in the present investigation
+     the form of any given letter of the alphabet usually varied
+     between such narrow limits as to constitute a relatively
+     insignificant factor in the determination of its legibility.
+
+     4. The relatively heavy-faced types prove to be more legible
+     than the light-faced types. The optimal heaviness of face
+     seems to lie in a mean between the bold faces and such light
+     faces as Scotch Roman and Cushing Monotone.
+
+     5. The initial position in a group of letters is the most
+     advantageous position for legibility; the final position
+     comes next in order of advantage; and the intermediate or
+     internal positions are least favorable for legibility.
+
+     6. The size and the form of the letters which stand adjacent
+     to any given letter play an important role in determining
+     its legibility; and the misreadings which occur in the case
+     of grouped letters are of a wholly different sort from those
+     which occur in the case of isolated letters. When letters of
+     the same height or of similar form appear side by side, they
+     become relatively illegible. But the juxtaposition of an
+     ascender, a descender and a short letter tends to improve
+     the legibility of each, as also does the juxtaposition of
+     letters which are made up wholly or chiefly of straight
+     lines and letters which are made up wholly or chiefly of
+     curved lines.
+
+     7. The quality and the texture of the paper is a much less
+     significant factor than has been supposed, provided, of
+     course, that the illumination and the inclination of the
+     paper are such as to secure an optimal condition of light
+     reflection from its surface.
+
+     8. There is an urgent need for modification of certain
+     letters of the alphabet.
+
+Contrary to previous results with special types, these tests of
+commercial types represent the capitals as more legible, by about
+one-fifth, than the lowercase letters; but, in view of the much greater
+bigness and heaviness of capitals, the earlier judgment would seem to be
+supported so far as the letter forms of the two classes are concerned.
+The order of each class, taking an average of all the faces, is as
+follows: W M L J I A T C V Q P D O Y U F H X G N Z K E R B S m w d j l p
+f q y i h g b k v r t n c u o x a e z s. Considering only the lowercase
+letters, which represent nine-tenths of the print that meets the eye, we
+still have four of the most used letters, s e a o, in the lowest fourth
+of the group, while s in both sizes of type and in all faces stands at
+the bottom. The average legibility of the best and worst is: W, 300.2;
+S, 205.7; m, 296.8; s, 152.6.
+
+The tests were by distance; the letters were all ten-point of the
+various faces; and the figures represent the distance in centimeters at
+which the letters were recognized. There is a satisfaction in being
+assured that the range between the best and the worst is not so great as
+had been estimated previously, the proportion being in the one case not
+quite 3:2 and in the other not quite 3:1.5. The following twenty-six
+widely different faces of type were studied:
+
+  American Typewriter
+  Bold Antique
+  Bulfinch
+  Caslon Oldstyle No. 540
+  Century Oldstyle
+  Century Oldstyle, Bold
+  Century Expanded
+  Cheltenham Oldstyle
+  Cheltenham Bold
+  Cheltenham Bold, Condensed
+  Cheltenham Italic
+  Cheltenham Wide
+  Clearface
+  Clearface Italic
+  Clearface Bold
+  Clearface Bold Italic
+  Cushing No. 2
+  Cushing Oldstyle No. 2
+  Cushing Monotone
+  Della Robbia
+  DeVinne No. 2
+  DeVinne No. 2, Italic
+  Franklin Gothic
+  Jenson Oldstyle No. 2
+  News Gothic
+  Ronaldson Oldstyle No. 551
+
+Of these, omitting the boldface and italic types, as well as all
+capitals, the six best text types, ranging in average distance of
+recognition from 236.4 to 224.3, are News Gothic, Bulfinch, Clearface,
+Century Oldstyle, Century Expanded, and Cheltenham Wide. The six worst,
+ranging from 206.4 to 185.6, are Cheltenham Oldstyle, DeVinne No. 2,
+American Typewriter, Caslon Oldstyle, Cushing Monotone, and Cushing No.
+2. The author says, commenting on these findings:
+
+     If legibility is to be our sole criterion of excellence of
+     typeface, News Gothic must be regarded as our nearest
+     approximation to an ideal face, in so far as the present
+     investigation is able to decide this question. The esthetic
+     factor must always be taken into account, however, here as
+     elsewhere. And the reader who prefers the appearance of
+     Cushing Oldstyle or a Century face may gratify his esthetic
+     demands without any considerable sacrifice of legibility.
+
+To what extent these conclusions may be modified by future experiments
+it is, of course, impossible to predict, but they clearly point the way
+towards definiteness and boldness in the design of types as well as to a
+preference for the larger sizes in their use. All this, as we shall see
+in the next chapter, is in harmony with what experience has been
+gradually confirming in the practice of the last generation.
+
+
+
+
+TYPES AND EYES: PROGRESS
+
+
+The late John Bartlett, whose "Familiar Quotations" have encircled the
+globe, once remarked to a youthful visitor that it was a source of great
+comfort to him that in collecting books in his earlier years he had
+chosen editions printed in large type, "for now," he said, "I am able to
+read them." The fading eyesight of old age does not necessarily set the
+norm of print; but this is certain, that what age reads without
+difficulty youth will read without strain, and in view of the excessive
+burden put upon the eyes by the demands of modern life, it may be worth
+while to consider whether it is not wise to err on the safer side as
+regards the size of type, even by an ample margin.
+
+It is now some thirty-five years since the first scientific experiments
+upon the relations of type to vision were made in France and Germany. It
+was peculiarly fitting, we may remark, that the investigation should
+have started in those two countries, for the German alphabet is
+notoriously hard on the eyes, and the French alphabet is encumbered with
+accents, which form an integral part of the written word, and yet are
+always minute and in poor print exceedingly hard to distinguish. The
+result of the investigation was a vigorous disapproval of the German
+type itself and of the French accents and the favorite style of letter
+in France, the condensed. It was pointed out that progress in type
+design towards the hygienic ideal must follow the direction of
+simplicity, uniformity, and relative heaviness of line, with wide
+letters and short descenders, all in type of sufficient size for easy
+reading. In the generation that has succeeded these experiments have we
+made any progress in adapting print to eyes along the lines of these
+conclusions?
+
+The printer might well offer in proof of such progress the page in which
+these words are presented to the reader. In the four and a half
+centuries of printing, pages of equal clearness and beauty may be found
+if one knows just where to look for them, but the later examples all
+fall within the period that we are discussing. It may be objected that
+this is the luxury of printing, not its everyday necessity, and this
+objection must be allowed; but luxuries are a powerful factor in
+elevating the standard of living, and this is as true of print as of
+food and dress. It must be confessed that an unforeseen influence made
+itself felt early in the generation under discussion, that of William
+Morris and his Kelmscott Press. Morris's types began and ended in the
+Gothic or Germanic spirit, and their excellence lies rather in the
+beauty of each single letter than in the effective mass-play of the
+letters in words. Kelmscott books, therefore, in spite of their
+decorative beauty, are not easy reading. In this respect they differ
+greatly from those of Bodoni,[4] whose types to Morris and his followers
+appeared weak and ugly. Bodoni's letters play together with perfect
+accord, and his pages, as a whole, possess a statuesque if not a
+decorative beauty. If the reader is not satisfied with the testimony of
+the page now before him, let him turn to the Bodoni Horace of 1791, in
+folio, where, in addition to the noble roman text of the poems, he will
+find an extremely clear and interesting italic employed in the preface,
+virtually a "library hand" script. But no force has told more powerfully
+for clearness and strength in types than the influence of Morris, and if
+he had done only this for printing he would have earned our lasting
+gratitude.
+
+Morris held that no type smaller than long primer should ever be
+employed in a book intended for continuous reading; and here again, in
+size of type as distinguished from its cut, he made himself an exponent
+of one of the great forward movements that have so happily characterized
+the recent development of printing. Go to any public library and look at
+the novels issued from 1850 to 1880. Unless your memory is clear on this
+point, you will be amazed to see what small print certain publishers
+inflicted with apparent impunity on their patrons during this period.
+The practice extended to editions of popular authors like Dickens and
+Thackeray, editions that now find no readers, or find them only among
+the nearsighted.
+
+The cheap editions of the present day, on the contrary, may be poor in
+paper and perhaps in presswork, they may be printed from worn plates,
+but in size and even in cut of type they are generally irreproachable.
+As regards nearsighted readers, it is well known that they prefer fine
+type to coarse, choosing, for instance, a Bible printed in diamond, and
+finding it clear and easy to read, while they can hardly read pica at
+all. This fact, in connection with the former tolerance of fine print,
+raises the question whether the world was not more nearsighted two
+generations ago than it is now; or does this only mean that the oculist
+is abroad in the land?
+
+It is recognized that, in books not intended for continuous reading,
+small and even fine type may properly be employed. That miracle of
+encyclopedic information, the World Almanac, while it might be printed
+better and on a higher quality of paper, could not be the handy
+reference book that it is without the use of a type that would be
+intolerably small in a novel or a history. With the increase of the
+length of continuous use for which the book is intended, the size of the
+type should increase up to a certain point. Above eleven-point, or small
+pica, however, increase in the size of type becomes a matter not of
+hygiene, but simply of esthetics. But below the normal the printer's
+motto should be: In case of doubt choose the larger type.
+
+A development of public taste that is in line with this argument is the
+passing of the large-paper edition. It was always an anomaly; but our
+fathers did not stop to reason that, if a page has the right proportions
+at the start, mere increase of margin cannot enhance its beauty or
+dignity. At most it can only lend it a somewhat deceptive appearance of
+costliness, with which was usually coupled whatever attraction there
+might be in the restriction of this special edition to a very few
+copies. So they paid many dollars a pound for mere blank paper and
+fancied that they were getting their money's worth. The most
+inappropriate books were put out in large paper, Webster's Unabridged
+Dictionary, for instance. At the other extreme of size may be cited the
+Pickering diamond classics, also in a large-paper edition, pretty,
+dainty little books, with their Lilliputian character only emphasized by
+their excess of white paper. But their print is too fine to read, and
+their margins are out of proportion to the printed page. Though their
+type is small, they by no means exhibit the miracle of the books printed
+in Didot's "microscopic" type, and they represent effort in a direction
+that has no meaning for bookmaking, but remains a mere _tour de force_.
+Quite different is the case with the Oxford miniature editions, of the
+same size outwardly as the large-paper editions of the Pickering
+diamond classics; these are modern miracles, for with all their
+"infinite riches in a little room," they are distinctly legible.
+
+As regards the design of type, the recent decades have given us our
+choice among type-faces at once so beautiful and so clear as the Century
+Oldstyle, Century Expanded, and Cheltenham Wide. To those should be
+added Mr. Goudy's virile Kennerley. Still later have appeared, in direct
+descent from one of Jenson's type-faces, Cloister and Centaur, two of
+the most beautiful types of any age or country, and both, if we may
+judge by comparison with the types approved by the Clark University
+experiments, also among the most legible. Fortunately in type design
+there is no essential conflict between beauty and use, but rather a
+natural harmony. Already a high degree of legibility has been attained
+without sacrifice; the future is full of promise.
+
+In respect to books, we may congratulate ourselves that printing has
+made real progress in the last generation towards meeting the primary
+demand of legibility. The form of print, however, which is read by the
+greatest number of eyes, the newspaper, shows much less advance. Yet
+newspapers have improved in presswork, and the typesetting machines have
+removed the evil of worn type. Moreover, a new element has come to the
+front that played a much more subordinate part three or four decades
+ago--the headline. "Let me write the headlines of a people," said the
+late Henry D. Lloyd to the writer, "and I care not who makes its laws."
+It is the staring headlines that form the staple of the busy man's
+newspaper reading, and they are certainly hygienic for the eyes if not
+always for the mind. While the trend towards larger and clearer type
+has gone on chiefly without the consciousness of the public, it has not
+been merely a reform imposed from without. The public prefers readable
+print, demands it, and is ready to pay for it. The magazines have long
+recognized this phase of public taste. When the newspapers have done the
+same, the eyes of coming generations will be relieved of a strain that
+can only be realized by those who in that day shall turn as a matter of
+antiquarian curiosity to the torturing fine print that so thickly beset
+the pathway of knowledge from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century,
+and, in the twentieth, overthrown in the field of books and magazines,
+made its last, wavering stand in the newspapers.
+
+
+
+
+EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULE OF LEGIBILITY
+
+
+Since print is meant primarily to be read, the first law of its being is
+legibility. As a general principle this must be accepted, but in the
+application certain important reservations must be made, all relating
+themselves to the question _how_ the print is to be read. For
+straightaway, long-time reading, or for reading in which the aim is to
+get at the words of the author with the least hindrance, the law of
+legibility holds to its full extent--is, in fact, an axiom; but not all
+reading is long-continued, and not all is apart from considerations
+other than instantaneous contact with the author's thought through his
+words. It is these two classes of exceptions that we have now to
+consider.
+
+Let us begin with an example outside the field of typography. On the
+first issue of the Lincoln cent were various sizes of lettering, the
+largest being devoted to the words which denote the value of the coin,
+and the smallest, quite undistinguishable in ordinary handling, to the
+initials of the designer, afterwards discarded. Obviously these sizes
+were chosen with reference to their power to attract attention; in the
+one case an excess of legibility and in the other case, quite as
+properly, its deficiency. Thus, what is not designed for the cursory
+reader's eye, but serves only as a record to be consulted by those who
+are specially interested in it, may, with propriety, be made so
+inconspicuous as to be legible only by a distinct effort. Cases in
+everyday typography are the signatures of books and the cabalistic
+symbols that indicate to the newspaper counting room the standing of
+advertisements. Both are customarily rendered inconspicuous through
+obscure position, and if to this be added the relative illegibility of
+fine type, the average reader will not complain, for all will escape his
+notice.
+
+Again, we may say that what is not intended for ordinary continuous
+reading may, without criticism, be consigned to type below normal size.
+Certain classes of books that are intended only for brief consultation
+come under this head, the best examples being encyclopedias,
+dictionaries, and almanacs. As compactness is one of their prime
+requisites, it is a mistake to put them into type even comfortably
+large. The reader opens them only for momentary reference, and he can
+well afford to sacrifice a certain degree of legibility to handiness.
+The Encyclopædia Britannica is a classic instance of a work made bulky
+by type unnecessarily coarse for its purpose; the later, amazingly
+clear, photographic reduction of the Britannica volumes is a recognition
+of this initial mistake. The Century and Oxford dictionaries, on the
+other hand, are splendid examples of the judicious employment of fine
+print for the purpose both of condensation and the gradation of
+emphasis. One has only to contrast with these a similar work in uniform
+type, such as Littré's Dictionnaire, to appreciate their superiority for
+ready reference.
+
+The departure from legibility that we have thus far considered has
+related to the size of the letters. Another equally marked departure is
+possible in respect to their shape. In business printing, especially in
+newspaper advertisements, men are sometimes tempted to gain amount at
+the risk of undue fineness of type. But no advertiser who counts the
+cost will take the chance of rendering his announcement unreadable by
+the use of ornamental or otherwise imperfectly legible letters. He sets
+no value upon the form save as a carrier of substance. In works of
+literature, on the contrary, form may take on an importance of its own;
+it may even be made tributary to the substance at some cost to
+legibility.
+
+In this field there is room for type the chief merit of which is apart
+from its legibility. In other words, there is and always will be a place
+for beauty in typography, even though it involve a certain loss of
+clearness. As related to the total bulk of printing, works of this class
+never can amount to more than a fraction of one per cent. But their
+proportion in the library of a cultivated man would be vastly greater,
+possibly as high as fifty per cent. In such works the esthetic sense
+demands not merely that the type be a carrier of the alphabet, but also
+that it interpret or at least harmonize with the subject-matter. Who
+ever saw Mr. Updike's specimen pages for an edition of the "Imitatio
+Christi," in old English type, without a desire to possess the completed
+work? Yet we have editions of the "Imitatio" that are far more legible
+and convenient. The "Prayers" of Dr. Samuel Johnson have several times
+been published in what we may call tribute typography; but no edition
+has yet attained to a degree of homage that satisfies the lovers of
+those unaffected devotional exercises.
+
+What, therefore, shall be the typography of books that we love, that we
+know by heart? In them, surely, beauty and fitness may precede
+legibility unchallenged. These are the books that we most desire and
+cherish; this is the richest field for the typographic artist, and one
+that we venture to pronounce, in spite of all that has yet been done,
+still almost untilled. Such books need not be expensive; we can imagine
+a popular series that should deserve the name of tribute typography.
+Certain recent editions of the German classics, perhaps, come nearer to
+justifying such a claim than any contemporary British or American work.
+In more expensive publications some of Mr. Mosher's work, like his
+quarto edition of Burton's "Kasîdah," merits a place in this class. A
+better known, if older, instance is the holiday edition of Longfellow's
+"Skeleton in Armor." Who would not rather read the poem in this Old
+English type than in any Roman type in which it has ever been printed?
+The work of the Kelmscott Press obviously falls within this class.
+
+The truth is, there is a large body of favorite literature which we are
+glad to be made to linger over, to have, in its perusal, a brake put
+upon the speed of our reading; and in no way can this be done so
+agreeably as by a typography that possesses a charm of its own to arrest
+the eye. Such a delay increases while it prolongs the pleasure of our
+reading. The typography becomes not only a frame to heighten the beauty
+of the picture, but also a spell to lengthen our enjoyment of it. It
+cannot be expected that the use of impressive type will be confined to
+literature. That worthiest use will find the field already invaded by
+pamphlet and leaflet advertisements, and this invasion is certain to
+increase as the public taste becomes trained to types that make an
+esthetic appeal of their own.
+
+Ordinary type is the result of an attempt to combine with legibility an
+all-round fitness of expression. But that very universality robs it of
+special appropriateness for works of a strongly marked character. It is
+impossible to have a new type designed for every new work, but classes
+of types are feasible, each adapted to a special class of literature.
+Already there is a tendency to seek for poetry a type that is at least
+removed from the commonplace. But hitherto the recognition of this
+principle has been only occasional and haphazard. Where much is to be
+gained much also can be lost, and interpretative or expressional
+typography that misses the mark may easily be of a kind to make the
+judicious grieve. But the rewards of success warrant the risk. The most
+beautiful of recent types, the New Humanistic, designed for The
+University Press, has hardly yet been used. Let us hope that it may soon
+find its wider mission so successfully as to furnish an ideal
+confirmation of the principle that we have here been seeking to
+establish.
+
+
+
+
+THE STUDENT AND THE LIBRARY
+
+
+What does a student of five and twenty years ago still remember of his
+college? My own first and fondest recollection is of the walks and
+talks, _noctes coenaeque deum_, with loved and honored companions, in
+the bonds of a friendship that can be realized only in youth, under the
+inspiration of a common intellectual purpose, and, one is tempted to
+add, in the atmosphere of college halls; next arise golden hours passed
+in the library; and lastly there come back other hours, not always
+golden, spent in the classroom. This is, of course, only to enumerate
+the three influences that are, or should be, strongest in a student's
+life: the society of his fellows, his private reading, and his studies.
+Of these three factors of culture the first and the last are fairly
+constant, but the second is apt to vary in the experience of any small
+group of students from the foremost place, as in the case of John Hay,
+to no place at all. It is of this varying element in the student's
+conduct of life that I have undertaken to write.
+
+Unless student intercourse has an intellectual basis, such as reading
+furnishes, it has nothing to distinguish it from any other good
+fellowship and can hardly escape triviality. The little groups of
+students at Cambridge which included such members as the three
+Tennysons, Hallam, Spedding, Fitzgerald, and Thackeray, while they were
+no doubt jovial enough, were first of all intellectual associations,
+where
+
+    Thought leapt out to wed with Thought
+    Ere Thought could wed itself with Speech.
+
+In such companionship men not only share and correct the culture which
+they have acquired in private, but they are stimulated to higher and
+wider attainment. The classroom at its best is hardly equal to a good
+book; from its very nature it must address an abstract average rather
+than the individual, while a good book startles us with the intimacy of
+its revelation to ourselves. The student goes to college to study; he
+has his name thence. But while the classroom is busied, patiently,
+sedulously doling him out silver, he discovers that there is gold lying
+all around, which he may take without asking. Twenty-five years after he
+finds that the silver has grown black with rust, while the gold shines
+on untarnished. Librarians are often besought for a guide in reading, a
+set of rules, a list of books. But what is really needed, and what no
+mentor can give, is a hunger and thirst after what is in books; and this
+the student must acquire for himself or forego the blessing. Culture
+cannot be vicarious. This is not to say that a list of books may not be
+useful, or that one set of books is as good as another, but only that
+reading is the thing, and, given the impulse to read, the how and the
+what can be added unto it; but without this energizing motive, no amount
+of opportunity or nurture will avail.
+
+But, having not the desire to read, but only a sense that he ought to
+have it, what shall a student do? I will suggest three practicable
+courses from which a selection may be made according to the needs of the
+individual. The first is to sit down and take account of stock, to map
+out one's knowledge, one's previous reading, and so find the inner
+boundaries of the vast region yet to be explored. This process can
+hardly fail to suggest not merely one point of departure, but many. The
+second method is, without even so much casting about, to set forth in
+any direction, take the first attractive unread book at hand, and let
+that lead to others. The third course is intended for the student whose
+previous reading has been so scanty and so perfunctory as to afford him
+no outlook into literature, a case, which, it is to be feared, is only
+too common. We will consider this method first. Obviously such a student
+must be furnished with a guide, one who shall set his feet in the right
+paths, give him his bearings in literature, and inspire him with a love
+for the beauty and grandeur of the scenery disclosed, so that he shall
+become not only able to make the rest of his journey alone, but eager to
+set out.
+
+Where shall the student find such a guide? There are many and good at
+hand, yet perhaps the best are not the professional ones, but rather
+those who give us merely a delightful companionship and invite us to
+share their own favorite walks in Bookland. Such a choice companion, to
+name but one, awaits the student in Hazlitt's "Lectures on the English
+Poets." Of the author himself Charles Lamb says: "I never slackened in
+my admiration of him; and I think I shall go to my grave without
+finding, or expecting to find, such another companion." And of his books
+Stevenson confesses: "We are mighty fine fellows, but we cannot write
+like William Hazlitt." In this little volume which the most hard-pressed
+student can read and ponder in the leisure moments of a single term, the
+reader is introduced at once into the wonderland of our English
+literature, which he is made to realize at the outset is an indivisible
+portion of the greater territory of the literature of the world.
+
+Hazlitt begins with a discussion of poetry in general, shows what poetry
+is, how its various forms move us, and how it differs from its next of
+kin, such as eloquence and romance. He then takes up the poetry of
+Homer, the Bible, Dante, and Ossian, and sets forth the characteristics
+of each. In his chapter on our first two great poets, Chaucer and
+Spenser, he points out the great and contrasted merits of these two
+writers who have so little in common except a superficial resemblance in
+language. Hazlitt is fond of presenting his authors to us in pairs or
+groups. His next chapter is devoted to Shakespeare and Milton; and we
+may remark that, while the student is in no danger of forgetting the
+existence of Shakespeare, he is likely to need just such a tribute to
+the greatness of Milton as the critic here presents. The volume contains
+later chapters of great interest on Milton's "Lycidas" and "Eve." It is
+not necessary for us to mention here all the subjects treated; Dryden
+and Pope, Thomson and Cowper, Burns and the Old English Ballads are
+among them. In every case we are not tantalized with mere estimates and
+characterizations, but are furnished with illustrative specimens of the
+poems discussed. But the initiation into English literature which we
+receive from Hazlitt does not end with the authors of whom he treats
+directly. Resuming our figure of a landscape, we may say that he takes
+us through a thousand bypaths into charming nooks and upon delightful
+prospects of which he has made no announcement beforehand.
+
+I spoke of reading and pondering his book in a single college term. But,
+while this may easily be done, it will be far more profitable for the
+student, as soon as he feels drawn away from the volume to some author
+whom it presents, to lay it aside and make an excursion of his own into
+literature. Then let him take up the volume again and go on with it
+until the critic's praise of the "Faerie Queene," or the "Rape of the
+Lock," or the "Castle of Indolence" again draws his attention off the
+essay to the poem itself. And as one poem and one author will lead to
+another, the volume with which the student set out will thus gradually
+fulfill its highest mission by inspiring and training its reader to do
+without it. If the student has access to the shelves of a large library,
+the very handling of the books in their groups will bring him into
+contact with other books which he will be attracted to and will dip into
+and read. In fact it should not be long before he finds his problem to
+be, not what to read, but what to resist reading.
+
+Suppose, however, that the student finds himself already possessed of a
+vague, general knowledge of literature, but nothing definite or
+satisfying, nothing that inspires interest. He it is who may profitably
+take up the first attractive unread book at hand; but he should endeavor
+to read it, not as an isolated fragment of literature, but in its
+relations. Suppose the book happens to be "Don Quixote." This is a work
+written primarily to amuse. But if the reader throws himself into the
+spirit of the book, he will not be content, for instance, with the mere
+mention of the romances of chivalry which turned the poor knight's
+brain. He will want to read about them and to read some of them
+actually. He will be curious as to Charlemagne and his peers, Arthur and
+his knights, and will seek to know their true as well as their fabulous
+history. Then he will wonder who the Moors were, why they were banished,
+and what was the result to Spain of this act in which even his liberal
+and kindly author acquiesced. He will ask if antiquity had its romances
+and if any later novelists were indebted to Cervantes. The answer to the
+last query will bring him to Gil Blas in French literature and to the
+works of the great English romancers of the eighteenth century. Fielding
+will lead him to Thackeray, Smollett to Dickens, Dickens to Bret Harte,
+and Bret Harte to Kipling. If he reads Cervantes in English, he will
+have a choice of translations, and he will not fail to mark the
+enormous difference in language, literary style, and ideals of rendering
+between the three versions of Shelton in the seventeenth century,
+Motteux in the eighteenth, and Ormsby in the nineteenth. If, like many
+another, he becomes so interested in the great romance as to learn
+Spanish for the sake of coming into direct communication with his
+author, a whole new literature will be opened to him. Furthermore, in
+the cognate languages which a mastery of Spanish will make easy for him,
+a group of literatures will be placed at his command; and, while he
+began with Cervantes, who threw open for him the portals of the middle
+ages, we may leave him with Dante, looking before and after over all
+human achievement and destiny.
+
+All this the student will not do in one term nor in one year, but he
+will have _found himself_ in the library, he will have acquired a bond
+to culture that will not break as he steps out of his last recitation,
+that will not yield when time and distance have relegated his college
+friendships, with his lost youth, to the Eden or the Avilion of memory.
+And if afterwards he comes, with Emerson, to find the chief value of his
+college training in the ability it has given him to recognize its little
+avail, he will thus disparage it only in the spirit in which a more
+advanced student of an earlier day, looking back upon the stupendous
+revelations of his "Principia," likened them to so many pebbles or
+shells picked up on the shore of the illimitable ocean of knowledge.
+
+
+
+
+ORTHOGRAPHIC REFORM
+
+
+Seldom have controversies brought out so much humor, on both sides, as
+that over the reform of English spelling, and few have excited so little
+interest in proportion to the energy expended. Both these results are
+due perhaps to the fact that the subject, from its very nature, does not
+admit of being made a burning question. Yet one has to look only a
+little way into it to see that important interests--educational,
+commercial, and possibly racial--are involved. Thus far the champions
+have been chiefly the newspapers for spelling as it is, and scholars and
+educators for spelling as it ought to be. But, in spite of the
+intelligence of the disputants, the discussion has been singularly
+insular and deficient in perspective. It would gain greatly in
+conclusiveness if spelling and its modifications were considered broadly
+and historically, not as peculiar to English, but as common to all
+languages, and involving common problems, which we are not the first to
+grapple with, but rather seem destined to be the last to solve.
+
+As is usually the case in controversies, the chief obstacle to agreement
+is a lack of what the lawyers call a meeting of minds. The two sides are
+not talking about the same thing. The reformer has one idea of what
+spelling is; the public has another idea, which is so different that it
+robs the reformer's arguments of nearly all their force. The two ideas
+for which the same word is used are hardly more alike than mother of
+pearl and mother of vinegar. To the philologist spelling is the
+application of an alphabet to the words of a language, and an alphabet
+is merely a system of visible signs adapted to translate to the eye the
+sounds which make up the speech of the people. To the public spelling is
+part and parcel of the English language, and to tamper with it is to lay
+violent hands on the sacred ark of English literature. To the
+philologist an alphabet is not a thing in itself, but only a medium, and
+he knows many alphabets of all degrees of excellence. Among the latest
+formed is that which we use and call the Roman, but which, though it was
+taken from Italy, made its way back after a course of form development
+that carried it through Ireland, England, and Germany. This alphabet was
+originally designed for writing Latin, and, as English has more sounds
+than Latin, some of the symbols when applied to English have to do
+multiple duty; though this is the least of the complaints against our
+current spelling. In fact any inventive student of phonetics could in
+half an hour devise a better alphabet for English, and scores have been
+devised. But the Roman has the field, and no one dreams of advocating a
+new alphabet for popular use. Meanwhile, though the earliest English may
+have been written in Runic, and the Bibles which our Pilgrim fathers
+brought over were printed in Black-letter, still to the great
+English-reading public the alphabet of current books and papers is the
+only alphabet. Even this is a double alphabet, consisting as it does of
+capitals and small letters; and we have besides Italic, Black-letter,
+and Script, all in common use, all with double forms, and all differing
+greatly from one another. At best the Roman alphabet, though beautiful
+and practical, is not so beautiful as the Greek nor nearly so efficient
+for representing English sounds as the Cherokee syllabary invented by
+the half-breed, Sequoyah, is for representing the sounds of his mother
+tongue.
+
+Let us now turn from the alphabet, which is the foundation of spelling,
+to spelling itself. Given a scientific alphabet, spelling, as a problem,
+vanishes; for there is only one possible spelling for any spoken word,
+and only one possible pronunciation for any written word. Both are
+perfectly easy, for there is no choice, and no one who knows the
+alphabet can make a mistake in either. But given a traditional alphabet
+encumbered with outgrown or impracticable or blundering associations,
+and spelling may become so difficult as to serve for a test or hallmark
+of scholarship. In French, for instance, the alphabet has drifted so far
+from its moorings that no one on hearing a new word spoken, if it
+contains certain sounds, can be sure of its spelling; though every one
+on seeing a new word written knows how to pronounce it. But in English
+our alphabet has actually parted the cable which held it to speech, and
+we know neither how to write a new word when we hear it nor how to
+pronounce one when we see it. Strangest of all, we have come, in our
+English insularity, to look on this as a matter of course. But Germans
+and Spaniards, Italians and Dutchmen, have no such difficulty and never
+have to turn to the dictionary to find out how to spell a word that they
+hear or how to pronounce a word that they see. For them spelling and
+speech are identical; all they have to make sure of is the standard
+pronunciation. They have done what we have neglected to do--developed
+the alphabet into an accurate phonetic instrument, and our neglect is
+costing us, throughout the English-speaking world, merely in dealing
+with silent letters, the incredible sum of a hundred million dollars a
+year.[5] Our neighbors look after the alphabet and the spelling looks
+after itself; if the pronunciation changes, the spelling changes
+automatically, and thus keeps itself always up to date.
+
+But this happy result has not been brought about without effort, the
+same kind of effort that our reformers are now making for our benefit.
+In Swedish books printed only a hundred years ago we find words printed
+with the letters _th_ in combination, like the word _them_, which had
+the same meaning, and originally the same pronunciation, as the English
+word. At that time, however, Swedes had long ceased to be able to
+pronounce the _th_, but they kept the letters just as we still keep the
+_gh_ in _brought_ and _through_, though for centuries no one who speaks
+only standard English has been able to sound this guttural. In the last
+century the Swedes reformed their spelling, and they now write the word
+as they pronounce it--_dem_. German spelling has passed through several
+stages of reform in recent decades and is now almost perfectly phonetic.
+Germans now write _Brot_ and no longer _Brod_ or _Brodt_. It must be
+frankly confessed that the derivation of some words is not so obvious to
+the eye as formerly. The appearance of the Swedish _byrå_ does not at
+once suggest the French _bureau_, which it exactly reproduces in sound.
+But Europeans think it more practical, if they cannot indicate both
+pronunciation and etymology in spelling, to relegate the less important
+to the dictionary. Much, to be sure, has been made of the assumed
+necessity of preserving the pedigree of our words in their spelling, but
+in many cases this is not done now. Who thinks of _alms_ and
+_eleemosynary_ as coming from the same Greek word? Scholars say that a
+complete phonetic spelling of English would actually restore to the eye
+as much etymology as it took away.
+
+But the most deep-seated opposition to changing our current spelling
+arises from its association, almost identification, with English
+literature. If this objection were valid it would be final, for
+literature is the highest use of language, and if reformed spelling
+means the loss of our literature we should be foolish to submit to it.
+But at what point in the history of English literature would reformed
+spelling begin to work harm? Hardly before Shakespeare, for the spelling
+of Chaucer belongs to the grammatical stage of the language at which he
+wrote, and Spenser's spelling is more or less an imitation of it made
+with a literary purpose. Shakespeare and Milton, however, wrote
+substantially modern English, and they are therefore at the mercy of the
+spelling reformer--as they always have been. The truth is, Shakespeare's
+writings have been respelt by every generation that has reprinted them,
+and the modern spelling reformer would leave them at least as near to
+Shakespeare's spelling as our current spelling is. The poet himself made
+fun of his contemporaries who said _det_ instead of _debt_, but what
+would he say of us who continue to write the word _debt_, though it has
+not been so pronounced for three hundred years? In old editions (and how
+fast editions grow old!) antiquated spelling is no objection, it is
+rather an attraction; but new, popular editions of the classics will be
+issued in contemporary spelling so long as the preservation of metre and
+rhyme permit. We still occasionally turn to the first folio of
+Shakespeare and to the original editions of Milton's poems to enjoy
+their antique flavor, and, in the latter case, to commune not only with
+a great poet, but also with a vigorous spelling reformer. Thus, whatever
+changes come over our spelling, standard old editions will continue to
+be prized and new editions to be in demand. But for the most part,
+though we might not readily understand the actual speech of Shakespeare
+and Milton, could we hear it, we like to treat them as contemporaries
+and read their works in our everyday spelling.
+
+Our libraries, under spelling reform, will become antiquated, but only a
+little faster than they are now doing and always have done. Readers who
+care for a book over ten years old are few in number and will not mind
+antiquated spelling in the future any more than they do now. The
+printer, therefore, must not flatter himself with the prospect of a
+speedy reprinting of all the English classics in the new spelling.
+English is certain to have some day as scientific a spelling as German,
+but the change will be spread over decades and will be too gradual to
+affect business appreciably. On the other hand, he need not fear any
+loss to himself in the public's gain of the annual hundred million
+dollar tax which it now pays for the luxury of superfluous letters. Our
+printer's bills in the future will be as large as at present, but we
+shall get more for our money.
+
+It will indeed be to the English race a strange world in which the
+spelling book ends with the alphabet; in which there is no conflict of
+standards except as regards pronunciation; in which two years of a
+child's school life are rescued from the needless and applied to the
+useful; in which the stenographer has to learn not two systems of
+spelling, but only two alphabets; in which the simplicity and directness
+of the English language, which fit it to become a world language, will
+not be defeated by a spelling that equals the difficulty of German
+grammar; in which the blundering of Dutch printers, like _school_, false
+etymologies, like _rhyme_, and French garnishes, as in _tongue_, no
+longer make the judicious grieve; and in which the fatal gift of bad
+spelling, which often accompanies genius, will no longer be dependent
+upon the printer to hide its orthographic nakedness from a public which,
+if it cannot always spell correctly itself, can always be trusted to
+detect and ridicule bad spelling. But it is a world which the English
+race will some day have, and which we may begin to have here and now if
+we will.
+
+
+
+
+THE PERVERSITIES OF TYPE
+
+
+That searching analyst of the soul, Edgar Allan Poe, found among the
+springs of human nature the quality of perverseness, the disposition to
+do wrong because it is wrong; in reality, however, Poe's Imp of the
+Perverse is active far beyond the boundaries of the human soul; his
+disturbances pervade the whole world, and nowhere are they more
+noticeable than in the printing office. This is so because elsewhere,
+when things fall out contrary to rule, the result may often be neutral
+or even advantageous; but in the printing office all deviations, or all
+but a minute fraction, are wrong. They are also conspicuous, for, though
+the standard is nothing less than perfection, the ordinary human eye is
+able to apply the standard. These tricks of the malicious imp are
+commonly called "misprints," "printer's errors," "errors of the press,"
+or, more impartially, "errata" or "corrigenda." In the first three names
+there is a tinge of unfairness, because the printer is by no means
+responsible for all the mistakes that appear in type. The author is
+usually partly to blame and may be chiefly; yet when he suffers a lapse
+of memory or knowledge, he usually passes it off as a "printer's error."
+Sometimes the author's handwriting may mislead the printer, but when so
+good a biblical scholar as Mr. Gladstone wrote of _Daniel_ in the fiery
+furnace, there was no possibility that the single name could have stood
+in his manuscript for the names of the three men whose trial is
+mentioned in the _book_ of Daniel. Even here the submission of proof
+fixes the final responsibility on the author. But, quite apart from the
+responsibility for them, the mistakes embalmed in type are among the
+most interesting of all literary curiosities.
+
+Misprints--to use the handiest term--range in importance from the
+innocent and obvious, like a turned _a_, and the innocent and obvious
+only to the expert, like a turned _s_, to a turned _n_, which may be
+mistaken for a _u_, or the change or omission of a punctuation mark,
+which may involve claims to thousands of dollars. Even the separation of
+one word into two may reverse the meaning of the sentence, yet not
+betray itself by any oddity of phrase, as when the atheist who had
+asserted that "God is nowhere" found himself in print standing sponsor
+for the statement that "God is now here." The same trick of the types
+was played on an American political writer in his own paper regarding
+his pet reform, which he meant to assert was "nowhere in existence." The
+earliest printed books were intended to be undistinguishable from
+manuscripts, but occasionally a turned letter betrayed them absolutely.
+In the same way the modern newspaper now and then introduces an
+unintentional advertisement of the linotype by presenting to its readers
+a line upside down. Another trick is the mixing of two paragraphs, which
+sometimes occurs even in books. The most famous instance of this blunder
+is probably that which happened in the English "Men of the Time" for
+1856, and which led to a serious lawsuit against the publishers. The
+printer had mixed the biographies of the Bishop of Oxford and Robert
+Owen the Socialist in such a way that Bishop Wilberforce was called "a
+sceptic as it regards religious revelation." The mistake occurred in
+locking up the forms. Doubtless both biographies had been approved by
+their subjects, but apparently no proof was read after the fatal
+telescoping of the two articles.
+
+The last instance is an example of the patient waiting as much as the
+ingenuity of the Imp of the Perverse, but in pure ingenuity he is
+without a rival in mere human inventiveness. It certainly was a
+resourceful Frenchman who translated "hit or miss" as "frappé ou
+mademoiselle," and it was inspired ignorance on the part of a student
+assistant in a college library who listed "Sur l'Administration de M.
+Necker, par Lui Même" under "Même, Lui," as if it were the name of the
+author of the book instead of being the French for "himself." But the
+Imp of the Perverse aims higher than this. He did not hesitate in an
+edition of the Bible published in London in 1631 to leave the _not_ out
+of the one commandment from which its absence would be the most
+noticeable. This was much worse than leaving out the whole commandment,
+for it transformed a moral prohibition into an immoral command. The
+printer in this case was fined three hundred pounds, or five hundred
+dollars for each letter omitted. It is curious that the _same_ omission
+was made in an edition of the Bible printed at Halle. A Vermont paper,
+in an obituary notice of a man who had originally come from Hull, Mass.,
+was made by the types to state that "the body was taken to Hell, where
+the rest of the family are buried." In the first English Bible printed
+in Ireland, "Sin no more" appears as "Sin on more." It was, however, a
+deliberate joke of some Oxford students which changed the wording in the
+marriage service from "live" to "like," so that a couple married out of
+this book are required to live together only so long as they "both shall
+like." An orator who spoke of "our grand mother church" was made to say
+"our grandmother church." The public of Brown University was recently
+greatly amused by a local misprint. The president of the university is
+required by its ancient charter to be an "antipaedobaptist"; the types
+reproduced the word as "antipseudobaptist," a word which would be a very
+good Greek rendering of "hardshell." An express train at full speed
+having struck a cow, the report was made to say that it "cut her into
+calves." Sixty years ago the "London Globe" made the Registrar General
+say that the city was suffering from a high rate of _morality_. The
+ingenuity of our readers will supply the missing letter, as it also will
+the the true reading of the following passage which appeared in an
+English newspaper: "Sir Robert Peel has been out with a party of fiends
+shooting peasants." It was an easy but astonishing blunder made in
+German, in the substitution of "Mädchen" (girls) for "Mächten" (powers),
+according to which Bismarck was asserted to be "trying to keep up honest
+and straightforward relations with all the girls."
+
+The Imp of the Perverse, when he descends upon the printing office,
+sometimes becomes the Imp of the Perverted. Here his achievements will
+not bear reproducing. Suffice it to say that in point of indecency he
+displays the same superhuman ingenuity as in his more innocent pranks.
+His indecencies are all, indeed, in print, but fortunately scattered,
+and it would be a groveling nature that should seek to collect them; yet
+the absence of this chapter from the world's book of humor means the
+omission of a comic strain that neither Aristophanes nor Rabelais has
+surpassed. Even as I write, a newspaper misprint assures me that
+typesetting machines are no protection against the Imp of the Perverted.
+Perhaps we may be pardoned the reproduction of one of the mildest of
+these naughtinesses. A French woman novelist had written: "To know truly
+what love is, we must go out of ourselves" (sortir de soi). The
+addition of a single letter transformed this eminently respectable
+sentiment into the feline confession: "To know truly what love is, we
+must go out nights" (sortir de soir).
+
+Sometimes the Blunder Sprite deliberately pits himself against author,
+proof reader, and all their allies. The books printed by Aldus are
+famous for their correctness, yet a few errors crept into them, so much
+to the disgust of the great printer that he said he would gladly have
+given a gold crown for each one to be rid of them. The famous Oxford
+University Press is said to have posted up the first sheet of one of its
+Bibles, with the offer of a guinea for every misprint that could be
+found in it. None was found--until the book was printed. James Lenox,
+the American collector, prided himself on the correctness of his reprint
+of the autograph manuscript of "Washington's Farewell Address," which he
+had acquired. On showing the book to Henry Stevens, the bookseller, the
+latter, glancing at a page, inquired, "Why pap_a_r instead of pap_e_r?"
+Mr. Lenox was overwhelmed with mortification; but Stevens sent for a
+skillful bookbinder, who removed the objectionable _a_ and with a
+camel's hair pencil substituted an _e_ for it, so that the demon was
+conquered after all, but only through great trouble. How would it seem
+possible to reissue a printed book, copy it exactly, and yet make an
+atrocious blunder? The Type Spirit is equal to even this feat. The book
+was a mathematical one, full of formulae. It was not reproduced page for
+page, so it was perfectly easy for a signature mark to get printed and
+appear in the middle of a page mixed up with an equation, to the
+confusion of American mathematical scholarship. More tragic were the
+misprints in a work by the Italian poet, Guidi, which are said to have
+hastened his death. In an interesting volume by Henry B. Wheatley on
+"Literary Blunders," the Tricksy Puck of the Press has revenged himself
+on the author for his attacks by smuggling in a number of misprints,
+among them one that he must have inspired in the mind of the author, the
+spelling "Bride of Lammermuir," which has no warrant in Scott's novel
+itself. In the same book is a reference to Shakespeare that diligent
+search fails to verify. Thus no knowledge or skill avails against the
+Kobold of the Case. The most baffling device of the imp is to cause a
+new error in the process of correcting an old one. This residuary
+misprint is one against which there is no complete protection. When
+General Pillow returned from Mexico he was hailed by a Southern editor
+as a "battle-scarred veteran." The next day the veteran called upon him
+to demand an apology for the epithet actually printed, "battle-scared."
+What was the horror of the editor, on the following day, to see the
+expression reappear in his apology as "bottle-scarred"!
+
+Occasionally, however, the mischief maker takes a notion to improve the
+copy set before him. The world will never know how often this has
+happened, for authors are just as willing to take credit for
+excellencies not their own as to lay on the printer the blame for their
+own oversights. In one of Artemus Ward's articles he had spoken of a
+starving prisoner as appealing for something to eat. The proof rendered
+it something to _read_. The humorist accepted the substitution as an
+additional absurdity. The French poet, Malherbe, once welcomed a
+misprint as an improvement on what he had written. There can be no doubt
+that, had there been no misprints in Shakespeare's quartos and folios,
+half the occupation of Shakespeare scholarship would have been lacking.
+Sometimes the original manuscript turns up--unfortunately not in
+Shakespeare's case--to confute some or all of the ingenious editors. A
+learned professor changed the word "unbodied" in Shelley's "Skylark" to
+"embodied," and some critics approved the change; but the poet's
+manuscript in the Harvard University Library makes the former reading
+clear beyond question. One might say that in these cases the Imp of the
+Perverse plants himself like a fatal microbe in the brain of the
+unfortunate editor. When that brilliant work, "The Principles of Success
+in Literature," by George Henry Lewes, appeared in the "Fortnightly
+Review," the expression "tilt stones from a cart" (used to describe
+careless writing) was printed with _l_ as the first letter. When the
+chapters were reissued in America, the proofreader, warned by the
+presence of numerous other gross misprints, naturally corrected the
+meaningless "lilt" to the obvious and natural "tilt." This change at
+first escaped the attention of the American editor, who in the second
+edition insisted on restoring the original misprint and even defended
+his misjudgment in a note. It is worth adding that the Oxford English
+Dictionary takes the misprint as too obvious for comment and quotes the
+passage under "tilt."
+
+The most daring feat of the typographic Angel of the Odd--to adopt
+another of Poe's expressions--is the creation of what Professor Skeat
+called "ghost words," that is, words that seem to exist but do not. A
+misprint in Scott's "Monastery" of "morse" for "nurse" was accepted
+without question by readers and gravely explained by scholars. Some of
+these words, of which there are scores, are due to the misreading of
+crabbed manuscripts, but not a few have originated in the printing
+office. It must be remembered that they make their way into the
+dictionaries. For another instance let the reader open Worcester's
+Dictionary to the word _phantomnation_. He will see it defined as
+"illusion" and referred to Pope. In Webster's Dictionary, however, he
+will learn its true character, as a ghost word formed by running
+together the two words _phantom nation_.
+
+The printing of poetry involves all the possible mistakes liable to
+prose and, owing to the form of poetry, some new ones. Thus in
+Pickering's Aldine edition of Milton, two words of one line in "Samson
+Agonistes" are dropped down into the next, making the two lines of
+uneven length and very much hurting the emphasis. The three-volume
+reprint of this edition dutifully copies the misprint. In the Standard
+edition of Dr. Holmes's "Works" printed at the Riverside Press, in the
+unusual case of a poem in stanzas being broken up into a dialogue, the
+end of one speech, carried over to the following page, has been assigned
+to the next speaker, thus spoiling both the sense and the metre. The
+most extraordinary instance that has ever come under my eye occurs in a
+special edition of John Hay's "Poems," issued as a college prize volume
+and very elegantly printed at a well-known press. One poem has
+disappeared entirely except a single stanza, which has been attached to
+another poem with which it has no connection, not even agreeing with it
+in metre.
+
+The list of errata, the printer's public confession of fault, is rather
+rare in modern books, but this is due as much to the indifference of the
+public as to better proofreading. When Edwin Arnold's "Light of Asia"
+took the reading world by storm, a New York reprint was issued, which we
+commend to anyone looking for classical examples of misprinted books. It
+averages perhaps a gross misprint to every page. Possibly extreme haste
+to beat the Boston edition in the market may have suggested dispensing
+with the proof reader. Of course a publisher who could so betray his
+customers would never offer them even the partial amends of a list of
+errata. Sometimes the errors are picked up while the book is still in
+press, and in that case the list of errata can be printed as an
+extension of the text; sometimes the best that can be done is to print
+it on a separate slip or sheet and either insert it in the book or
+supply it to purchasers. Both these things happened in the case of that
+early American book, Mather's "Magnalia." The loose list of errata was
+printed on the two inner pages of one fold the size of the book. In the
+two hundred years that have elapsed, most of these folded sheets have
+been lost, with the financial result that a copy of the book with them
+will bring twice as much as one without them, these two leaves weighing
+as much in the scales of commerce as the other four hundred. Sometimes a
+misprint establishes the priority of a copy, the error having been
+silently corrected while the sheets were going through the press, and
+thus adds to its value in the eyes of the collector. The extent of these
+ancient lists of errata staggers belief. Cardinal Bellarmin was obliged
+to issue an octavo volume of eighty-eight pages to correct the misprints
+in his published works, and there is on record a still huger list of
+errata, extending to one hundred and eleven quarto pages.
+
+But we must not suppose that misprints began with the invention of
+printing. The name did, but not the thing named. In earlier times it was
+the copyist who made the mistakes and bore the blame. It is easy to see
+how in Greece and Rome, when one reader read aloud a book which perhaps
+a hundred copyists reproduced, a great number of errors might creep into
+the copies, and how many of these would result from confusion in
+hearing. Every copy was then an edition by itself and a possible source
+of error, calling therefore for its own proofreading. It is accordingly
+no wonder that the straightening out of classic texts is still going on.
+Had Chaucer, who wrote over a hundred years before printing was
+introduced into England, been able to read once for all the proof of his
+poems, he would not have had to write that feeling address to his
+copyist, or scrivener, with which we may fitly take leave of our
+subject.
+
+    Adam scryveyne, if ever it thee byfalle,
+    Boece or Troylus for to wryten nuwe,
+    Under thy long lokkes thowe most have the scalle,
+    But affter my makyng thowe wryte more truwe;
+    So offt a daye I mot thy werk renuwe,
+    It to corect, and eke to rubbe and scrape,
+    And al is thorugh thy necglygence and rape.
+
+
+
+
+A SECRET OF PERSONAL POWER
+
+
+Greater efficiency is the watchword of the hour. The pages of every
+technical and even educational magazine bristle with it. One is driven
+to wonder whether the principle does not require that in every printing
+office the word "efficiency" be stereotyped to save the cost of setting.
+We are told how one manager of a creamery saved annually the amount of
+his own salary to the company by having the dents in the supply cans
+pounded out and so getting more milk from the farmers. But though the
+lengths to which the insistence on efficiency is carried may sometimes
+provoke a smile, we have no inclination to disparage it; we realize that
+efficiency has far more than a mere money value to society; it is rather
+our purpose in the present paper to ask whether the efficiency man has
+ever thought to turn his searchlight in upon himself and discover
+whether he has not latent and unexpected powers that may be evoked to
+the great increase of his own efficiency.
+
+We have nothing historically new to offer, though the principle we are
+to mention is practically unknown or at least unutilized. It is the
+great, controlling principle of Forethought, the application of which is
+far wider than thought itself, extending to all the functions of the
+soul and even affecting bodily energy and health. The action of
+Forethought is based on the fact that there is more to ourselves than we
+are aware of. We are not ordinarily conscious of our past lives, for
+instance, yet a supreme crisis, such as falling from a height, may make
+a man's whole past in an instant flash before him in review. Under
+sudden stress a man may develop powers of leadership or resolution that
+nobody could have foreseen and that he himself cannot account for. Our
+selves as we know them are, so to speak, only the top soil of our entire
+natures. Every conscious personality is like a farm in an oil district.
+It is underlain by an unrealized wealth that may never be brought to
+light. Some accident may reveal the treasure, but if the owner suspects
+its existence he may bore for it. To show how this boring may be done is
+one of the purposes of the present paper. But let us first assure
+ourselves further of the existence of this hidden fund of energy.
+
+If in the early fifties of the last century a vote had been taken on the
+two men in America who ten years later would stand head and shoulders
+above their countrymen in position and recognized ability, it is
+probable that not one single vote would have been cast for a slouchy
+Missouri farmer or a shabby Illinois lawyer, certainly not for the
+former. Grant and Lincoln themselves would not have expected a vote. Yet
+their powers existed then, unrealized by their owners, and only needing
+the proper stimulus to bring them out. That stimulus was responsibility;
+and, great as their achievements were under this stimulus, neither man
+appears to have reached his limit; each apparently had still a fund of
+reserve power to be expended on yet greater occasions had they arisen.
+This is not to say that all men have an equal fund of unrecognized
+ability. The experiences of the great struggle out of which Lincoln and
+Grant came supreme are alone sufficient to show how unequal are men's
+endowments. A McClellan proves himself an unsurpassed organizer, but no
+fighter; a Burnside displays marked ability in leading fifteen or
+twenty thousand men, but beyond this number he fails disastrously.
+Neither Foresight nor any other device can _create_ ability. A gallon
+can will hold only a gallon, no matter how carefully its sides are
+rounded. But in the case of any given man no one knows his capacity
+until he has had a chance to show it. His nature may hold only a pint,
+or, as with the men who have mastered great occasions with still
+unexhausted powers, it may seem like the horn which the god Thor tried
+to drain but could not, for its base was connected with the ocean
+itself. Not every man can hope to be called to a responsibility that
+shall bring out his latent powers; most of us, if we are ever to get the
+call, will first have to show the ability.
+
+How can a man tap the unknown resources, be they great or small, of his
+unconscious self? The method here to be suggested has at least the merit
+of great simplicity. I have called it Forethought; it might perhaps as
+exactly be called Forewilling. The point is that this unconscious part
+of a man's nature is not out of his control; he can send word to it and
+direct it, even if he has to do so by a kind of wireless telegraphy.
+However mysterious this may sound, there is nothing mystical about it,
+neither is it something vague and indefinite, but a practice to be
+applied to actual cases in hand. Suppose a business man is trying to get
+an important contract, and is to have an interview on the morrow that
+will decide the question. Let him, before he falls asleep at night, go
+over the whole ground in his mind, set before himself clearly the thing
+to be done with the particular difficulties to be met, and let him
+_will_ himself to meet those difficulties, to carry his case. Let him
+will that at that time he shall be cheerful and vigorous; and, having
+given these instructions to his unconscious self--which has perhaps
+been waiting years for just this chance to do its part in the common
+endeavor--let him dismiss the whole matter from his conscious thought
+and go to sleep. On awaking in the morning let him review the matter and
+again dismiss it from his mind until the occasion arrives. If he will do
+this faithfully, he may not succeed the first time in carrying his
+point, but he will certainly feel a great increase of power, and
+ultimately, if he persists in making his unconscious self an active
+partner in his life, he will find himself far more successful than he
+could have been while depending on a single side of his nature. The same
+principle will hold, of course, in a myriad cases; if we have to-morrow,
+or even at a later date, to plead a cause, to make an after-dinner
+speech, to write a report or an article, to learn a lesson, to entertain
+guests, to handle a difficult case of discipline, we have only to take
+this counsel of our pillow, to reënforce it with our first morning
+thought, and we shall find ourselves making a new record of success.
+
+It is obvious that a principle so effective cannot be limited to the
+active or the intellectual life. If a man has a fault or a besetting
+weakness or sin, here is a way out of it. How long will a bad habit
+stand such an assault upon itself as the evening and morning practice of
+Forethought? One will actually feel the new force within him, like a
+gyroscopic stabilizer, holding him to his predetermined course. There is
+literally a world of hope for mankind in the application of this
+principle on its moral side. But the business of our article is with
+other applications and we must dismiss this, the greatest of all, with a
+mere mention.
+
+If anyone questions whether this principle is true or not, the best
+answer will be to bid him test it. Though it be true universally, some
+people may not easily apply it, and some may not have the patience to
+subject themselves to such a discipline. But most will have no
+difficulty, and many will succeed well enough to inspire themselves to
+continue. Some, indeed, will say, and with perfect truth, that there is
+nothing new in this doctrine, that they have long known and applied it.
+The principle has doubtless been known for thousands of years, but it
+has certainly not been widely taken up by our race, which is curiously
+external in its notions of self-education and self-control. One American
+writer, the late Charles Godfrey Leland, a man of the most varied powers
+and accomplishments, has written in advocacy of it and gives us as his
+own experience that after the age of seventy he was able to do a greater
+amount of literary work, and with less fatigue, than ever before simply
+by calling in the aid of his unconscious self. If one were to read the
+lives and writings of eminent men with this principle of Forethought in
+mind, one would find numberless instances of its more or less
+unconscious practice. The best scholar in my own class, for instance,
+applied it to his studies. Does anyone suppose that the old Puritan's
+sweetening of his mind with a little Calvin before he went to bed was
+without its effect on his devotion to Calvinism? Erasmus, the wittiest
+of scholars, writing nearly four hundred years ago to his special
+friend, Christian of Lubeck, recommends the practice both of the evening
+instruction and the morning review as something that he himself has
+followed from his childhood; and we cannot doubt that in it he reveals
+one of the secrets of his world-wide influence. He says to his youthful
+friend: "A little before you go to sleep read something choice and worth
+remembering, and think it over until you fall asleep. When you awake in
+the morning make yourself give an account of it." Though this is clearly
+an application of the principle to study and the strengthening of the
+memory, experiment will show that the potency of Forethought is not
+limited to the memory or the intellect in general, but applies to man's
+entire nature and equally to the least and the greatest of its
+concerns.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+[1] The substance of an address delivered Nov. 18, 1909, in the Boston
+Public Library, under the auspices of the Society of Printers.
+
+[2] The address here summarized was printed at the Chiswick Press and
+published at Christmas, 1884. Mr. Stevens died early in 1886, leaving a
+posthumous book entitled "Recollections of Mr. James Lenox," which was
+printed in the same year at the Chiswick Press, and which is of great
+interest to booklovers, especially Americans.
+
+[3] Mr. Edison's projected substitute for paper, sheets of nickel,
+20,000 to the inch, may indicate the book material of the future, but at
+present it is only a startling possibility.
+
+[4] The type in which this book is printed is a modern Bodoni, cut in
+Italy, and was chosen for its elegance rather than to illustrate the
+latest results in legibility of type design.
+
+[5] See "Simplified Spelling in Writing and Printing; a Publisher's
+Point of View," by Henry Holt, LL.D., New York, 1906. About one half the
+expense falls within the domain of printing.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+ABILITY, cannot be created, 164.
+
+Accents, their help in reading poetry, 17, 18.
+
+Æschylus, as characterized by Mrs. Browning, 67.
+
+Aldine edition of the British Poets, by Pickering, 23, 24.
+
+Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, his "Friar Jerome's Beautiful Book," 87, 88.
+
+Aldus, Alduses and Elzevirs contrasted, 23;
+  beauty in his work, 4;
+  bindings of, 100;
+  his characteristic book, 21;
+  his example followed by the Elzevirs, 22;
+  his italic type and its effect on the size and price of books, 20, 21;
+  Pickering and other followers of, 23, 24;
+  vexed by misprints, 156.
+
+Alphabet, Chinese, picture writing, 80, 81;
+  derivation from picture writing, 81;
+  scientific and actual, 147;
+  varieties in use, 146.
+  _See also_ Type.
+
+American Journal of Psychology, contains Sanford's study on "The
+    relative legibility of the small letters," 122.
+
+Arnold, Edwin, misprints in his "Light of Asia," 159.
+
+Art, art aspect of the book, 3, 49, 115;
+  shares the prehistoric background of the book, 79, 80.
+
+Artists not opposed to criticism, 62.
+
+Assyrian clay tablet, 4.
+
+Astor Library, size in 1875, 104.
+
+Audubon, John James, his elephant-folio "Birds of America," 55.
+
+Authors, reading by single authors and groups, 74-76;
+  spoilers of books, 40.
+
+Authorship, rules of, 44.
+
+
+BABYLONIAN book, 82.
+
+Back numbers, unimportant contemporary works become, 77.
+
+"Background of the book," 79-86.
+
+Bacon, Francis, Lord, quoted, 106, 112.
+
+Baird, John Wallace, directs Clark University studies on legibility, 124.
+
+Ballads, Old English, Hazlitt on, 142.
+
+Balzac, Honoré de, expanded his novels in proof, 15.
+
+Balzac, Jean Louis Guez de, acknowledged his indebtedness to the
+    Elzevirs, 22.
+
+Bamboo, source of Chinese paper, 85.
+
+Barlow, Joel, place of his "Columbiad" in modern printing, 10.
+
+Bartlett, John, quoted, 128.
+
+Baskerville, John, his smooth paper, 5.
+
+Beauty, _see_ Esthetics.
+
+Beecher, Henry Ward, his "Norwood" in three volumes, 12;
+  John Beattie Crozier on his sermons, 111.
+
+Beethoven, his Ninth Symphony as a product of genius, 65.
+
+Bellarmin, Cardinal, list of errata in his works, 160.
+
+Best books, need of provision for daily reading, 107.
+  _See also_ Books.
+
+Bible, Hazlitt on its poetry, 141;
+  influence on Bunyan, on Calhoun, 110;
+  misprints in, 154, 156;
+  various folio editions, 19.
+
+Bible of humanity, Socrates in, 68.
+
+Bigness, in books, 35, 36, 45, 47.
+
+Binder, a spoiler of books, 40, 42;
+  what the librarian asks of him, 48.
+
+Binding, as an element of the book, 6;
+  "The clothing of a book," 97-101;
+  of the book beautiful, 52-55;
+  of the Chinese book, 88, 89;
+  of the well-made book, 52;
+  "Parchment bindings," 102, 103;
+  unnecessary rebindings, 46.
+
+Bion, as characterized by Mrs. Browning, 68.
+
+Birch bark, used for book of India, 85.
+
+Bismarck, misprint concerning, 155.
+
+Blackmore, Richard Doddridge, tribute to Shakespeare, 110.
+
+Blue and Gold editions, a favorite book size, 24-26.
+
+Bodoni, Giambattista, his type commended, 58, 129, 130.
+
+Book, "The background of the book," 79-86;
+  "blown" books, 35;
+  "The book beautiful," 49-62;
+  "The book of to-day and the book of to-morrow," 33-37;
+  Chinese, 84, 85, 87-91;
+  "The clothing of a book," 97-101;
+  a constructive critic of the, 38-43;
+  elements of, 4-6;
+  "Fitness in book design," 9-13;
+  its structural contradiction, 52;
+  materials, 92;
+  of the future, 95, 96;
+  on its physical side an art object, 3;
+  pre-Columbian Mexican, 6;
+  printed, a "substitute" for manuscript, 4;
+  subject to laws of esthetics and economics, 115;
+  tests of its utility, 115;
+  well-made, not extremely costly, 7,
+    not identical with beautiful, 52;
+  worth writing three times, 44.
+  _See also_ Design; Size.
+
+Book buyers, how to educate, 37;
+  spoilers of books, 40, 42.
+
+Booklovers, "Books and booklovers," 3-8;
+  must first know books, 7;
+  service in improvement of books, 48, 61, 62.
+
+Book production, 105;
+  elements added by printing, 14.
+
+Books, as a librarian would like them, 44-48;
+  "Books and booklovers," 3-8;
+  the greatest, few, 66;
+  intellectual riffraff, 9;
+  learning to love, 7;
+  "Lest we forget the few great books," 104-114;
+  perishable, 34, 45, 46;
+  progress in legibility of, 132, 133;
+  small, commended by Dr. Johnson, 20;
+  "The student and the library," 139-144;
+  that are not books, 105, 106;
+  world's annual publication of, 105.
+
+Books of Hours, dainty volumes, 20.
+
+Boston Athenaeum Library, size in 1875, 104.
+
+Boston Public Library, Address in, 3, _footnote_;
+  size in 1875, 104.
+
+Brandes, Georg, his "Shakespeare: a critical study," 72.
+
+Brass, used for book of India, 85.
+
+British Poets, rival editions of, by Pickering and by Little and Brown,
+    23, 24.
+
+Brown, Horatio Robert Forbes, on Aldus and his italic type, 20.
+
+Brown, John Carter, patron of Henry Stevens, 38.
+
+Brown University, misprint in quoting its charter, 154, 155.
+
+Browne, Charles Farrar, adopts a misprint, 157.
+
+Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, her "Wine of Cyprus" quoted, 67, 68.
+
+Buchanan, George, his Latin poems, commended by Dr. Johnson, 23;
+  published by the Elzevirs, 23.
+
+Bulk, in books, 92-96.
+
+Bunyan, John, debt to the Bible, 110.
+
+Burma, book of, _see_ India.
+
+Burns, Robert, Hazlitt on, 142.
+
+Burnside, General Ambrose Everett, his limitations, 163, 164.
+
+Burton, Sir Richard, his "Kasîdah" in Mosher's tribute typography, 137.
+
+Bury, Richard de, author of the "Philobiblon," 8.
+
+Byron, Lord, hated Horace, 68.
+
+
+CAESURA, indication of, in print, 18.
+
+Calhoun, John Caldwell, reader of the Bible, 110.
+
+Calligraphy, _see_ Manuscript.
+
+Calvin, John, as a Puritan's spiritual nightcap, 166.
+
+Cambridge University, student groups in, 139.
+
+Capital letters, legibility, 121, 122, 126;
+  Roman in origin, 118;
+  Roman, superior to black-letter in combination, 57;
+  undersized, used by Aldus, 21.
+
+Carlyle, Thomas, on Goethe, 110;
+  rewrote his books in proof, 15.
+
+Caslon type, commended, 58, 117.
+
+Catchwords, usage of Aldus, 21.
+
+Cattell, James McKeen, his investigations of legibility, 121, 122.
+
+Cave men, pictures made by them, 79, 80.
+
+Centaur type, commended, 132.
+
+Century Dictionary, illustration of cerastes, 81;
+  a triumph of typography, 16, 135.
+
+Century types, commended, 127, 132.
+
+Cervantes, "Don Quixote," character and meaning of, 70, 71,
+    no final edition of, 11,
+    on reading, 143, 144,
+    translations of, 143, 144;
+  his character, 70;
+  later novelists indebted to, 143.
+
+Chaucer, Geoffrey, complaint of his scribe's errors, 160, 161;
+  Hazlitt on, 142;
+  his spelling, 149.
+
+Cheapness, _see_ Cost.
+
+Cheltenham type, commended, 132.
+
+Cherokee syllabary, 146.
+
+Children, increase of near sight among, 120;
+  legibility of books for, 5, 117.
+
+Chinese, alphabet, conventionalized picture writing, 80, 81;
+  book, 84, 85, 87-91.
+
+Chiswick Press, 38, _footnote_;
+  Pickering's books printed at, 41.
+
+Christian of Lubeck, letter of Erasmus to, quoted, 166.
+
+Cicero, did not write for children, 68.
+
+Clark University, studies on legibility, 124-127, 132.
+
+Classroom, not equal to a good book, 140.
+
+Clay tablet, and booklovers, 4;
+  described, 82.
+
+Clodd, Edward, on discovery of British prehistoric antiquities, 79.
+
+Cloister Oldstyle type, commended, 132;
+  a safe norm for poetry, 58.
+
+Cloth, used in binding, 53.
+
+"Clothing of a book," 97-101.
+
+Codex, Roman, form adopted for parchment books, 84;
+  original of modern book form, 19, 52, 90.
+
+Collins, Wilkie, tribute to "Robinson Crusoe," 110.
+
+Color, use of, 60.
+
+Columbian type, first used in Barlow's "Columbiad," 10.
+
+Columns, in wide pages, 47.
+
+Community, value of reading to the, 28, 29.
+
+Compactness and legibility, 117, 130, 131, 134, 135.
+
+Compositor, a spoiler of books, 40, 41.
+
+"Constructive critic of the book," 38-43.
+
+Consumers, _see_ Book buyers.
+
+Contemporary writers, on reading their works, 76, 77.
+
+Contrast of type, 16, 17.
+
+Copperplate printing, in connection with typography, 60.
+
+Cornell University Library, proof-sheets of the "Waverley Novels" in, 15.
+
+Corrigenda, 152-161;
+  lists of, 159, 160.
+
+Cost, the book of to-morrow will be cheaper, 36;
+  cheapened books, 45;
+  of beautiful books little more than of unsightly, 39;
+  relatively small, of well-made books, 7.
+
+Cowper, William, Hazlitt on, 142.
+
+Crabbe, George, a favorite edition of, 24.
+
+Criticism, "A constructive critic of the book," 38-43;
+  not opposed by artists, 62.
+
+Crozier, John Beattie, on reading, 111, 112.
+
+Culture cannot be vicarious, 140.
+
+
+DANA, JOHN COTTON, his analysis of the elements of the book, 4.
+
+Dante, his "Divine Comedy," character of, 69, 70, 144;
+  "fly's-eye" edition of, 55;
+  Hazlitt on, 141;
+  privilege of reading, 64;
+  Professor Torrey on reading, 109.
+
+Decoration, in bindings, 6, 99-101;
+  use of color in, 60.
+
+Defoe, Daniel, tribute of Wilkie Collins to "Robinson Crusoe," 110.
+
+Democratization of learning, by the cheap books of Aldus, 21.
+
+De Morgan, William, quoted, 63, 72;
+  value of his novels, 77.
+
+De Quincey, Thomas, on possible amount of reading in a lifetime, 105.
+
+Design, "Fitness in book design," 9-13;
+  of type, 5, 117, 118.
+
+Diagonal of page, 57.
+
+Dickens, Charles, his works in illegible print, 130,
+    on Oxford India paper, 94,
+    on thick paper, 95;
+  on reading him, 143.
+
+Dickinson, Emily, quoted, 30, 31.
+
+Didot, Ambrose Firmin, his "microscopic" type, 131.
+
+Discovery of a great book, 108, 109.
+
+Distinctions, to the eye, in manuscript and print, 16-18.
+
+Don Quixote, _see_ Cervantes.
+
+Dordogne, France, its prehistoric pictures, 79, 80.
+
+Dowden, Edward, his "Shakspere: his mind and art," 72.
+
+Dryden, John, Hazlitt on, 142.
+
+
+ECONOMICS, the book within the domain of, 115, 116.
+
+Edges, treatment of, 61.
+
+Edison, Thomas Alva, would substitute nickel for paper, 92, _footnote_.
+
+Editions de luxe, disapproved by Henry Stevens, 39.
+
+Education, in appreciation of beautiful books, 50;
+  of book buyers, 37.
+
+Efficiency, in modern life, 162;
+  of the book, 115.
+
+Egyptian, book, see Papyrus;
+  hieroglyphics, picture writing, 81.
+
+Elements of the book, 4-6.
+
+Elimination, test of, applied to reading, 63, 64.
+
+Eliot, Charles William, his Latin signature, 102, 103.
+
+Elzevirs, compared with Aldines, 23,
+    with Blue and Gold editions, 25;
+  described, 21-23.
+
+Emerson, Ralph Waldo, his life and works, 75, 76;
+  importance of his works, 112;
+  John Beattie Crozier on, 112;
+  quoted, 144.
+
+Encyclopædia Britannica, in its two sizes of type, 135.
+
+English, alphabets, 117, 118;
+  book publication in 1913, 105;
+  books, criticised, 38-43;
+  literature as affected by reformed spelling, 149;
+  poets, Hazlitt's Lectures on, 141, 142;
+  romancers, of the 18th century, 143;
+  spelling, 145-151.
+
+Engravings, _see_ Illustrations.
+
+Erasmus, Desiderius, letter to Christian of Lubeck, quoted, 166.
+
+Errata, 152-161;
+  lists of, 159, 160.
+
+Errors of the press, 152-161.
+
+Essays, in a favorite book size, 24.
+
+Esthetics, beauty in typography, 136-138;
+  "The book beautiful," 49-62;
+  the book subject to the laws of, 115;
+  harmony between beauty and use in type design, 132;
+  in choice of type, 127, 131;
+  involves sacrifice of utility, 116;
+  its demands must be met in a favorite book, 24,
+    met by the Little Classic editions, 26;
+  of the book, 3, 9;
+  printer's duty, to, 18;
+  relation of thickness and thinness to, 23, 24;
+  sacrificed to legibility, 117.
+
+Etymology in spelling, 148.
+
+Eumenes II, originates parchment, 83, 84.
+
+Euripides, as characterized by Mrs. Browning, 68.
+
+Everyman's Library, in a favorite book size, 24.
+
+Eves, binders, their work, 100.
+
+"Exceptions to the rule of legibility," 134-138, 130, 131.
+
+Expression in typography, 9-13, 137, 138.
+
+Eyes, _see_ Sight.
+
+
+F, the letter, origin and derivatives, 81.
+
+Fairy Queen, _see_ Spenser, Edmund.
+
+"Favorite book sizes," 19-27.
+
+Favorite literature, in appropriate typography, 137.
+
+Fielding, Henry, a favorite edition of, 24;
+  on reading him, 143;
+  an unattractive edition of, 12.
+
+Fields, Annie Adams, her "Beacon Biography" of Hawthorne, 75.
+
+Finishing, _see_ Binding.
+
+Fitness, between illustrations and type, 6;
+  in book design, 9-13;
+  in typography, 137, 138.
+
+Fitzgerald, Edward, at Cambridge University, 139.
+
+Forethought, "A secret of personal power," 162-167.
+
+Forewilling, "A secret of personal power," 162-167.
+
+Format, _see_ Size.
+
+Forwarding, _see_ Binding.
+
+Franklin, Benjamin, quoted, 35, 123.
+
+French, alphabet, 147;
+  book publication in 1913, 105;
+  type, faults of, 117, 120, 128.
+
+Frowde, Henry, publishes "The Periodical" in form of a Chinese book, 88,
+    90.
+
+
+GALILEO, acknowledged his indebtedness to the Elzevirs, 22.
+
+Garfield, James Abram, recommends reading of fiction, 107.
+
+Gems, in bindings, 6.
+
+Genius, its bad spelling, 150, 151;
+  its monuments in the various arts, 65.
+
+German, book publication in 1913, 105;
+  spelling reform, 147, 148, 150;
+  tribute typography, 137;
+  type, faults of, 117, 122, 128.
+
+Ghost words, 158, 159.
+
+Gilding, _see_ Binding; Edges.
+
+Gladstone, William Ewart, a literary blunder of, 152, 153.
+
+Goethe, Carlyle on, 110;
+  his greatness, 73;
+  John Beattie Crozier on, 112;
+  on Sir Walter Scott, 110.
+
+Goffered edges, 61.
+
+Goudy, Frederic W., his Kennerley type commended, 132.
+
+Grace before reading, 77.
+
+Grammar of book manufacture, 40, 42.
+
+Grant, Ulysses Simpson, his coat of arms, 30;
+  his greatness brought out by responsibility, 163.
+
+Gray, Thomas, small bulk of his work, 69.
+
+"Great books, Lest we forget the few," 104-114.
+
+Greek literature, masterpieces of, 66-68.
+
+Greeks, surpassed by moderns in knowledge, 30.
+
+Green, John Richard, quoted, 50.
+
+Grolier, Jean, bindings made for, 100.
+
+Groups, reading authors by, 74, 75.
+
+Guide, in reading, 140-142;
+  none to love of books, 7.
+
+Guidi, Carlo Alessandro, killed by misprints, 156.
+
+
+HABIT, and forethought, 165.
+
+Haggard, Rider, his "Mr. Meeson's Will," 86.
+
+Hallam, Arthur Henry, at Cambridge University, 139.
+
+Handwriting, _see_ Manuscript.
+
+Harte, Francis Bret, on reading his works, 143.
+
+Harvard University, course in printing, 43;
+  Library possesses manuscript of Shelley's "Skylark," 158;
+  size of Library in 1875, 104.
+
+Hawthorne, Nathaniel, on reading him, 74, 75.
+
+Hay, John, his reading in college, 139;
+  a remarkable misprint in his "Poems," 159.
+
+Hazlitt, William, as a guide in reading, 141, 142;
+  Lamb and Stevenson on, 141.
+
+Headlines, Henry D. Lloyd on, 132.
+
+"Hibbert Journal," bulkiness of, 95.
+
+Hieroglyphics, _see_ Picture writing.
+
+Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, his life of Longfellow, 75.
+
+Holmes, Oliver Wendell, the Blue and Gold edition of his "Poems," 24, 25;
+  his life of Emerson, 75;
+  member of New England group of authors, 75;
+  a misprint in his "Works," 159;
+  quoted, 24, 80, 102, 106.
+
+Holt, Henry, on simplified spelling, 147, _footnote_.
+
+Homer, did not write for children, 68;
+  Hazlitt on, 141;
+  his works, 64, 66, 67;
+  Keats's sonnet on, 108, 109;
+  not out of date, 77;
+  why his works are divided into books, 83.
+
+Horace, hated by Byron, 68;
+  his works, 69;
+  in Bodoni's 1791 edition, 129, 130;
+  more modern than the Puritans, 69,
+    than Dante, 70.
+
+Houghton, Mifflin and Company, publish books resembling Chinese, 87, 88.
+
+Hours, books of, dainty volumes, 20.
+
+House of Representatives Library, size in 1875, 104.
+
+Hudson, Henry Norman, his edition of Shakespeare, 71, 72.
+
+Huey, Edmund Burke, his "Psychology and pedagogy of reading," commended,
+    124.
+
+Hull, Mass., as misprinted, 154.
+
+Humanistic type, _see_ New Humanistic.
+
+Hunt, Leigh, his characterization of the "Divine Comedy," 70.
+
+
+I, the letter, discussions regarding its dot, 61.
+
+"Idler," a favorite edition of, 24.
+
+Illumination, 51;
+  indication of initials for, 21.
+
+Illustration, as a feature of the book, 6;
+  of the book beautiful, 60.
+
+"Imitatio Christi," in Updike's specimen pages, 136.
+
+Incunabula, relatively cheap, 49.
+
+Indecency in misprints, 155, 156.
+
+Indenting, as affecting the book beautiful, 59.
+
+"Independent," compactly printed, 95.
+
+India, book of, 85, 86.
+
+Individual, value of reading to, 29-32.
+
+Initials, colored, 60;
+  spacing and mitering of, 59.
+
+Ink, best for the eye, 116, 120;
+  blue, for legibility, 5;
+  an element of the book, 5;
+  maker, a spoiler of books, 40, 42.
+
+Interpretative typography, 9-13, 137, 138.
+
+"Interpreter of meaning, Print as an," 14-18.
+
+Invention, in book production, 33, 34.
+
+Irving, Washington, book design in editions of his "Knickerbocker," 10, 11;
+  unfortunate use of his "Sketch Book" as a school book, 68, 69.
+
+Italic type, invention and use by Aldus, 20, 21.
+
+Italy, annual book publication, 105.
+
+
+JAPAN, annual book publication, 105.
+
+Javal, Dr. Émile, his investigations of legibility, 120, 121, 123.
+
+Jenson, Nicholas, beauty and grandeur in his work, 4;
+  descendants of his types, 132;
+  facsimile page of, _frontispiece_.
+
+Johnson, Rossiter, his Little Classic editions described, 25, 26.
+
+Johnson, Dr. Samuel, commends small books, 20, 22, 23;
+  a favorite edition of his "Idler," 24;
+  his "Prayers" in tribute typography, 136;
+  on our knowledge of ancient Britain, 79.
+
+Josephus, Flavius, book form inappropriate to, 50.
+
+Justification, requirements of, 58, 59.
+
+Justinian, facsimile page of his "Digestum novum," _frontispiece_.
+
+
+KEATS, JOHN, folio inappropriate to, 50;
+  inappropriate Forman edition of, 11;
+  "On first looking into Chapman's Homer," 108, 109;
+  small bulk of his work, 69.
+
+Kelmscott Press, _see_ Morris, William.
+
+Kennerley type, commended, 132.
+
+Kipling, Rudyard, on reading him, 143.
+
+"Knickerbocker," Irving's, book design in editions of, 10, 11.
+
+Knowledge, necessary to success in life, 30;
+  obtainable in its fulness only through books, 30;
+  progress possible only in, 29, 30.
+
+Kuran, sources from which it was compiled, 86.
+
+
+LAMB, CHARLES, on grace before reading, 77;
+  on Hazlitt, 141.
+
+Large-paper copies, condemned, 56, 131.
+
+Latin literature, masterpieces of, 68, 69.
+
+Leadership developed under stress, 163.
+
+Leading, as affecting legibility, 120;
+  as affecting spacing, 58, 59.
+
+Leather, employment in binding, 52-54.
+
+Le Gascon, binder, his work, 100.
+
+Legend, of pictures, proper place of, 60.
+
+Legibility, elements of the book as related to, 116-118;
+  "Exceptions to the rule of legibility," 130, 131, 134-138;
+  influence on, of paper, type, and ink, 5;
+  "Types and eyes: The problem," 120-127,
+    ---- "Progress," 128-133.
+
+Leland, Charles Godfrey, on forethought, 166.
+
+Length of line, 117.
+
+Lenox, James, mortified by a misprint, 156;
+  patron of Henry Stevens, 38;
+  "Recollections of," by Stevens, 38, _footnote_.
+
+Le Sage, Alain René, his "Gil Blas," 143.
+
+"Lest we forget the few great books," 104-114.
+
+Letters, _see_ Capital letters;
+  Manuscript;
+  Minuscules;
+  Silent letters;
+  Type.
+
+Lewes, George Henry, a misprint in one of his works, 158.
+
+Librarians, "Books as a librarian would like them," 44-48;
+  a duty to their successors, 103;
+  meeting of British, in 1882, 38.
+
+Libraries, as affected by spelling reform, 150;
+  development in the United States since 1875, 104;
+  electrical batteries of power, 30;
+  put to needless expense for big books, 36,
+    for rebindings, 46;
+  "The student and the library," 139-144.
+
+Library Company of Philadelphia, size of library in 1875, 104.
+
+Library hand, Bodoni's italic resembles, 130.
+
+Library of Congress, size in 1875, 104.
+
+Lightness, in books, deceptive, 93, 94.
+
+Lincoln, Abraham, his greatness brought by responsibility, 163.
+
+Lincoln cent, lettering on, 134.
+
+Line, endings should not show too many hyphens, 59;
+  normal length for legibility, 117.
+
+Linnaeus, quoted, 33.
+
+Linotype, gives a turned line, 153.
+
+Literature, the book beautiful of service to, 62;
+  its treasures, 63-78;
+  print a contribution to, 15;
+  type appropriate to, 136-138.
+
+Little and Brown, publishers, their "British Poets" compared with
+    Pickering's "Aldines," 24.
+
+Little Classic editions, 20, 25, 26.
+
+Littré, Émile, typography of his "Dictionnaire," 135.
+
+Lloyd, Henry Demarest, on headlines, quoted, 132.
+
+Locker-Lampson, Frederick, inappropriate edition of his "My
+    Confidences," 12.
+
+London Registrar General, misprint, 155.
+
+Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, book design appropriate to his "Works," 11;
+  his "Michael Angelo," 87;
+  his sonnets on Dante, 70;
+  holiday edition of his "Skeleton in Armor," 137;
+  "Life," appropriate edition of, 12;
+  quoted, 68.
+
+Lowell, James Russell, member of New England group of authors, 75.
+
+
+MACAULAY, THOMAS BABINGTON, knew "Paradise Lost" by heart, 73.
+
+McClellan, General George Brinton, his limitations, 163.
+
+Malherbe, François, welcomes a misprint, 157.
+
+Mammoth, picture of, a prehistoric book, 79.
