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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Write Clearly, by Edwin A. Abbott
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: How to Write Clearly
+       Rules and Exercises on English Composition
+
+Author: Edwin A. Abbott
+
+Release Date: September 14, 2007 [EBook #22600]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Richard J. Shiffer
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note: Every effort has been made to replicate this text
+as faithfully as possible, including obsolete and variant spellings
+and other inconsistencies. Text that has been changed to correct an
+obvious error is noted at the end of this ebook.
+
+Text set in bold print is indicated by asterisks, i.e., *Bold*.]
+
+
+
+
+  HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY.
+
+
+  _RULES AND EXERCISES_
+
+  ON
+
+  ENGLISH COMPOSITION.
+
+
+  BY THE
+
+  REV. EDWIN A. ABBOTT, M.A.,
+
+  HEAD MASTER OF THE CITY OF LONDON SCHOOL.
+
+
+  [Illustration: QUI LEGIT REGIT]
+
+
+  THE AUTHOR'S COPYRIGHT EDITION.
+
+
+  BOSTON:
+  ROBERTS BROTHERS.
+  1883.
+
+  UNIVERSITY PRESS: JOHN WILSON & SON.
+  CAMBRIDGE.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+Almost every English boy can be taught to write clearly, so far at
+least as clearness depends upon the arrangement of words. Force,
+elegance, and variety of style are more difficult to teach, and far
+more difficult to learn; but clear writing can be reduced to rules. To
+teach the art of writing clearly is the main object of these Rules and
+Exercises.
+
+Ambiguity may arise, not only from bad arrangement, but also from
+other causes--from the misuse of single words, and from confused
+thought. These causes are not removable by definite rules, and
+therefore, though not neglected, are not prominently considered in
+this book. My object rather is to point out some few continually
+recurring causes of ambiguity, and to suggest definite remedies in
+each case. Speeches in Parliament, newspaper narratives and articles,
+and, above all, resolutions at public meetings, furnish abundant
+instances of obscurity arising from the monotonous neglect of some
+dozen simple rules.
+
+The art of writing forcibly is, of course, a valuable
+acquisition--almost as valuable as the art of writing clearly. But
+forcible expression is not, like clear expression, a mere question of
+mechanism and of the manipulation of words; it is a much higher power,
+and implies much more.
+
+Writing clearly does not imply thinking clearly. A man may think and
+reason as obscurely as Dogberry himself, but he may (though it is not
+probable that he will) be able to write clearly for all that. Writing
+clearly--so far as arrangement of words is concerned--is a mere matter
+of adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and auxiliary verbs, placed
+and repeated according to definite rules.[1] Even obscure or illogical
+thought can be clearly expressed; indeed, the transparent medium of
+clear writing is not least beneficial when it reveals the illogical
+nature of the meaning beneath it.
+
+On the other hand, if a man is to write forcibly, he must (to use a
+well-known illustration) describe Jerusalem as "sown with salt," not
+as "captured," and the Jews not as being "subdued" but as "almost
+exterminated" by Titus. But what does this imply? It implies
+knowledge, and very often a great deal of knowledge, and it implies
+also a vivid imagination. The writer must have eyes to see the vivid
+side of everything, as well as words to describe what he sees. Hence
+forcible writing, and of course tasteful writing also, is far less a
+matter of rules than is clear writing; and hence, though forcible
+writing is exemplified in the exercises, clear writing occupies most
+of the space devoted to the rules.
+
+Boys who are studying Latin and Greek stand in especial need of help
+to enable them to write a long English sentence clearly. The periods
+of Thucydides and Cicero are not easily rendered into our idiom
+without some knowledge of the links that connect an English sentence.
+
+There is scarcely any better training, rhetorical as well as logical,
+than the task of construing Thucydides into genuine English; but the
+flat, vague, long-winded Greek-English and Latin-English imposture
+that is often tolerated in our examinations and is allowed to pass
+current for genuine English, diminishes instead of increasing the
+power that our pupils should possess over their native language. By
+getting marks at school and college for construing good Greek and
+Latin into bad English, our pupils systematically unlearn what they
+may have been allowed to pick up from Milton and from Shakespeare.
+
+I must acknowledge very large obligations to Professor Bain's treatise
+on "English Composition and Rhetoric," and also to his English
+Grammar. I have not always been able to agree with Professor Bain as
+to matters of taste; but I find it difficult to express my admiration
+for the systematic thoroughness and suggestiveness of his book on
+Composition. In particular, Professor Bain's rule on the use of "that"
+and "which" (see Rule 8) deserves to be better known.[2] The ambiguity
+produced by the confusion between these two forms of the Relative is
+not a mere fiction of pedants; it is practically serious. Take, for
+instance, the following sentence, which appeared lately in one of our
+ablest weekly periodicals: "There are a good many Radical members in
+the House _who_ cannot forgive the Prime Minister for being a
+Christian." Twenty years hence, who is to say whether the meaning is
+"_and they_, i.e. _all the Radical_ members in the House," or "there
+are a good many Radical members of the House _that_ cannot &c."?
+Professor Bain, apparently admitting no exceptions to his useful rule,
+amends many sentences in a manner that seems to me intolerably harsh.
+Therefore, while laying due stress on the utility of the rule, I have
+endeavoured to point out and explain the exceptions.
+
+The rules are stated as briefly as possible, and are intended not so
+much for use by themselves as for reference while the pupil is working
+at the exercises. Consequently, there is no attempt to prove the rules
+by accumulations of examples. The few examples that are given, are
+given not to prove, but to illustrate the rules. The exercises are
+intended to be written out and revised, as exercises usually are; but
+they may also be used for _vivā voce_ instruction. The books being
+shut, the pupils, with their written exercises before them, may be
+questioned as to the reasons for the several alterations they have
+made. Experienced teachers will not require any explanation of the
+arrangement or rather non-arrangement of the exercises. They have been
+purposely mixed together unclassified to prevent the pupil from
+relying upon anything but his own common sense and industry, to show
+him what is the fault in each case, and how it is to be amended.
+Besides references to the rules, notes are attached to each sentence,
+so that the exercises ought not to present any difficulty to a
+painstaking boy of twelve or thirteen, provided he has first been
+fairly trained in English grammar.
+
+The "Continuous Extracts" present rather more difficulty, and are
+intended for boys somewhat older than those for whom the Exercises are
+intended. The attempt to modernize, and clarify, so to speak, the
+style of Burnet, Clarendon, and Bishop Butler,[3] may appear
+ambitious, and perhaps requires some explanation. My object has, of
+course, not been to _improve upon_ the style of these authors, but to
+show how their meaning might be expressed more clearly in modern
+English. The charm of the style is necessarily lost, but if the loss
+is recognized both by teacher and pupil, there is nothing, in my
+opinion, to counterbalance the obvious utility of such exercises.
+Professor Bain speaks to the same effect:[4] "For an English exercise,
+the matter should in some way or other be supplied, and the pupil
+disciplined in giving it expression. I know of no better method than
+to prescribe passages containing good matter, but in some respects
+imperfectly worded, to be amended according to the laws and the
+proprieties of style. Our older writers might be extensively, though
+not exclusively, drawn upon for this purpose."
+
+To some of the friends whose help has been already acknowledged in
+"English Lessons for English People," I am indebted for further help
+in revising these pages. I desire to express especial obligations to
+the Rev. J. H. Lupton, late Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge,
+and Second Master of St. Paul's School, for copious and valuable
+suggestions; also to several of my colleagues at the City of London
+School, among whom I must mention in particular the Rev. A. R. Vardy,
+Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Before electrotyping the Fourth and Revised Edition, I wish to say one
+word as to the manner in which this book has been used by my highest
+class, as a collection of Rules for reference in their construing
+lessons. In construing, from Thucydides especially, I have found Rules
+5, 30, 34, 36, 37, and 40_a_, of great use. The rules about Metaphor
+and Climax have also been useful in correcting faults of taste in
+their Latin and Greek compositions. I have hopes that, used in this
+way, this little book may be of service to the highest as well as to
+the middle classes of our schools.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Punctuation is fully discussed in most English Grammars, and is
+therefore referred to in this book only so far as is necessary to
+point out the slovenly fault of trusting too much to punctuation, and
+too little to arrangement.
+
+[2] Before meeting with Professor Bain's rule, I had shown that the
+difference between the Relatives is generally observed by Shakespeare.
+See "Shakespearian Grammar," paragraph 259.
+
+[3] Sir Archibald Alison stands on a very different footing. The
+extracts from this author are intended to exhibit the dangers of
+verbosity and exaggeration.
+
+[4] "English Composition and Rhetoric," p. vii.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+                                                  PAGE
+
+  INDEX OF RULES                                 11-13
+
+  RULES                                          14-40
+
+  SHORT EXERCISES                                41-63
+
+  CONTINUOUS EXERCISES--CLARENDON                64-70
+
+       "        "       BURNET                   70-73
+
+       "        "       BUTLER                   74-75
+
+       "        "       SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON     76-78
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF RULES.
+
+
+I. CLEARNESS AND FORCE.
+
+
+WORDS.
+
+1. Use words in their proper sense.
+
+2. Avoid exaggerations.
+
+3. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing."
+
+4. Be careful in the use of "not ... and," "any," "but," "only," "not
+... or," "that."
+
+4 _a_. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, _e.g._ "certain."
+
+5. Be careful in the use of "he," "it," "they," "these," &c.
+
+6. Report a speech in the First Person, where necessary to avoid
+ambiguity.
+
+6 _a_. Use the Third Person where the exact words of the speaker are
+not intended to be given.
+
+6 _b_. Omission of "that" in a speech in the Third Person.
+
+7. When you use a Participle implying "when," "while," "though," or
+"that," show clearly by the context what is implied.
+
+8. When using the Relative Pronoun, use "who" or "which," if the
+meaning is "and he" or "and it," "for he" or "for it." In other cases
+use "that," if euphony allows. Exceptions.
+
+9. Do not use "and which" for "which."
+
+10. Equivalents for the Relative: (_a_) Participle or Adjective; (_b_)
+Infinitive; (_c_) "Whereby," "whereto," &c.; (_d_) "If a man;" (_e_)
+"And he," "and this," &c.; (_f_) "what;" (_g_) omission of Relative.
+
+10 _a'_. Repeat the Antecedent before the Relative, where the
+non-repetition causes any ambiguity. See 38.
+
+11. Use particular for general terms. Avoid abstract Nouns.
+
+11 _a_. Avoid Verbal Nouns where Verbs can be used.
+
+12. Use particular persons instead of a class.
+
+13. Use metaphor instead of literal statement.
+
+14. Do not confuse metaphor.
+
+14 _a_. Do not mix metaphor with literal statement.
+
+14 _b_. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject.
+
+
+ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE.
+
+15. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions; _i.e._, for the
+most part, at the beginning or the end of the sentence.
+
+15 _a_. Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the end.
+Exceptions.
+
+15 _b_. An interrogation sometimes gives emphasis.
+
+16. The Subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be transferred
+from the beginning of the sentence.
+
+17. The Object is sometimes placed before the Verb for emphasis.
+
+18. Where several words are emphatic, make it clear which is the most
+emphatic. Emphasis can sometimes be given by adding an epithet, or an
+intensifying word.
+
+19. Words should be as near as possible to the words with which they
+are grammatically connected.
+
+20. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended to
+qualify.
+
+21. "Only"; the strict rule is that "only" should be placed before the
+word it affects.
+
+22. When "not only" precedes "but also," see that each is followed by
+the same part of speech.
+
+23. "At least," "always," and other adverbial adjuncts, sometimes
+produce ambiguity.
+
+24. Nouns should be placed near the Nouns that they define.
+
+25. Pronouns should follow the Nouns to which they refer, without the
+intervention of any other Noun.
+
+26. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as close
+together as possible. Avoid parentheses. But see 55.
+
+27. In conditional sentences, the antecedent or "if-clauses" must be
+kept distinct from the consequent clauses.
+
+28. Dependent clauses preceded by "that" should be kept distinct from
+those that are independent.
+
+29. Where there are several infinitives, those that are dependent on
+the same word must be kept distinct from those that are not.
+
+30. The principle of Suspense.
+
+30 _a_. It is a violation of the principle of suspense to introduce
+unexpectedly at the end of a long sentence, some short and unemphatic
+clause beginning with (_a_) "not," (_b_) "which."
+
+31. Suspense must not be excessive.
+
+32. In a sentence with "if," "when," "though," &c., put the
+"if-clause," antecedent, or protasis, first.
+
+33. Suspense is gained by placing a Participle or Adjective, that
+qualifies the Subject, before the Subject.
+
+34. Suspensive Conjunctions, _e.g._ "either," "not only," "on the one
+hand," &c., add clearness.
+
+35. Repeat the Subject, where its omission would cause obscurity or
+ambiguity.
+
+36. Repeat a Preposition after an intervening Conjunction, especially
+if a Verb and an Object also intervene.
+
+37. Repeat Conjunctions, Auxiliary Verbs, and Pronominal Adjectives.
+
+37 _a_. Repeat Verbs after the Conjunctions "than," "as," &c.
+
+38. Repeat the Subject, or some other emphatic word, or a summary of
+what has been said, if the sentence is so long that it is difficult to
+keep the thread of meaning unbroken.
+
+39. Clearness is increased, when the beginning of the sentence
+prepares the way for the middle, and the middle for the end, the whole
+forming a kind of ascent. This ascent is called "climax."
+
+40. When the thought is expected to ascend, but descends, feebleness,
+and sometimes confusion, is the result. The descent is called
+"bathos."
+
+40 _a_. A new construction should not be introduced unexpectedly.
+
+41. Antithesis adds force and often clearness.
+
+42. Epigram.
+
+43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject of
+thought. Avoid heterogeneous sentences.
+
+44. The connection between different sentences must be kept up by
+Adverbs used as Conjunctions, or by means of some other connecting
+words at the beginning of the sentence.