+
+Manuscript, chief difference from print, 14;
+  distinctions in, 16;
+  importance to bookmaking, 51;
+  limitations of, 16;
+  Ruskin on, 51;
+  still used in private records, 15.
+  _See also_ Papyrus; Parchment.
+
+Margin, size and proportions of, 56, 57.
+
+Marriage service, misprint in, 154.
+
+Material of the book, changed twice in two thousand years, 92.
+
+Materials of writing, 86.
+
+Mather, Cotton, list of errata in his "Magnalia," 160.
+
+Mathews, William, as an author, 63;
+  his memory of choice passages, 63;
+  on reading ten pages a day, 108.
+
+Maxim, Sir Hiram, quoted, 92.
+
+"Meaning, Print as an interpreter of," 14-18.
+
+Mearne, Samuel, binder, 100.
+
+Memory, Erasmus on art of strengthening, 166, 167;
+  value of a well-stored, 63.
+
+"Men of the Time," famous misprint in, 153, 154.
+
+Ménage, Gilles, acknowledged his indebtedness to the Elzevirs, 22.
+
+Mexican book, pre-Columbian, ornamented, 6;
+  described, 85, 86;
+  picture writing of, 81.
+
+Michelangelo, his "Moses" as a product of genius, 65.
+
+Milton, John, debt of Daniel Webster to, 110;
+  gave metric hints by spelling, 18;
+  Hazlitt on, 142;
+  his greatness, 72, 73;
+  his spelling, 149, 150;
+  Lamb would say grace before reading, 77;
+  a misprint in "Samson Agonistes," 159;
+  on the deprivation caused by his blindness, 63, 64;
+  a spelling reformer, 149.
+
+Minuscules, legibility, 122-124, 126;
+  of late origin, 118.
+
+Misprints, "The perversities of type," 152-161.
+
+Montaigne, "Journal of his travels," in three volumes, 12.
+
+Morgan, Lloyd, cited, 87.
+
+Morris, William, as printer, 33, 34;
+  confesses faults of ignorance in book making, 50;
+  his Kelmscott editions, "tribute typography," 137;
+  on shape of dot of _i_, 61;
+  on types, 5, 129, 130.
+
+Mosher, Thomas Bird, his "tribute typography," 137.
+
+Motteux, Peter Anthony, his translation of "Don Quixote," 144.
+
+Moulton, Charles Wells, "Library of Literary Criticism," its attractive
+    book design, 13.
+
+
+NAMES, place of, in development of the alphabet, 81.
+
+Near sight, 120, 130.
+
+Necker, Jacques, student's blunder concerning, 154.
+
+New England, its communities of readers, 28, 29;
+  its group of authors, 75, 76.
+
+New Humanistic type, commended, 138;
+  special form of _a_, 123.
+
+New York Mercantile Library, size in 1875, 104.
+
+Newspapers, extraordinary development of speed and cheapness in, 14;
+  legibility, 5, 117, 132, 133;
+  opponents of spelling reform, 145;
+  place in reading, 106.
+
+Newton, Sir Isaac, quoted, 144.
+
+Nickel, as a substitute for paper, 92, _footnote_.
+
+Novels, in a favorite book size, 24;
+  in illegible type, 130;
+  on reading, 107;
+  three-volume, 12;
+  typical book of to-day, 35.
+
+"Nuremberg Chronicle," a characteristic folio, 19.
+
+
+OCULIST'S tests of legibility, 120.
+
+Ormsby, John, his translation of "Don Quixote," 144.
+
+Ornamentation, in bindings, 6, 53, 100, 101;
+  in type, 121.
+
+"Orthographic reform," 145-151.
+
+Ossian, Hazlitt on, 141.
+
+Owen, Robert, a famous misprint concerning, 153.
+
+"Oxford Book of English Verse," thin-paper edition preferred, 95.
+
+"Oxford English Dictionary," corrects a misprint, 158;
+  its typography, 135.
+
+Oxford India paper, 92, 94, 95;
+  miniature editions on, 131, 132.
+
+Oxford students cause a misprint in the marriage service, 154.
+
+Oxford University Press, reward for misprints, 156.
+
+
+PAGE, proportions of, 4, 42, 55-57.
+
+Palm leaves, used for book of India, 85.
+
+Pannartz and Sweynheym, grandeur in their work, 4.
+
+Paper, best for the eye, 116, 120;
+  buff tinted, for legibility, 5, 6;
+  determines the expression of the book, 4, 5;
+  introduced into Europe, 84;
+  of the book beautiful, 54;
+  of the Chinese book, 88-90;
+  "Thick paper and thin," 92-96;
+  three elements of, 5.
+
+Papermaker, a spoiler of books, 40, 42.
+
+Papyrus roll, and booklovers, 4;
+  described, 82-84.
+
+Parchment, origin, 83, 84;
+  "Parchment bindings," 102, 103;
+  parchment book and booklovers, 4.
+
+Payne, Roger, binder, 100.
+
+Peacock, Thomas Love, his novels in thick and thin paper, 94, 95.
+
+Peel, Sir Robert, misprint concerning, 155.
+
+Penmanship, _see_ Manuscript.
+
+Pergamum, origin of parchment in, 83, 84.
+
+"Periodical, The," resembles a Chinese book, 88, 90.
+
+"Personal power, A secret of," 162-167.
+
+"Perversities of type," 152-161.
+
+Philadelphia Mercantile Library, size in 1875, 104.
+
+"Philobiblon," by Richard de Bury, significance of the title, 8.
+
+Photogravures, in connection with type, 6.
+
+Pickering, William, a disciple of Aldus, 23;
+  his characteristic books, 23, 24,
+    compared with Little and Brown's "British Poets," 24,
+    their predecessors, contemporaries, and successors, 24;
+  his "diamond classics" on large paper, 131, 132;
+  method of book design, 41;
+  publisher, 38.
+
+Picture writing, 80, 81.
+
+Pictures, earliest books were, 79-81.
+  _See also_ Illustrations.
+
+Pillow, General Gideon Johnson, misprints concerning, 157.
+
+Pindar, as characterized by Mrs. Browning, 68.
+
+Plato, as characterized by Mrs. Browning, 68;
+  contributor to Bible of humanity, 68;
+  riches of, 68.
+
+Pocket editions, 22, 23.
+
+Poe, Edgar Allan, quoted, 28, 152, 158;
+  small bulk of his poetry, 69.
+
+Poetry, Hazlitt on, 141, 142;
+  print as an interpreter of its meaning, 17, 18;
+  type appropriate to, 137, 138.
+
+Pope, Alexander, a ghost word referred to him, 158, 159;
+  Hazlitt on, 142.
+
+Possessions, distinguished from Property, 31, 32.
+
+"Power, A secret of personal," 162-167.
+
+Powers of leadership developed under stress, 163.
+
+Pre-Columbian book, _see_ Mexican.
+
+Prehistoric background of the book, 79-81.
+
+Press, errors of, 152-161.
+
+Pressman, a spoiler of books, 40-42.
+
+Presswork, requirements of, 58.
+
+Prices, as affected by italic, 20,
+    by the small books of the Elzevirs, 22;
+  fancy, what they mean, 7;
+  of choice books compared with those of other art objects, 49;
+  of choice books not excessive, 7.
+
+"Print as an interpreter of meaning," 14-18.
+  _See also_ Typography.
+
+Printer, as affected by spelling reform, 150;
+  a spoiler of books, 40, 41;
+  what the librarian asks of him, 47, 48.
+
+Printer's errors, 152-161.
+
+Printing, added only speed and cheapness to book production, 14;
+  distinctions to the eye in, 16-18;
+  of Chinese books, 88;
+  "Printing problems for science to solve," 115-119;
+  would be benefited by contemporary calligraphy, 51.
+  _See also_ Typography.
+
+Privilege of the reader, 63-78.
+
+"Problems, Printing, for science to solve," 115-119.
+
+Progress, possible only in the field of knowledge, 29, 30.
+
+Proof, authors' additions in, 15.
+
+Proofreader, requirements of, 58;
+  a spoiler of books, 40, 41.
+
+Property, distinguished from Possessions, 31, 32.
+
+Proportions of the page, 4, 42, 55-57.
+
+Prosody, _see_ Poetry.
+
+Public, value of reading to the, 28, 29.
+
+Publication of books for 1913, 105.
+
+Publisher, librarian's grievance against the, 45-47;
+  a spoiler of books, 40, 41.
+
+Punctuation, and legibility, 121;
+  in poetry, 17-18.
+
+Puritans, less modern than Horace, 69;
+  a Puritan's devotion to Calvin, 166;
+  Shakespeare best reading for, 72.
+
+Putnam, George Haven, on the Elzevirs, 22.
+
+
+RAPID reading, 14-17.
+
+Rare books, relatively cheap, 49.
+
+Readable print, _see_ Legibility.
+
+"Reader's high privilege," 63-78.
+
+Reading, aid of print to, 14, 17;
+  amount possible in a lifetime, 105;
+  Erasmus on art of, 166;
+  John Beattie Crozier on, 111, 112;
+  "Lest we forget the few great books," 104-114;
+  means intellectual effort, 74;
+  of contemporaries, 76, 77;
+  results of ten pages a day, 108;
+  "The student and the library," 139-144;
+  systematic, 74-76;
+  true end and aim of, 78;
+  value, to the public and to the individual, 28-32;
+  when travelling, 22, 23.
+
+Reading aloud, print as an aid to, 17, 18.
+
+Rebindings, costly, unnecessary, 46.
+
+Rebus, place in development of alphabet, 81.
+
+Reference books, 135;
+  effective typography of, 16, 17.
+
+Reformed spelling, 145-151.
+
+Registration, requirements of, 59.
+
+Rembrandt, his drawing of the elephant, 80;
+  his "School of Anatomy," as a product of genius, 65.
+
+Reprinting of perishable records, 46.
+
+Responsibility, a stimulus to greatness, 163.
+
+"Respublicæ Variæ," published by the Elzevirs, described, 22, 23.
+
+"Rhetoricorum ad C. Herennium Libri IIII," the Aldus edition of 1546
+    described, 21.
+
+Roethlein, Barbara Elizabeth, on "The relative legibility of different
+    faces of printing types," 124-127.
+
+Rogers, Bruce, his Centaur type commended, 132.
+
+Roll, _see_ Papyrus.
+
+Roman alphabet, _see_ Alphabet.
+
+Roman codex, _see_ Codex.
+
+Roman literature, masterpieces of, 68, 69.
+
+Romance literatures, 144.
+
+Romans, surpassed by moderns in knowledge, 30.
+
+Royal octavo, pitfall of the book designer, 12, 13.
+
+Ruskin, John, editions of his works contrasted, 13;
+  on manuscript books, 51;
+  on reading Sir Walter Scott, 109.
+
+Russia, annual book publication, 105;
+  illiterate communities of, 28, 29.
+
+
+SANBORN, FRANKLIN BENJAMIN, his "Beacon Biography" of Longfellow, 75.
+
+Sanford, Edmund Clark, on "The relative legibility of the small
+    letters," 122-124.
+
+Scaliger, Julius Caesar, his learning, 106.
+
+Schiller, cited, 52.
+
+School books, misfortune of treating classics as such, 68, 69;
+  type in, 5, 117.
+
+School children, increase of near sight among, 120.
+
+School of typography, proposed by Henry Stevens, 40-43.
+
+Science, "Printing problems for science to solve," 115-119.
+
+Scott, Sir Walter, alterations in the proof-sheets of his "Waverley
+    Novels," 15;
+  a ghost word in his "Monastery," 158;
+  Goethe on, 110;
+  Ruskin on, 109.
+
+"Secret of personal power," 162-167.
+
+Sequoyah, his Cherokee syllabary, 146.
+
+Serifs, necessary to prevent irradiation, 123;
+  source of confusion in types, 123, 124.
+
+Shakespeare, William, "Hamlet" preferred in youth, 111;
+  Hazlitt on, 142;
+  his "Apocrypha," on thin paper, 95;
+  his character and greatness, 70-73;
+  Lamb would say grace before reading, 77;
+  "Lear" preferred in old age, 111;
+  misprints in his works, 157;
+  privilege of reading, 64, 71, 72;
+  quoted, 9, 54;
+  reading, 77;
+  the spelling of his works, 149, 150;
+  tribute of Blackmore to, 110.
+
+Shelley, Percy Bysshe, an editor's error in his "Skylark," 157, 158;
+  inappropriate Forman edition of, 11;
+  read by young men, 111.
+
+Shelton, Thomas, his translation of "Don Quixote," 144.
+
+Sight, relation of the elements of the book to, 5, 6, 116-119;
+  "Types and eyes: The problem," 120-127,
+    ---- "Progress," 128-133.
+
+Sign language, 80.
+
+Silent letters, cost to English world, 147.
+
+Size, determines expression of the book, 4;
+  "Favorite book sizes," 19-27;
+  of books preferred by librarian, 47;
+  of letters and legibility, 134, 135;
+  question of an ideal size of type, 117;
+  standardization of book sizes, 26, 27.
+  _See also_ Bigness; Thickness; Thinness.
+
+Skeat, Walter William, on ghost words, 158.
+
+Smirke, Robert, illustrator of Barlow's "Columbiad," 10.
+
+Smollett, Tobias George, on reading him, 143.
+
+Society of Printers, address under its auspices, 3, _note_.
+
+Socrates, in a Bible of humanity, 68.
+
+Sophocles, as characterized by Mrs. Browning, 67, 68.
+
+Southey, Robert, a favorite edition of, 24.
+
+Spacing, between words, 121;
+  of letters in words, 120.
+
+Spain, illiterate communities of, 28, 29.
+
+Spanish, language, 144;
+  spelling, 147.
+
+Spectacles, a measure of civilization, 120.
+
+Spedding, James, at Cambridge University, 139.
+
+Spelling, Milton gave metric hints by, 18;
+  "Orthographic reform," 145-151.
+
+Spenser, Edmund, Hazlitt on, 142;
+  his spelling, 149;
+  Lamb would say grace before reading the "Fairy Queen," 77;
+  Milton's spiritual kinship to, 72.
+
+Standardization of book sizes, 26, 27.
+
+Sterne, Laurence, a favorite edition of, 24.
+
+Stevens, Henry, "A constructive critic of the book," 38-43;
+  detects a misprint, 156;
+  his "My English library," 39;
+  his "Recollections of Mr. James Lenox," 38, _footnote_.
+
+Stevenson, Robert Louis, on Hazlitt, 141.
+
+Stoddard, Richard Henry, on Cervantes and Shakespeare, 70.
+
+Storage of books, _see_ Bigness, Thickness, Thinness.
+
+Strassburg Cathedral, as a product of genius, 65.
+
+"Student, The, and the Library," 139-144.
+
+Study, art of, 166, 167.
+
+Success, won by knowledge, 30.
+
+Swedish spelling, 148.
+
+Sweynheym and Pannartz, grandeur in their work, 4.
+
+
+TASTE, _see_ Esthetics.
+
+Tauchnitz editions, compared with Little Classic editions, 26.
+
+Tennyson, Alfred, and his brothers at Cambridge University, 139;
+  inappropriate edition of his "Life," 11;
+  a novel reader, 107.
+
+Tests, of the utility of the book, 115;
+  of type, 120-127.
+
+Thackeray, William Makepeace, at Cambridge University, 139;
+  on reading him, 143;
+  quoted, 11;
+  works in illegible print, 130.
+
+Theocritus, as characterized by Mrs. Browning, 68.
+
+Thickness, in books, esthetic effect of, 23, 25;
+  "Thick paper and thin," 92-96.
+
+Thinness, in books, esthetic effect of, 23;
+  "Thick paper and thin," 92-96.
+
+Thompson, Francis, indicated caesura by an asterisk, 18.
+
+Thomson, James, Hazlitt on, 142.
+
+Thoreau, Henry David, member of the New England group of authors, 75, 76.
+
+Thou, Jacques Auguste de, binding made for, 100.
+
+Title-page, problems of, 59.
+
+Torrey, Joseph, on reading Dante, 109, 110.
+
+Translations of "Don Quixote," 143, 144.
+
+Tribute typography, 9-13, 136, 137.
+
+Type, aims in its design, 5, 117, 118;
+  Chinese, 80;
+  contrast of, 16, 17;
+  "Exceptions to the rule of legibility," 130, 131, 135-138;
+  faults of German and French, 117;
+  in relation to the book beautiful, 57-59, 61;
+  page, 56, 57;
+  "Perversities of type," 152-161;
+  reform of, 118;
+  "Types and eyes: The problem," 120-127,
+    ---- "Progress," 128-133.
+  _See also_ Italic; Page.
+
+Typewriting, a form of print, 15.
+
+Typography, primarily a reduction of cost, 115;
+  school of, proposed by Henry Stevens, 40-43;
+  tribute typography, 9-13, 136, 137;
+  a triumph of, 16.
+  _See also_ Print.
+
+
+UNITED STATES, annual book publication, 105;
+  library development since 1875, 104.
+
+Updike, Daniel Berkeley, his comic edition of Irving's "Knickerbocker,"
+    10, 11;
+  his specimen pages of the "Imitatio Christi," 136.
+
+
+"VALUE of reading, to the public and to the individual," 28-32.
+
+Values, two great classes, 31, 32.
+
+Vergil, Dante's master, 69;
+  did not write for children, 68;
+  his Aeneid, 69;
+  scanty punctuation in earliest manuscript of, 17.
+
+Verse, _see_ Poetry.
+
+Vision, _see_ Sight.
+
+
+WARD, ARTEMUS, _pseudonym_, adopts a misprint, 157.
+
+Webster, Daniel, debt to Milton, 110.
+
+Webster, Noah, his "Collegiate Dictionary" on thin paper preferred, 95;
+  his "Unabridged Dictionary" on large paper, 131.
+
+Wendell, Barrett, on Barlow's "Columbiad," 10.
+
+Wheatley, Henry Benjamin, on "Literary blunders," 156, 157.
+
+Whitman, Walt, on the world's greatest books, 113, 114.
+
+Whittier, John Greenleaf, member of New England group of authors, 75.
+
+Whittingham, Charles, method of book design, 41;
+  printer, 38.
+
+"Who spoils our new English books?" by Henry Stevens, 38.
+
+Wilberforce, Samuel, Bishop of Oxford, a famous misprint concerning,
+    153, 154.
+
+Wordsworth, Dorothy, on favorite books, 3.
+
+Wordsworth, William, a favorite edition of, 24;
+  read by old men, 111.
+
+World Almanac, commended, 130, 131.
+
+Writing, _see_ Authorship; Manuscript; Materials.
+
+
+XENOPHON, contributor to a Bible of humanity, 68;
+  did not write for children, 68.
+
+    +------------------------------------------------------------+
+    | Transcriber's Notes:                                       |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Table of Contents: The chapter heading "The Value of       |
+    | Reading" is an abbreviation of the chapter heading on page |
+    | 28. Left as is                                             |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Page 31: Full stop added after "Was but a book"            |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Page 62: techiness _sic_                                   |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Page 86: Kuran and Kurán _sic_                             |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Page 108: Comma added after "daily"                        |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Page 157: Full stop added after "before him"               |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Page 171: Ae in Aeschylus replaced with ae ligature to     |
+    | match text in book                                         |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Page 178: Page numbers for "Exception to the rule of       |
+    | legibility" re-arranged into ascending order               |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Page 183: ae in Respublicae Variae replaced with ae        |
+    | ligatures to match text in book                            |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Page 185: Page numbers for "Exception to the rule of       |
+    | legibility" re-arranged into ascending order               |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Hyphenation has been standardised. One instance of         |
+    | ink-maker/ink maker retained.                              |
+    |                                                            |
+    +------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Booklover and His Books, by Harry Lyman Koopman
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+
+Project Gutenberg's The Booklover and His Books, by Harry Lyman Koopman
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Booklover and His Books
+
+Author: Harry Lyman Koopman
+
+Release Date: September 15, 2007 [EBook #22606]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOKLOVER AND HIS BOOKS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, Meghan, and the booksmiths
+at http://www.eBookForge.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="transnote">
+<h3>Transcriber's Note:</h3>
+
+<p>Obvious typographical errors have been corrected in
+this text. For a complete list, please see <a href="#Transcribers_Notes">the bottom of
+this document</a>.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i"></a>[<a href="./images/i.png">i</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>THE BOOKLOVER AND HIS BOOKS</h2>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii"></a>[<a href="./images/ii.png">ii</a>]</span></p>
+<p><a name="frontispiece" id="frontispiece"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 296px;">
+<a href="images/img01.jpg">
+<img src="images/img01_th.jpg" width="296" height="400" alt="From the Digestum Novum of Justinian, printed at Venice
+by Jenson in 1477. The type page of which this is a reduction measures
+12-1/2 by 8-1/2 inches. The initials in the original have been filled in
+by hand in red and blue.
+
+From the copy in the Library of Brown University" title="" /></a>
+
+<span class="caption">From the <i>Digestum Novum</i> of Justinian, printed at Venice
+by Jenson in 1477. The type page of which this is a reduction measures
+12-1/2 by 8-1/2 inches. The initials in the original have been filled in
+by hand in red and blue.<br />
+
+<i>From the copy in the Library of Brown University</i></span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii"></a>[<a href="./images/iii.png">iii</a>]</span></p>
+<h1>THE BOOKLOVER AND<br />
+HIS BOOKS<br /></h1>
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2>HARRY LYMAN KOOPMAN, <span class="smcap">Litt.D.</span></h2>
+
+<h3>LIBRARIAN OF BROWN UNIVERSITY</h3>
+
+<p class="frontend">
+BOSTON<br />
+THE BOSTON BOOK COMPANY<br />
+1917</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv"></a>[<a href="./images/iv.png">iv</a>]</span></p>
+<p class="frontend">
+<i>Copyright, 1916,</i><br />
+<span class="smcap">By The Boston Book Company</span><br />
+<br />
+THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE, U. S. A.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v"></a>[<a href="./images/v.png">v</a>]</span></p>
+<h3>TO<br />
+THE AUTHORS AND THEIR PRINTERS<br />
+WHO HAVE GIVEN US<br />
+THE BOOKS THAT WE LOVE</h3>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi"></a>[<a href="./images/vi.png">vi</a>]</span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii"></a>[<a href="./images/vii.png">vii</a>]</span></p><h2>PREFATORY NOTE</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img02.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img02.jpg" width="80" height="82" alt="CH1" title="CH1" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>HE following chapters were written during a series of years as one
+aspect after another of the Book engaged the writer's attention. As they
+are now brought together, the result is not a systematic treatise, but
+rather a succession of views of one many-sided subject. In consequence
+there is considerable overlapping. The writer hopes, however, that this
+will be looked upon not as vain repetition but as a legitimate
+reinforcement of his underlying theme, the unity in diversity of the
+Book and the federation of all who have to do with it. He therefore
+offers the present volume not so much for continuous reading as for
+reading by chapters. He trusts that for those who may consult it in
+connection with systematic study a sufficient clue to whatever it may
+contain on any given topic will be found in the index.</p></div>
+
+<p>Most of these chapters appeared as papers in "The Printing Art"; two
+were published in "The Graphic Arts," and some in other magazines. The
+writer expresses his thanks to the proprietors of these periodicals for
+the permission to republish the articles in their present collective
+form. All the papers have been revised to some extent. They were
+originally written in rare moments of leisure scattered through the busy
+hours of a librarian. Their writing was a source of pleasure, and their
+first publication brought him many delightful associations. As they are
+presented in their new attire to another group of readers, their author
+can wish for them no better fortune than to meet&mdash;possibly to
+make&mdash;booklovers.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">
+<span class="smcap">Brown University Library</span>,<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Commencement Day, 1916<br />
+</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii"></a>[<a href="./images/viii.png">viii</a>]</span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix"></a>[<a href="./images/ix.png">ix</a>]</span></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="TOC">
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Books and Booklovers</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fitness in Book Design</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Print as an Interpreter of Meaning</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Favorite Book Sizes</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Value of Reading</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Book of To-day and the Book of To-morrow</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">A Constructive Critic of the Book</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Books as a Librarian Would Like Them</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Book Beautiful</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Reader's High Privilege</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Background of the Book</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Chinese Book</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Thick Paper and Thin</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Clothing of a Book</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Parchment Bindings</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Lest We Forget the Few Great Books</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Printing Problems for Science to Solve</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Types and Eyes: The Problem</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Types and Eyes: Progress</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Exceptions to the Rule of Legibility</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Student and the Library</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Orthographic Reform</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Perversities of Type</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">A Secret of Personal Power</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x"></a>[<a href="./images/x.png">x</a>]</span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a>[<a href="./images/1.png">1</a>]</span></p><h2>THE BOOKLOVER AND HIS BOOKS</h2>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a>[<a href="./images/2.png">2</a>]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"></a>[<a href="./images/3.png">3</a>]</span></p>
+<h1>THE BOOKLOVER AND HIS<br />
+BOOKS</h1>
+
+
+<h2>BOOKS AND BOOKLOVERS<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img03.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img03.jpg" width="80" height="81" alt="CH2" title="CH2" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>HE booklover is distinguished from the reader as such by loving his
+books, and from the collector as such by reading them. He prizes not
+only the soul of the book, but also its body, which he would make a
+house beautiful, meet for the indwelling of the spirit given by its
+author. Love is not too strong a word to apply to his regard, which
+demands, in the language of Dorothy Wordsworth, "a beautiful book, a
+book to caress&mdash;peculiar, distinctive, individual: a book that hath
+first caught your eye and then pleased your fancy." The truth is that
+the book on its physical side is a highly organized art object. Not in
+vain has it transmitted the thought and passion of the ages; it has
+taken toll of them, and in the hands of its worthiest makers these
+elements have worked themselves out into its material body. Enshrining
+the artist's thought, it has, therefore, the qualities of a true art
+product, and stands second only to those which express it, such as
+painting and sculpture; but no other art product of its own order, not
+the violin nor the jewel-casket, can compare with the book in esthetic
+quality. It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4"></a>[<a href="./images/4.png">4</a>]</span> meets one of the highest tests of art, for it can appeal to
+the senses of both beauty and grandeur, either separately, as in the
+work of Aldus and of Sweynheym and Pannartz, or together, as in that of
+Jenson.</p></div>
+
+<p>Books have doubtless had their lovers in all ages, under all their
+forms. Even the Assyrian clay tablet, if stamped with the words of poet
+or sage, might have shared the affection which they inspired. So might
+the papyrus roll of the Egyptian, and so does even to-day the parchment
+book of the middle ages, whenever its fortunate owner has the soul of a
+booklover. From this book our own was derived, yet not without a break.
+For our book is not so much a copy of the Roman and medieval book as a
+"substitute" for it, a machine product made originally to sell at a
+large profit for the price of hand-work. It was fortunate for the early
+printed book that it stood in this intimate if not honored relation to
+the work of the scribes and illuminators, and fortunate for the book of
+to-day, since, with all its lapses, it cannot escape its heritage of
+those high standards.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. John Cotton Dana has analyzed the book into forty elements; a
+minuter analysis might increase the number to sixty; but of either
+number the most are subsidiary, a few controlling. The latter are those
+of which each, if decided upon first, determines the character of the
+rest; they include size, paper, and type. The mention of any size,
+folio, quarto, octavo, twelvemo, sixteenmo, calls up at once a distinct
+mental picture of an ideal book for each dimension, and the series is
+marked by a decreasing thickness of paper and size of type as it
+progresses downward from the folio. The proportions of the page will
+also vary, as well as the surface of the paper and the cut of the type,
+the other elements conforming to that first chosen.</p>
+
+<p>Next to size, paper determines the expression of a book. It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5"></a>[<a href="./images/5.png">5</a>]</span> is the
+printing material par excellence; but for its production the art could
+never have flourished. It is as much preferred by the printer as
+parchment was by the scribe. Its three elements of body, surface, and
+tint must all be considered, and either body or surface may determine
+the size of the book or the character of the type. A smooth surface may
+be an element of beauty, as with the paper employed by Baskerville, but
+it must not be a shiny surface. The great desideratum in modern paper
+from the point of view of the book-buyer is a paper that, while opaque
+and tough, shall be thin enough to give us our books in small compass,
+one more akin to the dainty and precious vellum than to the heavier and
+coarser parchment. It should also be durable.</p>
+
+<p>Type gives its name to the art and is the instrument by which the spoken
+word is made visible to the eye. The aims in its design should be
+legibility, beauty, and compactness, in this order; but these are more
+or less conflicting qualities, and it is doubtful if any one design can
+surpass in all. Modern type is cleaner-cut than the old, but it may be
+questioned whether this is a real gain. William Morris held that all
+types should avoid hair-lines, fussiness, and ugliness. Legibility
+should have the right of way for most printed matter, especially
+children's books and newspapers. If the latter desire compactness, they
+should condense their style, not their types.</p>
+
+<p>A further important element, which affects both the legibility and the
+durability of the book, is the ink. For most purposes it should be a
+rich black. Some of the print of the early masters is now brown, and
+there have been fashions of gray printing, but the booklover demands
+black ink, except in ornaments, and there color, if it is to win his
+favor, must be used sparingly and with great skill. We are told that the
+best combination for the eye is ink of a bluish tint on buff-tinted
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"></a>[<a href="./images/6.png">6</a>]</span>paper; but, like much other good advice, this remains practically
+untried.</p>
+
+<p>Illustrations have been a feature of the book for over four hundred
+years, but they have hardly yet become naturalized within its pages. Or
+shall we say that they soon forgot their proper subordination to the
+type and have since kept up a more or less open revolt? The law of
+fitness demands that whatever is introduced into the book in connection
+with type shall harmonize with the relatively heavy lines of type. This
+the early black-line engravings did. But the results of all other
+processes, from copper-plate to half-tone, conflict with the
+type-picture and should be placed where they are not seen with it.
+Photogravures, for instance, may be put at the end of the book, or they
+may be covered with a piece of opaque tissue paper, so that either their
+page or the facing type-page will be seen alone. We cannot do without
+illustrations. All mankind love a picture as they love a lover. But let
+the pictures belong to the book and not merely be thrust into it.</p>
+
+<p>The binding is to the book what the book is to its subject-matter, a
+clothing and protection. In the middle ages, when books were so few as
+to be a distinction, they were displayed sidewise, not edgewise, on the
+shelves, and their covers were often richly decorated, sometimes with
+costly gems. Even the wooden cover of the pre-Columbian Mexican book had
+gems set in its corners. Modern ornamentation is confined to tooling,
+blind and gilt, and inlaying. But some booklovers question whether any
+decoration really adds to the beauty of the finest leather. It should be
+remembered that the binding is not all on the outside. The visible cover
+is only the jacket of the real cover on which the integrity of the book
+depends. The sewing is the first element in time and importance. To be
+well bound a book should lie open<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7"></a>[<a href="./images/7.png">7</a>]</span> well, otherwise it is bound not for
+the reader but only for the collector.</p>
+
+<p>It cannot be too often repeated that properly made books are not
+extremely costly. A modern book offered at a fancy price means either a
+very small edition, an extravagant binding, or what is more likely, a
+gullible public. But most books that appeal to the booklover are not
+excessive in price. Never before was so much money spent in making books
+attractive&mdash;for the publisher always has half an eye on the
+booklover&mdash;and while much of this money is wasted, not all is laid out
+in vain. Our age is producing its quota of good books, and these the
+booklover makes it his business to discover.</p>
+
+<p>In order to appreciate, the booklover must first know. He must be a
+book-kenner, a critic, but one who is looking for excellencies rather
+than faults, and this knowledge there are many books to teach him. But
+there is no guide that can impart the love of books; he must learn to
+love them as one learns to love sunsets, mountains, and the ocean, by
+seeing them. So let him who would know the joys and rewards of the
+booklover associate with well-made books. Let him begin with the
+ancients of printing, the great Germans, Italians, Dutchmen. He can
+still buy their books if he is well-to-do, or see them in libraries and
+museums if he belongs to the majority. Working down to the moderns, he
+will find himself discriminating and rejecting, but he will be attracted
+by certain printers and certain periods in the last four hundred years,
+and he will be rejoiced to find that the last thirty years, though
+following a decline, hold their own&mdash;not by their mean but by their
+best&mdash;with any former period short of the great first half-century,
+1450-1500.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, if his book-love develops the missionary spirit in him, let him
+lend his support to the printers and publishers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"></a>[<a href="./images/8.png">8</a>]</span> of to-day who are
+producing books worthy of the booklover's regard, for in no other way
+can he so effectually speed the day when all books shall justify the
+emotion which more than five hundred years ago Richard de Bury, Bishop
+of Durham, expressed in the title of his famous and still cherished
+work, the <i>Philobiblon</i>.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"></a>[<a href="./images/9.png">9</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>FITNESS IN BOOK DESIGN</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img04.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img04.jpg" width="80" height="80" alt="CH3" title="CH3" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>WOMAN'S fitness comes by fits," said slanderous Cloten; but to say as
+much of fitness in book design would be on the whole a compliment.
+Fitness as applied to book design means, of course, that the material
+form of the book shall correspond to its spiritual substance, shall be
+no finer and no meaner, and shall produce a like, even if a slighter,
+esthetic impression. At the outset we have to surrender to commercialism
+more than half our territory. All agree that our kings should be clothed
+in purple and our commoners in broadcloth; but how about the
+intellectual riffraff that makes up the majority of our books? Are our
+publishers willing that these should be clothed according to their
+station? Hardly; for then would much of their own occupation be gone. It
+is recognized that for a large proportion of our publications the
+design&mdash;the outward appearance&mdash;is in great measure counted on to sell
+the book; and printers and publishers will not consent to send the
+paupers of literature forth upon the world in their native rags, for so
+they would find no one to welcome them. It will be useless to quarrel
+with the fact that the design of many books is meant as a bait and not
+as a simple interpretation of their meaning and worth. Design of this
+character, however, is relatively easy; it is really not design at all,
+but millinery. It is when his work becomes genuinely interpretative that
+the designer's difficulties begin.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"></a>[<a href="./images/10.png">10</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first business of the designer, therefore, is to understand the book
+he is treating. Here, of course, his judgment, however sincere, may be
+mistaken or misled. A classical instance of this is found in connection
+with one of the most famous books in the history of modern
+printing,&mdash;Barlow's "Columbiad." This work, which first appeared in 1787
+under a different title, was enlarged to epic proportions during the
+next twenty years, and was finally given to the world in 1807 in the
+belief on the part of its author and in the hope at least on the part of
+its publisher that it would take rank and be honored for all time as the
+great American epic. Under this misconception the book was clothed in a
+form that might worthily have enshrined "Paradise Lost." Its stately
+quarto pages were set in a type specially designed for the work and
+taking from it the name of Columbian. The volume was embellished with
+full-page engravings after paintings in the heroic manner by Smirke; in
+short, it was the most pretentious book issued in America up to that
+time, and it still ranks, in the words of Professor Barrett Wendell,
+"among the most impressive books to look at in the world." But alas for
+the vanity of human aspirations! "The Columbiad" is now remembered as a
+contribution to typography rather than literature. The designer overshot
+his author.</p>
+
+<p>We have tacitly assumed that a book has but one interpretation and
+therefore but one most appropriate design. This, however, is far from
+the truth. When, after various more or less successful editions of
+Irving's "Knickerbocker" had appeared, Mr. Updike brought out some
+twenty years ago his comic edition, with the whole make-up of the book
+expressive of the clumsy and stupid Dutchmen depicted in Irving's
+mock-heroic, we felt at the moment that here was the one ideal
+"Knickerbocker." Yet, much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"></a>[<a href="./images/11.png">11</a>]</span> as we still admire it, does it wholly
+satisfy us? Is there not as much room as ever for an edition that shall
+express primarily not the absurdity of its subject-matter, but the
+delicate playfulness of Irving's humor and the lightness and grace of
+his exuberant style? Has there ever been a final "Don Quixote"?
+Certainly not in the recent monumental editions with their quagmire of
+footnotes. Moreover, if <i>we</i> had a final edition of the great romance it
+would not remain final for our children's children. Every age will make
+its own interpretations of the classics and will demand that they be
+embodied in contemporary design. Thus every age in its book design
+mirrors itself for future admiration or contempt.</p>
+
+<p>Obviously, in giving form to a single work a designer is freer than in
+handling a series by one or by various authors. In such cases he must
+seize upon more general and therefore less salient characteristics. The
+designer of "Hiawatha" or "Evangeline" has a fairly clear task before
+him, with a chance of distinct success or failure; but the designer of
+an appropriate form for the whole series of Longfellow's works, both
+prose and poetry, has a less individualized problem, and must think of
+the elements that run through all,&mdash;sweetness, grace, gentleness,
+dignity, learning. Yet, though general, these qualities in a series may
+be far from vague. We have only to consider the absurdity of a
+handy-volume Gibbon or a folio Lamb. On looking at the bulky,
+large-type, black-covered volumes of the Forman edition of Shelley and
+Keats one instinctively asks, "What crime did these poets commit that
+they should be so impounded?" The original edition of the life of
+Tennyson by his son, in two lumbering, royal octavo volumes, comes near
+to what Thackeray called the Farnese Hercules, "a hulking abortion."
+Contrast with it the dignity linked with charm of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"></a>[<a href="./images/12.png">12</a>]</span> the original edition
+of Longfellow's life by his brother. But of all monstrosities of book
+design the British three-volume novel mania is responsible for some of
+the worst. Henry Ward Beecher's one novel, "Norwood," which appeared in
+America becomingly clad in a single volume, received in England the
+regulation three-volume dress, in which it looks as ridiculously
+inflated as did a slender miss of that period in the crinoline then in
+vogue. There is one abomination in book design for which I owe a
+personal grudge to commercialism, and that is the dropsical book form
+given to Locker-Lampson's "My Confidences." If ever there was a winsome
+bit of writing it is this, and it should have made a book to take to
+one's heart, something not larger than a "Golden Treasury" volume, but
+of individual design. My comfort is that this will yet be done, and my
+belief is that art will justify itself better in the market than
+commercialism did. A more modern instance of expansion for commercial
+reasons defeating fitness in design is furnished by Waters' translation
+of "The Journal of Montaigne's Travels." Here we have three small
+volumes outwardly attractive, but printed on paper thick enough for
+catalogue cards, and therefore too stiff for the binding, also in type
+too large to be pleasant. The whole should have been issued in one
+volume of the same size in smaller type, and would then have been as
+delightful in form as it is in substance.</p>
+
+<p>It is not enough that all the elements of a book be honest, sincere,
+enduring; otherwise the clumsy royal octavos of Leslie Stephen's edition
+of Fielding would be as attractive as "the dear and dumpy twelves" of
+the original editions. Royal octavo, indeed, seems to be the pitfall of
+the book designer, though there is no inherent objection to it. Where in
+the whole range of reference books will be found a more attractive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"></a>[<a href="./images/13.png">13</a>]</span> set
+of volumes than Moulton's "Library of Literary Criticism," with their
+realization in this format of the Horatian <i>simplex munditiis</i>? For
+extremely different treatments of this book size it is instructive to
+compare the slender volumes of the original editions of Ruskin with the
+slightly shorter but very much thicker volumes of the scholarly
+definitive edition, which is a monument of excellence in every element
+of book design except the crowning one of fitness. Our libraries must
+have this edition for its completeness and its editorship; its material
+excellence will insure the transmission of Ruskin's message to future
+centuries; but no one will ever fall in love with these volumes or think
+of likening them to the marriage of "perfect music unto noble words."</p>
+
+<p>Granted that the designer knows the tools of his trade,&mdash;grasps the
+expressional value of every element with which he has to deal, from the
+cut of a type to the surface of a binder's cloth,&mdash;his task, as we said,
+is first to know the soul of the book intrusted to him for embodiment;
+it is next to decide upon its most characteristic quality, or the sum of
+its qualities; and, lastly, it is so to use his physical elements as to
+give to the completed book an expression that shall be the outward
+manifestation of its indwelling spirit. This is all that can be asked of
+him; but, if he would add a touch of perfection, let him convey the
+subtle tribute of a sense of the value of his subject by reflecting in
+his design the artist's joy in his work.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"></a>[<a href="./images/14.png">14</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>PRINT AS AN INTERPRETER OF MEANING</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img05.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img05.jpg" width="80" height="80" alt="CH4" title="CH4" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>HE invention of printing, we have often been told, added to book
+production only the two commercial elements of speed and cheapness. As
+regards the book itself, we are assured, printing not only added
+nothing, but, during the four and a half centuries of its development,
+has constantly tended to take away. These statements are no doubt
+historically and theoretically true, yet they are so unjust to the
+present-day art that some supplementary statement of our obligations to
+printing seems called for, aside from the obvious rejoinder that, even
+if speed and cheapness are commercial qualities, they have reached a
+development&mdash;especially in the newspaper&mdash;beyond the dreams of the most
+imaginative fifteenth-century inventor, and have done nothing less than
+revolutionize the world.</p></div>
+
+<p>Taking the service of printing as it stands to-day, what does it
+actually do for the reader? What is the great difference between the
+printed word and even the best handwriting? It is obviously the
+condensation and the absolute mechanical sameness of print. The
+advantage of these differences to the eye in respect to rapid reading is
+hardly to be overestimated. Let any one take a specimen of average
+penmanship and note the time which he consumes in reading it; let him
+compare with this the time occupied in reading the same number of
+printed words, and the difference will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"></a>[<a href="./images/15.png">15</a>]</span> be startling; but not even so
+will it do justice to print, for handwriting average in quality is very
+far from average in frequency. If it be urged that the twentieth-century
+comparison should be between typewriting and print, we may reply that
+typewriting <i>is</i> print, though it lacks most of its condensation, and
+that the credit for its superior legibility belongs to typography, of
+which the new art is obviously a by-product. But we are not yet out of
+the manuscript period, so far as private records are concerned, and it
+still is true, as it has been for many generations, that print
+multiplies the years of every scholar's and reader's life.</p>
+
+<p>At this point we may even introduce a claim for print as a contributor
+to literature. There are certainly many books of high literary standing
+that never would have attained their present form without the
+intervention of type. It is well known that Carlyle rewrote his books in
+proof, so that the printer, instead of attempting to correct his
+galleys, reset them outright. Balzac went a step further, and largely
+wrote his novels in proof, if such an expression may be allowed. He so
+altered and expanded them that what went to the printing office as copy
+for a novelette finally came out of it a full-sized novel. Even where
+the changes are not so extensive, as in the proof-sheets of the Waverley
+Novels preserved in the Cornell University Library, it is interesting to
+trace the alterations which the author was prompted to make by the sight
+of his paragraphs clothed in the startling distinctness of print. Nor is
+this at all surprising when one considers how much better the eye can
+take in the thought and style of a composition from the printed page
+than it can even from typewriting. The advantage is so marked that some
+publishers, before starting on an expensive literary venture, are
+accustomed to have the copy set up on the linotype for the benefit of
+their critics. If the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"></a>[<a href="./images/16.png">16</a>]</span> work is accepted, the revisions are made on these
+sheets, and then, finally, the work is sent back to the composing room
+to receive the more elaborate typographic dress in which it is to
+appear.</p>
+
+<p>But to return to the advantages of type to the reader. Handwriting can
+make distinctions, such as punctuation and paragraphing, but print can
+greatly enforce them. The meaning of no written page leaps out to the
+eye; but this is the regular experience of the reader with every
+well-printed page. While printing can do nothing on a single page that
+is beyond the power of a skillful penman, its ordinary resources are the
+extraordinary ones of manuscript. It might not be physically impossible,
+for instance, to duplicate with a pen a page of the Century Dictionary,
+but it would be practically impossible, and, if the pen were our only
+resource, we never should have such a marvel of condensation and
+distinctness as that triumph of typography in the service of
+scholarship.</p>
+
+<p>In ordinary text, printing has grown away from the distinctions to the
+eye that were in vogue two hundred years ago&mdash;a gain to art and perhaps
+to legibility also, though contemporary critics like Franklin lamented
+the change&mdash;but in reference books we have attained to a finer skill in
+making distinctions to the eye than our forefathers achieved with all
+their typographic struggles. Nor are our reference pages lacking in
+beauty. But our familiarity with works of this class tends to obscure
+their wonderful merit as time-savers and eye-savers. It is only when we
+take up some foreign dictionary, printed with little contrast of type,
+perhaps in German text, and bristling with unmeaning abbreviations, that
+we appreciate our privilege. Surely this is a marvelous mechanical
+triumph, to present the words of an author in such a form that the eye,
+to take it in, needs but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"></a>[<a href="./images/17.png">17</a>]</span> to sweep rapidly down the page, or, if it
+merely glances at the page, it shall have the meaning of the whole so
+focused in a few leading words that it can turn at once to the passage
+sought, or see that it must look elsewhere. The saving of time so
+effected may be interpreted either as a lengthening of life or as an
+increased fullness of life, but it means also a lessening of friction
+and thus an addition to human comfort.</p>
+
+<p>We have been speaking of prose; but print has done as much or more to
+interpret the meaning of poetry. We have before us a facsimile of
+nineteen lines from the oldest Vatican manuscript of Vergil. The
+hexameters are written in single lines; but this is the only help to the
+eye. The letters are capitals and are individually very beautiful,
+indeed, the lines are like ribbons of rich decoration; but the words are
+not separated, and the punctuation is inconspicuous and primitively
+simple, consisting merely of faint dots. Modern poetry, especially
+lyric, with its wealth and interplay of rhyme, affords a fine
+opportunity for the printer to mediate between the poet and his public,
+and this he has been able to do by mere indention and leading, without
+resorting to distinction of type. The reader of a sonnet or ballad
+printed without these two aids to the eye is robbed of his rightful
+clues to the construction of the verse. It seems hardly possible that a
+poem could have been read aloud from an ancient manuscript, at sight,
+with proper inflection; yet this is just what printing can make possible
+for the modern reader. It has not usually done so, for the printer has
+been very conservative; he has taken his conception of a page from
+prose, and, not being compelled to, has not placed all the resources of
+his art at the service of the poet. Accents, pauses, and certain
+arbitrary signs might well be employed to indicate to the reader the
+way<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"></a>[<a href="./images/18.png">18</a>]</span> the poet meant his line to be read. Milton curiously gave us some
+metric hints by means of changes in spelling, but we have to read all
+our other poets in the light of our own discernment, and it is not to be
+wondered at if doctors disagree. Even the caesura, or pause in the
+course of a long line, is not always easy to place. Francis Thompson, in
+his poem "A Judgement in Heaven," has indicated this by an asterisk,
+giving an example that might well be followed by other poets and their
+printers. The regularity of eighteenth-century verse made little call
+for guide-posts, but modern free meter, in proportion to its greater
+flexibility and richness, demands more assistance to the reader's eye,
+or even to his understanding. For instance, to read aloud hexameters or
+other long lines, some of which have the initial accent on the first
+syllable and some later, is quite impossible without previous study
+supplemented by a marking of the page. Yet a few printed accents would
+make a false start impossible. Poetry will never require the elaborate
+aid from the printer which he gives to music; but it seems clear that he
+has not yet done for it all that he might or should.</p>
+
+<p>It is surely not an extreme assumption that the first duty of the
+printer is to the meaning of his author, and his second to esthetics;
+but shall we not rather say that his duty is to meet both demands, not
+by a compromise, but by a complete satisfaction of each? A difficult
+requirement, surely, but one that we are confident the twentieth-century
+printer will not permit his critics to pronounce impossible.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"></a>[<a href="./images/19.png">19</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>FAVORITE BOOK SIZES</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img06.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img06.jpg" width="80" height="80" alt="CH5" title="CH5" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>N the following paper some account will be given of five book sizes
+that have taken rank as favorites. It should excite no surprise that all
+are small sizes. Nature's favorites are always small; her insect jewels
+outnumber her vertebrates a millionfold; and book-loving human nature
+takes the same delight in daintiness.</p>
+
+<p>There is, to be sure, a general impression that the first centuries of
+printing were given up to folios, the eighteenth century to quartos and
+octavos, and that only the present period has been characterized by
+twelvemos and sixteenmos. We think of the Gutenberg Bible, the Nuremberg
+Chronicle, the mighty editions of the Fathers, the polyglot Bibles of
+Paris, London, and Antwerp,&mdash;fairly to be called limp teachers'
+Bibles,&mdash;the 1611 Bible, the Shakespeare folios; then of the quarto
+editions of Addison, Pope, Walpole, and their contemporaries, and the
+stately octavo editions of the same writers; and finally of the myriad
+<i>infra</i> that have swarmed from the press during the last century. But,
+when we walk through a library that offers a representative collection
+of books from the invention of printing to the present, we realize that
+the bigness of the folios and quartos has deceived us as to their
+relative number, all forms of literature being considered.</p></div>
+
+<p>The parent of our present book form, the Roman codex, split from an
+actual block of wood, had a surface hardly as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20"></a>[<a href="./images/20.png">20</a>]</span> large as the cover of a
+Little Classic. The vellum Books of Hours were dainty volumes. Even in
+the period between Gutenberg and Aldus, books of moderate size were not
+uncommon, and continuously, from the days of the great Venetian
+popularizer of literature to the present, the small books have far
+outnumbered their heavy-armed allies. Common sense, indeed, would tell
+us that this must be so, even if it had not inspired Dr. Johnson, its
+eighteenth century exponent, to declare: "Books that you may carry to
+the fire, and hold readily in your hand, are the most useful after all."</p>
+
+<p>Our account properly begins with Aldus. From 1494, the date of his first
+productions, until 1501 he printed his books in folio and quarto. But in
+the first year of the new century he began to use his famous cursive
+type, now called italic. The fineness of the new type, as has been
+suggested, called for a smaller size of book, which was also favored by
+considerations of economy and convenience; and so Aldus made up his
+sheets in a form which the fold compels us to call octavo, but which
+to-day would be called sixteenmo. Says Horatio F. Brown, in his "The
+Venetian Printing Press": "The public welcomed the new type and size.
+The College granted Aldus a monopoly for ten years for all books printed
+in this manner. The price of books was lowered at once. Didot calculates
+that an octavo of Aldus cost, on an average, two francs and a half,
+whereas a folio probably cost about twenty francs. These two innovations
+on type and on format constituted a veritable revolution in the printing
+press and in the book trade, which now began to reach a far more
+extensive market than it had ever touched before. With this wide
+diffusion of books came the popularization of knowledge at which Aldus
+aimed. Scholarship began to lose its exclusive and aristocratic
+character when the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"></a>[<a href="./images/21.png">21</a>]</span> classics were placed within the reach of any student
+who chose to study, meditate, and interpret them for himself. And to
+Aldus belongs the credit of having, through his new type and size,
+opened the way to the democratization of learning."</p>
+
+<p>That the taste which Aldus so successfully hit was no merely temporary
+one, any person will be convinced if he will stand before a shelf full
+of these little Aldus classics, handle the light, well-proportioned
+volumes, and take in the esthetic charm of their type and page and form,
+which, in spite of their four hundred years, by no means savors of
+antiquity. In these books Aldus achieved one of the greatest triumphs
+possible in any art, a union of beauty and utility, each on so high a
+plane that no one is able to decide which is pre-eminent. In a copy
+which I have before me of his "Rhetoricorum ad C. Herennium Libri IIII,"
+1546, the fine proportions of the page appear in spite of trimming. Very
+noticeable are the undersized roman capitals; more curious is the letter
+printed in the otherwise blank square to indicate what initial the
+illuminator should insert in color, and the irregular use of capitals
+and small letters after a period. The catchword appears only on the last
+page of the signature, not on every page, as was the later practice.
+Modern usage wisely consigns italic to a subordinate place, but in point
+of beauty combined with convenience, it may well be questioned if four
+centuries of printing have made any advance upon this page.</p>
+
+<p>In nearly every library for scholars is to be found a row of plump
+little books that never fail to catch the eye of the sightseer. If the
+visitor does not know beforehand what they are, he is little enlightened
+on being told that they are "Elzevirs," and the attendant must needs
+supply the information that the Elzevirs were a family of Dutch printers
+who flourished during the century that closed with the arrival of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"></a>[<a href="./images/22.png">22</a>]</span>
+William III in England, and that these tiny volumes represent their most
+popular productions. Says George Haven Putnam in his "Books and their
+Makers during the Middle Ages": "The Elzevirs, following the example set
+a century and a half earlier by Aldus, but since that time very
+generally lost sight of by the later publishers, initiated a number of
+series of books in small and convenient forms, twelvemo and sixteenmo,
+which were offered to book buyers at prices considerably lower than
+those they had been in the habit of paying for similar material printed
+in folio, quarto, or octavo.... These well-edited, carefully printed,
+and low-priced editions of the classics won for the Elzevirs the cordial
+appreciation of scholars and of students throughout Europe."</p>
+
+<p>Among the authors who acknowledged their indebtedness to the Elzevirs
+may be mentioned Galileo, the elder Balzac, and the poet M&eacute;nage. I have
+before me more than six feet of shelving filled with these tiny books.
+They are nearly all bound in vellum, and thus retain their antique
+appearance without as well as within. Their subject-matter is in the
+fields of literature, ancient and contemporary, and the history,
+geography, and political constitution of the principal countries. The
+books of the latter division are known as "Respublic&aelig; Vari&aelig;." It is
+impossible to resist the conclusion that this book form was chosen not
+more to supply cheap books which could be sold to impecunious scholars
+than to provide portable volumes for travelers. The Elzevir
+"Commonwealths" were the predecessors of our "satchel guides," and the
+literary publications in this form were evidently designed to be pocket
+editions. It was to such books that Dr. Johnson referred when he advised
+his friends "never to go out without some little book or other in their
+pocket. Much time is lost by waiting, by travelling, etc., and this may
+be prevented by making use of every possible opportunity<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"></a>[<a href="./images/23.png">23</a>]</span> for
+improvement." When the positive doctor, on his journey to the Hebrides,
+paid his tribute to George Buchanan at St. Andrews, his acquaintance
+with the Latin poetry of the Scotch professor may well have arisen from
+his having thus made a pocket piece of one of the several Elzevir
+editions of the poet.</p>
+
+<p>The characteristics of the "Elzevirs" are that they range from about
+four to about five inches in height, are always narrow, 2-1/4 to 2-3/4
+inches in width, and are usually thick, in some cases even 1-1/2 inches.
+It is hardly necessary to say that the esthetic impression of these
+"jewels of typography" is wholly different from that produced by the
+"Alduses." It is the beauty of an infant compared with that of a youth,
+and, as in the case of the infant, plumpness is a part of the charm. The
+thinnest of the "Elzevirs" (about three-fourths of an inch thick) lack
+much of the characteristic quality. It is of course granted that no
+small portion of the charm exerted by these volumes is due to their
+type, which in artistic excellence and practical effectiveness has
+hardly been surpassed before or since.</p>
+
+<p>When William Pickering, in 1830, began to issue his Aldine edition of
+the British Poets in the most beautiful and appropriate form that he
+could devise, the design which he placed upon the title-page, a dolphin
+and an anchor, with the words "Aldi discip. Anglus," was an expression
+at once of pride and of obligation. He had gone back to Aldus for his
+model, and the book which he produced was in all but its change of type
+from italic to roman a nearly exact reproduction of the form which Aldus
+had employed so successfully three centuries before. Even the relative
+thinness of the volumes was preserved as an important element of their
+attractiveness to eye and hand. Whoever would learn what an enormous
+difference in esthetic effect can be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24"></a>[<a href="./images/24.png">24</a>]</span> produced by slight differences in
+style and size, especially in thickness, should compare the Pickering
+"Aldines" with the rival set of British Poets published by Little and
+Brown. The latter series is a noble one, often showing better presswork
+than Pickering's, and it was deservedly popular, but it is many degrees
+removed from the totality of esthetic charm that would entitle it to
+rank as a favorite.</p>
+
+<p>We said that Pickering went back to Aldus for his model, but he did not
+travel a lonely road. The book size in question had never ceased to be
+used, and in the eighteenth century it was in full favor. The writings
+of the novelists and essayists found ready buyers in this form, as
+witness, among others, the Strahan Fielding of 1783, the Rivington Idler
+of the same year, and the Rivington Sterne of 1788. The size of the
+printed page is usually larger, but that of the Sterne corresponds as
+closely to that of the two "Aldines" as the difference in the size of
+type will permit. Pickering's contemporaries and successors in the
+publishing field recognized the attractiveness of this book size, and
+the works of the poets generally were issued in this form; hence we
+have, for example, the Longman Southey, the Moxon Wordsworth, and the
+Murray Crabbe. The latest series to appeal for popular favor by the use
+of this book form is Everyman's Library, in which, though much has been
+sacrificed to cheapness, the outward proportions of the volumes are
+almost identical with those adopted by Aldus and Pickering.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Go, little book, whose pages hold<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Those garnered years in loving trust;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">How long before your blue and gold<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Shall fade and whiten in the dust?<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>This stanza from Dr. Holmes's introduction to his "Poems" of 1862 may
+well be claimed by the Blue and Gold edition of the poets as its
+passport to the recognition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25"></a>[<a href="./images/25.png">25</a>]</span> of future generations. But it will need no
+passport; its own enduring charm is sufficient. The volumes of this
+dainty series, while larger in all but thickness than the "Elzevirs,"
+yet make their appeal by much the same qualities, compactness and
+portability, with a suggestion of the Elzevirian plumpness. To the
+attraction of the size is added the contrasted charm of the blue cover
+and the gilt stamp and edges. That a Blue and Gold edition, in the
+absence of its name qualities, becomes something far inferior may be
+seen from a copy that has lost them in rebinding. In spite of the
+hardness of their blue and the crudeness of their stamped designs, these
+little volumes attract every reader and never remain long on the shelves
+of the second-hand bookstores. We should not expect a publisher to
+succeed were he now to put them upon the market for the first time or in
+an exact reproduction. But the publisher who shall so recombine their
+elements as to produce upon his public the effect which they made upon
+theirs, and which they still make as reminiscent of an earlier taste,
+will be the envy of his fellows. It is interesting to note that after
+fifty years these volumes show no sign of fading, so that Dr. Holmes
+might well have made his stanza an exclamation instead of a question.
+They seem likely to last as long as the "Elzevirs" or even the "Alduses"
+have already lasted, and possibly to outlast the fame, though hardly the
+memory, of the poet who sang them. The dimensions of the cover are 5-5/8
+by 3-3/8 inches; the thickness is about an inch. There was a larger Blue
+and Gold format, as well as several smaller, but only the standard is
+now valued.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot bring our list of favorite book sizes much nearer the present
+without running the risk of confusing the temporary and the permanent in
+popular approval. We will, therefore, close with a mention of the Little
+Classics. At<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26"></a>[<a href="./images/26.png">26</a>]</span> about the time when the Blue and Gold series ceased to be
+published, more exactly in 1874, Mr. Rossiter Johnson designed for the
+now famous series which he was then editing a book form that sprang at
+once into a favor that it still retains. In this form, which appears to
+have no near counterpart in either earlier or later bookmaking, the
+volumes are closely six by four inches by three-quarters of an inch in
+thickness. The edges are colored red, whatever the color of the sides.
+The printed page is relatively wide, and the whole effect of the book is
+that of a tiny quarto, though in reality the dimensions are those of a
+rather small sixteenmo of normal proportions. Thus the volume produces
+upon the eye the charm of daintiness, while the page contains a
+sufficient amount of matter to make the volume profitable to the
+purchaser.</p>
+
+<p>This series naturally suggests comparison with the Tauchnitz editions,
+which consist of volumes only slightly larger. But really no comparison
+is possible. The Tauchnitz editions are merely convenient carriers of
+letterpress. The Little Classics are a genuine art product. That the
+latter book size has not been more widely used than it has, by its own
+and by other publishers, is perhaps due to commercial reasons. But there
+can be no question of the esthetic appeal which it makes upon the reader
+who is looking for compactness and beauty rather than for the greatest
+bulk for his money. With the modern demand for the saving of space in
+private libraries we may reasonably look for a revival of this condensed
+and charming book size.</p>
+
+<p>The adoption of a few standard sizes for all books was urged some years
+ago at a meeting of American librarians. Commenting on this proposal, a
+New York publisher remarked that he should be glad to have such standard
+sizes adopted by others, but he should take pains to avoid them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"></a>[<a href="./images/27.png">27</a>]</span> in his
+own publications in order to gain the distinction of difference. The
+discussion stopped suddenly under the impact of this unexpected assault.
+But a second thought shows that the publisher's comment leaves the
+question still open. It is obvious that if we were to adopt standard
+sizes based upon nothing more fundamental than the librarian's desire
+for uniformity or the printer's mechanical convenience, without regard
+to the tastes and preferences of the reader, who is the final judge, the
+publisher might well find his gain in disregarding them. But if the
+standards adopted all represented sizes long tested and approved by
+popular favor, the publisher who should avoid them would display a
+confidence in the Spirit of the Perverse as sublime as it would be
+hazardous. Fortunately no formal standardization of book sizes is likely
+to be attempted. But, keenly as a publisher would resent any limitation
+upon his freedom in book design, he is just as keenly desirous that his
+books shall be favorites. To attain his coveted end he has two
+resources, experience and experiment, or a mixture of both. While the
+book sizes that have been discussed in this chapter do not include all
+the favorites, they certainly include some of the first favorites, and
+are worthy of study by everyone who is seeking public favor in the
+design of that complex art product known as a Book.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28"></a>[<a href="./images/28.png">28</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>THE VALUE OF READING, TO THE PUBLIC AND TO THE INDIVIDUAL</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img07.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img07.jpg" width="80" height="77" alt="CH6" title="CH6" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>F what value is it to a community to contain&mdash;still more to be composed
+of&mdash;well-read people? We can best answer this question by picturing its
+opposite, a community without readers; this we are unfortunately able to
+do without drawing upon our imaginations, for we have only to turn to
+certain districts of countries like Spain or Russia. There we shall meet
+whole communities, large enough to form cities elsewhere, which are
+little more than aggregations of paupers. Shall we find in any of these
+homes a daily or a weekly paper, or a monthly magazine, or even a stray
+book? Not one, except perhaps in the house of a priest. These masses of
+people live on the earth, to be sure, but they do not live in the world.
+No currents of the great, splendid life of the twentieth century ever
+reach them; and they live in equal isolation from the life of the past.
+"The glory that was Greece and the grandeur that was Rome" have for them
+simply no existence. They are truly the disinherited of all the ages.
+Though they may not be unhappy, they can be called nothing less than
+wretched. Is the fault one of race, or government, or religion? Much
+could be said on all these points, both for and against; but one fact
+remains indisputable&mdash;these people do not read.</p></div>
+
+<p>Let us turn now to a different type of community, that represented by
+the ordinary New England village. How<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29"></a>[<a href="./images/29.png">29</a>]</span> stands the cause of reading
+there? If there is any person of sound mind in the community who has
+never learned to read, he is pointed out as a curiosity. There is not a
+home in the length and breadth of the town that is without its paper,
+its magazine, or its books. In other words, literacy is taken for
+granted. Is it any wonder that in progress, wealth, and influence the
+one community starts where the other leaves off? In the illiterate towns
+just described there is often no man who has the slightest capacity for
+business or who can represent the interests of his community before even
+the humblest government official. But from towns of the other type come
+men who represent with honor their state and their nation; men who widen
+the bounds of freedom and who add new stars to the celestial sphere of
+knowledge. Is all this wholly a matter of reading? One would not dare to
+assert it absolutely, remembering the advantages of race, government,
+and religion enjoyed in New England. And yet we have only to fancy the
+condition of even such a town after one generation, supposing all its
+printed matter and its power to read were taken away, if we would
+realize what an impulse to progress and prosperity is given by the
+presence of the volumes that line the shelves of our public libraries.</p>
+
+<p>If the fortunes of a community in the modern world are bound up with the
+use that it makes of books and libraries, no less are those of the
+individual. This is true whether we refer to his private satisfaction or
+to his public advancement. The animal is endowed with instinct, which is
+sufficient for the guidance of his life, but it permits of no
+development. Man must depend upon judgment, experience, reason&mdash;guides
+that are often only too blind; but at least they admit of progress. In
+fact it is only in the field of knowledge that human progress appears to
+be possible. We have no better<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30"></a>[<a href="./images/30.png">30</a>]</span> bodies than the ancient Greeks had&mdash;to
+put the case very mildly. We have no better minds than they had&mdash;to make
+an even safer assertion. But we <i>know</i> almost infinitely more than they
+did. In this respect the ancient Greeks were but as children compared
+with ourselves. What makes this tremendous difference? Simply the fact
+that we know all that was known by them and the Romans and the men of
+the middle ages, and through this knowledge we have learned more by our
+own discovery than they knew, all put together. The path to success for
+men and races lies through the storehouse where this vast knowledge is
+garnered&mdash;the library. But it is something more than a storehouse of
+knowledge; it is an electrical battery of power. This knowledge, this
+power, can be obtained in its fullness only through books. The man,
+therefore, who aspires to lead his fellows, to command their respect or
+their votes, must not rely on native talent alone; he must add to it the
+stored-up talent of the ages.</p>
+
+<p>There is an old proverb: "No man ever got rich with his coat off." This
+is a puzzling assertion, for it seems to contradict so many accepted
+ideas. General Grant, for instance, when asked for his coat-of-arms,
+replied: "A pair of shirt sleeves." The answer showed an honorable pride
+in labor; but we must remember that it was not General Grant's arms but
+his brain that won his victories. Does not our proverb mean simply this:
+that the great prizes of life&mdash;of which riches is the symbol, not the
+sum&mdash;cannot be won by main strength and ignorance; that they can be won
+only by energy making use of knowledge? But it is not only in the public
+successes of life that books have a value for the individual. Public
+successes are never the greatest that men win. It is in the expansion
+and uplift of the inner self that books render their grandest service.
+Emily Dickinson wrote of such a reader:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31"></a>[<a href="./images/31.png">31</a>]</span></p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">He ate and drank the precious words,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">His spirit grew robust;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">He knew no more that he was poor,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Nor that his frame was dust.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">He danced along the dingy days,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">And this bequest of wings<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Was but a book. What liberty<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">A loosened spirit brings!<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>A final word on values. The philosophers make two great classes of
+values, which may be entitled respectively Property and Possessions.
+Under Property come money, houses, lands, carriages, clothing, jewels;
+under Possessions come love, friendship, morality, knowledge, culture,
+refinement. All are good things. There never were any houses or
+carriages or clothes too good for a human being. But these obviously
+belong to a different type of values from the other group&mdash;to a lower
+type. What is the test, the touchstone, by which we can tell to which
+class any value belongs? We shall find the test clearly stated in the
+Sermon on the Mount. Is the treasure in question one that moth and rust
+can corrupt or that thieves can break through and steal? If so, it
+belongs to the lower class, to Property. But if it is one that cannot be
+taken away, then it is a Possession and belongs to the higher type.
+There is another test, which is really a part of this: Can you share it
+without loss? If I own a farm, and give to another a half of it or a
+year's crop from it, I deprive myself of just so much. But, if I have
+knowledge or taste or judgment or affection, I can pour them all out
+like water for the benefit of my fellows, and yet never have any the
+less. On the contrary, I shall find that I have more; for they grow by
+sharing. But we have not yet done with the superiority of Possessions
+over Property. "Shrouds have no pockets," says the grim old proverb; and
+all Property must be laid down at the edge of the grave. But if man be
+immortal, as the wise in all ages have believed,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32"></a>[<a href="./images/32.png">32</a>]</span> then we do not have to
+lay down our Possessions with this mortal body. For, if the soul when
+freed from the flesh is to remain the soul, the self&mdash;and only so can
+immortality have any meaning&mdash;then it must keep all those inner
+acquisitions of knowledge, culture, and character which it has gathered
+on earth; nay, it then for the first time truly comes into the enjoyment
+of them. What were our earthly Possessions become Treasures laid up for
+ourselves in Heaven.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33"></a>[<a href="./images/33.png">33</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>THE BOOK OF TO-DAY AND THE BOOK OF TO-MORROW</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img08.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img08.jpg" width="80" height="81" alt="CH7" title="CH7" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>HE book of to-day is not necessarily the parent of the book of
+to-morrow, just as it is itself not necessarily the child of the book of
+yesterday. The relation is apt to be one of succession and influence
+rather than anything suggesting biological evolution. Nature, according
+to Linnaeus's famous maxim, never goes by leaps, but the book is a human
+product, and human nature takes its chief pride in its leaps, calling
+them inventions and discoveries. Such a leap in book production was the
+substitution of parchment for papyrus, of paper for parchment, of
+mechanical for manual processes when writing was displaced by
+typography, of higher for lower mechanism in the creation of the power
+perfecting press. These inventions had behind them, to be sure, the
+impetus of economic demand, but no such partial explanation can be given
+for the advent of William Morris among the printers of the late
+nineteenth century, unless an unrecognized artistic need may be said to
+constitute an economic demand.</p></div>
+
+<p>The book of to-day in its best examples resembles not so much the book
+of yesterday as that of some earlier days, and we may count this fact a
+fortunate one, since it relegates to oblivion the books made in certain
+inartistic periods, notably of the one preceding the present revival. It
+is rather the best of the whole past of the book, and not the book of
+to-day alone, that influences the character to be taken by the book<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34"></a>[<a href="./images/34.png">34</a>]</span> of
+to-morrow. This element is a historical one and a knowledge of it may be
+acquired by study; it is the possible inventions that baffle our
+prophecies. We know that any time some new process may be discovered
+that will transform the book into something as unlike its present
+character as that is unlike the papyrus roll. But because the element of
+invention is so uncertain we can only recognize it, we cannot take it
+into account. Our advantage in considering the book of to-day in
+connection with the book of to-morrow will be chiefly a negative one, in
+making the book as it is, so far as we find it defective, our point of
+departure in seeking the book as it ought to be.</p>
+
+<p>To-day, for our present purposes, may be taken as beginning with the
+great work of Morris. But its book includes the worst as well as the
+best. It is not only the book by which we in our jealousy for the
+reputation of our age should like to have our age remembered, but also
+the more frequent book that we have to see and handle, however much
+against our will, and sometimes even to buy. We may congratulate
+ourselves that this book will perish by its own defects, leaving after
+all only the best book to be associated with our age; but this does not
+alter the fact that in the present the undesirable book is too much with
+us, is vastly in the majority, is, in fact, the only book that the great
+mass of our contemporaries know. How bad it is most book buyers do not
+realize; if they did, a better book would speedily take its place. But,
+until they do, our only chance of relief is the doubtful one of an
+invention that shall make good books cheaper to make than poor ones, or
+the difficult one of educating the public in the knowledge of what a
+book should be. The latter is obviously our only rational hope; but
+before we turn to consider it, let us first look at the book of to-day
+to see exactly what it is.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"></a>[<a href="./images/35.png">35</a>]</span></p>
+
+<p>The book of to-day is first of all a novel. It has other forms, to be
+sure,&mdash;poetry, essays, history, travels, works of science and art,&mdash;but
+these do not meet the eye of the multitude. We may disregard them for
+the moment, and, in reply to the question, What is the book of to-day?
+we may say: It is a one-volume novel, a rather clumsy duodecimo, with a
+showy cover adorned with a colored picture of the heroine. It is printed
+on thick paper of poor quality, with type too large for the page, and
+ugly margins equal all around. Its binding is weak, often good for only
+a dozen readings, though quite as lasting as the paper deserves. For
+merits it can usually offer clear type, black ink, and good presswork.
+But its great fault is that in addressing the buyer it appeals to the
+primitive instinct for bigness rather than to the higher sense that
+regards quality. Such is the book of to-day, emphatically what Franklin
+over a hundred years ago called a "blown" book.</p>
+
+<p>But though the novel fills the multitude's field of vision, it is after
+all not the only contemporary book; there are others from which we may
+be able to choose one worthier to be the book of to-day than the
+self-elected novel. But we shall not find it where commercialism is
+rife. In the presence of that element we find still only an appeal to
+the many&mdash;which, if successful, means large profits&mdash;by an appearance of
+giving much while really giving little. In this game of illusion the
+sound principles of bookmaking are forsaken. Books are not designed on
+the basis of what they are, but on the basis of what they can be made to
+seem. The result is puffery, not merely in advertising, but still
+earlier in the dimensions of the book itself&mdash;the most modern and
+profitable instance of using the east wind for a filler.</p>
+
+<p>But at this point a new element is introduced, the public<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36"></a>[<a href="./images/36.png">36</a>]</span> library. The
+ordinary buyer carries home the distended book, and after he and his
+family have read it, he cares not if it falls to pieces after the next
+reading. Neither does he care if it takes up thrice the room that it
+should, for he no longer gives it room. But the public library, under
+the existing inflationism, must not only pay too much for its popular
+books; it must also house them at a needless outlay, and must very early
+duplicate a serious percentage of their first cost in rebinding them. So
+burdensome has this last item become that our libraries are consenting
+to pay a slightly larger first cost in order to avoid the necessity of
+rebinding; and enterprising publishers, following the lead of a more
+enterprising bookbinder, are beginning to cater to this library demand,
+which some day, let us hope, may dominate the entire publishing world
+for all books worth preserving, and may extend to all the elements of
+the book.</p>
+
+<p>But fortunately there is here and there the uncommercial publisher and
+now and then an uncommercial mood in the ordinary publisher. To these we
+owe a small but important body of work of which no previous age need
+have been ashamed. Of these books we may almost say that they would be
+books if there were nothing in them. They have come into being by a
+happy conjunction of qualified publisher and appreciative buyers. They
+show what most books may be and what all books will strive to be if ever
+the majority of book buyers come to know what a good book is. This
+brings us finally to the book of to-morrow, what we hope it will be and
+how we can make it so.</p>
+
+<p>The book of to-morrow, the book as it ought to be, will be both better
+and cheaper than the book of to-day. It can afford to be cheaper, for it
+will have a large and appreciative public, and for the same reason it
+will have to be better. The question of supreme importance now, if this
+public is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"></a>[<a href="./images/37.png">37</a>]</span> ever to exist, is: How to educate our book buyers. The answer
+is not easy, for our book buyers do not realize that they are untrained,
+and, even if they realized it, the task of training them in the
+knowledge and love of the well-made book would be difficult. But we can
+do at least three things: agitate&mdash;proclaim the existence of a lore to
+be acquired, an ignorance and its practices to be eschewed;
+illustrate&mdash;show the good book and the bad together, and set forth,
+point by point, why the good is superior; last and most important, we
+must vindicate&mdash;back up our words by our deeds, support the publisher
+who gives the world good books, and leave to starvation or reform the
+publisher who clings to the old unworthy methods of incapacity or fraud.
+Even now, if every enlightened booklover in America would carry out this
+plan as a matter of duty merely where he could do so without
+inconvenience, nothing less than a revolution would be upon us, and we
+should have the Book of To-morrow while it is still To-day.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"></a>[<a href="./images/38.png">38</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>A CONSTRUCTIVE CRITIC OF THE BOOK</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img09.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img09.jpg" width="80" height="79" alt="CH8" title="CH8" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>T the meeting of the British librarians at Cambridge in 1882 a bomb was
+thrown into the camp of the book producers in the form of the question:
+Who spoils our new English books? In the explosion which followed,
+everybody within range was hit, from "the uncritical consumer" to "the
+untrained manufacturer." This dangerous question was asked and answered
+by Henry Stevens of Vermont, who, as a London bookseller, had for nearly
+forty years handled the products of the press new and old, had numbered
+among his patrons such critical booklovers as John Carter Brown and
+James Lenox, and had been honored with the personal friendship of
+William Pickering the publisher and Charles Whittingham the printer. He
+had therefore enjoyed abundant opportunity for qualifying himself to
+know whereof he spoke. If his words were severe, he stood ready to
+justify them with an exhibit of sixty contemporary books which he set
+before his hearers.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The truth is, however unwilling his victims may have been to admit it,
+that his attack was only too well timed. The men of creative power, who
+had ennobled English book production during the second quarter of the
+nineteenth century,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39"></a>[<a href="./images/39.png">39</a>]</span> had passed away, and books were being thrown
+together instead of being designed as formerly. The tradition of
+excellence in English bookmaking still held sway over the public, and,
+as their books sold, most producers saw no reason to disturb themselves.
+What to them was progress in other lands, or the claims of a future that
+could not be enforced? But after Mr. Stevens's attack they could at
+least no longer plead ignorance of their faults. It is certain that an
+improvement soon began, which culminated in the present great era of
+book design throughout the English world. If the famous bookseller's
+address were not the cause of the change, it at least marked a turning
+point, and it deserves to be studied as one of the historic documents of
+modern printing. It is more than this, however; it is a piece of
+creative criticism, and though teaching not by example but by
+contraries, it forms one of the best existing brief compends of what a
+well-made book must be.</p>
+
+<p>The critic of books as they were made a generation ago begins with the
+assertion of a truth that cannot be too often repeated: "The manufacture
+of a beautiful and durable book costs little if anything more than that
+of a clumsy and unsightly one." He adds that once a handsome book and a
+new English book were synonymous terms, but that now the production of
+really fine books is becoming one of England's lost arts. He indulges in
+a fling at "the efforts of certain recent printers to retrieve this
+decadence by throwing on to the already overburdened trade several big,
+heavy, and voluminous works of standard authors termed '&eacute;ditions de
+luxe.'" He assures his hearers that his judgments were not formed on the
+spur of the moment, but were based partly on long personal
+observations&mdash;Stevens was the author of that widely influential piece of
+selective bibliography, "My English Library," London, 1853&mdash;and on the
+results of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40"></a>[<a href="./images/40.png">40</a>]</span> international exhibitions since 1851, especially those
+of Vienna (1874), Philadelphia (1876), and Paris (1878), in the last of
+which he was a juror. His conclusion is "that the present new English,
+Scotch, and Irish books, of a given size and price, are not of the
+average quality of high art and skill in manufacture that is found in
+some other countries." He reminds his hearers that "it is no excuse to
+say that the rapidity of production has been largely increased. That
+amounts merely to confessing that we are now consuming two bad books in
+the place of one good one."</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Stevens now comes to the direct question: Who spoils our new English
+books? He answers it by naming not less than ten parties concerned: (1)
+the author, (2) the publisher, (3) the printer, (4) the reader, (5) the
+compositor, (6) the pressman or machinist, (7) the papermaker, (8) the
+ink maker, (9) the bookbinder, and (10), last but not least, the
+consumer. There is no question of honesty or dishonesty, he says, but
+there is a painful lack of harmony, the bungling work of one or the
+clumsy manipulation of another often defeating the combined excellence
+of all the rest. The cure he foresees in the establishment of a school
+of typography, in which every disciple of these ten tribes shall study a
+recognized grammar of book manufacture based on the authority of the
+best examples.</p>
+
+<p>He now returns to the charge and pays his respects to each member of the
+"ten tribes" in turn. The author's offense is found to consist largely
+of ignorant meddling. The publisher is too often ignorant, fussy,
+unskilled, pedantic, shiftless, and money-seeking, willing to make books
+unsightly if their cheapness will sell them. The printer is the
+scapegoat, and many books are spoiled in spite of his efforts, while he
+gets all the blame. But he is apt to have faults of his own, the worst
+of which is a failure in the careful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"></a>[<a href="./images/41.png">41</a>]</span> design of the books intrusted to
+him. "It was not so," says Mr. Stevens, "with our good old friends
+William Pickering and Charles Whittingham, publisher and printer,
+working for many years harmoniously together. It was their custom, as
+both used repeatedly to tell us, to each first sit upon every new book
+and painfully hammer out in his own mind its ideal form and proportions.
+Then two Sundays at least were required to compare notes in the little
+summer house in Mr. Whittingham's garden at Chiswick, or in the
+after-dinner sanctuary, to settle the shape and dress of their
+forthcoming 'friend of man.' It was amusing as well as instructive to
+see each of them, when they met, pull from his bulging side pocket
+well-worn title-pages and sample leaves for discussion and
+consideration. When they agreed, perfection was at hand, and the 'copy'
+went forward to the compositors, but not till then. The results, to this
+day, are seen in all the books bearing the imprint of William Pickering,
+nearly all of which bear also evidence that they came from the 'Chiswick
+Press.'"</p>
+
+<p>The reader, Mr. Stevens holds to be, under the printer, the real man of
+responsibility; but he too is often hampered by want of plan and due
+knowledge of the proportions of the book that he is handling. He also
+should go to the school of typography, and the readers of different
+offices should learn to agree. The compositor is pronounced "a little
+person of great consequence." His moral responsibility is not great, but
+too much is often thrust upon him; in fact he is, in many cases, the
+real maker of the book. "He ought to have a chance at the school of
+typography, and be better instructed in his own business, and be taught
+not to assume the business of any other sinner joined with him in the
+manufacture of books." Between the compositor and the pressman is a long
+road in which many a book is spoiled,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42"></a>[<a href="./images/42.png">42</a>]</span> but the responsibility is hard to
+place. Few people have any idea what constitute the essentials of a
+book's form and proportions. Yet our old standards, in manuscript and
+print, demand "that the length of a printed page should have relation to
+its width, and that the top should not exceed half the bottom margin,
+and that the front should be double the back margin."</p>
+
+<p>The papermaker comes in for a large share of blame, but the remedy lies
+only in the hands of the consumer, who must insist on receiving good and
+durable paper. "The ink-maker is a sinner of the first magnitude." The
+first printing inks are still bright, clean, and beautiful after four
+hundred years; but who will give any such warrant to even the best inks
+of the present day? Mr. Stevens pronounces the sallow inks of our day as
+offensive to sight as they are to smell. The bookbinder is adjudged
+equal in mischief to any other of the ten sinners, and the rest are
+called upon to combine to prevent their books from being spoiled in
+these last hands.</p>
+
+<p>The consumer, after all, is the person most to blame, for he has the
+power to control all the rest. Or, in the critic's closing words: "Many
+of our new books are unnecessarily spoiled, and it matters little
+whether this or that fault be laid to this or that sinner. The
+publisher, the printer, or the binder may sometimes, nay, often does, if
+he can, shift the burden of his sins to the shoulders of his neighbor,
+but all the faults finally will come back on the consumer if he
+tolerates this adulteration longer."</p>
+
+<p>The great constructive feature of Mr. Stevens's address, which is one
+that brings it absolutely up to date, is his call for a school of
+typography, which shall teach a recognized grammar of book manufacture,
+especially printing, a grammar as standard as Lindley Murray's. He
+believes that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43"></a>[<a href="./images/43.png">43</a>]</span> art of bookmaking cannot be held to the practice of
+the laws of proportion, taste, and workmanship, which were settled once
+for all in the age of the scribes and the first printers, without the
+existence and pressure of some recognized authority. Such an authority,
+he holds, would be furnished by a school of typography. This, as we
+interpret it, would be not necessarily a school for journeymen, but a
+school for those who are to assume the responsibility too often thrown
+upon the journeymen, the masters of book production. With a large annual
+output of books taken up by a public none too deeply versed in the
+constituents of a well-made book, there would seem to be much hope for
+printing as an art from the existence of such an institution, which
+would be critical in the interest of sound construction, and one might
+well wish that the course in printing recently established at Harvard
+might at some time be associated with the name of its prophet of a
+generation ago, Henry Stevens of Vermont.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44"></a>[<a href="./images/44.png">44</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>BOOKS AS A LIBRARIAN WOULD LIKE THEM</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img10.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img10.jpg" width="80" height="80" alt="CH9" title="CH9" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>HE librarian is in a position more than any one else to know the
+disabilities of books. The author is interested in his fame and his
+emoluments, the publisher in his reputation and his profits. To each of
+these parties the sales are the chief test. But the librarian's interest
+in the book begins after the sale, and it continues through the entire
+course of the book's natural life. His interest, moreover, is all-round;
+he is concerned with the book's excellence in all respects,
+intellectual, esthetic, and physical. He is the one who has to live with
+it, literally to keep house with it; and his reputation is in a way
+involved with its character. He may, therefore, be allowed for once to
+have his say as to how he would like to have books made.</p></div>
+
+<p>If a book is worth writing at all, it is worth writing three times:
+first to put down the author's ideas, secondly to condense their
+expression into the smallest possible compass, and thirdly so to arrange
+them that they shall be most easily taken into the mind, putting them
+not necessarily into logical order, but into psychological order. If the
+author will do this and can add the touch of genius, or&mdash;shall we
+say?&mdash;can suffuse his work with the quality of genius, then he has made
+an addition to literature. That, among all the books which the librarian
+has to care for, he finds so few that he can call additions to
+literature is one of his grievances. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a>[<a href="./images/45.png">45</a>]</span> three processes may, indeed,
+by a practiced hand be performed as one. The librarian is only anxious
+that they be performed and that he have the benefit.</p>
+
+<p>With the publisher the librarian feels that he can speak still more
+bluntly than with the author, for it is against the publisher that the
+librarian cherishes one of his greatest grievances, the necessity of
+supplying four times the amount of storage room that ought to be
+required. I have before me two books, one larger than the other in every
+way and four times as thick. Yet the smaller book is printed in larger
+type, has twice as many words on a page, and has twice as many pages.
+This is, of course, an exceptional contrast, but a difference of four
+times between the actual and the possible is by no means unusual. When
+one considers that in most of our libraries it costs, all told, a dollar
+to shelve a volume, one realizes that the librarian has against the
+publisher a grievance that can be put into the language of commerce. If
+every book is occupying a dollar's worth of space, which ought to
+accommodate three others, then, gentlemen publishers, in swelling your
+books to catch the public eye, you have taken from us far more than you
+put into your own pockets from your sales to us. You have made our book
+storage four times as costly and unwieldy as it ought to be; but you
+have done worse than this, you have sold us perishable instead of
+durable goods. You have cheapened every element of the book&mdash;paper, ink,
+and binding&mdash;so that, while we begin the twentieth century with some
+books on our shelves that are over four hundred years old and some that
+are less than one, the only books among them that have any chance of
+seeing the twenty-first century are those that will then be five hundred
+years old; the books that might have been a century old will then, like
+their makers, be dust. It seems to the librarian that you, who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"></a>[<a href="./images/46.png">46</a>]</span> have
+taken it upon yourselves to direct the service to be rendered to men by
+the "art preservative of all arts," have assumed very lightly your
+responsibility for the future's knowledge of our time. You may and do
+answer that, as the records begin to perish, the most important of them
+will be reprinted, and the world will be the better off for the loss of
+the rest. To this it may be rejoined that you give the distant future no
+chance to revise the judgments of a rather near future, and that vast
+quantities of material which would be read with eagerness by future
+generations and which would be carefully preserved if it were durable,
+will not be reprinted, whatever its value. We may be sure that the daily
+papers of the present year will never be reprinted; the world of the
+future will be too busy, not to speak of the cost; yet what a series of
+human documents will disappear in their destruction! If a part of the
+professional obligation which you assumed in making yourselves
+responsible for the issues of the press is to transmit the record of
+this generation to later time, then it seems to me that you have in
+great measure betrayed your trust and have so far brought to naught the
+labors of your comrade, the librarian, in the conservation of
+literature. Also you compel him to pay for unnecessary rebindings which
+can hardly be made, so poor is the stock you furnish the binder; yet on
+this point you have shown some indications of a change of heart, and I
+will pass it over. Perhaps you have finally come to realize that every
+cent paid for rebinding is taken out of your gross receipts. I will not
+speak of the books that you ought never to have published, the books
+that are not books; most of these the librarian can avoid buying, but
+sometimes a book is just "ower gude for banning," and he has to take it
+and catalogue it and store it, and take account of it and rearrange it,
+and, after all, get scolded by his authorities or ridiculed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47"></a>[<a href="./images/47.png">47</a>]</span> by the
+public for housing so much rubbish. The author is responsible with you
+here, but your own individual responsibility is enough for any shoulders
+to bear.</p>
+
+<p>To the printer the librarian would say: since wishing is easy, let us
+imagine that what ought always to happen is happening regularly instead
+of rarely, namely, that the author produces a book worth printing and
+that the publisher leaves you free to put it into a worthy form. This is
+the opportunity that you have always been looking for. How are you going
+to meet it? Do you know all the elements that you deal with and can you
+handle them with a sure touch practically and esthetically? If so, you
+will not need any hints from the librarian, and he will order your book
+"sight unseen." But still, among the good and right ways of making
+books, there may be some that he prefers, and he will ask you, when you
+are making books for him and not for private buyers, at least to give
+his preferences a hearing. He wants his books no bigger physically than
+they need be, and yet he would like to have them of a convenient height,
+from seven to nine inches. He would rather have their expansion in
+height and width and not in thickness, for the former dimensions up to
+ten and a half inches by eight mean no increased demand upon shelf room,
+while the thickness of every leaf is taken out of his library's
+capacity. He would like to have no wasteful margins and no extreme in
+the size of type. If it is too large, the book takes up too much room;
+if it is too small, his readers will ruin their eyes over it or, what is
+more likely, refuse to read it and so make its possession a useless
+expense. For the sake of rapid reading he would like to have every wide
+page printed in columns. For the same reason he would like to have every
+possible help given to the eye in the way of paragraphs, headlines, and
+variation of type, so far as it can be given in consonance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"></a>[<a href="./images/48.png">48</a>]</span> with the
+esthetic rights of the book. With these points observed, and the book
+printed on paper as thin and as light in weight as can be conveniently
+used and is consistent with opacity and strength, with clear type, clear
+and durable ink, and good presswork, the printer will have done his
+part, and a book will go to the binder that is worthy of his best
+treatment.</p>
+
+<p>What that treatment is the binder knows better than I can tell him. When
+he has applied it, the book will come out of his hands at once solid and
+flexible; unmutilated, either on the outer edges where mutilation can be
+seen, or at the back where it cannot be seen, but where it nevertheless
+hurts the integrity of the book; covered with honest boards that will
+stand use, and clad with a material, cloth or leather, that is both
+strong to resist wear and also contains within itself no seeds of
+deterioration. Besides this let it have a character, however
+unobtrusive, befitting the contents of the book, and the binder will
+have paid his full debt to the present and the future.</p>
+
+<p>While the librarian's ideals of bookmaking are not the only ones, they
+are in harmony with the best, and there cannot be progress in bookmaking
+without approaching his ideals. He is, therefore, by his very office
+committed to every undertaking for the improvement of the book, and
+because of the efforts of librarians and other booklovers there is
+ground for belief that the books of the present decade will be better
+than those of the last.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49"></a>[<a href="./images/49.png">49</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>THE BOOK BEAUTIFUL</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img11.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img11.jpg" width="80" height="79" alt="CH10" title="CH10" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>E who use books every day as tools of trade or sources of inspiration
+are apt to overlook the fact that the book, on its material side, is an
+art object. Not, indeed, that it ranks with the products of poetry,
+painting, sculpture, and other arts of the first grade; but it has a
+claim to our consideration on the level of the minor arts, along with
+jewelry, pottery, tapestry, and metal work. Moreover, its intimate
+association with literature, of which it is the visible setting, gives
+it a charm that, while often only reflected, may also be contributory,
+heightening the beauty that it enshrines.</p>
+
+<p>Using the word beauty for the result of artistic mastery, we may say
+that in the other arts beauty is the controlling factor in price, but in
+the book this is the case only exceptionally. As a consequence beautiful
+books are more accessible for purchase or observation than any other
+equally beautiful objects. For the price of a single very beautiful rug
+one can obtain a small library of the choicest books. Except in the case
+of certain masterpieces of the earliest printing, in which rarity is
+joined to beauty, high prices for books have nothing to do with their
+artistic quality. Even for incunabula one need pay only as many dollars
+as for tapestries of the same grade one would have to pay thousands. In
+book collecting, therefore, a shallow purse is not a bar to achievement,
+and in our day of free libraries one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50"></a>[<a href="./images/50.png">50</a>]</span> may make good progress in the
+knowledge and enjoyment of beautiful books without any expense at all.</p></div>
+
+<p>Public taste is probably as advanced in the appreciation of the book
+beautiful as of any other branch of art, but it is active rather than
+enlightened. This activity is a good sign, for it represents the first
+stage in comprehension; the next is the consciousness that there is more
+in the subject than had been realized; the third is appreciation. The
+present chapter is addressed to those&mdash;and they are many&mdash;who are in the
+second stage. The first piece of advice to those who seek acquaintance
+with the book beautiful is: Surround yourself with books that the best
+judges you know call beautiful; inspect them, handle them; cultivate
+them as you would friends. It will not be long before most other books
+begin to annoy you, though at first you cannot tell why. Then specific
+differences one after another will stand out, until at last you come to
+know something of the various elements of the book, their possibilities
+of beauty or ugliness, and their relations one to another. No one should
+feel ashamed if this process takes a long time&mdash;is indeed endless.
+William Morris pleaded to having sinned in the days of ignorance, even
+after he had begun to make books. So wide is the field and so many and
+subtle are the possible combinations that all who set out to know books
+must expect, like the late John Richard Green, to "die learning." But
+the learning is so delightful and the company into which it brings us is
+so agreeable that we have no cause to regret our lifelong
+apprenticeship.</p>
+
+<p>The first of all the qualities of the book beautiful is fitness. It must
+be adapted to the literature which it contains, otherwise it will
+present a contradiction. Imagine a "Little Classic" Josephus or a folio
+Keats. The literature must also be worthy of a beautiful setting, else
+the book will involve<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51"></a>[<a href="./images/51.png">51</a>]</span> an absurdity. Have we not all seen presentation
+copies of government documents which gave us a shock when we passed from
+the elegant outside to the commonplace inside? But the ideal book will
+go beyond mere fitness; it will be both an interpretation of its
+contents and an offering of homage to its worth. The beauty of the whole
+involves perfect balance as well as beauty of the parts. No one must
+take precedence of the rest, but there must be such a perfect harmony
+that we shall think first of the total effect and only afterwards of the
+separate elements that combine to produce it. This greatly extends our
+problem, but also our delight in its happy solutions.</p>
+
+<p>The discerning reader has probably noticed that we have already smuggled
+into our introduction the notion that the book beautiful is a printed
+book; and, broadly speaking, so it must be at the present time. But we
+should not forget that, while the printed book has charms and laws of
+its own, the book was originally written by hand and in this form was
+developed to a higher pitch of beauty than the printed book has ever
+attained. As Ruskin says, "A well-written book is as much pleasanter and
+more beautiful than a printed book as a picture is than an engraving."
+Calligraphy and illumination are to-day, if not lost arts, at best but
+faint echoes of their former greatness. They represent a field of
+artistic effort in which many persons of real ability might attain far
+greater distinction and emolument than in the overcrowded ordinary
+fields of art. Printing itself would greatly benefit from a flourishing
+development of original bookmaking, gaining just that stimulus on the
+art side that it needs to counterbalance the pressure of commercialism.
+At present, however, we shall commit no injustice if, while remembering
+its more perfect original, we accept the printed book as the
+representative of the book beautiful; but, as a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52"></a>[<a href="./images/52.png">52</a>]</span> matter of fact, most
+that we shall have to say of it will apply with little change to the
+manuscript book.</p>
+
+<p>A final point by way of preface is the relation of the book beautiful to
+the well-made book. The two are not identical. A book may be legible,
+strong, and durable, yet ill-proportioned and clumsy, ugly in every
+detail. On the other hand, the book beautiful must be well made, else it
+will not keep its beauty. The point where the two demands tend most to
+conflict is at the hinge of the cover, where strength calls for
+thickness of leather and beauty for thinness. The skill of the good
+binder is shown in harmonizing these demands when he shaves the under
+side of the leather for the joint. Let us now take up the elements of
+the book one by one and consider their relations to beauty.</p>
+
+<p>To one who never had seen a book before it would seem, as it stands on
+the shelf or lies on the table, a curious rectangular block; and such it
+is in its origin, being derived from the Roman codex, which was a block
+of wood split into thin layers. When closed, therefore, the book must
+have the seeming solidity of a block; but open it and a totally new
+character appears. It is now a bundle of thin leaves, and its beauty no
+longer consists in its solidity and squareness, but in the opposite
+qualities of easy and complete opening, and flowing curves. This inner
+contradiction, so far from making the book a compromise and a failure,
+is one of the greatest sources of its charm, for each condition must be
+met as if the other did not exist, and when both are so met, we derive
+the same satisfaction as from any other combination of strength and
+grace, such as Schiller celebrates in his "Song of the Bell."</p>
+
+<p>The book therefore consists of a stiff cover joined by a flexible
+back&mdash;in the book beautiful a tight back&mdash;and inclosing highly flexible
+leaves. The substance of the board is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53"></a>[<a href="./images/53.png">53</a>]</span> not visible, being covered with
+an ornamental material, either cloth or leather, but it should be strong
+and tough and in thickness proportioned to the size of the volume. In
+very recent years we have available for book coverings really beautiful
+cloths, which are also more durable than all but the best leathers; but
+we have a right to claim for the book beautiful a covering of leather,
+and full leather, not merely a back and hinges. We have a wide range of
+beauty in leathers, from the old ivory of parchment&mdash;when it has had a
+few centuries in which to ripen its color&mdash;to the sensuous richness of
+calf and the splendor of crushed levant. The nature of the book must
+decide, if the choice is yet to be made. But, when the book has been
+covered with appropriate leather so deftly that the leather seems "grown
+around the board," and has been lettered on the back&mdash;a necessary
+addition giving a touch of ornament&mdash;we are brought up against the hard
+fact that, unless the decorator is very skillful indeed&mdash;a true artist
+as well as a deft workman&mdash;he cannot add another touch to the book
+without lessening its beauty. The least obtrusive addition will be blind
+tooling, or, as in so many old books, stamping, which may emphasize the
+depth of color in the leather. The next step in the direction of
+ornament is gilding, the next inlaying. In the older books we find metal
+clasps and corners, which have great decorative possibilities; but
+these, like precious stones, have disappeared from book ornamentation in
+modern times before the combined inroad of the democratic and the
+classic spirit.</p>
+
+<p>Having once turned back the cover, our interest soon forsakes it for the
+pages inclosed by it. The first of these is the page opposite the inside
+of the cover; obviously it should be of the same or, at least, of a
+similar material to the body of the book. But the inside of the cover is
+open to two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54"></a>[<a href="./images/54.png">54</a>]</span> treatments; it may bear the material either of the outer
+covering or of the pages within. So it may display, for instance, a
+beautiful panel of leather&mdash;doublure&mdash;or it may share with the next page
+a decorative lining paper; but that next page should never be of
+leather, for it is the first page of the book.</p>
+
+<p>As regards book papers, we are to-day in a more fortunate position than
+we were even a few years ago; for we now can obtain, and at no excessive
+cost, papers as durable as those employed by the earliest printers. It
+is needless to say that these are relatively rough papers. They
+represent one esthetic advance in papermaking since the earliest days in
+that they are not all dead white. Some of the books of the first age of
+printing still present to the eye very nearly the blackest black on the
+whitest white. But, while this effect is strong and brilliant, it is not
+the most pleasing. The result most agreeable to the eye still demands
+black or possibly a dark blue ink, but the white of the paper should be
+softened. Whether we should have made this discovery of our own wit no
+one can tell; but it was revealed to us by the darkening of most papers
+under the touch of time. Shakespeare forebodes this yellowing of his
+pages; but what was then thought of as a misfortune has since been
+accepted as an element of beauty, and now book papers are regularly made
+"antique" as well as "white." Even white does not please us unless it
+inclines to creamy yellow rather than to blue. But here, as everywhere,
+it is easy to overstep the bounds of moderation and turn excess into a
+defect. The paper of the book beautiful will not attract attention; we
+shall not see it until our second look at the page. The paper must not
+be too thick for the size of the book, else the volume will not open
+well, and its pages, instead of having a flowing character, will be
+stiff and hard.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55"></a>[<a href="./images/55.png">55</a>]</span></p>
+
+<p>The sewing of the book is not really in evidence, except indirectly.
+Upon the sewing and gluing, after the paper, depends the flexibility of
+the book; but the sewing in most early books shows in the raised bands
+across the back, which are due to the primitive and preferable stitch.
+It may also show in some early and much modern work in saw-marks at the
+inner fold when the book is spread wide open; but no such book can
+figure as a book beautiful. The head band is in primitive books a part
+of the sewing, though in all modern books, except those that represent a
+revival of medieval methods, it is something bought by the yard and
+stuck in without any structural connection with the rest of the book.</p>
+
+<p>It is the page and not the cover that controls the proportions of the
+book, as the living nautilus controls its inclosing shell. The range in
+the size of books is very great&mdash;from the "fly's-eye Dante" to
+"Audubon's Birds"&mdash;but the range in proportion within the limits of
+beauty is astonishingly small, a difference in the relation of the width
+of the page to its height between about sixty and seventy-five per cent.
+If the width is diminished to nearer one-half the height, the page
+becomes too narrow for beauty, besides making books of moderate size too
+narrow to open well. On the other hand, if the width is much more than
+three-quarters of the height, the page offends by looking too square. In
+the so-called "printer's oblong," formed by taking twice the width for
+the diagonal, the width is just under fifty-eight per cent of the
+height, and this is the limit of stately slenderness in a volume. As we
+go much over sixty per cent, the book loses in grace until we approach
+seventy-five per cent, when a new quality appears, which characterizes
+the quarto, not so much beauty, perhaps, except in small sizes, as a
+certain attractiveness, like that of a freight boat, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56"></a>[<a href="./images/56.png">56</a>]</span> sets off the
+finer lines of its more elegant associates. A really square book would
+be a triumph of ugliness. Oblong books also rule themselves out of our
+category. A book has still a third element in its proportions,
+thickness. A very thin book may be beautiful, but a book so thick as to
+be chunky or squat is as lacking in elegance as the words we apply to
+it. To err on the side of thickness is easy; to err on the side of
+thinness is hard, since even a broadside may be a thing of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to the type-page, of which the paper is only the carrier and
+framework. This should have, as nearly as possible, the proportion of
+the paper&mdash;really it is the type that should control the paper&mdash;and the
+two should obviously belong together. The margins need not be extremely
+large for beauty; an amount of surface equal to that occupied by the
+type is ample. There was once a craze for broad margins and even for
+"large-paper" copies, in which the type was lost in an expanse of
+margin; but book designers have come to realize that the proportion of
+white to black on a page can as easily be too great as too small. Far
+more important to the beauty of a page than the extent of the margin are
+its proportions. The eye demands that the upper margin of a printed page
+or a framed engraving shall be narrower than the lower, but here the
+kinship of page to picture ceases. The picture is seen alone, but the
+printed page is one of a pair and makes with its mate a double diagram.
+This consists of two panels of black set between two outer columns of
+white and separated by a column of white. Now if the outer and inner
+margins of a page are equal, the inner column of the complete figure
+will be twice as wide as the outer. The inner margin of the page should
+therefore be half (or, to allow for the sewing and the curve of the
+leaf, a little more than half) the width of the outer. Then, when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"></a>[<a href="./images/57.png">57</a>]</span> we
+open the book, we shall see three columns of equal width. The type and
+paper pages, being of the same shape, should as a rule be set on a
+common diagonal from the inner upper corner to the outer lower corner.
+This arrangement will give the same proportion between the top and
+bottom margins as was assigned to the inner and outer. It is by
+attention to this detail that one of the greatest charms in the design
+of the book may be attained.</p>
+
+<p>We saw that the shape of the book is a rectangle, and this would
+naturally be so if there were no other reason for it than because the
+smallest factor of the book, the type, is in the cross-section of its
+body a rectangle. The printed page is really built up of tiny invisible
+rectangles, which thus determine the shape of the paper page and of the
+cover. A page may be beautiful from its paper, its proportions, its
+color effects, even if it is not legible; but the book beautiful, really
+to satisfy us, must neither strain the eye with too small type nor
+offend it with fantastic departures from the normal. The size of the
+type must not be out of proportion to that of the page or the column;
+for two or more columns are not barred from the book beautiful. The
+letters must be beautiful individually and beautiful in combination. It
+has been remarked that while roman capitals are superb in combination,
+black-letter capitals are incapable of team play, being, when grouped,
+neither legible nor beautiful. There has been a recent movement in the
+direction of legibility that has militated against beauty of type, and
+that is the enlarging of the body of the ordinary lowercase letters at
+the expense of its limbs, the ascenders and descenders, especially the
+latter. The eye takes little account of descenders in reading, because
+it runs along a line just below the tops of the ordinary letters, about
+at the bar of the small e; nevertheless, to one who has learned to
+appreciate beauty in type<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58"></a>[<a href="./images/58.png">58</a>]</span> design there is something distressing in the
+atrophied or distorted body of the g in so many modern types and the
+stunted p's and q's&mdash;which the designer clearly did not mind! The
+ascenders sometimes fare nearly as badly. Now types of this compressed
+character really call for leading, or separation of the lines; and when
+this has been done, the blank spaces thus created might better have been
+occupied by the tops and bottoms of unleaded lines containing letters of
+normal length and height. Too much leading, like too wide margins,
+dazzles and offends the eye with its excess of white. The typesetting
+machines have also militated against beauty by requiring that every
+letter shall stand within the space of its own feet or shoulders. Thus
+the lowercase f and y and the uppercase Q are shorn of their due
+proportions. These are points that most readers do not notice, but they
+are essential, for the type of the book beautiful must not be deformed
+by expediency. On the other hand, it need not be unusual; if it is, it
+must be exceptionally fine to pass muster at all. The two extremes of
+standard roman type, Caslon and Bodoni, are handsome enough for any book
+of prose. One may go farther in either direction, but at one's risk. For
+poetry, Cloister Oldstyle offers a safe norm, from which any wide
+departure must have a correspondingly strong artistic warrant. All these
+three types are beautiful, in their letters themselves, and in the
+combinations of their letters into lines, paragraphs, and pages.
+Beautiful typography is the very foundation of the book beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>But beautiful typography involves other elements than the cut of the
+type itself. The proofreading must be trained and consistent, standing
+for much more than the mere correction of errors. The presswork must be
+strong and even. The justification must be individual for each line, and
+not according to a fixed scale as in machine setting; even when we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59"></a>[<a href="./images/59.png">59</a>]</span> hold
+the page upside down, we must not be able to detect any streamlets of
+white slanting across the page. Moreover, if the page is leaded, the
+spacing must be wider in proportion, so that the color picture of the
+rectangle of type shall be even and not form a zebra of black and white
+stripes. It is hardly necessary to say that the registration must be
+true, so that the lines of the two pages on the same leaf shall show
+accurately back to back when one holds the page to the light. Minor
+elements of the page may contribute beauty or ugliness according to
+their handling: the headline and page number, their character and
+position; notes marginal or indented, footnotes; chapter headings and
+initials; catch-words; borders, head and tail pieces, vignettes,
+ornamental rules. Even the spacing of initials is a task for the skilled
+craftsman. Some printers go so far as to miter or shave the type-body of
+initials to make them, when printed, seem to cling more closely to the
+following text. Indenting, above all in poetry, is a feature strongly
+affecting the beauty of the page. Not too many words may be divided
+between lines; otherwise the line endings will bristle with hyphens. A
+paragraph should not end at the bottom of a page nor begin too near it,
+neither should a final page contain too little nor be completely full.
+Minor parts of the book, the half-title, the dedication page, the table
+of contents, the preface, the index, present so many opportunities to
+make or mar the whole. Especially is this true of the title-page. This
+the earliest books did not have, and many a modern printer, confronted
+with a piece of refractory title copy, must have sighed for the good old
+days of the colophon. Whole books have been written on the title-page;
+it must suffice here to say that each represents a new problem, a
+triumphant solution of which gives the booklover as much pleasure to
+contemplate as any other single triumph of the volume.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60"></a>[<a href="./images/60.png">60</a>]</span></p>
+
+<p>But what of color&mdash;splendid initials in red, blue, or green, rubricated
+headings, lines, or paragraphs? It is all a question of propriety,
+literary and artistic. The same principle holds as in decoration of
+binding. A beautiful black and white page is so beautiful that he who
+would improve it by color must be sure of his touch. The beauty of the
+result and never the beauty of the means by itself must be the test.</p>
+
+<p>But books are not always composed of text alone. We need not consider
+diagrams, which hardly concern the book beautiful, except to say that,
+being composed of lines, they are often really more decorative than
+illustrations fondly supposed to be artistic. The fact that an engraving
+is beautiful is no proof that it will contribute beauty to a book; it
+may only make an esthetic mess of the text and itself. As types are
+composed of firm black lines, only fairly strong black-line engravings
+have any artistic right in the book. This dictum, however, would rule
+out so many pictures enjoyed by the reader that he may well plead for a
+less sweeping ban; so, as a concession to weakness, we may allow
+white-line engravings and half-tones if they are printed apart from the
+text and separated from it, either by being placed at the end of the
+book or by having a sheet of opaque paper dividing each from the text.
+In this case the legend of the picture should face it so that the reader
+will have no occasion to look beyond the two pages when he has them
+before him. The printers of the sixteenth century, especially the Dutch,
+did not hesitate to send their pages through two presses, one the
+typographic press, and the other the roller press for copper-plate
+engravings. The results give us perhaps the best example that we have of
+things beautiful in themselves but unlovely in combination. As in the
+use of other ornamental features, there are no bounds to the use of
+illustration except that of fitness.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a>[<a href="./images/61.png">61</a>]</span></p>
+
+<p>We have spoken of margins from the point of view of the page; from that
+of the closed book they appear as edges, and here they present several
+problems in the design of the book beautiful. If the book is designed
+correctly from the beginning, the margins will be of just the right
+width and the edges cannot be trimmed without making them too narrow.
+Besides, the untrimmed edges are witnesses to the integrity of the book;
+if any exception may be made, it will be in the case of the top margin,
+which may be gilded both for beauty and to make easy the removal of
+dust. But the top should be rather shaved than trimmed, so that the
+margin may not be visibly reduced. The gilding of all the edges, or
+"full gilt," is hardly appropriate to the book beautiful, though it may
+be allowed in devotional books, especially those in limp binding, and
+its effect may there be heightened by laying the gilt on red or some
+other color. Edges may be goffered, that is, decorated with incised or
+burnt lines, though the result, like tattooing, is more curious than
+ornamental. The edges may even be made to receive pictures, but here
+again the effect smacks of the barbaric.</p>
+
+<p>We have now gone over our subject in the large. To pursue it with all
+possible degrees of minuteness would require volumes. William Morris,
+for instance, discusses the proper shape for the dot of the i; and even
+the size of the dot and its place above the letter are matters on which
+men hold warring opinions. We have not even raised the question of laid
+or wove paper, nor of the intermixture of different series or sizes of
+types. In short, every phase of the subject bristles with moot points,
+the settlement of one of which in a given way may determine the
+settlement of a score of others.</p>
+
+<p>But what is the use to the public of this knowledge and enjoyment of
+ours? Is it not after all a fruitless piece of self-indulgence? Surely,
+if bookmaking is one of the minor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62"></a>[<a href="./images/62.png">62</a>]</span> arts, then the private knowledge and
+enjoyment of its products is an element in the culture of the community.
+But it is more than that; it is both a pledge and a stimulus to
+excellence in future production. Artists in all fields are popularly
+stigmatized as a testy lot&mdash;<i>irritabile genus</i>&mdash;but their techiness does
+not necessarily mean opposition to criticism, but only to uninformed and
+unappreciative criticism, especially if it be cocksure and blatant.
+There is nothing that the true artist craves so much&mdash;not even
+praise&mdash;as understanding of his work and the welcome that awaits his
+work in hand from the lips of "those who know." Thus those who
+appreciate and welcome the book beautiful, by their encouragement help
+to make it more beautiful, and so by head and heart, if not by hand,
+they share in the artist's creative effort. Also, by thus promoting
+beauty in books, they discourage ugliness in books, narrowing the public
+that will accept ugly books and lessening the degree of ugliness that
+even this public will endure. Finally, it seems no mere fancy to hold
+that by creating the book beautiful as the setting of the noblest
+literature, we are rendering that literature itself a service in the
+eyes of others through the costly tribute that we pay to the worth of
+the jewel itself.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63"></a>[<a href="./images/63.png">63</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>THE READER'S HIGH PRIVILEGE</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img12.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img12.jpg" width="80" height="78" alt="CH11" title="CH11" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>N De Morgan's winsome story, "Alice for Short," the heroine of the
+earlier portion, Miss Peggy Heath, is made to feel what it would mean to
+her to be deprived of a certain companion, and thus realizes his
+importance to her life.</p>
+
+<p>It is this test of elimination that I shall ask you to apply to reading.
+Imagine yourselves deprived of the privilege, as many another has been
+by loss of sight or illness or poverty or removal from book centers. I
+have in mind such an instance. The late Professor William Mathews was
+injured by a fall when he was ninety years old, and until the end of his
+life, about a year later, was confined to his bed. You may know him as
+the author of various books of essays: "Getting on in the World," "Great
+Conversers," "Hours with Men and Books," "Words, their Use and Abuse,"
+and other volumes that testify a marvelous range of acquaintance with
+literature. He wrote to a friend that he was brightening his hours of
+loneliness by repeating to himself passages of poetry and prose that he
+had learned by heart in his earlier days. Few of us can ever have such
+stores of memory to draw upon as his, but how happy we should be if
+under such circumstances we might be able to turn to a like source of
+consolation. Yet we have a much more famous instance of a great scholar
+cut off from the privilege of reading. Milton has given us in his famous
+invocation to Light, with which he opens the third book of "Paradise
+Lost," a picture of his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64"></a>[<a href="./images/64.png">64</a>]</span> own deprivation, presented with a universal
+blank in place of Nature's fair book of knowledge. The passage is too
+long to quote here, but let the reader turn to it, if only to refresh
+his memory.</p></div>
+
+<p>This shows the privilege that we are now enjoying, and it may perhaps be
+sufficient to take our lesson at this point; but since it is always
+pleasanter to consider gain rather than loss, suppose we turn the
+subject around and imagine how it would seem if, after having been
+deprived all our lives of the privilege of reading, we suddenly had it
+thrust upon us. We should now find ourselves able to enjoy those
+wonderful works of literature which we had always been hearing about
+from the lips of others, but had never been able to know directly. How
+we should revel in the prospect before us! At last to be able to read
+the "Iliad"! To follow the fortunes of wandering Ulysses! To accompany
+Dante in his mystical journey through the three worlds! To dare with
+Macbeth and to doubt with Hamlet! Our trouble would be that we should
+not know which to select first. We should wish we had the eyes of an
+insect that we might read them all at once.</p>
+
+<p>We have a familiar expression in taking leave of our friends, "Be good
+to yourself!" which, it will be seen, is the modern man's translation of
+the old "farewell," with the truly modern implication that the question
+of his faring well will depend upon himself. But can we call a man good
+to himself who does not avail himself of advantages that are freely open
+to him and that others about him are embracing? The great men of the
+past have been such because to their natural abilities they added an
+acquaintance with the thought of the great men who preceded them. The
+same is true of the men whom we are glad to honor among our
+contemporaries. We may feel very sure that we are not heaven-descended
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65"></a>[<a href="./images/65.png">65</a>]</span>geniuses, or even possessed of unusual talent; and yet, if we do not
+give ourselves the advantages that all those had who have won
+distinction, we have certainly not given ourselves a fair chance to show
+what is in us. Therefore, as a duty to ourselves, we must make the
+acquaintance of the books that the common judgment of the world has
+pronounced to be of the most value. They must become more than names to
+us. We may not indeed find in all of them food for our own spirits, but
+it is a part of our business in seeking a knowledge of mankind to know
+the thoughts and thought-forms that men have found of most worth. It is
+not to be supposed that we shall prize all these books equally; some of
+them will never be more to us than great monuments which, for some
+reason peculiar to our temperaments, do not appeal to us; but among
+their number we shall find some that will throw open to our souls the
+very gates of heaven&mdash;books that will raise our natures forevermore to a
+higher power, as if from two-dimensional Flatland creatures we had
+suddenly been advanced to three dimensions, or, in our own humdrum world
+of length, breadth, and thickness, we had received the liberty of the
+mysterious fourth dimension.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now take a brief inventory of our heritage. We can glance at only
+the most precious of these treasures, the crown jewels of the world's
+literature, which are all ours, whether we choose to wear them or not.
+But first let me make it plain that I am not assuming that all the great
+monuments of human genius are literary. I am not forgetful of the fact
+that literature is only one of the fine arts, that the Strassburg
+Cathedral, Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, Rembrandt's School of Anatomy,
+Michelangelo's Moses are all products of man's creative genius, records
+of the life of God in the soul of man. But I do insist that literature
+is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66"></a>[<a href="./images/66.png">66</a>]</span> the most inclusive and the most definite of all the arts, and that
+therefore books unlock to us a vaster world than obeys the spell of any
+other art. One man's soul may attain its transfiguration through
+architecture or music or painting or sculpture as another does through
+poetry; the great thing is to attain the transfiguration; and let us be
+thankful for the many ways in which God fulfills himself to man. I am
+not trying to make out a case for literature, but literature is my
+subject, and what I say of it must be taken as equally friendly to all
+the other great forms of human expression and often as equally
+applicable to them.</p>
+
+<p>We will not talk of a five-foot or a three-foot shelf, or one of any
+other exact dimension, though I suspect that no very long range of space
+would be required to hold all the supremely great books for whose
+contents we should have room in our souls. The limitation will prove to
+be in us rather than in the material of literature. The Bible, while
+containing supremely great literature, has still higher claims, and for
+the present discussion may be left to its special advocates. But
+meanwhile our treasures are waiting for their inventory.</p>
+
+<p>Literature for people of our race begins with Homer and is confined to
+Europe and English America. This means in a very true sense that all the
+literature which concerns us is modern, for the Greeks are the first and
+perhaps the greatest of the moderns. They present us as their first
+contribution the works that go under the name of Homer, and we need not
+disturb ourselves now with the question whether the "Iliad" and the
+"Odyssey" were both written by the same man, or even each written by a
+single hand. The point is that we have in them an imperishable picture
+of the life of a vanished world. Each is an epic of the natural man, the
+one national, the other personal. In the "Iliad" we are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"></a>[<a href="./images/67.png">67</a>]</span> plunged into
+the thickening close of the ten years' war between the Greeks and
+Trojans, during which the beautiful cause of all the trouble, Helen,
+retains all her youthful bloom and, in fact, nobody seems to grow any
+older. We have a crowded stage with many episodes and interests. In the
+"Odyssey" we trace the fortunes of one man, Ulysses, during his return
+from the war, which occupies him ten years, so that he is away from
+home, as Rip Van Winkle was, twenty years; but, instead of finding
+everybody grown old or dead, as Irving's hero did, he finds his wife
+still young and attractive and beset by numerous suitors. We are very
+glad to have this so, because we are all children at heart and want just
+such an ending. The telling of these stories, while simple, is on a
+lofty plane; the gods themselves take part in the passions of the
+contestants and even in the warfare. The poet, no doubt, meant this for
+what it professes to be; but I cannot help seeing in the embroiling of
+Olympus a perhaps unrealized tribute of the poet to the greatness of the
+human soul in the scale of the universe, a suggestion that moral and
+spiritual values and powers outweigh the stars in their courses.</p>
+
+<p>Great as are the works of Homer, we are not to suppose them the only
+masterpieces in Greek literature. Certainly the three great dramatists
+cannot be omitted, all so great, yet so unlike. These three, together
+with two pastoral poets, one lyric poet, and the greatest of prose
+poets, are vividly pictured by Mrs. Browning in the glowing stanzas of
+her "Wine of Cyprus."</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Oh, our &AElig;schylus, the thunderous!<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">How he drove the bolted breath<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Through the cloud, to wedge the ponderous<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">In the gnarl&egrave;d oak beneath.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Oh, our Sophocles, the royal,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Who was born to monarch's place,<br /></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68"></a>[<a href="./images/68.png">68</a>]</span>
+<span class="i0">And who made the whole world loyal,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Less by kingly power than grace.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Our Euripides, the human,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">With his droppings of warm tears,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And his touches of things common<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Till they rose to touch the spheres!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Our Theocritus, our Bion,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">And our Pindar's shining goals!&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">These were cup-bearers undying<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Of the wine that's meant for souls.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And my Plato, the divine one,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">If men know the gods aright<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">By their motions as they shine on<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">With a glorious trail of light!&mdash;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>It would not be surprising if some who read these lines should find more
+food for mind and soul in Plato than in any other of the Greek writers.
+Certainly those works of Plato and his contemporary, Xenophon, that
+relate to the life, teachings, and death of Socrates are contributions
+to a yet uncollected Bible of humanity, one more inclusive than that of
+Jew or Christian.</p>
+
+<p>It is one of the great misfortunes of Roman literature that the works of
+its chief writers are used as textbooks for schools, a misfortune shared
+to some extent by the Greek. Yet Homer and Xenophon, Vergil and Cicero,
+did not write for children or callow youth. They belong to Longfellow's</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i4">grand old masters,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Whose mighty thoughts suggest<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Life's endless toil and endeavor,<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>and their writings have no relation to adolescence. Yet it is to be
+feared that most people who have read their works remember them as seen
+through the cloudy medium of their own immaturity. Byron speaks of
+reading and hating Horace as a schoolboy, but no normal person can hate
+Horace any more than he can hate Washington Irving. It is possible,
+however, that pupils who have to read Irving's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69"></a>[<a href="./images/69.png">69</a>]</span> "Sketch Book" with the
+fear of a college entrance examination before their minds may have no
+affection even for him. So some of us may have something to unlearn in
+our reading of Vergil and Horace, for we must approach their works as
+strong meat for mature minds. Vergil's theme is nothing less than the
+glorification of the Roman state through its divinely ordered and heroic
+founding. School children seldom read more than the six books of the
+"Aeneid" required for college; but the other six, though of much less
+varied interest, are necessary for the appreciation of the poem. The
+whole is a work that no one can afford to pass over in his search for
+the burning words that keep alive the thought of other ages. Very
+different in theme and manner is the poetry of Horace. He is the most
+modern of all the men of old, far more modern than our own Puritan
+ancestors. His mixture of grace and shrewdness, poetic charm and worldly
+wisdom, we find nowhere else. The bulk of his work is not large, and
+this fact, as in the case of Gray and Keats and Poe, is rather in his
+favor, because the reader can easily become familiar with it all, though
+then he will sigh for more. Horace wears well; the older we grow the
+better we like him. He has love songs for youth, political poems for
+maturity, and satires for old age. After we have lived with him for half
+a century he becomes more real to us than most of our acquaintances in
+the flesh. Roman literature is not without other great names to attract
+the student; but these two must not be overlooked by the most general or
+the most selective reader.</p>
+
+<p>With Vergil the world always associates the still greater figure of one
+who was proud to call him master&mdash;that of Dante. More than is true of
+almost any other writer, his work is a compendium of the life of his
+time. The "Divine Comedy" is first of all poetry, and poetry of the
+loftiest order; but it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70"></a>[<a href="./images/70.png">70</a>]</span> is also an embodiment of the learning, the
+philosophy, and the theology of his age. It mirrors at once the
+greatness and the limitations of the medieval mind. Dante is not modern
+in the sense that Horace is, though he is thrice as near to us in time.
+Leigh Hunt said that his great poem ought to be called an infernal
+tragedy; but that is true only of the Inferno; the spiritual atmosphere
+clears as we follow his footsteps through the Purgatorio and the
+Paradiso. Of all the masterpieces of human genius the "Divine Comedy" is
+perhaps the one that asks the most self-surrender of the modern reader
+and&mdash;shall I add?&mdash;that repays it most richly. Longfellow's marvelous
+sonnet sequence, written while he was translating Dante, portrays at
+once the spirit in which we should approach the reading of the "Divine
+Comedy" and the wonders that we shall find there. It is a book that we
+never can outgrow. To know it is to be made a citizen of the moral
+universe.</p>
+
+<p>In 1616, within ten days of each other, there passed from earth two men,
+each the writer first thought of when his country's literature is
+mentioned, and one of them the first writer in the world's literature.
+Cervantes and Shakespeare very likely died in ignorance of each other's
+work. Stoddard has depicted them in Paradise,</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Where sweet Cervantes walks,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">A smile on his grave face ...<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Where, little seen but light,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">The only Shakespeare is.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>There is no injustice in saying that Shakespeare's nature included that
+of Cervantes. Not so inclusive was Dante's; what his nature most lacked
+we find in the author of "Don Quixote." Yet personally they are equally
+heroic figures, and, one an exile and the other a slave, both drained to
+the dregs the cup of human suffering. Cervantes has several<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71"></a>[<a href="./images/71.png">71</a>]</span> great
+advantages over most of the world's classic writers: his masterpiece is
+a work of humor; it is written in a simple and graceful style, at once
+easy and winning; and it is written in prose, which, after all, does not
+make so severe a cultural demand on the reader as poetry. For these very
+reasons it cannot aspire to the highest rank, but what it loses in fame
+it makes up in popularity. Though in a few passages it is not parlor
+reading, "Don Quixote" is one of the cleanest of all the world's great
+books. It is not merely technically clean, but clean-minded. It has the
+form of a satire on chivalry, but its meaning goes much deeper. It is
+really a satire on a more persistent weakness of the Spanish character,
+visionary unrealism. We have this quality held up to ridicule in the
+learned man and the ignorant man, for Sancho Panza is as much of an
+unrealist as his master, only he is a groveling visionary while Don
+Quixote is a soaring one. This, too, is a book that one does not
+outgrow, but finds it a perpetually adequate commentary on his own
+widening experience of men and their motives.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the supreme figure in literature, the least thing that we
+can do is to read him, and, having read him, to read him again and to
+keep his volumes next to our hands. We shall hardly read Shakespeare
+without having the question of commentators come up; and surely
+Shakespeare deserves all the attention that we can bestow upon him. But
+the general reader should clearly distinguish between the two kinds of
+commentary that have appeared regarding Shakespeare, the one having to
+do with his text, his historical accuracy, and his use of words, the
+other with his meaning. In Hudson's edition these two kinds of notes are
+kept separate. Surely it is the thought of Shakespeare that we want, and
+not the pedantry of minute scholarship regarding his material, useful as
+that is in its place. The reader who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a>[<a href="./images/72.png">72</a>]</span> has mastered Hudson's
+introductions and has read Dowden's "Shakspere: His Mind and Art" or
+Brandes's "Critical Study" will have all that he will ordinarily need in
+the way of guidance. But remember that reading about Shakespeare is not
+reading Shakespeare; <i>that</i> means, for the time at least, self-surrender
+to Shakespeare's leading. Shakespeare is perhaps the supreme example of
+a man who found the world interesting. He may not be sympathetic with
+evil, but he finds it so interesting that he makes us, for the time
+being, take a fratricidal usurper like Hamlet's uncle, or a gross,
+sponging braggart like Falstaff, at his own estimate. Shakespeare is
+never shocked at anything that happens in the world; he knows the world
+too well for that. He offends the Puritan in us by his indifference; he
+is therefore probably the best kind of reading for Puritans. Shakespeare
+is romantic in his literary methods, but in his portrayal of character
+he is an unsurpassed realist. If life were all thought and achievement,
+Shakespeare would be the last word in literature; but there is another
+side, the side which the Puritan represents, with which Shakespeare is
+but imperfectly sympathetic. His message accordingly needs to be
+supplemented; and it is interesting that his great successor, the man
+who still stands next to him in our literature, supplies that missing
+strain. If we could take but one book with us into banishment, it would
+be Shakespeare&mdash;thus proving Shakespeare's supremacy by Miss Peggy
+Heath's principle of elimination; but if we could take two, that second,
+I am frank to confess, would for me be Milton.</p>
+
+<p>It is Milton's literary glory that he appeared in the second generation
+following Spenser and Shakespeare&mdash;he was born in Shakespeare's
+lifetime&mdash;and carried off the palm, which he still keeps, for the
+greatest English poem. In spiritual kinship he is much nearer to Spenser
+than to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73"></a>[<a href="./images/73.png">73</a>]</span> Shakespeare. Shakespeare hides behind his pages; his
+personality makes no clear or at least ready impression upon us; but the
+colossal personality of Milton towers above all his works. He is Milton,
+the superman, and communion with him for the moment lifts us to
+something like his own level. In this personal inspiration lies Milton's
+greatest service to his readers. Over and above the poetic delights, of
+which he is a master unsurpassed, is the inspiration that comes from the
+man behind the poetry; or, to express the same thought in other words,
+above the organ music of his verse sounds clear and far the trumpet call
+of personality. Therefore Milton is destined to inspire generations by
+which his theology and his justification of the ways of God to man are
+swept into his own limbo of myth and delusion. Fortunately Milton's
+verse is not appallingly great in amount. If we cannot hope to know it
+all by heart, as Macaulay did, we can at least know it well enough to
+recognize any quotation from it, and rich will be the furnishing of our
+minds when we have made this true.</p>
+
+<p>In our beadroll of the world's greatest writers I shall mention only one
+more, Goethe. He is the modern man who touched life most widely,
+penetratingly, and sanely. His long life came down so near to ours that
+many of us have had friends who were in childhood or infancy his
+contemporaries. It is fair to say that since his death the world has
+moved much nearer to his mental attitude than it stood in his lifetime,
+and one of the agencies that have wrought the change is the living force
+of his own works, which led and still lead the thought of men. Goethe
+may be called the ideal creative critic of life. He held up a mirror,
+not to Nature, as Shakespeare did, but to society; and society can get
+away from the image which it sees reflected there only by growing away
+from it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74"></a>[<a href="./images/74.png">74</a>]</span></p>
+
+<p>Here let us close our list, not because there are no other great writers
+to choose from, but because it is long enough for our present purposes,
+and because, from this point on, every addition is open to challenge. I
+have intentionally pitched my counsel high; some of my readers may feel
+like calling it a counsel of perfection; but according to my way of
+thinking, no writer is too good for any of us to read. Moreover, I
+honestly think the list interesting. It is not chiefly reading for
+recreation, but for soul expansion, and it means intellectual effort.
+Unless we wrestle with an author as Jacob did with the angel, we shall
+not receive the highest blessing. But some one may plead that, while he
+does not wish to read wholly for amusement, he is not in a condition,
+either from training or circumstances, to engage in mental athletics. He
+cannot apply himself to an author as he recognizes that the greatest
+writers deserve; but he is willing to read with attention, and he should
+like to feel that what he is reading is good literature. This is a
+reasonable request, and, out of countless possible responses, I will
+make one that I hope may prove both profitable and attractive.</p>
+
+<p>Let us set out with the recognition of the fact that systematic reading
+is far more profitable than desultory reading, even on the same literary
+level. One excellent way to achieve system is to read by authors&mdash;to
+make the author a study, in his writings and his life. To read
+Hawthorne's "House of the Seven Gables," for instance, is to drink from
+a fountain of the purest spiritual delight; but we gain an additional
+delight, even if of a lower kind, when we know something of Hawthorne's
+life and his relations to the old town of Salem. In many cases it is
+necessary to know the author's life in order really to understand his
+book. Now I will suggest the reading, not merely of separate authors,
+but of a group. There are many such, of varying degrees of greatness:
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75"></a>[<a href="./images/75.png">75</a>]</span>the Elizabethan group, the Lake poets, the Byron-Shelley-Keats group,
+the mid-nineteenth-century British novelists, to go no further than
+writers in English. But I am going to ask your interest in the New
+England group of authors who were writing fifty years ago. They comprise
+the well-known names of Emerson, Hawthorne, Longfellow, Whittier,
+Holmes, Thoreau, and Lowell. Each of these delightful writers deserves
+to be studied for his own sake, but, if we take them as a group, we
+shall gain still more in understanding and profit. How shall we approach
+the reading of them? They obviously cannot all be read at once; so let
+us begin with any one, say Hawthorne, read his life in Mrs. Field's
+brief Beacon Biography, dipping at the same time into his "Note-Books,"
+and then read some of his short stories and the "Scarlet Letter." His
+biography will already have brought us into contact with most of the
+other names, of Longfellow, his college classmate, and of Emerson and
+Thoreau, his neighbors at Concord. We may read the Beacon Biography of
+Longfellow, but Higginson's would be better, as fuller and more
+adequate. We may first read Longfellow's prose works, "Outre-Mer" and
+"Hyperion," and then his "Voices of the Night," besides following him in
+his "Life, with Extracts from his Journal and Correspondence," edited by
+his brother, which is one of the most delightful of books. We shall do
+well to read each author's writings in chronological succession; so they
+will stand in orderly relation with his life. Similarly we may take up
+Emerson first in Mr. Sanborn's Beacon Biography, or in Dr. Holmes's
+larger but still handy volume, and then we can apply ourselves with
+better understanding to Emerson's essays and poems. I particularly
+mention his poems, for I believe that Emerson will come to be rated
+higher as a poet than he has yet been. His poetry at its best is hardly
+below anyone's best;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76"></a>[<a href="./images/76.png">76</a>]</span> the only trouble is that there is so little of it;
+but ultimately all writers are judged by their best. In the same way we
+may take up all the writers of the group, learning something of the life
+of each and reading some of his works before passing on to another. Let
+me especially call your attention to the writings of Thoreau, who is
+less known to his countrymen than any of the others. He is a writer of
+great originality and freshness of view. He, too, wrote some exquisite
+poetry, worthy of any name in literature; but you will have to look for
+it among other verse that has more originality than charm. Obviously
+what I have recommended is not the work of one year's leisure, but the
+protracted delight of many years: for these books are not to be hurried
+over to get to the end of the chapter or to see how they are coming out;
+neither are they material for skipping. They are to be read attentively
+and reread; and if one or another fails to make a strong appeal to some
+reader, surely he cannot fail to find in most of them a source of lofty
+pleasure and spiritual enrichment. One fruit that we may expect from
+such reading is that we shall find ourselves drawn nearer to the supreme
+masters and shall end by surrendering ourselves to them. To know our New
+England group is not indeed to climb the Alps of literature, but it is
+at least to climb its White Mountains. Every gain will be a fresh
+incitement, and those who at the start join the literary Appalachian
+Club may be looked for some day in the ranks of the Alpinists.</p>
+
+<p>A word on the reading of contemporary writers; for even our second list
+did not bring us down to our own time. We shall, of course, read our
+contemporaries, and we have a right to, so long as we do not give them
+the time and attention that clearly belong to their betters. The truth
+is that contemporaries&mdash;unless they are contemporary poets&mdash;have a quite
+unfair advantage over their elders, our own in time<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77"></a>[<a href="./images/77.png">77</a>]</span> and place being so
+much more attractive to us than anything more remote. Still, our
+contemporaries have a claim upon us&mdash;even, I am rash enough to assert,
+our contemporary poets&mdash;for they have a message that their predecessors
+cannot give us; it may not be the most important message for us, but it
+is a message of value, as we shall see if we return to De Morgan and his
+novels. These remarkable books we cannot miss without losing something
+that makes our own day fine and precious among earth's generations. But
+in this respect they are literally chosen from ten thousand, for we need
+constantly the caution that the near carries with it an appearance of
+importance that is an illusion; of this truth our periodical literature,
+from the newspaper up, is the illustrious example, and the lesson is all
+summed up in the one phrase, "back number." Let us be careful that in
+heeding contemporary voices we are not storing our minds with the
+contents of "back numbers." True literature as we have seen, never
+becomes out of date; Homer keeps up with the telegraph.</p>
+
+<p>I have but one final word, which has been provided for me by Charles
+Lamb, who says in his inimitable fashion: "I own that I am disposed to
+say grace upon twenty other occasions in the course of the day besides
+my dinner. I want a form for setting out upon a pleasant walk, for a
+moonlight ramble, for a friendly meeting, or a solved problem. Why have
+we none for books, those spiritual repasts&mdash;a grace before Milton&mdash;a
+grace before Shakespeare&mdash;a devotional exercise proper to be said before
+reading the Fairy Queen?" This is the spirit of a joyous but devoutly
+grateful expectance, in which I would have myself approach the reading
+of a great book. The gratitude I surely owe the author, for there is no
+great book but has come like refined gold out of the furnace fire. I owe
+it also to the Providence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"></a>[<a href="./images/78.png">78</a>]</span> which has granted me this lofty privilege.
+Moreover, it is only in the humility born of such an attitude that I can
+make a complete approach to my author and gain that uplift and
+enrichment of the soul, which&mdash;and not pastime nor pleasure&mdash;is the true
+end, as it should be the aim of reading.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79"></a>[<a href="./images/79.png">79</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>THE BACKGROUND OF THE BOOK</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img13.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img13.jpg" width="80" height="79" alt="CH12" title="CH12" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>NE of the greatest contributions that modern investigation has made to
+human knowledge is background. It was once thought a remarkable
+achievement to uncover the historic background of modern institutions,
+and this was all that, until lately, scholarship attempted. Dr. Samuel
+Johnson confidently remarked that we know no more about ancient Britain
+than the old writers have told us, nor can we ever know any more than
+this. Edward Clodd reminds us that at the very time when the great
+oracle voiced this assertion discoveries had already been made in
+England that, when interpreted as they have been since, were to make the
+landing of Caesar seem, by comparison, a contemporary occurrence. Now
+this inconceivably remote prehistoric era furnishes not merely
+arrowheads and stone chisels and burial mounds, but also other objects
+that are the background of that "picture of time" of which the book of
+to-day is the foreground.</p></div>
+
+<p>Very properly these are objects of art, and they afford the earliest
+illustrations in histories of art as they do in histories of the book.
+Thus the printer who questions what art has to do with his business
+stamps himself as two hundred thousand years behind the times. They are
+pictures, and the book of to-day has descended as directly from them as
+the printer of to-day has descended from the man who made them. They
+are, moreover, in some instances, works of very high art. The picture of
+the mammoth, scratched on a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"></a>[<a href="./images/80.png">80</a>]</span> fragment of the mammoth's tusk, is a piece
+of drawing so skillful that only the greatest living masters can equal
+it. Not even Rembrandt's drawing of the elephant, which Dr. Holmes
+celebrates in one of his poems, is more expressive or wrought with more
+economy of effort. In the same district of southwestern France,
+Dordogne, that yielded the drawings are found long cave galleries of
+paintings representing the creatures of that period, all executed with
+great spirit and ability. But what are the steps in the descent from
+these ancient pictures to the printed book?</p>
+
+<p>Primitive man had one more string to his conversational bow than most
+civilized people have, namely, sign language. But gesture and speech
+alike prevail but little against space and time. Each is possible only
+at short range, and each dies on the eye or ear that receives it.
+Pictures may be carried to any distance and may be preserved for any
+length of time. They were probably made first in response to an instinct
+rather for art than for the communication of ideas; but their great
+advantage for communication must have been perceived very early, and, as
+we find picture writing employed by primitive races to-day, we have the
+right to infer that prehistoric peoples at the same stage of culture
+also employed it. Pure picture writing, however, does not suffice for
+all that men have to say. It is easy to represent a house, but how shall
+we represent a home? It is easy to represent a woman, but how shall we
+add the idea of wife? To do this we must pass from simple pictures to
+symbols. Chinese writing has never advanced beyond this stage. Its
+prodigious type-case of more than forty-two thousand characters
+contains, therefore, only a series of pictures, direct and symbolic, all
+highly conventionalized, but recognizable in their earlier forms. To
+represent "wife" the Chinaman combines the two signs for "woman" and
+"broom"; to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81"></a>[<a href="./images/81.png">81</a>]</span> represent "home" he makes a picture of a pig under a roof!
+The Egyptian and Mexican systems of writing, though very different to
+the eye, were both of this nature and represented ideas rather than
+words. Yet all true alphabets, which are representations of sound, have
+been derived from such primitive ideograms or pictures of ideas. What
+was the process?</p>
+
+<p>The rebus is the bridge from the writing of thoughts to the writing of
+sounds, and it came into use through the necessity of writing proper
+names. Every ancient name, like many modern ones, had a meaning. A
+king's name might be Wolf, and it would be indicated by the picture of a
+wolf. Ordinarily the picture would be named by everyone who saw it
+according to his language; he might call it "wolf," or "lupus," or
+"lykos"; but when it meant a man's name he must call it Wolf, whatever
+his own language. So such names as Long Knife and Strong Arm would be
+represented, and these pictures would thus be associated with the sound
+rather than the thing. By and by it was found convenient, where the word
+had several syllables, to use its picture to represent the sound of only
+the first syllable, and, still later, of only the first sound or letter.
+Thus the Egyptian symbol for F was originally a picture of the horned
+asp, later it stood for the Egyptian name of this venomous creature, and
+finally for the first sound in the name, being used as the letter F
+itself; and the reason why we have the barred cross-piece in the F, the
+two horns in U, V, and Y, and the four in W (VV) is because the Egyptian
+asp had two horns, as may be seen from the illustration in the Century
+Dictionary under the word cerastes; and every time that we write one of
+these letters we are making a faded copy of the old picture. We find
+systems of writing in all the stages from pure pictures to the phonetic
+alphabet; in Egyptian hieroglyphics we find a mixture of all the stages.
+So much for the background<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82"></a>[<a href="./images/82.png">82</a>]</span> of the book as the bringer of a message to
+the eye, but the outward form or wrapping of that message has also a
+long and interesting history.</p>
+
+<p>No objects could be much more unlike than a Babylonian tablet, an
+Egyptian papyrus roll, and a Mexican book. They are as different as a
+brick, a narrow window-shade, and a lady's fan; they have nothing common
+in their development, yet they were used for the same purpose and might
+bring identically the same message to the mind. Inwardly, as regards
+writing or printing, all books have a parallel development; but
+outwardly, in their material and its form, they are the results of local
+conditions. In Babylonia, which was a fertile river-bottom, bricks were
+the only building material, and clay was therefore a familiar substance.
+Nothing was more natural than that the Babylonian should scratch his
+record or message on a little pat of clay, which he could afterwards
+bake and render permanent. Some day all other books in the world will
+have crumbled into dust, their records being saved only when reproduced;
+but at that remote time there will still exist Babylonian books, even
+now five thousand years old, apparently no nearer destruction than when
+they were first made.</p>
+
+<p>The Babylonian book carried its message all on the outside; the Egyptian
+book went to the opposite extreme, and we should find our chief
+objection to it in the difficulty of getting readily at its contents.
+There flourished on the banks of the Nile a stout reed, six feet high,
+called by the Egyptians "p-apa" and by the Greeks "papyros" or "byblos."
+It was the great source of raw material for Egyptian manufactures. Its
+tufted head was used for garlands; its woody root for various purposes;
+its tough rind for ropes, shoes, and similar articles&mdash;the basket of
+Moses, for instance; and its cellular pith for a surface to write on. As
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83"></a>[<a href="./images/83.png">83</a>]</span> stem was jointed, the pith came in lengths, the best from eight to
+ten inches. These lengths were sliced through from top to bottom, and
+the thin slices laid side by side. Another layer was pasted crosswise
+above these, the whole pressed, dried in the sun, and rubbed smooth,
+thus giving a single sheet of papyrus. As the grain ran differently on
+the two surfaces of the papyrus sheet, only one side was written on.
+Other sheets were added to this by pasting them edge to edge until
+enough for a roll had been made, usually twenty, a roller being fastened
+to the last edge and a protecting strip of wood to the front. The
+manuscript was unrolled by the right hand and rolled up by the left. It
+is obvious that a book of reference in this form would be subjected to
+great wear. In our dictionaries it is as easy to find Z as A; but in a
+papyrus book, to find the end meant to unroll the whole. The Latin word
+for roll was "volumen," hence our "volume." A long work could obviously
+not be produced conveniently in a single roll, therefore Homer's "Iliad"
+and "Odyssey," for instance, were each divided into twenty-four books,
+and that is why the divisions of an epic poem are still called books,
+though they are really chapters. The rolls composing a single work were
+kept together in a case something like a bandbox. The roll was the book
+form of the Greek and Roman as well as the Egyptian world, but it left
+no descendants. Our book form was derived from a different source, which
+we will now consider.</p>
+
+<p>Just as we speak of Russia leather, so the ancients spoke of Pergamum
+skins, or parchment. The story is that Eumenes II, King of Pergamum, a
+city of Asia Minor, tried to build up a library rivaling that of
+Alexandria, and the Ptolemies, seeking to thwart him, forbade the export
+of papyrus from Egypt. Eumenes, however, developed the manufacture of
+Pergamum skin, or parchment, or vellum, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84"></a>[<a href="./images/84.png">84</a>]</span> not only enabled him to
+go on with his library, but also incidentally changed the whole
+character of the book for future ages. This material is not only much
+more serviceable than the fragile papyrus, but, being tough enough to
+stand folding and sewing, permitted the book to be made in its present
+or codex form, the original codex being two or three Roman waxed tablets
+of wood, fastened together like hinged slates, and thus opening very
+crudely in the manner of our books. This development of parchment
+occurred in the first half of the second century before Christ. The new
+material and book form gradually made their way into favor and came to
+constitute the book of the early Christian and medieval world. Though
+paper was introduced into Europe soon after the year seven hundred, it
+did not displace parchment until the invention of printing called for a
+material of its cheaper and more adaptable character.</p>
+
+<p>But, though we have traced the origin of our present book form, we have
+not yet filled in the background of its history. Several other notable
+types of the book deserve our attention; first of all that of China, one
+of the most attractive of all book forms, to which we devote our next
+chapter. Though it superficially resembles our own books, it is really
+the product of a different line of evolution. When we examine it
+closely, we find that in many respects it is the exact reverse of our
+practice. It is printed on only one side of the paper; it is trimmed at
+the back and folded on the fore edge; its wide margin is at the top; its
+running headline is on the folded fore edge; its sewing is on the
+outside; its binding is limp; its lines run up and down the page; and
+its pages, according to Western ideas, open from the back towards the
+front. Yet it is a thing of beauty, and let us hope that nothing in the
+modern reorganization of China will change its character to prevent it
+from remaining a joy forever.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85"></a>[<a href="./images/85.png">85</a>]</span></p>
+
+<p>Just as Chinese paper is made from bamboo, which plays an even greater
+part in China than papyrus did in Egypt, so the book of India utilizes
+the leaves of that important tropical tree, the palm. The sheets of the
+book before me are strips of palm-leaf two inches wide and two feet
+long. They are written on both sides and, following the run of the
+grain, lengthwise. This makes an inordinate length of line, but, owing
+to the small number of lines on the page, the confusion of the eye is
+less than might be expected. The leaves composing the book are clamped
+between two boards of their own size, the block thus formed is pierced
+with two holes, through which pins are thrust, and the whole is wound
+with a cord. The dimensions vary, some books being larger and some much
+smaller. I have also before me a Burmese booklet in which the leaves are
+one inch wide and six inches long. Sometimes the sheets are of brass,
+beautifully lacquered, and the writing heavy and highly decorative.
+These books also vary greatly in size, some forming truly massive and
+sumptuous volumes. Birch bark was also employed as a book material in
+India, being used in what we should call quarto sheets, and in Farther
+India a peculiar roll is in use, made of Chinese paper, folded at the
+side, sewed at the top, and rolled up like a manifold banner in a cover
+of orange-colored or brown cotton cloth.</p>
+
+<p>We do not ordinarily associate books with pre-Columbian America; yet one
+of the most interesting of all book forms was current in Mexico before
+the Conquest. As in the case of the Chinese book, it looks superficially
+like ours; we think it is a tiny quarto until we see that its measure is
+rather that of an oblong twenty-fourmo; that is, its dimensions are just
+scant of five inches high and six inches wide. It has thin wooden covers
+and is, over all, an inch thick; but between these covers is a strip of
+deerskin twenty-nine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86"></a>[<a href="./images/86.png">86</a>]</span> feet long and, of course, nearly five inches wide.
+This is folded in screen or fan fashion, the first and last leaves being
+pasted to the inside of the covers. This attachment is really the only
+binding; the whole strip is capable of being opened up to its full
+length. It is read&mdash;by those who can read its vividly colored
+hieroglyphics&mdash;by holding it like a modern book, turning the leaves
+until what seems the end is reached, and then turning the cover for the
+next leaf, and continuing to turn until the first cover is reached
+again, but from the other side. Incredible as it may seem, there is a
+book of India which is almost identical in structure with the ancient
+Mexican book. It has the shape of the palm-leaf book, but it is made of
+heavy paper, blackened to be written on with a chalk pencil, and it
+opens like a fan exactly in the Mexican fashion. Each cover is formed by
+a double fold of paper, and the writing runs lengthwise of the page as
+in the palm-leaf volume. As the writing can be erased, the book serves
+the purpose of a slate.</p>
+
+<p>The variety of objects that men have used to write upon almost surpasses
+imagination, ranging from mountain walls to the ivory shoulders of Rider
+Haggard's heroine in his "Mr. Meeson's Will." Such unusual, if actual,
+writing materials belong, perhaps, rather to the penumbra than to the
+background of the book; but, as a final survey of our subject, running
+back to the time when there were no books and men must rely upon their
+memories, we may quote what Lane says of the sources from which the
+Kuran was derived after the death of Mohammed: "So Zeyd gathered the
+Kur&aacute;n from palm-leaves, skins, shoulder-blades (of beasts), stones, and
+the hearts of men."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87"></a>[<a href="./images/87.png">87</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>THE CHINESE BOOK</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img14.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img14.jpg" width="80" height="80" alt="CH13" title="CH13" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>HE naturalist, Lloyd Morgan, in one of his lectures threw together on
+the screen pictures of a humming bird and an insect of the same size,
+the two looking so much alike as to seem to the casual observer to
+belong to the same order. Yet they are anatomically far more different
+than the man and the fish. In much the same way we may be led to suppose
+that a Chinese book and an occidental paper-bound book are much the same
+thing in origin as they are to the eye. But here too the likeness is
+only apparent. One book form has descended from a block of wood and the
+other from a fold of silk.</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese book is such a triumph of simplicity, cheapness, lightness,
+and durability that it deserves a more careful study at the hands of our
+book producers than it has yet received. In fact we do not see why books
+made on nearly these lines should not be an attractive and popular
+innovation in our book trade. Approaches, to be sure, have been made to
+this peculiar book form, but they have been partial imitations, not
+consistent reproductions. In an illustrated edition of Longfellow's
+"Michael Angelo," published in 1885, Houghton, Mifflin and Company
+produced a small folio, the binding of which is obviously patterned
+after that of a Chinese book. But the printing is on every page, and the
+paper is so stiff that the book will not lie open. In the holiday
+edition which the same publishers issued in 1896 of Aldrich's poem,
+entitled "Friar Jerome's Beautiful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88"></a>[<a href="./images/88.png">88</a>]</span> Book," they produced a volume in
+which the front folds were not intended to be cut open; but they outdid
+the Chinese by printing on only one of the pages exposed at each opening
+of the book, instead of on both, as the Chinese do, thus utilizing only
+one-fourth of the possible printing surface of the volume. In this case
+again the paper was stiff and the binding was full leather with heavy
+tapes for tying. A much closer approach to the Chinese book form was
+afforded by "The Periodical," issued by Henry Frowde, in the form which
+it bore at first. Here we have what may fairly be called a
+naturalization of the Chinese book idea in the occident. But let us see
+exactly what that Chinese book form is.</p></div>
+
+<p>The standard book is printed from engraved wood blocks, each of which is
+engraved on the side of the board, not on the end like our wood blocks,
+and for economy is engraved on both its sides. Each of these surfaces
+prints one sheet of paper, making two pages. The paper, being unsized,
+is printed on only one side, and the fold is not at the back, as in our
+books, but at the front. The running headline, as we should call it,
+with the page number, is printed in a central column, which is folded
+through when the book is bound, coming half on one page and half on the
+other. There is always printed in this column a fan-shaped device,
+called the fish's tail, whose notch indicates where the fold is to come.
+It may be remarked in passing that the Chinese book begins on what to us
+is the last page, and that the lines read from top to bottom and follow
+one another from right to left. Each page has a double ruled line at top
+and bottom and on the inner edge. The top and bottom lines and the
+fish's tail, being printed across the front fold, show as black lines
+banding the front edge when the book is bound. The bottom line is taken
+by the binder as his guide in arranging the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"></a>[<a href="./images/89.png">89</a>]</span> sheets, this line always
+appearing true on the front edge and the others blurred. The top margin
+has more than twice the breadth of the lower. After the sheets are
+gathered, holes are punched at proper distances from the back edge&mdash;four
+seems to be the regulation number whether the book be large or small,
+but large books have an extra hole at top and bottom towards the corner
+from the last hole. These holes are then plugged with rolls of paper to
+keep the sheets in position, and the top, bottom, and back edges are
+shaved with a sharp, heavy knife, fifty or more volumes being trimmed at
+the same stroke. A piece of silk is pasted over the upper and lower
+corners of the back. Covers, consisting of two sheets of colored paper
+folded in front like the pages, are placed at front and back, but not
+covering the back edge, or there is an outer sheet of colored paper with
+inside lining paper and a leaf of heavy paper between for stiffening.
+Silk cord is sewn through the holes and neatly tied, and the book is
+done&mdash;light in the hand and lying open well, inexpensive and capable
+with proper treatment of lasting for centuries.</p>
+
+<p>What are the chief defects of the Chinese book from an occidental point
+of view? The most obvious is that it will not stand alone. Another is
+that its covers, being soft, are easily crumpled and dog's-eared. A
+third is that it is printed on only one side of the paper and therefore
+wastes space. All these objections must be admitted, but it may be urged
+with truth that our books, in spite of their relatively costly binding,
+do not stand alone any too well, and in fact this is a function seldom
+asked of books anyway. Its covers are soft, but this means at least that
+they are not so hard and foreign to the material of the book as to tear
+themselves off after a dozen readings, as is the case with so many of
+our bindings. There is no danger of breaking the back of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90"></a>[<a href="./images/90.png">90</a>]</span> Chinese book
+on first opening it, for it has no lining of hard glue. As to the
+utilization of only one side of the paper, it must be remembered that
+the Chinese paper is very thin, and that this practice makes it possible
+to secure the advantage of opacity without loading the paper with a
+foreign and heavy material. Moreover, the thickness of the pasteboard
+cover is saved on the shelves, and even if a substitute for it is
+adopted, it is in the form of a light pasteboard case that holds several
+volumes at once. Such a cover is capable of being lettered on the back,
+though the Chinese seem not to think this necessary, but put their title
+labels on the side. Really, the back of the Chinese book is to us its
+most foreign feature. It is a raw edge, not protected by the cover, and
+differs from the front only in consisting of the edges of single leaves
+instead of folds. It is in fact a survival from the days before the
+invention of paper, when books were printed on silk, the raw edge of
+which would fray and was therefore consigned to the position where it
+would have the least wear and would do the least harm if worn.</p>
+
+<p>But there is no reason why, in Europeanizing the Chinese book, the
+corner guard should not be extended the whole length of the back and
+bear the ordinary lettering. With this slight difference the Chinese
+book would be equipped to enter the lists on fairly even terms against
+the prevailing occidental type of book, which has come down to us from
+the ancient Roman codex through the parchment book, of which ours is
+only a paper imitation. In "The Periodical," referred to, four pages
+instead of two were printed at once, or, at least, four constitute a
+fold. The sheets are stitched through with thread&mdash;they might, of
+course, have been wire-stitched&mdash;and then a paper cover is pasted on, as
+in the case of any magazine or paper-bound book. But in this process the
+beauty of the Chinese binding disappears, though<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91"></a>[<a href="./images/91.png">91</a>]</span> the Chinese do the
+same with their cheapest pamphlets. In these days, when lightness and
+easy handling are such popular features in books, what publisher will
+take up the book form that for two thousand years has enshrined the
+wisdom of the Flowery Kingdom, and by trifling adaptations here and
+there make it his own and ours?</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92"></a>[<a href="./images/92.png">92</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>THICK PAPER AND THIN</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img15.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img15.jpg" width="80" height="81" alt="CH14" title="CH14" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>IR HIRAM MAXIM, the knight from Maine, prophesies that we shall change
+our religion twenty times in the next twenty thousand years. In the last
+two thousand years we have changed our book material twice, from papyrus
+to parchment and from parchment to paper, with a consequent change of
+the book form from the roll to the codex. Shall we therefore change our
+book material twenty times in the next twenty thousand years? Only time
+itself can tell; but for five hundred years the book has never been in
+such unstable equilibrium as at present; the proverb "A book's a book"
+has never possessed so little definite meaning. This condition applies
+chiefly to the paper, but as this changes, the binding will also change
+from its present costly and impermanent character to something at once
+cheaper and more durable.</p></div>
+
+<p>The changes in modern paper have worked in two opposite directions,
+represented on the one hand by Oxford India paper, with its miraculous
+thinness, opacity, and lightness, and on the other hand by papers that,
+while also remarkably light, offer, as a sample book expresses it,
+"excellent bulk"; for instance, 272 pages to an inch as against 1500 to
+an inch of Oxford India paper.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> The contrasted effects of these two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93"></a>[<a href="./images/93.png">93</a>]</span>
+types of material upon the book as a mechanical product are well worth
+the consideration of all who are engaged in the making of books.</p>
+
+<p>Some of these results are surprising. What, for instance, could be more
+illogical than to make a book any thicker than strength and convenience
+require? Yet one has only to step out into the markets where books and
+buyers meet to find a real demand for this excess of bulk. Though
+illogical, the demand for size in books is profoundly psychological and
+goes back to the most primitive instincts of human nature. The first of
+all organs in biological development, the stomach, will not do its work
+properly unless it has quantity as well as quality to deal with. So the
+eye has established a certain sense of relationship between size and
+value, and every publisher knows that in printing from given plates he
+can get twice as much for the book at a trifling excess of cost if he
+uses thicker paper and gives wider margins. That all publishers do not
+follow these lines is due to the fact that other elements enter into the
+total field of bookselling besides quantity, the chief of which is cost,
+and another of which, growing in importance, is compactness. But it is
+safe to say that to the buyer who is not, for the moment at least,
+counting the cost, mere bulk makes as great an appeal as any single
+element of attractiveness in the sum total of a book.</p>
+
+<p>This attraction of bulk receives a striking increase if it is associated
+with lightness. The customer who takes up a large book and suddenly
+finds it light to hold receives a pleasurable shock which goes far
+towards making him a purchaser. He seems not to ask or care whether he
+may be getting few pages for his money. The presence of this single,
+agreeable element of lightness at once gives a distinction to the book
+that appears to supplant all other requirements.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94"></a>[<a href="./images/94.png">94</a>]</span> The purchaser does not
+realize that the same lightness of volume associated with half the
+thickness would not seem to him remarkable, though the book would take
+up only half the room on his shelves. He feels that a modern miracle in
+defiance of gravitation has been wrought in his favor, and he is willing
+to pay for the privilege of enjoying it.</p>
+
+<p>Curiously and somewhat unexpectedly the results of neither extreme,
+thick paper nor thin, are wholly satisfactory in the library. The
+parvenu, who is looking only to the filling up of his shelves with
+volumes of impressive size, may find satisfaction in contemplating wide
+backs. But the scholar and the public librarian will grudge the space
+which this "excellent bulk" occupies. One single element in their favor
+he will be quick to recognize, the better space which they afford for
+distinct lettering. In a private library that is collected for use and
+not for show the thin-paper books are almost an unmixed blessing. They
+cost little for what they contain. Their reduction in thickness is often
+associated with a reduction in height and width, so that they represent
+an economy of space all round. A first-rate example of this is furnished
+by the Oxford India Paper Dickens, in seventeen volumes, printed in
+large type, yet, as bound, occupying a cubical space of only 13 by 7 by
+4-1/2 inches and weighing only nine pounds. A more startling instance is
+that of the novels of Thomas Love Peacock, which are issued in a pretty
+library edition of ten volumes. But they are also issued in a <i>single</i>
+volume, no higher nor wider, and only <i>three-fourths of an inch thick</i>.
+But it is at this point that the public librarian rises to protest. It
+is all very well, he says, for the private owner to have his literature
+in this concentrated form, but for himself, how is he to satisfy the
+eight readers who call for "Headlong Hall," "Nightmare Abbey,"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95"></a>[<a href="./images/95.png">95</a>]</span> and the
+rest of Peacock's novels all at once? To be sure he can buy and
+catalogue eight single-volume sets of the author's works instead of one
+set in ten volumes, and when he has done this each reader will be sure
+to find the particular novel that he is looking for so long as a set
+remains; but the cost will naturally be greater. On the other hand, he
+welcomes equally with the private buyer the thin-paper edition of the
+Shakespeare Apocrypha, which needs only a third of the shelf space
+required for the regular edition, seven-sixteenths of an inch as against
+an inch and five-sixteenths. He also looks upon his magazine shelves and
+sees a volume of the "Hibbert Journal" with 966 pages in large type
+occupying the space of a volume of the "Independent" with 1788 pages in
+fine type, or again he sees by the side of his thin-paper edition of
+Dickens another on heavy paper occupying more than three times the
+lineal space with no advantage in clearness of type. By this time he is
+ready to vote, in spite of the occasional disability of overcompactness,
+for the book material that will put the least strain upon his crowded
+shelves. A conference with the booksellers shows him that he is not
+alone in this conclusion. Certain standard works, like the Oxford Book
+of English Verse and Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, have almost ceased
+to be sold in any but the thin-paper editions. Then there dawns upon him
+the vision of a library in which all books that have won their way into
+recognition shall be clothed in this garb of conciseness, and in which
+all that aspire to that rank shall follow their example. In short he
+sees what he believes to be the book of the future, which will be as
+different from the book of the present as that is from the parchment
+book of the early and middle ages of the Christian era, and as different
+in binding as it is in material. The realization of this vision will
+involve first of all a readjustment of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96"></a>[<a href="./images/96.png">96</a>]</span> values on the part of the
+public, an outgrowing of its childish admiration for bulk. But this
+change is coming so rapidly under the stress of modern conditions of
+crowding, especially in city life, as to reduce the vision from its
+prophetic rank to a case of mere foresight.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97"></a>[<a href="./images/97.png">97</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>THE CLOTHING OF A BOOK</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img16.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img16.jpg" width="80" height="81" alt="CH15" title="CH15" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>HE binding of a book is its most conspicuous feature, the part which
+forms its introduction to the public and by which too often it is judged
+and valued; yet the binding is not an integral portion of the volume. It
+may be changed many times without essentially changing the book; but if
+the printed pages are changed, even for others identical to the eye, the
+book becomes another copy. The binding is, therefore, a part of a book's
+environment, though the most intimate part, like our own clothing, to
+which, indeed, it bears a curious resemblance in its purpose and its
+perversions.</p>
+
+<p>Human clothing is for protection and adornment. That of a book involves
+two other demands mutually so contradictory that bookbinding has always
+offered a most attractive challenge to the skill of the handicraftsman.
+The first demand is that the book when closed shall form a well-squared
+and virtually solid block, like the rectangle of wood from which its
+first predecessors were split, and shall be able to stand alone,
+unsupported. The second demand is that this same object, when open,
+shall lie flat at any point and display all its leaves in turn as fully,
+and far more conveniently, than if they had never been fastened
+together. Whatever may be true of other clothing, it is eminently true
+of a book's that the part which really counts is the part which is never
+seen. Only the ornamental portion of a book's covering is exposed. The
+portions which protect the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98"></a>[<a href="./images/98.png">98</a>]</span> book and render it at once firm and flexible
+are out of sight and unheeded by the ordinary reader. Hence the
+existence of so much bookbinding that is apparently good and essentially
+bad, and hence the perpetual timeliness of attempts like that of the
+present chapter, to point out what binding is and should be. The
+processes in bookbinding by which its different ends of utility and
+ornament are achieved are known under the two heads of Forwarding and
+Finishing.</p></div>
+
+<p>Forwarding includes many processes, literally "all but the finishing."
+It is to forwarding that a book owes its shapeliness, its firmness, its
+flexibility, and its durability. Forwarding takes the unfolded and
+unarranged sheets as delivered by the printer and transforms them into a
+book complete in all but its outermost covering of cloth or leather. The
+first process is to fold the sheets and reduce their strange medley of
+page numbers to an orderly succession. This is assuming that there is a
+whole edition to be bound. If it consists of a thousand copies, then
+there will be a certain number of piles of folded sheets, each
+containing a thousand copies of the same pages printed in groups, let us
+say, of sixteen each. These groups of pages are called sections or
+signatures. They are now rearranged, or gathered, into a thousand piles,
+each containing the signatures that belong to one book. The edition is
+thus separated into its thousand books, which the collator goes over to
+see that each is perfect. Let us follow the fortunes of a single one. It
+is not much of a book to look at, being rather a puffy heap of paper,
+but pressing, rolling, or beating soon reduces it to normal dimensions,
+and it is then carried forward to the important process of sewing. This
+is the very heart of the whole work. If the book is badly sewed, it will
+be badly bound, though a thousand dollars were to be spent upon the
+decoration of its covering. There is only one best method of sewing, and
+that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99"></a>[<a href="./images/99.png">99</a>]</span> is around raised cords, in the way followed by the earliest
+binders. There are modern machine methods that are very good, but they
+are only cheap substitutes for the best. The cords must be of good,
+long-fibered hemp, and the thread of the best quality and the right size
+drawn to the right degree of tension without missing a sheet. After the
+sewing the end papers are put in place, the back is glued and rounded,
+and the mill boards are fitted. Into these last the ends of the cords
+are laced and hammered. The book is then pressed to set its shape, being
+left in the press for some days or even weeks. After it is taken out, if
+the edges are to be treated, they are trimmed and then gilded, marbled,
+sprinkled, or otherwise decorated. The head band&mdash;for which many French
+binders substitute a fold in the leather&mdash;is now added. It was formerly
+twisted as the book was sewn, but at present is too often bought
+ready-made and simply glued on. The book is now forwarded.</p>
+
+<p>The business of the finisher is to cover and protect the work already
+done on the book, but in such a way as not to interfere with the
+strength and flexibility that have been gained, and, finally, to add
+such decoration as may be artistically demanded or within the means of
+the purchaser. If leather is employed, it must be carefully shaved to
+give an easily opening hinge, yet not enough to weaken it unnecessarily.