+
+45. The connection between two long sentences or paragraphs sometimes
+requires a short intervening sentence showing the transition of
+thought.
+
+
+II. BREVITY.
+
+46. Metaphor is briefer than literal statement.
+
+47. General terms are briefer, though less forcible, than particular
+terms.
+
+47 _a_. A phrase may sometimes be expressed by a word.
+
+48. Participles may often be used as brief (though sometimes
+ambiguous) equivalents of phrases containing Conjunctions and Verbs.
+
+49. Participles, Adjectives, Participial Adjectives, and Nouns may be
+used as equivalents for phrases containing the Relative.
+
+50. A statement may sometimes be briefly implied instead of being
+expressed at length.
+
+51. Conjunctions may be omitted. Adverbs, _e.g._ "very," "so."
+Exaggerated epithets, _e.g._ "incalculable," "unprecedented."
+
+51 _a_. The imperative may be used for "if &c."
+
+52. Apposition may be used, so as to convert two sentences into one.
+
+53. Condensation may be effected by not repeating (1) the common
+Subject of several Verbs; (2) the common Object of several Verbs or
+Prepositions.
+
+54. Tautology. Repeating what may be implied.
+
+55. Parenthesis maybe used with advantage to brevity. See 26.
+
+56. Brevity often clashes with clearness. Let clearness be the first
+consideration.
+
+
+
+
+CLEARNESS AND FORCE.
+
+
+_Numbers in brackets refer to the Rules._
+
+
+WORDS.
+
+*1. Use words in their proper sense.*
+
+Write, not "His _apparent_ guilt justified his friends in disowning
+him," but "his _evident_ guilt." "Conscious" and "aware," "unnatural"
+and "supernatural," "transpire" and "occur," "circumstance" and
+"event," "reverse" and "converse," "eliminate" and "elicit," are often
+confused together.
+
+This rule forbids the use of the same word in different senses. "It is
+in my _power_ to refuse your request, and since I have _power_ to do
+this, I may lawfully do it." Here the second "power" is used for
+"authority."
+
+This rule also forbids the slovenly use of "nice," "awfully,"
+"delicious," "glorious," &c. See (2).
+
+
+*2. Avoid exaggerations.*
+
+"The _boundless_ plains in the heart of the empire furnished
+_inexhaustible_ supplies of corn, that would have almost sufficed for
+twice the population."
+
+Here "inexhaustible" is inconsistent with what follows. The words
+"unprecedented," "incalculable," "very," and "stupendous" are often
+used in the same loose way.
+
+
+*3. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing."*
+
+"Her Majesty here _partook of lunch_." Write "_lunched_."
+
+"Partook of" implies sharing, and is incorrect as well as lengthy.
+
+So, do not use "apex" for "top," "species" for "kind," "individual"
+for "man," "assist" for "help," &c.
+
+
+*4. Be careful how you use the following words: "not ... and," "any,"
+"only," "not ... or," "that."*[5]
+
+*And.* See below, "Or."
+
+*Any.*--"I am not bound to receive _any_ messenger that you send."
+Does this mean _every_, or _a single_? Use "every" or "a single."
+
+*Not.*--(1) "I do _not_ intend to help you, because you are my enemy
+&c." ought to mean (2), "I intend not to help you, and my reason for
+not helping you is, because you are my enemy." But it is often wrongly
+used to mean (3), "I intend to help you, not because you are my enemy
+(but because you are poor, blind, &c.)." In the latter case, _not_
+ought to be separated from _intend_. By distinctly marking the limits
+to which the influence of _not_ extends, the ambiguity may be removed.
+
+*Only* is often used ambiguously for _alone_. "The rest help me to
+revenge myself; you _only_ advise me to wait." This ought to mean,
+"you only _advise_, instead of _helping_;" but in similar sentences
+"you only" is often used for "you alone." But see 21.
+
+*Or.*--When "or" is preceded by a negative, as "I do not want butter
+_or_ honey," "or" ought not, strictly speaking, to be used like "and,"
+nor like "nor." The strict use of "not ... or" would be as follows:--
+
+"You say you don't want both butter _and_ honey--you want butter _or_
+honey; I, on the contrary, _do not want butter or honey_--I want them
+both."
+
+Practically, however, this meaning is so rare, that "I don't want
+butter _or_ honey" is regularly used for "I want neither butter nor
+honey." But where there is the slightest danger of ambiguity, it is
+desirable to use _nor_.
+
+The same ambiguity attends "not ... and." "I do not see Thomas _and_
+John" is commonly used for "I see neither Thomas nor John;" but it
+might mean, "I do not see them both--I see only one of them."
+
+*That.*--The different uses of "that" produce much ambiguity, _e.g._
+"I am so much surprised by this statement _that_ I am desirous of
+resigning, _that_ I scarcely know what reply to make." Here it is
+impossible to tell, till one has read past "resigning," whether the
+first "that" depends upon "so" or "statement." Write: "The statement
+that I am desirous of resigning surprises me so much that I scarcely
+know &c."
+
+*4 a. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, e.g. "certain."*
+
+"Certain" is often used for "some," as in "Independently of his
+earnings, he has a _certain_ property," where the meaning might be
+"unfailing."
+
+Under this head may be mentioned the double use of words, such as
+"left" in the same form and sound, but different in meaning. Even
+where there is no obscurity, the juxtaposition of the same word twice
+used in two senses is inelegant, _e.g._ (Bain), "He turned to the
+_left_ and _left_ the room."
+
+I have known the following slovenly sentence misunderstood: "Our
+object is that, with the aid of practice, we may sometime arrive at
+the point where we think eloquence in its most praiseworthy form _to
+lie_." "To lie" has been supposed to mean "to deceive."
+
+
+*5. Be careful how you use "he," "it," "they," "these," &c.* (For
+"which" see 8.) The ambiguity arising from the use of _he_ applying to
+different persons is well known.
+
+"He told his friend that if _he_ did not feel better in half an hour
+he thought _he_ had better return." See (6) for remedy.
+
+Much ambiguity is also caused by excessive use of such phrases as _in
+this way_, _of this sort_, &c.
+
+"God, foreseeing the disorders of human nature, has given us certain
+passions and affections which arise from, or whose objects are, these
+disorders. _Of this sort_ are fear, resentment, compassion."
+
+Repeat the noun: "Among these passions and affections are fear &c."
+
+Two distinct uses of _it_ may be noted. _It_, when referring to
+something that precedes, may be called "retrospective;" but when to
+something that follows, "prospective." In "Avoid indiscriminate
+charity: _it_ is a crime," "it" is retrospective.[6] In "_It_ is a
+crime to give indiscriminately," "it" is prospective.
+
+The prospective "it," if productive of ambiguity, can often be omitted
+by using the infinitive as a subject: "To give indiscriminately is a
+crime."
+
+
+*6. Report a speech in the First, not the Third Person, where
+necessary to avoid ambiguity.* Speeches in the third person afford a
+particular, though very common case, of the general ambiguity
+mentioned in (5). Instead of "He told his friend that if _he_ did not
+feel better &c.," write "He said to his friend, 'If, _I_ (or _you_)
+don't feel better &c.'"
+
+*6 a. Sometimes, where the writer cannot know the exact words, or
+where the exact words are unimportant, or lengthy and uninteresting,
+the Third Person is preferable.* Thus, where Essex is asking Sir
+Robert Cecil that Francis Bacon may be appointed Attorney-General, the
+dialogue is (as it almost always is in Lord Macaulay's writings) in
+the First Person, _except where it becomes tedious and uninteresting
+so as to require condensation_, and then it drops into the Third
+Person:
+
+"Sir Robert _had nothing to say but_ that he thought his own abilities
+equal to the place which he hoped to obtain, and that his father's
+long services deserved such a mark of gratitude from the Queen."
+
+*6 b. Omission of "that" in a speech reported in the Third
+Person.*--Even when a speech is reported in the third person, "that"
+need not always be inserted before the dependent verb. Thus, instead
+of "He said that he took it ill that his promises were not believed,"
+we may write, "'He took it ill,' he said, 'that &c.'" This gives a
+little more life, and sometimes more clearness also.
+
+
+*7. When you use a Participle, as "walking," implying "when," "while,"
+"though," "that," make it clear by the context what is implied.*
+
+"Republics, in the first instance, are never desired for their own
+sakes. I do not think they will finally be desired at all,
+_unaccompanied_ by courtly graces and good breeding."
+
+Here there is a little doubt whether the meaning is "_since_ they are,
+or, _if_ they are, unaccompanied."
+
+*That or when.*--"Men _walking_ (_that_ walk, or _when_ they walk) on
+ice sometimes fall."
+
+It is better to use "men walking" to mean "men _when_ they walk." If
+the relative is meant, use "men that walk," instead of the participle.
+
+  (1) "_While_   he was } _Walking_ on { (1) the road, } he fell."
+  (2) "_Because_ he was }              { (2) the ice,  }
+
+When the participle precedes the subject, it generally implies a
+cause: "_Seeing_ this, he retired." Otherwise it generally has its
+proper participial meaning, _e.g._ "He retired, _keeping_ his face
+towards us." If there is any ambiguity, write "_on_ seeing,"--"_at the
+same time_, or _while_, keeping."
+
+ (1) "_Though_ he was}                       {(1) he nevertheless stood
+                     }                       {    his ground."
+ (2) "_Since_ he was } _Struck_ with terror, {(2) he rapidly retreated."
+ (3) "_If_ he is     }                       {(3) he will soon retreat."
+
+
+*8. When using the Relative Pronoun, use "who" and "which" where the
+meaning is "and he, it, &c.," "for he, it, &c." In other cases use
+"that," if euphony allows.*
+
+"I heard this from the inspector, _who_ (and he) heard it from the
+guard _that_ travelled with the train."
+
+"Fetch me (all) the books _that_ lie on the table, and also the
+pamphlets, _which_ (and these) you will find on the floor."
+
+An adherence to this rule would remove much ambiguity. Thus: "There
+was a public-house next door, _which_ was a great nuisance," means
+"_and this_ (_i.e._ the fact of its being next door) was a great
+nuisance;" whereas _that_ would have meant "Next door was a
+public-house _that_ (_i.e._ the public-house) was a great nuisance."
+*"Who," "which," &c. introduce a new fact about the antecedent,
+whereas "that" introduces something without which the antecedent is
+incomplete or undefined.* Thus, in the first example above,
+"inspector" is complete in itself, and "who" introduces a new _fact_
+about him; "guard" is incomplete, and requires "_that_ travelled with
+the train" to complete the meaning.
+
+It is not, and cannot be, maintained that this rule, though observed
+in Elizabethan English, is observed by our best modern authors.
+(Probably a general impression that "that" cannot be used to refer to
+persons has assisted "who" in supplanting "that" as a relative.) But
+the convenience of the rule is so great that beginners in composition
+may with advantage adhere to the rule. The following are some of the
+cases where _who_ and _which_ are mostly used, contrary to the rule,
+instead of _that_.
+
+*Exceptions:*--
+
+(_a_) When the antecedent is defined, _e.g._ by a possessive case,
+modern English uses _who_ instead of _that_. It is rare, though it
+would be useful,[7] to say "His English friends _that_ had not seen
+him" for "the English friends, or those of his English friends, that
+had not seen him."
+
+(_b_) _That_ sounds ill when separated from its verb and from its
+antecedents, and emphasized by isolation: "There are many persons
+_that_, though unscrupulous, are commonly good-tempered, and _that_,
+if not strongly incited by self-interest, are ready for the most part
+to think of the interest of their neighbours." Shakespeare frequently
+uses _who_ after _that_ when the relative is repeated. See
+"Shakespearian Grammar," par. 260.
+
+(_c_) If the antecedent is qualified by _that_, the relative must not
+be _that_. Besides other considerations, the repetition is
+disagreeable. Addison ridicules such language as "_That_ remark _that_
+I made yesterday is not _that_ _that_ I said _that_ I regretted _that_
+I had made."
+
+(_d_) _That_ cannot be preceded by a preposition, and hence throws the
+preposition to the end. "This is the rule _that_ I adhere _to_." This
+is perfectly good English, though sometimes unnecessarily avoided.
+But, with some prepositions, the construction is harsh and
+objectionable, _e.g._ "This is the mark _that_ I jumped _beyond_,"
+"Such were the prejudices _that_ he rose _above_." The reason is that
+some of these disyllabic prepositions are used as adverbs, and, when
+separated from their nouns, give one the impression that they are used
+as adverbs.
+
+(_e_) After pronominal adjectives used for personal pronouns, modern
+English prefers _who_. "There are many, others, several, those, _who_
+can testify &c."
+
+(_f_) After _that_ used as a conjunction there is sometimes a dislike
+to use _that_ as a relative. See (_c_).
+
+
+*9. Do not use redundant "and" before "which."[8]*
+
+"I gave him a very interesting book for a present, _and which_ cost me
+five shillings."
+
+In short sentences the absurdity is evident, but in long sentences it
+is less evident, and very common.
+
+"A petition was presented for rescinding that portion of the bye-laws
+which permits application of public money to support sectarian
+schools over which ratepayers have no control, this being a violation
+of the principle of civil and religious liberty, _and which_ the
+memorialists believe would provoke a determined and conscientious
+resistance."
+
+Here _which_ ought grammatically to refer to "portion" or "schools."
+But it seems intended to refer to "violation." Omit "and," or repeat
+"a violation" before "which," or turn the sentence otherwise.
+
+
+*10. Equivalents for Relative.*
+
+*(_a_) Participle.*--"Men _thirsting_ (for 'men _that thirst_') for
+revenge are not indifferent to plunder." The objection to the
+participle is that here, as often, it creates a little ambiguity. The
+above sentence may mean, "men, _when_ they thirst," or "_though_ they
+thirst," as well as "men _that_ thirst." Often however there is no
+ambiguity: "I have documents _proving_ this conclusively."
+
+*(_b_) Infinitive.*--Instead of "He was the first _that_ entered" you
+can write "_to_ enter;" for "He is not a man _who_ will act
+dishonestly," "_to_ act." This equivalent cannot often be used.
+
+*(_c_) Whereby, wherein, &c.,* can sometimes be used for "by _which_,"
+"in _which_," so as to avoid a harsh repetition of "_which_." "The
+means _whereby_ this may be effected." But this use is somewhat
+antiquated.
+
+*(_d_) If.*--"The man _that_ does not care for music is to be pitied"
+can be written (though not so forcibly), "_If_ a man does not care for
+music, he is to be pitied." It is in long sentences that this
+equivalent will be found most useful.
+
+*(_e_) And this.*--"He did his best, _which_ was all that could be
+expected," can be written, "_and this_ was all that, &c."
+
+*(_f_) What.*--"Let me repeat _that which_[9] you ought to know, that
+_that which_ is worth doing is worth doing well." "Let me repeat,
+_what_ you ought to know, that _what_ is worth doing is worth doing
+well."
+
+*(_g_) Omission of Relative.*--It is sometimes thought ungrammatical
+to omit the relative, as in "The man (that) you speak of." On the
+contrary, _that_ when an object (not when a subject) may be omitted,
+wherever the antecedent and the subject of the relative sentence are
+brought into juxtaposition by the omission.
+
+*10 a'. Repeat the Antecedent in some new form, where there is any
+ambiguity.* This is particularly useful after a negative: "He said
+that he would not even hear me, _which_ I confess I had expected."
+Here the meaning may be, "I had expected that he would," or "that he
+would not, hear me." Write, "_a refusal_, or, _a favour_, that I
+confess I had expected." See (38).
+
+
+*11. Use particular for general terms.*--This is a most important
+rule. Instead of "I have neither the necessaries of life nor the means
+of procuring them," write (if you can _with truth_), "I have not a
+crust of bread, nor a penny to buy one."
+
+CAUTION.--There is a danger in this use. The meaning is vividly
+expressed but sometimes may be exaggerated or imperfect. _Crust of
+bread_ may be an exaggeration; on the other hand, if the speaker is
+destitute not only of bread, but also of shelter and clothing, then
+_crust of bread_ is an imperfect expression of the meaning.
+
+In philosophy and science, where the language ought very often to be
+inclusive and brief, general and not particular terms must be used.
+
+*11 a. Avoid Verbal Nouns where Verbs can be used instead.* The
+disadvantage of the use of Verbal Nouns is this, that, unless they are
+immediately preceded by prepositions, they are sometimes liable to be
+confounded with participles. The following is an instance of an
+excessive use of Verbal Nouns:
+
+"The pretended confession of the secretary was only collusion to lay
+the jealousies of the king's _favouring_ popery, which still hung upon
+him, notwithstanding his _writing_ on the Revelation, and _affecting_
+to enter on all occasions into controversy, _asserting_ in particular
+that the Pope was Antichrist."
+
+Write "notwithstanding that he wrote and affected &c."
+
+
+*12. Use a particular Person instead of a class.*
+
+"What is the splendour of _the greatest monarch_ compared with the
+beauty of _a flower_?" "What is the splendour of Solomon compared with
+the beauty of a daisy?"
+
+Under this head may come the forcible use of Noun for Adjective: "This
+fortress is _weakness_ itself."
+
+An excess of this use is lengthy and pedantically bombastic, _e.g._,
+the following paraphrase for "in every British colony:"--"under Indian
+palm-groves, amid Australian gum-trees, in the shadow of African
+mimosas, and beneath Canadian pines."
+
+
+*13. Use Metaphor instead of literal statement.*
+
+"The ship _ploughs_ the sea" is clearer than "the ship _cleaves_ the
+sea," and shorter than "the ship _cleaves_ the sea _as a plough
+cleaves the land_."
+
+Of course there are some subjects for which Metaphor should not be
+used. See (14 _a_) and (14 _b_).
+
+
+*14. Do not confuse Metaphor.*
+
+"In a moment the thunderbolt was upon them, _deluging_ their country
+with invaders."
+
+The following is attributed to Sir Boyle Roche: "Mr. Speaker, I smell
+a rat, I see him brewing in the air; but, mark me, I shall yet nip him
+in the bud."
+
+Some words, once metaphorical, have ceased to be so regarded. Hence
+many good writers say "_under_ these _circumstances_" instead of "_in_
+these circumstances."
+
+An excessive regard for disused metaphor savours of pedantry:
+disregard is inelegant. Write, not, "_unparalleled_ complications,"
+but "_unprecedented_ complications;" and "_he threw light on_
+obscurities," instead of "_he unravelled_ obscurities."
+
+*14 a. Do not introduce literal statement immediately after Metaphor.*
+
+"He was the father of Chemistry, and brother to the Earl of Cork."
+
+    "He was a very thunderbolt of war,
+    And was lieutenant to the Earl of Mar."
+
+*14 b. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject.*
+Thus, we may say "a poet _soars_," or even, though rarely, "a nation
+_soars_ to greatness," but you could not say "Consols _soared to_
+94-1/2." Even commonplace subjects may be illustrated by metaphor: for
+it is a metaphor, and quite unobjectionable, to say "Consols
+_mounted_, or _jumped_ to 94-1/2." But commonplace subjects must be
+illustrated by metaphor that is commonplace.
+
+
+ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE.
+
+*15. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions; i.e. for the
+most part, at the beginning or at the end of the sentence.* This rule
+occasionally supersedes the common rules about position. Thus, the
+place for an adverb, as a rule, should be between the subject and
+verb: "He _quickly_ left the room;" but if _quickly_ is to be
+emphatic, it must come at the beginning or end, as in "I told him to
+leave the room slowly, but he left _quickly_."
+
+Adjectives, in clauses beginning with "if" and "though," often come at
+the beginning for emphasis: "_Insolent_ though he was, he was silenced
+at last."
+
+*15 a. Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the end of the
+sentence.* It is a common fault to break this rule by placing a short
+and unemphatic predicate at the end of a long sentence.
+
+"To know some Latin, even if it be nothing but a few Latin roots, _is
+useful_." Write, "It is useful, &c."
+
+So "the evidence proves how kind to his inferiors _he is_."
+
+Often, where an adjective or auxiliary verb comes at the end, the
+addition of an emphatic adverb justifies the position, _e.g._ above,
+"is _very_ useful," "he has _invariably_ been."
+
+A short "chippy" ending, even though emphatic, is to be avoided. It is
+abrupt and unrhythmical, _e.g._ "The soldier, transfixed with the
+spear, _writhed_." We want a _longer_ ending, "fell writhing to the
+ground," or, "writhed in the agonies of death." A "chippy" ending is
+common in bad construing from Virgil.
+
+*Exceptions.*--Prepositions and pronouns attached to emphatic words
+need not be moved from the end; _e.g._ "He does no harm that I hear
+_of_." "Bear witness how I loved _him_."
+
+*N.B. In all styles, especially in letter-writing, a final emphasis
+must not be so frequent as to become obtrusive and monotonous.*
+
+*15 b. An interrogation sometimes gives emphasis.* "No one can doubt
+that the prisoner, had he been really guilty, would have shown some
+signs of remorse," is not so emphatic as "Who can doubt, Is it
+possible to doubt, &c.?"
+
+Contrast "No one ever names Wentworth without thinking of &c." with
+"But Wentworth,--who ever names him without thinking of those harsh
+dark features, ennobled by their expression into more than the majesty
+of an antique Jupiter?"
+
+
+*16. The subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be removed from
+the beginning of the sentence.* The beginning of the sentence is an
+emphatic position, though mostly not so emphatic as the end. Therefore
+the principal subject of a sentence, being emphatic, and being wanted
+early in the sentence to tell us what the sentence is about, comes as
+a rule, at or near the beginning: "_Thomas_ built this house."
+
+Hence, since the beginning is the _usual_ place for the subject, if we
+want to emphasize "Thomas" _unusually_, we must remove "Thomas" from
+the beginning: "This house was built by _Thomas_," or "It was _Thomas_
+that built this house."
+
+Thus, the emphasis on "conqueror" is not quite so strong in "_A mere
+conqueror_ ought not to obtain from us the reverence that is due to
+the great benefactors of mankind," as in "We ought not to bestow the
+reverence that is due to the great benefactors of mankind, _upon a
+mere conqueror_." Considerable, but less emphasis and greater
+smoothness (19) will be obtained by writing the sentence thus: "We
+ought not to bestow upon a mere conqueror &c."
+
+Where the same subject stands first in several consecutive sentences,
+it rises in emphasis, and need not be removed from the beginning, even
+though unusual emphasis be required:
+
+"The captain was the life and soul of the expedition. _He_ first
+pointed out the possibility of advancing; _he_ warned them of the
+approaching scarcity of provisions; _he_ showed how they might
+replenish their exhausted stock &c."
+
+
+*17. The object is sometimes placed before the verb for emphasis.*
+This is most common in antithesis. "_Jesus_ I know, and _Paul_ I know;
+but who are ye?" "_Some_ he imprisoned, _others_ he put to death."
+
+Even where there is no antithesis the inversion is not uncommon:
+
+"Military _courage_, the boast of the sottish German, of the frivolous
+and prating Frenchman, of the romantic and arrogant Spaniard, he
+neither possesses nor values."
+
+This inversion sometimes creates ambiguity in poetry, _e.g._ "The son
+the father slew," and must be sparingly used in prose.
+
+Sometimes the position of a word may be considered appropriate by
+some, and inappropriate by others, according to different
+interpretations of the sentence. Take as an example, "Early in the
+morning the nobles and gentlemen who attended on the king assembled in
+the great hall of the castle; and here they began to talk of what a
+dreadful storm it had been the night before. But Macbeth could
+scarcely understand what they said, for he was thinking of something
+worse." The last sentence has been amended by Professor Bain into
+"_What they said_, Macbeth could scarcely understand." But there
+appears to be an antithesis between the guiltless nobles who can think
+about the weather, and the guilty Macbeth who cannot. Hence, "what
+they said" ought not, and "Macbeth" ought, to be emphasized: and
+therefore "Macbeth" ought to be retained at the beginning of the
+sentence.
+
+The same author alters, "The praise of judgment Virgil has justly
+contested with him, but his invention remains yet unrivalled," into
+"Virgil has justly contested with him the praise of judgment, but no
+one has yet rivalled his invention"--an alteration which does not seem
+to emphasize sufficiently the antithesis between what had been
+'contested,' on the one hand, and what remained as yet 'unrivalled' on
+the other.
+
+More judiciously Professor Bain alters, "He that tells a lie is not
+sensible how great a task he undertakes; for he must be forced to
+invent twenty more to maintain one," into "for, to maintain one, he
+must invent twenty more," putting the emphatic words in their emphatic
+place, at the end.
+
+
+*18. Where several words are emphatic, make it clear which is the most
+emphatic.* Thus, in "The state was made, under the pretence of serving
+it, in reality the prize of their contention to each of these opposite
+parties," it is unpleasantly doubtful whether the writer means (1)
+_state_ or (2) _parties_ to be emphatic.
+
+If (1), "As for the _state_, these two parties, under the pretence of
+serving it, converted it into a prize for their contention." If (2),
+write, "Though served in profession, the state was in reality
+converted into a prize for their contention by these two _parties_."
+In (1) _parties_ is subordinated, in (2) _state_.
+
+Sometimes the addition of some intensifying word serves to emphasize.
+Thus, instead of "To effect this they used all devices," we can write
+"To effect this they used _every conceivable device_." So, if we want
+to emphasize fidelity in "The business will task your skill and
+fidelity," we can write "Not only your skill _but also_ your
+fidelity." This, however, sometimes leads to exaggerations. See (2).
+
+Sometimes antithesis gives emphasis, as in "You _do_ not know this,
+but you _shall_ know it." Where antithesis cannot be used, the
+emphasis must be expressed by turning the sentence, as "I _will make
+you_ know it," or by some addition, as "You shall _hereafter_ know
+it."
+
+
+*19. Words should be as near as possible to the words with which they
+are grammatically connected.* See Paragraphs 20 to 29. For exceptions
+see 30.
+
+
+*20. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended to
+affect.* When unemphatic, adverbs come between the subject and the
+verb, or, if the tense is compound, between the parts of the compound
+tense: "He _quickly_ left the room;" "He has _quickly_ left the room;"
+but, when emphatic, after the verb: "He left, or has left, the room
+_quickly_."[10] When such a sentence as the latter is followed by a
+present participle, there arises ambiguity. "I told him to go slowly,
+but he left the room _quickly_, dropping the purse on the floor." Does
+_quickly_ here modify _left_ or _dropping_? The remedy[11] is, to give
+the adverb its unemphatic place, "He _quickly_ left the room, dropping
+&c.," or else to avoid the participle, thus: "He _quickly_ dropped the
+purse and left the room," or "He dropped the purse and _quickly_ left
+the room."
+
+
+*21. "Only" requires careful use. The strict[12] rule is, that "only"
+should be placed before the word affected by it.*
+
+The following is ambiguous:
+
+"The heavens are not open to the faithful _only_ at intervals."
+
+The best rule is to avoid placing "only" between two emphatic words,
+and to avoid using "only" where "alone" can be used instead.
+
+In strictness perhaps the three following sentences:
+
+(1) He _only_ beat three,
+
+(2) He beat _only_ three,
+
+(3) He beat three _only_, ought to be explained, severally, thus:
+
+(1) He did no more than beat, did not kill, three.
+
+(2) He beat no more than three.
+
+(3) He beat three, and that was all he did. (Here _only_ modifies the
+whole of the sentence and depreciates the action.)
+
+But the best authors sometimes transpose the word. "He _only_ lived"
+ought to mean "he did not die or make any great sacrifice;" but "He
+_only_ lived but till he was a man" (_Macbeth_, v. 8. 40) means "He
+lived _only_ till he was a man." Compare also, "Who _only_ hath
+immortality."