+This is a most important process and one that must be left largely to
+the good faith of the binder. If he is unworthy of confidence, his
+mistakes may long escape notice, but, though buried, they are doomed to
+an inglorious resurrection, albeit he may count on a sufficient lapse of
+time to protect himself.</p>
+
+<p>The next and last process of finishing is that of the decorator, whose
+work passes out of the sphere of handicraft into that of art. His
+problem is no easy one; it is to take a surface<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100"></a>[<a href="./images/100.png">100</a>]</span> of great beauty in
+itself, as of calf or morocco, and so treat it as to increase its
+beauty. Too often, after he has done his utmost, the surface is less
+attractive to the eye than it was at the beginning. He, therefore, has a
+task quite different from that of the painter or sculptor, whose
+materials are not at the outset attractive. This condition is so
+strongly felt that many booklovers leave their bindings untooled,
+preferring the rich sensuous beauty and depth of color in a choice piece
+of leather to any effect of gilding or inlaying. This initial beauty of
+the undecorated book does not, however, form an impossible challenge, as
+witness the work of the Eves, Le Gascon, and the binders of such famous
+collectors as Grolier and de Thou.</p>
+
+<p>It may be well to consider more particularly what the problem of the
+book decorator is. Though perfectly obvious to the eye and clearly
+illustrated by the work of the masters, it has been sometimes lost sight
+of by recent binders. It is, in a word, flat decoration. In the first
+place he has a surface to work upon that is large enough to allow
+strength of treatment, yet small enough to admit delicacy; then,
+whatever in beautiful effects of setting, relief, harmony, and contrast
+can be brought about by blind tooling, gilding, and inlaying, or by
+rubbing the surface as in crushed levant, or variegating it as in "tree"
+or marbled calf, all this he can command. He has control of an infinite
+variety of forms in tooling; he has only to use them with taste and
+skill. There is practically no limit to the amount of work that he can
+put into the binding of a single book, provided that every additional
+stroke is an additional beauty. He may sow the leather with minute
+ornament like Mearne, or set it off with a few significant lines like
+Aldus or Roger Payne; all depends upon the treatment. If he is a master,
+the end will crown the work; if not, then he should have stopped with
+simple<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101"></a>[<a href="./images/101.png">101</a>]</span> lettering and have left the demands of beauty to be satisfied by
+the undecorated leather. Above all, let every decorator stick to flat
+ornament. The moment that he ventures into the third dimension, or
+perspective, that moment he invades the province of the draftsman or
+painter. One does not care to walk over a rug or carpet that displays a
+scene in perspective, neither does one wish to gaze into a landscape
+wrought upon the cover of a book, only to have the illusion of depth
+dispelled upon opening the volume. Embossing is, to be sure, a literal
+not a pictorial invasion of the third dimension, but its intrusion into
+that dimension is very slight and involves no cheating of the eye. It
+has now practically gone out of use, as has the heavy medieval
+ornamentation of studs or jewels. In cloth covers, which are confessedly
+edition work and machine made, the rules of ornament need not be so
+sharply enforced. Here embossing still flourishes to some extent. But
+the decorative problem is essentially the same in cloth as in leather
+binding, and the best design will be one that triumphs within the
+conditions, not outside them. The machines and the division of labor
+have made sad havoc with binding as a craft. The men in America, at
+least, who are masters of every process and of all the skill and cunning
+of the early binders are few, and their thinning ranks are not being
+filled. Will bookbinding, in spite of a high economic demand, share the
+fate that has overtaken engraving, or shall we have a renascence of this
+fascinating handicraft and delightful art, to take its name from the
+present era?</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102"></a>[<a href="./images/102.png">102</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>PARCHMENT BINDINGS</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img17.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img17.jpg" width="80" height="78" alt="CH16" title="CH16" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>HERE are certain things, the Autocrat informs us, that are "good for
+nothing until they have been kept a long while; and some are good for
+nothing until they have been long kept and <i>used</i>. Of the first, wine is
+the illustrious and immortal example. Of those which must be kept and
+used I will name three&mdash;meerschaum pipes, violins, and poems." May we
+present another representative of the class which gathers value with the
+"process of the suns," one as immortal and historic as wine and even
+richer in associations&mdash;the parchment book cover? In this case it
+matters not whether the object meets with use or neglect. So long as it
+is not actually worn to pieces on the one hand, nor destroyed by mold on
+the other, the parchment binding will keep on converting time into gold,
+until after a few hundred years it reaches a tint far surpassing in
+beauty the richest umber of a meerschaum, and approached only by the
+kindred hue of antique ivory.</p></div>
+
+<p>Here is a table full of old parchment-bound books, ranging from a tiny
+twenty-fourmo, which will stay neither open nor shut, to thin, limp
+folios that are instantly correspondent to either command. Those that
+are bound with boards have taken on a drumhead quality of smoothness and
+tension, especially the fat quartos and small octavos, while the larger
+volumes that received a flexible binding resemble nothing in surface so
+much as the wrinkled diploma on yonder wall, with its cabalistic
+signature now to be written<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103"></a>[<a href="./images/103.png">103</a>]</span> no more, Carolus-Guil. Eliot; but all agree
+in a tint over which artists rave, the color that gold would take if it
+were capable of stain. But there is no stain here, or rather all stains
+are taken up and converted into beauty. Dust, dirt, smudges, all are
+here, and each is made to contribute a new element of charm. Is the
+resultant more beautiful than the spotless original? Compare it with the
+pearly tint of the diploma, or turn up the folded edge of one of those
+flexible bindings and note the chalky white of the parchment's protected
+under-surface. The same three hundred years that have made over Europe
+and made English America have, as it were, filled in the rhythmic pauses
+between their giant heart-beats by ripening Dr. Holmes's wine and
+touching with Midas caress these parchment bindings!</p>
+
+<p>It is surely a crime to keep such beauty of tint and tone hidden away in
+drawers or all but hidden on crowded shelves. Let them be displayed in
+open cases where all may enjoy them. But let us go softly; these
+century-mellowed parchments are too precious to be displayed to
+unappreciative, perhaps scornful, eyes. Put them away in their
+hiding-places until some gentle reader of these lines shall ask for
+them; then we will bring them forth and persuade ourselves that we can
+detect a new increment of beauty added by the brief time since last we
+looked on them. I once heard an address on a librarian's duty to his
+successors. I will suggest a service not there mentioned: to choose
+every year the best contemporary books that he can find worthily printed
+on time-proof papers and have them bound in parchment; then let him
+place them on his shelves to gather gold from the touch of the mellowing
+years through the centuries to come and win him grateful memory such as
+we bestow upon the unknown hands that wrought for these volumes the
+garments of their present and still increasing beauty.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104"></a>[<a href="./images/104.png">104</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>LEST WE FORGET THE FEW GREAT BOOKS</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img18.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img18.jpg" width="80" height="78" alt="CH17" title="CH17" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>NE result of the stir that has been made in library matters during the
+last two generations, and especially during the latter, is the enormous
+increase in the size of our libraries. In 1875 the public libraries of
+the United States contained a little less than 11,500,000 volumes. In
+the five years from 1908 to 1913 the libraries of 5,000 volumes and over
+added nearly 20,000,000 volumes, making a total of over 75,000,000
+volumes, an increase of 35.7 per cent. In 1875 there were 3682 libraries
+of more than 300 volumes each; in 1913 there were 8302 libraries of over
+1000 volumes each. In 1875 there were only nine libraries containing
+100,000 volumes or over. These were the Library of Congress, 300,000;
+Boston Public Library, 300,000; New York Mercantile Library, 160,000;
+Harvard College Library, 154,000; Astor Library, 152,000; Philadelphia
+Mercantile Library, 126,000; House of Representatives Library, 125,000;
+Boston Athenaeum, 105,000; Library Company of Philadelphia, 104,000. In
+1913 there were in this class 82 libraries, or over nine times as many,
+including 14 libraries of 300,000 to 2,000,000 volumes, a class which
+did not exist in 1875.</p></div>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the individual book remains just what it always was, the
+utterance of one mind addressed to another mind, and the individual
+reader has no more hours in the day nor days in his life; he has no more
+eyes nor hands nor&mdash;we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105"></a>[<a href="./images/105.png">105</a>]</span> reluctantly confess&mdash;brains than he had in 1875.
+But, fast as our libraries grow, not even their growth fully represents
+the avalanche of books that is every year poured upon the reader's
+devoted head by the presses of the world. To take only the four
+countries in whose literature we are most interested we find their
+annual book publication, for the latest normal year, 1913, to be as
+follows: Germany, 35,078 volumes; France, 11,460; England, 12,379;
+America, 12,230. But Japan, Russia, and Italy are each credited with
+issuing more books annually than either England or the United States,
+and the total annual book publication of the world is estimated to reach
+the enormous figure of more than 130,000 volumes. In view of this
+prodigious literary output, what progress can the reader hope to make in
+"keeping up with the new books"? De Quincey figured that a man might
+possibly, in a long lifetime devoted to nothing else, read 20,000
+volumes. The estimate is easy. Suppose we start with one book a
+day&mdash;surely a large supposition&mdash;and count a man's reading years from 20
+to 80, 60 years in all; 60 times 365 is 21,900. This estimate makes no
+allowance for Sundays, holidays, or sickness. Yet, small as it is&mdash;for
+there are private libraries containing 20,000 volumes&mdash;it is manifestly
+too large. But whatever the sum total may be, whether 20,000 or 2,000,
+let us see, if I may use the expression, what a one must read before he
+can allow himself to read what he really wants to.</p>
+
+<p>First of all we must read the books that form the intellectual tools of
+our trade, and there is no profession and hardly a handicraft that does
+not possess its literature. For instance, there are more than ten
+periodicals in the German language alone devoted exclusively to such a
+narrow field as beekeeping. Such periodicals and such books we do not
+call literature, any more than we do the labors of the man or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106"></a>[<a href="./images/106.png">106</a>]</span> woman who
+supplies the text for Butterick's patterns. But they are printed matter,
+and the reading of them takes up time that we might have spent upon
+"books that are books."</p>
+
+<p>But besides this bread and butter reading there is another sort that we
+must admit into our lives if we are to be citizens of the world we live
+in, contemporaries of our own age, men among the men of our time, and
+that is reading for general information. The time has long since gone
+by, to be sure, when any man could, like Lord Bacon, take all knowledge
+for his province&mdash;we can hardly take a bird's-eye view of all knowledge
+to-day. No amount of reading will ever produce another Scaliger, learned
+in every subject. To be well informed, even in these days of the
+banyan-like growth of the tree of knowledge, is to be a miracle of
+erudition. Most of mankind must be content with the modest aim which Dr.
+Holmes set for the poet, to know enough not to make too many blunders.
+In carrying out this humble purpose, that of merely touching elbows with
+the thronging multitude of facts of interest to the civilized man, we
+have a task great enough to occupy the time of any reader, even if he
+made it his vocation; and with most of us it must be only a minor
+avocation. The very books about the books in this boundless field, the
+compends of the compends, the reviews of the reviews, form in themselves
+a library great enough to stagger human weakness. Besides all this&mdash;in a
+sense a part of it, yet a miscellaneous and irrational part&mdash;come the
+newspapers, with their daily distraction. This is after all our world,
+and we cannot live in it and be absolute nonconformists. So we must
+submit to the newspaper, though it makes a heavy addition to our daily
+load of reading for information. But there is still another kind of
+necessary reading that I wish to mention before we come to that which
+ranks chief in importance.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107"></a>[<a href="./images/107.png">107</a>]</span></p>
+
+<p>The woman who takes out of the public or subscription library a novel a
+day is only suffering from the perversion of an appetite that in its
+normal state is beneficial. It is possible that her husband does not
+read enough for amusement, that his horizon is narrowed, his sympathies
+stunted by the lack of that very influence which, in excess, unfits his
+wife for the realities and duties of everyday existence. It came as a
+surprise to many to learn from Tennyson's "Life" that the author of "In
+Memoriam" was a great novel reader. But clearly in his case the novel
+produced no weakening of the mental fiber. President Garfield advised
+the student to mingle with his heavier reading a judicious proportion of
+fiction. The novel may rank in the highest department of literature and
+may render the inestimable service of broadening and quickening our
+sympathies. In this case it belongs to the class of the best books. But
+I have introduced it here as the most prominent representative of what
+we may call the literature of recreation. There is a further
+representative of this class that is peculiarly well fitted to bring
+refreshment and cheer to the weary and dispirited, and that is humor,
+which is often also the soundest philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>If the reader does not at the outset make provision in his daily reading
+for the best books, the days and the months will go by, and the unopened
+volumes will look down upon him from his shelves in dumb reproof of his
+neglect and reminder of his loss. In truth it is all a matter of the
+balance of gain. What we rate highest we shall find room for. If we
+cannot have our spiritual food and satisfy all our other wants, perhaps
+we shall find that some of our other wants can do with less
+satisfaction. That we should neglect the material side of life for the
+spiritual I do not say. But for our encouragement let me quote another
+estimate of what may be accomplished by persistent reading, and my
+authority shall<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108"></a>[<a href="./images/108.png">108</a>]</span> be the late Professor William Mathews, the essayist, an
+author whose graceful style bears lightly as a flower a weight of
+learning that would appall, if it did not so delight us. Says Dr.
+Mathews:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Did you ever think of the sum total of knowledge that may be
+accumulated in a decade, or score of years, or a lifetime by
+reading only 10 pages a day? He who has read but that small
+amount daily, omitting Sundays, has read in a year 3130
+pages, which is equal to six volumes of 521 pages each,
+enough to enable one to master a science. In five years he
+will have read 15,650 pages, equivalent to 30 large volumes,
+or to 60 of the average size. Now, we do not hesitate to say
+that 30 volumes of 521 pages each of history, biography,
+science, and literature, well chosen, well read, and well
+digested, will be worth to nine persons out of ten more than
+the average collegiate education is to the majority of
+graduates.</p></div>
+
+<p>Our case for knowing the best books is, therefore, not hopeless. What we
+need for the achievement is not genius, but only a moderate amount of
+forethought and persistence. But who is there that has not tasted the
+joy of discovering a great book that seemed written for himself alone?
+If there is such a man, he is to be pitied&mdash;unless, indeed, he is to be
+congratulated on the unimagined pleasure in store for him. Discovery is
+not too strong a word for the feeling of the reader when he lights upon
+such a world-opening volume. He feels that no one else ever could have
+had the same appreciation of it, ever really discovered it, that he is</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i2">the first that ever burst<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Into that silent sea.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Keats, in his glorious sonnet, "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer,"
+has given the finest of all expressions to this sense of literary
+discovery.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109"></a>[<a href="./images/109.png">109</a>]</span></p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Much have I travelled in the realms of gold<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">And many goodly states and kingdoms seen;<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Round many western islands have I been<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Which bards in fealty to Apollo hold.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Oft of one wide expanse had I been told<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">That deep-browed Homer ruled as his demesne:<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Yet never did I breathe its pure serene<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Till I heard Chapman speak out loud and bold:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Then felt I like some watcher in the skies<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">When a new planet swims into his ken;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Or like stout Cortez, when with eagle eyes<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">He stared at the Pacific&mdash;and all his men<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Looked at each other with a wild surmise&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Silent, upon a peak in Darien.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>To describe such accessions of spiritual vision we turn instinctively to
+the narratives of Holy Writ, to Pisgah and its revelation of the
+Promised Land, to the ladder at Bethel with its angels ascending and
+descending, and to the lonely seer on Patmos with his vision of a new
+heaven and a new earth.</p>
+
+<p>But, questions a listener, do books ever really affect people like this?
+Most assuredly! We have only to turn to biography for the record, if we
+do not find living witnesses among our friends. It was said of Neander
+that "Plato is his idol&mdash;his constant watchword. He sits day and night
+over him; and there are few who have so thoroughly and in such purity
+imbibed his wisdom."</p>
+
+<p>The elder Professor Torrey, of the University of Vermont, found his
+inspiration, as many another has done, in Dante. In his youth he
+preferred the Inferno; in his middle life he rose to the calm heights of
+the Purgatorio; and he used to say with a smile that perhaps the time
+would come when he should be fitted to appreciate the Paradiso. Highly
+interesting is John Ruskin's tribute to Sir Walter Scott:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>It is one of the griefs of my old age that I know Scott by
+heart, but still, if I take up a volume of him, it is not
+laid down again for the next hour.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110"></a>[<a href="./images/110.png">110</a>]</span></p>
+
+<p>Beside this we may place Goethe's testimony, also written in old age:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>We read many, too many, poor things, thus losing our time
+and gaining nothing. We should only read what we can admire,
+as I did in my youth, and as I now do with Sir Walter Scott.
+I have now begun "Rob Roy," and I shall read all his
+romances in succession. All is great&mdash;material, import,
+characters, execution; and then what infinite diligence in
+the preparatory studies! what truth of detail in the
+composition! Here we see what English history is; what an
+inheritance to a poet able to make use of it. Walter Scott
+is a great genius; he has not his equal; and we need not
+wonder at the extraordinary effect he has produced on the
+reading world. He gives me much to think of; and I discover
+in him a wholly new art with laws of its own.</p></div>
+
+<p>Of Goethe himself Carlyle confessed that the reading of his works made
+him understand what the Methodists mean by a new birth. Those who are
+familiar with the speeches and writings of Daniel Webster realize the
+inspiration that he owed to the grandeur of Milton. His great rival,
+Calhoun, honored everywhere as a statesman, was known in his own home as
+"the old man of the Bible." It was the reading of the Bible that
+equipped John Bunyan to become the author of "Pilgrim's Progress." The
+novelists have not failed to recognize the influence of some single book
+on a human life. It was the accidental possession of a folio volume of
+Shakespeare&mdash;in Blackmore's "Lorna Doone"&mdash;that transformed John Ridd
+from a hulking countryman to a man of profound acquaintance with the
+world. And who does not remember Gabriel Betteridge, the simple-hearted
+old steward in Wilkie Collins's "Moonstone," who finds for every
+occurrence a text to counsel or console in his favorite "Robinson
+Crusoe"?</p>
+
+<p>As the experience of Professor Torrey shows, different books appeal to
+us most strongly at different ages. Young<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111"></a>[<a href="./images/111.png">111</a>]</span> men read Shelley, old men
+read Wordsworth. In youth "Hamlet" is to us the greatest of all plays;
+in old age, "Lear." I know of no more interesting account of the
+development of a mind in the choice of books than that presented in John
+Beattie Crozier's autobiographical volume entitled "My Inner Life." The
+author is an English philosopher, who was born and lived until manhood
+in the backwoods of Canada. He tells us how as a young man groping about
+for some clew to the mystery of the world in which he found himself, he
+tried one great writer after another&mdash;Mill, Buckle, Carlyle,
+Emerson&mdash;all to no purpose, for he was not ready for them. At this
+period he read with great profit the "Recreations of a Country Parson,"
+which, as he says, "gave me precisely the grade and shade of platitude I
+required." But more important were the weekly sermons of Henry Ward
+Beecher. Of him Crozier says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>For years his printed sermons were the main source of my
+instruction and delight. His range and variety of
+observation ... his width of sympathy; his natural and
+spontaneous pathos; the wealth of illustration and metaphor
+with which his sermons were adorned, and which were drawn
+chiefly from natural objects, from his orchard, his farm,
+his garden, as well as from machinery and from all kinds of
+natural processes; his naturalism and absence of theological
+bias; his knowledge of average men and their ways of looking
+at things; in a word, his general fertility of thought,
+filling up, as it did, the full horizon of my mind, and
+running over and beyond it on all sides, so that wherever I
+looked he had been there before me&mdash;all this delighted and
+enchanted me, and made him for some years my ideal of
+intellectual greatness; and I looked forward to the
+Saturdays on which his weekly sermons reached me with
+longing and pure joy.</p></div>
+
+<p>Later, in England, Crozier took up the works of the philosophers with
+better success. The chapter of most interest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112"></a>[<a href="./images/112.png">112</a>]</span> for us is the one on the
+group which he calls "The Poetic Thinkers"&mdash;Carlyle, Newman, Emerson,
+Goethe. Of these he places Goethe and Emerson highest. Indeed of
+Emerson's essay on "Experience" he says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In this simple framework Emerson has contrived to work in
+thoughts on human life more central and commanding, more
+ultimate and final, and of more universal application than
+are to be found within the same compass in the literature of
+any age or time, thoughts which rise to the mind as
+naturally and spontaneously when the deeper secrets of life
+are in question, as proverbs do in its more obvious and
+superficial aspects.... Nowhere, indeed, will you find
+greater penetration and profundity, or greater refinement
+and delicacy than in these essays (of Emerson).... After a
+lapse of ten or fifteen years ... no increase of experience
+or reflection has enabled me to add or suggest aught by way
+of commentary on these great and penetrating observations on
+human life that is not either more superficial or less
+true.... Until Emerson is understood, no observer of human
+life making any pretension to originality can, in my
+judgment, consider his reputation safe, or his work free
+from the danger of being undermined by this great master of
+human thought.</p></div>
+
+<p>If some scholar on whose judgment we relied were to speak in these terms
+of a book that was only to be read in Persian or Icelandic, how
+cheerfully we should bend ourselves to the task of learning these
+difficult tongues for the sake of the reward&mdash;the possession of the
+coveted thought. But the writings of Emerson are in our own language and
+accessible in the cheapest editions. If to us personally Emerson does
+not make this supreme appeal, there are other writers, all at hand, set
+apart from the great multitude of lesser spirits by that final weigher
+of human talents whom Bacon calls Good Fame. It is not that among the
+myriad volumes of a library we must painfully and largely by accident
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113"></a>[<a href="./images/113.png">113</a>]</span>discover the few of highest worth&mdash;scanning each doubtfully as one
+searches for an unknown visitor in the crowd alighting from a train. No,
+the best books are the best known, the most accessible. Lists of the
+ten, the fifty, the one hundred best books are at our disposal, and, if
+they do not always represent final judgments, are near enough for
+practical purposes. The will to read the best books is all that we need
+to supply&mdash;the rest has been done for us. And is there anyone who turns
+with indifference from the high and free privilege of making the
+greatest spirits that have ever lived his bosom friends, his companions
+and counselors? If there be such a one, would that I might repeat to him
+more of that glorious chant in praise of books that has been sung by the
+wise of all ages, from Socrates to Gladstone. I have given a few of
+these tributes already; I will close with one from an unexpected source.
+Says Walt Whitman, in his "Democratic Vistas," speaking of the books
+that have come down to us from antiquity:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A few immortal compositions, small in size, yet compassing
+what measureless values of reminiscence, contemporary
+portraitures, manners, idioms and beliefs, with deepest
+inference, hint and thought, to tie and touch forever the
+old, new body, and the old, new soul. These! and still
+these! bearing the freight so dear&mdash;dearer than
+pride&mdash;dearer than love. All the best experience of humanity
+folded, saved, freighted to us here! Some of these tiny
+ships we call Old and New Testament, Homer, Eschylus, Plato,
+Juvenal, etc. Precious minims! I think if we were forced to
+choose, rather than have you, and the likes of you, and what
+belongs to and has grown of you, blotted out and gone, we
+could better afford, appalling as that would be, to lose all
+actual ships, this day fastened by wharf, or floating on
+wave, and see them, with all their cargoes, scuttled and
+sent to the bottom.</p>
+
+<p>Gathered by geniuses of city, race or age, and put by them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114"></a>[<a href="./images/114.png">114</a>]</span>
+in highest of art's forms, namely, the literary form, the
+peculiar combinations, and the outshows of that city, age or
+race, its particular modes of the universal attributes and
+passions, its faiths, heroes, lovers and gods, wars,
+traditions, struggles, crimes, emotions, joys (or the subtle
+spirit of these) having been passed on to us to illumine our
+own selfhood, and its experiences&mdash;what they supply,
+indispensable and highest, if taken away, nothing else in
+all the world's boundless storehouses could make up to us,
+or ever again return.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115"></a>[<a href="./images/115.png">115</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>PRINTING PROBLEMS FOR SCIENCE TO SOLVE</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img19.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img19.jpg" width="80" height="80" alt="CH18" title="CH18" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>HE book seems to have been regarded for hundreds of years&mdash;for
+thousands of years if we include its prototypes&mdash;as a thing apart,
+subject to its own laws of beauty, utility, and economy. But recently
+men have come to realize that the book has no special esthetic license,
+that what is barbarous art elsewhere is barbarous in the book; they also
+recognize that the book is within the domain of economics, that the
+invention of typography was primarily a reduction of cost, and that a
+myriad later processes, which make the book what it is to-day, are all
+developments of the same principle. What has not been so clearly seen is
+that in the field of utility the book is not independent, cannot impose
+conditions upon its users, but is an instrument strictly subordinate to
+human needs. The establishment of its efficiency has only begun when we
+have adapted it to the convenience of the hand and the bookshelf. The
+real tests of its utility are subtle, not gross, and are, in fact,
+beyond the range of ordinary haphazard experience. In this field popular
+judgment may be right or wrong; it offers merely an opinion, which it
+cannot prove. But here that higher power of common sense that we call
+science comes in and gives verdicts that take account of all the
+elements involved and can be verified. Rather this is what science has
+not yet done for printing, or has done only in part, but which we
+confidently expect it is about to do.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116"></a>[<a href="./images/116.png">116</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>What then are some of the points that we may call in science to settle?
+We know surely that fine type, bad presswork, pale ink on gray paper are
+all bad for the eyes. But there are a host of other matters connected
+with printing, we may even say most matters, in regard to which our
+knowledge is either uncertain or indefinite. In respect to this whole
+range of practical printing subjects we want to know just what practice
+is the best and by what percentage of superiority. This quantitative
+element in the solution is of great importance, for when rival
+considerations, the esthetic, the economic, for instance, plead for one
+choice as against another, we shall know just how much sacrifice of
+utility is involved. The tests for which we look to science cover
+everything that goes to make up the physical side of the book. The tests
+themselves, however, are psychological, for the book makes its appeal to
+the mind through one of the senses, that of sight, and therefore its
+adaptedness to the manifold peculiarities of human vision must be the
+final criterion of its utility.</p>
+
+<p>Beginning with the material basis of the book&mdash;paper&mdash;most readers are
+sure that both eggshell and glaze finish are a hindrance to easy reading
+and even hurtful to the eyes; but which is worse and how much? Is there
+any difference as regards legibility between antique and medium plate
+finish, and which is better and by what percentage? In regard to the
+color as well as the surface of paper we are largely at sea. We realize
+that contrast between paper and ink is necessary, but is the greatest
+contrast the best? Is the blackest black on the whitest white better,
+for instance, than blue-black on buff-white, and how much? Is white on
+black not better than black on white, and, if so, in what exact degree?
+Or is the real solution to be found in some other color contrast as yet
+untried? The very mention of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117"></a>[<a href="./images/117.png">117</a>]</span> some of these possibilities shocks our
+prejudices and stirs our conservatism to revolt in advance; yet, with or
+against our will, we may be perfectly sure that the changes which
+science finally pronounces imperative will be made.</p>
+
+<p>Who can tell what is the normal length of line for legibility, or
+whether there is one, and whether there is an ideal size of type, or
+what it is? Are the newspapers, for instance, right as to length of line
+and the books as to size of type, as many suppose? Has each size of type
+a length of line normal to it? How is this affected by leading, or is
+leading merely of imaginary value? Is large type desirable for the
+schoolbooks of the youngest children, and may the type be made smaller,
+down to a certain limit, without harm, as the children grow older, or is
+there one ideal size for all ages? It is frankly recognized that in
+certain works, like editions of the poets, legibility may properly be
+sacrificed in some degree to beauty, and in certain reference works,
+again, to economy of space; but we should like to know, as we do not now
+with any exactness, what amount of legibility is surrendered.</p>
+
+<p>It is easy, however, to see that one great battleground of controversy
+in any suggested reforms must be the design of the type itself. Here,
+fortunately, the English public starts with a great advantage. We have
+thrown overboard our old black letter with its dazzling contrasts of
+shading and its fussy ornament, and therefore can begin where the
+Germans must some day leave off. We have no accents or other diacritical
+marks, and in this respect are superior to the French also. We start
+with a fairly extended and distinct letter like Caslon for our norm, but
+even so the problem is in the highest degree complex and baffling.
+First, accepting the traditional forms of the letters, we must determine
+whether light or heavy, even or shaded, condensed or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118"></a>[<a href="./images/118.png">118</a>]</span> extended letters
+are the more legible, and always in what proportion. We shall then be in
+a position to decide the relative standing of the various commercial
+types, if such we find, that fairly well meet the conditions. It will
+also be obvious what changes can be introduced to improve the types that
+stand highest. By and by the limit of improvement will be reached under
+the traditional forms of the letters. It will next be the task of
+science to show by what modifications or substitutions the poorest
+letters, such as s z e a x o can be brought up to the visibility of the
+best letters, such as m w d j l p. Some of these changes may be slight,
+such as shortening the overhang of the a and slanting the bar of the e,
+while others may involve forms that are practically new. It is worth
+remembering at this point that while our capital letters are strictly
+Roman, our small or lowercase letters came into being during the middle
+ages, and many of them would not be recognized by an ancient Roman as
+having any relation to his alphabet. They therefore belong to the modern
+world and can be altered without sacrilege.</p>
+
+<p>There will remain other problems to be solved, such as the use of
+capitals at all; punctuation, whether to keep our present practice or to
+devise a better; the use of spacing between paragraphs, words, and even
+letters; besides numerous problems now hardly guessed. Many of the
+conclusions of science will be openly challenged, but such opposition is
+easiest to overcome. Harder to meet will be the opposition of prejudice,
+one of whose favorite weapons is always ridicule. But the results of
+science in the field of printing, as in every other, are sure to make
+their way into practice, and here their beneficent effect in the relief
+of eye strain and its consequent nervous wear and in the saving of time
+is beyond our present power to calculate or even imagine.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119"></a>[<a href="./images/119.png">119</a>]</span> The world at
+the end of the twentieth century will be a different world from this, a
+far better world, we trust; and one of the potent influences in bringing
+about that improvement will then be traced, we are confident, to the
+fact that, near the beginning of the century, science was called in to
+solve those problems of the book that belong to the laboratory rather
+than to the printing office.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120"></a>[<a href="./images/120.png">120</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>TYPES AND EYES: THE PROBLEM</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img20.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img20.jpg" width="80" height="78" alt="CH19" title="CH19" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>UR modern world submits with an ill grace to the nuisance of
+spectacles, but flatters itself that after all they afford a measure of
+civilization. Thirty-five years ago Dr. &Eacute;mile Javal, a Parisian oculist,
+contested this self-complacent inference, believing the terrible
+increase of near sight among school children to be due rather to a
+defect than to an excess of civilization. He conceived that the trouble
+must lie in the material set for the eye to work upon, namely, the
+printed page. He therefore instituted a series of experiments to
+discover its defects from the point of view of hygiene. Being an
+oculist, he naturally adopted the test of distance to determine the
+legibility of single letters at the limit of vision, and he employed the
+oculist's special type. His conclusions cover a wide range. He decided
+that paper with a slightly buff tint printed with an ink tinged with
+blue was the most agreeable combination for the eye, though in absolute
+clearness nothing can surpass the contrast of black upon white. He held
+that leading is no advantage to clearness, and that it would be better
+to print the same words on the page in a larger type unleaded. He found
+the current type too condensed; this is particularly a fault of French
+type. But he favored spacing between the letters of a word, a conclusion
+in which he has not been followed by later investigators. He found
+shaded type a disadvantage and advocated a fairly black type in which
+all the lines are of uniform thickness. But<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121"></a>[<a href="./images/121.png">121</a>]</span> most interesting are his
+conclusions regarding the letters themselves. He found that the eye in
+reading follows a horizontal line which cuts the words just below the
+tops of the short letters, the parts of the letters being indistinct in
+proportion as they are distant from this line. It is chiefly by their
+individuality on this line that letters acquire distinctness. But just
+here he found that an unfortunate tendency towards uniformity had been
+at work, flattening the rounded letters and rounding the square letters.
+In a series of articles he gives exhaustive studies of the various
+letters, their characteristics, and their possible reform.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;">
+<img src="images/img21.jpg" width="800" height="113" alt="These ten-point lines in Della Robbia of the American
+Type Founders Company include the principal elements of reform advocated
+by Dr. Javal, as well as others mentioned below" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>A few years later Dr. Cattell, now a professor in Columbia, but then an
+investigator in Wundt's psychological laboratory in Leipsic, made a
+series of studies on brain and eye inertia in the recognition of
+letters. Like Dr. Javal he found some alphabets harder to see than
+others and the letters of the same alphabet different in legibility. He
+saw no advantage in having a mixture of capital and small letters. He
+condemned shading in types and opposed all ornament as an element of
+confusion. He regarded punctuation marks as hard to see and proposed
+that they should be displaced, or at least supplemented, by spaces
+between the words corresponding to the pause in the thought or the
+utterance.</p>
+
+<p>He tested the letters by their legibility when seen for a small fraction
+of a second through a narrow slit in a falling screen. Beginning with
+the capitals, he found that out of two hundred and seventy trials for
+each letter, W was recognized two hundred and forty-one times and E only
+sixty-three times, the former being much more distinct and the latter
+much less distinct than any other. Some letters,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122"></a>[<a href="./images/122.png">122</a>]</span> like S and C, were
+found hard to recognize in themselves, and certain groups of letters,
+such as O, Q, G, and C, were constantly confused with one another. Said
+Dr. Cattell, "If I should give the probable time wasted each day through
+a single letter, as E, being needlessly illegible, it would seem almost
+incredible; and, if we could calculate the necessary strain put upon eye
+and brain, it would be still more appalling."</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the small letters he found a like difference in legibility.
+Out of one hundred trials d was read correctly eighty-seven times, s
+only twenty-eight times. He found s, g, c, and x particularly hard to
+recognize by reason of their form; and certain pairs and groups were
+sources of confusion. The group of slim letters, i, j, l, f, t, is an
+instance. He suggested that a new form of l, perhaps the Greek
+&#955;, should be adopted; and he advocated the dropping of the dot from the
+i, as in Greek. He made experiments upon the German as well as the Roman
+alphabet, but he found the former so bad that he could only advise
+giving it up altogether.</p>
+
+<p>Somewhat later, in 1888, Mr. E. C. Sanford, now president of Clark
+College, published in the "American Journal of Psychology" an exhaustive
+study on "The Relative Legibility of the Small Letters." He studied
+simply the letter forms, to determine the order of legibility in the
+alphabet and the groups most liable to confusion, in order to discover
+what letters most need improvement and upon what clearness depends. He
+too employed a special type. He found the order under the distance test
+to be w m q p v y j f h r d g k b x l n u a t i z o c s e, and the order
+under the time test m w d q v y j p k f b l i g h r x t o u a n e s c z.
+It will be noticed that of the seven letters most largely represented in
+a full font of type, e t a i n o s, all fall in the last third of one or
+the other of these two groups, four are there in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123"></a>[<a href="./images/123.png">123</a>]</span> both groups, while e,
+the letter used most of all, stands at the very foot of the list in the
+distance group. Could there be any clearer call for the reform of our
+letters?</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 40px;">
+<img src="images/img22.jpg" width="40" height="51" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Mr. Sanford enters at length into the question of the points that help
+and hinder legibility and that should therefore be considered in
+reforming the shapes of letters. Enlargement of size and increase of
+differences are obvious aids to clearness. Simplicity of outline and
+concentration of peculiarity upon one feature are important elements of
+legibility. Even a letter of small size, like v, is brought into the
+first group by a combination of these two qualities. Serifs are
+necessary to prevent irradiation, or an overflowing of the white on the
+black, but they should be stubby; if long, they take on the character of
+ornament and become confusing. The letters g and a are complicated
+without being distinctive and are therefore continually confused with
+other letters. The c e o group of much used letters can be made less
+liable to confusion if the gap on the right of the first two letters is
+made wider and the line of the e slants downward as in Jenson. Another
+group, a n u, are confused together. To avoid this the top and bottom
+openings of n and u should be made as open as possible and the a should
+go back to the old script form <b>a</b> as in the Humanistic type. The letter s
+is a source of great difficulty, being either not recognized at all in
+the tests or confused with other letters. It will be remembered that
+Franklin greatly deprecated the giving up of the long f, and a return to
+this form is now suggested, care being taken, of course, to
+differentiate it from f, especially by carrying it below the line. The
+dot of the i is of no use when the letter stands alone, but it is an
+important element of distinctness in words like "minim." The dot, as Dr.
+Javal suggests, should be set on a level with the top of the l<span class='pagenum'><a
+name="Page_124" id="Page_124"></a>[<a href="./images/124.png">124</a>]</span> rather than on a level with the top
+of the t. A reduction of serifs would lessen the confusion of x and z
+and of s and z.</p>
+
+<p>But it is unnecessary to trace these studies in all their minutiae. In
+the twenty-eight years that have followed the appearance of Mr.
+Sanford's article work along the same lines has been done by many
+investigators in various countries. Some of the conclusions that we have
+noticed have been sustained, others have been discredited. The most
+important conclusions of the investigators down to 1908 will be found
+scattered through the pages of Huey's "Psychology and Pedagogy of
+Reading," which appeared in that year. Such matters as the normal length
+of a line of print, the size of type appropriate to schoolbooks for
+children of different ages, the possibilities of future type design with
+reference solely to the reader's needs, are among the many subjects
+there set forth in an interesting fashion.</p>
+
+<p>In all these studies one obvious subject of investigation appears to
+have been overlooked, and that is the actual types of everyday print. Do
+they vary greatly in legibility? Are some of them so bad that they ought
+to be rejected <i>in toto</i>? On the other hand, have the designers of
+certain types attained by instinct or by happy accident a degree of
+legibility that approximates the best to be hoped for? If so, can we
+trace the direction to be followed in seeking further improvement? To
+answer these questions an extended investigation was undertaken at Clark
+University in 1911 by Miss Barbara Elizabeth Roethlein under the
+direction of Professor John Wallace Baird. Her results were published by
+Clark University Library in January, 1912, under the title "The Relative
+Legibility of Different Faces of Printing Types." The pamphlet abounds
+in tables made clear by the use of the very types under consideration.
+The following are the conclusions reached:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125"></a>[<a href="./images/125.png">125</a>]</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Certain faces of type are much more legible than other
+faces; and certain letters of every face are much more
+legible than other letters of the same face.</p>
+
+<p>2. These differences in legibility prove to be greater when
+letters are presented in isolation from one another than
+when they are presented in groups.</p>
+
+<p>3. Legibility is a product of six factors: (1) the form of
+the letter; (2) the size of the letter; (3) the heaviness of
+the face of the letter (the thickness of the lines which
+constitute the letter); (4) the width of the white margin
+which surrounds the letter; (5) the position of the letter
+in the letter group; (6) the shape and size of the adjacent
+letters. In our experiments the first factor seemed to be
+less significant than any of the other five; that is, in the
+type-faces which were employed in the present investigation
+the form of any given letter of the alphabet usually varied
+between such narrow limits as to constitute a relatively
+insignificant factor in the determination of its legibility.</p>
+
+<p>4. The relatively heavy-faced types prove to be more legible
+than the light-faced types. The optimal heaviness of face
+seems to lie in a mean between the bold faces and such light
+faces as Scotch Roman and Cushing Monotone.</p>
+
+<p>5. The initial position in a group of letters is the most
+advantageous position for legibility; the final position
+comes next in order of advantage; and the intermediate or
+internal positions are least favorable for legibility.</p>
+
+<p>6. The size and the form of the letters which stand adjacent
+to any given letter play an important role in determining
+its legibility; and the misreadings which occur in the case
+of grouped letters are of a wholly different sort from those
+which occur in the case of isolated letters. When letters of
+the same height or of similar form appear side by side, they
+become relatively illegible. But the juxtaposition of an
+ascender, a descender and a short letter tends to improve
+the legibility of each, as also does the juxtaposition of
+letters which are made up wholly or chiefly of straight
+lines and letters which are made up wholly or chiefly of
+curved lines.</p>
+
+<p>7. The quality and the texture of the paper is a much less
+significant factor than has been supposed, provided, of
+course, that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126"></a>[<a href="./images/126.png">126</a>]</span> the illumination and the inclination of the
+paper are such as to secure an optimal condition of light
+reflection from its surface.</p>
+
+<p>8. There is an urgent need for modification of certain
+letters of the alphabet.</p></div>
+
+<p>Contrary to previous results with special types, these tests of
+commercial types represent the capitals as more legible, by about
+one-fifth, than the lowercase letters; but, in view of the much greater
+bigness and heaviness of capitals, the earlier judgment would seem to be
+supported so far as the letter forms of the two classes are concerned.
+The order of each class, taking an average of all the faces, is as
+follows: W M L J I A T C V Q P D O Y U F H X G N Z K E R B S m w d j l p
+f q y i h g b k v r t n c u o x a e z s. Considering only the lowercase
+letters, which represent nine-tenths of the print that meets the eye, we
+still have four of the most used letters, s e a o, in the lowest fourth
+of the group, while s in both sizes of type and in all faces stands at
+the bottom. The average legibility of the best and worst is: W, 300.2;
+S, 205.7; m, 296.8; s, 152.6.</p>
+
+<p>The tests were by distance; the letters were all ten-point of the
+various faces; and the figures represent the distance in centimeters at
+which the letters were recognized. There is a satisfaction in being
+assured that the range between the best and the worst is not so great as
+had been estimated previously, the proportion being in the one case not
+quite 3:2 and in the other not quite 3:1.5. The following twenty-six
+widely different faces of type were studied:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="fontlist">
+<tr><td align='left'>American Typewriter</td><td align='left'>Clearface Italic</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bold Antique</td><td align='left'>Clearface Bold</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bulfinch</td><td align='left'>Clearface Bold Italic</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Caslon Oldstyle No. 540</td><td align='left'>Cushing No. 2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Century Oldstyle</td><td align='left'>Cushing Oldstyle No. 2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Century Oldstyle, Bold</td><td align='left'>Cushing Monotone</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Century Expanded</td><td align='left'>Della Robbia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127"></a>[<a href="./images/127.png">127</a>]</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cheltenham Oldstyle</td><td align='left'>DeVinne No. 2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cheltenham Bold</td><td align='left'>DeVinne No. 2, Italic</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cheltenham Bold, Condensed&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Franklin Gothic</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cheltenham Italic</td><td align='left'>Jenson Oldstyle No. 2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cheltenham Wide</td><td align='left'>News Gothic</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Clearface</td><td align='left'>Ronaldson Oldstyle No. 551</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>Of these, omitting the boldface and italic types, as well as all
+capitals, the six best text types, ranging in average distance of
+recognition from 236.4 to 224.3, are News Gothic, Bulfinch, Clearface,
+Century Oldstyle, Century Expanded, and Cheltenham Wide. The six worst,
+ranging from 206.4 to 185.6, are Cheltenham Oldstyle, DeVinne No. 2,
+American Typewriter, Caslon Oldstyle, Cushing Monotone, and Cushing No.
+2. The author says, commenting on these findings:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>If legibility is to be our sole criterion of excellence of
+typeface, News Gothic must be regarded as our nearest
+approximation to an ideal face, in so far as the present
+investigation is able to decide this question. The esthetic
+factor must always be taken into account, however, here as
+elsewhere. And the reader who prefers the appearance of
+Cushing Oldstyle or a Century face may gratify his esthetic
+demands without any considerable sacrifice of legibility.</p></div>
+
+<p>To what extent these conclusions may be modified by future experiments
+it is, of course, impossible to predict, but they clearly point the way
+towards definiteness and boldness in the design of types as well as to a
+preference for the larger sizes in their use. All this, as we shall see
+in the next chapter, is in harmony with what experience has been
+gradually confirming in the practice of the last generation.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128"></a>[<a href="./images/128.png">128</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>TYPES AND EYES: PROGRESS</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img23.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img23.jpg" width="80" height="80" alt="CH20" title="CH20" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>HE late John Bartlett, whose "Familiar Quotations" have encircled the
+globe, once remarked to a youthful visitor that it was a source of great
+comfort to him that in collecting books in his earlier years he had
+chosen editions printed in large type, "for now," he said, "I am able to
+read them." The fading eyesight of old age does not necessarily set the
+norm of print; but this is certain, that what age reads without
+difficulty youth will read without strain, and in view of the excessive
+burden put upon the eyes by the demands of modern life, it may be worth
+while to consider whether it is not wise to err on the safer side as
+regards the size of type, even by an ample margin.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is now some thirty-five years since the first scientific experiments
+upon the relations of type to vision were made in France and Germany. It
+was peculiarly fitting, we may remark, that the investigation should
+have started in those two countries, for the German alphabet is
+notoriously hard on the eyes, and the French alphabet is encumbered with
+accents, which form an integral part of the written word, and yet are
+always minute and in poor print exceedingly hard to distinguish. The
+result of the investigation was a vigorous disapproval of the German
+type itself and of the French accents and the favorite style of letter
+in France, the condensed. It was pointed out that progress in type
+design towards the hygienic ideal must follow the direction<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129"></a>[<a href="./images/129.png">129</a>]</span> of
+simplicity, uniformity, and relative heaviness of line, with wide
+letters and short descenders, all in type of sufficient size for easy
+reading. In the generation that has succeeded these experiments have we
+made any progress in adapting print to eyes along the lines of these
+conclusions?</p>
+
+<p>The printer might well offer in proof of such progress the page in which
+these words are presented to the reader. In the four and a half
+centuries of printing, pages of equal clearness and beauty may be found
+if one knows just where to look for them, but the later examples all
+fall within the period that we are discussing. It may be objected that
+this is the luxury of printing, not its everyday necessity, and this
+objection must be allowed; but luxuries are a powerful factor in
+elevating the standard of living, and this is as true of print as of
+food and dress. It must be confessed that an unforeseen influence made
+itself felt early in the generation under discussion, that of William
+Morris and his Kelmscott Press. Morris's types began and ended in the
+Gothic or Germanic spirit, and their excellence lies rather in the
+beauty of each single letter than in the effective mass-play of the
+letters in words. Kelmscott books, therefore, in spite of their
+decorative beauty, are not easy reading. In this respect they differ
+greatly from those of Bodoni,<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> whose types to Morris and his followers
+appeared weak and ugly. Bodoni's letters play together with perfect
+accord, and his pages, as a whole, possess a statuesque if not a
+decorative beauty. If the reader is not satisfied with the testimony of
+the page now before him, let him turn to the Bodoni Horace of 1791, in
+folio, where, in addition to the noble roman text of the poems, he will
+find an extremely clear<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130"></a>[<a href="./images/130.png">130</a>]</span> and interesting italic employed in the preface,
+virtually a "library hand" script. But no force has told more powerfully
+for clearness and strength in types than the influence of Morris, and if
+he had done only this for printing he would have earned our lasting
+gratitude.</p>
+
+<p>Morris held that no type smaller than long primer should ever be
+employed in a book intended for continuous reading; and here again, in
+size of type as distinguished from its cut, he made himself an exponent
+of one of the great forward movements that have so happily characterized
+the recent development of printing. Go to any public library and look at
+the novels issued from 1850 to 1880. Unless your memory is clear on this
+point, you will be amazed to see what small print certain publishers
+inflicted with apparent impunity on their patrons during this period.
+The practice extended to editions of popular authors like Dickens and
+Thackeray, editions that now find no readers, or find them only among
+the nearsighted.</p>
+
+<p>The cheap editions of the present day, on the contrary, may be poor in
+paper and perhaps in presswork, they may be printed from worn plates,
+but in size and even in cut of type they are generally irreproachable.
+As regards nearsighted readers, it is well known that they prefer fine
+type to coarse, choosing, for instance, a Bible printed in diamond, and
+finding it clear and easy to read, while they can hardly read pica at
+all. This fact, in connection with the former tolerance of fine print,
+raises the question whether the world was not more nearsighted two
+generations ago than it is now; or does this only mean that the oculist
+is abroad in the land?</p>
+
+<p>It is recognized that, in books not intended for continuous reading,
+small and even fine type may properly be employed. That miracle of
+encyclopedic information, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131"></a>[<a href="./images/131.png">131</a>]</span> World Almanac, while it might be printed
+better and on a higher quality of paper, could not be the handy
+reference book that it is without the use of a type that would be
+intolerably small in a novel or a history. With the increase of the
+length of continuous use for which the book is intended, the size of the
+type should increase up to a certain point. Above eleven-point, or small
+pica, however, increase in the size of type becomes a matter not of
+hygiene, but simply of esthetics. But below the normal the printer's
+motto should be: In case of doubt choose the larger type.</p>
+
+<p>A development of public taste that is in line with this argument is the
+passing of the large-paper edition. It was always an anomaly; but our
+fathers did not stop to reason that, if a page has the right proportions
+at the start, mere increase of margin cannot enhance its beauty or
+dignity. At most it can only lend it a somewhat deceptive appearance of
+costliness, with which was usually coupled whatever attraction there
+might be in the restriction of this special edition to a very few
+copies. So they paid many dollars a pound for mere blank paper and
+fancied that they were getting their money's worth. The most
+inappropriate books were put out in large paper, Webster's Unabridged
+Dictionary, for instance. At the other extreme of size may be cited the
+Pickering diamond classics, also in a large-paper edition, pretty,
+dainty little books, with their Lilliputian character only emphasized by
+their excess of white paper. But their print is too fine to read, and
+their margins are out of proportion to the printed page. Though their
+type is small, they by no means exhibit the miracle of the books printed
+in Didot's "microscopic" type, and they represent effort in a direction
+that has no meaning for bookmaking, but remains a mere <i>tour de force</i>.
+Quite different is the case with the Oxford miniature editions, of the
+same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132"></a>[<a href="./images/132.png">132</a>]</span> size outwardly as the large-paper editions of the Pickering
+diamond classics; these are modern miracles, for with all their
+"infinite riches in a little room," they are distinctly legible.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the design of type, the recent decades have given us our
+choice among type-faces at once so beautiful and so clear as the Century
+Oldstyle, Century Expanded, and Cheltenham Wide. To those should be
+added Mr. Goudy's virile Kennerley. Still later have appeared, in direct
+descent from one of Jenson's type-faces, Cloister and Centaur, two of
+the most beautiful types of any age or country, and both, if we may
+judge by comparison with the types approved by the Clark University
+experiments, also among the most legible. Fortunately in type design
+there is no essential conflict between beauty and use, but rather a
+natural harmony. Already a high degree of legibility has been attained
+without sacrifice; the future is full of promise.</p>
+
+<p>In respect to books, we may congratulate ourselves that printing has
+made real progress in the last generation towards meeting the primary
+demand of legibility. The form of print, however, which is read by the
+greatest number of eyes, the newspaper, shows much less advance. Yet
+newspapers have improved in presswork, and the typesetting machines have
+removed the evil of worn type. Moreover, a new element has come to the
+front that played a much more subordinate part three or four decades
+ago&mdash;the headline. "Let me write the headlines of a people," said the
+late Henry D. Lloyd to the writer, "and I care not who makes its laws."
+It is the staring headlines that form the staple of the busy man's
+newspaper reading, and they are certainly hygienic for the eyes if not
+always for the mind. While the trend towards larger and clearer type<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133"></a>[<a href="./images/133.png">133</a>]</span>
+has gone on chiefly without the consciousness of the public, it has not
+been merely a reform imposed from without. The public prefers readable
+print, demands it, and is ready to pay for it. The magazines have long
+recognized this phase of public taste. When the newspapers have done the
+same, the eyes of coming generations will be relieved of a strain that
+can only be realized by those who in that day shall turn as a matter of
+antiquarian curiosity to the torturing fine print that so thickly beset
+the pathway of knowledge from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century,
+and, in the twentieth, overthrown in the field of books and magazines,
+made its last, wavering stand in the newspapers.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134"></a>[<a href="./images/134.png">134</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULE OF LEGIBILITY</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img24.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img24.jpg" width="80" height="79" alt="CH21" title="CH21" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>INCE print is meant primarily to be read, the first law of its being is
+legibility. As a general principle this must be accepted, but in the
+application certain important reservations must be made, all relating
+themselves to the question <i>how</i> the print is to be read. For
+straightaway, long-time reading, or for reading in which the aim is to
+get at the words of the author with the least hindrance, the law of
+legibility holds to its full extent&mdash;is, in fact, an axiom; but not all
+reading is long-continued, and not all is apart from considerations
+other than instantaneous contact with the author's thought through his
+words. It is these two classes of exceptions that we have now to
+consider.</p></div>
+
+<p>Let us begin with an example outside the field of typography. On the
+first issue of the Lincoln cent were various sizes of lettering, the
+largest being devoted to the words which denote the value of the coin,
+and the smallest, quite undistinguishable in ordinary handling, to the
+initials of the designer, afterwards discarded. Obviously these sizes
+were chosen with reference to their power to attract attention; in the
+one case an excess of legibility and in the other case, quite as
+properly, its deficiency. Thus, what is not designed for the cursory
+reader's eye, but serves only as a record to be consulted by those who
+are specially interested in it, may, with propriety, be made so
+inconspicuous as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135"></a>[<a href="./images/135.png">135</a>]</span> to be legible only by a distinct effort. Cases in
+everyday typography are the signatures of books and the cabalistic
+symbols that indicate to the newspaper counting room the standing of
+advertisements. Both are customarily rendered inconspicuous through
+obscure position, and if to this be added the relative illegibility of
+fine type, the average reader will not complain, for all will escape his
+notice.</p>
+
+<p>Again, we may say that what is not intended for ordinary continuous
+reading may, without criticism, be consigned to type below normal size.
+Certain classes of books that are intended only for brief consultation
+come under this head, the best examples being encyclopedias,
+dictionaries, and almanacs. As compactness is one of their prime
+requisites, it is a mistake to put them into type even comfortably
+large. The reader opens them only for momentary reference, and he can
+well afford to sacrifice a certain degree of legibility to handiness.
+The Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica is a classic instance of a work made bulky
+by type unnecessarily coarse for its purpose; the later, amazingly
+clear, photographic reduction of the Britannica volumes is a recognition
+of this initial mistake. The Century and Oxford dictionaries, on the
+other hand, are splendid examples of the judicious employment of fine
+print for the purpose both of condensation and the gradation of
+emphasis. One has only to contrast with these a similar work in uniform
+type, such as Littr&eacute;'s Dictionnaire, to appreciate their superiority for
+ready reference.</p>
+
+<p>The departure from legibility that we have thus far considered has
+related to the size of the letters. Another equally marked departure is
+possible in respect to their shape. In business printing, especially in
+newspaper advertisements, men are sometimes tempted to gain amount at
+the risk of undue fineness of type. But no advertiser<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136"></a>[<a href="./images/136.png">136</a>]</span> who counts the
+cost will take the chance of rendering his announcement unreadable by
+the use of ornamental or otherwise imperfectly legible letters. He sets
+no value upon the form save as a carrier of substance. In works of
+literature, on the contrary, form may take on an importance of its own;
+it may even be made tributary to the substance at some cost to
+legibility.</p>
+
+<p>In this field there is room for type the chief merit of which is apart
+from its legibility. In other words, there is and always will be a place
+for beauty in typography, even though it involve a certain loss of
+clearness. As related to the total bulk of printing, works of this class
+never can amount to more than a fraction of one per cent. But their
+proportion in the library of a cultivated man would be vastly greater,
+possibly as high as fifty per cent. In such works the esthetic sense
+demands not merely that the type be a carrier of the alphabet, but also
+that it interpret or at least harmonize with the subject-matter. Who
+ever saw Mr. Updike's specimen pages for an edition of the "Imitatio
+Christi," in old English type, without a desire to possess the completed
+work? Yet we have editions of the "Imitatio" that are far more legible
+and convenient. The "Prayers" of Dr. Samuel Johnson have several times
+been published in what we may call tribute typography; but no edition
+has yet attained to a degree of homage that satisfies the lovers of
+those unaffected devotional exercises.</p>
+
+<p>What, therefore, shall be the typography of books that we love, that we
+know by heart? In them, surely, beauty and fitness may precede
+legibility unchallenged. These are the books that we most desire and
+cherish; this is the richest field for the typographic artist, and one
+that we venture to pronounce, in spite of all that has yet been done,
+still almost untilled. Such books need not be expensive;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137"></a>[<a href="./images/137.png">137</a>]</span> we can imagine
+a popular series that should deserve the name of tribute typography.
+Certain recent editions of the German classics, perhaps, come nearer to
+justifying such a claim than any contemporary British or American work.
+In more expensive publications some of Mr. Mosher's work, like his
+quarto edition of Burton's "Kas&icirc;dah," merits a place in this class. A
+better known, if older, instance is the holiday edition of Longfellow's
+"Skeleton in Armor." Who would not rather read the poem in this Old
+English type than in any Roman type in which it has ever been printed?
+The work of the Kelmscott Press obviously falls within this class.</p>
+
+<p>The truth is, there is a large body of favorite literature which we are
+glad to be made to linger over, to have, in its perusal, a brake put
+upon the speed of our reading; and in no way can this be done so
+agreeably as by a typography that possesses a charm of its own to arrest
+the eye. Such a delay increases while it prolongs the pleasure of our
+reading. The typography becomes not only a frame to heighten the beauty
+of the picture, but also a spell to lengthen our enjoyment of it. It
+cannot be expected that the use of impressive type will be confined to
+literature. That worthiest use will find the field already invaded by
+pamphlet and leaflet advertisements, and this invasion is certain to
+increase as the public taste becomes trained to types that make an
+esthetic appeal of their own.</p>
+
+<p>Ordinary type is the result of an attempt to combine with legibility an
+all-round fitness of expression. But that very universality robs it of
+special appropriateness for works of a strongly marked character. It is
+impossible to have a new type designed for every new work, but classes
+of types are feasible, each adapted to a special class of literature.
+Already there is a tendency to seek for poetry a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138"></a>[<a href="./images/138.png">138</a>]</span> type that is at least
+removed from the commonplace. But hitherto the recognition of this
+principle has been only occasional and haphazard. Where much is to be
+gained much also can be lost, and interpretative or expressional
+typography that misses the mark may easily be of a kind to make the
+judicious grieve. But the rewards of success warrant the risk. The most
+beautiful of recent types, the New Humanistic, designed for The
+University Press, has hardly yet been used. Let us hope that it may soon
+find its wider mission so successfully as to furnish an ideal
+confirmation of the principle that we have here been seeking to
+establish.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"></a>[<a href="./images/139.png">139</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>THE STUDENT AND THE LIBRARY</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img25.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img25.jpg" width="80" height="79" alt="CH22" title="CH22" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>HAT does a student of five and twenty years ago still remember of his
+college? My own first and fondest recollection is of the walks and
+talks, <i>noctes coenaeque deum</i>, with loved and honored companions, in
+the bonds of a friendship that can be realized only in youth, under the
+inspiration of a common intellectual purpose, and, one is tempted to
+add, in the atmosphere of college halls; next arise golden hours passed
+in the library; and lastly there come back other hours, not always
+golden, spent in the classroom. This is, of course, only to enumerate
+the three influences that are, or should be, strongest in a student's
+life: the society of his fellows, his private reading, and his studies.
+Of these three factors of culture the first and the last are fairly
+constant, but the second is apt to vary in the experience of any small
+group of students from the foremost place, as in the case of John Hay,
+to no place at all. It is of this varying element in the student's
+conduct of life that I have undertaken to write.</p></div>
+
+<p>Unless student intercourse has an intellectual basis, such as reading
+furnishes, it has nothing to distinguish it from any other good
+fellowship and can hardly escape triviality. The little groups of
+students at Cambridge which included such members as the three
+Tennysons, Hallam, Spedding, Fitzgerald, and Thackeray, while they were
+no doubt jovial enough, were first of all intellectual associations,
+where</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Thought leapt out to wed with Thought<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Ere Thought could wed itself with Speech.<br /></span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140"></a>[<a href="./images/140.png">140</a>]</span></div></div>
+
+<p>In such companionship men not only share and correct the culture which
+they have acquired in private, but they are stimulated to higher and
+wider attainment. The classroom at its best is hardly equal to a good
+book; from its very nature it must address an abstract average rather
+than the individual, while a good book startles us with the intimacy of
+its revelation to ourselves. The student goes to college to study; he
+has his name thence. But while the classroom is busied, patiently,
+sedulously doling him out silver, he discovers that there is gold lying
+all around, which he may take without asking. Twenty-five years after he
+finds that the silver has grown black with rust, while the gold shines
+on untarnished. Librarians are often besought for a guide in reading, a
+set of rules, a list of books. But what is really needed, and what no
+mentor can give, is a hunger and thirst after what is in books; and this
+the student must acquire for himself or forego the blessing. Culture
+cannot be vicarious. This is not to say that a list of books may not be
+useful, or that one set of books is as good as another, but only that
+reading is the thing, and, given the impulse to read, the how and the
+what can be added unto it; but without this energizing motive, no amount
+of opportunity or nurture will avail.</p>
+
+<p>But, having not the desire to read, but only a sense that he ought to
+have it, what shall a student do? I will suggest three practicable
+courses from which a selection may be made according to the needs of the
+individual. The first is to sit down and take account of stock, to map
+out one's knowledge, one's previous reading, and so find the inner
+boundaries of the vast region yet to be explored. This process can
+hardly fail to suggest not merely one point of departure, but many. The
+second method is, without even so much casting about, to set forth in
+any direction, take<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141"></a>[<a href="./images/141.png">141</a>]</span> the first attractive unread book at hand, and let
+that lead to others. The third course is intended for the student whose
+previous reading has been so scanty and so perfunctory as to afford him
+no outlook into literature, a case, which, it is to be feared, is only
+too common. We will consider this method first. Obviously such a student
+must be furnished with a guide, one who shall set his feet in the right
+paths, give him his bearings in literature, and inspire him with a love
+for the beauty and grandeur of the scenery disclosed, so that he shall
+become not only able to make the rest of his journey alone, but eager to
+set out.</p>
+
+<p>Where shall the student find such a guide? There are many and good at
+hand, yet perhaps the best are not the professional ones, but rather
+those who give us merely a delightful companionship and invite us to
+share their own favorite walks in Bookland. Such a choice companion, to
+name but one, awaits the student in Hazlitt's "Lectures on the English
+Poets." Of the author himself Charles Lamb says: "I never slackened in
+my admiration of him; and I think I shall go to my grave without
+finding, or expecting to find, such another companion." And of his books
+Stevenson confesses: "We are mighty fine fellows, but we cannot write
+like William Hazlitt." In this little volume which the most hard-pressed
+student can read and ponder in the leisure moments of a single term, the
+reader is introduced at once into the wonderland of our English
+literature, which he is made to realize at the outset is an indivisible
+portion of the greater territory of the literature of the world.</p>
+
+<p>Hazlitt begins with a discussion of poetry in general, shows what poetry
+is, how its various forms move us, and how it differs from its next of
+kin, such as eloquence and romance. He then takes up the poetry of
+Homer, the Bible, Dante, and Ossian, and sets forth the characteristics
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142"></a>[<a href="./images/142.png">142</a>]</span>of each. In his chapter on our first two great poets, Chaucer and
+Spenser, he points out the great and contrasted merits of these two
+writers who have so little in common except a superficial resemblance in
+language. Hazlitt is fond of presenting his authors to us in pairs or
+groups. His next chapter is devoted to Shakespeare and Milton; and we
+may remark that, while the student is in no danger of forgetting the
+existence of Shakespeare, he is likely to need just such a tribute to
+the greatness of Milton as the critic here presents. The volume contains
+later chapters of great interest on Milton's "Lycidas" and "Eve." It is
+not necessary for us to mention here all the subjects treated; Dryden
+and Pope, Thomson and Cowper, Burns and the Old English Ballads are
+among them. In every case we are not tantalized with mere estimates and
+characterizations, but are furnished with illustrative specimens of the
+poems discussed. But the initiation into English literature which we
+receive from Hazlitt does not end with the authors of whom he treats
+directly. Resuming our figure of a landscape, we may say that he takes
+us through a thousand bypaths into charming nooks and upon delightful
+prospects of which he has made no announcement beforehand.</p>
+
+<p>I spoke of reading and pondering his book in a single college term. But,
+while this may easily be done, it will be far more profitable for the
+student, as soon as he feels drawn away from the volume to some author
+whom it presents, to lay it aside and make an excursion of his own into
+literature. Then let him take up the volume again and go on with it
+until the critic's praise of the "Faerie Queene," or the "Rape of the
+Lock," or the "Castle of Indolence" again draws his attention off the
+essay to the poem itself. And as one poem and one author will lead to
+another, the volume with which the student set out will thus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143"></a>[<a href="./images/143.png">143</a>]</span> gradually
+fulfill its highest mission by inspiring and training its reader to do
+without it. If the student has access to the shelves of a large library,
+the very handling of the books in their groups will bring him into
+contact with other books which he will be attracted to and will dip into
+and read. In fact it should not be long before he finds his problem to
+be, not what to read, but what to resist reading.</p>
+
+<p>Suppose, however, that the student finds himself already possessed of a
+vague, general knowledge of literature, but nothing definite or
+satisfying, nothing that inspires interest. He it is who may profitably
+take up the first attractive unread book at hand; but he should endeavor
+to read it, not as an isolated fragment of literature, but in its
+relations. Suppose the book happens to be "Don Quixote." This is a work
+written primarily to amuse. But if the reader throws himself into the
+spirit of the book, he will not be content, for instance, with the mere
+mention of the romances of chivalry which turned the poor knight's
+brain. He will want to read about them and to read some of them
+actually. He will be curious as to Charlemagne and his peers, Arthur and
+his knights, and will seek to know their true as well as their fabulous
+history. Then he will wonder who the Moors were, why they were banished,
+and what was the result to Spain of this act in which even his liberal
+and kindly author acquiesced. He will ask if antiquity had its romances
+and if any later novelists were indebted to Cervantes. The answer to the
+last query will bring him to Gil Blas in French literature and to the
+works of the great English romancers of the eighteenth century. Fielding
+will lead him to Thackeray, Smollett to Dickens, Dickens to Bret Harte,
+and Bret Harte to Kipling. If he reads Cervantes in English, he will
+have a choice of translations,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144"></a>[<a href="./images/144.png">144</a>]</span> and he will not fail to mark the
+enormous difference in language, literary style, and ideals of rendering
+between the three versions of Shelton in the seventeenth century,
+Motteux in the eighteenth, and Ormsby in the nineteenth. If, like many
+another, he becomes so interested in the great romance as to learn
+Spanish for the sake of coming into direct communication with his
+author, a whole new literature will be opened to him. Furthermore, in
+the cognate languages which a mastery of Spanish will make easy for him,
+a group of literatures will be placed at his command; and, while he
+began with Cervantes, who threw open for him the portals of the middle
+ages, we may leave him with Dante, looking before and after over all
+human achievement and destiny.</p>
+
+<p>All this the student will not do in one term nor in one year, but he
+will have <i>found himself</i> in the library, he will have acquired a bond
+to culture that will not break as he steps out of his last recitation,
+that will not yield when time and distance have relegated his college
+friendships, with his lost youth, to the Eden or the Avilion of memory.
+And if afterwards he comes, with Emerson, to find the chief value of his
+college training in the ability it has given him to recognize its little
+avail, he will thus disparage it only in the spirit in which a more
+advanced student of an earlier day, looking back upon the stupendous
+revelations of his "Principia," likened them to so many pebbles or
+shells picked up on the shore of the illimitable ocean of knowledge.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145"></a>[<a href="./images/145.png">145</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>ORTHOGRAPHIC REFORM</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img26.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img26.jpg" width="80" height="79" alt="CH23" title="CH23" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>ELDOM have controversies brought out so much humor, on both sides, as
+that over the reform of English spelling, and few have excited so little
+interest in proportion to the energy expended. Both these results are
+due perhaps to the fact that the subject, from its very nature, does not
+admit of being made a burning question. Yet one has to look only a
+little way into it to see that important interests&mdash;educational,
+commercial, and possibly racial&mdash;are involved. Thus far the champions
+have been chiefly the newspapers for spelling as it is, and scholars and
+educators for spelling as it ought to be. But, in spite of the
+intelligence of the disputants, the discussion has been singularly
+insular and deficient in perspective. It would gain greatly in
+conclusiveness if spelling and its modifications were considered broadly
+and historically, not as peculiar to English, but as common to all
+languages, and involving common problems, which we are not the first to
+grapple with, but rather seem destined to be the last to solve.</p></div>
+
+<p>As is usually the case in controversies, the chief obstacle to agreement
+is a lack of what the lawyers call a meeting of minds. The two sides are
+not talking about the same thing. The reformer has one idea of what
+spelling is; the public has another idea, which is so different that it
+robs the reformer's arguments of nearly all their force. The two ideas
+for which the same word is used are hardly more alike than mother of
+pearl and mother of vinegar. To the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146"></a>[<a href="./images/146.png">146</a>]</span> philologist spelling is the
+application of an alphabet to the words of a language, and an alphabet
+is merely a system of visible signs adapted to translate to the eye the
+sounds which make up the speech of the people. To the public spelling is
+part and parcel of the English language, and to tamper with it is to lay
+violent hands on the sacred ark of English literature. To the
+philologist an alphabet is not a thing in itself, but only a medium, and
+he knows many alphabets of all degrees of excellence. Among the latest
+formed is that which we use and call the Roman, but which, though it was
+taken from Italy, made its way back after a course of form development
+that carried it through Ireland, England, and Germany. This alphabet was
+originally designed for writing Latin, and, as English has more sounds
+than Latin, some of the symbols when applied to English have to do
+multiple duty; though this is the least of the complaints against our
+current spelling. In fact any inventive student of phonetics could in
+half an hour devise a better alphabet for English, and scores have been
+devised. But the Roman has the field, and no one dreams of advocating a
+new alphabet for popular use. Meanwhile, though the earliest English may
+have been written in Runic, and the Bibles which our Pilgrim fathers
+brought over were printed in Black-letter, still to the great
+English-reading public the alphabet of current books and papers is the
+only alphabet. Even this is a double alphabet, consisting as it does of
+capitals and small letters; and we have besides Italic, Black-letter,
+and Script, all in common use, all with double forms, and all differing
+greatly from one another. At best the Roman alphabet, though beautiful
+and practical, is not so beautiful as the Greek nor nearly so efficient
+for representing English sounds as the Cherokee syllabary invented by
+the half-breed, Sequoyah, is for representing the sounds of his mother
+tongue.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147"></a>[<a href="./images/147.png">147</a>]</span></p>
+
+<p>Let us now turn from the alphabet, which is the foundation of spelling,
+to spelling itself. Given a scientific alphabet, spelling, as a problem,
+vanishes; for there is only one possible spelling for any spoken word,
+and only one possible pronunciation for any written word. Both are
+perfectly easy, for there is no choice, and no one who knows the
+alphabet can make a mistake in either. But given a traditional alphabet
+encumbered with outgrown or impracticable or blundering associations,
+and spelling may become so difficult as to serve for a test or hallmark
+of scholarship. In French, for instance, the alphabet has drifted so far
+from its moorings that no one on hearing a new word spoken, if it
+contains certain sounds, can be sure of its spelling; though every one
+on seeing a new word written knows how to pronounce it. But in English
+our alphabet has actually parted the cable which held it to speech, and
+we know neither how to write a new word when we hear it nor how to
+pronounce one when we see it. Strangest of all, we have come, in our
+English insularity, to look on this as a matter of course. But Germans
+and Spaniards, Italians and Dutchmen, have no such difficulty and never
+have to turn to the dictionary to find out how to spell a word that they
+hear or how to pronounce a word that they see. For them spelling and
+speech are identical; all they have to make sure of is the standard
+pronunciation. They have done what we have neglected to do&mdash;developed
+the alphabet into an accurate phonetic instrument, and our neglect is
+costing us, throughout the English-speaking world, merely in dealing
+with silent letters, the incredible sum of a hundred million dollars a
+year.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> Our neighbors<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148"></a>[<a href="./images/148.png">148</a>]</span> look after the alphabet and the spelling looks
+after itself; if the pronunciation changes, the spelling changes
+automatically, and thus keeps itself always up to date.</p>
+
+<p>But this happy result has not been brought about without effort, the
+same kind of effort that our reformers are now making for our benefit.
+In Swedish books printed only a hundred years ago we find words printed
+with the letters <i>th</i> in combination, like the word <i>them</i>, which had
+the same meaning, and originally the same pronunciation, as the English
+word. At that time, however, Swedes had long ceased to be able to
+pronounce the <i>th</i>, but they kept the letters just as we still keep the
+<i>gh</i> in <i>brought</i> and <i>through</i>, though for centuries no one who speaks
+only standard English has been able to sound this guttural. In the last
+century the Swedes reformed their spelling, and they now write the word
+as they pronounce it&mdash;<i>dem</i>. German spelling has passed through several
+stages of reform in recent decades and is now almost perfectly phonetic.
+Germans now write <i>Brot</i> and no longer <i>Brod</i> or <i>Brodt</i>. It must be
+frankly confessed that the derivation of some words is not so obvious to
+the eye as formerly. The appearance of the Swedish <i>byr&aring;</i> does not at
+once suggest the French <i>bureau</i>, which it exactly reproduces in sound.
+But Europeans think it more practical, if they cannot indicate both
+pronunciation and etymology in spelling, to relegate the less important
+to the dictionary. Much, to be sure, has been made of the assumed
+necessity of preserving the pedigree of our words in their spelling, but
+in many cases this is not done now. Who thinks of <i>alms</i> and
+<i>eleemosynary</i> as coming from the same Greek word? Scholars say that a
+complete phonetic spelling of English would actually restore to the eye
+as much etymology as it took away.</p>
+
+<p>But the most deep-seated opposition to changing our current<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149"></a>[<a href="./images/149.png">149</a>]</span> spelling
+arises from its association, almost identification, with English
+literature. If this objection were valid it would be final, for
+literature is the highest use of language, and if reformed spelling
+means the loss of our literature we should be foolish to submit to it.
+But at what point in the history of English literature would reformed
+spelling begin to work harm? Hardly before Shakespeare, for the spelling
+of Chaucer belongs to the grammatical stage of the language at which he
+wrote, and Spenser's spelling is more or less an imitation of it made
+with a literary purpose. Shakespeare and Milton, however, wrote
+substantially modern English, and they are therefore at the mercy of the
+spelling reformer&mdash;as they always have been. The truth is, Shakespeare's
+writings have been respelt by every generation that has reprinted them,
+and the modern spelling reformer would leave them at least as near to
+Shakespeare's spelling as our current spelling is. The poet himself made
+fun of his contemporaries who said <i>det</i> instead of <i>debt</i>, but what
+would he say of us who continue to write the word <i>debt</i>, though it has
+not been so pronounced for three hundred years? In old editions (and how
+fast editions grow old!) antiquated spelling is no objection, it is
+rather an attraction; but new, popular editions of the classics will be
+issued in contemporary spelling so long as the preservation of metre and
+rhyme permit. We still occasionally turn to the first folio of
+Shakespeare and to the original editions of Milton's poems to enjoy
+their antique flavor, and, in the latter case, to commune not only with
+a great poet, but also with a vigorous spelling reformer. Thus, whatever
+changes come over our spelling, standard old editions will continue to
+be prized and new editions to be in demand. But for the most part,
+though we might not readily understand the actual speech of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150"></a>[<a href="./images/150.png">150</a>]</span> Shakespeare
+and Milton, could we hear it, we like to treat them as contemporaries
+and read their works in our everyday spelling.</p>
+
+<p>Our libraries, under spelling reform, will become antiquated, but only a
+little faster than they are now doing and always have done. Readers who
+care for a book over ten years old are few in number and will not mind
+antiquated spelling in the future any more than they do now. The
+printer, therefore, must not flatter himself with the prospect of a
+speedy reprinting of all the English classics in the new spelling.
+English is certain to have some day as scientific a spelling as German,
+but the change will be spread over decades and will be too gradual to
+affect business appreciably. On the other hand, he need not fear any
+loss to himself in the public's gain of the annual hundred million
+dollar tax which it now pays for the luxury of superfluous letters. Our
+printer's bills in the future will be as large as at present, but we
+shall get more for our money.</p>
+
+<p>It will indeed be to the English race a strange world in which the
+spelling book ends with the alphabet; in which there is no conflict of
+standards except as regards pronunciation; in which two years of a
+child's school life are rescued from the needless and applied to the
+useful; in which the stenographer has to learn not two systems of
+spelling, but only two alphabets; in which the simplicity and directness
+of the English language, which fit it to become a world language, will
+not be defeated by a spelling that equals the difficulty of German
+grammar; in which the blundering of Dutch printers, like <i>school</i>, false
+etymologies, like <i>rhyme</i>, and French garnishes, as in <i>tongue</i>, no
+longer make the judicious grieve; and in which the fatal gift of bad
+spelling, which often accompanies genius, will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151"></a>[<a href="./images/151.png">151</a>]</span> no longer be dependent
+upon the printer to hide its orthographic nakedness from a public which,
+if it cannot always spell correctly itself, can always be trusted to
+detect and ridicule bad spelling. But it is a world which the English
+race will some day have, and which we may begin to have here and now if
+we will.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152"></a>[<a href="./images/152.png">152</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>THE PERVERSITIES OF TYPE</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img27.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img27.jpg" width="80" height="80" alt="CH24" title="CH24" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>HAT searching analyst of the soul, Edgar Allan Poe, found among the
+springs of human nature the quality of perverseness, the disposition to
+do wrong because it is wrong; in reality, however, Poe's Imp of the
+Perverse is active far beyond the boundaries of the human soul; his
+disturbances pervade the whole world, and nowhere are they more
+noticeable than in the printing office. This is so because elsewhere,
+when things fall out contrary to rule, the result may often be neutral
+or even advantageous; but in the printing office all deviations, or all
+but a minute fraction, are wrong. They are also conspicuous, for, though
+the standard is nothing less than perfection, the ordinary human eye is
+able to apply the standard. These tricks of the malicious imp are
+commonly called "misprints," "printer's errors," "errors of the press,"
+or, more impartially, "errata" or "corrigenda." In the first three names
+there is a tinge of unfairness, because the printer is by no means
+responsible for all the mistakes that appear in type. The author is
+usually partly to blame and may be chiefly; yet when he suffers a lapse
+of memory or knowledge, he usually passes it off as a "printer's error."
+Sometimes the author's handwriting may mislead the printer, but when so
+good a biblical scholar as Mr. Gladstone wrote of <i>Daniel</i> in the fiery
+furnace, there was no possibility that the single name could have stood
+in his manuscript for the names of the three men<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153"></a>[<a href="./images/153.png">153</a>]</span> whose trial is
+mentioned in the <i>book</i> of Daniel. Even here the submission of proof
+fixes the final responsibility on the author. But, quite apart from the
+responsibility for them, the mistakes embalmed in type are among the
+most interesting of all literary curiosities.</p></div>
+
+<p>Misprints&mdash;to use the handiest term&mdash;range in importance from the
+innocent and obvious, like a turned <i>a</i>, and the innocent and obvious
+only to the expert, like a turned <i>s</i>, to a turned <i>n</i>, which may be
+mistaken for a <i>u</i>, or the change or omission of a punctuation mark,
+which may involve claims to thousands of dollars. Even the separation of
+one word into two may reverse the meaning of the sentence, yet not
+betray itself by any oddity of phrase, as when the atheist who had
+asserted that "God is nowhere" found himself in print standing sponsor
+for the statement that "God is now here." The same trick of the types
+was played on an American political writer in his own paper regarding
+his pet reform, which he meant to assert was "nowhere in existence." The
+earliest printed books were intended to be undistinguishable from
+manuscripts, but occasionally a turned letter betrayed them absolutely.
+In the same way the modern newspaper now and then introduces an
+unintentional advertisement of the linotype by presenting to its readers
+a line upside down. Another trick is the mixing of two paragraphs, which
+sometimes occurs even in books. The most famous instance of this blunder
+is probably that which happened in the English "Men of the Time" for
+1856, and which led to a serious lawsuit against the publishers. The
+printer had mixed the biographies of the Bishop of Oxford and Robert
+Owen the Socialist in such a way that Bishop Wilberforce was called "a
+sceptic as it regards religious revelation." The mistake occurred in
+locking up the forms. Doubtless both biographies had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154"></a>[<a href="./images/154.png">154</a>]</span> been approved by
+their subjects, but apparently no proof was read after the fatal
+telescoping of the two articles.</p>
+
+<p>The last instance is an example of the patient waiting as much as the
+ingenuity of the Imp of the Perverse, but in pure ingenuity he is
+without a rival in mere human inventiveness. It certainly was a
+resourceful Frenchman who translated "hit or miss" as "frapp&eacute; ou
+mademoiselle," and it was inspired ignorance on the part of a student
+assistant in a college library who listed "Sur l'Administration de M.
+Necker, par Lui M&ecirc;me" under "M&ecirc;me, Lui," as if it were the name of the
+author of the book instead of being the French for "himself." But the
+Imp of the Perverse aims higher than this. He did not hesitate in an
+edition of the Bible published in London in 1631 to leave the <i>not</i> out
+of the one commandment from which its absence would be the most
+noticeable. This was much worse than leaving out the whole commandment,
+for it transformed a moral prohibition into an immoral command. The
+printer in this case was fined three hundred pounds, or five hundred
+dollars for each letter omitted. It is curious that the <i>same</i> omission
+was made in an edition of the Bible printed at Halle. A Vermont paper,
+in an obituary notice of a man who had originally come from Hull, Mass.,
+was made by the types to state that "the body was taken to Hell, where
+the rest of the family are buried." In the first English Bible printed
+in Ireland, "Sin no more" appears as "Sin on more." It was, however, a
+deliberate joke of some Oxford students which changed the wording in the
+marriage service from "live" to "like," so that a couple married out of
+this book are required to live together only so long as they "both shall
+like." An orator who spoke of "our grand mother church" was made to say
+"our grandmother church." The public of Brown University was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155"></a>[<a href="./images/155.png">155</a>]</span> recently
+greatly amused by a local misprint. The president of the university is
+required by its ancient charter to be an "antipaedobaptist"; the types
+reproduced the word as "antipseudobaptist," a word which would be a very
+good Greek rendering of "hardshell." An express train at full speed
+having struck a cow, the report was made to say that it "cut her into
+calves." Sixty years ago the "London Globe" made the Registrar General
+say that the city was suffering from a high rate of <i>morality</i>. The
+ingenuity of our readers will supply the missing letter, as it also will
+the the true reading of the following passage which appeared in an
+English newspaper: "Sir Robert Peel has been out with a party of fiends
+shooting peasants." It was an easy but astonishing blunder made in
+German, in the substitution of "M&auml;dchen" (girls) for "M&auml;chten" (powers),
+according to which Bismarck was asserted to be "trying to keep up honest
+and straightforward relations with all the girls."</p>
+
+<p>The Imp of the Perverse, when he descends upon the printing office,
+sometimes becomes the Imp of the Perverted. Here his achievements will
+not bear reproducing. Suffice it to say that in point of indecency he
+displays the same superhuman ingenuity as in his more innocent pranks.
+His indecencies are all, indeed, in print, but fortunately scattered,
+and it would be a groveling nature that should seek to collect them; yet
+the absence of this chapter from the world's book of humor means the
+omission of a comic strain that neither Aristophanes nor Rabelais has
+surpassed. Even as I write, a newspaper misprint assures me that
+typesetting machines are no protection against the Imp of the Perverted.