+
+_Only_ at the beginning of a statement = _but_. "I don't like to
+importune you, _only_ I know you'll forgive me." Before an imperative
+it diminishes the favour asked: "_Only_ listen to me." This use of
+_only_ is mostly confined to letters.
+
+Very often, _only_ at the beginning of a sentence is used for _alone_:
+"_Only_ ten came," "_Only_ Cęsar approved." _Alone_ is less ambiguous.
+The ambiguity of _only_ is illustrated by such a sentence as, "Don't
+hesitate to bring a few friends of yours to shoot on my estate at any
+time. _Only_ five (fifteen) came yesterday," which might mean, "I
+don't mind a _few_; _only_ don't bring so many as _fifteen_;" or else
+"Don't hesitate to bring a few _more_; no more than _five_ came
+yesterday." In conversation, ambiguity is prevented by emphasis; but
+in a letter, _only_ thus used might cause unfortunate mistakes. Write
+"Yesterday _only_ five came," if you mean "no more than five."
+
+
+*22. When "not only" precedes "but also," see that each is followed by
+the same part of speech.*
+
+"He _not only_ gave me advice _but also_ help" is wrong. Write "He
+gave me, _not only_ advice, _but also_ help." On the other hand, "He
+_not only_ gave me a grammar, _but also_ lent me a dictionary," is
+right. Take an instance. "He spoke _not only_ forcibly _but also_
+tastefully (adverbs), and this too, _not only_ before a small
+audience, _but also_ in (prepositions) a large public meeting, and his
+speeches were _not only_ successful, _but also_ (adjective) worthy of
+success."
+
+
+*23. "At least," "always," and other adverbial adjuncts, sometimes
+produce ambiguity.*
+
+"I think you will find my Latin exercise, _at all events_, as good as
+my cousin's." Does this mean (1) "my Latin exercise, though not
+perhaps my other exercises;" or (2), "Though not very good, yet, at
+all events, as good as my cousin's"? Write for (1), "My Latin
+exercise, at all events, you will find &c." and for (2), "I think you
+will find my Latin exercise as good as my cousin's, at all events."
+
+The remedy is to avoid placing "at all events" between two emphatic
+words.
+
+As an example of the misplacing of an adverbial adjunct, take "From
+abroad he received most favourable reports, but in the City he heard
+that a panic had broken out on the Exchange, and that the funds were
+fast falling." This ought to mean that the "hearing," and not (as is
+intended) that the "breaking out of the panic," took place in the
+City.
+
+In practice, an adverb is often used to qualify a remote word, where
+the latter is _more emphatic than any nearer word_. This is very
+common when the Adverbial Adjunct is placed in an emphatic position at
+the beginning of the sentence: "_On this very spot_ our guide declared
+that Claverhouse had fallen."
+
+
+*24. Nouns should be placed near the nouns that they define.* In the
+very common sentence "The death is announced of Mr. John Smith, an
+author whose works &c.," the transposition is probably made from a
+feeling that, if we write "The death of Mr. John Smith is announced,"
+we shall be obliged to begin a new sentence, "He was an author whose
+works &c." But the difficulty can be removed by writing "We regret to
+announce, or, we are informed of, the death of Mr. John Smith, an
+author, &c."
+
+
+*25. Pronouns should follow the nouns to which they refer without the
+intervention of another noun.* Avoid, "John Smith, the son of Thomas
+Smith, _who_ gave me this book," unless _Thomas Smith_ is the
+antecedent of _who_. Avoid also "John supplied Thomas with money: _he_
+(John) was very well off."
+
+When, however, one of two preceding nouns is decidedly superior to the
+other in emphasis, the more emphatic may be presumed to be the noun
+referred to by the pronoun, even though the noun of inferior emphasis
+intervenes. Thus: "At this moment the colonel came up, and took the
+place of the wounded general. _He_ gave orders to halt." Here _he_
+would naturally refer to _colonel_, though _general_ intervenes. A
+_conjunction_ will often show that a pronoun refers to the subject of
+the preceding sentence, and not to another intervening noun. "The
+sentinel at once took aim at the approaching soldier, and fired. He
+_then_ retreated to give the alarm."
+
+It is better to adhere, in most cases, to Rule 25, which may be called
+(Bain) the Rule of Proximity. The Rule of Emphasis, of which an
+instance was given in the last paragraph, is sometimes misleading. A
+distinction might be drawn by punctuating thus:
+
+"David the father of Solomon, who slew Goliath." "David, the father of
+Solomon who built the Temple." But the propriety of omitting a comma
+in each case is questionable, and it is better to write so as not to
+be at the mercy of commas.
+
+
+*26. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as close
+together as possible.* (But see 55.) The introduction of parentheses
+violating this rule often produced serious ambiguity. Thus, in the
+following: "The result of these observations appears to be in
+opposition to the view now generally received in this country, that
+in muscular effort the substance of the muscle itself undergoes
+disintegration." Here it is difficult to tell whether the theory of
+"disintegration" is (1) "the result," or, as the absence of a comma
+after "be" would indicate, (2) "in opposition to the result of these
+observations." If (1) is intended, add "and to prove" after "country;"
+if (2), insert "which is" after "country."
+
+There is an excessive complication in the following:--"It cannot, at
+all events, if the consideration demanded by a subject of such
+importance from any one professing to be a philosopher, be given, be
+denied that &c."
+
+Where a speaker feels that his hearers have forgotten the connection
+of the beginning of the sentence, he should repeat what he has said;
+_e.g._ after the long parenthesis in the last sentence he should
+recommence, "it cannot, I say, be denied." In writing, however, this
+licence must be sparingly used.
+
+A short parenthesis, or modifying clause, will not interfere with
+clearness, especially if antithesis he used, so as to show the
+connection between the different parts of the sentence, _e.g._ "A
+modern newspaper statement, _though probably true_, would be laughed
+at if quoted in a book as testimony; but the letter of a court gossip
+is thought good historical evidence if written some centuries ago."
+Here, to place "though probably true" at the beginning of the sentence
+would not add clearness, and would impair the emphasis of the contrast
+between "a modern newspaper statement" and "the letter of a court
+gossip."
+
+
+*27. In conditional sentences, the antecedent clauses must be kept
+distinct from the consequent clauses.*--There is ambiguity in "The
+lesson intended to be taught by these manoeuvres will be lost, if the
+plan of operations is laid down too definitely beforehand, and the
+affair degenerates into a mere review." Begin, in any case, with the
+antecedent, "If the plan," &c. Next write, according to the meaning:
+(1) "If the plan is laid down, and the affair degenerates &c., then
+the lesson will be lost;" or (2) " ... then the lesson ... will be
+lost, and the affair degenerates into a mere review."
+
+
+*28. Dependent clauses preceded by "that" should be kept distinct from
+those that are independent.*
+
+Take as an example:
+
+(1) "He replied that he wished to help them, and intended to make
+preparations accordingly."
+
+This ought not to be used (though it sometimes is, for shortness) to
+mean:
+
+(2) "He replied ..., and he intended."
+
+In (1), "intended," having no subject, must be supposed to be
+connected with the nearest preceding verb, in the same mood and tense,
+that has a subject, _i.e._ "wished." It follows that (1) is a
+condensation of:
+
+(3) "He replied that he wished ..., and that he intended."
+
+(2), though theoretically free from ambiguity, is practically
+ambiguous, owing to a loose habit of repeating the subject
+unnecessarily. It would be better to insert a conjunctional word or a
+full stop between the two statements. Thus:
+
+(4) "He replied that he wished to help them, and _indeed_ he
+intended," &c., or "He replied, &c. He intended, &c."
+
+Where there is any danger of ambiguity, use (3) or (4) in preference
+to (1) or (2).
+
+
+*29. When there are several infinitives, those that are dependent on
+the same word must be kept distinct from those that are not.*
+
+"He said that he wished _to_ take his friend with him _to_ visit the
+capital and _to_ study medicine." Here it is doubtful whether the
+meaning is--
+
+"He said that he wished to take his friend with him,
+
+(1) _and also_ to visit the capital and study medicine," or
+
+(2) "that his friend might visit the capital _and might also_ study
+medicine," or
+
+(3) "on a visit to the capital, _and that he also_ wished to study
+medicine."
+
+From the three different versions it will be perceived that this
+ambiguity must be met (_a_) by using "that" for "to," which allows us
+to repeat an auxiliary verb [_e.g._ "might" in (2)], and (_b_) by
+inserting conjunctions. As to insertions of conjunctions, see (37).
+
+"In order to," and "for the purpose of," can be used to distinguish
+(wherever there is any ambiguity) between an infinitive that
+_expresses a purpose_, and an infinitive that does not, _e.g._ "He
+told his servant to call upon his friend, _to_ (in order to) give him
+information about the trains, and not to leave him till he started."
+
+
+*30. The principle of suspense.* Write your sentence in such a way
+that, until he has come to the full stop, the reader may feel the
+sentence to be incomplete. In other words, keep your reader in
+_suspense_. _Suspense_ is caused (1) by placing the "if-clause" first,
+and not last, in a conditional sentence; (2) by placing participles
+before the words they qualify; (3) by using suspensive conjunctions,
+_e.g._ _not only_, _either_, _partly_, _on the one hand_, _in the
+first place_, &c.
+
+The following is an example of an _unsuspended_ sentence. The sense
+_draggles_, and it is difficult to keep up one's attention.
+
+"Mr. Pym was looked upon as the man of greatest experience in
+parliaments, | where he had served very long, | and was always a man
+of business, | being an officer in the Exchequer, | and of a good
+reputation generally, | though known to be inclined to the Puritan
+party; yet not of those furious resolutions (_Mod. Eng._ so furiously
+resolved) against the Church as the other leading men were, | and
+wholly devoted to the Earl of Bedford,--who had nothing of that
+spirit."
+
+The foregoing sentence might have ended at any one of the eight points
+marked above. When suspended it becomes:--
+
+"Mr. Pym, owing to his long service in Parliament in the Exchequer,
+was esteemed above all others for his Parliamentary experience and for
+his knowledge of business. He had also a good reputation generally;
+for, though openly favouring the Puritan party, he was closely devoted
+to the Earl of Bedford, and, like the Earl, had none of the fanatical
+spirit manifested against the Church by the other leading men."
+
+*30 a. It is a violation of the principle of Suspense to introduce
+unexpectedly, at the end of a long sentence, some short and unemphatic
+clause beginning with (a) " ... not" or (b) " ... which."*
+
+(_a_) "This reform has already been highly beneficial to all classes
+of our countrymen, and will, I am persuaded, encourage among us
+industry, self-dependence, and frugality, _and not, as some say,
+wastefulness_."
+
+Write "not, as some say, wastefulness, but industry, self-dependence,
+and frugality."
+
+(_b_) "After a long and tedious journey, the last part of which was a
+little dangerous owing to the state of the roads, we arrived safely at
+York, _which is a fine old town_."
+
+*Exception.*--When the short final clause is intended to be
+unexpectedly unemphatic, it comes in appropriately, with something of
+the sting of an epigram. See (42). Thus:
+
+"The old miser said that he should have been delighted to give the
+poor fellow a shilling, but most unfortunately he had left his purse
+at home--_a habit of his_."
+
+Suspense naturally throws increased emphasis on the words for which we
+are waiting, _i.e._ on the end of the sentence. It has been pointed
+out above that *a monotony of final emphasis is objectionable,
+especially in letter writing and conversation*.
+
+
+*31. Suspense must not be excessive.* _Excess of suspense_ is a common
+fault in boys translating from Latin. "Themistocles, having secured
+the safety of Greece, the Persian fleet being now destroyed, when he
+had unsuccessfully attempted to persuade the Greeks to break down the
+bridge across the Hellespont, hearing that Xerxes was in full flight,
+and thinking that it might be profitable to secure the friendship of
+the king, wrote as follows to him." The more English idiom is: "When
+Themistocles had secured the safety of Greece by the destruction of
+the Persian fleet, he made an unsuccessful attempt to persuade the
+Greeks to break down the bridge across the Hellespont. Soon
+afterwards, hearing &c."
+
+A long suspense that would be intolerable in prose is tolerable in the
+introduction to a poem. See the long interval at the beginning of
+_Paradise Lost_ between "Of man's first disobedience" and "Sing,
+heavenly Muse." Compare also the beginning of _Paradise Lost_, Book
+II.:
+
+    "_High on a throne of royal state, which far
+    Outshone the wealth of Ormuz and of Ind,
+    Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand
+    Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold--
+    Satan exalted sat._"
+
+with the opening of Keats' _Hyperion_:
+
+    "_Deep in the shady sadness of a vale,
+    Far sunken from the healthy breath of morn,
+    Far from the fiery noon and eve's one star--
+    Sat grey-haired Saturn, quiet as a stone._"
+
+
+*32. In a long conditional sentence put the "if-clause," antecedent,
+or protasis, first.*
+
+Everyone will see the flatness of "Revenge thy father's most unnatural
+murder, if thou didst ever love him," as compared with the suspense
+that forces an expression of agony from Hamlet in--
+
+  "_Ghost._ If thou didst ever thy dear father love--
+  _Hamlet._ O, God!
+  _Ghost._ Revenge his foul and most unnatural murder."
+
+The effect is sometimes almost ludicrous when the consequent is long
+and complicated, and when it precedes the antecedent or "if-clause."
+"I should be delighted to introduce you to my friends, and to show you
+the objects of interest in our city, and the beautiful scenery in the
+neighbourhood, if you were here." Where the "if-clause" comes last, it
+ought to be very emphatic: "if you were _only_ here."
+
+The introduction of a clause with "if" or "though" in the middle of a
+sentence may often cause ambiguity, especially when a great part of
+the sentence depends on "that:" "His enemies answered that, for the
+sake of preserving the public peace, they would keep quiet for the
+present, though he declared that cowardice was the motive of the
+delay, and that for this reason they would put off the trial to a more
+convenient season." See (27).
+
+
+*33. Suspense[13] is gained by placing a Participle or Adjective that
+qualifies the Subject, before the Subject.*
+
+"_Deserted_ by his friends, he was forced to have recourse to those
+that had been his enemies." Here, if we write, "He, deserted by his
+friends, was forced &c.," _he_ is unduly emphasized; and if we write,
+"He was forced to have recourse to his enemies, having been deserted
+by his friends," the effect is very flat.
+
+Of course we might sometimes write "He was deserted and forced &c."
+But this cannot be done where the "desertion" is to be not stated but
+implied.
+
+Often, when a participle qualifying the subject is introduced late in
+the sentence, it causes positive ambiguity: "With this small force the
+general determined to attack the foe, _flushed_ with recent victory
+and _rendered_ negligent by success."
+
+An excessive use of the _suspensive participle_ is French and
+objectionable: _e.g._ "_Careless_ by nature, and too much _engaged_
+with business to think of the morrow, _spoiled_ by a long-established
+liberty and a fabulous prosperity, _having_ for many generations
+forgotten the scourge of war, we allow ourselves to drift on without
+taking heed of the signs of the times." The remedy is to convert the
+participle into a verb depending on a conjunction: "Because we are by
+nature careless, &c.;" or to convert the participle into a verb
+co-ordinate with the principal verb, _e.g._ "_We are_ by nature
+careless, &c., and therefore we _allow_ ourselves, &c."
+
+
+*34. Suspensive Conjunctions, e.g. "either," "not only," "on the one
+hand," add clearness.*--Take the following sentence:--"You must take
+this extremely perilous course, in which success is uncertain, and
+failure disgraceful, as well as ruinous, or else the liberty of your
+country is endangered." Here, the meaning is liable to be
+misunderstood, till the reader has gone half through the sentence.
+Write "_Either_ you must," &c., and the reader is, from the first,
+prepared for an alternative. Other suspensive conjunctions or phrases
+are _partly_, _for our part_; _in the first place_; _it is true_;
+_doubtless_; _of course_; _though_; _on the one hand_.
+
+
+*35. Repeat the Subject when the omission would cause ambiguity or
+obscurity.*--The omission is particularly likely to cause obscurity
+after a Relative standing as Subject:--
+
+"He professes to be helping the nation, which in reality is suffering
+from his flattery, and (he? or it?) will not permit anyone else to
+give it advice."
+
+The Relative should be repeated when it is the Subject of several
+Verbs. "All the pleasing illusions _which_ made power gentle and
+obedience liberal, _which_ harmonized the different shades of life,
+and _which_, by a bland assimilation, incorporated into politics the
+sentiments that beautify and soften private society, are to be
+dissolved by this new conquering empire of light and reason."
+
+
+*36. Repeat a Preposition after an intervening Conjunction, especially
+if a Verb and an Object also intervene.*
+
+"He forgets the gratitude that he owes to those that helped all his
+companions when he was poor and uninfluential, and (_to_) John Smith
+in particular." Here, omit _to_, and the meaning may be "that helped
+all his companions, and John Smith in particular." The intervention of
+the verb and object, "helped" and "companions," causes this ambiguity.
+
+
+*37. When there are several Verbs at some distance from a Conjunction
+on which they depend, repeat the Conjunction.*[14]
+
+"When we look back upon the havoc that two hundred years have made in
+the ranks of our national authors--and, above all, (_when_) we refer
+their rapid disappearance to the quick succession of new
+competitors--we cannot help being dismayed at the prospect that lies
+before the writers of the present day."
+
+Here omit "when," and we at once substitute a parenthetical statement
+for what is really a subordinate clause.
+
+In reporting a speech or opinion, "that" must be continually repeated,
+to avoid the danger of confusing what the writer says with what others
+say.
+
+"We might say that the Cęsars did not persecute the Christians;
+(_that_) they only punished men who were charged, rightly or wrongly,
+with burning Rome, and committing the foulest abominations in secret
+assemblies; and (_that_) the refusal to throw frankincense on the
+altar of Jupiter was not the crime, but only evidence of the crime."
+But see (6 _b_).
+
+*37 a. Repeat Verbs after the conjunctions "than," "as," &c.*
+
+"I think he likes me better _than_ you;" _i.e._ either "than you like
+me," or "he likes you."
+
+"Cardinal Richelieu hated Buckingham as sincerely as _did_ the
+Spaniard Olivares." Omit "did," and you cause ambiguity.
+
+*38. If the sentence is so long that it is difficult to keep the
+thread of meaning unbroken, repeat the subject, or some other emphatic
+word, or a summary of what has been said.*
+
+"Gold and cotton, banks and railways, crowded ports, and populous
+cities--_these_ are not the elements that constitute a great nation."
+
+This repetition (though useful and, when used in moderation, not
+unpleasant) is more common with speakers than with writers, and with
+slovenly speakers than with good speakers.
+
+"The country is in such a condition, that if we delay longer some fair
+measure of reform, sufficient at least to satisfy the more moderate,
+and much more, if we refuse all reform whatsoever--I say, if _we adopt
+so unwise a policy, the country is in such a condition_ that we may
+precipitate a revolution."
+
+Where the relative is either implied (in a participle) or repeated,
+the antecedent must often be repeated also. In the following sentence
+we have the Subject repeated not only in the final summary, but also
+as the antecedent:--
+
+"But if there were, in any part of the world, a national church
+regarded as heretical by four-fifths of the nation committed to its
+care; a _church_ established and maintained by the sword; a _church_
+producing twice as many riots as conversions; a _church_ which, though
+possessing great wealth and power, and though long backed by
+persecuting laws, had, in the course of many generations, been found
+unable to propagate its doctrines, and barely able to maintain its
+ground; a _church_ so odious that fraud and violence, when used
+against its clear rights of property, were generally regarded as fair
+play; a _church_ whose ministers were preaching to desolate walls, and
+with difficulty obtaining their lawful subsistence by the help of
+bayonets,--_such a church_, on our principles, could not, we must own,
+be defended."
+
+
+*39. It is a help to clearness, when the first part of the sentence
+prepares the way for the middle and the middle for the end, in a kind
+of ascent. This ascent is called "climax."*
+
+In the following there are two climaxes, each of which has three
+terms:--
+
+"To gossip(a) is a fault(b); to _libel_(a'), a _crime_(b'); to
+slander(a''), a _sin_(b'')."
+
+In the following, there are several climaxes, and note how they
+contribute to the clearness of a long sentence:--
+
+"Man, working, has _contrived_(a) the Atlantic Cable, but I declare
+that it _astonishes_(b) me far more to think _that for his mere
+amusement_(c), that to _entertain a mere idle hour_(c'), he has
+_created_(a') 'Othello' and 'Lear,' and I am more than astonished, I
+am _awe-struck_(b'), at that inexplicable elasticity of his nature
+which enables him, instead of _turning away_(d) from _calamity and
+grief_(e), or instead of merely _defying_(d') them, actually to _make
+them the material of his amusement_(d''), and to draw from the
+_wildest agonies of the human spirit_(e') a pleasure which is not
+only _not cruel_(f), but is in the highest degree _pure and
+ennobling_(f')."
+
+The neglect of climax produces an abruptness that interferes with the
+even flow of thought. Thus, if Pope, in his ironical address to
+mankind, had written--
+
+    "Go, wondrous creature, mount where science guides;
+    Go, measure earth, weigh air, and state the tides;
+    Go, teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule"--
+
+the ascent would have been too rapid. The transition from earth to
+heaven, and from investigating to governing, is prepared by the
+intervening climax--
+
+    "Instruct the planets in what orbs to run;
+    Correct old Time, and regulate the Sun;
+    Go, soar with Plato to th' empyreal sphere,
+    To the first good, first perfect, and first fair."
+
+
+*40. When the thought is expected to ascend and yet descends,
+feebleness and sometimes confusion is the result. The descent is
+called "bathos."*
+
+"What pen can describe the tears, the lamentations, the agonies, the
+_animated remonstrances_ of the unfortunate prisoners?"
+
+"She was a woman of many accomplishments and virtues, graceful in her
+movements, winning in her address, a kind friend, a faithful and
+loving wife, a most affectionate mother, and she _played beautifully
+on the pianoforte_."
+
+INTENTIONAL BATHOS has a humorous incongruity and abruptness that is
+sometimes forcible. For example, after the climax ending with the
+line--
+
+    "Go, teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule,"
+
+Pope adds--
+
+    "Then drop into thyself, and be a _fool_."
+
+*40 a. A new construction should not be introduced without cause.*--A
+sudden and apparently unnecessary change of construction causes
+awkwardness and roughness at least, and sometimes breaks the flow of
+the sentence so seriously as to cause perplexity. Thus, write
+"virtuous and accomplished," or "of many virtues and accomplishments,"
+not "of many virtues and accomplished;" "riding or walking" or "on
+foot or horseback," not "on foot or riding." In the same way, do not
+put adjectives and participles, active and passive forms of verbs, in
+too close juxtaposition. Avoid such sentences as the following:--
+
+"He had good reason _to believe_ that the delay was not _an accident_
+(accidental) but _premeditated_, and _for supposing_ (to suppose, or
+else, for believing, above) that the fort, though strong both _by art_
+and _naturally_ (nature), would be forced by the _treachery of the_
+governor and the _indolent_ (indolence of the) general to capitulate
+within a week."
+
+"They accused him of being _bribed_ (receiving bribes from) by the
+king and _unwilling_ (neglecting) to take the city."
+
+
+*41. Antithesis adds force, and often clearness.*--The meaning of
+_liberal_ in the following sentence is ascertained by the
+antithesis:--
+
+"All the pleasing illusions which made _power_(a) _gentle_(b) and
+_obedience_(a') _liberal_(b') ... are now to be destroyed."
+
+There is a kind of proportion. As _gentleness_ is to _power_, so
+_liberality_ (in the sense here used) is to _obedience_. Now
+_gentleness_ is the check on the excess of power; therefore _liberal_
+here applies to that which checks the excess of obedience, _i.e._
+checks servility. Hence _liberal_ here means "free."
+
+The contrast also adds force. "They aimed at the _rule_(a), not at the
+_destruction_(a'), of their country. They were men of great _civil_(b)
+and great _military_(b') talents, and, if the _terror_(c), the
+_ornament_(c') of their age."
+
+Excessive antithesis is unnatural and wearisome:--
+
+"Who can persuade where _treason_(a) is above _reason_(a'), and
+_might_(b) ruleth _right_(b'), and it is had for _lawful_(c)
+whatsoever is _lustful_(c'), and _commotioners_(d) are better than
+_commissioners_(d'), and _common woe_(e) is named common
+_wealth_(e')?"
+
+*42. Epigram.*--It has been seen that the neglect of climax results in
+lameness. Sometimes the suddenness of the descent produces amusement:
+and when the descent is intentional and very sudden, the effect is
+striking as well as amusing. Thus:--
+
+(1) "You are not only not vicious, you are virtuous," is a _climax_.
+
+(2) "You are not vicious, you are vice," is not _climax_, nor is it
+_bathos_: it is _epigram_.[15]
+
+Epigram may be defined as a "short sentence expressing truth under an
+amusing appearance of incongruity." It is often antithetical.
+
+  "The Russian grandees came to { and diamonds," _climax_.
+     court dropping pearls      { and vermin," _epigram_.
+
+  "These two nations were divided  { and the bitter remembrance
+     by mutual fear                { of recent losses," _climax_.
+                                   { and mountains," _epigram_.
+
+There is a sort of implied antithesis in:--
+
+"He is full of information--(but flat also) like yesterday's _Times_."
+
+"Verbosity is cured (not by a small, but) by a large vocabulary."
+
+The name of epigram may sometimes be given to a mere antithesis;
+_e.g._ "An educated man should know something of everything, and
+everything of something."
+
+
+*43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject of
+thought.*
+
+"This great and good man died on the 17th of September, 1683, leaving
+behind him the memory of many noble actions, and a numerous family, of
+whom three were sons; one of them, George, the eldest, heir to his
+father's virtues, as well as to his principal estates in Cumberland,
+where most of his father's property was situate, and shortly
+afterwards elected member for the county, which had for several
+generations returned this family to serve in Parliament." Here we have
+(1) the "great and good man," (2) "George," (3) "the county,"
+disputing which is to be considered the principal subject. Two, if not
+three sentences should have been made, instead of one. Carefully avoid
+a long sentence like this, treating of many different subjects on one
+level. It is called _heterogeneous_.
+
+
+*44. The connection between different sentences must be kept up by
+Adverbs used as Conjunctions, or by means of some other connecting
+words at the beginning of each sentence.*--Leave out the conjunctions
+and other connecting words, and it will be seen that the following
+sentences lose much of their meaning:--
+
+"Pitt was in the army for a few months in time of peace. His
+biographer (_accordingly_) insists on our confessing, that, if the
+young cornet had remained in the service, he would have been one of
+the ablest commanders that ever lived. (_But_) this is not all. Pitt
+(, _it seems_,) was not merely a great poet _in esse_ and a great
+general _in posse_, but a finished example of moral excellence....
+(_The truth is, that_) there scarcely ever lived a person who had so
+little claim to this sort of praise as Pitt. He was (_undoubtedly_) a
+great man. (_But_) his was not a complete and well-proportioned
+greatness. The public life of Hampden or of Somers resembles a regular
+drama which can be criticised as a whole, and every scene of which is
+to be viewed in connection with the main action. The public life of
+Pitt (, _on the other hand_,) is," &c.
+
+The following are some of the most common connecting adverbs, or
+connecting phrases: (1) expressing consequence, similarity,
+repetition, or resumption of a subject--_accordingly_, _therefore_,
+_then_, _naturally_, _so that_, _thus_, _in this way_, _again_, _once
+more_, _to resume_, _to continue_, _to sum up_, _in fact_, _upon
+this_; (2) expressing opposition--_nevertheless_, _in spite of this_,
+_yet_, _still_, _however_, _but_, _on the contrary_, _on the other
+hand_; (3) expressing suspension--_undoubtedly ... but_; _indeed ...