+Perhaps we may be pardoned the reproduction of one of the mildest of
+these naughtinesses. A French woman novelist had written: "To know truly
+what love is, we must go out of ourselves" (sortir de soi). The
+addition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156"></a>[<a href="./images/156.png">156</a>]</span> of a single letter transformed this eminently respectable
+sentiment into the feline confession: "To know truly what love is, we
+must go out nights" (sortir de soir).</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the Blunder Sprite deliberately pits himself against author,
+proof reader, and all their allies. The books printed by Aldus are
+famous for their correctness, yet a few errors crept into them, so much
+to the disgust of the great printer that he said he would gladly have
+given a gold crown for each one to be rid of them. The famous Oxford
+University Press is said to have posted up the first sheet of one of its
+Bibles, with the offer of a guinea for every misprint that could be
+found in it. None was found&mdash;until the book was printed. James Lenox,
+the American collector, prided himself on the correctness of his reprint
+of the autograph manuscript of "Washington's Farewell Address," which he
+had acquired. On showing the book to Henry Stevens, the bookseller, the
+latter, glancing at a page, inquired, "Why pap<i>a</i>r instead of pap<i>e</i>r?"
+Mr. Lenox was overwhelmed with mortification; but Stevens sent for a
+skillful bookbinder, who removed the objectionable <i>a</i> and with a
+camel's hair pencil substituted an <i>e</i> for it, so that the demon was
+conquered after all, but only through great trouble. How would it seem
+possible to reissue a printed book, copy it exactly, and yet make an
+atrocious blunder? The Type Spirit is equal to even this feat. The book
+was a mathematical one, full of formulae. It was not reproduced page for
+page, so it was perfectly easy for a signature mark to get printed and
+appear in the middle of a page mixed up with an equation, to the
+confusion of American mathematical scholarship. More tragic were the
+misprints in a work by the Italian poet, Guidi, which are said to have
+hastened his death. In an interesting volume by Henry B. Wheatley on
+"Literary Blunders," the Tricksy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157"></a>[<a href="./images/157.png">157</a>]</span> Puck of the Press has revenged himself
+on the author for his attacks by smuggling in a number of misprints,
+among them one that he must have inspired in the mind of the author, the
+spelling "Bride of Lammermuir," which has no warrant in Scott's novel
+itself. In the same book is a reference to Shakespeare that diligent
+search fails to verify. Thus no knowledge or skill avails against the
+Kobold of the Case. The most baffling device of the imp is to cause a
+new error in the process of correcting an old one. This residuary
+misprint is one against which there is no complete protection. When
+General Pillow returned from Mexico he was hailed by a Southern editor
+as a "battle-scarred veteran." The next day the veteran called upon him
+to demand an apology for the epithet actually printed, "battle-scared."
+What was the horror of the editor, on the following day, to see the
+expression reappear in his apology as "bottle-scarred"!</p>
+
+<p>Occasionally, however, the mischief maker takes a notion to improve the
+copy set before him. The world will never know how often this has
+happened, for authors are just as willing to take credit for
+excellencies not their own as to lay on the printer the blame for their
+own oversights. In one of Artemus Ward's articles he had spoken of a
+starving prisoner as appealing for something to eat. The proof rendered
+it something to <i>read</i>. The humorist accepted the substitution as an
+additional absurdity. The French poet, Malherbe, once welcomed a
+misprint as an improvement on what he had written. There can be no doubt
+that, had there been no misprints in Shakespeare's quartos and folios,
+half the occupation of Shakespeare scholarship would have been lacking.
+Sometimes the original manuscript turns up&mdash;unfortunately not in
+Shakespeare's case&mdash;to confute some or all of the ingenious editors. A
+learned professor changed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158"></a>[<a href="./images/158.png">158</a>]</span> the word "unbodied" in Shelley's "Skylark" to
+"embodied," and some critics approved the change; but the poet's
+manuscript in the Harvard University Library makes the former reading
+clear beyond question. One might say that in these cases the Imp of the
+Perverse plants himself like a fatal microbe in the brain of the
+unfortunate editor. When that brilliant work, "The Principles of Success
+in Literature," by George Henry Lewes, appeared in the "Fortnightly
+Review," the expression "tilt stones from a cart" (used to describe
+careless writing) was printed with <i>l</i> as the first letter. When the
+chapters were reissued in America, the proofreader, warned by the
+presence of numerous other gross misprints, naturally corrected the
+meaningless "lilt" to the obvious and natural "tilt." This change at
+first escaped the attention of the American editor, who in the second
+edition insisted on restoring the original misprint and even defended
+his misjudgment in a note. It is worth adding that the Oxford English
+Dictionary takes the misprint as too obvious for comment and quotes the
+passage under "tilt."</p>
+
+<p>The most daring feat of the typographic Angel of the Odd&mdash;to adopt
+another of Poe's expressions&mdash;is the creation of what Professor Skeat
+called "ghost words," that is, words that seem to exist but do not. A
+misprint in Scott's "Monastery" of "morse" for "nurse" was accepted
+without question by readers and gravely explained by scholars. Some of
+these words, of which there are scores, are due to the misreading of
+crabbed manuscripts, but not a few have originated in the printing
+office. It must be remembered that they make their way into the
+dictionaries. For another instance let the reader open Worcester's
+Dictionary to the word <i>phantomnation</i>. He will see it defined as
+"illusion" and referred to Pope. In Webster's Dictionary, however,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159"></a>[<a href="./images/159.png">159</a>]</span> he
+will learn its true character, as a ghost word formed by running
+together the two words <i>phantom nation</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The printing of poetry involves all the possible mistakes liable to
+prose and, owing to the form of poetry, some new ones. Thus in
+Pickering's Aldine edition of Milton, two words of one line in "Samson
+Agonistes" are dropped down into the next, making the two lines of
+uneven length and very much hurting the emphasis. The three-volume
+reprint of this edition dutifully copies the misprint. In the Standard
+edition of Dr. Holmes's "Works" printed at the Riverside Press, in the
+unusual case of a poem in stanzas being broken up into a dialogue, the
+end of one speech, carried over to the following page, has been assigned
+to the next speaker, thus spoiling both the sense and the metre. The
+most extraordinary instance that has ever come under my eye occurs in a
+special edition of John Hay's "Poems," issued as a college prize volume
+and very elegantly printed at a well-known press. One poem has
+disappeared entirely except a single stanza, which has been attached to
+another poem with which it has no connection, not even agreeing with it
+in metre.</p>
+
+<p>The list of errata, the printer's public confession of fault, is rather
+rare in modern books, but this is due as much to the indifference of the
+public as to better proofreading. When Edwin Arnold's "Light of Asia"
+took the reading world by storm, a New York reprint was issued, which we
+commend to anyone looking for classical examples of misprinted books. It
+averages perhaps a gross misprint to every page. Possibly extreme haste
+to beat the Boston edition in the market may have suggested dispensing
+with the proof reader. Of course a publisher who could so betray his
+customers would never offer them even the partial amends of a list of
+errata. Sometimes the errors are picked up while the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160"></a>[<a href="./images/160.png">160</a>]</span> book is still in
+press, and in that case the list of errata can be printed as an
+extension of the text; sometimes the best that can be done is to print
+it on a separate slip or sheet and either insert it in the book or
+supply it to purchasers. Both these things happened in the case of that
+early American book, Mather's "Magnalia." The loose list of errata was
+printed on the two inner pages of one fold the size of the book. In the
+two hundred years that have elapsed, most of these folded sheets have
+been lost, with the financial result that a copy of the book with them
+will bring twice as much as one without them, these two leaves weighing
+as much in the scales of commerce as the other four hundred. Sometimes a
+misprint establishes the priority of a copy, the error having been
+silently corrected while the sheets were going through the press, and
+thus adds to its value in the eyes of the collector. The extent of these
+ancient lists of errata staggers belief. Cardinal Bellarmin was obliged
+to issue an octavo volume of eighty-eight pages to correct the misprints
+in his published works, and there is on record a still huger list of
+errata, extending to one hundred and eleven quarto pages.</p>
+
+<p>But we must not suppose that misprints began with the invention of
+printing. The name did, but not the thing named. In earlier times it was
+the copyist who made the mistakes and bore the blame. It is easy to see
+how in Greece and Rome, when one reader read aloud a book which perhaps
+a hundred copyists reproduced, a great number of errors might creep into
+the copies, and how many of these would result from confusion in
+hearing. Every copy was then an edition by itself and a possible source
+of error, calling therefore for its own proofreading. It is accordingly
+no wonder that the straightening out of classic texts is still going on.
+Had Chaucer, who wrote<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161"></a>[<a href="./images/161.png">161</a>]</span> over a hundred years before printing was
+introduced into England, been able to read once for all the proof of his
+poems, he would not have had to write that feeling address to his
+copyist, or scrivener, with which we may fitly take leave of our
+subject.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Adam scryveyne, if ever it thee byfalle,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Boece or Troylus for to wryten nuwe,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Under thy long lokkes thowe most have the scalle,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But affter my makyng thowe wryte more truwe;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">So offt a daye I mot thy werk renuwe,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">It to corect, and eke to rubbe and scrape,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And al is thorugh thy necglygence and rape.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162"></a>[<a href="./images/162.png">162</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>A SECRET OF PERSONAL POWER</h2>
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<div class="figleft">
+<a href="./images/img28.jpg">
+<img src="./images/img28.jpg" width="80" height="80" alt="CH25" title="CH25" /></a><br />
+</div>
+<p>REATER efficiency is the watchword of the hour. The pages of every
+technical and even educational magazine bristle with it. One is driven
+to wonder whether the principle does not require that in every printing
+office the word "efficiency" be stereotyped to save the cost of setting.
+We are told how one manager of a creamery saved annually the amount of
+his own salary to the company by having the dents in the supply cans
+pounded out and so getting more milk from the farmers. But though the
+lengths to which the insistence on efficiency is carried may sometimes
+provoke a smile, we have no inclination to disparage it; we realize that
+efficiency has far more than a mere money value to society; it is rather
+our purpose in the present paper to ask whether the efficiency man has
+ever thought to turn his searchlight in upon himself and discover
+whether he has not latent and unexpected powers that may be evoked to
+the great increase of his own efficiency.</p></div>
+
+<p>We have nothing historically new to offer, though the principle we are
+to mention is practically unknown or at least unutilized. It is the
+great, controlling principle of Forethought, the application of which is
+far wider than thought itself, extending to all the functions of the
+soul and even affecting bodily energy and health. The action of
+Forethought is based on the fact that there is more to ourselves than we
+are aware of. We are not ordinarily<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163"></a>[<a href="./images/163.png">163</a>]</span> conscious of our past lives, for
+instance, yet a supreme crisis, such as falling from a height, may make
+a man's whole past in an instant flash before him in review. Under
+sudden stress a man may develop powers of leadership or resolution that
+nobody could have foreseen and that he himself cannot account for. Our
+selves as we know them are, so to speak, only the top soil of our entire
+natures. Every conscious personality is like a farm in an oil district.
+It is underlain by an unrealized wealth that may never be brought to
+light. Some accident may reveal the treasure, but if the owner suspects
+its existence he may bore for it. To show how this boring may be done is
+one of the purposes of the present paper. But let us first assure
+ourselves further of the existence of this hidden fund of energy.</p>
+
+<p>If in the early fifties of the last century a vote had been taken on the
+two men in America who ten years later would stand head and shoulders
+above their countrymen in position and recognized ability, it is
+probable that not one single vote would have been cast for a slouchy
+Missouri farmer or a shabby Illinois lawyer, certainly not for the
+former. Grant and Lincoln themselves would not have expected a vote. Yet
+their powers existed then, unrealized by their owners, and only needing
+the proper stimulus to bring them out. That stimulus was responsibility;
+and, great as their achievements were under this stimulus, neither man
+appears to have reached his limit; each apparently had still a fund of
+reserve power to be expended on yet greater occasions had they arisen.
+This is not to say that all men have an equal fund of unrecognized
+ability. The experiences of the great struggle out of which Lincoln and
+Grant came supreme are alone sufficient to show how unequal are men's
+endowments. A McClellan proves himself an unsurpassed organizer, but no
+fighter; a Burnside displays<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164"></a>[<a href="./images/164.png">164</a>]</span> marked ability in leading fifteen or
+twenty thousand men, but beyond this number he fails disastrously.
+Neither Foresight nor any other device can <i>create</i> ability. A gallon
+can will hold only a gallon, no matter how carefully its sides are
+rounded. But in the case of any given man no one knows his capacity
+until he has had a chance to show it. His nature may hold only a pint,
+or, as with the men who have mastered great occasions with still
+unexhausted powers, it may seem like the horn which the god Thor tried
+to drain but could not, for its base was connected with the ocean
+itself. Not every man can hope to be called to a responsibility that
+shall bring out his latent powers; most of us, if we are ever to get the
+call, will first have to show the ability.</p>
+
+<p>How can a man tap the unknown resources, be they great or small, of his
+unconscious self? The method here to be suggested has at least the merit
+of great simplicity. I have called it Forethought; it might perhaps as
+exactly be called Forewilling. The point is that this unconscious part
+of a man's nature is not out of his control; he can send word to it and
+direct it, even if he has to do so by a kind of wireless telegraphy.
+However mysterious this may sound, there is nothing mystical about it,
+neither is it something vague and indefinite, but a practice to be
+applied to actual cases in hand. Suppose a business man is trying to get
+an important contract, and is to have an interview on the morrow that
+will decide the question. Let him, before he falls asleep at night, go
+over the whole ground in his mind, set before himself clearly the thing
+to be done with the particular difficulties to be met, and let him
+<i>will</i> himself to meet those difficulties, to carry his case. Let him
+will that at that time he shall be cheerful and vigorous; and, having
+given these instructions to his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165"></a>[<a href="./images/165.png">165</a>]</span> unconscious self&mdash;which has perhaps
+been waiting years for just this chance to do its part in the common
+endeavor&mdash;let him dismiss the whole matter from his conscious thought
+and go to sleep. On awaking in the morning let him review the matter and
+again dismiss it from his mind until the occasion arrives. If he will do
+this faithfully, he may not succeed the first time in carrying his
+point, but he will certainly feel a great increase of power, and
+ultimately, if he persists in making his unconscious self an active
+partner in his life, he will find himself far more successful than he
+could have been while depending on a single side of his nature. The same
+principle will hold, of course, in a myriad cases; if we have to-morrow,
+or even at a later date, to plead a cause, to make an after-dinner
+speech, to write a report or an article, to learn a lesson, to entertain
+guests, to handle a difficult case of discipline, we have only to take
+this counsel of our pillow, to re&euml;nforce it with our first morning
+thought, and we shall find ourselves making a new record of success.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that a principle so effective cannot be limited to the
+active or the intellectual life. If a man has a fault or a besetting
+weakness or sin, here is a way out of it. How long will a bad habit
+stand such an assault upon itself as the evening and morning practice of
+Forethought? One will actually feel the new force within him, like a
+gyroscopic stabilizer, holding him to his predetermined course. There is
+literally a world of hope for mankind in the application of this
+principle on its moral side. But the business of our article is with
+other applications and we must dismiss this, the greatest of all, with a
+mere mention.</p>
+
+<p>If anyone questions whether this principle is true or not, the best
+answer will be to bid him test it. Though it be true universally, some
+people may not easily apply it, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166"></a>[<a href="./images/166.png">166</a>]</span> some may not have the patience to
+subject themselves to such a discipline. But most will have no
+difficulty, and many will succeed well enough to inspire themselves to
+continue. Some, indeed, will say, and with perfect truth, that there is
+nothing new in this doctrine, that they have long known and applied it.
+The principle has doubtless been known for thousands of years, but it
+has certainly not been widely taken up by our race, which is curiously
+external in its notions of self-education and self-control. One American
+writer, the late Charles Godfrey Leland, a man of the most varied powers
+and accomplishments, has written in advocacy of it and gives us as his
+own experience that after the age of seventy he was able to do a greater
+amount of literary work, and with less fatigue, than ever before simply
+by calling in the aid of his unconscious self. If one were to read the
+lives and writings of eminent men with this principle of Forethought in
+mind, one would find numberless instances of its more or less
+unconscious practice. The best scholar in my own class, for instance,
+applied it to his studies. Does anyone suppose that the old Puritan's
+sweetening of his mind with a little Calvin before he went to bed was
+without its effect on his devotion to Calvinism? Erasmus, the wittiest
+of scholars, writing nearly four hundred years ago to his special
+friend, Christian of Lubeck, recommends the practice both of the evening
+instruction and the morning review as something that he himself has
+followed from his childhood; and we cannot doubt that in it he reveals
+one of the secrets of his world-wide influence. He says to his youthful
+friend: "A little before you go to sleep read something choice and worth
+remembering, and think it over until you fall asleep. When you awake in
+the morning make yourself give an account of it." Though this is clearly
+an application<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167"></a>[<a href="./images/167.png">167</a>]</span> of the principle to study and the strengthening of the
+memory, experiment will show that the potency of Forethought is not
+limited to the memory or the intellect in general, but applies to man's
+entire nature and equally to the least and the greatest of its
+concerns.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168"></a>[<a href="./images/168.png">168</a>]</span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>FOOTNOTES:</h2>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The substance of an address delivered Nov. 18, 1909, in the
+Boston Public Library, under the auspices of the Society of Printers.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The address here summarized was printed at the Chiswick
+Press and published at Christmas, 1884. Mr. Stevens died early in 1886,
+leaving a posthumous book entitled "Recollections of Mr. James Lenox,"
+which was printed in the same year at the Chiswick Press, and which is
+of great interest to booklovers, especially Americans.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Mr. Edison's projected substitute for paper, sheets of
+nickel, 20,000 to the inch, may indicate the book material of the
+future, but at present it is only a startling possibility.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> The type in which this book is printed is a modern Bodoni,
+cut in Italy, and was chosen for its elegance rather than to illustrate
+the latest results in legibility of type design.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> See "Simplified Spelling in Writing and Printing; a
+Publisher's Point of View," by Henry Holt, LL.D., New York, 1906. About
+one half the expense falls within the domain of printing.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169"></a>[<a href="./images/169.png">169</a>]</span></p><h2>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170"></a>[<a href="./images/170.png">170</a>]</span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171"></a>[<a href="./images/171.png">171</a>]</span></p><h2>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+<p>
+<span class="bigletter">A</span>BILITY, cannot be created, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Accents, their help in reading poetry, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.<br />
+<br />
+&AElig;schylus, as characterized by Mrs. Browning, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Aldine edition of the British Poets, by Pickering, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, his "Friar Jerome's Beautiful Book," <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Aldus, Alduses and Elzevirs contrasted, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">beauty in his work, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bindings of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his characteristic book, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his example followed by the Elzevirs, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his italic type and its effect on the size and price of books, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pickering and other followers of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">vexed by misprints, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="Alphabet" id="Alphabet"></a>Alphabet, Chinese, picture writing, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">derivation from picture writing, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">scientific and actual, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">varieties in use, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Type">Type</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+American Journal of Psychology, contains Sanford's study on "The<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">relative legibility of the small letters," <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Arnold, Edwin, misprints in his "Light of Asia," <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Art, art aspect of the book, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">shares the prehistoric background of the book, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Artists not opposed to criticism, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Assyrian clay tablet, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Astor Library, size in 1875, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Audubon, John James, his elephant-folio "Birds of America," <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Authors, reading by single authors and groups, <a href="#Page_74">74-76</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">spoilers of books, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="Authorship" id="Authorship"></a>Authorship, rules of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="bigletter">B</span>ABYLONIAN book, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Back numbers, unimportant contemporary works become, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Background of the book," <a href="#Page_79">79-86</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bacon, Francis, Lord, quoted, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Baird, John Wallace, directs Clark University studies on legibility, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ballads, Old English, Hazlitt on, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Balzac, Honor&eacute; de, expanded his novels in proof, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Balzac, Jean Louis Guez de, acknowledged his indebtedness to the<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Elzevirs, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Bamboo, source of Chinese paper, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Barlow, Joel, place of his "Columbiad" in modern printing, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bartlett, John, quoted, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Baskerville, John, his smooth paper, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Beauty, <i>see</i> <a href="#Esthetics">Esthetics</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Beecher, Henry Ward, his "Norwood" in three volumes, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172"></a>[<a href="./images/172.png">172</a>]</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">John Beattie Crozier on his sermons, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Beethoven, his Ninth Symphony as a product of genius, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bellarmin, Cardinal, list of errata in his works, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Best books, need of provision for daily reading, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Books">Books</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Bible, Hazlitt on its poetry, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence on Bunyan, on Calhoun, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">misprints in, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">various folio editions, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Bible of humanity, Socrates in, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Bigness" id="Bigness"></a>Bigness, in books, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Binder, a spoiler of books, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">what the librarian asks of him, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="Binding" id="Binding"></a>Binding, as an element of the book, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"The clothing of a book," <a href="#Page_97">97-101</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the book beautiful, <a href="#Page_52">52-55</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Chinese book, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the well-made book, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Parchment bindings," <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">unnecessary rebindings, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Bion, as characterized by Mrs. Browning, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Birch bark, used for book of India, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bismarck, misprint concerning, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Blackmore, Richard Doddridge, tribute to Shakespeare, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Blue and Gold editions, a favorite book size, <a href="#Page_24">24-26</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bodoni, Giambattista, his type commended, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Book, "The background of the book," <a href="#Page_79">79-86</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"blown" books, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"The book beautiful," <a href="#Page_49">49-62</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"The book of to-day and the book of to-morrow," <a href="#Page_33">33-37</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chinese, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87-91</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"The clothing of a book," <a href="#Page_97">97-101</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a constructive critic of the, <a href="#Page_38">38-43</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">elements of, <a href="#Page_4">4-6</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Fitness in book design," <a href="#Page_9">9-13</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its structural contradiction, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">materials, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the future, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on its physical side an art object, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pre-Columbian Mexican, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">printed, a "substitute" for manuscript, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subject to laws of esthetics and economics, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tests of its utility, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">well-made, not extremely costly, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">not identical with beautiful, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">worth writing three times, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Design">Design</a>; <a href="#Size">Size</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="Book_buyers" id="Book_buyers"></a>Book buyers, how to educate, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">spoilers of books, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Booklovers, "Books and booklovers," <a href="#Page_3">3-8</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">must first know books, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">service in improvement of books, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Book production, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">elements added by printing, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="Books" id="Books"></a>Books, as a librarian would like them, <a href="#Page_44">44-48</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Books and booklovers," <a href="#Page_3">3-8</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the greatest, few, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intellectual riffraff, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">learning to love, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Lest we forget the few great books," <a href="#Page_104">104-114</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">perishable, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">progress in legibility of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">small, commended by Dr. Johnson, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"The student and the library," <a href="#Page_139">139-144</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">that are not books, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">world's annual publication of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Books of Hours, dainty volumes, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Boston Athenaeum Library, size in 1875, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Boston Public Library, Address in, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Footnote_1_1"><i>footnote</i></a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">size in 1875, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Brandes, Georg, his "Shakespeare: a critical study," <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Brass, used for book of India, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br />
+<br />
+British Poets, rival editions of, by Pickering and by Little and Brown,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Brown, Horatio Robert Forbes, on Aldus and his italic type, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Brown, John Carter, patron of Henry Stevens, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Brown University, misprint in quoting its charter, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Browne, Charles Farrar, adopts a misprint, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173"></a>[<a href="./images/173.png">173</a>]</span>Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, her "Wine of Cyprus" quoted, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Buchanan, George, his Latin poems, commended by Dr. Johnson, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">published by the Elzevirs, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Bulk, in books, <a href="#Page_92">92-96</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bunyan, John, debt to the Bible, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Burma, book of, <i>see</i> <a href="#India">India</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Burns, Robert, Hazlitt on, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Burnside, General Ambrose Everett, his limitations, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Burton, Sir Richard, his "Kas&icirc;dah" in Mosher's tribute typography, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bury, Richard de, author of the "Philobiblon," <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Byron, Lord, hated Horace, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="bigletter">C</span>AESURA, indication of, in print, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Calhoun, John Caldwell, reader of the Bible, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Calligraphy, <i>see</i> <a href="#Manuscript">Manuscript</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Calvin, John, as a Puritan's spiritual nightcap, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cambridge University, student groups in, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Capital_letters" id="Capital_letters"></a>Capital letters, legibility, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roman in origin, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roman, superior to black-letter in combination, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">undersized, used by Aldus, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Carlyle, Thomas, on Goethe, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rewrote his books in proof, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Caslon type, commended, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Catchwords, usage of Aldus, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cattell, James McKeen, his investigations of legibility, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cave men, pictures made by them, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Centaur type, commended, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Century Dictionary, illustration of cerastes, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a triumph of typography, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Century types, commended, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Cervantes" id="Cervantes"></a>Cervantes, "Don Quixote," character and meaning of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">no final edition of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">on reading, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">translations of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his character, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">later novelists indebted to, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Chaucer, Geoffrey, complaint of his scribe's errors, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hazlitt on, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his spelling, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Cheapness, <i>see</i> <a href="#Cost">Cost</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cheltenham type, commended, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cherokee syllabary, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Children, increase of near sight among, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">legibility of books for, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Chinese, alphabet, conventionalized picture writing, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">book, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87-91</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Chiswick Press, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Footnote_2_2"><i>footnote</i></a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pickering's books printed at, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Christian of Lubeck, letter of Erasmus to, quoted, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cicero, did not write for children, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Clark University, studies on legibility, <a href="#Page_124">124-127</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Classroom, not equal to a good book, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Clay tablet, and booklovers, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Clodd, Edward, on discovery of British prehistoric antiquities, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cloister Oldstyle type, commended, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a safe norm for poetry, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174"></a>[<a href="./images/174.png">174</a>]</span>Cloth, used in binding, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Clothing of a book," <a href="#Page_97">97-101</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Codex" id="Codex"></a>Codex, Roman, form adopted for parchment books, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">original of modern book form, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Collins, Wilkie, tribute to "Robinson Crusoe," <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Color, use of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Columbian type, first used in Barlow's "Columbiad," <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Columns, in wide pages, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Community, value of reading to the, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Compactness and legibility, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Compositor, a spoiler of books, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Constructive critic of the book," <a href="#Page_38">38-43</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Consumers, <i>see</i> <a href="#Book_buyers">Book buyers</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Contemporary writers, on reading their works, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Contrast of type, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Copperplate printing, in connection with typography, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cornell University Library, proof-sheets of the "Waverley Novels" in, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Corrigenda, <a href="#Page_152">152-161</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lists of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="Cost" id="Cost"></a>Cost, the book of to-morrow will be cheaper, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cheapened books, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of beautiful books little more than of unsightly, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relatively small, of well-made books, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Cowper, William, Hazlitt on, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Crabbe, George, a favorite edition of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Criticism, "A constructive critic of the book," <a href="#Page_38">38-43</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">not opposed by artists, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Crozier, John Beattie, on reading, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Culture cannot be vicarious, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="bigletter">D</span>ANA, JOHN COTTON, his analysis of the elements of the book, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dante, his "Divine Comedy," character of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"fly's-eye" edition of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hazlitt on, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">privilege of reading, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Professor Torrey on reading, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Decoration, in bindings, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99-101</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of color in, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Defoe, Daniel, tribute of Wilkie Collins to "Robinson Crusoe," <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Democratization of learning, by the cheap books of Aldus, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br />
+<br />
+De Morgan, William, quoted, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">value of his novels, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+De Quincey, Thomas, on possible amount of reading in a lifetime, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Design" id="Design"></a>Design, "Fitness in book design," <a href="#Page_9">9-13</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of type, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Diagonal of page, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dickens, Charles, his works in illegible print, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">on Oxford India paper, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">on thick paper, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on reading him, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Dickinson, Emily, quoted, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Didot, Ambrose Firmin, his "microscopic" type, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Discovery of a great book, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Distinctions, to the eye, in manuscript and print, <a href="#Page_16">16-18</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Don Quixote, <i>see</i> <a href="#Cervantes">Cervantes</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dordogne, France, its prehistoric pictures, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dowden, Edward, his "Shakspere: his mind and art," <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175"></a>[<a href="./images/175.png">175</a>]</span>Dryden, John, Hazlitt on, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="bigletter">E</span>CONOMICS, the book within the domain of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Edges" id="Edges"></a>Edges, treatment of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Edison, Thomas Alva, would substitute nickel for paper, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Footnote_3_3"><i>footnote</i></a>.<br />
+<br />
+Editions de luxe, disapproved by Henry Stevens, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Education, in appreciation of beautiful books, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of book buyers, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Efficiency, in modern life, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the book, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Egyptian, book, see <a href="#Papyrus">Papyrus</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hieroglyphics, picture writing, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Elements of the book, <a href="#Page_4">4-6</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Elimination, test of, applied to reading, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Eliot, Charles William, his Latin signature, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Elzevirs, compared with Aldines, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">with Blue and Gold editions, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described, <a href="#Page_21">21-23</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Emerson, Ralph Waldo, his life and works, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">importance of his works, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">John Beattie Crozier on, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quoted, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica, in its two sizes of type, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br />
+<br />
+English, alphabets, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">book publication in 1913, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">books, criticised, <a href="#Page_38">38-43</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">literature as affected by reformed spelling, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">poets, Hazlitt's Lectures on, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">romancers, of the 18th century, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">spelling, <a href="#Page_145">145-151</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Engravings, <i>see</i> <a href="#Illustration">Illustrations</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Erasmus, Desiderius, letter to Christian of Lubeck, quoted, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Errata, <a href="#Page_152">152-161</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lists of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Errors of the press, <a href="#Page_152">152-161</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Essays, in a favorite book size, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Esthetics" id="Esthetics"></a>Esthetics, beauty in typography, <a href="#Page_136">136-138</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"The book beautiful," <a href="#Page_49">49-62</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the book subject to the laws of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">harmony between beauty and use in type design, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in choice of type, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">involves sacrifice of utility, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its demands must be met in a favorite book, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">met by the Little Classic editions, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the book, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">printer's duty, to, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relation of thickness and thinness to, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sacrificed to legibility, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Etymology in spelling, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Eumenes II, originates parchment, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Euripides, as characterized by Mrs. Browning, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Everyman's Library, in a favorite book size, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Eves, binders, their work, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Exceptions to the rule of legibility," <a href="#Page_134">134-138</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Expression in typography, <a href="#Page_9">9-13</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Eyes, <i>see</i> <a href="#Sight">Sight</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="bigletter">F</span>, the letter, origin and derivatives, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Fairy Queen, <i>see</i> <a href="#Spenser">Spenser, Edmund</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Favorite book sizes," <a href="#Page_19">19-27</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Favorite literature, in appropriate typography, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Fielding, Henry, a favorite edition of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on reading him, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">an unattractive edition of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176"></a>[<a href="./images/176.png">176</a>]</span>Fields, Annie Adams, her "Beacon Biography" of Hawthorne, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Finishing, <i>see</i> <a href="#Binding">Binding</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Fitness, between illustrations and type, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in book design, <a href="#Page_9">9-13</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in typography, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Fitzgerald, Edward, at Cambridge University, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Forethought, "A secret of personal power," <a href="#Page_162">162-167</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Forewilling, "A secret of personal power," <a href="#Page_162">162-167</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Format, <i>see</i> <a href="#Size">Size</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Forwarding, <i>see</i> <a href="#Binding">Binding</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Franklin, Benjamin, quoted, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br />
+<br />
+French, alphabet, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">book publication in 1913, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">type, faults of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Frowde, Henry, publishes "The Periodical" in form of a Chinese book, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="bigletter">G</span>ALILEO, acknowledged his indebtedness to the Elzevirs, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Garfield, James Abram, recommends reading of fiction, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gems, in bindings, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Genius, its bad spelling, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its monuments in the various arts, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+German, book publication in 1913, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">spelling reform, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tribute typography, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">type, faults of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Ghost words, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gilding, <i>see</i> <a href="#Binding">Binding</a>; <a href="#Edges">Edges</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gladstone, William Ewart, a literary blunder of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Goethe, Carlyle on, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his greatness, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">John Beattie Crozier on, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Sir Walter Scott, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Goffered edges, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Goudy, Frederic W., his Kennerley type commended, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Grace before reading, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Grammar of book manufacture, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Grant, Ulysses Simpson, his coat of arms, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his greatness brought out by responsibility, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Gray, Thomas, small bulk of his work, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Great books, Lest we forget the few," <a href="#Page_104">104-114</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Greek literature, masterpieces of, <a href="#Page_66">66-68</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Greeks, surpassed by moderns in knowledge, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Green, John Richard, quoted, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Grolier, Jean, bindings made for, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Groups, reading authors by, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Guide, in reading, <a href="#Page_140">140-142</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">none to love of books, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Guidi, Carlo Alessandro, killed by misprints, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="bigletter">H</span>ABIT, and forethought, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Haggard, Rider, his "Mr. Meeson's Will," <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hallam, Arthur Henry, at Cambridge University, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Handwriting, <i>see</i> <a href="#Manuscript">Manuscript</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177"></a>[<a href="./images/177.png">177</a>]</span>Harte, Francis Bret, on reading his works, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Harvard University, course in printing, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Library possesses manuscript of Shelley's "Skylark," <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">size of Library in 1875, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Hawthorne, Nathaniel, on reading him, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hay, John, his reading in college, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a remarkable misprint in his "Poems," <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Hazlitt, William, as a guide in reading, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lamb and Stevenson on, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Headlines, Henry D. Lloyd on, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Hibbert Journal," bulkiness of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hieroglyphics, <i>see</i> <a href="#Picture_writing">Picture writing</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, his life of Longfellow, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Holmes, Oliver Wendell, the Blue and Gold edition of his "Poems," <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his life of Emerson, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">member of New England group of authors, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a misprint in his "Works," <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quoted, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Holt, Henry, on simplified spelling, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Footnote_5_5"><i>footnote</i></a>.<br />
+<br />
+Homer, did not write for children, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hazlitt on, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his works, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Keats's sonnet on, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">not out of date, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why his works are divided into books, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Horace, hated by Byron, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his works, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Bodoni's 1791 edition, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">more modern than the Puritans, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">than Dante, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Houghton, Mifflin and Company, publish books resembling Chinese, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hours, books of, dainty volumes, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br />
+<br />
+House of Representatives Library, size in 1875, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hudson, Henry Norman, his edition of Shakespeare, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Huey, Edmund Burke, his "Psychology and pedagogy of reading," commended,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Hull, Mass., as misprinted, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Humanistic type, <i>see</i> <a href="#New_Humanistic">New Humanistic</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hunt, Leigh, his characterization of the "Divine Comedy," <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="bigletter">I</span>, the letter, discussions regarding its dot, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Idler," a favorite edition of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Illumination, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indication of initials for, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="Illustration" id="Illustration"></a>Illustration, as a feature of the book, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the book beautiful, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+"Imitatio Christi," in Updike's specimen pages, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Incunabula, relatively cheap, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Indecency in misprints, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Indenting, as affecting the book beautiful, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Independent," compactly printed, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="India" id="India"></a>India, book of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Individual, value of reading to, <a href="#Page_29">29-32</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Initials, colored, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">spacing and mitering of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Ink, best for the eye, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">blue, for legibility, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">an element of the book, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">maker, a spoiler of books, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Interpretative typography, <a href="#Page_9">9-13</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Interpreter of meaning, Print as an," <a href="#Page_14">14-18</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Invention, in book production, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Irving, Washington, book design in editions of his "Knickerbocker," <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178"></a>[<a href="./images/178.png">178</a>]</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">unfortunate use of his "Sketch Book" as a school book, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="Italic" id="Italic"></a>Italic type, invention and use by Aldus, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Italy, annual book publication, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="bigletter">J</span>APAN, annual book publication, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Javal, Dr. &Eacute;mile, his investigations of legibility, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Jenson, Nicholas, beauty and grandeur in his work, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">descendants of his types, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">facsimile page of, <a href="#frontispiece"><i>frontispiece</i></a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Johnson, Rossiter, his Little Classic editions described, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Johnson, Dr. Samuel, commends small books, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a favorite edition of his "Idler," <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his "Prayers" in tribute typography, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on our knowledge of ancient Britain, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Josephus, Flavius, book form inappropriate to, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Justification, requirements of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Justinian, facsimile page of his "Digestum novum," <a href="#frontispiece"><i>frontispiece</i></a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="bigletter">K</span>EATS, JOHN, folio inappropriate to, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inappropriate Forman edition of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"On first looking into Chapman's Homer," <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">small bulk of his work, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Kelmscott Press, <i>see</i> <a href="#Morris">Morris, William</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Kennerley type, commended, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Kipling, Rudyard, on reading him, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Knickerbocker," Irving's, book design in editions of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Knowledge, necessary to success in life, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">obtainable in its fulness only through books, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">progress possible only in, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Kuran, sources from which it was compiled, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="bigletter">L</span>AMB, CHARLES, on grace before reading, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Hazlitt, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Large-paper copies, condemned, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Latin literature, masterpieces of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Leadership developed under stress, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Leading, as affecting legibility, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as affecting spacing, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Leather, employment in binding, <a href="#Page_52">52-54</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Le Gascon, binder, his work, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Legend, of pictures, proper place of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Legibility" id="Legibility"></a>Legibility, elements of the book as related to, <a href="#Page_116">116-118</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Exceptions to the rule of legibility," <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134-138</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence on, of paper, type, and ink, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Types and eyes: The problem," <a href="#Page_120">120-127</a>,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">&mdash;&mdash; "Progress," <a href="#Page_128">128-133</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Leland, Charles Godfrey, on forethought, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Length of line, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Lenox, James, mortified by a misprint, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">patron of Henry Stevens, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Recollections of," by Stevens, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Footnote_2_2"><i>footnote</i></a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Le Sage, Alain Ren&eacute;, his "Gil Blas," <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Lest we forget the few great books," <a href="#Page_104">104-114</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Letters, <i>see</i> <a href="#Capital_letters">Capital letters</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><a href="#Manuscript">Manuscript</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><a href="#Minuscules">Minuscules</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><a href="#Silent_letters">Silent letters</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><a href="#Type">Type</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179"></a>[<a href="./images/179.png">179</a>]</span>Lewes, George Henry, a misprint in one of his works, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Librarians, "Books as a librarian would like them," <a href="#Page_44">44-48</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a duty to their successors, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">meeting of British, in 1882, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Libraries, as affected by spelling reform, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">development in the United States since 1875, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">electrical batteries of power, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">put to needless expense for big books, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">for rebindings, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"The student and the library," <a href="#Page_139">139-144</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Library Company of Philadelphia, size of library in 1875, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Library hand, Bodoni's italic resembles, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Library of Congress, size in 1875, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Lightness, in books, deceptive, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Lincoln, Abraham, his greatness brought by responsibility, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Lincoln cent, lettering on, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Line, endings should not show too many hyphens, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">normal length for legibility, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Linnaeus, quoted, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Linotype, gives a turned line, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Literature, the book beautiful of service to, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its treasures, <a href="#Page_63">63-78</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">print a contribution to, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">type appropriate to, <a href="#Page_136">136-138</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Little and Brown, publishers, their "British Poets" compared with<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pickering's "Aldines," <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Little Classic editions, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Littr&eacute;, &Eacute;mile, typography of his "Dictionnaire," <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Lloyd, Henry Demarest, on headlines, quoted, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Locker-Lampson, Frederick, inappropriate edition of his "My<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Confidences," <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+London Registrar General, misprint, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, book design appropriate to his "Works," <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his "Michael Angelo," <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his sonnets on Dante, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">holiday edition of his "Skeleton in Armor," <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Life," appropriate edition of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quoted, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Lowell, James Russell, member of New England group of authors, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="bigletter">M</span>ACAULAY, THOMAS BABINGTON, knew "Paradise Lost" by heart, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.<br />
+<br />
+McClellan, General George Brinton, his limitations, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Malherbe, Fran&ccedil;ois, welcomes a misprint, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mammoth, picture of, a prehistoric book, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Manuscript" id="Manuscript"></a>Manuscript, chief difference from print, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distinctions in, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">importance to bookmaking, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">limitations of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ruskin on, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">still used in private records, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Papyrus">Papyrus</a>; <a href="#Parchment">Parchment</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Margin, size and proportions of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Marriage service, misprint in, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Material of the book, changed twice in two thousand years, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Materials" id="Materials"></a>Materials of writing, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mather, Cotton, list of errata in his "Magnalia," <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mathews, William, as an author, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his memory of choice passages, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on reading ten pages a day, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Maxim, Sir Hiram, quoted, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180"></a>[<a href="./images/180.png">180</a>]</span>"Meaning, Print as an interpreter of," <a href="#Page_14">14-18</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mearne, Samuel, binder, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Memory, Erasmus on art of strengthening, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">value of a well-stored, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+"Men of the Time," famous misprint in, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br />
+<br />
+M&eacute;nage, Gilles, acknowledged his indebtedness to the Elzevirs, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Mexican" id="Mexican"></a>Mexican book, pre-Columbian, ornamented, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">picture writing of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Michelangelo, his "Moses" as a product of genius, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Milton, John, debt of Daniel Webster to, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gave metric hints by spelling, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hazlitt on, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his greatness, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his spelling, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lamb would say grace before reading, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a misprint in "Samson Agonistes," <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the deprivation caused by his blindness, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a spelling reformer, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="Minuscules" id="Minuscules"></a>Minuscules, legibility, <a href="#Page_122">122-124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of late origin, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Misprints, "The perversities of type," <a href="#Page_152">152-161</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Montaigne, "Journal of his travels," in three volumes, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Morgan, Lloyd, cited, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Morris" id="Morris"></a>Morris, William, as printer, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">confesses faults of ignorance in book making, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his Kelmscott editions, "tribute typography," <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on shape of dot of <i>i</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on types, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Mosher, Thomas Bird, his "tribute typography," <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Motteux, Peter Anthony, his translation of "Don Quixote," <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Moulton, Charles Wells, "Library of Literary Criticism," its attractive book design, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="bigletter">N</span>AMES, place of, in development of the alphabet, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Near sight, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Necker, Jacques, student's blunder concerning, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br />
+<br />
+New England, its communities of readers, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its group of authors, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="New_Humanistic" id="New_Humanistic"></a>New Humanistic type, commended, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">special form of <i>a</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+New York Mercantile Library, size in 1875, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Newspapers, extraordinary development of speed and cheapness in, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">legibility, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opponents of spelling reform, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">place in reading, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Newton, Sir Isaac, quoted, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Nickel, as a substitute for paper, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Footnote_3_3"><i>footnote</i></a>.<br />
+<br />
+Novels, in a favorite book size, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in illegible type, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on reading, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">three-volume, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">typical book of to-day, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+"Nuremberg Chronicle," a characteristic folio, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="bigletter">O</span>CULIST'S tests of legibility, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ormsby, John, his translation of "Don Quixote," <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ornamentation, in bindings, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in type, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+"Orthographic reform," <a href="#Page_145">145-151</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ossian, Hazlitt on, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Owen, Robert, a famous misprint concerning, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Oxford Book of English Verse," thin-paper edition preferred, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Oxford English Dictionary," corrects a misprint, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181"></a>[<a href="./images/181.png">181</a>]</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">its typography, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Oxford India paper, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">miniature editions on, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Oxford students cause a misprint in the marriage service, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Oxford University Press, reward for misprints, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Page" id="Page"></a><span class="bigletter">P</span>AGE, proportions of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55-57</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Palm leaves, used for book of India, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pannartz and Sweynheym, grandeur in their work, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Paper, best for the eye, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">buff tinted, for legibility, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">determines the expression of the book, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">introduced into Europe, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the book beautiful, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the Chinese book, <a href="#Page_88">88-90</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Thick paper and thin," <a href="#Page_92">92-96</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">three elements of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Papermaker, a spoiler of books, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Papyrus" id="Papyrus"></a>Papyrus roll, and booklovers, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">described, <a href="#Page_82">82-84</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="Parchment" id="Parchment"></a>Parchment, origin, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Parchment bindings," <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">parchment book and booklovers, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Payne, Roger, binder, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Peacock, Thomas Love, his novels in thick and thin paper, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Peel, Sir Robert, misprint concerning, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Penmanship, <i>see</i> <a href="#Manuscript">Manuscript</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pergamum, origin of parchment in, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Periodical, The," resembles a Chinese book, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Personal power, A secret of," <a href="#Page_162">162-167</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Perversities of type," <a href="#Page_152">152-161</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Philadelphia Mercantile Library, size in 1875, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Philobiblon," by Richard de Bury, significance of the title, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Photogravures, in connection with type, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pickering, William, a disciple of Aldus, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his characteristic books, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">compared with Little and Brown's "British Poets," <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">their predecessors, contemporaries, and successors, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his "diamond classics" on large paper, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">method of book design, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">publisher, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="Picture_writing" id="Picture_writing"></a>Picture writing, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pictures, earliest books were, <a href="#Page_79">79-81</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Illustration">Illustrations</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Pillow, General Gideon Johnson, misprints concerning, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pindar, as characterized by Mrs. Browning, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Plato, as characterized by Mrs. Browning, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">contributor to Bible of humanity, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">riches of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Pocket editions, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Poe, Edgar Allan, quoted, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">small bulk of his poetry, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="Poetry" id="Poetry"></a>Poetry, Hazlitt on, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">print as an interpreter of its meaning, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">type appropriate to, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Pope, Alexander, a ghost word referred to him, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hazlitt on, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Possessions, distinguished from Property, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Power, A secret of personal," <a href="#Page_162">162-167</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Powers of leadership developed under stress, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pre-Columbian book, <i>see</i> <a href="#Mexican">Mexican</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182"></a>[<a href="./images/182.png">182</a>]</span>Prehistoric background of the book, <a href="#Page_79">79-81</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Press, errors of, <a href="#Page_152">152-161</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pressman, a spoiler of books, <a href="#Page_40">40-42</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Presswork, requirements of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Prices, as affected by italic, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">by the small books of the Elzevirs, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fancy, what they mean, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of choice books compared with those of other art objects, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of choice books not excessive, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+"<a name="Print" id="Print"></a>Print as an interpreter of meaning," <a href="#Page_14">14-18</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Typography">Typography</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Printer, as affected by spelling reform, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a spoiler of books, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">what the librarian asks of him, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Printer's errors, <a href="#Page_152">152-161</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Printing, added only speed and cheapness to book production, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distinctions to the eye in, <a href="#Page_16">16-18</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Chinese books, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Printing problems for science to solve," <a href="#Page_115">115-119</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">would be benefited by contemporary calligraphy, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Typography">Typography</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Privilege of the reader, <a href="#Page_63">63-78</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Problems, Printing, for science to solve," <a href="#Page_115">115-119</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Progress, possible only in the field of knowledge, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Proof, authors' additions in, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Proofreader, requirements of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a spoiler of books, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Property, distinguished from Possessions, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Proportions of the page, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55-57</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Prosody, <i>see</i> <a href="#Poetry">Poetry</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Public, value of reading to the, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Publication of books for 1913, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Publisher, librarian's grievance against the, <a href="#Page_45">45-47</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a spoiler of books, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Punctuation, and legibility, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in poetry, <a href="#Page_17">17-18</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Puritans, less modern than Horace, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a Puritan's devotion to Calvin, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shakespeare best reading for, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Putnam, George Haven, on the Elzevirs, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="bigletter">R</span>APID reading, <a href="#Page_14">14-17</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Rare books, relatively cheap, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Readable print, <i>see</i> <a href="#Legibility">Legibility</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Reader's high privilege," <a href="#Page_63">63-78</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Reading, aid of print to, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">amount possible in a lifetime, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Erasmus on art of, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">John Beattie Crozier on, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Lest we forget the few great books," <a href="#Page_104">104-114</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">means intellectual effort, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of contemporaries, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">results of ten pages a day, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"The student and the library," <a href="#Page_139">139-144</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">systematic, <a href="#Page_74">74-76</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">true end and aim of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">value, to the public and to the individual, <a href="#Page_28">28-32</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">when travelling, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Reading aloud, print as an aid to, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Rebindings, costly, unnecessary, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Rebus, place in development of alphabet, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Reference books, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effective typography of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183"></a>[<a href="./images/183.png">183</a>]</span>Reformed spelling, <a href="#Page_145">145-151</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Registration, requirements of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Rembrandt, his drawing of the elephant, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his "School of Anatomy," as a product of genius, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Reprinting of perishable records, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Responsibility, a stimulus to greatness, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Respublic&aelig; Vari&aelig;," published by the Elzevirs, described, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Rhetoricorum ad C. Herennium Libri IIII," the Aldus edition of 1546<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">described, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Roethlein, Barbara Elizabeth, on "The relative legibility of different<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">faces of printing types," <a href="#Page_124">124-127</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Rogers, Bruce, his Centaur type commended, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Roll, <i>see</i> <a href="#Papyrus">Papyrus</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Roman alphabet, <i>see</i> <a href="#Alphabet">Alphabet</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Roman codex, <i>see</i> <a href="#Codex">Codex</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Roman literature, masterpieces of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Romance literatures, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Romans, surpassed by moderns in knowledge, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Royal octavo, pitfall of the book designer, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ruskin, John, editions of his works contrasted, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on manuscript books, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on reading Sir Walter Scott, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Russia, annual book publication, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">illiterate communities of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="bigletter">S</span>ANBORN, FRANKLIN BENJAMIN, his "Beacon Biography" of Longfellow, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sanford, Edmund Clark, on "The relative legibility of the small<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">letters," <a href="#Page_122">122-124</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Scaliger, Julius Caesar, his learning, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Schiller, cited, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<br />
+<br />
+School books, misfortune of treating classics as such, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">type in, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+School children, increase of near sight among, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.<br />
+<br />
+School of typography, proposed by Henry Stevens, <a href="#Page_40">40-43</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Science, "Printing problems for science to solve," <a href="#Page_115">115-119</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Scott, Sir Walter, alterations in the proof-sheets of his "Waverley<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Novels," <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a ghost word in his "Monastery," <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Goethe on, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ruskin on, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+"Secret of personal power," <a href="#Page_162">162-167</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sequoyah, his Cherokee syllabary, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Serifs, necessary to prevent irradiation, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">source of confusion in types, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Shakespeare, William, "Hamlet" preferred in youth, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hazlitt on, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his "Apocrypha," on thin paper, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his character and greatness, <a href="#Page_70">70-73</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lamb would say grace before reading, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Lear" preferred in old age, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">misprints in his works, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">privilege of reading, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quoted, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reading, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the spelling of his works, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tribute of Blackmore to, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Shelley, Percy Bysshe, an editor's error in his "Skylark," <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inappropriate Forman edition of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">read by young men, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Shelton, Thomas, his translation of "Don Quixote," <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Sight" id="Sight"></a>Sight, relation of the elements of the book to, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116-119</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Types and eyes: The problem," <a href="#Page_120">120-127</a>,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">&mdash;&mdash; "Progress," <a href="#Page_128">128-133</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184"></a>[<a href="./images/184.png">184</a>]</span>Sign language, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Silent_letters" id="Silent_letters"></a>Silent letters, cost to English world, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Size" id="Size"></a>Size, determines expression of the book, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Favorite book sizes," <a href="#Page_19">19-27</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of books preferred by librarian, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of letters and legibility, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">question of an ideal size of type, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">standardization of book sizes, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Bigness">Bigness</a>; <a href="#Thickness">Thickness</a>; <a href="#Thinness">Thinness</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Skeat, Walter William, on ghost words, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Smirke, Robert, illustrator of Barlow's "Columbiad," <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Smollett, Tobias George, on reading him, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Society of Printers, address under its auspices, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Footnote_1_1"><i>note</i></a>.<br />
+<br />
+Socrates, in a Bible of humanity, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sophocles, as characterized by Mrs. Browning, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Southey, Robert, a favorite edition of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Spacing, between words, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of letters in words, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Spain, illiterate communities of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Spanish, language, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">spelling, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Spectacles, a measure of civilization, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Spedding, James, at Cambridge University, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Spelling, Milton gave metric hints by, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Orthographic reform," <a href="#Page_145">145-151</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="Spenser" id="Spenser"></a>Spenser, Edmund, Hazlitt on, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his spelling, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lamb would say grace before reading the "Fairy Queen," <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Milton's spiritual kinship to, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Standardization of book sizes, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sterne, Laurence, a favorite edition of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Stevens, Henry, "A constructive critic of the book," <a href="#Page_38">38-43</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">detects a misprint, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his "My English library," <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his "Recollections of Mr. James Lenox," <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Footnote_2_2"><i>footnote</i></a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Stevenson, Robert Louis, on Hazlitt, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Stoddard, Richard Henry, on Cervantes and Shakespeare, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Storage of books, <i>see</i> <a href="#Bigness">Bigness</a>, <a href="#Thickness">Thickness</a>, <a href="#Thinness">Thinness</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Strassburg Cathedral, as a product of genius, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Student, The, and the Library," <a href="#Page_139">139-144</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Study, art of, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Success, won by knowledge, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Swedish spelling, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sweynheym and Pannartz, grandeur in their work, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="bigletter">T</span>ASTE, <i>see</i> Esthetics.<br />
+<br />
+Tauchnitz editions, compared with Little Classic editions, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Tennyson, Alfred, and his brothers at Cambridge University, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inappropriate edition of his "Life," <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a novel reader, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Tests, of the utility of the book, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of type, <a href="#Page_120">120-127</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Thackeray, William Makepeace, at Cambridge University, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on reading him, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quoted, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">works in illegible print, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Theocritus, as characterized by Mrs. Browning, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Thickness" id="Thickness"></a>Thickness, in books, esthetic effect of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Thick paper and thin," <a href="#Page_92">92-96</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="Thinness" id="Thinness"></a>Thinness, in books, esthetic effect of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Thick paper and thin," <a href="#Page_92">92-96</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185"></a>[<a href="./images/185.png">185</a>]</span>Thompson, Francis, indicated caesura by an asterisk, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Thomson, James, Hazlitt on, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Thoreau, Henry David, member of the New England group of authors, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Thou, Jacques Auguste de, binding made for, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Title-page, problems of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Torrey, Joseph, on reading Dante, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Translations of "Don Quixote," <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Tribute typography, <a href="#Page_9">9-13</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Type" id="Type"></a>Type, aims in its design, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chinese, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">contrast of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Exceptions to the rule of legibility," <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135-138</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">faults of German and French, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in relation to the book beautiful, <a href="#Page_57">57-59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">page, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Perversities of type," <a href="#Page_152">152-161</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reform of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Types and eyes: The problem," <a href="#Page_120">120-127</a>,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">&mdash;&mdash; "Progress," <a href="#Page_128">128-133</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Italic">Italic</a>; <a href="#Page">Page</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Typewriting, a form of print, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Typography" id="Typography"></a>Typography, primarily a reduction of cost, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">school of, proposed by Henry Stevens, <a href="#Page_40">40-43</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tribute typography, <a href="#Page_9">9-13</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a triumph of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href="#Print">Print</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="bigletter">U</span>NITED STATES, annual book publication, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">library development since 1875, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Updike, Daniel Berkeley, his comic edition of Irving's "Knickerbocker,"<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his specimen pages of the "Imitatio Christi," <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="bigletter">"V</span>ALUE of reading, to the public and to the individual," <a href="#Page_28">28-32</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Values, two great classes, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Vergil, Dante's master, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">did not write for children, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his Aeneid, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">scanty punctuation in earliest manuscript of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Verse, <i>see</i> <a href="#Poetry">Poetry</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Vision, <i>see</i> <a href="#Sight">Sight</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="bigletter">W</span>ARD, ARTEMUS, <i>pseudonym</i>, adopts a misprint, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Webster, Daniel, debt to Milton, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Webster, Noah, his "Collegiate Dictionary" on thin paper preferred, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his "Unabridged Dictionary" on large paper, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Wendell, Barrett, on Barlow's "Columbiad," <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wheatley, Henry Benjamin, on "Literary blunders," <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Whitman, Walt, on the world's greatest books, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Whittier, John Greenleaf, member of New England group of authors, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Whittingham, Charles, method of book design, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">printer, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+"Who spoils our new English books?" by Henry Stevens, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wilberforce, Samuel, Bishop of Oxford, a famous misprint concerning,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"> <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Wordsworth, Dorothy, on favorite books, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wordsworth, William, a favorite edition of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">read by old men, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+World Almanac, commended, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Writing, <i>see</i> <a href="#Authorship">Authorship</a>; <a href="#Manuscript">Manuscript</a>; <a href="#Materials">Materials</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="bigletter">X</span>ENOPHON, contributor to a Bible of humanity, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">did not write for children, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="transnote">
+<h2><a name="Transcribers_Notes" id="Transcribers_Notes"></a>Transcriber's Notes:</h2>
+
+<p>Table of Contents: The chapter heading "The Value of
+Reading" is an abbreviation of the chapter heading on page
+28. Left as is</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_31">31</a>: Full stop added after "Was but a book"</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_62">62</a>: techiness <i>sic</i></p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_86">86</a>: Kuran and Kur&aacute;n <i>sic</i></p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_108">108</a>: Comma added after "daily"</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_157">157</a>: Full stop added after "before him"</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_171">171</a>: Ae in Aeschylus replaced with ae ligature to
+match text in book</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_178">178</a>: Page numbers for "Exception to the rule of
+legibility" re-arranged into ascending order</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_183">183</a>: ae in Respublicae Variae replaced with ae
+ligatures to match text in book</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_185">185</a>: Page numbers for "Exception to the rule of
+legibility" re-arranged into ascending order</p>
+
+<p>Hyphenation has been standardised. One instance of
+ink-maker/ink maker retained.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Booklover and His Books, by Harry Lyman Koopman
+
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+Project Gutenberg's The Booklover and His Books, by Harry Lyman Koopman
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Booklover and His Books
+
+Author: Harry Lyman Koopman
+
+Release Date: September 15, 2007 [EBook #22606]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOKLOVER AND HIS BOOKS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, Meghan, and the booksmiths
+at http://www.eBookForge.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+    +------------------------------------------------------------+
+    | Transcriber's Note:                                        |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Obvious typographical errors have been corrected in        |
+    | this text. For a complete list, please see the bottom of   |
+    | this document.                                             |
+    |                                                            |
+    +------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+THE BOOKLOVER AND HIS BOOKS
+
+[Illustration: From the _Digestum Novum_ of Justinian, printed at Venice
+by Jenson in 1477. The type page of which this is a reduction measures
+12-1/2 by 8-1/2 inches. The initials in the original have been filled in
+by hand in red and blue.
+
+_From the copy in the Library of Brown University_]
+
+
+
+
+THE BOOKLOVER AND
+HIS BOOKS
+
+BY
+
+HARRY LYMAN KOOPMAN, LITT.D.
+
+LIBRARIAN OF BROWN UNIVERSITY
+
+BOSTON
+THE BOSTON BOOK COMPANY
+1917
+
+_Copyright, 1916,_
+BY THE BOSTON BOOK COMPANY
+
+THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE, U. S. A.
+
+
+TO
+THE AUTHORS AND THEIR PRINTERS
+WHO HAVE GIVEN US
+THE BOOKS THAT WE LOVE
+
+
+
+
+PREFATORY NOTE
+
+
+The following chapters were written during a series of years as one
+aspect after another of the Book engaged the writer's attention. As they
+are now brought together, the result is not a systematic treatise, but
+rather a succession of views of one many-sided subject. In consequence
+there is considerable overlapping. The writer hopes, however, that this
+will be looked upon not as vain repetition but as a legitimate
+reinforcement of his underlying theme, the unity in diversity of the
+Book and the federation of all who have to do with it. He therefore
+offers the present volume not so much for continuous reading as for
+reading by chapters. He trusts that for those who may consult it in
+connection with systematic study a sufficient clue to whatever it may
+contain on any given topic will be found in the index.
+
+Most of these chapters appeared as papers in "The Printing Art"; two
+were published in "The Graphic Arts," and some in other magazines. The
+writer expresses his thanks to the proprietors of these periodicals for
+the permission to republish the articles in their present collective
+form. All the papers have been revised to some extent. They were
+originally written in rare moments of leisure scattered through the busy
+hours of a librarian. Their writing was a source of pleasure, and their
+first publication brought him many delightful associations. As they are
+presented in their new attire to another group of readers, their author
+can wish for them no better fortune than to meet--possibly to
+make--booklovers.
+
+BROWN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY,
+Commencement Day, 1916
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+BOOKS AND BOOKLOVERS                               3
+FITNESS IN BOOK DESIGN                             9
+PRINT AS AN INTERPRETER OF MEANING                14
+FAVORITE BOOK SIZES                               19
+THE VALUE OF READING                              28
+THE BOOK OF TO-DAY AND THE BOOK OF TO-MORROW      33
+A CONSTRUCTIVE CRITIC OF THE BOOK                 38
+BOOKS AS A LIBRARIAN WOULD LIKE THEM              44
+THE BOOK BEAUTIFUL                                49
+THE READER'S HIGH PRIVILEGE                       63
+THE BACKGROUND OF THE BOOK                        79
+THE CHINESE BOOK                                  87
+THICK PAPER AND THIN                              92
+THE CLOTHING OF A BOOK                            97
+PARCHMENT BINDINGS                               102
+LEST WE FORGET THE FEW GREAT BOOKS               104
+PRINTING PROBLEMS FOR SCIENCE TO SOLVE           115
+TYPES AND EYES: THE PROBLEM                      120
+TYPES AND EYES: PROGRESS                         128
+EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULE OF LEGIBILITY             134
+THE STUDENT AND THE LIBRARY                      139
+ORTHOGRAPHIC REFORM                              145
+THE PERVERSITIES OF TYPE                         152
+A SECRET OF PERSONAL POWER                       162
+INDEX                                            171
+
+
+
+
+THE BOOKLOVER AND HIS BOOKS
+
+
+
+
+THE BOOKLOVER AND HIS
+BOOKS
+
+
+
+
+BOOKS AND BOOKLOVERS[1]
+
+
+The booklover is distinguished from the reader as such by loving his
+books, and from the collector as such by reading them. He prizes not
+only the soul of the book, but also its body, which he would make a
+house beautiful, meet for the indwelling of the spirit given by its
+author. Love is not too strong a word to apply to his regard, which
+demands, in the language of Dorothy Wordsworth, "a beautiful book, a
+book to caress--peculiar, distinctive, individual: a book that hath
+first caught your eye and then pleased your fancy." The truth is that
+the book on its physical side is a highly organized art object. Not in
+vain has it transmitted the thought and passion of the ages; it has
+taken toll of them, and in the hands of its worthiest makers these
+elements have worked themselves out into its material body. Enshrining
+the artist's thought, it has, therefore, the qualities of a true art
+product, and stands second only to those which express it, such as
+painting and sculpture; but no other art product of its own order, not
+the violin nor the jewel-casket, can compare with the book in esthetic
+quality. It meets one of the highest tests of art, for it can appeal to
+the senses of both beauty and grandeur, either separately, as in the
+work of Aldus and of Sweynheym and Pannartz, or together, as in that of
+Jenson.
+
+Books have doubtless had their lovers in all ages, under all their
+forms. Even the Assyrian clay tablet, if stamped with the words of poet
+or sage, might have shared the affection which they inspired. So might
+the papyrus roll of the Egyptian, and so does even to-day the parchment
+book of the middle ages, whenever its fortunate owner has the soul of a
+booklover. From this book our own was derived, yet not without a break.
+For our book is not so much a copy of the Roman and medieval book as a
+"substitute" for it, a machine product made originally to sell at a
+large profit for the price of hand-work. It was fortunate for the early
+printed book that it stood in this intimate if not honored relation to
+the work of the scribes and illuminators, and fortunate for the book of
+to-day, since, with all its lapses, it cannot escape its heritage of
+those high standards.
+
+Mr. John Cotton Dana has analyzed the book into forty elements; a
+minuter analysis might increase the number to sixty; but of either
+number the most are subsidiary, a few controlling. The latter are those
+of which each, if decided upon first, determines the character of the
+rest; they include size, paper, and type. The mention of any size,
+folio, quarto, octavo, twelvemo, sixteenmo, calls up at once a distinct
+mental picture of an ideal book for each dimension, and the series is
+marked by a decreasing thickness of paper and size of type as it
+progresses downward from the folio. The proportions of the page will
+also vary, as well as the surface of the paper and the cut of the type,
+the other elements conforming to that first chosen.
+
+Next to size, paper determines the expression of a book. It is the
+printing material par excellence; but for its production the art could
+never have flourished. It is as much preferred by the printer as
+parchment was by the scribe. Its three elements of body, surface, and
+tint must all be considered, and either body or surface may determine
+the size of the book or the character of the type. A smooth surface may
+be an element of beauty, as with the paper employed by Baskerville, but
+it must not be a shiny surface. The great desideratum in modern paper
+from the point of view of the book-buyer is a paper that, while opaque
+and tough, shall be thin enough to give us our books in small compass,
+one more akin to the dainty and precious vellum than to the heavier and
+coarser parchment. It should also be durable.
+
+Type gives its name to the art and is the instrument by which the spoken
+word is made visible to the eye. The aims in its design should be
+legibility, beauty, and compactness, in this order; but these are more
+or less conflicting qualities, and it is doubtful if any one design can
+surpass in all. Modern type is cleaner-cut than the old, but it may be
+questioned whether this is a real gain. William Morris held that all
+types should avoid hair-lines, fussiness, and ugliness. Legibility
+should have the right of way for most printed matter, especially
+children's books and newspapers. If the latter desire compactness, they
+should condense their style, not their types.
+
+A further important element, which affects both the legibility and the
+durability of the book, is the ink. For most purposes it should be a
+rich black. Some of the print of the early masters is now brown, and
+there have been fashions of gray printing, but the booklover demands
+black ink, except in ornaments, and there color, if it is to win his
+favor, must be used sparingly and with great skill. We are told that the
+best combination for the eye is ink of a bluish tint on buff-tinted
+paper; but, like much other good advice, this remains practically
+untried.
+
+Illustrations have been a feature of the book for over four hundred
+years, but they have hardly yet become naturalized within its pages. Or
+shall we say that they soon forgot their proper subordination to the
+type and have since kept up a more or less open revolt? The law of
+fitness demands that whatever is introduced into the book in connection
+with type shall harmonize with the relatively heavy lines of type. This
+the early black-line engravings did. But the results of all other
+processes, from copper-plate to half-tone, conflict with the
+type-picture and should be placed where they are not seen with it.
+Photogravures, for instance, may be put at the end of the book, or they
+may be covered with a piece of opaque tissue paper, so that either their
+page or the facing type-page will be seen alone. We cannot do without
+illustrations. All mankind love a picture as they love a lover. But let
+the pictures belong to the book and not merely be thrust into it.
+
+The binding is to the book what the book is to its subject-matter, a
+clothing and protection. In the middle ages, when books were so few as
+to be a distinction, they were displayed sidewise, not edgewise, on the
+shelves, and their covers were often richly decorated, sometimes with
+costly gems. Even the wooden cover of the pre-Columbian Mexican book had
+gems set in its corners. Modern ornamentation is confined to tooling,
+blind and gilt, and inlaying. But some booklovers question whether any
+decoration really adds to the beauty of the finest leather. It should be
+remembered that the binding is not all on the outside. The visible cover
+is only the jacket of the real cover on which the integrity of the book
+depends. The sewing is the first element in time and importance. To be
+well bound a book should lie open well, otherwise it is bound not for
+the reader but only for the collector.
+
+It cannot be too often repeated that properly made books are not
+extremely costly. A modern book offered at a fancy price means either a
+very small edition, an extravagant binding, or what is more likely, a
+gullible public. But most books that appeal to the booklover are not
+excessive in price. Never before was so much money spent in making books
+attractive--for the publisher always has half an eye on the
+booklover--and while much of this money is wasted, not all is laid out
+in vain. Our age is producing its quota of good books, and these the
+booklover makes it his business to discover.
+
+In order to appreciate, the booklover must first know. He must be a
+book-kenner, a critic, but one who is looking for excellencies rather
+than faults, and this knowledge there are many books to teach him. But
+there is no guide that can impart the love of books; he must learn to
+love them as one learns to love sunsets, mountains, and the ocean, by
+seeing them. So let him who would know the joys and rewards of the
+booklover associate with well-made books. Let him begin with the
+ancients of printing, the great Germans, Italians, Dutchmen. He can
+still buy their books if he is well-to-do, or see them in libraries and
+museums if he belongs to the majority. Working down to the moderns, he
+will find himself discriminating and rejecting, but he will be attracted
+by certain printers and certain periods in the last four hundred years,
+and he will be rejoiced to find that the last thirty years, though
+following a decline, hold their own--not by their mean but by their
+best--with any former period short of the great first half-century,
+1450-1500.
+
+Finally, if his book-love develops the missionary spirit in him, let him
+lend his support to the printers and publishers of to-day who are
+producing books worthy of the booklover's regard, for in no other way
+can he so effectually speed the day when all books shall justify the
+emotion which more than five hundred years ago Richard de Bury, Bishop
+of Durham, expressed in the title of his famous and still cherished
+work, the _Philobiblon_.
+
+
+
+
+FITNESS IN BOOK DESIGN
+
+
+"A woman's fitness comes by fits," said slanderous Cloten; but to say as
+much of fitness in book design would be on the whole a compliment.
+Fitness as applied to book design means, of course, that the material
+form of the book shall correspond to its spiritual substance, shall be
+no finer and no meaner, and shall produce a like, even if a slighter,
+esthetic impression. At the outset we have to surrender to commercialism
+more than half our territory. All agree that our kings should be clothed
+in purple and our commoners in broadcloth; but how about the
+intellectual riffraff that makes up the majority of our books? Are our
+publishers willing that these should be clothed according to their
+station? Hardly; for then would much of their own occupation be gone. It
+is recognized that for a large proportion of our publications the
+design--the outward appearance--is in great measure counted on to sell
+the book; and printers and publishers will not consent to send the
+paupers of literature forth upon the world in their native rags, for so
+they would find no one to welcome them. It will be useless to quarrel
+with the fact that the design of many books is meant as a bait and not
+as a simple interpretation of their meaning and worth. Design of this
+character, however, is relatively easy; it is really not design at all,
+but millinery. It is when his work becomes genuinely interpretative that
+the designer's difficulties begin.
+
+The first business of the designer, therefore, is to understand the book
+he is treating. Here, of course, his judgment, however sincere, may be
+mistaken or misled. A classical instance of this is found in connection
+with one of the most famous books in the history of modern
+printing,--Barlow's "Columbiad." This work, which first appeared in 1787
+under a different title, was enlarged to epic proportions during the
+next twenty years, and was finally given to the world in 1807 in the
+belief on the part of its author and in the hope at least on the part of
+its publisher that it would take rank and be honored for all time as the
+great American epic. Under this misconception the book was clothed in a
+form that might worthily have enshrined "Paradise Lost." Its stately
+quarto pages were set in a type specially designed for the work and
+taking from it the name of Columbian. The volume was embellished with
+full-page engravings after paintings in the heroic manner by Smirke; in
+short, it was the most pretentious book issued in America up to that
+time, and it still ranks, in the words of Professor Barrett Wendell,
+"among the most impressive books to look at in the world." But alas for
+the vanity of human aspirations! "The Columbiad" is now remembered as a
+contribution to typography rather than literature. The designer overshot
+his author.
+
+We have tacitly assumed that a book has but one interpretation and
+therefore but one most appropriate design. This, however, is far from
+the truth. When, after various more or less successful editions of
+Irving's "Knickerbocker" had appeared, Mr. Updike brought out some
+twenty years ago his comic edition, with the whole make-up of the book
+expressive of the clumsy and stupid Dutchmen depicted in Irving's
+mock-heroic, we felt at the moment that here was the one ideal
+"Knickerbocker." Yet, much as we still admire it, does it wholly
+satisfy us? Is there not as much room as ever for an edition that shall
+express primarily not the absurdity of its subject-matter, but the
+delicate playfulness of Irving's humor and the lightness and grace of
+his exuberant style? Has there ever been a final "Don Quixote"?
+Certainly not in the recent monumental editions with their quagmire of
+footnotes. Moreover, if _we_ had a final edition of the great romance it
+would not remain final for our children's children. Every age will make
+its own interpretations of the classics and will demand that they be
+embodied in contemporary design. Thus every age in its book design
+mirrors itself for future admiration or contempt.
+
+Obviously, in giving form to a single work a designer is freer than in
+handling a series by one or by various authors. In such cases he must
+seize upon more general and therefore less salient characteristics. The
+designer of "Hiawatha" or "Evangeline" has a fairly clear task before
+him, with a chance of distinct success or failure; but the designer of
+an appropriate form for the whole series of Longfellow's works, both
+prose and poetry, has a less individualized problem, and must think of
+the elements that run through all,--sweetness, grace, gentleness,
+dignity, learning. Yet, though general, these qualities in a series may
+be far from vague. We have only to consider the absurdity of a
+handy-volume Gibbon or a folio Lamb. On looking at the bulky,
+large-type, black-covered volumes of the Forman edition of Shelley and
+Keats one instinctively asks, "What crime did these poets commit that
+they should be so impounded?" The original edition of the life of
+Tennyson by his son, in two lumbering, royal octavo volumes, comes near
+to what Thackeray called the Farnese Hercules, "a hulking abortion."
+Contrast with it the dignity linked with charm of the original edition
+of Longfellow's life by his brother. But of all monstrosities of book
+design the British three-volume novel mania is responsible for some of
+the worst. Henry Ward Beecher's one novel, "Norwood," which appeared in
+America becomingly clad in a single volume, received in England the
+regulation three-volume dress, in which it looks as ridiculously
+inflated as did a slender miss of that period in the crinoline then in
+vogue. There is one abomination in book design for which I owe a
+personal grudge to commercialism, and that is the dropsical book form
+given to Locker-Lampson's "My Confidences." If ever there was a winsome
+bit of writing it is this, and it should have made a book to take to
+one's heart, something not larger than a "Golden Treasury" volume, but
+of individual design. My comfort is that this will yet be done, and my
+belief is that art will justify itself better in the market than
+commercialism did. A more modern instance of expansion for commercial
+reasons defeating fitness in design is furnished by Waters' translation
+of "The Journal of Montaigne's Travels." Here we have three small
+volumes outwardly attractive, but printed on paper thick enough for
+catalogue cards, and therefore too stiff for the binding, also in type
+too large to be pleasant. The whole should have been issued in one
+volume of the same size in smaller type, and would then have been as
+delightful in form as it is in substance.
+
+It is not enough that all the elements of a book be honest, sincere,
+enduring; otherwise the clumsy royal octavos of Leslie Stephen's edition
+of Fielding would be as attractive as "the dear and dumpy twelves" of
+the original editions. Royal octavo, indeed, seems to be the pitfall of
+the book designer, though there is no inherent objection to it. Where in
+the whole range of reference books will be found a more attractive set
+of volumes than Moulton's "Library of Literary Criticism," with their
+realization in this format of the Horatian _simplex munditiis_? For
+extremely different treatments of this book size it is instructive to
+compare the slender volumes of the original editions of Ruskin with the
+slightly shorter but very much thicker volumes of the scholarly
+definitive edition, which is a monument of excellence in every element
+of book design except the crowning one of fitness. Our libraries must
+have this edition for its completeness and its editorship; its material
+excellence will insure the transmission of Ruskin's message to future
+centuries; but no one will ever fall in love with these volumes or think
+of likening them to the marriage of "perfect music unto noble words."
+
+Granted that the designer knows the tools of his trade,--grasps the
+expressional value of every element with which he has to deal, from the
+cut of a type to the surface of a binder's cloth,--his task, as we said,
+is first to know the soul of the book intrusted to him for embodiment;
+it is next to decide upon its most characteristic quality, or the sum of
+its qualities; and, lastly, it is so to use his physical elements as to
+give to the completed book an expression that shall be the outward
+manifestation of its indwelling spirit. This is all that can be asked of
+him; but, if he would add a touch of perfection, let him convey the
+subtle tribute of a sense of the value of his subject by reflecting in
+his design the artist's joy in his work.
+
+
+
+
+PRINT AS AN INTERPRETER OF MEANING
+
+
+The invention of printing, we have often been told, added to book
+production only the two commercial elements of speed and cheapness. As
+regards the book itself, we are assured, printing not only added
+nothing, but, during the four and a half centuries of its development,
+has constantly tended to take away. These statements are no doubt
+historically and theoretically true, yet they are so unjust to the
+present-day art that some supplementary statement of our obligations to
+printing seems called for, aside from the obvious rejoinder that, even
+if speed and cheapness are commercial qualities, they have reached a
+development--especially in the newspaper--beyond the dreams of the most
+imaginative fifteenth-century inventor, and have done nothing less than
+revolutionize the world.
+
+Taking the service of printing as it stands to-day, what does it
+actually do for the reader? What is the great difference between the
+printed word and even the best handwriting? It is obviously the
+condensation and the absolute mechanical sameness of print. The
+advantage of these differences to the eye in respect to rapid reading is
+hardly to be overestimated. Let any one take a specimen of average
+penmanship and note the time which he consumes in reading it; let him
+compare with this the time occupied in reading the same number of
+printed words, and the difference will be startling; but not even so
+will it do justice to print, for handwriting average in quality is very
+far from average in frequency. If it be urged that the twentieth-century
+comparison should be between typewriting and print, we may reply that
+typewriting _is_ print, though it lacks most of its condensation, and
+that the credit for its superior legibility belongs to typography, of
+which the new art is obviously a by-product. But we are not yet out of
+the manuscript period, so far as private records are concerned, and it
+still is true, as it has been for many generations, that print
+multiplies the years of every scholar's and reader's life.
+
+At this point we may even introduce a claim for print as a contributor
+to literature. There are certainly many books of high literary standing
+that never would have attained their present form without the
+intervention of type. It is well known that Carlyle rewrote his books in
+proof, so that the printer, instead of attempting to correct his
+galleys, reset them outright. Balzac went a step further, and largely
+wrote his novels in proof, if such an expression may be allowed. He so
+altered and expanded them that what went to the printing office as copy
+for a novelette finally came out of it a full-sized novel. Even where
+the changes are not so extensive, as in the proof-sheets of the Waverley
+Novels preserved in the Cornell University Library, it is interesting to
+trace the alterations which the author was prompted to make by the sight
+of his paragraphs clothed in the startling distinctness of print. Nor is
+this at all surprising when one considers how much better the eye can
+take in the thought and style of a composition from the printed page
+than it can even from typewriting. The advantage is so marked that some
+publishers, before starting on an expensive literary venture, are
+accustomed to have the copy set up on the linotype for the benefit of
+their critics. If the work is accepted, the revisions are made on these
+sheets, and then, finally, the work is sent back to the composing room
+to receive the more elaborate typographic dress in which it is to
+appear.
+
+But to return to the advantages of type to the reader. Handwriting can
+make distinctions, such as punctuation and paragraphing, but print can
+greatly enforce them. The meaning of no written page leaps out to the
+eye; but this is the regular experience of the reader with every
+well-printed page. While printing can do nothing on a single page that
+is beyond the power of a skillful penman, its ordinary resources are the
+extraordinary ones of manuscript. It might not be physically impossible,
+for instance, to duplicate with a pen a page of the Century Dictionary,
+but it would be practically impossible, and, if the pen were our only
+resource, we never should have such a marvel of condensation and
+distinctness as that triumph of typography in the service of
+scholarship.
+
+In ordinary text, printing has grown away from the distinctions to the
+eye that were in vogue two hundred years ago--a gain to art and perhaps
+to legibility also, though contemporary critics like Franklin lamented
+the change--but in reference books we have attained to a finer skill in
+making distinctions to the eye than our forefathers achieved with all
+their typographic struggles. Nor are our reference pages lacking in
+beauty. But our familiarity with works of this class tends to obscure
+their wonderful merit as time-savers and eye-savers. It is only when we
+take up some foreign dictionary, printed with little contrast of type,
+perhaps in German text, and bristling with unmeaning abbreviations, that
+we appreciate our privilege. Surely this is a marvelous mechanical
+triumph, to present the words of an author in such a form that the eye,
+to take it in, needs but to sweep rapidly down the page, or, if it
+merely glances at the page, it shall have the meaning of the whole so
+focused in a few leading words that it can turn at once to the passage
+sought, or see that it must look elsewhere. The saving of time so
+effected may be interpreted either as a lengthening of life or as an
+increased fullness of life, but it means also a lessening of friction
+and thus an addition to human comfort.
+
+We have been speaking of prose; but print has done as much or more to
+interpret the meaning of poetry. We have before us a facsimile of
+nineteen lines from the oldest Vatican manuscript of Vergil. The
+hexameters are written in single lines; but this is the only help to the
+eye. The letters are capitals and are individually very beautiful,
+indeed, the lines are like ribbons of rich decoration; but the words are
+not separated, and the punctuation is inconspicuous and primitively
+simple, consisting merely of faint dots. Modern poetry, especially
+lyric, with its wealth and interplay of rhyme, affords a fine
+opportunity for the printer to mediate between the poet and his public,
+and this he has been able to do by mere indention and leading, without
+resorting to distinction of type. The reader of a sonnet or ballad
+printed without these two aids to the eye is robbed of his rightful
+clues to the construction of the verse. It seems hardly possible that a
+poem could have been read aloud from an ancient manuscript, at sight,
+with proper inflection; yet this is just what printing can make possible
+for the modern reader. It has not usually done so, for the printer has
+been very conservative; he has taken his conception of a page from
+prose, and, not being compelled to, has not placed all the resources of
+his art at the service of the poet. Accents, pauses, and certain
+arbitrary signs might well be employed to indicate to the reader the
+way the poet meant his line to be read. Milton curiously gave us some
+metric hints by means of changes in spelling, but we have to read all
+our other poets in the light of our own discernment, and it is not to be
+wondered at if doctors disagree. Even the caesura, or pause in the
+course of a long line, is not always easy to place. Francis Thompson, in
+his poem "A Judgement in Heaven," has indicated this by an asterisk,
+giving an example that might well be followed by other poets and their
+printers. The regularity of eighteenth-century verse made little call
+for guide-posts, but modern free meter, in proportion to its greater
+flexibility and richness, demands more assistance to the reader's eye,
+or even to his understanding. For instance, to read aloud hexameters or
+other long lines, some of which have the initial accent on the first
+syllable and some later, is quite impossible without previous study
+supplemented by a marking of the page. Yet a few printed accents would
+make a false start impossible. Poetry will never require the elaborate
+aid from the printer which he gives to music; but it seems clear that he
+has not yet done for it all that he might or should.
+
+It is surely not an extreme assumption that the first duty of the
+printer is to the meaning of his author, and his second to esthetics;
+but shall we not rather say that his duty is to meet both demands, not
+by a compromise, but by a complete satisfaction of each? A difficult
+requirement, surely, but one that we are confident the twentieth-century
+printer will not permit his critics to pronounce impossible.
+
+
+
+
+FAVORITE BOOK SIZES
+
+
+In the following paper some account will be given of five book sizes
+that have taken rank as favorites. It should excite no surprise that all
+are small sizes. Nature's favorites are always small; her insect jewels
+outnumber her vertebrates a millionfold; and book-loving human nature
+takes the same delight in daintiness.
+
+There is, to be sure, a general impression that the first centuries of
+printing were given up to folios, the eighteenth century to quartos and
+octavos, and that only the present period has been characterized by
+twelvemos and sixteenmos. We think of the Gutenberg Bible, the Nuremberg
+Chronicle, the mighty editions of the Fathers, the polyglot Bibles of
+Paris, London, and Antwerp,--fairly to be called limp teachers'
+Bibles,--the 1611 Bible, the Shakespeare folios; then of the quarto
+editions of Addison, Pope, Walpole, and their contemporaries, and the
+stately octavo editions of the same writers; and finally of the myriad
+_infra_ that have swarmed from the press during the last century. But,
+when we walk through a library that offers a representative collection
+of books from the invention of printing to the present, we realize that
+the bigness of the folios and quartos has deceived us as to their
+relative number, all forms of literature being considered.
+
+The parent of our present book form, the Roman codex, split from an
+actual block of wood, had a surface hardly as large as the cover of a
+Little Classic. The vellum Books of Hours were dainty volumes. Even in
+the period between Gutenberg and Aldus, books of moderate size were not
+uncommon, and continuously, from the days of the great Venetian
+popularizer of literature to the present, the small books have far
+outnumbered their heavy-armed allies. Common sense, indeed, would tell
+us that this must be so, even if it had not inspired Dr. Johnson, its
+eighteenth century exponent, to declare: "Books that you may carry to
+the fire, and hold readily in your hand, are the most useful after all."
+
+Our account properly begins with Aldus. From 1494, the date of his first
+productions, until 1501 he printed his books in folio and quarto. But in
+the first year of the new century he began to use his famous cursive
+type, now called italic. The fineness of the new type, as has been
+suggested, called for a smaller size of book, which was also favored by
+considerations of economy and convenience; and so Aldus made up his
+sheets in a form which the fold compels us to call octavo, but which
+to-day would be called sixteenmo. Says Horatio F. Brown, in his "The
+Venetian Printing Press": "The public welcomed the new type and size.
+The College granted Aldus a monopoly for ten years for all books printed
+in this manner. The price of books was lowered at once. Didot calculates
+that an octavo of Aldus cost, on an average, two francs and a half,
+whereas a folio probably cost about twenty francs. These two innovations
+on type and on format constituted a veritable revolution in the printing
+press and in the book trade, which now began to reach a far more
+extensive market than it had ever touched before. With this wide
+diffusion of books came the popularization of knowledge at which Aldus
+aimed. Scholarship began to lose its exclusive and aristocratic
+character when the classics were placed within the reach of any student
+who chose to study, meditate, and interpret them for himself. And to
+Aldus belongs the credit of having, through his new type and size,
+opened the way to the democratization of learning."
+
+That the taste which Aldus so successfully hit was no merely temporary
+one, any person will be convinced if he will stand before a shelf full
+of these little Aldus classics, handle the light, well-proportioned
+volumes, and take in the esthetic charm of their type and page and form,
+which, in spite of their four hundred years, by no means savors of
+antiquity. In these books Aldus achieved one of the greatest triumphs
+possible in any art, a union of beauty and utility, each on so high a
+plane that no one is able to decide which is pre-eminent. In a copy
+which I have before me of his "Rhetoricorum ad C. Herennium Libri IIII,"
+1546, the fine proportions of the page appear in spite of trimming. Very
+noticeable are the undersized roman capitals; more curious is the letter
+printed in the otherwise blank square to indicate what initial the
+illuminator should insert in color, and the irregular use of capitals
+and small letters after a period. The catchword appears only on the last
+page of the signature, not on every page, as was the later practice.
+Modern usage wisely consigns italic to a subordinate place, but in point
+of beauty combined with convenience, it may well be questioned if four
+centuries of printing have made any advance upon this page.
+
+In nearly every library for scholars is to be found a row of plump
+little books that never fail to catch the eye of the sightseer. If the
+visitor does not know beforehand what they are, he is little enlightened
+on being told that they are "Elzevirs," and the attendant must needs
+supply the information that the Elzevirs were a family of Dutch printers
+who flourished during the century that closed with the arrival of
+William III in England, and that these tiny volumes represent their most
+popular productions. Says George Haven Putnam in his "Books and their
+Makers during the Middle Ages": "The Elzevirs, following the example set
+a century and a half earlier by Aldus, but since that time very
+generally lost sight of by the later publishers, initiated a number of
+series of books in small and convenient forms, twelvemo and sixteenmo,
+which were offered to book buyers at prices considerably lower than
+those they had been in the habit of paying for similar material printed
+in folio, quarto, or octavo.... These well-edited, carefully printed,
+and low-priced editions of the classics won for the Elzevirs the cordial
+appreciation of scholars and of students throughout Europe."
+
+Among the authors who acknowledged their indebtedness to the Elzevirs
+may be mentioned Galileo, the elder Balzac, and the poet Menage. I have
+before me more than six feet of shelving filled with these tiny books.
+They are nearly all bound in vellum, and thus retain their antique
+appearance without as well as within. Their subject-matter is in the
+fields of literature, ancient and contemporary, and the history,
+geography, and political constitution of the principal countries. The
+books of the latter division are known as "Respublicae Variae." It is
+impossible to resist the conclusion that this book form was chosen not
+more to supply cheap books which could be sold to impecunious scholars
+than to provide portable volumes for travelers. The Elzevir
+"Commonwealths" were the predecessors of our "satchel guides," and the
+literary publications in this form were evidently designed to be pocket
+editions. It was to such books that Dr. Johnson referred when he advised
+his friends "never to go out without some little book or other in their
+pocket. Much time is lost by waiting, by travelling, etc., and this may
+be prevented by making use of every possible opportunity for
+improvement." When the positive doctor, on his journey to the Hebrides,
+paid his tribute to George Buchanan at St. Andrews, his acquaintance
+with the Latin poetry of the Scotch professor may well have arisen from
+his having thus made a pocket piece of one of the several Elzevir
+editions of the poet.
+
+The characteristics of the "Elzevirs" are that they range from about
+four to about five inches in height, are always narrow, 2-1/4 to 2-3/4
+inches in width, and are usually thick, in some cases even 1-1/2 inches.
+It is hardly necessary to say that the esthetic impression of these
+"jewels of typography" is wholly different from that produced by the
+"Alduses." It is the beauty of an infant compared with that of a youth,
+and, as in the case of the infant, plumpness is a part of the charm. The
+thinnest of the "Elzevirs" (about three-fourths of an inch thick) lack
+much of the characteristic quality. It is of course granted that no
+small portion of the charm exerted by these volumes is due to their
+type, which in artistic excellence and practical effectiveness has
+hardly been surpassed before or since.
+
+When William Pickering, in 1830, began to issue his Aldine edition of
+the British Poets in the most beautiful and appropriate form that he
+could devise, the design which he placed upon the title-page, a dolphin
+and an anchor, with the words "Aldi discip. Anglus," was an expression
+at once of pride and of obligation. He had gone back to Aldus for his
+model, and the book which he produced was in all but its change of type
+from italic to roman a nearly exact reproduction of the form which Aldus
+had employed so successfully three centuries before. Even the relative
+thinness of the volumes was preserved as an important element of their
+attractiveness to eye and hand. Whoever would learn what an enormous
+difference in esthetic effect can be produced by slight differences in
+style and size, especially in thickness, should compare the Pickering
+"Aldines" with the rival set of British Poets published by Little and
+Brown. The latter series is a noble one, often showing better presswork
+than Pickering's, and it was deservedly popular, but it is many degrees
+removed from the totality of esthetic charm that would entitle it to
+rank as a favorite.
+
+We said that Pickering went back to Aldus for his model, but he did not
+travel a lonely road. The book size in question had never ceased to be
+used, and in the eighteenth century it was in full favor. The writings
+of the novelists and essayists found ready buyers in this form, as
+witness, among others, the Strahan Fielding of 1783, the Rivington Idler
+of the same year, and the Rivington Sterne of 1788. The size of the
+printed page is usually larger, but that of the Sterne corresponds as
+closely to that of the two "Aldines" as the difference in the size of
+type will permit. Pickering's contemporaries and successors in the
+publishing field recognized the attractiveness of this book size, and
+the works of the poets generally were issued in this form; hence we
+have, for example, the Longman Southey, the Moxon Wordsworth, and the
+Murray Crabbe. The latest series to appeal for popular favor by the use
+of this book form is Everyman's Library, in which, though much has been
+sacrificed to cheapness, the outward proportions of the volumes are
+almost identical with those adopted by Aldus and Pickering.
+
+    Go, little book, whose pages hold
+      Those garnered years in loving trust;
+    How long before your blue and gold
+      Shall fade and whiten in the dust?
+
+This stanza from Dr. Holmes's introduction to his "Poems" of 1862 may
+well be claimed by the Blue and Gold edition of the poets as its
+passport to the recognition of future generations. But it will need no
+passport; its own enduring charm is sufficient. The volumes of this
+dainty series, while larger in all but thickness than the "Elzevirs,"
+yet make their appeal by much the same qualities, compactness and
+portability, with a suggestion of the Elzevirian plumpness. To the
+attraction of the size is added the contrasted charm of the blue cover
+and the gilt stamp and edges. That a Blue and Gold edition, in the
+absence of its name qualities, becomes something far inferior may be
+seen from a copy that has lost them in rebinding. In spite of the
+hardness of their blue and the crudeness of their stamped designs, these
+little volumes attract every reader and never remain long on the shelves
+of the second-hand bookstores. We should not expect a publisher to
+succeed were he now to put them upon the market for the first time or in
+an exact reproduction. But the publisher who shall so recombine their
+elements as to produce upon his public the effect which they made upon
+theirs, and which they still make as reminiscent of an earlier taste,
+will be the envy of his fellows. It is interesting to note that after
+fifty years these volumes show no sign of fading, so that Dr. Holmes
+might well have made his stanza an exclamation instead of a question.
+They seem likely to last as long as the "Elzevirs" or even the "Alduses"
+have already lasted, and possibly to outlast the fame, though hardly the
+memory, of the poet who sang them. The dimensions of the cover are 5-5/8
+by 3-3/8 inches; the thickness is about an inch. There was a larger Blue
+and Gold format, as well as several smaller, but only the standard is
+now valued.
+
+We cannot bring our list of favorite book sizes much nearer the present
+without running the risk of confusing the temporary and the permanent in
+popular approval. We will, therefore, close with a mention of the Little
+Classics. At about the time when the Blue and Gold series ceased to be
+published, more exactly in 1874, Mr. Rossiter Johnson designed for the
+now famous series which he was then editing a book form that sprang at
+once into a favor that it still retains. In this form, which appears to
+have no near counterpart in either earlier or later bookmaking, the
+volumes are closely six by four inches by three-quarters of an inch in
+thickness. The edges are colored red, whatever the color of the sides.
+The printed page is relatively wide, and the whole effect of the book is
+that of a tiny quarto, though in reality the dimensions are those of a
+rather small sixteenmo of normal proportions. Thus the volume produces
+upon the eye the charm of daintiness, while the page contains a
+sufficient amount of matter to make the volume profitable to the
+purchaser.
+
+This series naturally suggests comparison with the Tauchnitz editions,
+which consist of volumes only slightly larger. But really no comparison
+is possible. The Tauchnitz editions are merely convenient carriers of
+letterpress. The Little Classics are a genuine art product. That the
+latter book size has not been more widely used than it has, by its own
+and by other publishers, is perhaps due to commercial reasons. But there
+can be no question of the esthetic appeal which it makes upon the reader
+who is looking for compactness and beauty rather than for the greatest
+bulk for his money. With the modern demand for the saving of space in
+private libraries we may reasonably look for a revival of this condensed
+and charming book size.
+
+The adoption of a few standard sizes for all books was urged some years
+ago at a meeting of American librarians. Commenting on this proposal, a
+New York publisher remarked that he should be glad to have such standard
+sizes adopted by others, but he should take pains to avoid them in his
+own publications in order to gain the distinction of difference. The
+discussion stopped suddenly under the impact of this unexpected assault.
+But a second thought shows that the publisher's comment leaves the
+question still open. It is obvious that if we were to adopt standard
+sizes based upon nothing more fundamental than the librarian's desire
+for uniformity or the printer's mechanical convenience, without regard
+to the tastes and preferences of the reader, who is the final judge, the
+publisher might well find his gain in disregarding them. But if the
+standards adopted all represented sizes long tested and approved by
+popular favor, the publisher who should avoid them would display a
+confidence in the Spirit of the Perverse as sublime as it would be
+hazardous. Fortunately no formal standardization of book sizes is likely
+to be attempted. But, keenly as a publisher would resent any limitation
+upon his freedom in book design, he is just as keenly desirous that his
+books shall be favorites. To attain his coveted end he has two
+resources, experience and experiment, or a mixture of both. While the
+book sizes that have been discussed in this chapter do not include all
+the favorites, they certainly include some of the first favorites, and
+are worthy of study by everyone who is seeking public favor in the
+design of that complex art product known as a Book.
+
+
+
+
+THE VALUE OF READING, TO THE PUBLIC AND TO THE INDIVIDUAL
+
+
+Of what value is it to a community to contain--still more to be composed
+of--well-read people? We can best answer this question by picturing its
+opposite, a community without readers; this we are unfortunately able to
+do without drawing upon our imaginations, for we have only to turn to
+certain districts of countries like Spain or Russia. There we shall meet
+whole communities, large enough to form cities elsewhere, which are
+little more than aggregations of paupers. Shall we find in any of these
+homes a daily or a weekly paper, or a monthly magazine, or even a stray
+book? Not one, except perhaps in the house of a priest. These masses of
+people live on the earth, to be sure, but they do not live in the world.
+No currents of the great, splendid life of the twentieth century ever
+reach them; and they live in equal isolation from the life of the past.
+"The glory that was Greece and the grandeur that was Rome" have for them
+simply no existence. They are truly the disinherited of all the ages.
+Though they may not be unhappy, they can be called nothing less than
+wretched. Is the fault one of race, or government, or religion? Much
+could be said on all these points, both for and against; but one fact
+remains indisputable--these people do not read.
+
+Let us turn now to a different type of community, that represented by
+the ordinary New England village. How stands the cause of reading
+there? If there is any person of sound mind in the community who has
+never learned to read, he is pointed out as a curiosity. There is not a
+home in the length and breadth of the town that is without its paper,
+its magazine, or its books. In other words, literacy is taken for
+granted. Is it any wonder that in progress, wealth, and influence the
+one community starts where the other leaves off? In the illiterate towns
+just described there is often no man who has the slightest capacity for
+business or who can represent the interests of his community before even
+the humblest government official. But from towns of the other type come
+men who represent with honor their state and their nation; men who widen
+the bounds of freedom and who add new stars to the celestial sphere of
+knowledge. Is all this wholly a matter of reading? One would not dare to
+assert it absolutely, remembering the advantages of race, government,
+and religion enjoyed in New England. And yet we have only to fancy the
+condition of even such a town after one generation, supposing all its
+printed matter and its power to read were taken away, if we would
+realize what an impulse to progress and prosperity is given by the
+presence of the volumes that line the shelves of our public libraries.
+
+If the fortunes of a community in the modern world are bound up with the
+use that it makes of books and libraries, no less are those of the
+individual. This is true whether we refer to his private satisfaction or
+to his public advancement. The animal is endowed with instinct, which is
+sufficient for the guidance of his life, but it permits of no
+development. Man must depend upon judgment, experience, reason--guides
+that are often only too blind; but at least they admit of progress. In
+fact it is only in the field of knowledge that human progress appears to
+be possible. We have no better bodies than the ancient Greeks had--to
+put the case very mildly. We have no better minds than they had--to make
+an even safer assertion. But we _know_ almost infinitely more than they
+did. In this respect the ancient Greeks were but as children compared
+with ourselves. What makes this tremendous difference? Simply the fact
+that we know all that was known by them and the Romans and the men of
+the middle ages, and through this knowledge we have learned more by our
+own discovery than they knew, all put together. The path to success for
+men and races lies through the storehouse where this vast knowledge is
+garnered--the library. But it is something more than a storehouse of
+knowledge; it is an electrical battery of power. This knowledge, this
+power, can be obtained in its fullness only through books. The man,
+therefore, who aspires to lead his fellows, to command their respect or
+their votes, must not rely on native talent alone; he must add to it the
+stored-up talent of the ages.
+
+There is an old proverb: "No man ever got rich with his coat off." This
+is a puzzling assertion, for it seems to contradict so many accepted
+ideas. General Grant, for instance, when asked for his coat-of-arms,
+replied: "A pair of shirt sleeves." The answer showed an honorable pride
+in labor; but we must remember that it was not General Grant's arms but
+his brain that won his victories. Does not our proverb mean simply this:
+that the great prizes of life--of which riches is the symbol, not the
+sum--cannot be won by main strength and ignorance; that they can be won
+only by energy making use of knowledge? But it is not only in the public
+successes of life that books have a value for the individual. Public
+successes are never the greatest that men win. It is in the expansion
+and uplift of the inner self that books render their grandest service.
+Emily Dickinson wrote of such a reader:
+
+    He ate and drank the precious words,
+      His spirit grew robust;
+    He knew no more that he was poor,
+      Nor that his frame was dust.
+    He danced along the dingy days,
+      And this bequest of wings
+    Was but a book. What liberty
+      A loosened spirit brings!
+
+A final word on values. The philosophers make two great classes of
+values, which may be entitled respectively Property and Possessions.
+Under Property come money, houses, lands, carriages, clothing, jewels;
+under Possessions come love, friendship, morality, knowledge, culture,
+refinement. All are good things. There never were any houses or
+carriages or clothes too good for a human being. But these obviously
+belong to a different type of values from the other group--to a lower
+type. What is the test, the touchstone, by which we can tell to which
+class any value belongs? We shall find the test clearly stated in the
+Sermon on the Mount. Is the treasure in question one that moth and rust
+can corrupt or that thieves can break through and steal? If so, it
+belongs to the lower class, to Property. But if it is one that cannot be
+taken away, then it is a Possession and belongs to the higher type.
+There is another test, which is really a part of this: Can you share it
+without loss? If I own a farm, and give to another a half of it or a
+year's crop from it, I deprive myself of just so much. But, if I have
+knowledge or taste or judgment or affection, I can pour them all out
+like water for the benefit of my fellows, and yet never have any the
+less. On the contrary, I shall find that I have more; for they grow by
+sharing. But we have not yet done with the superiority of Possessions
+over Property. "Shrouds have no pockets," says the grim old proverb; and
+all Property must be laid down at the edge of the grave. But if man be
+immortal, as the wise in all ages have believed, then we do not have to
+lay down our Possessions with this mortal body. For, if the soul when
+freed from the flesh is to remain the soul, the self--and only so can
+immortality have any meaning--then it must keep all those inner
+acquisitions of knowledge, culture, and character which it has gathered
+on earth; nay, it then for the first time truly comes into the enjoyment
+of them. What were our earthly Possessions become Treasures laid up for
+ourselves in Heaven.
+
+
+
+
+THE BOOK OF TO-DAY AND THE BOOK OF TO-MORROW
+
+
+The book of to-day is not necessarily the parent of the book of
+to-morrow, just as it is itself not necessarily the child of the book of
+yesterday. The relation is apt to be one of succession and influence
+rather than anything suggesting biological evolution. Nature, according
+to Linnaeus's famous maxim, never goes by leaps, but the book is a human
+product, and human nature takes its chief pride in its leaps, calling
+them inventions and discoveries. Such a leap in book production was the
+substitution of parchment for papyrus, of paper for parchment, of
+mechanical for manual processes when writing was displaced by
+typography, of higher for lower mechanism in the creation of the power
+perfecting press. These inventions had behind them, to be sure, the
+impetus of economic demand, but no such partial explanation can be given
+for the advent of William Morris among the printers of the late
+nineteenth century, unless an unrecognized artistic need may be said to
+constitute an economic demand.
+
+The book of to-day in its best examples resembles not so much the book
+of yesterday as that of some earlier days, and we may count this fact a
+fortunate one, since it relegates to oblivion the books made in certain
+inartistic periods, notably of the one preceding the present revival. It
+is rather the best of the whole past of the book, and not the book of
+to-day alone, that influences the character to be taken by the book of
+to-morrow. This element is a historical one and a knowledge of it may be
+acquired by study; it is the possible inventions that baffle our
+prophecies. We know that any time some new process may be discovered
+that will transform the book into something as unlike its present
+character as that is unlike the papyrus roll. But because the element of
+invention is so uncertain we can only recognize it, we cannot take it
+into account. Our advantage in considering the book of to-day in
+connection with the book of to-morrow will be chiefly a negative one, in
+making the book as it is, so far as we find it defective, our point of
+departure in seeking the book as it ought to be.
+
+To-day, for our present purposes, may be taken as beginning with the
+great work of Morris. But its book includes the worst as well as the
+best. It is not only the book by which we in our jealousy for the
+reputation of our age should like to have our age remembered, but also
+the more frequent book that we have to see and handle, however much
+against our will, and sometimes even to buy. We may congratulate
+ourselves that this book will perish by its own defects, leaving after
+all only the best book to be associated with our age; but this does not
+alter the fact that in the present the undesirable book is too much with
+us, is vastly in the majority, is, in fact, the only book that the great
+mass of our contemporaries know. How bad it is most book buyers do not
+realize; if they did, a better book would speedily take its place. But,
+until they do, our only chance of relief is the doubtful one of an
+invention that shall make good books cheaper to make than poor ones, or
+the difficult one of educating the public in the knowledge of what a
+book should be. The latter is obviously our only rational hope; but
+before we turn to consider it, let us first look at the book of to-day
+to see exactly what it is.
+
+The book of to-day is first of all a novel. It has other forms, to be
+sure,--poetry, essays, history, travels, works of science and art,--but
+these do not meet the eye of the multitude. We may disregard them for
+the moment, and, in reply to the question, What is the book of to-day?
+we may say: It is a one-volume novel, a rather clumsy duodecimo, with a
+showy cover adorned with a colored picture of the heroine. It is printed
+on thick paper of poor quality, with type too large for the page, and
+ugly margins equal all around. Its binding is weak, often good for only
+a dozen readings, though quite as lasting as the paper deserves. For
+merits it can usually offer clear type, black ink, and good presswork.
+But its great fault is that in addressing the buyer it appeals to the
+primitive instinct for bigness rather than to the higher sense that
+regards quality. Such is the book of to-day, emphatically what Franklin
+over a hundred years ago called a "blown" book.
+
+But though the novel fills the multitude's field of vision, it is after
+all not the only contemporary book; there are others from which we may
+be able to choose one worthier to be the book of to-day than the
+self-elected novel. But we shall not find it where commercialism is
+rife. In the presence of that element we find still only an appeal to
+the many--which, if successful, means large profits--by an appearance of
+giving much while really giving little. In this game of illusion the
+sound principles of bookmaking are forsaken. Books are not designed on
+the basis of what they are, but on the basis of what they can be made to
+seem. The result is puffery, not merely in advertising, but still
+earlier in the dimensions of the book itself--the most modern and
+profitable instance of using the east wind for a filler.
+
+But at this point a new element is introduced, the public library. The
+ordinary buyer carries home the distended book, and after he and his
+family have read it, he cares not if it falls to pieces after the next
+reading. Neither does he care if it takes up thrice the room that it
+should, for he no longer gives it room. But the public library, under
+the existing inflationism, must not only pay too much for its popular
+books; it must also house them at a needless outlay, and must very early
+duplicate a serious percentage of their first cost in rebinding them. So
+burdensome has this last item become that our libraries are consenting
+to pay a slightly larger first cost in order to avoid the necessity of
+rebinding; and enterprising publishers, following the lead of a more
+enterprising bookbinder, are beginning to cater to this library demand,
+which some day, let us hope, may dominate the entire publishing world
+for all books worth preserving, and may extend to all the elements of
+the book.
+
+But fortunately there is here and there the uncommercial publisher and
+now and then an uncommercial mood in the ordinary publisher. To these we
+owe a small but important body of work of which no previous age need
+have been ashamed. Of these books we may almost say that they would be
+books if there were nothing in them. They have come into being by a
+happy conjunction of qualified publisher and appreciative buyers. They
+show what most books may be and what all books will strive to be if ever
+the majority of book buyers come to know what a good book is. This
+brings us finally to the book of to-morrow, what we hope it will be and
+how we can make it so.
+
+The book of to-morrow, the book as it ought to be, will be both better
+and cheaper than the book of to-day. It can afford to be cheaper, for it
+will have a large and appreciative public, and for the same reason it
+will have to be better. The question of supreme importance now, if this
+public is ever to exist, is: How to educate our book buyers. The answer
+is not easy, for our book buyers do not realize that they are untrained,
+and, even if they realized it, the task of training them in the
+knowledge and love of the well-made book would be difficult. But we can
+do at least three things: agitate--proclaim the existence of a lore to
+be acquired, an ignorance and its practices to be eschewed;
+illustrate--show the good book and the bad together, and set forth,
+point by point, why the good is superior; last and most important, we
+must vindicate--back up our words by our deeds, support the publisher
+who gives the world good books, and leave to starvation or reform the
+publisher who clings to the old unworthy methods of incapacity or fraud.
+Even now, if every enlightened booklover in America would carry out this
+plan as a matter of duty merely where he could do so without
+inconvenience, nothing less than a revolution would be upon us, and we
+should have the Book of To-morrow while it is still To-day.
+
+
+
+
+A CONSTRUCTIVE CRITIC OF THE BOOK
+
+
+At the meeting of the British librarians at Cambridge in 1882 a bomb was
+thrown into the camp of the book producers in the form of the question:
+Who spoils our new English books? In the explosion which followed,
+everybody within range was hit, from "the uncritical consumer" to "the
+untrained manufacturer." This dangerous question was asked and answered
+by Henry Stevens of Vermont, who, as a London bookseller, had for nearly
+forty years handled the products of the press new and old, had numbered
+among his patrons such critical booklovers as John Carter Brown and
+James Lenox, and had been honored with the personal friendship of
+William Pickering the publisher and Charles Whittingham the printer. He
+had therefore enjoyed abundant opportunity for qualifying himself to
+know whereof he spoke. If his words were severe, he stood ready to
+justify them with an exhibit of sixty contemporary books which he set
+before his hearers.[2]
+
+The truth is, however unwilling his victims may have been to admit it,
+that his attack was only too well timed. The men of creative power, who
+had ennobled English book production during the second quarter of the
+nineteenth century, had passed away, and books were being thrown
+together instead of being designed as formerly. The tradition of
+excellence in English bookmaking still held sway over the public, and,
+as their books sold, most producers saw no reason to disturb themselves.
+What to them was progress in other lands, or the claims of a future that
+could not be enforced? But after Mr. Stevens's attack they could at
+least no longer plead ignorance of their faults. It is certain that an
+improvement soon began, which culminated in the present great era of
+book design throughout the English world. If the famous bookseller's
+address were not the cause of the change, it at least marked a turning
+point, and it deserves to be studied as one of the historic documents of
+modern printing. It is more than this, however; it is a piece of
+creative criticism, and though teaching not by example but by
+contraries, it forms one of the best existing brief compends of what a
+well-made book must be.
+
+The critic of books as they were made a generation ago begins with the
+assertion of a truth that cannot be too often repeated: "The manufacture
+of a beautiful and durable book costs little if anything more than that
+of a clumsy and unsightly one." He adds that once a handsome book and a
+new English book were synonymous terms, but that now the production of
+really fine books is becoming one of England's lost arts. He indulges in
+a fling at "the efforts of certain recent printers to retrieve this
+decadence by throwing on to the already overburdened trade several big,
+heavy, and voluminous works of standard authors termed 'editions de
+luxe.'" He assures his hearers that his judgments were not formed on the
+spur of the moment, but were based partly on long personal
+observations--Stevens was the author of that widely influential piece of
+selective bibliography, "My English Library," London, 1853--and on the
+results of the international exhibitions since 1851, especially those
+of Vienna (1874), Philadelphia (1876), and Paris (1878), in the last of
+which he was a juror. His conclusion is "that the present new English,
+Scotch, and Irish books, of a given size and price, are not of the
+average quality of high art and skill in manufacture that is found in
+some other countries." He reminds his hearers that "it is no excuse to
+say that the rapidity of production has been largely increased. That
+amounts merely to confessing that we are now consuming two bad books in
+the place of one good one."
+
+Mr. Stevens now comes to the direct question: Who spoils our new English
+books? He answers it by naming not less than ten parties concerned: (1)
+the author, (2) the publisher, (3) the printer, (4) the reader, (5) the
+compositor, (6) the pressman or machinist, (7) the papermaker, (8) the
+ink maker, (9) the bookbinder, and (10), last but not least, the
+consumer. There is no question of honesty or dishonesty, he says, but
+there is a painful lack of harmony, the bungling work of one or the
+clumsy manipulation of another often defeating the combined excellence
+of all the rest. The cure he foresees in the establishment of a school
+of typography, in which every disciple of these ten tribes shall study a
+recognized grammar of book manufacture based on the authority of the
+best examples.
+
+He now returns to the charge and pays his respects to each member of the
+"ten tribes" in turn. The author's offense is found to consist largely
+of ignorant meddling. The publisher is too often ignorant, fussy,
+unskilled, pedantic, shiftless, and money-seeking, willing to make books
+unsightly if their cheapness will sell them. The printer is the
+scapegoat, and many books are spoiled in spite of his efforts, while he
+gets all the blame. But he is apt to have faults of his own, the worst
+of which is a failure in the careful design of the books intrusted to
+him. "It was not so," says Mr. Stevens, "with our good old friends
+William Pickering and Charles Whittingham, publisher and printer,
+working for many years harmoniously together. It was their custom, as
+both used repeatedly to tell us, to each first sit upon every new book
+and painfully hammer out in his own mind its ideal form and proportions.
+Then two Sundays at least were required to compare notes in the little
+summer house in Mr. Whittingham's garden at Chiswick, or in the
+after-dinner sanctuary, to settle the shape and dress of their
+forthcoming 'friend of man.' It was amusing as well as instructive to
+see each of them, when they met, pull from his bulging side pocket
+well-worn title-pages and sample leaves for discussion and
+consideration. When they agreed, perfection was at hand, and the 'copy'
+went forward to the compositors, but not till then. The results, to this
+day, are seen in all the books bearing the imprint of William Pickering,
+nearly all of which bear also evidence that they came from the 'Chiswick
+Press.'"
+
+The reader, Mr. Stevens holds to be, under the printer, the real man of
+responsibility; but he too is often hampered by want of plan and due
+knowledge of the proportions of the book that he is handling. He also
+should go to the school of typography, and the readers of different
+offices should learn to agree. The compositor is pronounced "a little
+person of great consequence." His moral responsibility is not great, but
+too much is often thrust upon him; in fact he is, in many cases, the
+real maker of the book. "He ought to have a chance at the school of
+typography, and be better instructed in his own business, and be taught
+not to assume the business of any other sinner joined with him in the
+manufacture of books." Between the compositor and the pressman is a long
+road in which many a book is spoiled, but the responsibility is hard to
+place. Few people have any idea what constitute the essentials of a
+book's form and proportions. Yet our old standards, in manuscript and
+print, demand "that the length of a printed page should have relation to
+its width, and that the top should not exceed half the bottom margin,
+and that the front should be double the back margin."
+
+The papermaker comes in for a large share of blame, but the remedy lies
+only in the hands of the consumer, who must insist on receiving good and
+durable paper. "The ink-maker is a sinner of the first magnitude." The
+first printing inks are still bright, clean, and beautiful after four
+hundred years; but who will give any such warrant to even the best inks
+of the present day? Mr. Stevens pronounces the sallow inks of our day as
+offensive to sight as they are to smell. The bookbinder is adjudged
+equal in mischief to any other of the ten sinners, and the rest are
+called upon to combine to prevent their books from being spoiled in
+these last hands.
+
+The consumer, after all, is the person most to blame, for he has the
+power to control all the rest. Or, in the critic's closing words: "Many
+of our new books are unnecessarily spoiled, and it matters little
+whether this or that fault be laid to this or that sinner. The
+publisher, the printer, or the binder may sometimes, nay, often does, if
+he can, shift the burden of his sins to the shoulders of his neighbor,
+but all the faults finally will come back on the consumer if he
+tolerates this adulteration longer."
+
+The great constructive feature of Mr. Stevens's address, which is one
+that brings it absolutely up to date, is his call for a school of
+typography, which shall teach a recognized grammar of book manufacture,
+especially printing, a grammar as standard as Lindley Murray's. He
+believes that the art of bookmaking cannot be held to the practice of
+the laws of proportion, taste, and workmanship, which were settled once
+for all in the age of the scribes and the first printers, without the
+existence and pressure of some recognized authority. Such an authority,
+he holds, would be furnished by a school of typography. This, as we
+interpret it, would be not necessarily a school for journeymen, but a
+school for those who are to assume the responsibility too often thrown
+upon the journeymen, the masters of book production. With a large annual
+output of books taken up by a public none too deeply versed in the
+constituents of a well-made book, there would seem to be much hope for
+printing as an art from the existence of such an institution, which
+would be critical in the interest of sound construction, and one might
+well wish that the course in printing recently established at Harvard
+might at some time be associated with the name of its prophet of a
+generation ago, Henry Stevens of Vermont.
+
+
+
+
+BOOKS AS A LIBRARIAN WOULD LIKE THEM
+
+
+The librarian is in a position more than any one else to know the
+disabilities of books. The author is interested in his fame and his
+emoluments, the publisher in his reputation and his profits. To each of
+these parties the sales are the chief test. But the librarian's interest
+in the book begins after the sale, and it continues through the entire
+course of the book's natural life. His interest, moreover, is all-round;
+he is concerned with the book's excellence in all respects,
+intellectual, esthetic, and physical. He is the one who has to live with
+it, literally to keep house with it; and his reputation is in a way
+involved with its character. He may, therefore, be allowed for once to
+have his say as to how he would like to have books made.
+
+If a book is worth writing at all, it is worth writing three times:
+first to put down the author's ideas, secondly to condense their
+expression into the smallest possible compass, and thirdly so to arrange
+them that they shall be most easily taken into the mind, putting them
+not necessarily into logical order, but into psychological order. If the
+author will do this and can add the touch of genius, or--shall we
+say?--can suffuse his work with the quality of genius, then he has made
+an addition to literature. That, among all the books which the librarian
+has to care for, he finds so few that he can call additions to
+literature is one of his grievances. The three processes may, indeed,
+by a practiced hand be performed as one. The librarian is only anxious
+that they be performed and that he have the benefit.
+
+With the publisher the librarian feels that he can speak still more
+bluntly than with the author, for it is against the publisher that the
+librarian cherishes one of his greatest grievances, the necessity of
+supplying four times the amount of storage room that ought to be
+required. I have before me two books, one larger than the other in every
+way and four times as thick. Yet the smaller book is printed in larger
+type, has twice as many words on a page, and has twice as many pages.
+This is, of course, an exceptional contrast, but a difference of four
+times between the actual and the possible is by no means unusual. When
+one considers that in most of our libraries it costs, all told, a dollar
+to shelve a volume, one realizes that the librarian has against the
+publisher a grievance that can be put into the language of commerce. If
+every book is occupying a dollar's worth of space, which ought to
+accommodate three others, then, gentlemen publishers, in swelling your
+books to catch the public eye, you have taken from us far more than you
+put into your own pockets from your sales to us. You have made our book
+storage four times as costly and unwieldy as it ought to be; but you
+have done worse than this, you have sold us perishable instead of
+durable goods. You have cheapened every element of the book--paper, ink,
+and binding--so that, while we begin the twentieth century with some
+books on our shelves that are over four hundred years old and some that
+are less than one, the only books among them that have any chance of
+seeing the twenty-first century are those that will then be five hundred
+years old; the books that might have been a century old will then, like
+their makers, be dust. It seems to the librarian that you, who have
+taken it upon yourselves to direct the service to be rendered to men by
+the "art preservative of all arts," have assumed very lightly your
+responsibility for the future's knowledge of our time. You may and do
+answer that, as the records begin to perish, the most important of them
+will be reprinted, and the world will be the better off for the loss of
+the rest. To this it may be rejoined that you give the distant future no
+chance to revise the judgments of a rather near future, and that vast
+quantities of material which would be read with eagerness by future
+generations and which would be carefully preserved if it were durable,
+will not be reprinted, whatever its value. We may be sure that the daily
+papers of the present year will never be reprinted; the world of the
+future will be too busy, not to speak of the cost; yet what a series of
+human documents will disappear in their destruction! If a part of the
+professional obligation which you assumed in making yourselves
+responsible for the issues of the press is to transmit the record of
+this generation to later time, then it seems to me that you have in
+great measure betrayed your trust and have so far brought to naught the
+labors of your comrade, the librarian, in the conservation of
+literature. Also you compel him to pay for unnecessary rebindings which
+can hardly be made, so poor is the stock you furnish the binder; yet on
+this point you have shown some indications of a change of heart, and I
+will pass it over. Perhaps you have finally come to realize that every
+cent paid for rebinding is taken out of your gross receipts. I will not
+speak of the books that you ought never to have published, the books
+that are not books; most of these the librarian can avoid buying, but
+sometimes a book is just "ower gude for banning," and he has to take it
+and catalogue it and store it, and take account of it and rearrange it,
+and, after all, get scolded by his authorities or ridiculed by the
+public for housing so much rubbish. The author is responsible with you
+here, but your own individual responsibility is enough for any shoulders
+to bear.
+
+To the printer the librarian would say: since wishing is easy, let us
+imagine that what ought always to happen is happening regularly instead
+of rarely, namely, that the author produces a book worth printing and
+that the publisher leaves you free to put it into a worthy form. This is
+the opportunity that you have always been looking for. How are you going
+to meet it? Do you know all the elements that you deal with and can you
+handle them with a sure touch practically and esthetically? If so, you
+will not need any hints from the librarian, and he will order your book
+"sight unseen." But still, among the good and right ways of making
+books, there may be some that he prefers, and he will ask you, when you
+are making books for him and not for private buyers, at least to give
+his preferences a hearing. He wants his books no bigger physically than
+they need be, and yet he would like to have them of a convenient height,
+from seven to nine inches. He would rather have their expansion in
+height and width and not in thickness, for the former dimensions up to
+ten and a half inches by eight mean no increased demand upon shelf room,
+while the thickness of every leaf is taken out of his library's
+capacity. He would like to have no wasteful margins and no extreme in
+the size of type. If it is too large, the book takes up too much room;
+if it is too small, his readers will ruin their eyes over it or, what is
+more likely, refuse to read it and so make its possession a useless
+expense. For the sake of rapid reading he would like to have every wide
+page printed in columns. For the same reason he would like to have every
+possible help given to the eye in the way of paragraphs, headlines, and
+variation of type, so far as it can be given in consonance with the
+esthetic rights of the book. With these points observed, and the book
+printed on paper as thin and as light in weight as can be conveniently
+used and is consistent with opacity and strength, with clear type, clear
+and durable ink, and good presswork, the printer will have done his
+part, and a book will go to the binder that is worthy of his best
+treatment.
+
+What that treatment is the binder knows better than I can tell him. When
+he has applied it, the book will come out of his hands at once solid and
+flexible; unmutilated, either on the outer edges where mutilation can be
+seen, or at the back where it cannot be seen, but where it nevertheless
+hurts the integrity of the book; covered with honest boards that will
+stand use, and clad with a material, cloth or leather, that is both
+strong to resist wear and also contains within itself no seeds of
+deterioration. Besides this let it have a character, however
+unobtrusive, befitting the contents of the book, and the binder will
+have paid his full debt to the present and the future.
+
+While the librarian's ideals of bookmaking are not the only ones, they
+are in harmony with the best, and there cannot be progress in bookmaking
+without approaching his ideals. He is, therefore, by his very office
+committed to every undertaking for the improvement of the book, and
+because of the efforts of librarians and other booklovers there is
+ground for belief that the books of the present decade will be better
+than those of the last.
+
+
+
+
+THE BOOK BEAUTIFUL
+
+
+We who use books every day as tools of trade or sources of inspiration
+are apt to overlook the fact that the book, on its material side, is an
+art object. Not, indeed, that it ranks with the products of poetry,
+painting, sculpture, and other arts of the first grade; but it has a
+claim to our consideration on the level of the minor arts, along with
+jewelry, pottery, tapestry, and metal work. Moreover, its intimate
+association with literature, of which it is the visible setting, gives
+it a charm that, while often only reflected, may also be contributory,
+heightening the beauty that it enshrines.
+
+Using the word beauty for the result of artistic mastery, we may say
+that in the other arts beauty is the controlling factor in price, but in
+the book this is the case only exceptionally. As a consequence beautiful
+books are more accessible for purchase or observation than any other
+equally beautiful objects. For the price of a single very beautiful rug
+one can obtain a small library of the choicest books. Except in the case
+of certain masterpieces of the earliest printing, in which rarity is
+joined to beauty, high prices for books have nothing to do with their
+artistic quality. Even for incunabula one need pay only as many dollars
+as for tapestries of the same grade one would have to pay thousands. In
+book collecting, therefore, a shallow purse is not a bar to achievement,
+and in our day of free libraries one may make good progress in the
+knowledge and enjoyment of beautiful books without any expense at all.
+
+Public taste is probably as advanced in the appreciation of the book
+beautiful as of any other branch of art, but it is active rather than
+enlightened. This activity is a good sign, for it represents the first
+stage in comprehension; the next is the consciousness that there is more
+in the subject than had been realized; the third is appreciation. The
+present chapter is addressed to those--and they are many--who are in the
+second stage. The first piece of advice to those who seek acquaintance
+with the book beautiful is: Surround yourself with books that the best
+judges you know call beautiful; inspect them, handle them; cultivate
+them as you would friends. It will not be long before most other books
+begin to annoy you, though at first you cannot tell why. Then specific
+differences one after another will stand out, until at last you come to
+know something of the various elements of the book, their possibilities
+of beauty or ugliness, and their relations one to another. No one should
+feel ashamed if this process takes a long time--is indeed endless.
+William Morris pleaded to having sinned in the days of ignorance, even
+after he had begun to make books. So wide is the field and so many and
+subtle are the possible combinations that all who set out to know books
+must expect, like the late John Richard Green, to "die learning." But
+the learning is so delightful and the company into which it brings us is
+so agreeable that we have no cause to regret our lifelong
+apprenticeship.
+
+The first of all the qualities of the book beautiful is fitness. It must
+be adapted to the literature which it contains, otherwise it will
+present a contradiction. Imagine a "Little Classic" Josephus or a folio
+Keats. The literature must also be worthy of a beautiful setting, else
+the book will involve an absurdity. Have we not all seen presentation
+copies of government documents which gave us a shock when we passed from
+the elegant outside to the commonplace inside? But the ideal book will
+go beyond mere fitness; it will be both an interpretation of its
+contents and an offering of homage to its worth. The beauty of the whole
+involves perfect balance as well as beauty of the parts. No one must
+take precedence of the rest, but there must be such a perfect harmony
+that we shall think first of the total effect and only afterwards of the
+separate elements that combine to produce it. This greatly extends our
+problem, but also our delight in its happy solutions.
+
+The discerning reader has probably noticed that we have already smuggled
+into our introduction the notion that the book beautiful is a printed
+book; and, broadly speaking, so it must be at the present time. But we
+should not forget that, while the printed book has charms and laws of
+its own, the book was originally written by hand and in this form was
+developed to a higher pitch of beauty than the printed book has ever
+attained. As Ruskin says, "A well-written book is as much pleasanter and
+more beautiful than a printed book as a picture is than an engraving."
+Calligraphy and illumination are to-day, if not lost arts, at best but
+faint echoes of their former greatness. They represent a field of
+artistic effort in which many persons of real ability might attain far
+greater distinction and emolument than in the overcrowded ordinary
+fields of art. Printing itself would greatly benefit from a flourishing
+development of original bookmaking, gaining just that stimulus on the
+art side that it needs to counterbalance the pressure of commercialism.
+At present, however, we shall commit no injustice if, while remembering
+its more perfect original, we accept the printed book as the
+representative of the book beautiful; but, as a matter of fact, most
+that we shall have to say of it will apply with little change to the
+manuscript book.
+
+A final point by way of preface is the relation of the book beautiful to
+the well-made book. The two are not identical. A book may be legible,
+strong, and durable, yet ill-proportioned and clumsy, ugly in every
+detail. On the other hand, the book beautiful must be well made, else it
+will not keep its beauty. The point where the two demands tend most to
+conflict is at the hinge of the cover, where strength calls for
+thickness of leather and beauty for thinness. The skill of the good
+binder is shown in harmonizing these demands when he shaves the under
+side of the leather for the joint. Let us now take up the elements of
+the book one by one and consider their relations to beauty.
+
+To one who never had seen a book before it would seem, as it stands on
+the shelf or lies on the table, a curious rectangular block; and such it
+is in its origin, being derived from the Roman codex, which was a block
+of wood split into thin layers. When closed, therefore, the book must
+have the seeming solidity of a block; but open it and a totally new
+character appears. It is now a bundle of thin leaves, and its beauty no
+longer consists in its solidity and squareness, but in the opposite
+qualities of easy and complete opening, and flowing curves. This inner
+contradiction, so far from making the book a compromise and a failure,
+is one of the greatest sources of its charm, for each condition must be
+met as if the other did not exist, and when both are so met, we derive
+the same satisfaction as from any other combination of strength and
+grace, such as Schiller celebrates in his "Song of the Bell."
+
+The book therefore consists of a stiff cover joined by a flexible
+back--in the book beautiful a tight back--and inclosing highly flexible
+leaves. The substance of the board is not visible, being covered with
+an ornamental material, either cloth or leather, but it should be strong
+and tough and in thickness proportioned to the size of the volume. In
+very recent years we have available for book coverings really beautiful
+cloths, which are also more durable than all but the best leathers; but
+we have a right to claim for the book beautiful a covering of leather,
+and full leather, not merely a back and hinges. We have a wide range of
+beauty in leathers, from the old ivory of parchment--when it has had a
+few centuries in which to ripen its color--to the sensuous richness of
+calf and the splendor of crushed levant. The nature of the book must
+decide, if the choice is yet to be made. But, when the book has been
+covered with appropriate leather so deftly that the leather seems "grown
+around the board," and has been lettered on the back--a necessary
+addition giving a touch of ornament--we are brought up against the hard
+fact that, unless the decorator is very skillful indeed--a true artist
+as well as a deft workman--he cannot add another touch to the book
+without lessening its beauty. The least obtrusive addition will be blind
+tooling, or, as in so many old books, stamping, which may emphasize the
+depth of color in the leather. The next step in the direction of
+ornament is gilding, the next inlaying. In the older books we find metal
+clasps and corners, which have great decorative possibilities; but
+these, like precious stones, have disappeared from book ornamentation in
+modern times before the combined inroad of the democratic and the
+classic spirit.
+
+Having once turned back the cover, our interest soon forsakes it for the
+pages inclosed by it. The first of these is the page opposite the inside
+of the cover; obviously it should be of the same or, at least, of a
+similar material to the body of the book. But the inside of the cover is
+open to two treatments; it may bear the material either of the outer
+covering or of the pages within. So it may display, for instance, a
+beautiful panel of leather--doublure--or it may share with the next page
+a decorative lining paper; but that next page should never be of
+leather, for it is the first page of the book.
+
+As regards book papers, we are to-day in a more fortunate position than
+we were even a few years ago; for we now can obtain, and at no excessive
+cost, papers as durable as those employed by the earliest printers. It
+is needless to say that these are relatively rough papers. They
+represent one esthetic advance in papermaking since the earliest days in
+that they are not all dead white. Some of the books of the first age of
+printing still present to the eye very nearly the blackest black on the
+whitest white. But, while this effect is strong and brilliant, it is not
+the most pleasing. The result most agreeable to the eye still demands
+black or possibly a dark blue ink, but the white of the paper should be
+softened. Whether we should have made this discovery of our own wit no
+one can tell; but it was revealed to us by the darkening of most papers
+under the touch of time. Shakespeare forebodes this yellowing of his
+pages; but what was then thought of as a misfortune has since been
+accepted as an element of beauty, and now book papers are regularly made
+"antique" as well as "white." Even white does not please us unless it
+inclines to creamy yellow rather than to blue. But here, as everywhere,
+it is easy to overstep the bounds of moderation and turn excess into a
+defect. The paper of the book beautiful will not attract attention; we
+shall not see it until our second look at the page. The paper must not
+be too thick for the size of the book, else the volume will not open
+well, and its pages, instead of having a flowing character, will be
+stiff and hard.
+
+The sewing of the book is not really in evidence, except indirectly.
+Upon the sewing and gluing, after the paper, depends the flexibility of
+the book; but the sewing in most early books shows in the raised bands
+across the back, which are due to the primitive and preferable stitch.
+It may also show in some early and much modern work in saw-marks at the
+inner fold when the book is spread wide open; but no such book can
+figure as a book beautiful. The head band is in primitive books a part
+of the sewing, though in all modern books, except those that represent a
+revival of medieval methods, it is something bought by the yard and
+stuck in without any structural connection with the rest of the book.
+
+It is the page and not the cover that controls the proportions of the
+book, as the living nautilus controls its inclosing shell. The range in
+the size of books is very great--from the "fly's-eye Dante" to
+"Audubon's Birds"--but the range in proportion within the limits of
+beauty is astonishingly small, a difference in the relation of the width
+of the page to its height between about sixty and seventy-five per cent.
+If the width is diminished to nearer one-half the height, the page
+becomes too narrow for beauty, besides making books of moderate size too
+narrow to open well. On the other hand, if the width is much more than
+three-quarters of the height, the page offends by looking too square. In
+the so-called "printer's oblong," formed by taking twice the width for
+the diagonal, the width is just under fifty-eight per cent of the
+height, and this is the limit of stately slenderness in a volume. As we
+go much over sixty per cent, the book loses in grace until we approach
+seventy-five per cent, when a new quality appears, which characterizes
+the quarto, not so much beauty, perhaps, except in small sizes, as a
+certain attractiveness, like that of a freight boat, which sets off the
+finer lines of its more elegant associates. A really square book would
+be a triumph of ugliness. Oblong books also rule themselves out of our
+category. A book has still a third element in its proportions,
+thickness. A very thin book may be beautiful, but a book so thick as to
+be chunky or squat is as lacking in elegance as the words we apply to
+it. To err on the side of thickness is easy; to err on the side of
+thinness is hard, since even a broadside may be a thing of beauty.
+
+We now come to the type-page, of which the paper is only the carrier and
+framework. This should have, as nearly as possible, the proportion of
+the paper--really it is the type that should control the paper--and the
+two should obviously belong together. The margins need not be extremely
+large for beauty; an amount of surface equal to that occupied by the
+type is ample. There was once a craze for broad margins and even for
+"large-paper" copies, in which the type was lost in an expanse of
+margin; but book designers have come to realize that the proportion of
+white to black on a page can as easily be too great as too small. Far
+more important to the beauty of a page than the extent of the margin are
+its proportions. The eye demands that the upper margin of a printed page
+or a framed engraving shall be narrower than the lower, but here the
+kinship of page to picture ceases. The picture is seen alone, but the
+printed page is one of a pair and makes with its mate a double diagram.
+This consists of two panels of black set between two outer columns of
+white and separated by a column of white. Now if the outer and inner
+margins of a page are equal, the inner column of the complete figure
+will be twice as wide as the outer. The inner margin of the page should
+therefore be half (or, to allow for the sewing and the curve of the
+leaf, a little more than half) the width of the outer. Then, when we
+open the book, we shall see three columns of equal width. The type and
+paper pages, being of the same shape, should as a rule be set on a
+common diagonal from the inner upper corner to the outer lower corner.
+This arrangement will give the same proportion between the top and
+bottom margins as was assigned to the inner and outer. It is by
+attention to this detail that one of the greatest charms in the design
+of the book may be attained.
+
+We saw that the shape of the book is a rectangle, and this would
+naturally be so if there were no other reason for it than because the
+smallest factor of the book, the type, is in the cross-section of its
+body a rectangle. The printed page is really built up of tiny invisible
+rectangles, which thus determine the shape of the paper page and of the
+cover. A page may be beautiful from its paper, its proportions, its
+color effects, even if it is not legible; but the book beautiful, really
+to satisfy us, must neither strain the eye with too small type nor
+offend it with fantastic departures from the normal. The size of the
+type must not be out of proportion to that of the page or the column;
+for two or more columns are not barred from the book beautiful. The
+letters must be beautiful individually and beautiful in combination. It
+has been remarked that while roman capitals are superb in combination,
+black-letter capitals are incapable of team play, being, when grouped,
+neither legible nor beautiful. There has been a recent movement in the
+direction of legibility that has militated against beauty of type, and
+that is the enlarging of the body of the ordinary lowercase letters at
+the expense of its limbs, the ascenders and descenders, especially the
+latter. The eye takes little account of descenders in reading, because
+it runs along a line just below the tops of the ordinary letters, about
+at the bar of the small e; nevertheless, to one who has learned to
+appreciate beauty in type design there is something distressing in the
+atrophied or distorted body of the g in so many modern types and the
+stunted p's and q's--which the designer clearly did not mind! The
+ascenders sometimes fare nearly as badly. Now types of this compressed
+character really call for leading, or separation of the lines; and when
+this has been done, the blank spaces thus created might better have been
+occupied by the tops and bottoms of unleaded lines containing letters of
+normal length and height. Too much leading, like too wide margins,
+dazzles and offends the eye with its excess of white. The typesetting
+machines have also militated against beauty by requiring that every
+letter shall stand within the space of its own feet or shoulders. Thus
+the lowercase f and y and the uppercase Q are shorn of their due
+proportions. These are points that most readers do not notice, but they
+are essential, for the type of the book beautiful must not be deformed
+by expediency. On the other hand, it need not be unusual; if it is, it
+must be exceptionally fine to pass muster at all. The two extremes of
+standard roman type, Caslon and Bodoni, are handsome enough for any book
+of prose. One may go farther in either direction, but at one's risk. For
+poetry, Cloister Oldstyle offers a safe norm, from which any wide
+departure must have a correspondingly strong artistic warrant. All these
+three types are beautiful, in their letters themselves, and in the
+combinations of their letters into lines, paragraphs, and pages.
+Beautiful typography is the very foundation of the book beautiful.
+
+But beautiful typography involves other elements than the cut of the
+type itself. The proofreading must be trained and consistent, standing
+for much more than the mere correction of errors. The presswork must be
+strong and even. The justification must be individual for each line, and
+not according to a fixed scale as in machine setting; even when we hold
+the page upside down, we must not be able to detect any streamlets of
+white slanting across the page. Moreover, if the page is leaded, the
+spacing must be wider in proportion, so that the color picture of the
+rectangle of type shall be even and not form a zebra of black and white
+stripes. It is hardly necessary to say that the registration must be
+true, so that the lines of the two pages on the same leaf shall show
+accurately back to back when one holds the page to the light. Minor
+elements of the page may contribute beauty or ugliness according to
+their handling: the headline and page number, their character and
+position; notes marginal or indented, footnotes; chapter headings and
+initials; catch-words; borders, head and tail pieces, vignettes,
+ornamental rules. Even the spacing of initials is a task for the skilled
+craftsman. Some printers go so far as to miter or shave the type-body of
+initials to make them, when printed, seem to cling more closely to the
+following text. Indenting, above all in poetry, is a feature strongly
+affecting the beauty of the page. Not too many words may be divided
+between lines; otherwise the line endings will bristle with hyphens. A
+paragraph should not end at the bottom of a page nor begin too near it,
+neither should a final page contain too little nor be completely full.
+Minor parts of the book, the half-title, the dedication page, the table
+of contents, the preface, the index, present so many opportunities to
+make or mar the whole. Especially is this true of the title-page. This
+the earliest books did not have, and many a modern printer, confronted
+with a piece of refractory title copy, must have sighed for the good old
+days of the colophon. Whole books have been written on the title-page;
+it must suffice here to say that each represents a new problem, a
+triumphant solution of which gives the booklover as much pleasure to
+contemplate as any other single triumph of the volume.
+
+But what of color--splendid initials in red, blue, or green, rubricated
+headings, lines, or paragraphs? It is all a question of propriety,
+literary and artistic. The same principle holds as in decoration of
+binding. A beautiful black and white page is so beautiful that he who
+would improve it by color must be sure of his touch. The beauty of the
+result and never the beauty of the means by itself must be the test.
+
+But books are not always composed of text alone. We need not consider
+diagrams, which hardly concern the book beautiful, except to say that,
+being composed of lines, they are often really more decorative than
+illustrations fondly supposed to be artistic. The fact that an engraving
+is beautiful is no proof that it will contribute beauty to a book; it
+may only make an esthetic mess of the text and itself. As types are
+composed of firm black lines, only fairly strong black-line engravings
+have any artistic right in the book. This dictum, however, would rule
+out so many pictures enjoyed by the reader that he may well plead for a
+less sweeping ban; so, as a concession to weakness, we may allow
+white-line engravings and half-tones if they are printed apart from the
+text and separated from it, either by being placed at the end of the
+book or by having a sheet of opaque paper dividing each from the text.
+In this case the legend of the picture should face it so that the reader
+will have no occasion to look beyond the two pages when he has them
+before him. The printers of the sixteenth century, especially the Dutch,
+did not hesitate to send their pages through two presses, one the
+typographic press, and the other the roller press for copper-plate
+engravings. The results give us perhaps the best example that we have of
+things beautiful in themselves but unlovely in combination. As in the
+use of other ornamental features, there are no bounds to the use of
+illustration except that of fitness.
+
+We have spoken of margins from the point of view of the page; from that
+of the closed book they appear as edges, and here they present several
+problems in the design of the book beautiful. If the book is designed
+correctly from the beginning, the margins will be of just the right
+width and the edges cannot be trimmed without making them too narrow.
+Besides, the untrimmed edges are witnesses to the integrity of the book;
+if any exception may be made, it will be in the case of the top margin,
+which may be gilded both for beauty and to make easy the removal of
+dust. But the top should be rather shaved than trimmed, so that the
+margin may not be visibly reduced. The gilding of all the edges, or
+"full gilt," is hardly appropriate to the book beautiful, though it may
+be allowed in devotional books, especially those in limp binding, and
+its effect may there be heightened by laying the gilt on red or some
+other color. Edges may be goffered, that is, decorated with incised or
+burnt lines, though the result, like tattooing, is more curious than
+ornamental. The edges may even be made to receive pictures, but here
+again the effect smacks of the barbaric.
+
+We have now gone over our subject in the large. To pursue it with all
+possible degrees of minuteness would require volumes. William Morris,
+for instance, discusses the proper shape for the dot of the i; and even
+the size of the dot and its place above the letter are matters on which
+men hold warring opinions. We have not even raised the question of laid
+or wove paper, nor of the intermixture of different series or sizes of
+types. In short, every phase of the subject bristles with moot points,
+the settlement of one of which in a given way may determine the
+settlement of a score of others.
+
+But what is the use to the public of this knowledge and enjoyment of
+ours? Is it not after all a fruitless piece of self-indulgence? Surely,
+if bookmaking is one of the minor arts, then the private knowledge and
+enjoyment of its products is an element in the culture of the community.
+But it is more than that; it is both a pledge and a stimulus to
+excellence in future production. Artists in all fields are popularly
+stigmatized as a testy lot--_irritabile genus_--but their techiness does
+not necessarily mean opposition to criticism, but only to uninformed and
+unappreciative criticism, especially if it be cocksure and blatant.
+There is nothing that the true artist craves so much--not even
+praise--as understanding of his work and the welcome that awaits his
+work in hand from the lips of "those who know." Thus those who
+appreciate and welcome the book beautiful, by their encouragement help
+to make it more beautiful, and so by head and heart, if not by hand,
+they share in the artist's creative effort. Also, by thus promoting
+beauty in books, they discourage ugliness in books, narrowing the public
+that will accept ugly books and lessening the degree of ugliness that
+even this public will endure. Finally, it seems no mere fancy to hold
+that by creating the book beautiful as the setting of the noblest
+literature, we are rendering that literature itself a service in the
+eyes of others through the costly tribute that we pay to the worth of
+the jewel itself.
+
+
+
+
+THE READER'S HIGH PRIVILEGE
+
+
+In De Morgan's winsome story, "Alice for Short," the heroine of the
+earlier portion, Miss Peggy Heath, is made to feel what it would mean to
+her to be deprived of a certain companion, and thus realizes his
+importance to her life.
+
+It is this test of elimination that I shall ask you to apply to reading.
+Imagine yourselves deprived of the privilege, as many another has been
+by loss of sight or illness or poverty or removal from book centers. I
+have in mind such an instance. The late Professor William Mathews was
+injured by a fall when he was ninety years old, and until the end of his
+life, about a year later, was confined to his bed. You may know him as
+the author of various books of essays: "Getting on in the World," "Great
+Conversers," "Hours with Men and Books," "Words, their Use and Abuse,"
+and other volumes that testify a marvelous range of acquaintance with
+literature. He wrote to a friend that he was brightening his hours of
+loneliness by repeating to himself passages of poetry and prose that he
+had learned by heart in his earlier days. Few of us can ever have such
+stores of memory to draw upon as his, but how happy we should be if
+under such circumstances we might be able to turn to a like source of
+consolation. Yet we have a much more famous instance of a great scholar
+cut off from the privilege of reading. Milton has given us in his famous
+invocation to Light, with which he opens the third book of "Paradise
+Lost," a picture of his own deprivation, presented with a universal
+blank in place of Nature's fair book of knowledge. The passage is too
+long to quote here, but let the reader turn to it, if only to refresh
+his memory.
+
+This shows the privilege that we are now enjoying, and it may perhaps be
+sufficient to take our lesson at this point; but since it is always
+pleasanter to consider gain rather than loss, suppose we turn the
+subject around and imagine how it would seem if, after having been
+deprived all our lives of the privilege of reading, we suddenly had it
+thrust upon us. We should now find ourselves able to enjoy those
+wonderful works of literature which we had always been hearing about
+from the lips of others, but had never been able to know directly. How
+we should revel in the prospect before us! At last to be able to read
+the "Iliad"! To follow the fortunes of wandering Ulysses! To accompany
+Dante in his mystical journey through the three worlds! To dare with
+Macbeth and to doubt with Hamlet! Our trouble would be that we should
+not know which to select first. We should wish we had the eyes of an
+insect that we might read them all at once.
+
+We have a familiar expression in taking leave of our friends, "Be good
+to yourself!" which, it will be seen, is the modern man's translation of
+the old "farewell," with the truly modern implication that the question
+of his faring well will depend upon himself. But can we call a man good
+to himself who does not avail himself of advantages that are freely open
+to him and that others about him are embracing? The great men of the
+past have been such because to their natural abilities they added an
+acquaintance with the thought of the great men who preceded them. The
+same is true of the men whom we are glad to honor among our
+contemporaries. We may feel very sure that we are not heaven-descended
+geniuses, or even possessed of unusual talent; and yet, if we do not
+give ourselves the advantages that all those had who have won
+distinction, we have certainly not given ourselves a fair chance to show
+what is in us. Therefore, as a duty to ourselves, we must make the
+acquaintance of the books that the common judgment of the world has
+pronounced to be of the most value. They must become more than names to
+us. We may not indeed find in all of them food for our own spirits, but
+it is a part of our business in seeking a knowledge of mankind to know
+the thoughts and thought-forms that men have found of most worth. It is
+not to be supposed that we shall prize all these books equally; some of
+them will never be more to us than great monuments which, for some
+reason peculiar to our temperaments, do not appeal to us; but among
+their number we shall find some that will throw open to our souls the
+very gates of heaven--books that will raise our natures forevermore to a
+higher power, as if from two-dimensional Flatland creatures we had
+suddenly been advanced to three dimensions, or, in our own humdrum world
+of length, breadth, and thickness, we had received the liberty of the
+mysterious fourth dimension.
+
+Let us now take a brief inventory of our heritage. We can glance at only
+the most precious of these treasures, the crown jewels of the world's
+literature, which are all ours, whether we choose to wear them or not.
+But first let me make it plain that I am not assuming that all the great
+monuments of human genius are literary. I am not forgetful of the fact
+that literature is only one of the fine arts, that the Strassburg
+Cathedral, Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, Rembrandt's School of Anatomy,
+Michelangelo's Moses are all products of man's creative genius, records
+of the life of God in the soul of man. But I do insist that literature
+is the most inclusive and the most definite of all the arts, and that
+therefore books unlock to us a vaster world than obeys the spell of any
+other art. One man's soul may attain its transfiguration through
+architecture or music or painting or sculpture as another does through
+poetry; the great thing is to attain the transfiguration; and let us be
+thankful for the many ways in which God fulfills himself to man. I am
+not trying to make out a case for literature, but literature is my
+subject, and what I say of it must be taken as equally friendly to all
+the other great forms of human expression and often as equally
+applicable to them.
+
+We will not talk of a five-foot or a three-foot shelf, or one of any
+other exact dimension, though I suspect that no very long range of space
+would be required to hold all the supremely great books for whose
+contents we should have room in our souls. The limitation will prove to
+be in us rather than in the material of literature. The Bible, while
+containing supremely great literature, has still higher claims, and for
+the present discussion may be left to its special advocates. But
+meanwhile our treasures are waiting for their inventory.
+
+Literature for people of our race begins with Homer and is confined to
+Europe and English America. This means in a very true sense that all the
+literature which concerns us is modern, for the Greeks are the first and
+perhaps the greatest of the moderns. They present us as their first
+contribution the works that go under the name of Homer, and we need not
+disturb ourselves now with the question whether the "Iliad" and the
+"Odyssey" were both written by the same man, or even each written by a
+single hand. The point is that we have in them an imperishable picture
+of the life of a vanished world. Each is an epic of the natural man, the
+one national, the other personal. In the "Iliad" we are plunged into
+the thickening close of the ten years' war between the Greeks and
+Trojans, during which the beautiful cause of all the trouble, Helen,
+retains all her youthful bloom and, in fact, nobody seems to grow any
+older. We have a crowded stage with many episodes and interests. In the
+"Odyssey" we trace the fortunes of one man, Ulysses, during his return
+from the war, which occupies him ten years, so that he is away from
+home, as Rip Van Winkle was, twenty years; but, instead of finding
+everybody grown old or dead, as Irving's hero did, he finds his wife
+still young and attractive and beset by numerous suitors. We are very
+glad to have this so, because we are all children at heart and want just
+such an ending. The telling of these stories, while simple, is on a
+lofty plane; the gods themselves take part in the passions of the
+contestants and even in the warfare. The poet, no doubt, meant this for
+what it professes to be; but I cannot help seeing in the embroiling of
+Olympus a perhaps unrealized tribute of the poet to the greatness of the
+human soul in the scale of the universe, a suggestion that moral and
+spiritual values and powers outweigh the stars in their courses.
+
+Great as are the works of Homer, we are not to suppose them the only
+masterpieces in Greek literature. Certainly the three great dramatists
+cannot be omitted, all so great, yet so unlike. These three, together
+with two pastoral poets, one lyric poet, and the greatest of prose
+poets, are vividly pictured by Mrs. Browning in the glowing stanzas of
+her "Wine of Cyprus."
+
+    Oh, our AEschylus, the thunderous!
+      How he drove the bolted breath
+    Through the cloud, to wedge the ponderous
+      In the gnarled oak beneath.
+    Oh, our Sophocles, the royal,
+      Who was born to monarch's place,
+    And who made the whole world loyal,
+      Less by kingly power than grace.
+    Our Euripides, the human,
+      With his droppings of warm tears,
+    And his touches of things common
+      Till they rose to touch the spheres!
+    Our Theocritus, our Bion,
+      And our Pindar's shining goals!--
+    These were cup-bearers undying
+      Of the wine that's meant for souls.
+    And my Plato, the divine one,
+      If men know the gods aright
+    By their motions as they shine on
+      With a glorious trail of light!--
+
+It would not be surprising if some who read these lines should find more
+food for mind and soul in Plato than in any other of the Greek writers.
+Certainly those works of Plato and his contemporary, Xenophon, that
+relate to the life, teachings, and death of Socrates are contributions
+to a yet uncollected Bible of humanity, one more inclusive than that of
+Jew or Christian.
+
+It is one of the great misfortunes of Roman literature that the works of
+its chief writers are used as textbooks for schools, a misfortune shared
+to some extent by the Greek. Yet Homer and Xenophon, Vergil and Cicero,
+did not write for children or callow youth. They belong to Longfellow's
+
+            grand old masters,
+      Whose mighty thoughts suggest
+    Life's endless toil and endeavor,
+
+and their writings have no relation to adolescence. Yet it is to be
+feared that most people who have read their works remember them as seen
+through the cloudy medium of their own immaturity. Byron speaks of
+reading and hating Horace as a schoolboy, but no normal person can hate
+Horace any more than he can hate Washington Irving. It is possible,
+however, that pupils who have to read Irving's "Sketch Book" with the
+fear of a college entrance examination before their minds may have no
+affection even for him. So some of us may have something to unlearn in
+our reading of Vergil and Horace, for we must approach their works as
+strong meat for mature minds. Vergil's theme is nothing less than the
+glorification of the Roman state through its divinely ordered and heroic
+founding. School children seldom read more than the six books of the
+"Aeneid" required for college; but the other six, though of much less
+varied interest, are necessary for the appreciation of the poem. The
+whole is a work that no one can afford to pass over in his search for
+the burning words that keep alive the thought of other ages. Very
+different in theme and manner is the poetry of Horace. He is the most
+modern of all the men of old, far more modern than our own Puritan
+ancestors. His mixture of grace and shrewdness, poetic charm and worldly
+wisdom, we find nowhere else. The bulk of his work is not large, and
+this fact, as in the case of Gray and Keats and Poe, is rather in his
+favor, because the reader can easily become familiar with it all, though
+then he will sigh for more. Horace wears well; the older we grow the
+better we like him. He has love songs for youth, political poems for
+maturity, and satires for old age. After we have lived with him for half
+a century he becomes more real to us than most of our acquaintances in
+the flesh. Roman literature is not without other great names to attract
+the student; but these two must not be overlooked by the most general or
+the most selective reader.
+
+With Vergil the world always associates the still greater figure of one
+who was proud to call him master--that of Dante. More than is true of
+almost any other writer, his work is a compendium of the life of his
+time. The "Divine Comedy" is first of all poetry, and poetry of the
+loftiest order; but it is also an embodiment of the learning, the
+philosophy, and the theology of his age. It mirrors at once the
+greatness and the limitations of the medieval mind. Dante is not modern
+in the sense that Horace is, though he is thrice as near to us in time.
+Leigh Hunt said that his great poem ought to be called an infernal
+tragedy; but that is true only of the Inferno; the spiritual atmosphere
+clears as we follow his footsteps through the Purgatorio and the
+Paradiso. Of all the masterpieces of human genius the "Divine Comedy" is
+perhaps the one that asks the most self-surrender of the modern reader
+and--shall I add?--that repays it most richly. Longfellow's marvelous
+sonnet sequence, written while he was translating Dante, portrays at
+once the spirit in which we should approach the reading of the "Divine
+Comedy" and the wonders that we shall find there. It is a book that we
+never can outgrow. To know it is to be made a citizen of the moral
+universe.
+
+In 1616, within ten days of each other, there passed from earth two men,
+each the writer first thought of when his country's literature is
+mentioned, and one of them the first writer in the world's literature.
+Cervantes and Shakespeare very likely died in ignorance of each other's
+work. Stoddard has depicted them in Paradise,
+
+    Where sweet Cervantes walks,
+      A smile on his grave face ...
+    Where, little seen but light,
+      The only Shakespeare is.
+
+There is no injustice in saying that Shakespeare's nature included that
+of Cervantes. Not so inclusive was Dante's; what his nature most lacked
+we find in the author of "Don Quixote." Yet personally they are equally
+heroic figures, and, one an exile and the other a slave, both drained to
+the dregs the cup of human suffering. Cervantes has several great
+advantages over most of the world's classic writers: his masterpiece is
+a work of humor; it is written in a simple and graceful style, at once
+easy and winning; and it is written in prose, which, after all, does not
+make so severe a cultural demand on the reader as poetry. For these very
+reasons it cannot aspire to the highest rank, but what it loses in fame
+it makes up in popularity. Though in a few passages it is not parlor
+reading, "Don Quixote" is one of the cleanest of all the world's great
+books. It is not merely technically clean, but clean-minded. It has the
+form of a satire on chivalry, but its meaning goes much deeper. It is
+really a satire on a more persistent weakness of the Spanish character,
+visionary unrealism. We have this quality held up to ridicule in the
+learned man and the ignorant man, for Sancho Panza is as much of an
+unrealist as his master, only he is a groveling visionary while Don
+Quixote is a soaring one. This, too, is a book that one does not
+outgrow, but finds it a perpetually adequate commentary on his own
+widening experience of men and their motives.
+
+In regard to the supreme figure in literature, the least thing that we
+can do is to read him, and, having read him, to read him again and to
+keep his volumes next to our hands. We shall hardly read Shakespeare
+without having the question of commentators come up; and surely
+Shakespeare deserves all the attention that we can bestow upon him. But
+the general reader should clearly distinguish between the two kinds of
+commentary that have appeared regarding Shakespeare, the one having to
+do with his text, his historical accuracy, and his use of words, the
+other with his meaning. In Hudson's edition these two kinds of notes are
+kept separate. Surely it is the thought of Shakespeare that we want, and
+not the pedantry of minute scholarship regarding his material, useful as
+that is in its place. The reader who has mastered Hudson's
+introductions and has read Dowden's "Shakspere: His Mind and Art" or
+Brandes's "Critical Study" will have all that he will ordinarily need in
+the way of guidance. But remember that reading about Shakespeare is not
+reading Shakespeare; _that_ means, for the time at least, self-surrender
+to Shakespeare's leading. Shakespeare is perhaps the supreme example of
+a man who found the world interesting. He may not be sympathetic with
+evil, but he finds it so interesting that he makes us, for the time
+being, take a fratricidal usurper like Hamlet's uncle, or a gross,
+sponging braggart like Falstaff, at his own estimate. Shakespeare is
+never shocked at anything that happens in the world; he knows the world
+too well for that. He offends the Puritan in us by his indifference; he
+is therefore probably the best kind of reading for Puritans. Shakespeare
+is romantic in his literary methods, but in his portrayal of character
+he is an unsurpassed realist. If life were all thought and achievement,
+Shakespeare would be the last word in literature; but there is another
+side, the side which the Puritan represents, with which Shakespeare is
+but imperfectly sympathetic. His message accordingly needs to be
+supplemented; and it is interesting that his great successor, the man
+who still stands next to him in our literature, supplies that missing
+strain. If we could take but one book with us into banishment, it would
+be Shakespeare--thus proving Shakespeare's supremacy by Miss Peggy
+Heath's principle of elimination; but if we could take two, that second,
+I am frank to confess, would for me be Milton.
+
+It is Milton's literary glory that he appeared in the second generation
+following Spenser and Shakespeare--he was born in Shakespeare's
+lifetime--and carried off the palm, which he still keeps, for the
+greatest English poem. In spiritual kinship he is much nearer to Spenser
+than to Shakespeare. Shakespeare hides behind his pages; his
+personality makes no clear or at least ready impression upon us; but the
+colossal personality of Milton towers above all his works. He is Milton,
+the superman, and communion with him for the moment lifts us to
+something like his own level. In this personal inspiration lies Milton's
+greatest service to his readers. Over and above the poetic delights, of
+which he is a master unsurpassed, is the inspiration that comes from the
+man behind the poetry; or, to express the same thought in other words,
+above the organ music of his verse sounds clear and far the trumpet call
+of personality. Therefore Milton is destined to inspire generations by
+which his theology and his justification of the ways of God to man are
+swept into his own limbo of myth and delusion. Fortunately Milton's
+verse is not appallingly great in amount. If we cannot hope to know it
+all by heart, as Macaulay did, we can at least know it well enough to
+recognize any quotation from it, and rich will be the furnishing of our
+minds when we have made this true.
+
+In our beadroll of the world's greatest writers I shall mention only one
+more, Goethe. He is the modern man who touched life most widely,
+penetratingly, and sanely. His long life came down so near to ours that
+many of us have had friends who were in childhood or infancy his
+contemporaries. It is fair to say that since his death the world has
+moved much nearer to his mental attitude than it stood in his lifetime,
+and one of the agencies that have wrought the change is the living force
+of his own works, which led and still lead the thought of men. Goethe
+may be called the ideal creative critic of life. He held up a mirror,
+not to Nature, as Shakespeare did, but to society; and society can get
+away from the image which it sees reflected there only by growing away
+from it.
+
+Here let us close our list, not because there are no other great writers
+to choose from, but because it is long enough for our present purposes,
+and because, from this point on, every addition is open to challenge. I
+have intentionally pitched my counsel high; some of my readers may feel
+like calling it a counsel of perfection; but according to my way of
+thinking, no writer is too good for any of us to read. Moreover, I
+honestly think the list interesting. It is not chiefly reading for
+recreation, but for soul expansion, and it means intellectual effort.
+Unless we wrestle with an author as Jacob did with the angel, we shall
+not receive the highest blessing. But some one may plead that, while he
+does not wish to read wholly for amusement, he is not in a condition,
+either from training or circumstances, to engage in mental athletics. He
+cannot apply himself to an author as he recognizes that the greatest
+writers deserve; but he is willing to read with attention, and he should
+like to feel that what he is reading is good literature. This is a
+reasonable request, and, out of countless possible responses, I will
+make one that I hope may prove both profitable and attractive.
+
+Let us set out with the recognition of the fact that systematic reading
+is far more profitable than desultory reading, even on the same literary
+level. One excellent way to achieve system is to read by authors--to
+make the author a study, in his writings and his life. To read
+Hawthorne's "House of the Seven Gables," for instance, is to drink from
+a fountain of the purest spiritual delight; but we gain an additional
+delight, even if of a lower kind, when we know something of Hawthorne's
+life and his relations to the old town of Salem. In many cases it is
+necessary to know the author's life in order really to understand his
+book. Now I will suggest the reading, not merely of separate authors,
+but of a group. There are many such, of varying degrees of greatness:
+the Elizabethan group, the Lake poets, the Byron-Shelley-Keats group,
+the mid-nineteenth-century British novelists, to go no further than
+writers in English. But I am going to ask your interest in the New
+England group of authors who were writing fifty years ago. They comprise
+the well-known names of Emerson, Hawthorne, Longfellow, Whittier,
+Holmes, Thoreau, and Lowell. Each of these delightful writers deserves
+to be studied for his own sake, but, if we take them as a group, we
+shall gain still more in understanding and profit. How shall we approach
+the reading of them? They obviously cannot all be read at once; so let
+us begin with any one, say Hawthorne, read his life in Mrs. Field's
+brief Beacon Biography, dipping at the same time into his "Note-Books,"
+and then read some of his short stories and the "Scarlet Letter." His
+biography will already have brought us into contact with most of the
+other names, of Longfellow, his college classmate, and of Emerson and
+Thoreau, his neighbors at Concord. We may read the Beacon Biography of
+Longfellow, but Higginson's would be better, as fuller and more
+adequate. We may first read Longfellow's prose works, "Outre-Mer" and
+"Hyperion," and then his "Voices of the Night," besides following him in
+his "Life, with Extracts from his Journal and Correspondence," edited by
+his brother, which is one of the most delightful of books. We shall do
+well to read each author's writings in chronological succession; so they
+will stand in orderly relation with his life. Similarly we may take up
+Emerson first in Mr. Sanborn's Beacon Biography, or in Dr. Holmes's
+larger but still handy volume, and then we can apply ourselves with
+better understanding to Emerson's essays and poems. I particularly
+mention his poems, for I believe that Emerson will come to be rated
+higher as a poet than he has yet been. His poetry at its best is hardly
+below anyone's best; the only trouble is that there is so little of it;
+but ultimately all writers are judged by their best. In the same way we
+may take up all the writers of the group, learning something of the life
+of each and reading some of his works before passing on to another. Let
+me especially call your attention to the writings of Thoreau, who is
+less known to his countrymen than any of the others. He is a writer of
+great originality and freshness of view. He, too, wrote some exquisite
+poetry, worthy of any name in literature; but you will have to look for
+it among other verse that has more originality than charm. Obviously
+what I have recommended is not the work of one year's leisure, but the
+protracted delight of many years: for these books are not to be hurried
+over to get to the end of the chapter or to see how they are coming out;
+neither are they material for skipping. They are to be read attentively
+and reread; and if one or another fails to make a strong appeal to some
+reader, surely he cannot fail to find in most of them a source of lofty
+pleasure and spiritual enrichment. One fruit that we may expect from
+such reading is that we shall find ourselves drawn nearer to the supreme
+masters and shall end by surrendering ourselves to them. To know our New
+England group is not indeed to climb the Alps of literature, but it is
+at least to climb its White Mountains. Every gain will be a fresh
+incitement, and those who at the start join the literary Appalachian
+Club may be looked for some day in the ranks of the Alpinists.
+
+A word on the reading of contemporary writers; for even our second list
+did not bring us down to our own time. We shall, of course, read our
+contemporaries, and we have a right to, so long as we do not give them
+the time and attention that clearly belong to their betters. The truth
+is that contemporaries--unless they are contemporary poets--have a quite
+unfair advantage over their elders, our own in time and place being so
+much more attractive to us than anything more remote. Still, our
+contemporaries have a claim upon us--even, I am rash enough to assert,
+our contemporary poets--for they have a message that their predecessors
+cannot give us; it may not be the most important message for us, but it
+is a message of value, as we shall see if we return to De Morgan and his
+novels. These remarkable books we cannot miss without losing something
+that makes our own day fine and precious among earth's generations. But
+in this respect they are literally chosen from ten thousand, for we need
+constantly the caution that the near carries with it an appearance of
+importance that is an illusion; of this truth our periodical literature,
+from the newspaper up, is the illustrious example, and the lesson is all
+summed up in the one phrase, "back number." Let us be careful that in
+heeding contemporary voices we are not storing our minds with the
+contents of "back numbers." True literature as we have seen, never
+becomes out of date; Homer keeps up with the telegraph.
+
+I have but one final word, which has been provided for me by Charles
+Lamb, who says in his inimitable fashion: "I own that I am disposed to
+say grace upon twenty other occasions in the course of the day besides
+my dinner. I want a form for setting out upon a pleasant walk, for a
+moonlight ramble, for a friendly meeting, or a solved problem. Why have
+we none for books, those spiritual repasts--a grace before Milton--a
+grace before Shakespeare--a devotional exercise proper to be said before
+reading the Fairy Queen?" This is the spirit of a joyous but devoutly
+grateful expectance, in which I would have myself approach the reading
+of a great book. The gratitude I surely owe the author, for there is no
+great book but has come like refined gold out of the furnace fire. I owe
+it also to the Providence which has granted me this lofty privilege.
+Moreover, it is only in the humility born of such an attitude that I can
+make a complete approach to my author and gain that uplift and
+enrichment of the soul, which--and not pastime nor pleasure--is the true
+end, as it should be the aim of reading.
+
+
+
+
+THE BACKGROUND OF THE BOOK
+
+
+One of the greatest contributions that modern investigation has made to
+human knowledge is background. It was once thought a remarkable
+achievement to uncover the historic background of modern institutions,
+and this was all that, until lately, scholarship attempted. Dr. Samuel
+Johnson confidently remarked that we know no more about ancient Britain
+than the old writers have told us, nor can we ever know any more than
+this. Edward Clodd reminds us that at the very time when the great
+oracle voiced this assertion discoveries had already been made in
+England that, when interpreted as they have been since, were to make the
+landing of Caesar seem, by comparison, a contemporary occurrence. Now
+this inconceivably remote prehistoric era furnishes not merely
+arrowheads and stone chisels and burial mounds, but also other objects
+that are the background of that "picture of time" of which the book of
+to-day is the foreground.