+yet_; _on the one hand ... on the other_; _partly ... partly_; _some
+... others_.
+
+Avoid a style like that of Bishop Burnet, which strings together a
+number of sentences with "and" or "so," or with no conjunction at all:
+
+"Blake with the fleet happened to be at Malaga, before he made war
+upon Spain; _and_ some of his seamen went ashore, _and_ met the Host
+carried about; _and_ not only paid no respect to it, but laughed at
+those who did." Write "_When_ Blake &c."
+
+
+*45. The connection between two long sentences sometimes requires a
+short intervening sentence, showing the transition of thought.*
+
+"Without force or opposition, it (chivalry) subdued the fierceness of
+pride and power; it obliged sovereigns to submit to the soft
+collar[16] of social esteem, compelled stern authority to submit to
+elegance, and gave a dominating vanquisher of laws to be subdued by
+manners. But now (_all is to be changed_:) all the pleasing illusions
+which made power gentle and obedience liberal, which harmonized the
+different shades of life, and which, by a bland assimilation,
+incorporated into politics the sentiments that beautify and soften
+private society, are to be dissolved by this new conquering empire of
+light and reason." If the words italicized were omitted, the
+transition would be too abrupt: the conjunction _but_ alone would be
+insufficient.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[5] _For_, at the beginning of a sentence, sometimes causes temporary
+doubt, while the reader is finding out whether it is used as a
+conjunction or preposition.
+
+[6] _It_ should refer (1) either to the Noun immediately preceding, or
+(2) to some Noun superior to all intervening Nouns in emphasis. See
+(25).
+
+[7] So useful that, on mature consideration, I am disposed to adopt
+"that" here and in several of the following exceptional cases.
+
+[8] Of course "and which" may be used where "which" precedes.
+
+[9] "That which," where _that_ is an _object_, _e.g._ "then (set
+forth) _that which_ is worse," _St. John_ ii. 10, is rare in modern
+English.
+
+[10] Sometimes the emphatic Adverb comes at the beginning, and causes
+the transposition of an Auxiliary Verb, "_Gladly_ do I consent."
+
+[11] Of course punctuation will remove the ambiguity; but it is better
+to express oneself clearly, as far as possible, independently of
+punctuation.
+
+[12] Professor Bain.
+
+[13] See (30).
+
+[14] The repetition of Auxiliary Verbs and Pronominal Adjectives is
+also conducive to clearness.
+
+[15] Professor Bain says: "In the epigram the mind is roused by a
+conflict or contradiction between the form of the language and the
+meaning really conveyed."
+
+[16] This metaphor is not recommended for imitation.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BREVITY.
+
+*46. Metaphor is briefer than literal statement.* See (13).
+
+"The cares and responsibilities of a sovereign often disturb his
+sleep," is not so brief as "Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown,"
+where the effect of care on the mind is assimilated to the effect of a
+heavy crown pressing on the head.
+
+
+*47. General terms are briefer, though less forcible, than particular
+terms.* Thus: "He devours _literature_, no matter of what kind," is
+shorter than, "Novels or sermons, poems or histories, no matter what,
+he devours them all."
+
+*47 a. A phrase may be expressed by a word.*
+
+"These impressions _can never be forgotten_, i.e. are _indelible_."
+
+"The style of this book is _of such a nature that it cannot be
+understood_, i.e. _unintelligible_."
+
+The words "of such a nature that" are often unnecessarily inserted.
+See the extract from Sir Archibald Alison.
+
+
+*48. Participles can often be used as brief (though sometimes
+ambiguous) equivalents of phrases containing Conjunctions and Verbs.*
+
+"Hearing (when he heard) this, he advanced." See (7) for more
+instances. So "phrases _containing_ conjunctions" means "phrases _that
+contain_ conjunctions." "_This done_, (for, _when this was done_) he
+retired."
+
+Sometimes the participle "being" is omitted. "France at our doors, he
+sees no danger nigh," for "France being" or "though France is."
+
+
+*49. Participles and participial adjectives may be used like
+Adjectives, as equivalents for phrases containing the Relative.*
+
+"The never-_ceasing_ wind," "the _clamouring_ ocean," "the _drenching_
+rain," are instances. The licence of inventing participial adjectives
+by adding _-ing_ to a noun, is almost restricted to poetry. You could
+not write "the _crannying_ wind" in prose.
+
+
+*50. A statement may sometimes be briefly implied instead of being
+expressed at length.* Thus, instead of "The spirit of Christianity was
+humanizing, and therefore &c.," or "Christianity, since it was (or
+being) of a humanizing spirit, discouraged &c.," we can write more
+briefly and effectively, "Gladiatorial shows were first discouraged,
+and finally put down, by the _humanizing spirit of Christianity_." So
+instead of "The nature of youth is thoughtless and sanguine, and
+therefore &c.," we can write, "The danger of the voyage was
+depreciated and the beauty of the island exaggerated by _the
+thoughtless nature of youth_."
+
+Sometimes a mere name or epithet implies a statement. "It was in vain
+that he offered the Swiss terms: war was deliberately preferred by the
+_hardy mountaineers_," _i.e._ "by the Swiss, _because they were
+mountaineers and hardy_." "The deed was applauded by all honest men,
+but the Government affected to treat it as murder, and set a price
+upon the head of (him whom they called) the _assassin." "The conqueror
+of Austerlitz_ might be expected to hold different language from _the
+prisoner of St. Helena_," _i.e._ "Napoleon when elated by the victory
+of Austerlitz," and "Napoleon when depressed by his imprisonment at
+St. Helena."
+
+CAUTION.--Different names must not be used for the same person unless
+each of them derives an appropriateness from its context. Thus, if we
+are writing about Charles II., it would be in very bad taste to avoid
+repeating "he" by using such periphrases as the following: "The third
+of the Stewarts hated business," "the Merry Monarch died in the
+fifty-fourth year of his age," &c.
+
+
+*51. Conjunctions may be omitted.* The omission gives a certain
+forcible abruptness, _e.g._ "You say this: I (on the other hand) deny
+it."
+
+When sentences are short, as in Macaulay's writings, conjunctions may
+be advantageously omitted.
+
+Where a contrast is intended, the conjunction _but_ usually prepares
+the way for the second of the two contrasted terms: "He is good _but_
+dull." Where _and_ is used instead of _but_, the incongruity savours
+of epigram: "He always talks truthfully _and_ prosily." "He is always
+amusing _and_ false."
+
+*51 a. The Imperative Mood may be used for "if."*
+
+"_Strip_ (for, _if you strip_) Virtue of the awful authority she
+derives from the general reverence of mankind, and you rob her of half
+her majesty."
+
+
+*52. Apposition may be used so as to convert two sentences into one.*
+
+"We called at the house of a person to whom we had letters of
+introduction, _a musician_, and, what is more, a _good friend_ to all
+young students of music." This is as clear as, and briefer than, "He
+was a musician, &c."
+
+
+*53. Condensation may be effected by not repeating (1) the common
+subject of several verbs, (2) the common object of several verbs or
+prepositions.*
+
+(1) "He resided here for many years, and, after he had won the esteem
+of all the citizens, (_he_) died," &c. So, (2) "He came to, and was
+induced to reside in, this city," is shorter than "He came to this
+city, and was induced to reside in it."
+
+Such condensation often causes obscurity, and, even where there is no
+obscurity, there is a certain harshness in pausing on light,
+unemphatic words, such as _to_, _in_, &c., as in the first example.
+
+
+*54. Tautology.*--The fault of repeating the same word several times
+unnecessarily is called _tautology_, e.g.:
+
+"This is a painful _circumstance_; it is a _circumstance_ that I much
+_regret_, and he also will much _regret_ the _circumstance_." But the
+fault is not to be avoided by using different words to mean the same
+thing, as, "This is a painful _event_; it is a _circumstance_ that I
+_much regret_, and he also will _greatly lament_ the _occurrence_."
+The true remedy is to arrange the words in such a manner that there
+may be no unnecessary repetition, thus: "This is a painful
+circumstance, a circumstance that causes me, and will cause him, deep
+regret."
+
+The repetition of the same meaning in slightly different words is a
+worse fault than the repetition of the same word. See, for examples,
+the extract from Sir Archibald Alison, at the end of the book. Thus
+"_A burning thirst_ for conquests is a characteristic of this nation.
+It is an _ardent passion_ that &c." Other instances are--"The
+_universal_ opinion of _all_ men;" "His judgment is so _infallible_
+that it is _never deceived_," &c.
+
+
+*55. Parenthesis may be used with advantage to brevity.*
+
+"We are all (and who would not be?) offended at the treatment we have
+received," is shorter and more forcible than the sentence would have
+been if the parenthesis had been appended in a separate sentence:
+"Who, indeed, would not be offended?"
+
+Extreme care must, however, be taken that a parenthesis may not
+obscure the meaning of a long sentence.
+
+*56. Caution: let clearness be the first consideration.* It is best,
+at all events for beginners, not to aim so much at being brief, or
+forcible, as at being perfectly clear. Horace says, "While I take
+pains to be brief, I fall into obscurity," and it may easily be seen
+that several of the rules for brevity interfere with the rules for
+clearness.
+
+Forcible style springs from (1) vividness and (2) exactness of
+thought, and from a corresponding (1) vividness and (2) exactness in
+the use of words.
+
+(1) When you are describing anything, endeavour to _see_ it and
+describe it as you see it. If you are writing about a man who was
+killed, _see_ the man before you, and ask, was he _executed_, _cut
+down_, _run through the body_, _butchered_, _shot_, or _hanged_? If
+you are writing about the capture of a city, was the city _stormed_,
+_surprised_, _surrendered_, _starved out_, or _demolished before
+surrender_? Was an army _repelled_, _defeated_, _routed_, _crushed_,
+or _annihilated_?
+
+(2) Exactness in the use of words requires an exact knowledge of their
+meanings and differences. This is a study by itself, and cannot be
+discussed here.[17]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[17] See _English Lessons for English People_, pp. 1-53.
+
+
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_For an explanation of the manner in which these Exercises are
+intended to be used, see the Preface._
+
+_A number in brackets by itself, or followed by a letter,_ e.g. _(43),
+(40 a), refers to the Rules._
+
+_Letters_ by themselves _in brackets_, e.g. _(b), refer to the
+explanations or hints appended to each sentence._
+
+_N.B..--(10 a) refers to the first section of Rule (10); (10 a') to
+the Rule following Rule (10)._
+
+1. "Pleasure and excitement had more attractions for him _than_ (_a_)
+(36) (37 _a_) _his friend_, and the two companions became estranged
+(15 _a_) _gradually_."
+
+     (_a_) Write (1) "than for his friend," or (2) "than had his
+     friend," "had more attractions than his friend."
+
+2. "(_a_) He soon grew tired of solitude even in that beautiful
+scenery, (36) the pleasures of the retirement (8) _which_ he had once
+pined for, and (36) leisure which he could use to no good purpose,
+(_a_) (30) _being_ (15) _restless by nature_."
+
+     (_a_) This sentence naturally stops at "purpose." Also "being
+     restless" seems (wrongly) to give the reason why "leisure" could
+     not be employed. Begin "Restless by nature...."
+
+3. "The opponents of the Government are naturally, and not (_a_) (40
+_a_) _without justification_, elated at the failure of the bold
+attempt to return two supporters of the Government at the recent
+election, (_b_) (10 _a'_) _which_ is certainly to be regretted."
+
+     (_a_) "unjustifiably." (_b_) Write, for "which," either (1) "an
+     attempt that &c.," or (2) "a failure that &c."
+
+4. "Carelessness in the Admiralty departments has co-operated with
+Nature to weaken the moral power of a Government that particularly
+needs to be thought efficient in (_a_) (5) _this_ _respect_, (_b_)
+(29) _to_ counterbalance a general distrust of its excessive _desire_
+(_c_) (47 _a_) _to please everybody_ in Foreign Affairs."
+
+     (_a_) Write "the Navy." (_b_) Instead of "to" write "in order
+     to," so as to distinguish the different infinitives, (_c_)
+     "obsequiousness."
+
+5. "(_a_) He was sometimes supported by Austria, who, oddly enough,
+appears under Count Beust to have been more friendly to Italy _than_
+(37 _a_) _France_, (30) _in this line of action_."
+
+     (_a_) Begin with "In this line of action." Why? (_b_) Write "than
+     was France" or "than France was."
+
+6. "There was something so startling in (_a_) (5) _this_ assertion,
+(_a_) (4) _that_ the discoveries of previous investigators were to be
+(_b_) (47 _a_) _treated as though they had never been made_, and (4)
+_that one who had not yet_ (47 _a_) _attained the age of manhood_ had
+superseded the grey-headed philosophers (8) _who_ had for centuries
+patiently sought after the truth, (4) _that_ (_a_) (5) _it_ naturally
+provoked derision."
+
+     (_a_) "This," "that," and "it," cause a little perplexity. Write
+     "The startling assertion that the discoveries...." (_b_)
+     "ignored." (_c_) "a mere youth," "a mere stripling."
+
+7. "One of the recommendations (_on which very_ (_a_) (26) (47, _a_)
+_much depended_) of the Commission was that a council in each province
+should establish smaller councils, each to have the oversight of a
+small district, and (_b_) (37) report to a central council on the
+state of Education in (_c_) (5) it."
+
+     (_a_) Write "cardinal recommendations." Derive "cardinal." (_b_)
+     Write, either (1) "and should report," or (2) "and to report."
+     (_c_) Write "in its province," or "district."
+
+8. "At this (_a_) (1) _period_ an (_b_) (11) _event_ (_c_) (1)
+_transpired_ that destroyed the last hopes of peace. The king fell
+from his horse and died two hours after the fall (_d_) (30), _which
+was occasioned by his horse's stumbling on a mole-hill, while he was
+on his return from reviewing his soldiers_."