+
+Very properly these are objects of art, and they afford the earliest
+illustrations in histories of art as they do in histories of the book.
+Thus the printer who questions what art has to do with his business
+stamps himself as two hundred thousand years behind the times. They are
+pictures, and the book of to-day has descended as directly from them as
+the printer of to-day has descended from the man who made them. They
+are, moreover, in some instances, works of very high art. The picture of
+the mammoth, scratched on a fragment of the mammoth's tusk, is a piece
+of drawing so skillful that only the greatest living masters can equal
+it. Not even Rembrandt's drawing of the elephant, which Dr. Holmes
+celebrates in one of his poems, is more expressive or wrought with more
+economy of effort. In the same district of southwestern France,
+Dordogne, that yielded the drawings are found long cave galleries of
+paintings representing the creatures of that period, all executed with
+great spirit and ability. But what are the steps in the descent from
+these ancient pictures to the printed book?
+
+Primitive man had one more string to his conversational bow than most
+civilized people have, namely, sign language. But gesture and speech
+alike prevail but little against space and time. Each is possible only
+at short range, and each dies on the eye or ear that receives it.
+Pictures may be carried to any distance and may be preserved for any
+length of time. They were probably made first in response to an instinct
+rather for art than for the communication of ideas; but their great
+advantage for communication must have been perceived very early, and, as
+we find picture writing employed by primitive races to-day, we have the
+right to infer that prehistoric peoples at the same stage of culture
+also employed it. Pure picture writing, however, does not suffice for
+all that men have to say. It is easy to represent a house, but how shall
+we represent a home? It is easy to represent a woman, but how shall we
+add the idea of wife? To do this we must pass from simple pictures to
+symbols. Chinese writing has never advanced beyond this stage. Its
+prodigious type-case of more than forty-two thousand characters
+contains, therefore, only a series of pictures, direct and symbolic, all
+highly conventionalized, but recognizable in their earlier forms. To
+represent "wife" the Chinaman combines the two signs for "woman" and
+"broom"; to represent "home" he makes a picture of a pig under a roof!
+The Egyptian and Mexican systems of writing, though very different to
+the eye, were both of this nature and represented ideas rather than
+words. Yet all true alphabets, which are representations of sound, have
+been derived from such primitive ideograms or pictures of ideas. What
+was the process?
+
+The rebus is the bridge from the writing of thoughts to the writing of
+sounds, and it came into use through the necessity of writing proper
+names. Every ancient name, like many modern ones, had a meaning. A
+king's name might be Wolf, and it would be indicated by the picture of a
+wolf. Ordinarily the picture would be named by everyone who saw it
+according to his language; he might call it "wolf," or "lupus," or
+"lykos"; but when it meant a man's name he must call it Wolf, whatever
+his own language. So such names as Long Knife and Strong Arm would be
+represented, and these pictures would thus be associated with the sound
+rather than the thing. By and by it was found convenient, where the word
+had several syllables, to use its picture to represent the sound of only
+the first syllable, and, still later, of only the first sound or letter.
+Thus the Egyptian symbol for F was originally a picture of the horned
+asp, later it stood for the Egyptian name of this venomous creature, and
+finally for the first sound in the name, being used as the letter F
+itself; and the reason why we have the barred cross-piece in the F, the
+two horns in U, V, and Y, and the four in W (VV) is because the Egyptian
+asp had two horns, as may be seen from the illustration in the Century
+Dictionary under the word cerastes; and every time that we write one of
+these letters we are making a faded copy of the old picture. We find
+systems of writing in all the stages from pure pictures to the phonetic
+alphabet; in Egyptian hieroglyphics we find a mixture of all the stages.
+So much for the background of the book as the bringer of a message to
+the eye, but the outward form or wrapping of that message has also a
+long and interesting history.
+
+No objects could be much more unlike than a Babylonian tablet, an
+Egyptian papyrus roll, and a Mexican book. They are as different as a
+brick, a narrow window-shade, and a lady's fan; they have nothing common
+in their development, yet they were used for the same purpose and might
+bring identically the same message to the mind. Inwardly, as regards
+writing or printing, all books have a parallel development; but
+outwardly, in their material and its form, they are the results of local
+conditions. In Babylonia, which was a fertile river-bottom, bricks were
+the only building material, and clay was therefore a familiar substance.
+Nothing was more natural than that the Babylonian should scratch his
+record or message on a little pat of clay, which he could afterwards
+bake and render permanent. Some day all other books in the world will
+have crumbled into dust, their records being saved only when reproduced;
+but at that remote time there will still exist Babylonian books, even
+now five thousand years old, apparently no nearer destruction than when
+they were first made.
+
+The Babylonian book carried its message all on the outside; the Egyptian
+book went to the opposite extreme, and we should find our chief
+objection to it in the difficulty of getting readily at its contents.
+There flourished on the banks of the Nile a stout reed, six feet high,
+called by the Egyptians "p-apa" and by the Greeks "papyros" or "byblos."
+It was the great source of raw material for Egyptian manufactures. Its
+tufted head was used for garlands; its woody root for various purposes;
+its tough rind for ropes, shoes, and similar articles--the basket of
+Moses, for instance; and its cellular pith for a surface to write on. As
+the stem was jointed, the pith came in lengths, the best from eight to
+ten inches. These lengths were sliced through from top to bottom, and
+the thin slices laid side by side. Another layer was pasted crosswise
+above these, the whole pressed, dried in the sun, and rubbed smooth,
+thus giving a single sheet of papyrus. As the grain ran differently on
+the two surfaces of the papyrus sheet, only one side was written on.
+Other sheets were added to this by pasting them edge to edge until
+enough for a roll had been made, usually twenty, a roller being fastened
+to the last edge and a protecting strip of wood to the front. The
+manuscript was unrolled by the right hand and rolled up by the left. It
+is obvious that a book of reference in this form would be subjected to
+great wear. In our dictionaries it is as easy to find Z as A; but in a
+papyrus book, to find the end meant to unroll the whole. The Latin word
+for roll was "volumen," hence our "volume." A long work could obviously
+not be produced conveniently in a single roll, therefore Homer's "Iliad"
+and "Odyssey," for instance, were each divided into twenty-four books,
+and that is why the divisions of an epic poem are still called books,
+though they are really chapters. The rolls composing a single work were
+kept together in a case something like a bandbox. The roll was the book
+form of the Greek and Roman as well as the Egyptian world, but it left
+no descendants. Our book form was derived from a different source, which
+we will now consider.
+
+Just as we speak of Russia leather, so the ancients spoke of Pergamum
+skins, or parchment. The story is that Eumenes II, King of Pergamum, a
+city of Asia Minor, tried to build up a library rivaling that of
+Alexandria, and the Ptolemies, seeking to thwart him, forbade the export
+of papyrus from Egypt. Eumenes, however, developed the manufacture of
+Pergamum skin, or parchment, or vellum, which not only enabled him to
+go on with his library, but also incidentally changed the whole
+character of the book for future ages. This material is not only much
+more serviceable than the fragile papyrus, but, being tough enough to
+stand folding and sewing, permitted the book to be made in its present
+or codex form, the original codex being two or three Roman waxed tablets
+of wood, fastened together like hinged slates, and thus opening very
+crudely in the manner of our books. This development of parchment
+occurred in the first half of the second century before Christ. The new
+material and book form gradually made their way into favor and came to
+constitute the book of the early Christian and medieval world. Though
+paper was introduced into Europe soon after the year seven hundred, it
+did not displace parchment until the invention of printing called for a
+material of its cheaper and more adaptable character.
+
+But, though we have traced the origin of our present book form, we have
+not yet filled in the background of its history. Several other notable
+types of the book deserve our attention; first of all that of China, one
+of the most attractive of all book forms, to which we devote our next
+chapter. Though it superficially resembles our own books, it is really
+the product of a different line of evolution. When we examine it
+closely, we find that in many respects it is the exact reverse of our
+practice. It is printed on only one side of the paper; it is trimmed at
+the back and folded on the fore edge; its wide margin is at the top; its
+running headline is on the folded fore edge; its sewing is on the
+outside; its binding is limp; its lines run up and down the page; and
+its pages, according to Western ideas, open from the back towards the
+front. Yet it is a thing of beauty, and let us hope that nothing in the
+modern reorganization of China will change its character to prevent it
+from remaining a joy forever.
+
+Just as Chinese paper is made from bamboo, which plays an even greater
+part in China than papyrus did in Egypt, so the book of India utilizes
+the leaves of that important tropical tree, the palm. The sheets of the
+book before me are strips of palm-leaf two inches wide and two feet
+long. They are written on both sides and, following the run of the
+grain, lengthwise. This makes an inordinate length of line, but, owing
+to the small number of lines on the page, the confusion of the eye is
+less than might be expected. The leaves composing the book are clamped
+between two boards of their own size, the block thus formed is pierced
+with two holes, through which pins are thrust, and the whole is wound
+with a cord. The dimensions vary, some books being larger and some much
+smaller. I have also before me a Burmese booklet in which the leaves are
+one inch wide and six inches long. Sometimes the sheets are of brass,
+beautifully lacquered, and the writing heavy and highly decorative.
+These books also vary greatly in size, some forming truly massive and
+sumptuous volumes. Birch bark was also employed as a book material in
+India, being used in what we should call quarto sheets, and in Farther
+India a peculiar roll is in use, made of Chinese paper, folded at the
+side, sewed at the top, and rolled up like a manifold banner in a cover
+of orange-colored or brown cotton cloth.
+
+We do not ordinarily associate books with pre-Columbian America; yet one
+of the most interesting of all book forms was current in Mexico before
+the Conquest. As in the case of the Chinese book, it looks superficially
+like ours; we think it is a tiny quarto until we see that its measure is
+rather that of an oblong twenty-fourmo; that is, its dimensions are just
+scant of five inches high and six inches wide. It has thin wooden covers
+and is, over all, an inch thick; but between these covers is a strip of
+deerskin twenty-nine feet long and, of course, nearly five inches wide.
+This is folded in screen or fan fashion, the first and last leaves being
+pasted to the inside of the covers. This attachment is really the only
+binding; the whole strip is capable of being opened up to its full
+length. It is read--by those who can read its vividly colored
+hieroglyphics--by holding it like a modern book, turning the leaves
+until what seems the end is reached, and then turning the cover for the
+next leaf, and continuing to turn until the first cover is reached
+again, but from the other side. Incredible as it may seem, there is a
+book of India which is almost identical in structure with the ancient
+Mexican book. It has the shape of the palm-leaf book, but it is made of
+heavy paper, blackened to be written on with a chalk pencil, and it
+opens like a fan exactly in the Mexican fashion. Each cover is formed by
+a double fold of paper, and the writing runs lengthwise of the page as
+in the palm-leaf volume. As the writing can be erased, the book serves
+the purpose of a slate.
+
+The variety of objects that men have used to write upon almost surpasses
+imagination, ranging from mountain walls to the ivory shoulders of Rider
+Haggard's heroine in his "Mr. Meeson's Will." Such unusual, if actual,
+writing materials belong, perhaps, rather to the penumbra than to the
+background of the book; but, as a final survey of our subject, running
+back to the time when there were no books and men must rely upon their
+memories, we may quote what Lane says of the sources from which the
+Kuran was derived after the death of Mohammed: "So Zeyd gathered the
+Kuran from palm-leaves, skins, shoulder-blades (of beasts), stones, and
+the hearts of men."
+
+
+
+
+THE CHINESE BOOK
+
+
+The naturalist, Lloyd Morgan, in one of his lectures threw together on
+the screen pictures of a humming bird and an insect of the same size,
+the two looking so much alike as to seem to the casual observer to
+belong to the same order. Yet they are anatomically far more different
+than the man and the fish. In much the same way we may be led to suppose
+that a Chinese book and an occidental paper-bound book are much the same
+thing in origin as they are to the eye. But here too the likeness is
+only apparent. One book form has descended from a block of wood and the
+other from a fold of silk.
+
+The Chinese book is such a triumph of simplicity, cheapness, lightness,
+and durability that it deserves a more careful study at the hands of our
+book producers than it has yet received. In fact we do not see why books
+made on nearly these lines should not be an attractive and popular
+innovation in our book trade. Approaches, to be sure, have been made to
+this peculiar book form, but they have been partial imitations, not
+consistent reproductions. In an illustrated edition of Longfellow's
+"Michael Angelo," published in 1885, Houghton, Mifflin and Company
+produced a small folio, the binding of which is obviously patterned
+after that of a Chinese book. But the printing is on every page, and the
+paper is so stiff that the book will not lie open. In the holiday
+edition which the same publishers issued in 1896 of Aldrich's poem,
+entitled "Friar Jerome's Beautiful Book," they produced a volume in
+which the front folds were not intended to be cut open; but they outdid
+the Chinese by printing on only one of the pages exposed at each opening
+of the book, instead of on both, as the Chinese do, thus utilizing only
+one-fourth of the possible printing surface of the volume. In this case
+again the paper was stiff and the binding was full leather with heavy
+tapes for tying. A much closer approach to the Chinese book form was
+afforded by "The Periodical," issued by Henry Frowde, in the form which
+it bore at first. Here we have what may fairly be called a
+naturalization of the Chinese book idea in the occident. But let us see
+exactly what that Chinese book form is.
+
+The standard book is printed from engraved wood blocks, each of which is
+engraved on the side of the board, not on the end like our wood blocks,
+and for economy is engraved on both its sides. Each of these surfaces
+prints one sheet of paper, making two pages. The paper, being unsized,
+is printed on only one side, and the fold is not at the back, as in our
+books, but at the front. The running headline, as we should call it,
+with the page number, is printed in a central column, which is folded
+through when the book is bound, coming half on one page and half on the
+other. There is always printed in this column a fan-shaped device,
+called the fish's tail, whose notch indicates where the fold is to come.
+It may be remarked in passing that the Chinese book begins on what to us
+is the last page, and that the lines read from top to bottom and follow
+one another from right to left. Each page has a double ruled line at top
+and bottom and on the inner edge. The top and bottom lines and the
+fish's tail, being printed across the front fold, show as black lines
+banding the front edge when the book is bound. The bottom line is taken
+by the binder as his guide in arranging the sheets, this line always
+appearing true on the front edge and the others blurred. The top margin
+has more than twice the breadth of the lower. After the sheets are
+gathered, holes are punched at proper distances from the back edge--four
+seems to be the regulation number whether the book be large or small,
+but large books have an extra hole at top and bottom towards the corner
+from the last hole. These holes are then plugged with rolls of paper to
+keep the sheets in position, and the top, bottom, and back edges are
+shaved with a sharp, heavy knife, fifty or more volumes being trimmed at
+the same stroke. A piece of silk is pasted over the upper and lower
+corners of the back. Covers, consisting of two sheets of colored paper
+folded in front like the pages, are placed at front and back, but not
+covering the back edge, or there is an outer sheet of colored paper with
+inside lining paper and a leaf of heavy paper between for stiffening.
+Silk cord is sewn through the holes and neatly tied, and the book is
+done--light in the hand and lying open well, inexpensive and capable
+with proper treatment of lasting for centuries.
+
+What are the chief defects of the Chinese book from an occidental point
+of view? The most obvious is that it will not stand alone. Another is
+that its covers, being soft, are easily crumpled and dog's-eared. A
+third is that it is printed on only one side of the paper and therefore
+wastes space. All these objections must be admitted, but it may be urged
+with truth that our books, in spite of their relatively costly binding,
+do not stand alone any too well, and in fact this is a function seldom
+asked of books anyway. Its covers are soft, but this means at least that
+they are not so hard and foreign to the material of the book as to tear
+themselves off after a dozen readings, as is the case with so many of
+our bindings. There is no danger of breaking the back of a Chinese book
+on first opening it, for it has no lining of hard glue. As to the
+utilization of only one side of the paper, it must be remembered that
+the Chinese paper is very thin, and that this practice makes it possible
+to secure the advantage of opacity without loading the paper with a
+foreign and heavy material. Moreover, the thickness of the pasteboard
+cover is saved on the shelves, and even if a substitute for it is
+adopted, it is in the form of a light pasteboard case that holds several
+volumes at once. Such a cover is capable of being lettered on the back,
+though the Chinese seem not to think this necessary, but put their title
+labels on the side. Really, the back of the Chinese book is to us its
+most foreign feature. It is a raw edge, not protected by the cover, and
+differs from the front only in consisting of the edges of single leaves
+instead of folds. It is in fact a survival from the days before the
+invention of paper, when books were printed on silk, the raw edge of
+which would fray and was therefore consigned to the position where it
+would have the least wear and would do the least harm if worn.
+
+But there is no reason why, in Europeanizing the Chinese book, the
+corner guard should not be extended the whole length of the back and
+bear the ordinary lettering. With this slight difference the Chinese
+book would be equipped to enter the lists on fairly even terms against
+the prevailing occidental type of book, which has come down to us from
+the ancient Roman codex through the parchment book, of which ours is
+only a paper imitation. In "The Periodical," referred to, four pages
+instead of two were printed at once, or, at least, four constitute a
+fold. The sheets are stitched through with thread--they might, of
+course, have been wire-stitched--and then a paper cover is pasted on, as
+in the case of any magazine or paper-bound book. But in this process the
+beauty of the Chinese binding disappears, though the Chinese do the
+same with their cheapest pamphlets. In these days, when lightness and
+easy handling are such popular features in books, what publisher will
+take up the book form that for two thousand years has enshrined the
+wisdom of the Flowery Kingdom, and by trifling adaptations here and
+there make it his own and ours?
+
+
+
+
+THICK PAPER AND THIN
+
+
+Sir Hiram Maxim, the knight from Maine, prophesies that we shall change
+our religion twenty times in the next twenty thousand years. In the last
+two thousand years we have changed our book material twice, from papyrus
+to parchment and from parchment to paper, with a consequent change of
+the book form from the roll to the codex. Shall we therefore change our
+book material twenty times in the next twenty thousand years? Only time
+itself can tell; but for five hundred years the book has never been in
+such unstable equilibrium as at present; the proverb "A book's a book"
+has never possessed so little definite meaning. This condition applies
+chiefly to the paper, but as this changes, the binding will also change
+from its present costly and impermanent character to something at once
+cheaper and more durable.
+
+The changes in modern paper have worked in two opposite directions,
+represented on the one hand by Oxford India paper, with its miraculous
+thinness, opacity, and lightness, and on the other hand by papers that,
+while also remarkably light, offer, as a sample book expresses it,
+"excellent bulk"; for instance, 272 pages to an inch as against 1500 to
+an inch of Oxford India paper.[3] The contrasted effects of these two
+types of material upon the book as a mechanical product are well worth
+the consideration of all who are engaged in the making of books.
+
+Some of these results are surprising. What, for instance, could be more
+illogical than to make a book any thicker than strength and convenience
+require? Yet one has only to step out into the markets where books and
+buyers meet to find a real demand for this excess of bulk. Though
+illogical, the demand for size in books is profoundly psychological and
+goes back to the most primitive instincts of human nature. The first of
+all organs in biological development, the stomach, will not do its work
+properly unless it has quantity as well as quality to deal with. So the
+eye has established a certain sense of relationship between size and
+value, and every publisher knows that in printing from given plates he
+can get twice as much for the book at a trifling excess of cost if he
+uses thicker paper and gives wider margins. That all publishers do not
+follow these lines is due to the fact that other elements enter into the
+total field of bookselling besides quantity, the chief of which is cost,
+and another of which, growing in importance, is compactness. But it is
+safe to say that to the buyer who is not, for the moment at least,
+counting the cost, mere bulk makes as great an appeal as any single
+element of attractiveness in the sum total of a book.
+
+This attraction of bulk receives a striking increase if it is associated
+with lightness. The customer who takes up a large book and suddenly
+finds it light to hold receives a pleasurable shock which goes far
+towards making him a purchaser. He seems not to ask or care whether he
+may be getting few pages for his money. The presence of this single,
+agreeable element of lightness at once gives a distinction to the book
+that appears to supplant all other requirements. The purchaser does not
+realize that the same lightness of volume associated with half the
+thickness would not seem to him remarkable, though the book would take
+up only half the room on his shelves. He feels that a modern miracle in
+defiance of gravitation has been wrought in his favor, and he is willing
+to pay for the privilege of enjoying it.
+
+Curiously and somewhat unexpectedly the results of neither extreme,
+thick paper nor thin, are wholly satisfactory in the library. The
+parvenu, who is looking only to the filling up of his shelves with
+volumes of impressive size, may find satisfaction in contemplating wide
+backs. But the scholar and the public librarian will grudge the space
+which this "excellent bulk" occupies. One single element in their favor
+he will be quick to recognize, the better space which they afford for
+distinct lettering. In a private library that is collected for use and
+not for show the thin-paper books are almost an unmixed blessing. They
+cost little for what they contain. Their reduction in thickness is often
+associated with a reduction in height and width, so that they represent
+an economy of space all round. A first-rate example of this is furnished
+by the Oxford India Paper Dickens, in seventeen volumes, printed in
+large type, yet, as bound, occupying a cubical space of only 13 by 7 by
+4-1/2 inches and weighing only nine pounds. A more startling instance is
+that of the novels of Thomas Love Peacock, which are issued in a pretty
+library edition of ten volumes. But they are also issued in a _single_
+volume, no higher nor wider, and only _three-fourths of an inch thick_.
+But it is at this point that the public librarian rises to protest. It
+is all very well, he says, for the private owner to have his literature
+in this concentrated form, but for himself, how is he to satisfy the
+eight readers who call for "Headlong Hall," "Nightmare Abbey," and the
+rest of Peacock's novels all at once? To be sure he can buy and
+catalogue eight single-volume sets of the author's works instead of one
+set in ten volumes, and when he has done this each reader will be sure
+to find the particular novel that he is looking for so long as a set
+remains; but the cost will naturally be greater. On the other hand, he
+welcomes equally with the private buyer the thin-paper edition of the
+Shakespeare Apocrypha, which needs only a third of the shelf space
+required for the regular edition, seven-sixteenths of an inch as against
+an inch and five-sixteenths. He also looks upon his magazine shelves and
+sees a volume of the "Hibbert Journal" with 966 pages in large type
+occupying the space of a volume of the "Independent" with 1788 pages in
+fine type, or again he sees by the side of his thin-paper edition of
+Dickens another on heavy paper occupying more than three times the
+lineal space with no advantage in clearness of type. By this time he is
+ready to vote, in spite of the occasional disability of overcompactness,
+for the book material that will put the least strain upon his crowded
+shelves. A conference with the booksellers shows him that he is not
+alone in this conclusion. Certain standard works, like the Oxford Book
+of English Verse and Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, have almost ceased
+to be sold in any but the thin-paper editions. Then there dawns upon him
+the vision of a library in which all books that have won their way into
+recognition shall be clothed in this garb of conciseness, and in which
+all that aspire to that rank shall follow their example. In short he
+sees what he believes to be the book of the future, which will be as
+different from the book of the present as that is from the parchment
+book of the early and middle ages of the Christian era, and as different
+in binding as it is in material. The realization of this vision will
+involve first of all a readjustment of values on the part of the
+public, an outgrowing of its childish admiration for bulk. But this
+change is coming so rapidly under the stress of modern conditions of
+crowding, especially in city life, as to reduce the vision from its
+prophetic rank to a case of mere foresight.
+
+
+
+
+THE CLOTHING OF A BOOK
+
+
+The binding of a book is its most conspicuous feature, the part which
+forms its introduction to the public and by which too often it is judged
+and valued; yet the binding is not an integral portion of the volume. It
+may be changed many times without essentially changing the book; but if
+the printed pages are changed, even for others identical to the eye, the
+book becomes another copy. The binding is, therefore, a part of a book's
+environment, though the most intimate part, like our own clothing, to
+which, indeed, it bears a curious resemblance in its purpose and its
+perversions.
+
+Human clothing is for protection and adornment. That of a book involves
+two other demands mutually so contradictory that bookbinding has always
+offered a most attractive challenge to the skill of the handicraftsman.
+The first demand is that the book when closed shall form a well-squared
+and virtually solid block, like the rectangle of wood from which its
+first predecessors were split, and shall be able to stand alone,
+unsupported. The second demand is that this same object, when open,
+shall lie flat at any point and display all its leaves in turn as fully,
+and far more conveniently, than if they had never been fastened
+together. Whatever may be true of other clothing, it is eminently true
+of a book's that the part which really counts is the part which is never
+seen. Only the ornamental portion of a book's covering is exposed. The
+portions which protect the book and render it at once firm and flexible
+are out of sight and unheeded by the ordinary reader. Hence the
+existence of so much bookbinding that is apparently good and essentially
+bad, and hence the perpetual timeliness of attempts like that of the
+present chapter, to point out what binding is and should be. The
+processes in bookbinding by which its different ends of utility and
+ornament are achieved are known under the two heads of Forwarding and
+Finishing.
+
+Forwarding includes many processes, literally "all but the finishing."
+It is to forwarding that a book owes its shapeliness, its firmness, its
+flexibility, and its durability. Forwarding takes the unfolded and
+unarranged sheets as delivered by the printer and transforms them into a
+book complete in all but its outermost covering of cloth or leather. The
+first process is to fold the sheets and reduce their strange medley of
+page numbers to an orderly succession. This is assuming that there is a
+whole edition to be bound. If it consists of a thousand copies, then
+there will be a certain number of piles of folded sheets, each
+containing a thousand copies of the same pages printed in groups, let us
+say, of sixteen each. These groups of pages are called sections or
+signatures. They are now rearranged, or gathered, into a thousand piles,
+each containing the signatures that belong to one book. The edition is
+thus separated into its thousand books, which the collator goes over to
+see that each is perfect. Let us follow the fortunes of a single one. It
+is not much of a book to look at, being rather a puffy heap of paper,
+but pressing, rolling, or beating soon reduces it to normal dimensions,
+and it is then carried forward to the important process of sewing. This
+is the very heart of the whole work. If the book is badly sewed, it will
+be badly bound, though a thousand dollars were to be spent upon the
+decoration of its covering. There is only one best method of sewing, and
+that is around raised cords, in the way followed by the earliest
+binders. There are modern machine methods that are very good, but they
+are only cheap substitutes for the best. The cords must be of good,
+long-fibered hemp, and the thread of the best quality and the right size
+drawn to the right degree of tension without missing a sheet. After the
+sewing the end papers are put in place, the back is glued and rounded,
+and the mill boards are fitted. Into these last the ends of the cords
+are laced and hammered. The book is then pressed to set its shape, being
+left in the press for some days or even weeks. After it is taken out, if
+the edges are to be treated, they are trimmed and then gilded, marbled,
+sprinkled, or otherwise decorated. The head band--for which many French
+binders substitute a fold in the leather--is now added. It was formerly
+twisted as the book was sewn, but at present is too often bought
+ready-made and simply glued on. The book is now forwarded.
+
+The business of the finisher is to cover and protect the work already
+done on the book, but in such a way as not to interfere with the
+strength and flexibility that have been gained, and, finally, to add
+such decoration as may be artistically demanded or within the means of
+the purchaser. If leather is employed, it must be carefully shaved to
+give an easily opening hinge, yet not enough to weaken it unnecessarily.
+This is a most important process and one that must be left largely to
+the good faith of the binder. If he is unworthy of confidence, his
+mistakes may long escape notice, but, though buried, they are doomed to
+an inglorious resurrection, albeit he may count on a sufficient lapse of
+time to protect himself.
+
+The next and last process of finishing is that of the decorator, whose
+work passes out of the sphere of handicraft into that of art. His
+problem is no easy one; it is to take a surface of great beauty in
+itself, as of calf or morocco, and so treat it as to increase its
+beauty. Too often, after he has done his utmost, the surface is less
+attractive to the eye than it was at the beginning. He, therefore, has a
+task quite different from that of the painter or sculptor, whose
+materials are not at the outset attractive. This condition is so
+strongly felt that many booklovers leave their bindings untooled,
+preferring the rich sensuous beauty and depth of color in a choice piece
+of leather to any effect of gilding or inlaying. This initial beauty of
+the undecorated book does not, however, form an impossible challenge, as
+witness the work of the Eves, Le Gascon, and the binders of such famous
+collectors as Grolier and de Thou.
+
+It may be well to consider more particularly what the problem of the
+book decorator is. Though perfectly obvious to the eye and clearly
+illustrated by the work of the masters, it has been sometimes lost sight
+of by recent binders. It is, in a word, flat decoration. In the first
+place he has a surface to work upon that is large enough to allow
+strength of treatment, yet small enough to admit delicacy; then,
+whatever in beautiful effects of setting, relief, harmony, and contrast
+can be brought about by blind tooling, gilding, and inlaying, or by
+rubbing the surface as in crushed levant, or variegating it as in "tree"
+or marbled calf, all this he can command. He has control of an infinite
+variety of forms in tooling; he has only to use them with taste and
+skill. There is practically no limit to the amount of work that he can
+put into the binding of a single book, provided that every additional
+stroke is an additional beauty. He may sow the leather with minute
+ornament like Mearne, or set it off with a few significant lines like
+Aldus or Roger Payne; all depends upon the treatment. If he is a master,
+the end will crown the work; if not, then he should have stopped with
+simple lettering and have left the demands of beauty to be satisfied by
+the undecorated leather. Above all, let every decorator stick to flat
+ornament. The moment that he ventures into the third dimension, or
+perspective, that moment he invades the province of the draftsman or
+painter. One does not care to walk over a rug or carpet that displays a
+scene in perspective, neither does one wish to gaze into a landscape
+wrought upon the cover of a book, only to have the illusion of depth
+dispelled upon opening the volume. Embossing is, to be sure, a literal
+not a pictorial invasion of the third dimension, but its intrusion into
+that dimension is very slight and involves no cheating of the eye. It
+has now practically gone out of use, as has the heavy medieval
+ornamentation of studs or jewels. In cloth covers, which are confessedly
+edition work and machine made, the rules of ornament need not be so
+sharply enforced. Here embossing still flourishes to some extent. But
+the decorative problem is essentially the same in cloth as in leather
+binding, and the best design will be one that triumphs within the
+conditions, not outside them. The machines and the division of labor
+have made sad havoc with binding as a craft. The men in America, at
+least, who are masters of every process and of all the skill and cunning
+of the early binders are few, and their thinning ranks are not being
+filled. Will bookbinding, in spite of a high economic demand, share the
+fate that has overtaken engraving, or shall we have a renascence of this
+fascinating handicraft and delightful art, to take its name from the
+present era?
+
+
+
+
+PARCHMENT BINDINGS
+
+
+There are certain things, the Autocrat informs us, that are "good for
+nothing until they have been kept a long while; and some are good for
+nothing until they have been long kept and _used_. Of the first, wine is
+the illustrious and immortal example. Of those which must be kept and
+used I will name three--meerschaum pipes, violins, and poems." May we
+present another representative of the class which gathers value with the
+"process of the suns," one as immortal and historic as wine and even
+richer in associations--the parchment book cover? In this case it
+matters not whether the object meets with use or neglect. So long as it
+is not actually worn to pieces on the one hand, nor destroyed by mold on
+the other, the parchment binding will keep on converting time into gold,
+until after a few hundred years it reaches a tint far surpassing in
+beauty the richest umber of a meerschaum, and approached only by the
+kindred hue of antique ivory.
+
+Here is a table full of old parchment-bound books, ranging from a tiny
+twenty-fourmo, which will stay neither open nor shut, to thin, limp
+folios that are instantly correspondent to either command. Those that
+are bound with boards have taken on a drumhead quality of smoothness and
+tension, especially the fat quartos and small octavos, while the larger
+volumes that received a flexible binding resemble nothing in surface so
+much as the wrinkled diploma on yonder wall, with its cabalistic
+signature now to be written no more, Carolus-Guil. Eliot; but all agree
+in a tint over which artists rave, the color that gold would take if it
+were capable of stain. But there is no stain here, or rather all stains
+are taken up and converted into beauty. Dust, dirt, smudges, all are
+here, and each is made to contribute a new element of charm. Is the
+resultant more beautiful than the spotless original? Compare it with the
+pearly tint of the diploma, or turn up the folded edge of one of those
+flexible bindings and note the chalky white of the parchment's protected
+under-surface. The same three hundred years that have made over Europe
+and made English America have, as it were, filled in the rhythmic pauses
+between their giant heart-beats by ripening Dr. Holmes's wine and
+touching with Midas caress these parchment bindings!
+
+It is surely a crime to keep such beauty of tint and tone hidden away in
+drawers or all but hidden on crowded shelves. Let them be displayed in
+open cases where all may enjoy them. But let us go softly; these
+century-mellowed parchments are too precious to be displayed to
+unappreciative, perhaps scornful, eyes. Put them away in their
+hiding-places until some gentle reader of these lines shall ask for
+them; then we will bring them forth and persuade ourselves that we can
+detect a new increment of beauty added by the brief time since last we
+looked on them. I once heard an address on a librarian's duty to his
+successors. I will suggest a service not there mentioned: to choose
+every year the best contemporary books that he can find worthily printed
+on time-proof papers and have them bound in parchment; then let him
+place them on his shelves to gather gold from the touch of the mellowing
+years through the centuries to come and win him grateful memory such as
+we bestow upon the unknown hands that wrought for these volumes the
+garments of their present and still increasing beauty.
+
+
+
+
+LEST WE FORGET THE FEW GREAT BOOKS
+
+
+One result of the stir that has been made in library matters during the
+last two generations, and especially during the latter, is the enormous
+increase in the size of our libraries. In 1875 the public libraries of
+the United States contained a little less than 11,500,000 volumes. In
+the five years from 1908 to 1913 the libraries of 5,000 volumes and over
+added nearly 20,000,000 volumes, making a total of over 75,000,000
+volumes, an increase of 35.7 per cent. In 1875 there were 3682 libraries
+of more than 300 volumes each; in 1913 there were 8302 libraries of over
+1000 volumes each. In 1875 there were only nine libraries containing
+100,000 volumes or over. These were the Library of Congress, 300,000;
+Boston Public Library, 300,000; New York Mercantile Library, 160,000;
+Harvard College Library, 154,000; Astor Library, 152,000; Philadelphia
+Mercantile Library, 126,000; House of Representatives Library, 125,000;
+Boston Athenaeum, 105,000; Library Company of Philadelphia, 104,000. In
+1913 there were in this class 82 libraries, or over nine times as many,
+including 14 libraries of 300,000 to 2,000,000 volumes, a class which
+did not exist in 1875.
+
+Meanwhile the individual book remains just what it always was, the
+utterance of one mind addressed to another mind, and the individual
+reader has no more hours in the day nor days in his life; he has no more
+eyes nor hands nor--we reluctantly confess--brains than he had in 1875.
+But, fast as our libraries grow, not even their growth fully represents
+the avalanche of books that is every year poured upon the reader's
+devoted head by the presses of the world. To take only the four
+countries in whose literature we are most interested we find their
+annual book publication, for the latest normal year, 1913, to be as
+follows: Germany, 35,078 volumes; France, 11,460; England, 12,379;
+America, 12,230. But Japan, Russia, and Italy are each credited with
+issuing more books annually than either England or the United States,
+and the total annual book publication of the world is estimated to reach
+the enormous figure of more than 130,000 volumes. In view of this
+prodigious literary output, what progress can the reader hope to make in
+"keeping up with the new books"? De Quincey figured that a man might
+possibly, in a long lifetime devoted to nothing else, read 20,000
+volumes. The estimate is easy. Suppose we start with one book a
+day--surely a large supposition--and count a man's reading years from 20
+to 80, 60 years in all; 60 times 365 is 21,900. This estimate makes no
+allowance for Sundays, holidays, or sickness. Yet, small as it is--for
+there are private libraries containing 20,000 volumes--it is manifestly
+too large. But whatever the sum total may be, whether 20,000 or 2,000,
+let us see, if I may use the expression, what a one must read before he
+can allow himself to read what he really wants to.
+
+First of all we must read the books that form the intellectual tools of
+our trade, and there is no profession and hardly a handicraft that does
+not possess its literature. For instance, there are more than ten
+periodicals in the German language alone devoted exclusively to such a
+narrow field as beekeeping. Such periodicals and such books we do not
+call literature, any more than we do the labors of the man or woman who
+supplies the text for Butterick's patterns. But they are printed matter,
+and the reading of them takes up time that we might have spent upon
+"books that are books."
+
+But besides this bread and butter reading there is another sort that we
+must admit into our lives if we are to be citizens of the world we live
+in, contemporaries of our own age, men among the men of our time, and
+that is reading for general information. The time has long since gone
+by, to be sure, when any man could, like Lord Bacon, take all knowledge
+for his province--we can hardly take a bird's-eye view of all knowledge
+to-day. No amount of reading will ever produce another Scaliger, learned
+in every subject. To be well informed, even in these days of the
+banyan-like growth of the tree of knowledge, is to be a miracle of
+erudition. Most of mankind must be content with the modest aim which Dr.
+Holmes set for the poet, to know enough not to make too many blunders.
+In carrying out this humble purpose, that of merely touching elbows with
+the thronging multitude of facts of interest to the civilized man, we
+have a task great enough to occupy the time of any reader, even if he
+made it his vocation; and with most of us it must be only a minor
+avocation. The very books about the books in this boundless field, the
+compends of the compends, the reviews of the reviews, form in themselves
+a library great enough to stagger human weakness. Besides all this--in a
+sense a part of it, yet a miscellaneous and irrational part--come the
+newspapers, with their daily distraction. This is after all our world,
+and we cannot live in it and be absolute nonconformists. So we must
+submit to the newspaper, though it makes a heavy addition to our daily
+load of reading for information. But there is still another kind of
+necessary reading that I wish to mention before we come to that which
+ranks chief in importance.
+
+The woman who takes out of the public or subscription library a novel a
+day is only suffering from the perversion of an appetite that in its
+normal state is beneficial. It is possible that her husband does not
+read enough for amusement, that his horizon is narrowed, his sympathies
+stunted by the lack of that very influence which, in excess, unfits his
+wife for the realities and duties of everyday existence. It came as a
+surprise to many to learn from Tennyson's "Life" that the author of "In
+Memoriam" was a great novel reader. But clearly in his case the novel
+produced no weakening of the mental fiber. President Garfield advised
+the student to mingle with his heavier reading a judicious proportion of
+fiction. The novel may rank in the highest department of literature and
+may render the inestimable service of broadening and quickening our
+sympathies. In this case it belongs to the class of the best books. But
+I have introduced it here as the most prominent representative of what
+we may call the literature of recreation. There is a further
+representative of this class that is peculiarly well fitted to bring
+refreshment and cheer to the weary and dispirited, and that is humor,
+which is often also the soundest philosophy.
+
+If the reader does not at the outset make provision in his daily reading
+for the best books, the days and the months will go by, and the unopened
+volumes will look down upon him from his shelves in dumb reproof of his
+neglect and reminder of his loss. In truth it is all a matter of the
+balance of gain. What we rate highest we shall find room for. If we
+cannot have our spiritual food and satisfy all our other wants, perhaps
+we shall find that some of our other wants can do with less
+satisfaction. That we should neglect the material side of life for the
+spiritual I do not say. But for our encouragement let me quote another
+estimate of what may be accomplished by persistent reading, and my
+authority shall be the late Professor William Mathews, the essayist, an
+author whose graceful style bears lightly as a flower a weight of
+learning that would appall, if it did not so delight us. Says Dr.
+Mathews:
+
+     Did you ever think of the sum total of knowledge that may be
+     accumulated in a decade, or score of years, or a lifetime by
+     reading only 10 pages a day? He who has read but that small
+     amount daily, omitting Sundays, has read in a year 3130
+     pages, which is equal to six volumes of 521 pages each,
+     enough to enable one to master a science. In five years he
+     will have read 15,650 pages, equivalent to 30 large volumes,
+     or to 60 of the average size. Now, we do not hesitate to say
+     that 30 volumes of 521 pages each of history, biography,
+     science, and literature, well chosen, well read, and well
+     digested, will be worth to nine persons out of ten more than
+     the average collegiate education is to the majority of
+     graduates.
+
+Our case for knowing the best books is, therefore, not hopeless. What we
+need for the achievement is not genius, but only a moderate amount of
+forethought and persistence. But who is there that has not tasted the
+joy of discovering a great book that seemed written for himself alone?
+If there is such a man, he is to be pitied--unless, indeed, he is to be
+congratulated on the unimagined pleasure in store for him. Discovery is
+not too strong a word for the feeling of the reader when he lights upon
+such a world-opening volume. He feels that no one else ever could have
+had the same appreciation of it, ever really discovered it, that he is
+
+          the first that ever burst
+    Into that silent sea.
+
+Keats, in his glorious sonnet, "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer,"
+has given the finest of all expressions to this sense of literary
+discovery.
+
+    Much have I travelled in the realms of gold
+      And many goodly states and kingdoms seen;
+      Round many western islands have I been
+    Which bards in fealty to Apollo hold.
+    Oft of one wide expanse had I been told
+      That deep-browed Homer ruled as his demesne:
+      Yet never did I breathe its pure serene
+    Till I heard Chapman speak out loud and bold:
+    Then felt I like some watcher in the skies
+      When a new planet swims into his ken;
+    Or like stout Cortez, when with eagle eyes
+      He stared at the Pacific--and all his men
+    Looked at each other with a wild surmise--
+      Silent, upon a peak in Darien.
+
+To describe such accessions of spiritual vision we turn instinctively to
+the narratives of Holy Writ, to Pisgah and its revelation of the
+Promised Land, to the ladder at Bethel with its angels ascending and
+descending, and to the lonely seer on Patmos with his vision of a new
+heaven and a new earth.
+
+But, questions a listener, do books ever really affect people like this?
+Most assuredly! We have only to turn to biography for the record, if we
+do not find living witnesses among our friends. It was said of Neander
+that "Plato is his idol--his constant watchword. He sits day and night
+over him; and there are few who have so thoroughly and in such purity
+imbibed his wisdom."
+
+The elder Professor Torrey, of the University of Vermont, found his
+inspiration, as many another has done, in Dante. In his youth he
+preferred the Inferno; in his middle life he rose to the calm heights of
+the Purgatorio; and he used to say with a smile that perhaps the time
+would come when he should be fitted to appreciate the Paradiso. Highly
+interesting is John Ruskin's tribute to Sir Walter Scott:
+
+     It is one of the griefs of my old age that I know Scott by
+     heart, but still, if I take up a volume of him, it is not
+     laid down again for the next hour.
+
+Beside this we may place Goethe's testimony, also written in old age:
+
+     We read many, too many, poor things, thus losing our time
+     and gaining nothing. We should only read what we can admire,
+     as I did in my youth, and as I now do with Sir Walter Scott.
+     I have now begun "Rob Roy," and I shall read all his
+     romances in succession. All is great--material, import,
+     characters, execution; and then what infinite diligence in
+     the preparatory studies! what truth of detail in the
+     composition! Here we see what English history is; what an
+     inheritance to a poet able to make use of it. Walter Scott
+     is a great genius; he has not his equal; and we need not
+     wonder at the extraordinary effect he has produced on the
+     reading world. He gives me much to think of; and I discover
+     in him a wholly new art with laws of its own.
+
+Of Goethe himself Carlyle confessed that the reading of his works made
+him understand what the Methodists mean by a new birth. Those who are
+familiar with the speeches and writings of Daniel Webster realize the
+inspiration that he owed to the grandeur of Milton. His great rival,
+Calhoun, honored everywhere as a statesman, was known in his own home as
+"the old man of the Bible." It was the reading of the Bible that
+equipped John Bunyan to become the author of "Pilgrim's Progress." The
+novelists have not failed to recognize the influence of some single book
+on a human life. It was the accidental possession of a folio volume of
+Shakespeare--in Blackmore's "Lorna Doone"--that transformed John Ridd
+from a hulking countryman to a man of profound acquaintance with the
+world. And who does not remember Gabriel Betteridge, the simple-hearted
+old steward in Wilkie Collins's "Moonstone," who finds for every
+occurrence a text to counsel or console in his favorite "Robinson
+Crusoe"?
+
+As the experience of Professor Torrey shows, different books appeal to
+us most strongly at different ages. Young men read Shelley, old men
+read Wordsworth. In youth "Hamlet" is to us the greatest of all plays;
+in old age, "Lear." I know of no more interesting account of the
+development of a mind in the choice of books than that presented in John
+Beattie Crozier's autobiographical volume entitled "My Inner Life." The
+author is an English philosopher, who was born and lived until manhood
+in the backwoods of Canada. He tells us how as a young man groping about
+for some clew to the mystery of the world in which he found himself, he
+tried one great writer after another--Mill, Buckle, Carlyle,
+Emerson--all to no purpose, for he was not ready for them. At this
+period he read with great profit the "Recreations of a Country Parson,"
+which, as he says, "gave me precisely the grade and shade of platitude I
+required." But more important were the weekly sermons of Henry Ward
+Beecher. Of him Crozier says:
+
+     For years his printed sermons were the main source of my
+     instruction and delight. His range and variety of
+     observation ... his width of sympathy; his natural and
+     spontaneous pathos; the wealth of illustration and metaphor
+     with which his sermons were adorned, and which were drawn
+     chiefly from natural objects, from his orchard, his farm,
+     his garden, as well as from machinery and from all kinds of
+     natural processes; his naturalism and absence of theological
+     bias; his knowledge of average men and their ways of looking
+     at things; in a word, his general fertility of thought,
+     filling up, as it did, the full horizon of my mind, and
+     running over and beyond it on all sides, so that wherever I
+     looked he had been there before me--all this delighted and
+     enchanted me, and made him for some years my ideal of
+     intellectual greatness; and I looked forward to the
+     Saturdays on which his weekly sermons reached me with
+     longing and pure joy.
+
+Later, in England, Crozier took up the works of the philosophers with
+better success. The chapter of most interest for us is the one on the
+group which he calls "The Poetic Thinkers"--Carlyle, Newman, Emerson,
+Goethe. Of these he places Goethe and Emerson highest. Indeed of
+Emerson's essay on "Experience" he says:
+
+     In this simple framework Emerson has contrived to work in
+     thoughts on human life more central and commanding, more
+     ultimate and final, and of more universal application than
+     are to be found within the same compass in the literature of
+     any age or time, thoughts which rise to the mind as
+     naturally and spontaneously when the deeper secrets of life
+     are in question, as proverbs do in its more obvious and
+     superficial aspects.... Nowhere, indeed, will you find
+     greater penetration and profundity, or greater refinement
+     and delicacy than in these essays (of Emerson).... After a
+     lapse of ten or fifteen years ... no increase of experience
+     or reflection has enabled me to add or suggest aught by way
+     of commentary on these great and penetrating observations on
+     human life that is not either more superficial or less
+     true.... Until Emerson is understood, no observer of human
+     life making any pretension to originality can, in my
+     judgment, consider his reputation safe, or his work free
+     from the danger of being undermined by this great master of
+     human thought.
+
+If some scholar on whose judgment we relied were to speak in these terms
+of a book that was only to be read in Persian or Icelandic, how
+cheerfully we should bend ourselves to the task of learning these
+difficult tongues for the sake of the reward--the possession of the
+coveted thought. But the writings of Emerson are in our own language and
+accessible in the cheapest editions. If to us personally Emerson does
+not make this supreme appeal, there are other writers, all at hand, set
+apart from the great multitude of lesser spirits by that final weigher
+of human talents whom Bacon calls Good Fame. It is not that among the
+myriad volumes of a library we must painfully and largely by accident
+discover the few of highest worth--scanning each doubtfully as one
+searches for an unknown visitor in the crowd alighting from a train. No,
+the best books are the best known, the most accessible. Lists of the
+ten, the fifty, the one hundred best books are at our disposal, and, if
+they do not always represent final judgments, are near enough for
+practical purposes. The will to read the best books is all that we need
+to supply--the rest has been done for us. And is there anyone who turns
+with indifference from the high and free privilege of making the
+greatest spirits that have ever lived his bosom friends, his companions
+and counselors? If there be such a one, would that I might repeat to him
+more of that glorious chant in praise of books that has been sung by the
+wise of all ages, from Socrates to Gladstone. I have given a few of
+these tributes already; I will close with one from an unexpected source.
+Says Walt Whitman, in his "Democratic Vistas," speaking of the books
+that have come down to us from antiquity:
+
+     A few immortal compositions, small in size, yet compassing
+     what measureless values of reminiscence, contemporary
+     portraitures, manners, idioms and beliefs, with deepest
+     inference, hint and thought, to tie and touch forever the
+     old, new body, and the old, new soul. These! and still
+     these! bearing the freight so dear--dearer than
+     pride--dearer than love. All the best experience of humanity
+     folded, saved, freighted to us here! Some of these tiny
+     ships we call Old and New Testament, Homer, Eschylus, Plato,
+     Juvenal, etc. Precious minims! I think if we were forced to
+     choose, rather than have you, and the likes of you, and what
+     belongs to and has grown of you, blotted out and gone, we
+     could better afford, appalling as that would be, to lose all
+     actual ships, this day fastened by wharf, or floating on
+     wave, and see them, with all their cargoes, scuttled and
+     sent to the bottom.
+
+     Gathered by geniuses of city, race or age, and put by them
+     in highest of art's forms, namely, the literary form, the
+     peculiar combinations, and the outshows of that city, age or
+     race, its particular modes of the universal attributes and
+     passions, its faiths, heroes, lovers and gods, wars,
+     traditions, struggles, crimes, emotions, joys (or the subtle
+     spirit of these) having been passed on to us to illumine our
+     own selfhood, and its experiences--what they supply,
+     indispensable and highest, if taken away, nothing else in
+     all the world's boundless storehouses could make up to us,
+     or ever again return.
+
+
+
+
+PRINTING PROBLEMS FOR SCIENCE TO SOLVE
+
+
+The book seems to have been regarded for hundreds of years--for
+thousands of years if we include its prototypes--as a thing apart,
+subject to its own laws of beauty, utility, and economy. But recently
+men have come to realize that the book has no special esthetic license,
+that what is barbarous art elsewhere is barbarous in the book; they also
+recognize that the book is within the domain of economics, that the
+invention of typography was primarily a reduction of cost, and that a
+myriad later processes, which make the book what it is to-day, are all
+developments of the same principle. What has not been so clearly seen is
+that in the field of utility the book is not independent, cannot impose
+conditions upon its users, but is an instrument strictly subordinate to
+human needs. The establishment of its efficiency has only begun when we
+have adapted it to the convenience of the hand and the bookshelf. The
+real tests of its utility are subtle, not gross, and are, in fact,
+beyond the range of ordinary haphazard experience. In this field popular
+judgment may be right or wrong; it offers merely an opinion, which it
+cannot prove. But here that higher power of common sense that we call
+science comes in and gives verdicts that take account of all the
+elements involved and can be verified. Rather this is what science has
+not yet done for printing, or has done only in part, but which we
+confidently expect it is about to do.
+
+What then are some of the points that we may call in science to settle?
+We know surely that fine type, bad presswork, pale ink on gray paper are
+all bad for the eyes. But there are a host of other matters connected
+with printing, we may even say most matters, in regard to which our
+knowledge is either uncertain or indefinite. In respect to this whole
+range of practical printing subjects we want to know just what practice
+is the best and by what percentage of superiority. This quantitative
+element in the solution is of great importance, for when rival
+considerations, the esthetic, the economic, for instance, plead for one
+choice as against another, we shall know just how much sacrifice of
+utility is involved. The tests for which we look to science cover
+everything that goes to make up the physical side of the book. The tests
+themselves, however, are psychological, for the book makes its appeal to
+the mind through one of the senses, that of sight, and therefore its
+adaptedness to the manifold peculiarities of human vision must be the
+final criterion of its utility.
+
+Beginning with the material basis of the book--paper--most readers are
+sure that both eggshell and glaze finish are a hindrance to easy reading
+and even hurtful to the eyes; but which is worse and how much? Is there
+any difference as regards legibility between antique and medium plate
+finish, and which is better and by what percentage? In regard to the
+color as well as the surface of paper we are largely at sea. We realize
+that contrast between paper and ink is necessary, but is the greatest
+contrast the best? Is the blackest black on the whitest white better,
+for instance, than blue-black on buff-white, and how much? Is white on
+black not better than black on white, and, if so, in what exact degree?
+Or is the real solution to be found in some other color contrast as yet
+untried? The very mention of some of these possibilities shocks our
+prejudices and stirs our conservatism to revolt in advance; yet, with or
+against our will, we may be perfectly sure that the changes which
+science finally pronounces imperative will be made.
+
+Who can tell what is the normal length of line for legibility, or
+whether there is one, and whether there is an ideal size of type, or
+what it is? Are the newspapers, for instance, right as to length of line
+and the books as to size of type, as many suppose? Has each size of type
+a length of line normal to it? How is this affected by leading, or is
+leading merely of imaginary value? Is large type desirable for the
+schoolbooks of the youngest children, and may the type be made smaller,
+down to a certain limit, without harm, as the children grow older, or is
+there one ideal size for all ages? It is frankly recognized that in
+certain works, like editions of the poets, legibility may properly be
+sacrificed in some degree to beauty, and in certain reference works,
+again, to economy of space; but we should like to know, as we do not now
+with any exactness, what amount of legibility is surrendered.
+
+It is easy, however, to see that one great battleground of controversy
+in any suggested reforms must be the design of the type itself. Here,
+fortunately, the English public starts with a great advantage. We have
+thrown overboard our old black letter with its dazzling contrasts of
+shading and its fussy ornament, and therefore can begin where the
+Germans must some day leave off. We have no accents or other diacritical
+marks, and in this respect are superior to the French also. We start
+with a fairly extended and distinct letter like Caslon for our norm, but
+even so the problem is in the highest degree complex and baffling.
+First, accepting the traditional forms of the letters, we must determine
+whether light or heavy, even or shaded, condensed or extended letters
+are the more legible, and always in what proportion. We shall then be in
+a position to decide the relative standing of the various commercial
+types, if such we find, that fairly well meet the conditions. It will
+also be obvious what changes can be introduced to improve the types that
+stand highest. By and by the limit of improvement will be reached under
+the traditional forms of the letters. It will next be the task of
+science to show by what modifications or substitutions the poorest
+letters, such as s z e a x o can be brought up to the visibility of the
+best letters, such as m w d j l p. Some of these changes may be slight,
+such as shortening the overhang of the a and slanting the bar of the e,
+while others may involve forms that are practically new. It is worth
+remembering at this point that while our capital letters are strictly
+Roman, our small or lowercase letters came into being during the middle
+ages, and many of them would not be recognized by an ancient Roman as
+having any relation to his alphabet. They therefore belong to the modern
+world and can be altered without sacrilege.
+
+There will remain other problems to be solved, such as the use of
+capitals at all; punctuation, whether to keep our present practice or to
+devise a better; the use of spacing between paragraphs, words, and even
+letters; besides numerous problems now hardly guessed. Many of the
+conclusions of science will be openly challenged, but such opposition is
+easiest to overcome. Harder to meet will be the opposition of prejudice,
+one of whose favorite weapons is always ridicule. But the results of
+science in the field of printing, as in every other, are sure to make
+their way into practice, and here their beneficent effect in the relief
+of eye strain and its consequent nervous wear and in the saving of time
+is beyond our present power to calculate or even imagine. The world at
+the end of the twentieth century will be a different world from this, a
+far better world, we trust; and one of the potent influences in bringing
+about that improvement will then be traced, we are confident, to the
+fact that, near the beginning of the century, science was called in to
+solve those problems of the book that belong to the laboratory rather
+than to the printing office.
+
+
+
+
+TYPES AND EYES: THE PROBLEM
+
+
+Our modern world submits with an ill grace to the nuisance of
+spectacles, but flatters itself that after all they afford a measure of
+civilization. Thirty-five years ago Dr. Emile Javal, a Parisian oculist,
+contested this self-complacent inference, believing the terrible
+increase of near sight among school children to be due rather to a
+defect than to an excess of civilization. He conceived that the trouble
+must lie in the material set for the eye to work upon, namely, the
+printed page. He therefore instituted a series of experiments to
+discover its defects from the point of view of hygiene. Being an
+oculist, he naturally adopted the test of distance to determine the
+legibility of single letters at the limit of vision, and he employed the
+oculist's special type. His conclusions cover a wide range. He decided
+that paper with a slightly buff tint printed with an ink tinged with
+blue was the most agreeable combination for the eye, though in absolute
+clearness nothing can surpass the contrast of black upon white. He held
+that leading is no advantage to clearness, and that it would be better
+to print the same words on the page in a larger type unleaded. He found
+the current type too condensed; this is particularly a fault of French
+type. But he favored spacing between the letters of a word, a conclusion
+in which he has not been followed by later investigators. He found
+shaded type a disadvantage and advocated a fairly black type in which
+all the lines are of uniform thickness. But most interesting are his
+conclusions regarding the letters themselves. He found that the eye in
+reading follows a horizontal line which cuts the words just below the
+tops of the short letters, the parts of the letters being indistinct in
+proportion as they are distant from this line. It is chiefly by their
+individuality on this line that letters acquire distinctness. But just
+here he found that an unfortunate tendency towards uniformity had been
+at work, flattening the rounded letters and rounding the square letters.
+In a series of articles he gives exhaustive studies of the various
+letters, their characteristics, and their possible reform.
+
+[Illustration: These ten-point lines in Della Robbia of the American
+Type Founders Company include the principal elements of reform advocated
+by Dr. Javal, as well as others mentioned below]
+
+A few years later Dr. Cattell, now a professor in Columbia, but then an
+investigator in Wundt's psychological laboratory in Leipsic, made a
+series of studies on brain and eye inertia in the recognition of
+letters. Like Dr. Javal he found some alphabets harder to see than
+others and the letters of the same alphabet different in legibility. He
+saw no advantage in having a mixture of capital and small letters. He
+condemned shading in types and opposed all ornament as an element of
+confusion. He regarded punctuation marks as hard to see and proposed
+that they should be displaced, or at least supplemented, by spaces
+between the words corresponding to the pause in the thought or the
+utterance.
+
+He tested the letters by their legibility when seen for a small fraction
+of a second through a narrow slit in a falling screen. Beginning with
+the capitals, he found that out of two hundred and seventy trials for
+each letter, W was recognized two hundred and forty-one times and E only
+sixty-three times, the former being much more distinct and the latter
+much less distinct than any other. Some letters, like S and C, were
+found hard to recognize in themselves, and certain groups of letters,
+such as O, Q, G, and C, were constantly confused with one another. Said
+Dr. Cattell, "If I should give the probable time wasted each day through
+a single letter, as E, being needlessly illegible, it would seem almost
+incredible; and, if we could calculate the necessary strain put upon eye
+and brain, it would be still more appalling."
+
+In regard to the small letters he found a like difference in legibility.
+Out of one hundred trials d was read correctly eighty-seven times, s
+only twenty-eight times. He found s, g, c, and x particularly hard to
+recognize by reason of their form; and certain pairs and groups were
+sources of confusion. The group of slim letters, i, j, l, f, t, is an
+instance. He suggested that a new form of l, perhaps the Greek [Greek:
+l], should be adopted; and he advocated the dropping of the dot from the
+i, as in Greek. He made experiments upon the German as well as the Roman
+alphabet, but he found the former so bad that he could only advise
+giving it up altogether.
+
+Somewhat later, in 1888, Mr. E. C. Sanford, now president of Clark
+College, published in the "American Journal of Psychology" an exhaustive
+study on "The Relative Legibility of the Small Letters." He studied
+simply the letter forms, to determine the order of legibility in the
+alphabet and the groups most liable to confusion, in order to discover
+what letters most need improvement and upon what clearness depends. He
+too employed a special type. He found the order under the distance test
+to be w m q p v y j f h r d g k b x l n u a t i z o c s e, and the order
+under the time test m w d q v y j p k f b l i g h r x t o u a n e s c z.
+It will be noticed that of the seven letters most largely represented in
+a full font of type, e t a i n o s, all fall in the last third of one or
+the other of these two groups, four are there in both groups, while e,
+the letter used most of all, stands at the very foot of the list in the
+distance group. Could there be any clearer call for the reform of our
+letters?
+
+Mr. Sanford enters at length into the question of the points that help
+and hinder legibility and that should therefore be considered in
+reforming the shapes of letters. Enlargement of size and increase of
+differences are obvious aids to clearness. Simplicity of outline and
+concentration of peculiarity upon one feature are important elements of
+legibility. Even a letter of small size, like v, is brought into the
+first group by a combination of these two qualities. Serifs are
+necessary to prevent irradiation, or an overflowing of the white on the
+black, but they should be stubby; if long, they take on the character of
+ornament and become confusing. The letters g and a are complicated
+without being distinctive and are therefore continually confused with
+other letters. The c e o group of much used letters can be made less
+liable to confusion if the gap on the right of the first two letters is
+made wider and the line of the e slants downward as in Jenson. Another
+group, a n u, are confused together. To avoid this the top and bottom
+openings of n and u should be made as open as possible and the a should
+go back to the old script form =a= as in the Humanistic type. The letter s
+is a source of great difficulty, being either not recognized at all in
+the tests or confused with other letters. It will be remembered that
+Franklin greatly deprecated the giving up of the long f, and a return to
+this form is now suggested, care being taken, of course, to
+differentiate it from f, especially by carrying it below the line. The
+dot of the i is of no use when the letter stands alone, but it is an
+important element of distinctness in words like "minim." The dot, as Dr.
+Javal suggests, should be set on a level with the top of the l rather
+than on a level with the top of the t. A reduction of serifs would
+lessen the confusion of x and z and of s and z.
+
+But it is unnecessary to trace these studies in all their minutiae. In
+the twenty-eight years that have followed the appearance of Mr.
+Sanford's article work along the same lines has been done by many
+investigators in various countries. Some of the conclusions that we have
+noticed have been sustained, others have been discredited. The most
+important conclusions of the investigators down to 1908 will be found
+scattered through the pages of Huey's "Psychology and Pedagogy of
+Reading," which appeared in that year. Such matters as the normal length
+of a line of print, the size of type appropriate to schoolbooks for
+children of different ages, the possibilities of future type design with
+reference solely to the reader's needs, are among the many subjects
+there set forth in an interesting fashion.
+
+In all these studies one obvious subject of investigation appears to
+have been overlooked, and that is the actual types of everyday print. Do
+they vary greatly in legibility? Are some of them so bad that they ought
+to be rejected _in toto_? On the other hand, have the designers of
+certain types attained by instinct or by happy accident a degree of
+legibility that approximates the best to be hoped for? If so, can we
+trace the direction to be followed in seeking further improvement? To
+answer these questions an extended investigation was undertaken at Clark
+University in 1911 by Miss Barbara Elizabeth Roethlein under the
+direction of Professor John Wallace Baird. Her results were published by
+Clark University Library in January, 1912, under the title "The Relative
+Legibility of Different Faces of Printing Types." The pamphlet abounds
+in tables made clear by the use of the very types under consideration.
+The following are the conclusions reached:
+
+     1. Certain faces of type are much more legible than other
+     faces; and certain letters of every face are much more
+     legible than other letters of the same face.
+
+     2. These differences in legibility prove to be greater when
+     letters are presented in isolation from one another than
+     when they are presented in groups.
+
+     3. Legibility is a product of six factors: (1) the form of
+     the letter; (2) the size of the letter; (3) the heaviness of
+     the face of the letter (the thickness of the lines which
+     constitute the letter); (4) the width of the white margin
+     which surrounds the letter; (5) the position of the letter
+     in the letter group; (6) the shape and size of the adjacent
+     letters. In our experiments the first factor seemed to be
+     less significant than any of the other five; that is, in the
+     type-faces which were employed in the present investigation
+     the form of any given letter of the alphabet usually varied
+     between such narrow limits as to constitute a relatively
+     insignificant factor in the determination of its legibility.
+
+     4. The relatively heavy-faced types prove to be more legible
+     than the light-faced types. The optimal heaviness of face
+     seems to lie in a mean between the bold faces and such light
+     faces as Scotch Roman and Cushing Monotone.
+
+     5. The initial position in a group of letters is the most
+     advantageous position for legibility; the final position
+     comes next in order of advantage; and the intermediate or
+     internal positions are least favorable for legibility.
+
+     6. The size and the form of the letters which stand adjacent
+     to any given letter play an important role in determining
+     its legibility; and the misreadings which occur in the case
+     of grouped letters are of a wholly different sort from those
+     which occur in the case of isolated letters. When letters of
+     the same height or of similar form appear side by side, they
+     become relatively illegible. But the juxtaposition of an
+     ascender, a descender and a short letter tends to improve
+     the legibility of each, as also does the juxtaposition of
+     letters which are made up wholly or chiefly of straight
+     lines and letters which are made up wholly or chiefly of
+     curved lines.
+
+     7. The quality and the texture of the paper is a much less
+     significant factor than has been supposed, provided, of
+     course, that the illumination and the inclination of the
+     paper are such as to secure an optimal condition of light
+     reflection from its surface.
+
+     8. There is an urgent need for modification of certain
+     letters of the alphabet.
+
+Contrary to previous results with special types, these tests of
+commercial types represent the capitals as more legible, by about
+one-fifth, than the lowercase letters; but, in view of the much greater
+bigness and heaviness of capitals, the earlier judgment would seem to be
+supported so far as the letter forms of the two classes are concerned.
+The order of each class, taking an average of all the faces, is as
+follows: W M L J I A T C V Q P D O Y U F H X G N Z K E R B S m w d j l p
+f q y i h g b k v r t n c u o x a e z s. Considering only the lowercase
+letters, which represent nine-tenths of the print that meets the eye, we
+still have four of the most used letters, s e a o, in the lowest fourth
+of the group, while s in both sizes of type and in all faces stands at
+the bottom. The average legibility of the best and worst is: W, 300.2;
+S, 205.7; m, 296.8; s, 152.6.
+
+The tests were by distance; the letters were all ten-point of the
+various faces; and the figures represent the distance in centimeters at
+which the letters were recognized. There is a satisfaction in being
+assured that the range between the best and the worst is not so great as
+had been estimated previously, the proportion being in the one case not
+quite 3:2 and in the other not quite 3:1.5. The following twenty-six
+widely different faces of type were studied:
+
+  American Typewriter
+  Bold Antique
+  Bulfinch
+  Caslon Oldstyle No. 540
+  Century Oldstyle
+  Century Oldstyle, Bold
+  Century Expanded
+  Cheltenham Oldstyle
+  Cheltenham Bold
+  Cheltenham Bold, Condensed
+  Cheltenham Italic
+  Cheltenham Wide
+  Clearface
+  Clearface Italic
+  Clearface Bold
+  Clearface Bold Italic
+  Cushing No. 2
+  Cushing Oldstyle No. 2
+  Cushing Monotone
+  Della Robbia
+  DeVinne No. 2
+  DeVinne No. 2, Italic
+  Franklin Gothic
+  Jenson Oldstyle No. 2
+  News Gothic
+  Ronaldson Oldstyle No. 551
+
+Of these, omitting the boldface and italic types, as well as all
+capitals, the six best text types, ranging in average distance of
+recognition from 236.4 to 224.3, are News Gothic, Bulfinch, Clearface,
+Century Oldstyle, Century Expanded, and Cheltenham Wide. The six worst,
+ranging from 206.4 to 185.6, are Cheltenham Oldstyle, DeVinne No. 2,
+American Typewriter, Caslon Oldstyle, Cushing Monotone, and Cushing No.
+2. The author says, commenting on these findings:
+
+     If legibility is to be our sole criterion of excellence of
+     typeface, News Gothic must be regarded as our nearest
+     approximation to an ideal face, in so far as the present
+     investigation is able to decide this question. The esthetic
+     factor must always be taken into account, however, here as
+     elsewhere. And the reader who prefers the appearance of
+     Cushing Oldstyle or a Century face may gratify his esthetic
+     demands without any considerable sacrifice of legibility.
+
+To what extent these conclusions may be modified by future experiments
+it is, of course, impossible to predict, but they clearly point the way
+towards definiteness and boldness in the design of types as well as to a
+preference for the larger sizes in their use. All this, as we shall see
+in the next chapter, is in harmony with what experience has been
+gradually confirming in the practice of the last generation.
+
+
+
+
+TYPES AND EYES: PROGRESS
+
+
+The late John Bartlett, whose "Familiar Quotations" have encircled the
+globe, once remarked to a youthful visitor that it was a source of great
+comfort to him that in collecting books in his earlier years he had
+chosen editions printed in large type, "for now," he said, "I am able to
+read them." The fading eyesight of old age does not necessarily set the
+norm of print; but this is certain, that what age reads without
+difficulty youth will read without strain, and in view of the excessive
+burden put upon the eyes by the demands of modern life, it may be worth
+while to consider whether it is not wise to err on the safer side as
+regards the size of type, even by an ample margin.
+
+It is now some thirty-five years since the first scientific experiments
+upon the relations of type to vision were made in France and Germany. It
+was peculiarly fitting, we may remark, that the investigation should
+have started in those two countries, for the German alphabet is
+notoriously hard on the eyes, and the French alphabet is encumbered with
+accents, which form an integral part of the written word, and yet are
+always minute and in poor print exceedingly hard to distinguish. The
+result of the investigation was a vigorous disapproval of the German
+type itself and of the French accents and the favorite style of letter
+in France, the condensed. It was pointed out that progress in type
+design towards the hygienic ideal must follow the direction of
+simplicity, uniformity, and relative heaviness of line, with wide
+letters and short descenders, all in type of sufficient size for easy
+reading. In the generation that has succeeded these experiments have we
+made any progress in adapting print to eyes along the lines of these
+conclusions?
+
+The printer might well offer in proof of such progress the page in which
+these words are presented to the reader. In the four and a half
+centuries of printing, pages of equal clearness and beauty may be found
+if one knows just where to look for them, but the later examples all
+fall within the period that we are discussing. It may be objected that
+this is the luxury of printing, not its everyday necessity, and this
+objection must be allowed; but luxuries are a powerful factor in
+elevating the standard of living, and this is as true of print as of
+food and dress. It must be confessed that an unforeseen influence made
+itself felt early in the generation under discussion, that of William
+Morris and his Kelmscott Press. Morris's types began and ended in the
+Gothic or Germanic spirit, and their excellence lies rather in the
+beauty of each single letter than in the effective mass-play of the
+letters in words. Kelmscott books, therefore, in spite of their
+decorative beauty, are not easy reading. In this respect they differ
+greatly from those of Bodoni,[4] whose types to Morris and his followers
+appeared weak and ugly. Bodoni's letters play together with perfect
+accord, and his pages, as a whole, possess a statuesque if not a
+decorative beauty. If the reader is not satisfied with the testimony of
+the page now before him, let him turn to the Bodoni Horace of 1791, in
+folio, where, in addition to the noble roman text of the poems, he will
+find an extremely clear and interesting italic employed in the preface,
+virtually a "library hand" script. But no force has told more powerfully
+for clearness and strength in types than the influence of Morris, and if
+he had done only this for printing he would have earned our lasting
+gratitude.
+
+Morris held that no type smaller than long primer should ever be
+employed in a book intended for continuous reading; and here again, in
+size of type as distinguished from its cut, he made himself an exponent
+of one of the great forward movements that have so happily characterized
+the recent development of printing. Go to any public library and look at
+the novels issued from 1850 to 1880. Unless your memory is clear on this
+point, you will be amazed to see what small print certain publishers
+inflicted with apparent impunity on their patrons during this period.
+The practice extended to editions of popular authors like Dickens and
+Thackeray, editions that now find no readers, or find them only among
+the nearsighted.
+
+The cheap editions of the present day, on the contrary, may be poor in
+paper and perhaps in presswork, they may be printed from worn plates,
+but in size and even in cut of type they are generally irreproachable.
+As regards nearsighted readers, it is well known that they prefer fine
+type to coarse, choosing, for instance, a Bible printed in diamond, and
+finding it clear and easy to read, while they can hardly read pica at
+all. This fact, in connection with the former tolerance of fine print,
+raises the question whether the world was not more nearsighted two
+generations ago than it is now; or does this only mean that the oculist
+is abroad in the land?
+
+It is recognized that, in books not intended for continuous reading,
+small and even fine type may properly be employed. That miracle of
+encyclopedic information, the World Almanac, while it might be printed
+better and on a higher quality of paper, could not be the handy
+reference book that it is without the use of a type that would be
+intolerably small in a novel or a history. With the increase of the
+length of continuous use for which the book is intended, the size of the
+type should increase up to a certain point. Above eleven-point, or small
+pica, however, increase in the size of type becomes a matter not of
+hygiene, but simply of esthetics. But below the normal the printer's
+motto should be: In case of doubt choose the larger type.
+
+A development of public taste that is in line with this argument is the
+passing of the large-paper edition. It was always an anomaly; but our
+fathers did not stop to reason that, if a page has the right proportions
+at the start, mere increase of margin cannot enhance its beauty or
+dignity. At most it can only lend it a somewhat deceptive appearance of
+costliness, with which was usually coupled whatever attraction there
+might be in the restriction of this special edition to a very few
+copies. So they paid many dollars a pound for mere blank paper and
+fancied that they were getting their money's worth. The most
+inappropriate books were put out in large paper, Webster's Unabridged
+Dictionary, for instance. At the other extreme of size may be cited the
+Pickering diamond classics, also in a large-paper edition, pretty,
+dainty little books, with their Lilliputian character only emphasized by
+their excess of white paper. But their print is too fine to read, and
+their margins are out of proportion to the printed page. Though their
+type is small, they by no means exhibit the miracle of the books printed
+in Didot's "microscopic" type, and they represent effort in a direction
+that has no meaning for bookmaking, but remains a mere _tour de force_.
+Quite different is the case with the Oxford miniature editions, of the
+same size outwardly as the large-paper editions of the Pickering
+diamond classics; these are modern miracles, for with all their
+"infinite riches in a little room," they are distinctly legible.
+
+As regards the design of type, the recent decades have given us our
+choice among type-faces at once so beautiful and so clear as the Century
+Oldstyle, Century Expanded, and Cheltenham Wide. To those should be
+added Mr. Goudy's virile Kennerley. Still later have appeared, in direct
+descent from one of Jenson's type-faces, Cloister and Centaur, two of
+the most beautiful types of any age or country, and both, if we may
+judge by comparison with the types approved by the Clark University
+experiments, also among the most legible. Fortunately in type design
+there is no essential conflict between beauty and use, but rather a
+natural harmony. Already a high degree of legibility has been attained
+without sacrifice; the future is full of promise.
+
+In respect to books, we may congratulate ourselves that printing has
+made real progress in the last generation towards meeting the primary
+demand of legibility. The form of print, however, which is read by the
+greatest number of eyes, the newspaper, shows much less advance. Yet
+newspapers have improved in presswork, and the typesetting machines have
+removed the evil of worn type. Moreover, a new element has come to the
+front that played a much more subordinate part three or four decades
+ago--the headline. "Let me write the headlines of a people," said the
+late Henry D. Lloyd to the writer, "and I care not who makes its laws."
+It is the staring headlines that form the staple of the busy man's
+newspaper reading, and they are certainly hygienic for the eyes if not
+always for the mind. While the trend towards larger and clearer type
+has gone on chiefly without the consciousness of the public, it has not
+been merely a reform imposed from without. The public prefers readable
+print, demands it, and is ready to pay for it. The magazines have long
+recognized this phase of public taste. When the newspapers have done the
+same, the eyes of coming generations will be relieved of a strain that
+can only be realized by those who in that day shall turn as a matter of
+antiquarian curiosity to the torturing fine print that so thickly beset
+the pathway of knowledge from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century,
+and, in the twentieth, overthrown in the field of books and magazines,
+made its last, wavering stand in the newspapers.
+
+
+
+
+EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULE OF LEGIBILITY
+
+
+Since print is meant primarily to be read, the first law of its being is
+legibility. As a general principle this must be accepted, but in the
+application certain important reservations must be made, all relating
+themselves to the question _how_ the print is to be read. For
+straightaway, long-time reading, or for reading in which the aim is to
+get at the words of the author with the least hindrance, the law of
+legibility holds to its full extent--is, in fact, an axiom; but not all
+reading is long-continued, and not all is apart from considerations
+other than instantaneous contact with the author's thought through his
+words. It is these two classes of exceptions that we have now to
+consider.
+
+Let us begin with an example outside the field of typography. On the
+first issue of the Lincoln cent were various sizes of lettering, the
+largest being devoted to the words which denote the value of the coin,
+and the smallest, quite undistinguishable in ordinary handling, to the
+initials of the designer, afterwards discarded. Obviously these sizes
+were chosen with reference to their power to attract attention; in the
+one case an excess of legibility and in the other case, quite as
+properly, its deficiency. Thus, what is not designed for the cursory
+reader's eye, but serves only as a record to be consulted by those who
+are specially interested in it, may, with propriety, be made so
+inconspicuous as to be legible only by a distinct effort. Cases in
+everyday typography are the signatures of books and the cabalistic
+symbols that indicate to the newspaper counting room the standing of
+advertisements. Both are customarily rendered inconspicuous through
+obscure position, and if to this be added the relative illegibility of
+fine type, the average reader will not complain, for all will escape his
+notice.
+
+Again, we may say that what is not intended for ordinary continuous
+reading may, without criticism, be consigned to type below normal size.
+Certain classes of books that are intended only for brief consultation
+come under this head, the best examples being encyclopedias,
+dictionaries, and almanacs. As compactness is one of their prime
+requisites, it is a mistake to put them into type even comfortably
+large. The reader opens them only for momentary reference, and he can
+well afford to sacrifice a certain degree of legibility to handiness.
+The Encyclopaedia Britannica is a classic instance of a work made bulky
+by type unnecessarily coarse for its purpose; the later, amazingly
+clear, photographic reduction of the Britannica volumes is a recognition
+of this initial mistake. The Century and Oxford dictionaries, on the
+other hand, are splendid examples of the judicious employment of fine
+print for the purpose both of condensation and the gradation of
+emphasis. One has only to contrast with these a similar work in uniform
+type, such as Littre's Dictionnaire, to appreciate their superiority for
+ready reference.
+
+The departure from legibility that we have thus far considered has
+related to the size of the letters. Another equally marked departure is
+possible in respect to their shape. In business printing, especially in
+newspaper advertisements, men are sometimes tempted to gain amount at
+the risk of undue fineness of type. But no advertiser who counts the
+cost will take the chance of rendering his announcement unreadable by
+the use of ornamental or otherwise imperfectly legible letters. He sets
+no value upon the form save as a carrier of substance. In works of
+literature, on the contrary, form may take on an importance of its own;
+it may even be made tributary to the substance at some cost to
+legibility.
+
+In this field there is room for type the chief merit of which is apart
+from its legibility. In other words, there is and always will be a place
+for beauty in typography, even though it involve a certain loss of
+clearness. As related to the total bulk of printing, works of this class
+never can amount to more than a fraction of one per cent. But their
+proportion in the library of a cultivated man would be vastly greater,
+possibly as high as fifty per cent. In such works the esthetic sense
+demands not merely that the type be a carrier of the alphabet, but also
+that it interpret or at least harmonize with the subject-matter. Who
+ever saw Mr. Updike's specimen pages for an edition of the "Imitatio
+Christi," in old English type, without a desire to possess the completed
+work? Yet we have editions of the "Imitatio" that are far more legible
+and convenient. The "Prayers" of Dr. Samuel Johnson have several times
+been published in what we may call tribute typography; but no edition
+has yet attained to a degree of homage that satisfies the lovers of
+those unaffected devotional exercises.
+
+What, therefore, shall be the typography of books that we love, that we
+know by heart? In them, surely, beauty and fitness may precede
+legibility unchallenged. These are the books that we most desire and
+cherish; this is the richest field for the typographic artist, and one
+that we venture to pronounce, in spite of all that has yet been done,
+still almost untilled. Such books need not be expensive; we can imagine
+a popular series that should deserve the name of tribute typography.
+Certain recent editions of the German classics, perhaps, come nearer to
+justifying such a claim than any contemporary British or American work.
+In more expensive publications some of Mr. Mosher's work, like his
+quarto edition of Burton's "Kasidah," merits a place in this class. A
+better known, if older, instance is the holiday edition of Longfellow's
+"Skeleton in Armor." Who would not rather read the poem in this Old
+English type than in any Roman type in which it has ever been printed?
+The work of the Kelmscott Press obviously falls within this class.
+
+The truth is, there is a large body of favorite literature which we are
+glad to be made to linger over, to have, in its perusal, a brake put
+upon the speed of our reading; and in no way can this be done so
+agreeably as by a typography that possesses a charm of its own to arrest
+the eye. Such a delay increases while it prolongs the pleasure of our
+reading. The typography becomes not only a frame to heighten the beauty
+of the picture, but also a spell to lengthen our enjoyment of it. It
+cannot be expected that the use of impressive type will be confined to
+literature. That worthiest use will find the field already invaded by
+pamphlet and leaflet advertisements, and this invasion is certain to
+increase as the public taste becomes trained to types that make an
+esthetic appeal of their own.
+
+Ordinary type is the result of an attempt to combine with legibility an
+all-round fitness of expression. But that very universality robs it of
+special appropriateness for works of a strongly marked character. It is
+impossible to have a new type designed for every new work, but classes
+of types are feasible, each adapted to a special class of literature.
+Already there is a tendency to seek for poetry a type that is at least
+removed from the commonplace. But hitherto the recognition of this
+principle has been only occasional and haphazard. Where much is to be
+gained much also can be lost, and interpretative or expressional
+typography that misses the mark may easily be of a kind to make the
+judicious grieve. But the rewards of success warrant the risk. The most
+beautiful of recent types, the New Humanistic, designed for The
+University Press, has hardly yet been used. Let us hope that it may soon
+find its wider mission so successfully as to furnish an ideal
+confirmation of the principle that we have here been seeking to
+establish.
+
+
+
+
+THE STUDENT AND THE LIBRARY
+
+
+What does a student of five and twenty years ago still remember of his
+college? My own first and fondest recollection is of the walks and
+talks, _noctes coenaeque deum_, with loved and honored companions, in
+the bonds of a friendship that can be realized only in youth, under the
+inspiration of a common intellectual purpose, and, one is tempted to
+add, in the atmosphere of college halls; next arise golden hours passed
+in the library; and lastly there come back other hours, not always
+golden, spent in the classroom. This is, of course, only to enumerate
+the three influences that are, or should be, strongest in a student's
+life: the society of his fellows, his private reading, and his studies.
+Of these three factors of culture the first and the last are fairly
+constant, but the second is apt to vary in the experience of any small
+group of students from the foremost place, as in the case of John Hay,
+to no place at all. It is of this varying element in the student's
+conduct of life that I have undertaken to write.
+
+Unless student intercourse has an intellectual basis, such as reading
+furnishes, it has nothing to distinguish it from any other good
+fellowship and can hardly escape triviality. The little groups of
+students at Cambridge which included such members as the three
+Tennysons, Hallam, Spedding, Fitzgerald, and Thackeray, while they were
+no doubt jovial enough, were first of all intellectual associations,
+where
+
+    Thought leapt out to wed with Thought
+    Ere Thought could wed itself with Speech.
+
+In such companionship men not only share and correct the culture which
+they have acquired in private, but they are stimulated to higher and
+wider attainment. The classroom at its best is hardly equal to a good
+book; from its very nature it must address an abstract average rather
+than the individual, while a good book startles us with the intimacy of
+its revelation to ourselves. The student goes to college to study; he
+has his name thence. But while the classroom is busied, patiently,
+sedulously doling him out silver, he discovers that there is gold lying
+all around, which he may take without asking. Twenty-five years after he
+finds that the silver has grown black with rust, while the gold shines
+on untarnished. Librarians are often besought for a guide in reading, a
+set of rules, a list of books. But what is really needed, and what no
+mentor can give, is a hunger and thirst after what is in books; and this
+the student must acquire for himself or forego the blessing. Culture
+cannot be vicarious. This is not to say that a list of books may not be
+useful, or that one set of books is as good as another, but only that
+reading is the thing, and, given the impulse to read, the how and the
+what can be added unto it; but without this energizing motive, no amount
+of opportunity or nurture will avail.
+
+But, having not the desire to read, but only a sense that he ought to
+have it, what shall a student do? I will suggest three practicable
+courses from which a selection may be made according to the needs of the
+individual. The first is to sit down and take account of stock, to map
+out one's knowledge, one's previous reading, and so find the inner
+boundaries of the vast region yet to be explored. This process can
+hardly fail to suggest not merely one point of departure, but many. The
+second method is, without even so much casting about, to set forth in
+any direction, take the first attractive unread book at hand, and let
+that lead to others. The third course is intended for the student whose
+previous reading has been so scanty and so perfunctory as to afford him
+no outlook into literature, a case, which, it is to be feared, is only
+too common. We will consider this method first. Obviously such a student
+must be furnished with a guide, one who shall set his feet in the right
+paths, give him his bearings in literature, and inspire him with a love
+for the beauty and grandeur of the scenery disclosed, so that he shall
+become not only able to make the rest of his journey alone, but eager to
+set out.
+
+Where shall the student find such a guide? There are many and good at
+hand, yet perhaps the best are not the professional ones, but rather
+those who give us merely a delightful companionship and invite us to
+share their own favorite walks in Bookland. Such a choice companion, to
+name but one, awaits the student in Hazlitt's "Lectures on the English
+Poets." Of the author himself Charles Lamb says: "I never slackened in
+my admiration of him; and I think I shall go to my grave without
+finding, or expecting to find, such another companion." And of his books
+Stevenson confesses: "We are mighty fine fellows, but we cannot write
+like William Hazlitt." In this little volume which the most hard-pressed
+student can read and ponder in the leisure moments of a single term, the
+reader is introduced at once into the wonderland of our English
+literature, which he is made to realize at the outset is an indivisible
+portion of the greater territory of the literature of the world.
+
+Hazlitt begins with a discussion of poetry in general, shows what poetry
+is, how its various forms move us, and how it differs from its next of
+kin, such as eloquence and romance. He then takes up the poetry of
+Homer, the Bible, Dante, and Ossian, and sets forth the characteristics
+of each. In his chapter on our first two great poets, Chaucer and
+Spenser, he points out the great and contrasted merits of these two
+writers who have so little in common except a superficial resemblance in
+language. Hazlitt is fond of presenting his authors to us in pairs or
+groups. His next chapter is devoted to Shakespeare and Milton; and we
+may remark that, while the student is in no danger of forgetting the
+existence of Shakespeare, he is likely to need just such a tribute to
+the greatness of Milton as the critic here presents. The volume contains
+later chapters of great interest on Milton's "Lycidas" and "Eve." It is
+not necessary for us to mention here all the subjects treated; Dryden
+and Pope, Thomson and Cowper, Burns and the Old English Ballads are
+among them. In every case we are not tantalized with mere estimates and
+characterizations, but are furnished with illustrative specimens of the
+poems discussed. But the initiation into English literature which we
+receive from Hazlitt does not end with the authors of whom he treats
+directly. Resuming our figure of a landscape, we may say that he takes
+us through a thousand bypaths into charming nooks and upon delightful
+prospects of which he has made no announcement beforehand.
+
+I spoke of reading and pondering his book in a single college term. But,
+while this may easily be done, it will be far more profitable for the
+student, as soon as he feels drawn away from the volume to some author
+whom it presents, to lay it aside and make an excursion of his own into
+literature. Then let him take up the volume again and go on with it
+until the critic's praise of the "Faerie Queene," or the "Rape of the
+Lock," or the "Castle of Indolence" again draws his attention off the
+essay to the poem itself. And as one poem and one author will lead to
+another, the volume with which the student set out will thus gradually
+fulfill its highest mission by inspiring and training its reader to do
+without it. If the student has access to the shelves of a large library,
+the very handling of the books in their groups will bring him into
+contact with other books which he will be attracted to and will dip into
+and read. In fact it should not be long before he finds his problem to
+be, not what to read, but what to resist reading.
+
+Suppose, however, that the student finds himself already possessed of a
+vague, general knowledge of literature, but nothing definite or
+satisfying, nothing that inspires interest. He it is who may profitably
+take up the first attractive unread book at hand; but he should endeavor
+to read it, not as an isolated fragment of literature, but in its
+relations. Suppose the book happens to be "Don Quixote." This is a work
+written primarily to amuse. But if the reader throws himself into the
+spirit of the book, he will not be content, for instance, with the mere
+mention of the romances of chivalry which turned the poor knight's
+brain. He will want to read about them and to read some of them
+actually. He will be curious as to Charlemagne and his peers, Arthur and
+his knights, and will seek to know their true as well as their fabulous
+history. Then he will wonder who the Moors were, why they were banished,
+and what was the result to Spain of this act in which even his liberal
+and kindly author acquiesced. He will ask if antiquity had its romances
+and if any later novelists were indebted to Cervantes. The answer to the
+last query will bring him to Gil Blas in French literature and to the
+works of the great English romancers of the eighteenth century. Fielding
+will lead him to Thackeray, Smollett to Dickens, Dickens to Bret Harte,
+and Bret Harte to Kipling. If he reads Cervantes in English, he will
+have a choice of translations, and he will not fail to mark the
+enormous difference in language, literary style, and ideals of rendering
+between the three versions of Shelton in the seventeenth century,
+Motteux in the eighteenth, and Ormsby in the nineteenth. If, like many
+another, he becomes so interested in the great romance as to learn
+Spanish for the sake of coming into direct communication with his
+author, a whole new literature will be opened to him. Furthermore, in
+the cognate languages which a mastery of Spanish will make easy for him,
+a group of literatures will be placed at his command; and, while he
+began with Cervantes, who threw open for him the portals of the middle
+ages, we may leave him with Dante, looking before and after over all
+human achievement and destiny.
+
+All this the student will not do in one term nor in one year, but he
+will have _found himself_ in the library, he will have acquired a bond
+to culture that will not break as he steps out of his last recitation,
+that will not yield when time and distance have relegated his college
+friendships, with his lost youth, to the Eden or the Avilion of memory.
+And if afterwards he comes, with Emerson, to find the chief value of his
+college training in the ability it has given him to recognize its little
+avail, he will thus disparage it only in the spirit in which a more
+advanced student of an earlier day, looking back upon the stupendous
+revelations of his "Principia," likened them to so many pebbles or
+shells picked up on the shore of the illimitable ocean of knowledge.
+
+
+
+
+ORTHOGRAPHIC REFORM
+
+
+Seldom have controversies brought out so much humor, on both sides, as
+that over the reform of English spelling, and few have excited so little
+interest in proportion to the energy expended. Both these results are
+due perhaps to the fact that the subject, from its very nature, does not
+admit of being made a burning question. Yet one has to look only a
+little way into it to see that important interests--educational,
+commercial, and possibly racial--are involved. Thus far the champions
+have been chiefly the newspapers for spelling as it is, and scholars and
+educators for spelling as it ought to be. But, in spite of the
+intelligence of the disputants, the discussion has been singularly
+insular and deficient in perspective. It would gain greatly in
+conclusiveness if spelling and its modifications were considered broadly
+and historically, not as peculiar to English, but as common to all
+languages, and involving common problems, which we are not the first to
+grapple with, but rather seem destined to be the last to solve.
+
+As is usually the case in controversies, the chief obstacle to agreement
+is a lack of what the lawyers call a meeting of minds. The two sides are
+not talking about the same thing. The reformer has one idea of what
+spelling is; the public has another idea, which is so different that it
+robs the reformer's arguments of nearly all their force. The two ideas
+for which the same word is used are hardly more alike than mother of
+pearl and mother of vinegar. To the philologist spelling is the
+application of an alphabet to the words of a language, and an alphabet
+is merely a system of visible signs adapted to translate to the eye the
+sounds which make up the speech of the people. To the public spelling is
+part and parcel of the English language, and to tamper with it is to lay
+violent hands on the sacred ark of English literature. To the
+philologist an alphabet is not a thing in itself, but only a medium, and
+he knows many alphabets of all degrees of excellence. Among the latest
+formed is that which we use and call the Roman, but which, though it was
+taken from Italy, made its way back after a course of form development
+that carried it through Ireland, England, and Germany. This alphabet was
+originally designed for writing Latin, and, as English has more sounds
+than Latin, some of the symbols when applied to English have to do
+multiple duty; though this is the least of the complaints against our
+current spelling. In fact any inventive student of phonetics could in
+half an hour devise a better alphabet for English, and scores have been
+devised. But the Roman has the field, and no one dreams of advocating a
+new alphabet for popular use. Meanwhile, though the earliest English may
+have been written in Runic, and the Bibles which our Pilgrim fathers
+brought over were printed in Black-letter, still to the great
+English-reading public the alphabet of current books and papers is the
+only alphabet. Even this is a double alphabet, consisting as it does of
+capitals and small letters; and we have besides Italic, Black-letter,
+and Script, all in common use, all with double forms, and all differing
+greatly from one another. At best the Roman alphabet, though beautiful
+and practical, is not so beautiful as the Greek nor nearly so efficient
+for representing English sounds as the Cherokee syllabary invented by
+the half-breed, Sequoyah, is for representing the sounds of his mother
+tongue.
+
+Let us now turn from the alphabet, which is the foundation of spelling,
+to spelling itself. Given a scientific alphabet, spelling, as a problem,
+vanishes; for there is only one possible spelling for any spoken word,
+and only one possible pronunciation for any written word. Both are
+perfectly easy, for there is no choice, and no one who knows the
+alphabet can make a mistake in either. But given a traditional alphabet
+encumbered with outgrown or impracticable or blundering associations,
+and spelling may become so difficult as to serve for a test or hallmark
+of scholarship. In French, for instance, the alphabet has drifted so far
+from its moorings that no one on hearing a new word spoken, if it
+contains certain sounds, can be sure of its spelling; though every one
+on seeing a new word written knows how to pronounce it. But in English
+our alphabet has actually parted the cable which held it to speech, and
+we know neither how to write a new word when we hear it nor how to
+pronounce one when we see it. Strangest of all, we have come, in our
+English insularity, to look on this as a matter of course. But Germans
+and Spaniards, Italians and Dutchmen, have no such difficulty and never
+have to turn to the dictionary to find out how to spell a word that they
+hear or how to pronounce a word that they see. For them spelling and
+speech are identical; all they have to make sure of is the standard
+pronunciation. They have done what we have neglected to do--developed
+the alphabet into an accurate phonetic instrument, and our neglect is
+costing us, throughout the English-speaking world, merely in dealing
+with silent letters, the incredible sum of a hundred million dollars a
+year.[5] Our neighbors look after the alphabet and the spelling looks
+after itself; if the pronunciation changes, the spelling changes
+automatically, and thus keeps itself always up to date.
+
+But this happy result has not been brought about without effort, the
+same kind of effort that our reformers are now making for our benefit.
+In Swedish books printed only a hundred years ago we find words printed
+with the letters _th_ in combination, like the word _them_, which had
+the same meaning, and originally the same pronunciation, as the English
+word. At that time, however, Swedes had long ceased to be able to
+pronounce the _th_, but they kept the letters just as we still keep the
+_gh_ in _brought_ and _through_, though for centuries no one who speaks
+only standard English has been able to sound this guttural. In the last
+century the Swedes reformed their spelling, and they now write the word
+as they pronounce it--_dem_. German spelling has passed through several
+stages of reform in recent decades and is now almost perfectly phonetic.
+Germans now write _Brot_ and no longer _Brod_ or _Brodt_. It must be
+frankly confessed that the derivation of some words is not so obvious to
+the eye as formerly. The appearance of the Swedish _byra_ does not at
+once suggest the French _bureau_, which it exactly reproduces in sound.
+But Europeans think it more practical, if they cannot indicate both
+pronunciation and etymology in spelling, to relegate the less important
+to the dictionary. Much, to be sure, has been made of the assumed
+necessity of preserving the pedigree of our words in their spelling, but
+in many cases this is not done now. Who thinks of _alms_ and
+_eleemosynary_ as coming from the same Greek word? Scholars say that a
+complete phonetic spelling of English would actually restore to the eye
+as much etymology as it took away.
+
+But the most deep-seated opposition to changing our current spelling
+arises from its association, almost identification, with English
+literature. If this objection were valid it would be final, for
+literature is the highest use of language, and if reformed spelling
+means the loss of our literature we should be foolish to submit to it.
+But at what point in the history of English literature would reformed
+spelling begin to work harm? Hardly before Shakespeare, for the spelling
+of Chaucer belongs to the grammatical stage of the language at which he
+wrote, and Spenser's spelling is more or less an imitation of it made
+with a literary purpose. Shakespeare and Milton, however, wrote
+substantially modern English, and they are therefore at the mercy of the
+spelling reformer--as they always have been. The truth is, Shakespeare's
+writings have been respelt by every generation that has reprinted them,
+and the modern spelling reformer would leave them at least as near to
+Shakespeare's spelling as our current spelling is. The poet himself made
+fun of his contemporaries who said _det_ instead of _debt_, but what
+would he say of us who continue to write the word _debt_, though it has
+not been so pronounced for three hundred years? In old editions (and how
+fast editions grow old!) antiquated spelling is no objection, it is
+rather an attraction; but new, popular editions of the classics will be
+issued in contemporary spelling so long as the preservation of metre and
+rhyme permit. We still occasionally turn to the first folio of
+Shakespeare and to the original editions of Milton's poems to enjoy
+their antique flavor, and, in the latter case, to commune not only with
+a great poet, but also with a vigorous spelling reformer. Thus, whatever
+changes come over our spelling, standard old editions will continue to
+be prized and new editions to be in demand. But for the most part,
+though we might not readily understand the actual speech of Shakespeare
+and Milton, could we hear it, we like to treat them as contemporaries
+and read their works in our everyday spelling.
+
+Our libraries, under spelling reform, will become antiquated, but only a
+little faster than they are now doing and always have done. Readers who
+care for a book over ten years old are few in number and will not mind
+antiquated spelling in the future any more than they do now. The
+printer, therefore, must not flatter himself with the prospect of a
+speedy reprinting of all the English classics in the new spelling.
+English is certain to have some day as scientific a spelling as German,
+but the change will be spread over decades and will be too gradual to
+affect business appreciably. On the other hand, he need not fear any
+loss to himself in the public's gain of the annual hundred million
+dollar tax which it now pays for the luxury of superfluous letters. Our
+printer's bills in the future will be as large as at present, but we
+shall get more for our money.
+
+It will indeed be to the English race a strange world in which the
+spelling book ends with the alphabet; in which there is no conflict of
+standards except as regards pronunciation; in which two years of a
+child's school life are rescued from the needless and applied to the
+useful; in which the stenographer has to learn not two systems of
+spelling, but only two alphabets; in which the simplicity and directness
+of the English language, which fit it to become a world language, will
+not be defeated by a spelling that equals the difficulty of German
+grammar; in which the blundering of Dutch printers, like _school_, false
+etymologies, like _rhyme_, and French garnishes, as in _tongue_, no
+longer make the judicious grieve; and in which the fatal gift of bad
+spelling, which often accompanies genius, will no longer be dependent
+upon the printer to hide its orthographic nakedness from a public which,
+if it cannot always spell correctly itself, can always be trusted to
+detect and ridicule bad spelling. But it is a world which the English
+race will some day have, and which we may begin to have here and now if
+we will.
+
+
+
+
+THE PERVERSITIES OF TYPE
+
+
+That searching analyst of the soul, Edgar Allan Poe, found among the
+springs of human nature the quality of perverseness, the disposition to
+do wrong because it is wrong; in reality, however, Poe's Imp of the
+Perverse is active far beyond the boundaries of the human soul; his
+disturbances pervade the whole world, and nowhere are they more
+noticeable than in the printing office. This is so because elsewhere,
+when things fall out contrary to rule, the result may often be neutral
+or even advantageous; but in the printing office all deviations, or all
+but a minute fraction, are wrong. They are also conspicuous, for, though
+the standard is nothing less than perfection, the ordinary human eye is
+able to apply the standard. These tricks of the malicious imp are
+commonly called "misprints," "printer's errors," "errors of the press,"
+or, more impartially, "errata" or "corrigenda." In the first three names
+there is a tinge of unfairness, because the printer is by no means
+responsible for all the mistakes that appear in type. The author is
+usually partly to blame and may be chiefly; yet when he suffers a lapse
+of memory or knowledge, he usually passes it off as a "printer's error."
+Sometimes the author's handwriting may mislead the printer, but when so
+good a biblical scholar as Mr. Gladstone wrote of _Daniel_ in the fiery
+furnace, there was no possibility that the single name could have stood
+in his manuscript for the names of the three men whose trial is
+mentioned in the _book_ of Daniel. Even here the submission of proof
+fixes the final responsibility on the author. But, quite apart from the
+responsibility for them, the mistakes embalmed in type are among the
+most interesting of all literary curiosities.
+
+Misprints--to use the handiest term--range in importance from the
+innocent and obvious, like a turned _a_, and the innocent and obvious
+only to the expert, like a turned _s_, to a turned _n_, which may be
+mistaken for a _u_, or the change or omission of a punctuation mark,
+which may involve claims to thousands of dollars. Even the separation of
+one word into two may reverse the meaning of the sentence, yet not
+betray itself by any oddity of phrase, as when the atheist who had
+asserted that "God is nowhere" found himself in print standing sponsor
+for the statement that "God is now here." The same trick of the types
+was played on an American political writer in his own paper regarding
+his pet reform, which he meant to assert was "nowhere in existence." The
+earliest printed books were intended to be undistinguishable from
+manuscripts, but occasionally a turned letter betrayed them absolutely.
+In the same way the modern newspaper now and then introduces an
+unintentional advertisement of the linotype by presenting to its readers
+a line upside down. Another trick is the mixing of two paragraphs, which
+sometimes occurs even in books. The most famous instance of this blunder
+is probably that which happened in the English "Men of the Time" for
+1856, and which led to a serious lawsuit against the publishers. The
+printer had mixed the biographies of the Bishop of Oxford and Robert
+Owen the Socialist in such a way that Bishop Wilberforce was called "a
+sceptic as it regards religious revelation." The mistake occurred in
+locking up the forms. Doubtless both biographies had been approved by
+their subjects, but apparently no proof was read after the fatal
+telescoping of the two articles.
+
+The last instance is an example of the patient waiting as much as the
+ingenuity of the Imp of the Perverse, but in pure ingenuity he is
+without a rival in mere human inventiveness. It certainly was a
+resourceful Frenchman who translated "hit or miss" as "frappe ou
+mademoiselle," and it was inspired ignorance on the part of a student
+assistant in a college library who listed "Sur l'Administration de M.
+Necker, par Lui Meme" under "Meme, Lui," as if it were the name of the
+author of the book instead of being the French for "himself." But the
+Imp of the Perverse aims higher than this. He did not hesitate in an
+edition of the Bible published in London in 1631 to leave the _not_ out
+of the one commandment from which its absence would be the most
+noticeable. This was much worse than leaving out the whole commandment,
+for it transformed a moral prohibition into an immoral command. The
+printer in this case was fined three hundred pounds, or five hundred
+dollars for each letter omitted. It is curious that the _same_ omission
+was made in an edition of the Bible printed at Halle. A Vermont paper,
+in an obituary notice of a man who had originally come from Hull, Mass.,
+was made by the types to state that "the body was taken to Hell, where
+the rest of the family are buried." In the first English Bible printed
+in Ireland, "Sin no more" appears as "Sin on more." It was, however, a
+deliberate joke of some Oxford students which changed the wording in the
+marriage service from "live" to "like," so that a couple married out of
+this book are required to live together only so long as they "both shall
+like." An orator who spoke of "our grand mother church" was made to say
+"our grandmother church." The public of Brown University was recently
+greatly amused by a local misprint. The president of the university is
+required by its ancient charter to be an "antipaedobaptist"; the types
+reproduced the word as "antipseudobaptist," a word which would be a very
+good Greek rendering of "hardshell." An express train at full speed
+having struck a cow, the report was made to say that it "cut her into
+calves." Sixty years ago the "London Globe" made the Registrar General
+say that the city was suffering from a high rate of _morality_. The
+ingenuity of our readers will supply the missing letter, as it also will
+the the true reading of the following passage which appeared in an
+English newspaper: "Sir Robert Peel has been out with a party of fiends
+shooting peasants." It was an easy but astonishing blunder made in
+German, in the substitution of "Maedchen" (girls) for "Maechten" (powers),
+according to which Bismarck was asserted to be "trying to keep up honest
+and straightforward relations with all the girls."
+
+The Imp of the Perverse, when he descends upon the printing office,
+sometimes becomes the Imp of the Perverted. Here his achievements will
+not bear reproducing. Suffice it to say that in point of indecency he
+displays the same superhuman ingenuity as in his more innocent pranks.
+His indecencies are all, indeed, in print, but fortunately scattered,
+and it would be a groveling nature that should seek to collect them; yet
+the absence of this chapter from the world's book of humor means the
+omission of a comic strain that neither Aristophanes nor Rabelais has
+surpassed. Even as I write, a newspaper misprint assures me that
+typesetting machines are no protection against the Imp of the Perverted.
+Perhaps we may be pardoned the reproduction of one of the mildest of
+these naughtinesses. A French woman novelist had written: "To know truly
+what love is, we must go out of ourselves" (sortir de soi). The
+addition of a single letter transformed this eminently respectable
+sentiment into the feline confession: "To know truly what love is, we
+must go out nights" (sortir de soir).
+
+Sometimes the Blunder Sprite deliberately pits himself against author,
+proof reader, and all their allies. The books printed by Aldus are
+famous for their correctness, yet a few errors crept into them, so much
+to the disgust of the great printer that he said he would gladly have
+given a gold crown for each one to be rid of them. The famous Oxford
+University Press is said to have posted up the first sheet of one of its
+Bibles, with the offer of a guinea for every misprint that could be
+found in it. None was found--until the book was printed. James Lenox,
+the American collector, prided himself on the correctness of his reprint
+of the autograph manuscript of "Washington's Farewell Address," which he
+had acquired. On showing the book to Henry Stevens, the bookseller, the
+latter, glancing at a page, inquired, "Why pap_a_r instead of pap_e_r?"
+Mr. Lenox was overwhelmed with mortification; but Stevens sent for a
+skillful bookbinder, who removed the objectionable _a_ and with a
+camel's hair pencil substituted an _e_ for it, so that the demon was
+conquered after all, but only through great trouble. How would it seem
+possible to reissue a printed book, copy it exactly, and yet make an
+atrocious blunder? The Type Spirit is equal to even this feat. The book
+was a mathematical one, full of formulae. It was not reproduced page for
+page, so it was perfectly easy for a signature mark to get printed and
+appear in the middle of a page mixed up with an equation, to the
+confusion of American mathematical scholarship. More tragic were the
+misprints in a work by the Italian poet, Guidi, which are said to have
+hastened his death. In an interesting volume by Henry B. Wheatley on
+"Literary Blunders," the Tricksy Puck of the Press has revenged himself
+on the author for his attacks by smuggling in a number of misprints,
+among them one that he must have inspired in the mind of the author, the
+spelling "Bride of Lammermuir," which has no warrant in Scott's novel
+itself. In the same book is a reference to Shakespeare that diligent
+search fails to verify. Thus no knowledge or skill avails against the
+Kobold of the Case. The most baffling device of the imp is to cause a
+new error in the process of correcting an old one. This residuary
+misprint is one against which there is no complete protection. When
+General Pillow returned from Mexico he was hailed by a Southern editor
+as a "battle-scarred veteran." The next day the veteran called upon him
+to demand an apology for the epithet actually printed, "battle-scared."
+What was the horror of the editor, on the following day, to see the
+expression reappear in his apology as "bottle-scarred"!
+
+Occasionally, however, the mischief maker takes a notion to improve the
+copy set before him. The world will never know how often this has
+happened, for authors are just as willing to take credit for
+excellencies not their own as to lay on the printer the blame for their
+own oversights. In one of Artemus Ward's articles he had spoken of a
+starving prisoner as appealing for something to eat. The proof rendered
+it something to _read_. The humorist accepted the substitution as an
+additional absurdity. The French poet, Malherbe, once welcomed a
+misprint as an improvement on what he had written. There can be no doubt
+that, had there been no misprints in Shakespeare's quartos and folios,
+half the occupation of Shakespeare scholarship would have been lacking.
+Sometimes the original manuscript turns up--unfortunately not in
+Shakespeare's case--to confute some or all of the ingenious editors. A
+learned professor changed the word "unbodied" in Shelley's "Skylark" to
+"embodied," and some critics approved the change; but the poet's
+manuscript in the Harvard University Library makes the former reading
+clear beyond question. One might say that in these cases the Imp of the
+Perverse plants himself like a fatal microbe in the brain of the
+unfortunate editor. When that brilliant work, "The Principles of Success
+in Literature," by George Henry Lewes, appeared in the "Fortnightly
+Review," the expression "tilt stones from a cart" (used to describe
+careless writing) was printed with _l_ as the first letter. When the
+chapters were reissued in America, the proofreader, warned by the
+presence of numerous other gross misprints, naturally corrected the
+meaningless "lilt" to the obvious and natural "tilt." This change at
+first escaped the attention of the American editor, who in the second
+edition insisted on restoring the original misprint and even defended
+his misjudgment in a note. It is worth adding that the Oxford English
+Dictionary takes the misprint as too obvious for comment and quotes the
+passage under "tilt."
+
+The most daring feat of the typographic Angel of the Odd--to adopt
+another of Poe's expressions--is the creation of what Professor Skeat
+called "ghost words," that is, words that seem to exist but do not. A
+misprint in Scott's "Monastery" of "morse" for "nurse" was accepted
+without question by readers and gravely explained by scholars. Some of
+these words, of which there are scores, are due to the misreading of
+crabbed manuscripts, but not a few have originated in the printing
+office. It must be remembered that they make their way into the
+dictionaries. For another instance let the reader open Worcester's
+Dictionary to the word _phantomnation_. He will see it defined as
+"illusion" and referred to Pope. In Webster's Dictionary, however, he
+will learn its true character, as a ghost word formed by running
+together the two words _phantom nation_.
+
+The printing of poetry involves all the possible mistakes liable to
+prose and, owing to the form of poetry, some new ones. Thus in
+Pickering's Aldine edition of Milton, two words of one line in "Samson
+Agonistes" are dropped down into the next, making the two lines of
+uneven length and very much hurting the emphasis. The three-volume
+reprint of this edition dutifully copies the misprint. In the Standard
+edition of Dr. Holmes's "Works" printed at the Riverside Press, in the
+unusual case of a poem in stanzas being broken up into a dialogue, the
+end of one speech, carried over to the following page, has been assigned
+to the next speaker, thus spoiling both the sense and the metre. The
+most extraordinary instance that has ever come under my eye occurs in a
+special edition of John Hay's "Poems," issued as a college prize volume
+and very elegantly printed at a well-known press. One poem has
+disappeared entirely except a single stanza, which has been attached to
+another poem with which it has no connection, not even agreeing with it
+in metre.
+
+The list of errata, the printer's public confession of fault, is rather
+rare in modern books, but this is due as much to the indifference of the
+public as to better proofreading. When Edwin Arnold's "Light of Asia"
+took the reading world by storm, a New York reprint was issued, which we
+commend to anyone looking for classical examples of misprinted books. It
+averages perhaps a gross misprint to every page. Possibly extreme haste
+to beat the Boston edition in the market may have suggested dispensing
+with the proof reader. Of course a publisher who could so betray his
+customers would never offer them even the partial amends of a list of
+errata. Sometimes the errors are picked up while the book is still in
+press, and in that case the list of errata can be printed as an
+extension of the text; sometimes the best that can be done is to print
+it on a separate slip or sheet and either insert it in the book or
+supply it to purchasers. Both these things happened in the case of that
+early American book, Mather's "Magnalia." The loose list of errata was
+printed on the two inner pages of one fold the size of the book. In the
+two hundred years that have elapsed, most of these folded sheets have
+been lost, with the financial result that a copy of the book with them
+will bring twice as much as one without them, these two leaves weighing
+as much in the scales of commerce as the other four hundred. Sometimes a
+misprint establishes the priority of a copy, the error having been
+silently corrected while the sheets were going through the press, and
+thus adds to its value in the eyes of the collector. The extent of these
+ancient lists of errata staggers belief. Cardinal Bellarmin was obliged
+to issue an octavo volume of eighty-eight pages to correct the misprints
+in his published works, and there is on record a still huger list of
+errata, extending to one hundred and eleven quarto pages.
+
+But we must not suppose that misprints began with the invention of
+printing. The name did, but not the thing named. In earlier times it was
+the copyist who made the mistakes and bore the blame. It is easy to see
+how in Greece and Rome, when one reader read aloud a book which perhaps
+a hundred copyists reproduced, a great number of errors might creep into
+the copies, and how many of these would result from confusion in
+hearing. Every copy was then an edition by itself and a possible source
+of error, calling therefore for its own proofreading. It is accordingly
+no wonder that the straightening out of classic texts is still going on.
+Had Chaucer, who wrote over a hundred years before printing was
+introduced into England, been able to read once for all the proof of his
+poems, he would not have had to write that feeling address to his
+copyist, or scrivener, with which we may fitly take leave of our
+subject.
+
+    Adam scryveyne, if ever it thee byfalle,
+    Boece or Troylus for to wryten nuwe,
+    Under thy long lokkes thowe most have the scalle,
+    But affter my makyng thowe wryte more truwe;
+    So offt a daye I mot thy werk renuwe,
+    It to corect, and eke to rubbe and scrape,
+    And al is thorugh thy necglygence and rape.
+
+
+
+
+A SECRET OF PERSONAL POWER
+
+
+Greater efficiency is the watchword of the hour. The pages of every
+technical and even educational magazine bristle with it. One is driven
+to wonder whether the principle does not require that in every printing
+office the word "efficiency" be stereotyped to save the cost of setting.
+We are told how one manager of a creamery saved annually the amount of
+his own salary to the company by having the dents in the supply cans
+pounded out and so getting more milk from the farmers. But though the
+lengths to which the insistence on efficiency is carried may sometimes
+provoke a smile, we have no inclination to disparage it; we realize that
+efficiency has far more than a mere money value to society; it is rather
+our purpose in the present paper to ask whether the efficiency man has
+ever thought to turn his searchlight in upon himself and discover
+whether he has not latent and unexpected powers that may be evoked to
+the great increase of his own efficiency.
+
+We have nothing historically new to offer, though the principle we are
+to mention is practically unknown or at least unutilized. It is the
+great, controlling principle of Forethought, the application of which is
+far wider than thought itself, extending to all the functions of the
+soul and even affecting bodily energy and health. The action of
+Forethought is based on the fact that there is more to ourselves than we
+are aware of. We are not ordinarily conscious of our past lives, for
+instance, yet a supreme crisis, such as falling from a height, may make
+a man's whole past in an instant flash before him in review. Under
+sudden stress a man may develop powers of leadership or resolution that
+nobody could have foreseen and that he himself cannot account for. Our
+selves as we know them are, so to speak, only the top soil of our entire
+natures. Every conscious personality is like a farm in an oil district.
+It is underlain by an unrealized wealth that may never be brought to
+light. Some accident may reveal the treasure, but if the owner suspects
+its existence he may bore for it. To show how this boring may be done is
+one of the purposes of the present paper. But let us first assure
+ourselves further of the existence of this hidden fund of energy.
+
+If in the early fifties of the last century a vote had been taken on the
+two men in America who ten years later would stand head and shoulders
+above their countrymen in position and recognized ability, it is
+probable that not one single vote would have been cast for a slouchy
+Missouri farmer or a shabby Illinois lawyer, certainly not for the
+former. Grant and Lincoln themselves would not have expected a vote. Yet
+their powers existed then, unrealized by their owners, and only needing
+the proper stimulus to bring them out. That stimulus was responsibility;
+and, great as their achievements were under this stimulus, neither man
+appears to have reached his limit; each apparently had still a fund of
+reserve power to be expended on yet greater occasions had they arisen.
+This is not to say that all men have an equal fund of unrecognized
+ability. The experiences of the great struggle out of which Lincoln and
+Grant came supreme are alone sufficient to show how unequal are men's
+endowments. A McClellan proves himself an unsurpassed organizer, but no
+fighter; a Burnside displays marked ability in leading fifteen or
+twenty thousand men, but beyond this number he fails disastrously.
+Neither Foresight nor any other device can _create_ ability. A gallon
+can will hold only a gallon, no matter how carefully its sides are
+rounded. But in the case of any given man no one knows his capacity
+until he has had a chance to show it. His nature may hold only a pint,
+or, as with the men who have mastered great occasions with still
+unexhausted powers, it may seem like the horn which the god Thor tried
+to drain but could not, for its base was connected with the ocean
+itself. Not every man can hope to be called to a responsibility that
+shall bring out his latent powers; most of us, if we are ever to get the
+call, will first have to show the ability.
+
+How can a man tap the unknown resources, be they great or small, of his
+unconscious self? The method here to be suggested has at least the merit
+of great simplicity. I have called it Forethought; it might perhaps as
+exactly be called Forewilling. The point is that this unconscious part
+of a man's nature is not out of his control; he can send word to it and
+direct it, even if he has to do so by a kind of wireless telegraphy.
+However mysterious this may sound, there is nothing mystical about it,
+neither is it something vague and indefinite, but a practice to be
+applied to actual cases in hand. Suppose a business man is trying to get
+an important contract, and is to have an interview on the morrow that
+will decide the question. Let him, before he falls asleep at night, go
+over the whole ground in his mind, set before himself clearly the thing
+to be done with the particular difficulties to be met, and let him
+_will_ himself to meet those difficulties, to carry his case. Let him
+will that at that time he shall be cheerful and vigorous; and, having
+given these instructions to his unconscious self--which has perhaps
+been waiting years for just this chance to do its part in the common
+endeavor--let him dismiss the whole matter from his conscious thought
+and go to sleep. On awaking in the morning let him review the matter and
+again dismiss it from his mind until the occasion arrives. If he will do
+this faithfully, he may not succeed the first time in carrying his
+point, but he will certainly feel a great increase of power, and
+ultimately, if he persists in making his unconscious self an active
+partner in his life, he will find himself far more successful than he
+could have been while depending on a single side of his nature. The same
+principle will hold, of course, in a myriad cases; if we have to-morrow,
+or even at a later date, to plead a cause, to make an after-dinner
+speech, to write a report or an article, to learn a lesson, to entertain
+guests, to handle a difficult case of discipline, we have only to take
+this counsel of our pillow, to reenforce it with our first morning
+thought, and we shall find ourselves making a new record of success.
+
+It is obvious that a principle so effective cannot be limited to the
+active or the intellectual life. If a man has a fault or a besetting
+weakness or sin, here is a way out of it. How long will a bad habit
+stand such an assault upon itself as the evening and morning practice of
+Forethought? One will actually feel the new force within him, like a
+gyroscopic stabilizer, holding him to his predetermined course. There is
+literally a world of hope for mankind in the application of this
+principle on its moral side. But the business of our article is with
+other applications and we must dismiss this, the greatest of all, with a
+mere mention.
+
+If anyone questions whether this principle is true or not, the best
+answer will be to bid him test it. Though it be true universally, some
+people may not easily apply it, and some may not have the patience to
+subject themselves to such a discipline. But most will have no
+difficulty, and many will succeed well enough to inspire themselves to
+continue. Some, indeed, will say, and with perfect truth, that there is
+nothing new in this doctrine, that they have long known and applied it.
+The principle has doubtless been known for thousands of years, but it
+has certainly not been widely taken up by our race, which is curiously
+external in its notions of self-education and self-control. One American
+writer, the late Charles Godfrey Leland, a man of the most varied powers
+and accomplishments, has written in advocacy of it and gives us as his
+own experience that after the age of seventy he was able to do a greater
+amount of literary work, and with less fatigue, than ever before simply
+by calling in the aid of his unconscious self. If one were to read the
+lives and writings of eminent men with this principle of Forethought in
+mind, one would find numberless instances of its more or less
+unconscious practice. The best scholar in my own class, for instance,
+applied it to his studies. Does anyone suppose that the old Puritan's
+sweetening of his mind with a little Calvin before he went to bed was
+without its effect on his devotion to Calvinism? Erasmus, the wittiest
+of scholars, writing nearly four hundred years ago to his special
+friend, Christian of Lubeck, recommends the practice both of the evening
+instruction and the morning review as something that he himself has
+followed from his childhood; and we cannot doubt that in it he reveals
+one of the secrets of his world-wide influence. He says to his youthful
+friend: "A little before you go to sleep read something choice and worth
+remembering, and think it over until you fall asleep. When you awake in
+the morning make yourself give an account of it." Though this is clearly
+an application of the principle to study and the strengthening of the
+memory, experiment will show that the potency of Forethought is not
+limited to the memory or the intellect in general, but applies to man's
+entire nature and equally to the least and the greatest of its
+concerns.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+[1] The substance of an address delivered Nov. 18, 1909, in the Boston
+Public Library, under the auspices of the Society of Printers.
+
+[2] The address here summarized was printed at the Chiswick Press and
+published at Christmas, 1884. Mr. Stevens died early in 1886, leaving a
+posthumous book entitled "Recollections of Mr. James Lenox," which was
+printed in the same year at the Chiswick Press, and which is of great
+interest to booklovers, especially Americans.
+
+[3] Mr. Edison's projected substitute for paper, sheets of nickel,
+20,000 to the inch, may indicate the book material of the future, but at
+present it is only a startling possibility.
+
+[4] The type in which this book is printed is a modern Bodoni, cut in
+Italy, and was chosen for its elegance rather than to illustrate the
+latest results in legibility of type design.
+
+[5] See "Simplified Spelling in Writing and Printing; a Publisher's
+Point of View," by Henry Holt, LL.D., New York, 1906. About one half the
+expense falls within the domain of printing.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+ABILITY, cannot be created, 164.
+
+Accents, their help in reading poetry, 17, 18.
+
+AEschylus, as characterized by Mrs. Browning, 67.
+
+Aldine edition of the British Poets, by Pickering, 23, 24.
+
+Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, his "Friar Jerome's Beautiful Book," 87, 88.
+
+Aldus, Alduses and Elzevirs contrasted, 23;
+  beauty in his work, 4;
+  bindings of, 100;
+  his characteristic book, 21;
+  his example followed by the Elzevirs, 22;
+  his italic type and its effect on the size and price of books, 20, 21;
+  Pickering and other followers of, 23, 24;
+  vexed by misprints, 156.
+
+Alphabet, Chinese, picture writing, 80, 81;
+  derivation from picture writing, 81;
+  scientific and actual, 147;
+  varieties in use, 146.
+  _See also_ Type.
+
+American Journal of Psychology, contains Sanford's study on "The
+    relative legibility of the small letters," 122.
+
+Arnold, Edwin, misprints in his "Light of Asia," 159.
+
+Art, art aspect of the book, 3, 49, 115;
+  shares the prehistoric background of the book, 79, 80.
+
+Artists not opposed to criticism, 62.
+
+Assyrian clay tablet, 4.
+
+Astor Library, size in 1875, 104.
+
+Audubon, John James, his elephant-folio "Birds of America," 55.
+
+Authors, reading by single authors and groups, 74-76;
+  spoilers of books, 40.
+
+Authorship, rules of, 44.
+
+
+BABYLONIAN book, 82.
+
+Back numbers, unimportant contemporary works become, 77.
+
+"Background of the book," 79-86.
+
+Bacon, Francis, Lord, quoted, 106, 112.
+
+Baird, John Wallace, directs Clark University studies on legibility, 124.
+
+Ballads, Old English, Hazlitt on, 142.
+
+Balzac, Honore de, expanded his novels in proof, 15.
+
+Balzac, Jean Louis Guez de, acknowledged his indebtedness to the
+    Elzevirs, 22.
+
+Bamboo, source of Chinese paper, 85.
+
+Barlow, Joel, place of his "Columbiad" in modern printing, 10.
+
+Bartlett, John, quoted, 128.
+
+Baskerville, John, his smooth paper, 5.
+
+Beauty, _see_ Esthetics.
+
+Beecher, Henry Ward, his "Norwood" in three volumes, 12;
+  John Beattie Crozier on his sermons, 111.
+
+Beethoven, his Ninth Symphony as a product of genius, 65.
+
+Bellarmin, Cardinal, list of errata in his works, 160.
+
+Best books, need of provision for daily reading, 107.
+  _See also_ Books.
+
+Bible, Hazlitt on its poetry, 141;
+  influence on Bunyan, on Calhoun, 110;
+  misprints in, 154, 156;
+  various folio editions, 19.
+
+Bible of humanity, Socrates in, 68.
+
+Bigness, in books, 35, 36, 45, 47.
+
+Binder, a spoiler of books, 40, 42;
+  what the librarian asks of him, 48.
+
+Binding, as an element of the book, 6;
+  "The clothing of a book," 97-101;
+  of the book beautiful, 52-55;
+  of the Chinese book, 88, 89;
+  of the well-made book, 52;
+  "Parchment bindings," 102, 103;
+  unnecessary rebindings, 46.
+
+Bion, as characterized by Mrs. Browning, 68.
+
+Birch bark, used for book of India, 85.
+
+Bismarck, misprint concerning, 155.
+
+Blackmore, Richard Doddridge, tribute to Shakespeare, 110.
+
+Blue and Gold editions, a favorite book size, 24-26.
+
+Bodoni, Giambattista, his type commended, 58, 129, 130.
+
+Book, "The background of the book," 79-86;
+  "blown" books, 35;
+  "The book beautiful," 49-62;
+  "The book of to-day and the book of to-morrow," 33-37;
+  Chinese, 84, 85, 87-91;
+  "The clothing of a book," 97-101;
+  a constructive critic of the, 38-43;
+  elements of, 4-6;
+  "Fitness in book design," 9-13;
+  its structural contradiction, 52;
+  materials, 92;
+  of the future, 95, 96;
+  on its physical side an art object, 3;
+  pre-Columbian Mexican, 6;
+  printed, a "substitute" for manuscript, 4;
+  subject to laws of esthetics and economics, 115;
+  tests of its utility, 115;
+  well-made, not extremely costly, 7,
+    not identical with beautiful, 52;
+  worth writing three times, 44.
+  _See also_ Design; Size.
+
+Book buyers, how to educate, 37;
+  spoilers of books, 40, 42.
+
+Booklovers, "Books and booklovers," 3-8;
+  must first know books, 7;
+  service in improvement of books, 48, 61, 62.
+
+Book production, 105;
+  elements added by printing, 14.
+
+Books, as a librarian would like them, 44-48;
+  "Books and booklovers," 3-8;
+  the greatest, few, 66;
+  intellectual riffraff, 9;
+  learning to love, 7;
+  "Lest we forget the few great books," 104-114;
+  perishable, 34, 45, 46;
+  progress in legibility of, 132, 133;
+  small, commended by Dr. Johnson, 20;
+  "The student and the library," 139-144;
+  that are not books, 105, 106;
+  world's annual publication of, 105.
+
+Books of Hours, dainty volumes, 20.
+
+Boston Athenaeum Library, size in 1875, 104.
+
+Boston Public Library, Address in, 3, _footnote_;
+  size in 1875, 104.
+
+Brandes, Georg, his "Shakespeare: a critical study," 72.
+
+Brass, used for book of India, 85.
+
+British Poets, rival editions of, by Pickering and by Little and Brown,
+    23, 24.
+
+Brown, Horatio Robert Forbes, on Aldus and his italic type, 20.
+
+Brown, John Carter, patron of Henry Stevens, 38.
+
+Brown University, misprint in quoting its charter, 154, 155.
+
+Browne, Charles Farrar, adopts a misprint, 157.
+
+Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, her "Wine of Cyprus" quoted, 67, 68.
+
+Buchanan, George, his Latin poems, commended by Dr. Johnson, 23;
+  published by the Elzevirs, 23.
+
+Bulk, in books, 92-96.
+
+Bunyan, John, debt to the Bible, 110.
+
+Burma, book of, _see_ India.
+
+Burns, Robert, Hazlitt on, 142.
+
+Burnside, General Ambrose Everett, his limitations, 163, 164.
+
+Burton, Sir Richard, his "Kasidah" in Mosher's tribute typography, 137.
+
+Bury, Richard de, author of the "Philobiblon," 8.
+
+Byron, Lord, hated Horace, 68.
+
+
+CAESURA, indication of, in print, 18.
+
+Calhoun, John Caldwell, reader of the Bible, 110.
+
+Calligraphy, _see_ Manuscript.
+
+Calvin, John, as a Puritan's spiritual nightcap, 166.
+
+Cambridge University, student groups in, 139.
+
+Capital letters, legibility, 121, 122, 126;
+  Roman in origin, 118;
+  Roman, superior to black-letter in combination, 57;
+  undersized, used by Aldus, 21.
+
+Carlyle, Thomas, on Goethe, 110;
+  rewrote his books in proof, 15.
+
+Caslon type, commended, 58, 117.
+
+Catchwords, usage of Aldus, 21.
+
+Cattell, James McKeen, his investigations of legibility, 121, 122.
+
+Cave men, pictures made by them, 79, 80.
+
+Centaur type, commended, 132.
+
+Century Dictionary, illustration of cerastes, 81;
+  a triumph of typography, 16, 135.
+
+Century types, commended, 127, 132.
+
+Cervantes, "Don Quixote," character and meaning of, 70, 71,
+    no final edition of, 11,
+    on reading, 143, 144,
+    translations of, 143, 144;
+  his character, 70;
+  later novelists indebted to, 143.
+
+Chaucer, Geoffrey, complaint of his scribe's errors, 160, 161;
+  Hazlitt on, 142;
+  his spelling, 149.
+
+Cheapness, _see_ Cost.
+
+Cheltenham type, commended, 132.
+
+Cherokee syllabary, 146.
+
+Children, increase of near sight among, 120;
+  legibility of books for, 5, 117.
+
+Chinese, alphabet, conventionalized picture writing, 80, 81;
+  book, 84, 85, 87-91.
+
+Chiswick Press, 38, _footnote_;
+  Pickering's books printed at, 41.
+
+Christian of Lubeck, letter of Erasmus to, quoted, 166.
+
+Cicero, did not write for children, 68.
+
+Clark University, studies on legibility, 124-127, 132.
+
+Classroom, not equal to a good book, 140.
+
+Clay tablet, and booklovers, 4;
+  described, 82.
+
+Clodd, Edward, on discovery of British prehistoric antiquities, 79.
+
+Cloister Oldstyle type, commended, 132;
+  a safe norm for poetry, 58.
+
+Cloth, used in binding, 53.
+
+"Clothing of a book," 97-101.
+
+Codex, Roman, form adopted for parchment books, 84;
+  original of modern book form, 19, 52, 90.
+
+Collins, Wilkie, tribute to "Robinson Crusoe," 110.
+
+Color, use of, 60.
+
+Columbian type, first used in Barlow's "Columbiad," 10.
+
+Columns, in wide pages, 47.
+
+Community, value of reading to the, 28, 29.
+
+Compactness and legibility, 117, 130, 131, 134, 135.
+
+Compositor, a spoiler of books, 40, 41.
+
+"Constructive critic of the book," 38-43.
+
+Consumers, _see_ Book buyers.
+
+Contemporary writers, on reading their works, 76, 77.
+
+Contrast of type, 16, 17.
+
+Copperplate printing, in connection with typography, 60.
+
+Cornell University Library, proof-sheets of the "Waverley Novels" in, 15.
+
+Corrigenda, 152-161;
+  lists of, 159, 160.
+
+Cost, the book of to-morrow will be cheaper, 36;
+  cheapened books, 45;
+  of beautiful books little more than of unsightly, 39;
+  relatively small, of well-made books, 7.
+
+Cowper, William, Hazlitt on, 142.
+
+Crabbe, George, a favorite edition of, 24.
+
+Criticism, "A constructive critic of the book," 38-43;
+  not opposed by artists, 62.
+
+Crozier, John Beattie, on reading, 111, 112.
+
+Culture cannot be vicarious, 140.
+
+
+DANA, JOHN COTTON, his analysis of the elements of the book, 4.
+
+Dante, his "Divine Comedy," character of, 69, 70, 144;
+  "fly's-eye" edition of, 55;
+  Hazlitt on, 141;
+  privilege of reading, 64;
+  Professor Torrey on reading, 109.
+
+Decoration, in bindings, 6, 99-101;
+  use of color in, 60.
+
+Defoe, Daniel, tribute of Wilkie Collins to "Robinson Crusoe," 110.
+
+Democratization of learning, by the cheap books of Aldus, 21.
+
+De Morgan, William, quoted, 63, 72;
+  value of his novels, 77.
+
+De Quincey, Thomas, on possible amount of reading in a lifetime, 105.
+
+Design, "Fitness in book design," 9-13;
+  of type, 5, 117, 118.
+
+Diagonal of page, 57.
+
+Dickens, Charles, his works in illegible print, 130,
+    on Oxford India paper, 94,
+    on thick paper, 95;
+  on reading him, 143.
+
+Dickinson, Emily, quoted, 30, 31.
+
+Didot, Ambrose Firmin, his "microscopic" type, 131.
+
+Discovery of a great book, 108, 109.
+
+Distinctions, to the eye, in manuscript and print, 16-18.
+
+Don Quixote, _see_ Cervantes.
+
+Dordogne, France, its prehistoric pictures, 79, 80.
+
+Dowden, Edward, his "Shakspere: his mind and art," 72.
+
+Dryden, John, Hazlitt on, 142.
+
+
+ECONOMICS, the book within the domain of, 115, 116.
+
+Edges, treatment of, 61.
+
+Edison, Thomas Alva, would substitute nickel for paper, 92, _footnote_.
+
+Editions de luxe, disapproved by Henry Stevens, 39.
+
+Education, in appreciation of beautiful books, 50;
+  of book buyers, 37.
+
+Efficiency, in modern life, 162;
+  of the book, 115.
+
+Egyptian, book, see Papyrus;
+  hieroglyphics, picture writing, 81.
+
+Elements of the book, 4-6.
+
+Elimination, test of, applied to reading, 63, 64.
+
+Eliot, Charles William, his Latin signature, 102, 103.
+
+Elzevirs, compared with Aldines, 23,
+    with Blue and Gold editions, 25;
+  described, 21-23.
+
+Emerson, Ralph Waldo, his life and works, 75, 76;
+  importance of his works, 112;
+  John Beattie Crozier on, 112;
+  quoted, 144.
+
+Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its two sizes of type, 135.
+
+English, alphabets, 117, 118;
+  book publication in 1913, 105;
+  books, criticised, 38-43;
+  literature as affected by reformed spelling, 149;
+  poets, Hazlitt's Lectures on, 141, 142;
+  romancers, of the 18th century, 143;
+  spelling, 145-151.
+
+Engravings, _see_ Illustrations.
+
+Erasmus, Desiderius, letter to Christian of Lubeck, quoted, 166.
+
+Errata, 152-161;
+  lists of, 159, 160.
+
+Errors of the press, 152-161.
+
+Essays, in a favorite book size, 24.
+
+Esthetics, beauty in typography, 136-138;
+  "The book beautiful," 49-62;
+  the book subject to the laws of, 115;
+  harmony between beauty and use in type design, 132;
+  in choice of type, 127, 131;
+  involves sacrifice of utility, 116;
+  its demands must be met in a favorite book, 24,
+    met by the Little Classic editions, 26;
+  of the book, 3, 9;
+  printer's duty, to, 18;
+  relation of thickness and thinness to, 23, 24;
+  sacrificed to legibility, 117.
+
+Etymology in spelling, 148.
+
+Eumenes II, originates parchment, 83, 84.
+
+Euripides, as characterized by Mrs. Browning, 68.
+
+Everyman's Library, in a favorite book size, 24.
+
+Eves, binders, their work, 100.
+
+"Exceptions to the rule of legibility," 134-138, 130, 131.
+
+Expression in typography, 9-13, 137, 138.
+
+Eyes, _see_ Sight.
+
+
+F, the letter, origin and derivatives, 81.
+
+Fairy Queen, _see_ Spenser, Edmund.
+
+"Favorite book sizes," 19-27.
+
+Favorite literature, in appropriate typography, 137.
+
+Fielding, Henry, a favorite edition of, 24;
+  on reading him, 143;
+  an unattractive edition of, 12.
+
+Fields, Annie Adams, her "Beacon Biography" of Hawthorne, 75.
+
+Finishing, _see_ Binding.
+
+Fitness, between illustrations and type, 6;
+  in book design, 9-13;
+  in typography, 137, 138.
+
+Fitzgerald, Edward, at Cambridge University, 139.
+
+Forethought, "A secret of personal power," 162-167.
+
+Forewilling, "A secret of personal power," 162-167.
+
+Format, _see_ Size.
+
+Forwarding, _see_ Binding.
+
+Franklin, Benjamin, quoted, 35, 123.
+
+French, alphabet, 147;
+  book publication in 1913, 105;
+  type, faults of, 117, 120, 128.
+
+Frowde, Henry, publishes "The Periodical" in form of a Chinese book, 88,
+    90.
+
+
+GALILEO, acknowledged his indebtedness to the Elzevirs, 22.
+
+Garfield, James Abram, recommends reading of fiction, 107.
+
+Gems, in bindings, 6.
+
+Genius, its bad spelling, 150, 151;
+  its monuments in the various arts, 65.
+
+German, book publication in 1913, 105;
+  spelling reform, 147, 148, 150;
+  tribute typography, 137;
+  type, faults of, 117, 122, 128.
+
+Ghost words, 158, 159.
+
+Gilding, _see_ Binding; Edges.
+
+Gladstone, William Ewart, a literary blunder of, 152, 153.
+
+Goethe, Carlyle on, 110;
+  his greatness, 73;
+  John Beattie Crozier on, 112;
+  on Sir Walter Scott, 110.
+
+Goffered edges, 61.
+
+Goudy, Frederic W., his Kennerley type commended, 132.
+
+Grace before reading, 77.
+
+Grammar of book manufacture, 40, 42.
+
+Grant, Ulysses Simpson, his coat of arms, 30;
+  his greatness brought out by responsibility, 163.
+
+Gray, Thomas, small bulk of his work, 69.
+
+"Great books, Lest we forget the few," 104-114.
+
+Greek literature, masterpieces of, 66-68.
+
+Greeks, surpassed by moderns in knowledge, 30.
+
+Green, John Richard, quoted, 50.
+
+Grolier, Jean, bindings made for, 100.
+
+Groups, reading authors by, 74, 75.
+
+Guide, in reading, 140-142;
+  none to love of books, 7.
+
+Guidi, Carlo Alessandro, killed by misprints, 156.
+
+
+HABIT, and forethought, 165.
+
+Haggard, Rider, his "Mr. Meeson's Will," 86.
+
+Hallam, Arthur Henry, at Cambridge University, 139.
+
+Handwriting, _see_ Manuscript.
+
+Harte, Francis Bret, on reading his works, 143.
+
+Harvard University, course in printing, 43;
+  Library possesses manuscript of Shelley's "Skylark," 158;
+  size of Library in 1875, 104.
+
+Hawthorne, Nathaniel, on reading him, 74, 75.
+
+Hay, John, his reading in college, 139;
+  a remarkable misprint in his "Poems," 159.
+
+Hazlitt, William, as a guide in reading, 141, 142;
+  Lamb and Stevenson on, 141.
+
+Headlines, Henry D. Lloyd on, 132.
+
+"Hibbert Journal," bulkiness of, 95.
+
+Hieroglyphics, _see_ Picture writing.
+
+Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, his life of Longfellow, 75.
+
+Holmes, Oliver Wendell, the Blue and Gold edition of his "Poems," 24, 25;
+  his life of Emerson, 75;
+  member of New England group of authors, 75;
+  a misprint in his "Works," 159;
+  quoted, 24, 80, 102, 106.
+
+Holt, Henry, on simplified spelling, 147, _footnote_.
+
+Homer, did not write for children, 68;
+  Hazlitt on, 141;
+  his works, 64, 66, 67;
+  Keats's sonnet on, 108, 109;
+  not out of date, 77;
+  why his works are divided into books, 83.
+
+Horace, hated by Byron, 68;
+  his works, 69;
+  in Bodoni's 1791 edition, 129, 130;
+  more modern than the Puritans, 69,
+    than Dante, 70.
+
+Houghton, Mifflin and Company, publish books resembling Chinese, 87, 88.
+
+Hours, books of, dainty volumes, 20.
+
+House of Representatives Library, size in 1875, 104.
+
+Hudson, Henry Norman, his edition of Shakespeare, 71, 72.
+
+Huey, Edmund Burke, his "Psychology and pedagogy of reading," commended,
+    124.
+
+Hull, Mass., as misprinted, 154.
+
+Humanistic type, _see_ New Humanistic.
+
+Hunt, Leigh, his characterization of the "Divine Comedy," 70.
+
+
+I, the letter, discussions regarding its dot, 61.
+
+"Idler," a favorite edition of, 24.
+
+Illumination, 51;
+  indication of initials for, 21.
+
+Illustration, as a feature of the book, 6;
+  of the book beautiful, 60.
+
+"Imitatio Christi," in Updike's specimen pages, 136.
+
+Incunabula, relatively cheap, 49.
+
+Indecency in misprints, 155, 156.
+
+Indenting, as affecting the book beautiful, 59.
+
+"Independent," compactly printed, 95.
+
+India, book of, 85, 86.
+
+Individual, value of reading to, 29-32.
+
+Initials, colored, 60;
+  spacing and mitering of, 59.
+
+Ink, best for the eye, 116, 120;
+  blue, for legibility, 5;
+  an element of the book, 5;
+  maker, a spoiler of books, 40, 42.
+
+Interpretative typography, 9-13, 137, 138.
+
+"Interpreter of meaning, Print as an," 14-18.
+
+Invention, in book production, 33, 34.
+
+Irving, Washington, book design in editions of his "Knickerbocker," 10, 11;
+  unfortunate use of his "Sketch Book" as a school book, 68, 69.
+
+Italic type, invention and use by Aldus, 20, 21.
+
+Italy, annual book publication, 105.
+
+
+JAPAN, annual book publication, 105.
+
+Javal, Dr. Emile, his investigations of legibility, 120, 121, 123.
+
+Jenson, Nicholas, beauty and grandeur in his work, 4;
+  descendants of his types, 132;
+  facsimile page of, _frontispiece_.
+
+Johnson, Rossiter, his Little Classic editions described, 25, 26.
+
+Johnson, Dr. Samuel, commends small books, 20, 22, 23;
+  a favorite edition of his "Idler," 24;
+  his "Prayers" in tribute typography, 136;
+  on our knowledge of ancient Britain, 79.
+
+Josephus, Flavius, book form inappropriate to, 50.
+
+Justification, requirements of, 58, 59.
+
+Justinian, facsimile page of his "Digestum novum," _frontispiece_.
+
+
+KEATS, JOHN, folio inappropriate to, 50;
+  inappropriate Forman edition of, 11;
+  "On first looking into Chapman's Homer," 108, 109;
+  small bulk of his work, 69.
+
+Kelmscott Press, _see_ Morris, William.
+
+Kennerley type, commended, 132.
+
+Kipling, Rudyard, on reading him, 143.
+
+"Knickerbocker," Irving's, book design in editions of, 10, 11.
+
+Knowledge, necessary to success in life, 30;
+  obtainable in its fulness only through books, 30;
+  progress possible only in, 29, 30.
+
+Kuran, sources from which it was compiled, 86.
+
+
+LAMB, CHARLES, on grace before reading, 77;
+  on Hazlitt, 141.
+
+Large-paper copies, condemned, 56, 131.
+
+Latin literature, masterpieces of, 68, 69.
+
+Leadership developed under stress, 163.
+
+Leading, as affecting legibility, 120;
+  as affecting spacing, 58, 59.
+
+Leather, employment in binding, 52-54.
+
+Le Gascon, binder, his work, 100.
+
+Legend, of pictures, proper place of, 60.
+
+Legibility, elements of the book as related to, 116-118;
+  "Exceptions to the rule of legibility," 130, 131, 134-138;
+  influence on, of paper, type, and ink, 5;
+  "Types and eyes: The problem," 120-127,
+    ---- "Progress," 128-133.
+
+Leland, Charles Godfrey, on forethought, 166.
+
+Length of line, 117.
+
+Lenox, James, mortified by a misprint, 156;
+  patron of Henry Stevens, 38;
+  "Recollections of," by Stevens, 38, _footnote_.
+
+Le Sage, Alain Rene, his "Gil Blas," 143.
+
+"Lest we forget the few great books," 104-114.
+
+Letters, _see_ Capital letters;
+  Manuscript;
+  Minuscules;
+  Silent letters;
+  Type.
+
+Lewes, George Henry, a misprint in one of his works, 158.
+
+Librarians, "Books as a librarian would like them," 44-48;
+  a duty to their successors, 103;
+  meeting of British, in 1882, 38.
+
+Libraries, as affected by spelling reform, 150;
+  development in the United States since 1875, 104;
+  electrical batteries of power, 30;
+  put to needless expense for big books, 36,
+    for rebindings, 46;
+  "The student and the library," 139-144.
+
+Library Company of Philadelphia, size of library in 1875, 104.
+
+Library hand, Bodoni's italic resembles, 130.
+
+Library of Congress, size in 1875, 104.
+
+Lightness, in books, deceptive, 93, 94.
+
+Lincoln, Abraham, his greatness brought by responsibility, 163.
+
+Lincoln cent, lettering on, 134.
+
+Line, endings should not show too many hyphens, 59;
+  normal length for legibility, 117.
+
+Linnaeus, quoted, 33.
+
+Linotype, gives a turned line, 153.
+
+Literature, the book beautiful of service to, 62;
+  its treasures, 63-78;
+  print a contribution to, 15;
+  type appropriate to, 136-138.
+
+Little and Brown, publishers, their "British Poets" compared with
+    Pickering's "Aldines," 24.
+
+Little Classic editions, 20, 25, 26.
+
+Littre, Emile, typography of his "Dictionnaire," 135.
+
+Lloyd, Henry Demarest, on headlines, quoted, 132.
+
+Locker-Lampson, Frederick, inappropriate edition of his "My
+    Confidences," 12.
+
+London Registrar General, misprint, 155.
+
+Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, book design appropriate to his "Works," 11;
+  his "Michael Angelo," 87;
+  his sonnets on Dante, 70;
+  holiday edition of his "Skeleton in Armor," 137;
+  "Life," appropriate edition of, 12;
+  quoted, 68.
+
+Lowell, James Russell, member of New England group of authors, 75.
+
+
+MACAULAY, THOMAS BABINGTON, knew "Paradise Lost" by heart, 73.
+
+McClellan, General George Brinton, his limitations, 163.
+
+Malherbe, Francois, welcomes a misprint, 157.
+
+Mammoth, picture of, a prehistoric book, 79.
+
+Manuscript, chief difference from print, 14;
+  distinctions in, 16;
+  importance to bookmaking, 51;
+  limitations of, 16;
+  Ruskin on, 51;
+  still used in private records, 15.
+  _See also_ Papyrus; Parchment.
+
+Margin, size and proportions of, 56, 57.
+
+Marriage service, misprint in, 154.
+
+Material of the book, changed twice in two thousand years, 92.
+
+Materials of writing, 86.
+
+Mather, Cotton, list of errata in his "Magnalia," 160.
+
+Mathews, William, as an author, 63;
+  his memory of choice passages, 63;
+  on reading ten pages a day, 108.
+
+Maxim, Sir Hiram, quoted, 92.
+
+"Meaning, Print as an interpreter of," 14-18.
+
+Mearne, Samuel, binder, 100.
+
+Memory, Erasmus on art of strengthening, 166, 167;
+  value of a well-stored, 63.
+
+"Men of the Time," famous misprint in, 153, 154.
+
+Menage, Gilles, acknowledged his indebtedness to the Elzevirs, 22.
+
+Mexican book, pre-Columbian, ornamented, 6;
+  described, 85, 86;
+  picture writing of, 81.
+
+Michelangelo, his "Moses" as a product of genius, 65.
+
+Milton, John, debt of Daniel Webster to, 110;
+  gave metric hints by spelling, 18;
+  Hazlitt on, 142;
+  his greatness, 72, 73;
+  his spelling, 149, 150;
+  Lamb would say grace before reading, 77;
+  a misprint in "Samson Agonistes," 159;
+  on the deprivation caused by his blindness, 63, 64;
+  a spelling reformer, 149.
+
+Minuscules, legibility, 122-124, 126;
+  of late origin, 118.
+
+Misprints, "The perversities of type," 152-161.
+
+Montaigne, "Journal of his travels," in three volumes, 12.
+
+Morgan, Lloyd, cited, 87.
+
+Morris, William, as printer, 33, 34;
+  confesses faults of ignorance in book making, 50;
+  his Kelmscott editions, "tribute typography," 137;
+  on shape of dot of _i_, 61;
+  on types, 5, 129, 130.
+
+Mosher, Thomas Bird, his "tribute typography," 137.
+
+Motteux, Peter Anthony, his translation of "Don Quixote," 144.
+
+Moulton, Charles Wells, "Library of Literary Criticism," its attractive
+    book design, 13.
+
+
+NAMES, place of, in development of the alphabet, 81.
+
+Near sight, 120, 130.
+
+Necker, Jacques, student's blunder concerning, 154.
+
+New England, its communities of readers, 28, 29;
+  its group of authors, 75, 76.
+
+New Humanistic type, commended, 138;
+  special form of _a_, 123.
+
+New York Mercantile Library, size in 1875, 104.
+
+Newspapers, extraordinary development of speed and cheapness in, 14;
+  legibility, 5, 117, 132, 133;
+  opponents of spelling reform, 145;
+  place in reading, 106.
+
+Newton, Sir Isaac, quoted, 144.
+
+Nickel, as a substitute for paper, 92, _footnote_.
+
+Novels, in a favorite book size, 24;
+  in illegible type, 130;
+  on reading, 107;
+  three-volume, 12;
+  typical book of to-day, 35.
+
+"Nuremberg Chronicle," a characteristic folio, 19.
+
+
+OCULIST'S tests of legibility, 120.
+
+Ormsby, John, his translation of "Don Quixote," 144.
+
+Ornamentation, in bindings, 6, 53, 100, 101;
+  in type, 121.
+
+"Orthographic reform," 145-151.
+
+Ossian, Hazlitt on, 141.
+
+Owen, Robert, a famous misprint concerning, 153.
+
+"Oxford Book of English Verse," thin-paper edition preferred, 95.
+
+"Oxford English Dictionary," corrects a misprint, 158;
+  its typography, 135.
+
+Oxford India paper, 92, 94, 95;
+  miniature editions on, 131, 132.
+
+Oxford students cause a misprint in the marriage service, 154.
+
+Oxford University Press, reward for misprints, 156.
+
+
+PAGE, proportions of, 4, 42, 55-57.
+
+Palm leaves, used for book of India, 85.
+
+Pannartz and Sweynheym, grandeur in their work, 4.
+
+Paper, best for the eye, 116, 120;
+  buff tinted, for legibility, 5, 6;
+  determines the expression of the book, 4, 5;
+  introduced into Europe, 84;
+  of the book beautiful, 54;
+  of the Chinese book, 88-90;
+  "Thick paper and thin," 92-96;
+  three elements of, 5.
+
+Papermaker, a spoiler of books, 40, 42.
+
+Papyrus roll, and booklovers, 4;
+  described, 82-84.
+
+Parchment, origin, 83, 84;
+  "Parchment bindings," 102, 103;
+  parchment book and booklovers, 4.
+
+Payne, Roger, binder, 100.
+
+Peacock, Thomas Love, his novels in thick and thin paper, 94, 95.
+
+Peel, Sir Robert, misprint concerning, 155.
+
+Penmanship, _see_ Manuscript.
+
+Pergamum, origin of parchment in, 83, 84.
+
+"Periodical, The," resembles a Chinese book, 88, 90.
+
+"Personal power, A secret of," 162-167.
+
+"Perversities of type," 152-161.
+
+Philadelphia Mercantile Library, size in 1875, 104.
+
+"Philobiblon," by Richard de Bury, significance of the title, 8.
+
+Photogravures, in connection with type, 6.
+
+Pickering, William, a disciple of Aldus, 23;
+  his characteristic books, 23, 24,
+    compared with Little and Brown's "British Poets," 24,
+    their predecessors, contemporaries, and successors, 24;
+  his "diamond classics" on large paper, 131, 132;
+  method of book design, 41;
+  publisher, 38.
+
+Picture writing, 80, 81.
+
+Pictures, earliest books were, 79-81.
+  _See also_ Illustrations.
+
+Pillow, General Gideon Johnson, misprints concerning, 157.
+
+Pindar, as characterized by Mrs. Browning, 68.
+
+Plato, as characterized by Mrs. Browning, 68;
+  contributor to Bible of humanity, 68;
+  riches of, 68.
+
+Pocket editions, 22, 23.
+
+Poe, Edgar Allan, quoted, 28, 152, 158;
+  small bulk of his poetry, 69.
+
+Poetry, Hazlitt on, 141, 142;
+  print as an interpreter of its meaning, 17, 18;
+  type appropriate to, 137, 138.
+
+Pope, Alexander, a ghost word referred to him, 158, 159;
+  Hazlitt on, 142.
+
+Possessions, distinguished from Property, 31, 32.
+
+"Power, A secret of personal," 162-167.
+
+Powers of leadership developed under stress, 163.
+
+Pre-Columbian book, _see_ Mexican.
+
+Prehistoric background of the book, 79-81.
+
+Press, errors of, 152-161.
+
+Pressman, a spoiler of books, 40-42.
+
+Presswork, requirements of, 58.
+
+Prices, as affected by italic, 20,
+    by the small books of the Elzevirs, 22;
+  fancy, what they mean, 7;
+  of choice books compared with those of other art objects, 49;
+  of choice books not excessive, 7.
+
+"Print as an interpreter of meaning," 14-18.
+  _See also_ Typography.
+
+Printer, as affected by spelling reform, 150;
+  a spoiler of books, 40, 41;
+  what the librarian asks of him, 47, 48.
+
+Printer's errors, 152-161.
+
+Printing, added only speed and cheapness to book production, 14;
+  distinctions to the eye in, 16-18;
+  of Chinese books, 88;
+  "Printing problems for science to solve," 115-119;
+  would be benefited by contemporary calligraphy, 51.
+  _See also_ Typography.
+
+Privilege of the reader, 63-78.
+
+"Problems, Printing, for science to solve," 115-119.
+
+Progress, possible only in the field of knowledge, 29, 30.
+
+Proof, authors' additions in, 15.
+
+Proofreader, requirements of, 58;
+  a spoiler of books, 40, 41.
+
+Property, distinguished from Possessions, 31, 32.
+
+Proportions of the page, 4, 42, 55-57.
+
+Prosody, _see_ Poetry.
+
+Public, value of reading to the, 28, 29.
+
+Publication of books for 1913, 105.
+
+Publisher, librarian's grievance against the, 45-47;
+  a spoiler of books, 40, 41.
+
+Punctuation, and legibility, 121;
+  in poetry, 17-18.
+
+Puritans, less modern than Horace, 69;
+  a Puritan's devotion to Calvin, 166;
+  Shakespeare best reading for, 72.
+
+Putnam, George Haven, on the Elzevirs, 22.
+
+
+RAPID reading, 14-17.
+
+Rare books, relatively cheap, 49.
+
+Readable print, _see_ Legibility.
+
+"Reader's high privilege," 63-78.
+
+Reading, aid of print to, 14, 17;
+  amount possible in a lifetime, 105;
+  Erasmus on art of, 166;
+  John Beattie Crozier on, 111, 112;
+  "Lest we forget the few great books," 104-114;
+  means intellectual effort, 74;
+  of contemporaries, 76, 77;
+  results of ten pages a day, 108;
+  "The student and the library," 139-144;
+  systematic, 74-76;
+  true end and aim of, 78;
+  value, to the public and to the individual, 28-32;
+  when travelling, 22, 23.
+
+Reading aloud, print as an aid to, 17, 18.
+
+Rebindings, costly, unnecessary, 46.
+
+Rebus, place in development of alphabet, 81.
+
+Reference books, 135;
+  effective typography of, 16, 17.
+
+Reformed spelling, 145-151.
+
+Registration, requirements of, 59.
+
+Rembrandt, his drawing of the elephant, 80;
+  his "School of Anatomy," as a product of genius, 65.
+
+Reprinting of perishable records, 46.
+
+Responsibility, a stimulus to greatness, 163.
+
+"Respublicae Variae," published by the Elzevirs, described, 22, 23.
+
+"Rhetoricorum ad C. Herennium Libri IIII," the Aldus edition of 1546
+    described, 21.
+
+Roethlein, Barbara Elizabeth, on "The relative legibility of different
+    faces of printing types," 124-127.
+
+Rogers, Bruce, his Centaur type commended, 132.
+
+Roll, _see_ Papyrus.
+
+Roman alphabet, _see_ Alphabet.
+
+Roman codex, _see_ Codex.
+
+Roman literature, masterpieces of, 68, 69.
+
+Romance literatures, 144.
+
+Romans, surpassed by moderns in knowledge, 30.
+
+Royal octavo, pitfall of the book designer, 12, 13.
+
+Ruskin, John, editions of his works contrasted, 13;
+  on manuscript books, 51;
+  on reading Sir Walter Scott, 109.
+
+Russia, annual book publication, 105;
+  illiterate communities of, 28, 29.
+
+
+SANBORN, FRANKLIN BENJAMIN, his "Beacon Biography" of Longfellow, 75.
+
+Sanford, Edmund Clark, on "The relative legibility of the small
+    letters," 122-124.
+
+Scaliger, Julius Caesar, his learning, 106.
+
+Schiller, cited, 52.
+
+School books, misfortune of treating classics as such, 68, 69;
+  type in, 5, 117.
+
+School children, increase of near sight among, 120.
+
+School of typography, proposed by Henry Stevens, 40-43.
+
+Science, "Printing problems for science to solve," 115-119.
+
+Scott, Sir Walter, alterations in the proof-sheets of his "Waverley
+    Novels," 15;
+  a ghost word in his "Monastery," 158;
+  Goethe on, 110;
+  Ruskin on, 109.
+
+"Secret of personal power," 162-167.
+
+Sequoyah, his Cherokee syllabary, 146.
+
+Serifs, necessary to prevent irradiation, 123;
+  source of confusion in types, 123, 124.
+
+Shakespeare, William, "Hamlet" preferred in youth, 111;
+  Hazlitt on, 142;
+  his "Apocrypha," on thin paper, 95;
+  his character and greatness, 70-73;
+  Lamb would say grace before reading, 77;
+  "Lear" preferred in old age, 111;
+  misprints in his works, 157;
+  privilege of reading, 64, 71, 72;
+  quoted, 9, 54;
+  reading, 77;
+  the spelling of his works, 149, 150;
+  tribute of Blackmore to, 110.
+
+Shelley, Percy Bysshe, an editor's error in his "Skylark," 157, 158;
+  inappropriate Forman edition of, 11;
+  read by young men, 111.
+
+Shelton, Thomas, his translation of "Don Quixote," 144.
+
+Sight, relation of the elements of the book to, 5, 6, 116-119;
+  "Types and eyes: The problem," 120-127,
+    ---- "Progress," 128-133.
+
+Sign language, 80.
+
+Silent letters, cost to English world, 147.
+
+Size, determines expression of the book, 4;
+  "Favorite book sizes," 19-27;
+  of books preferred by librarian, 47;
+  of letters and legibility, 134, 135;
+  question of an ideal size of type, 117;
+  standardization of book sizes, 26, 27.
+  _See also_ Bigness; Thickness; Thinness.
+
+Skeat, Walter William, on ghost words, 158.
+
+Smirke, Robert, illustrator of Barlow's "Columbiad," 10.
+
+Smollett, Tobias George, on reading him, 143.
+
+Society of Printers, address under its auspices, 3, _note_.
+
+Socrates, in a Bible of humanity, 68.
+
+Sophocles, as characterized by Mrs. Browning, 67, 68.
+
+Southey, Robert, a favorite edition of, 24.
+
+Spacing, between words, 121;
+  of letters in words, 120.
+
+Spain, illiterate communities of, 28, 29.
+
+Spanish, language, 144;
+  spelling, 147.
+
+Spectacles, a measure of civilization, 120.
+
+Spedding, James, at Cambridge University, 139.
+
+Spelling, Milton gave metric hints by, 18;
+  "Orthographic reform," 145-151.
+
+Spenser, Edmund, Hazlitt on, 142;
+  his spelling, 149;
+  Lamb would say grace before reading the "Fairy Queen," 77;
+  Milton's spiritual kinship to, 72.
+
+Standardization of book sizes, 26, 27.
+
+Sterne, Laurence, a favorite edition of, 24.
+
+Stevens, Henry, "A constructive critic of the book," 38-43;
+  detects a misprint, 156;
+  his "My English library," 39;
+  his "Recollections of Mr. James Lenox," 38, _footnote_.
+
+Stevenson, Robert Louis, on Hazlitt, 141.
+
+Stoddard, Richard Henry, on Cervantes and Shakespeare, 70.
+
+Storage of books, _see_ Bigness, Thickness, Thinness.
+
+Strassburg Cathedral, as a product of genius, 65.
+
+"Student, The, and the Library," 139-144.
+
+Study, art of, 166, 167.
+
+Success, won by knowledge, 30.
+
+Swedish spelling, 148.
+
+Sweynheym and Pannartz, grandeur in their work, 4.
+
+
+TASTE, _see_ Esthetics.
+
+Tauchnitz editions, compared with Little Classic editions, 26.
+
+Tennyson, Alfred, and his brothers at Cambridge University, 139;
+  inappropriate edition of his "Life," 11;
+  a novel reader, 107.
+
+Tests, of the utility of the book, 115;
+  of type, 120-127.
+
+Thackeray, William Makepeace, at Cambridge University, 139;
+  on reading him, 143;
+  quoted, 11;
+  works in illegible print, 130.
+
+Theocritus, as characterized by Mrs. Browning, 68.
+
+Thickness, in books, esthetic effect of, 23, 25;
+  "Thick paper and thin," 92-96.
+
+Thinness, in books, esthetic effect of, 23;
+  "Thick paper and thin," 92-96.
+
+Thompson, Francis, indicated caesura by an asterisk, 18.
+
+Thomson, James, Hazlitt on, 142.
+
+Thoreau, Henry David, member of the New England group of authors, 75, 76.
+
+Thou, Jacques Auguste de, binding made for, 100.
+
+Title-page, problems of, 59.
+
+Torrey, Joseph, on reading Dante, 109, 110.
+
+Translations of "Don Quixote," 143, 144.
+
+Tribute typography, 9-13, 136, 137.
+
+Type, aims in its design, 5, 117, 118;
+  Chinese, 80;
+  contrast of, 16, 17;
+  "Exceptions to the rule of legibility," 130, 131, 135-138;
+  faults of German and French, 117;
+  in relation to the book beautiful, 57-59, 61;
+  page, 56, 57;
+  "Perversities of type," 152-161;
+  reform of, 118;
+  "Types and eyes: The problem," 120-127,
+    ---- "Progress," 128-133.
+  _See also_ Italic; Page.
+
+Typewriting, a form of print, 15.
+
+Typography, primarily a reduction of cost, 115;
+  school of, proposed by Henry Stevens, 40-43;
+  tribute typography, 9-13, 136, 137;
+  a triumph of, 16.
+  _See also_ Print.
+
+
+UNITED STATES, annual book publication, 105;
+  library development since 1875, 104.
+
+Updike, Daniel Berkeley, his comic edition of Irving's "Knickerbocker,"
+    10, 11;
+  his specimen pages of the "Imitatio Christi," 136.
+
+
+"VALUE of reading, to the public and to the individual," 28-32.
+
+Values, two great classes, 31, 32.
+
+Vergil, Dante's master, 69;
+  did not write for children, 68;
+  his Aeneid, 69;
+  scanty punctuation in earliest manuscript of, 17.
+
+Verse, _see_ Poetry.
+
+Vision, _see_ Sight.
+
+
+WARD, ARTEMUS, _pseudonym_, adopts a misprint, 157.
+
+Webster, Daniel, debt to Milton, 110.
+
+Webster, Noah, his "Collegiate Dictionary" on thin paper preferred, 95;
+  his "Unabridged Dictionary" on large paper, 131.
+
+Wendell, Barrett, on Barlow's "Columbiad," 10.
+
+Wheatley, Henry Benjamin, on "Literary blunders," 156, 157.
+
+Whitman, Walt, on the world's greatest books, 113, 114.
+
+Whittier, John Greenleaf, member of New England group of authors, 75.
+
+Whittingham, Charles, method of book design, 41;
+  printer, 38.
+
+"Who spoils our new English books?" by Henry Stevens, 38.
+
+Wilberforce, Samuel, Bishop of Oxford, a famous misprint concerning,
+    153, 154.
+
+Wordsworth, Dorothy, on favorite books, 3.
+
+Wordsworth, William, a favorite edition of, 24;
+  read by old men, 111.
+
+World Almanac, commended, 130, 131.
+
+Writing, _see_ Authorship; Manuscript; Materials.
+
+
+XENOPHON, contributor to a Bible of humanity, 68;
+  did not write for children, 68.
+
+    +------------------------------------------------------------+
+    | Transcriber's Notes:                                       |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Table of Contents: The chapter heading "The Value of       |
+    | Reading" is an abbreviation of the chapter heading on page |
+    | 28. Left as is                                             |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Page 31: Full stop added after "Was but a book"            |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Page 62: techiness _sic_                                   |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Page 86: Kuran and Kuran _sic_                             |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Page 108: Comma added after "daily"                        |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Page 157: Full stop added after "before him"               |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Page 171: Ae in Aeschylus replaced with ae ligature to     |
+    | match text in book                                         |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Page 178: Page numbers for "Exception to the rule of       |
+    | legibility" re-arranged into ascending order               |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Page 183: ae in Respublicae Variae replaced with ae        |
+    | ligatures to match text in book                            |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Page 185: Page numbers for "Exception to the rule of       |
+    | legibility" re-arranged into ascending order               |
+    |                                                            |
+    | Hyphenation has been standardised. One instance of         |
+    | ink-maker/ink maker retained.                              |
+    |                                                            |
+    +------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Booklover and His Books, by Harry Lyman Koopman
+
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