+
+     (_a_) What is a "period"? (_b_) Express the particular kind of
+     event ("accident"). (_c_) What is the meaning of "transpired"?
+     (_d_) Transpose thus: "While the king was on his return ... his
+     horse ...; the king fell and &c." The cause should precede the
+     effect.
+
+9. "He determined (_c_) on selling all his estates, and, as soon as
+this was done (40 _a_), _to_ (_c_) _quit_ the country, (_a_) (33)
+believing that his honour demanded this sacrifice and (40) (40 _a_)
+_in_ (_b_) _the_ hope of satisfying his creditors."
+
+     (_a_) Begin with "Believing that &c." (_b_) "hoping thereby to
+     satisfy &c." (_c_) "to sell" or "on quitting.".
+
+10. "He read patiently on, Leading Articles, Foreign Correspondence,
+Money Article and all; (_a_) (43) during which his father fell asleep,
+and he (_b_) went in search of his sister."
+
+     Point out the absurdity of "during which" applied to the last
+     part of the sentence. (_a_) "Meanwhile." (_b_) Insert "then."
+
+11. "The general was quite (_a_) (1) _conscious_ (40 _a_) _how_
+treacherous were the intentions of _those who were_ (_b_) (49)
+_entertaining_ him, and (40 _a_) _of the_ dangers from which he had
+_escaped_ (15) _lately_."
+
+     (_a_) Distinguish between "conscious" and "aware." _(b_)
+     "entertainers."
+
+12. "If _certain_ (_a_) (11) _books_ had been published a hundred
+years ago, there can be no doubt that _certain recent_ (_b_) (11)
+_historians_ would have made great use of them. But it _would_ (_c_)
+(15 _b_) _not_, on that account, be judicious in a writer of our own
+times to publish an edition of the works of _one of these_ (_b_) (11)
+_historians_, in which large extracts from these books should be
+incorporated with the original text."
+
+     (_a_) "Mrs. Hutchinson's Memoirs." (_b_) "Mr. Hume." (_c_) Add at
+     the end of the sentence, "Surely not."
+
+13. "He made no attempt to get up a petition, (32) though he did not
+like the new representative quite so well _as_ (_a_) (37 _a_) _his
+colleagues_."
+
+     (_a_) "as did his colleagues" or "as he liked his colleagues."
+
+14. "Though he was (_a_) (15) _obstinate_ and (15) _unprincipled_, yet
+he could not face an angered father (15 _a_) _in spite of his
+effrontery_."
+
+     (_a_) Begin with "Obstinate."
+
+15. "He was known to his country neighbours (_a_) (15) _during more
+than forty years_ as a gentleman of cultivated mind, (40 _a_) _whose
+principles were high_, (40 _a_) _with polished address_, happy in his
+family, and (_b_) (40 _a_) _actively_ discharging local duties; and
+(40 _a_) _among_ political men, as an honest, industrious, and
+sensible member of Parliament, (40 a) _without_ (_c_) _eagerness_ to
+display his talents, (40 _a_) _who_ (10 _g_) _was_ stanch to his
+party, and attentive to the interests of _those whose_ (_d_) (47 _a_)
+_representative he was_."
+
+     (_a_) "During more &c.," is emphatic, and affects the latter as
+     well as the former half of the sentence: hence it should stand
+     first. (_b_) "in the discharge of." (_c_) "not eager." (_d_)
+     Condense into one word.
+
+16. "The poor think themselves no more disgraced by taking bribes at
+elections _than_ (_a_) (37 _a_) _the rich_ by offering them."
+
+     (_a_) Write (1) "Than the rich think themselves disgraced," or
+     (2) "Than they think the rich disgraced."
+
+17. "We are told that the Sultan Mahmoud, by his perpetual wars, (_a_)
+(41) and his tyranny, (_a_) (41) had filled his dominions with (_b_)
+(1) _misfortune and_ (_c_) (11) _calamity_, and _greatly_ (_d_) (11)
+_diminished_ the population of the Persian Empire. _This great Sultan
+had_ (_e_) (50) _a Vizier_. _We are not_ (_f_) (55) (15) _informed_
+whether he was a humorist or an enthusiast, (_g_) _but he_ pretended
+(_h_) that he had learned from (_i_) (11) _some one_ how to understand
+the language of birds, so that _he_ (_j_) (5) knew what was said by
+any bird that opened its mouth. (_k_) (44) One evening he was with the
+Sultan, returning from hunting. They saw a couple of owls _which_ (10
+_g_) _were_ sitting upon a tree (_l_) (8) _which_ grew near an old
+wall out of a heap of rubbish. The Sultan said (6) he should like to
+know what the two owls were saying to one another, _and asked the_
+(_m_) _Vizier to_ listen to their discourse and give him an account of
+it. The Vizier, (_n_) (31) pretending to be very attentive to the
+owls, approached the tree. He (_o_) returned to the Sultan and said
+that (6) he had heard part of their conversation, but did not wish to
+tell him what it was. (_p_) (5) _He_, not (_q_) (31) being satisfied
+with this answer, forced him to repeat everything the owls had said
+(20) _exactly_. (_r_) (44) (5) (6) _He_ told (5) _him_ that the owls
+were arranging a treaty of marriage between their children, and that
+one of them, after agreeing to settle five hundred villages upon the
+female owl, had prayed (6) that God would grant a long life to Sultan
+Mahmoud, because as long as he reigned over them they would never want
+ruined villages. The story says (_s_) _that_ (_t_) (5) _he_ was
+touched with the fable, (30) and (_s_) _that_ he (_a_) (39) from that
+time forward _consulted_ (15) _the good of his people_, and that he
+rebuilt the towns and villages (_v_) _which_ had been destroyed."
+
+     (_a_) "abroad ... at home." (_b_) "ruin." (_c_) "desolation."
+     (_d_) "half unpeopled." (_e_) "The Vizier of &c." (_f_) "We are
+     not informed" is emphatic, and therefore should be inverted,
+     "whether he was, &c., we are not informed." (_g_) "but he" will
+     be omitted when "the Vizier" is made the subject of "pretended."
+     (_h_) "Pretended" once meant "claimed," "professed." Write
+     "professed." (_i_) "a certain dervish." (_j_) Introduce a new
+     subject that you may substitute "Vizier" for "he," thus: "so that
+     not a bird could open its mouth, but the Vizier knew &c." (_k_)
+     "As he was, one evening, &c." (_l_) Note that the tree is
+     represented as growing out of _ruins_. This is in accordance with
+     the story of the mischief Mahmoud had done. (_m_) Omit this.
+     (_n_) "Suspense" is out of place in a simple narrative like this;
+     the sentence therefore ends with "owls." (_o_) "Upon his return."
+     (_p_) "The Sultan" (_q_) "would not be satisfied." (_r_) "You
+     must know then, &c." (_s_) Omit. (_t_) "so touched ... that."
+     (_u_) end with "people." (_v_) Addison here uses "_which_"
+     probably because of the preceding "that." We have to choose
+     between sound and clearness. "Which" implies that _all_ the
+     villages in the country had been destroyed, whereas the country
+     had been only (see above) "_half_ unpeopled."
+
+18. "Though this great king never permitted any pastime to interfere
+with the duties of state, which he considered to be _superior to_ (54)
+_all other claims and of paramount importance_, and (_a_) (37) kept
+himself so far under control that he allowed no one pursuit or
+amusement to run to any excess, yet he _took_ (54) _great pleasure in_
+the chase, _of which he was_ (_b_) (2) _excessively_ (54) _fond_, and
+for the purposes of which he created several _large_ parks _of
+considerable_ (54) _magnitude_."
+
+     (_a_) Either repeat "though," or else strikeout the first
+     "though" and begin a new sentence after "excess." (_b_) Point out
+     the contradiction between "excessively" and what precedes.
+
+19. "To inundate (_a_) (11) their land, to man their ships, to leave
+their country, with all its miracles of art and industry, its cities,
+its villas, and its (_b_) (11) pastures buried under the waves (_c_)
+(11); to bear to a distant climate their (_d_) (11) faith and their
+old (_e_) (11) liberties; to establish, with auspices _that_(10 _a)
+might perhaps be happier_, the new (_f_) (11) _constitution of their
+commonwealth_, in a (_g_) (11) foreign and strange (_h_) (11) land, in
+the Spice Islands of the Eastern Seas, (38) were the plans which they
+had the spirit to form."
+
+     (_a_) Introduce "dykes." (_b_) Introduce something _peculiar_ to
+     the Dutch, _e.g._ "canals," "tulip gardens." (_c_) "of the German
+     Ocean." (_d_) The Dutch were Calvinists. (_e_) The country was in
+     old times "Batavia," so that "Batavian" would be a fit epithet to
+     denote what the Dutch had inherited from their forefathers. (_f_)
+     "Stadthaus," the German for "town-hall." (_g_) "other stars."
+     (_h_) "strange vegetation."
+
+20. "During twenty years of unexampled prosperity, _during_ (_a_)
+_which_ the wealth of the nation had shot (14 _a_) _up and extended
+its branches_ on every side, and the funds _had_ (14 _a_) _soared_ to
+a higher point than had been ever attained before, (_b_) (15)
+speculation had become general."
+
+     (_a_) Omit. (_b_) Begin a new sentence: "This, _or_ Prosperity,
+     had increased the taste for speculation."
+
+21. "At that time (_a_) (16) a mere narrow-minded pedant (for he
+deserves no better name) had been set up by the literary world as a
+great author, and as the supreme (_b_) critic, alone qualified to
+deliver decisions _which could never be_ (_b_) _reversed_ upon (15
+_a_) _the literary productions of the day_."
+
+     (_a_) End with " ... one who was--for he deserves no better
+     name--a mere narrow-minded pedant." (_b_) "Which could never be
+     reversed" can be expressed in one word; or else "the supreme ...
+     reversed" may be condensed into a personification: "a very Minos
+     of contemporary criticism."
+
+22. "With the intention of fulfilling his promise, and (40 _a_)
+_intending also_ to clear himself from the suspicion that attached to
+him, he determined to ascertain _how_ (40 _a_) _far this testimony_
+was corroborated, and (_a_) (40 _a_) the motives of the prosecutor,
+(_b_) (43) who had begun the suit last Christmas."
+
+     (_a_) "what were." (_b_) Begin a new sentence, "The latter &c.,"
+     or "The suit had been begun &c."
+
+23. "The Jewish nation, relying on the teaching of their prophets,
+looked forward to a time when its descendants should be as numerous as
+_the heavenly_ (11) _bodies_, and when the _products_ (_a_) (11) _of
+the earth_ should be _so increased as to create an abundant_ (54)
+_plenty_, when each man should rest beneath the shade of his own (_a_)
+(11) _trees_, and when the _instruments_ (11) _of war_ should be
+_converted to the_ (11) _uses of peace_."
+
+     (_a_) Mention some "products," "trees" of Palestine.
+
+24. "He replied (32), when he was asked the reason for his sudden
+unpopularity, that he owed it to his refusal to annul the commercial
+treaty, (_a_) (8) _which_(10 _a'_) gave great displeasure to the
+poorer classes."
+
+     (_a_) Point out the ambiguity, and remove it by (8) or (10 _a'_).
+
+25. "I saw my old schoolfellow again by mere accident when I was in
+London at the time of the first Exhibition, (19) _walking_ down Regent
+Street and looking in at the shops."
+
+     Point out and remove the ambiguity.
+
+26. "He remained in the House while his speech was taken into
+consideration; _which_ (52) _was_ a common practice with him, because
+the debates amused his sated mind, and indeed _he used to say_ (_a_)
+(6 _b_) _that they_ were sometimes as good as a comedy. His Majesty
+had certainly never seen _a more_ (17) _sudden turn_ in any comedy of
+intrigue, either at his own play-house or the Duke's, than that which
+this memorable debate produced."
+
+     (_a_) "and were sometimes, he used to say, as good &c."
+
+27. "The Commons would not approve the war (20) _expressly_; neither
+did they as yet condemn it (20) _expressly_; and (_a_) (18) the king
+might even have obtained a supply for continuing hostilities (19) from
+them, on condition _of_ (_b_) _redressing_ grievances _connected with
+the_ (_c_) _administration of affairs at home_, among which the
+Declaration of Indulgence was a very _important_ (_d_) (15_a_) one."
+
+     (_a_) Write "they were even ready to grant the king &c." (_b_)
+     Use the verb with a subject, (_c_) Condense all this into one
+     adjective, meaning "that which takes place at home." (_d_) End
+     with a noun, "importance," or "foremost place."
+
+28. "Next to thinking clearly, (_a_) (5) _it is_ useful to speak
+clearly, and whatever your position in life may hereafter be _it_
+cannot be such (54) as not to be improved by _this_, (_b_) so that
+_it_ is worth while making almost any effort to acquire (_c_) _it_, if
+_it_ is not a natural gift: (_d_) _it_ being an undoubted (_d_) fact
+that the effort to acquire _it_ must be successful, to some extent at
+least, if (_d_) _it_ be moderately persevered in."
+
+     (_a_) "Next in utility ... comes speaking clearly--a power that
+     must be of assistance to you &c." (_b_)" If, therefore, you
+     cannot speak clearly by nature, you &c." (_c_) "this power."
+     (_d_) Omit "fact;" "for undoubtedly, with moderate perseverance
+     &c."
+
+29. "_It_ (_a_) (38) _appears to me_ (15) _a greater victory than
+Agincourt, a grander triumph of wisdom and faith and courage than even
+the English constitution or_ (_b_) _liturgy_, to have beaten back, or
+even fought against and stemmed in ever so small a degree, those
+_basenesses that_ (_c_) (10_a_) _beset_ human nature, which are now
+held so invincible that the influences of them are assumed as the
+fundamental axioms of economic science."
+
+     (_a_) Begin with "To have beaten &c.," and end with "liturgy."
+     (_b_) Repeat for clearness and emphasis, "the English." (_c_)
+     "The besetting basenesses of &c."
+
+30. "The (_a_) (2) _unprecedented_ impudence of our youthful
+representative reminds us forcibly of the _unblushing and_ (54) (40)
+_remarkable_ effrontery (_c_) (which (26) he almost succeeds in
+equalling) of the Member for St. Alban's, whom our (_b_) (1)
+_neophyte_ (_b_) (1) _alluded to_, in the last speech with which he
+favoured _those whom_ (47_a_) _he represents_, (19) as his pattern and
+example."
+
+     (_a_) Show that "unprecedented" is inconsistent with what
+     follows. (_b_) What is the meaning of "neophyte," "alluded to"?
+     (_c_) Begin a new sentence, "Our young adventurer &c.," and end
+     with "and he almost succeeds in equalling his master."
+
+31. "The (_a_) (1) _veracity_ of this story is questionable, and there
+is the more reason for doubting the (_a_) (1) _truth_ of the narrator,
+because in his remarks on the (1) _observation_ of the Sabbath he
+distinctly (_a_) (1) _alludes to_ a custom that can be shown never to
+have existed."
+
+     (_a_) Distinguish between "veracity" and "truth," "observation"
+     and "observance." Show the inconsistency between "allude" and
+     "distinctly."
+
+32. "It (_a_) (5) is a most just distribution, (10 _a_) _which_ the
+late Mr. Tucker has dwelt upon _so_ (_b_) largely in his works,
+between pleasures in which we are passive, and pleasures in which we
+are active. And I believe every attentive observer of human life will
+_assent to_ (_c_) _this position_, that however (_d_) _grateful_ the
+sensations may occasionally be in which we are passive, it is not
+these, but the latter class of our pleasures, (8) _which_ constitutes
+satisfaction, (_e_) (38) _which_ supply that regular stream of
+moderate and miscellaneous enjoyments in (10 _c_) _which_ happiness,
+as distinguished from voluptuousness, consists."
+
+     (_a_) "There is great justice in &c." (b) Omit "so." (_c_)
+     "admit." (_d_) Not often now used in this sense. (_e_) Repeat the
+     antecedent, "I mean those (pleasures) &c."
+
+33. "The prince seemed to have before him a _limitless_ (54) _prospect
+of unbounded_ prosperity, carefully (33) _trained_ for the (_a_)
+_tasks_ of the throne, and stimulated by the (_a_) _pattern_ of his
+father, (_b_) who (43) _breathed his_ (3) _last_ suddenly at the age
+of sixty-two, just after the conclusion of the war."
+
+     (_a_) Find more appropriate words. (_b_) Begin a new sentence.
+
+34. "On his way, he visited a son of an old friend (_a_) (25) _who_
+had asked _him_ to call upon _him_ on his journey northward. _He_
+(_b_) (5) was overjoyed to see _him_, and (_c_) _he_ sent for one of
+_his_ most intelligent workmen and told (_d_) _him_ to consider
+_himself_ at (_e_) _his_ service, (30) as _he himself_ could not take
+(_f_) _him_ as _he_ (_g_) wished about the city."
+
+     (_a_) If you mean that the "son" had "asked him," write "An old
+     friend's son who;" if you mean that the "friend" had "asked him,"
+     write "He had been asked by an old friend to call, on his journey
+     northward, upon his son. Accordingly he visited him on his way."
+     (_b_) Use, instead of _he_, some name meaning "one who entertains
+     others." (_c_) Use participle, (_d_) "The man." (_e_) "the
+     stranger's." (_f_) "his guest." (_g_) Write "could have wished"
+     to make it clear that "he" means "the host."
+
+35. "Tillotson died in this year. He was exceedingly beloved both by
+King William and by Queen Mary (43), who nominated Dr. Tennison,
+Bishop of Lincoln, to succeed him."
+
+36. "(_a_) The entertainment was arranged with a magnificence that was
+(_b_) perfectly _stupendous_ and (_c_) _most unprecedented_, and
+which quite kept up his Lordship's _unrivalled_ reputation for
+_unparalleled_ hospitality, and, thanks to the _unequalled_ energy of
+Mr. Smith, who is _rapidly becoming one of the most effective_
+toast-masters in the kingdom, the toasts were given with a spirit
+_quite unexampled_ on occasions of this nature; and indeed we were
+forcibly reminded in this respect of the _inimitable_ entertainment of
+three years ago (2)."
+
+     (_a_) Omit most of the epithets, or soften them down. Point out
+     the contradictions in the sentence as it stands. (_b_) Write "a
+     remarkable magnificence that quite &c.," thus dispensing with the
+     following "and." (_c_) Show that "most" is superfluous.
+
+37. "If we compare Shakespeare with the other dramatic authors of the
+Elizabethan era, _his wonderful superiority to them in the_ (15)
+_knowledge of human nature_ is _what_ (15 _a_) _principally strikes
+us_."
+
+38. "The prince found himself at once in sore perplexity how to
+provide himself with the commonest comforts or even necessaries of
+life, when he landed on this desolate coast, being (33) accustomed to
+luxury."
+
+39. "This make-shift policy recommended itself to the succeeding
+_ministers_ (_a_) (50), _both because they were timid and because they
+were prejudiced_, and they were delighted to _excuse_ (_b_) (13)
+_themselves by quoting_ the example of one who (_c_) (34) had
+controlled the Liberals and humoured the Conservatives, (37) commended
+himself to the country at large by his unfailing good-humour, and
+(_d_) (44) (37) done nothing worthy of the name of statesman."
+
+     (_a_) "to the timidity and prejudices of &c." (_b_) "shelter
+     themselves behind." (_c_) "while he had at once." (_d_) "had yet
+     done."
+
+40. "William Shakespeare was the sun among the lesser lights of
+English poetry, and a native of Stratford-on-Avon (14 _a_)."
+
+41. "(15 _b_) I think, gentlemen, you must confess that any one of you
+would have done the same (32), if you had been tempted as I was then,
+placed starving and ragged among wasteful luxury and comfort,
+deliberately instigated to acts of dishonesty by those whom I had been
+taught from infancy to love, (_a_) praised when I stole, mocked or
+punished when I failed to (15 _a_) _do_ (_b_) _so_."
+
+     (_a_) Insert another infinitive beside "love." "Love" produces
+     "obedience." (b) Repeat the verb instead of "do so."
+
+42. "So far from being the first (54) _aggressor_, he _not_ (22)
+_only_ refused to prosecute his old friend when a favourable
+opportunity presented itself for revenging himself thus upon him,
+_but also_ his friend's adviser, John Smith. Smith (_a_) _at all_ (23)
+_events_ suspected, if he did not know of the coming danger, and had
+given no information of it."
+
+     (_a_) If "at all events" qualifies "Smith," the sentence must be
+     altered. "Yet, however innocent his friend may have been, at all
+     events Smith suspected...." If the words qualify "suspected,"
+     place them after "suspected."
+
+43. "It is quite true that he paid 5_s._ per day to English navvies,
+_and even 6s._, (19) in preference to 2_s._ 6_d._ to French navvies."
+
+44. "Having climbed to the _apex_ of the Righi to enjoy the spectacle
+of the sun-rise, I found myself so _incommoded_ by a number of
+_illiterate individuals_ who had _emerged_ from the hotel for a (_a_)
+(1) _similar_ purpose, that I determined to quit them _at the earliest
+practicable period_; and therefore, without stopping to _partake of
+breakfast_, I _wended my way_ back _with all possible celerity_." (3)
+
+     (_a_) "the same."
+
+45. "You admit that miracles are _not natural_. Now whatever _is
+unnatural_ is wrong, and since, by your own admission, miracles are
+_unnatural_, it follows that miracles are wrong." (1)
+
+46. "Who is the man that has dared to call into _civilized_ alliance
+the (_a_) (41) inhabitant of the woods, to delegate to the (_a_)
+Indian the defence of our disputed rights?
+
+     (_a_) Insert some antithetical or other epithets.
+
+47. "A (_a_) _very_ (11) _small proportion_ indeed of those who have
+attempted to solve this problem (_b_) (19) have succeeded in obtaining
+even a plausible solution."
+
+     (_a_) State what proportion succeeded, or, if you like, what
+     failed: "not one in a hundred." (_b_) Begin, "Of all those that
+     &c."
+
+48. "_To be suddenly_ (_a_) (47 _a_) _brought into contact_ with a
+system (8) _which_ forces one to submit to wholesale imposture, and
+_to being_ (40 _a_) _barbarously ill-treated_, naturally repels (_a_)
+(15 _a_) _one_."
+
+     (_a_) Write, either (1) "Collision ... causes a natural
+     repulsion," or (2) "When brought into contact ... one is
+     naturally repelled," or (if "ill-treatment" is emphatic), (3)
+     "One is naturally repelled by collision with &c."
+
+49. "We annex a letter recently addressed by Mr. ----'s direction to
+the Editor of the ----, in contradiction of statements, equally
+untrue, which appeared in that periodical, _and_ (_a_) (9) _which_ the
+editor has undertaken to insert in the next number.... I am sure that
+all must regret that statements _so_ (_b_) (51) _utterly_ erroneous
+should have (_c_) (23) _first_ appeared in a publication of such high
+character."
+
+     (_a_) What the writer intended to express was that the editor had
+     undertaken to insert, not the "statements," but the
+     "contradiction." (_b_) Omit either "so" or "utterly." (_c_)
+     "appeared first," or, "for the first time."
+
+50. "This is a book _which_ (10 _a_) _is_ short and amusing, _which_
+(10 _a_) _can be easily_ (_a_) _understood, which_ (10 _a_) is
+admirably adapted for _the purpose for which it_ (_b_) _was_ (54)
+_written_; and (10 _e_) _which_ ought to be more popular than the last
+work _which_ (10 _a_) _was_ published by the same author."
+
+     (_a_) Express "which can be understood" in one adjective. (_b_)
+     "Its purpose."
+
+51. "When thousands are _left_ (19) without (40) _pity_ and without
+(40) _attention_ (19) _on_ a field of battle, amid (40) the insults of
+an enraged foe and (40) the trampling of horses, while the blood from
+their wounds, freezing as it flows, binds them to the earth, and (40)
+they are exposed to the piercing air, _it_ (15 _a_) _must be indeed a
+painful scene_."
+
+     The whole sentence must be remedied by (40).
+
+52. "(_a_) The youth was naturally thoughtful, and disposed (19)
+besides by his early training--(31) which had been conducted with
+great care, the object of his parents being to _pave_ (14) _his way_
+as far as possible over the _stormy_ (14) _sea of temptation_ and to
+_lead_ him into the _harbour_ of virtue--to a sincere (_b_) (1)
+_remorse_ (19) for the (_b_) (1) _crimes_ that he had committed in the
+sight of heaven, and also for his recent (_b_) (1) _sin_ in breaking
+the laws of his country."
+
+     (_a_) First state the reasons for his being "disposed." "The
+     youth was naturally thoughtful; moreover, his early training had
+     been conducted with great care by his parents, whose &c. .... He
+     was therefore disposed &c." (_b_) What is the difference between
+     "remorse" and "repentance," between "sin" and "crime"?
+
+53. "(_a_) _One day_ (54) _early in the morning_, the general was
+approached by a messenger, (30) in the midst of the _entanglements and
+perplexities_ which had _unexpectedly surprised_ him, when the
+_perilous hour of_ (54) _danger_ was at hand, and (37), in spite of
+their promises, even the tribes that were _well disposed_ (54) _and
+friendly_, were threatening to _desert him, and_ (54) _leave him to
+face the enemy_ (_b_) (23) _alone_."
+
+     Condense the sentence by omitting some of the italicized words,
+     _e.g._ (_a_) "Early one morning." (_b_) Though there is no real
+     ambiguity (unless a wrong emphasis is placed on "enemy"), yet, in
+     strictness, "alone" ought to qualify "enemy." Write therefore,
+     "alone in the face of the enemy."
+
+54. "_A man_ (_a_) (10 _d_) _who_ neglected the ordinary duties *of*
+life, and, immersed in study, devoted himself to grand plans for the
+benefit of mankind, (_b_) (44) _and_ refused to provide for the wants
+of those dependent on him, and suffered his aged relatives to become
+paupers because he would not help them, (_c_) would, in my opinion,
+(34) be a bad man, and not altogether (_d_) (40 _a_) without
+hypocrisy."
+
+     (_a_) "If a man." (_b_) "if he refused," or "while he refused."
+     (_c_) "such a man" or "he." (_d_) "to some extent a hypocrite."
+
+55. "I cannot believe in the guilt of (_a_) _one_ (_b_) (10 _e_)
+_who_, whatever may have been said to the contrary, can be shown, and
+has been shown by competent testimony proceeding from those who are
+said to have carefully examined the facts, _in spite_ (23) _of many
+obstacles_, to have resisted all attempts to (29) induce him to leave
+his situation, (_c_) (29) to consult his own interests and to (29)
+establish a business of his own."
+
+     (_a_) "his guilt;" (_b_) (1) "for, whatever &c.... it can be
+     shown by &c.... that, in spite of &c., he resisted." Or (2)
+     insert "in spite ... obstacles" between "have" and "carefully."
+     (_c_) (1) "for the purpose of consulting ... and establishing."
+     Or (2) write "and to consult his own interests by establishing
+     &c."
+
+56. "We must seek for the origin of our freedom, (_a_) (37)
+prosperity, and (_a_) (37) glory, in _that and only_ (_b_) _that_[18]
+portion of our annals, (30) though _it_ (_c_) _is_ sterile and
+obscure. The great English people was (_d_) _then_ formed; the
+notional (_e_) _disposition_ began (_d_) _then_ to exhibit those
+peculiarities which it has ever since (_e_) _possessed_; and our
+fathers (_d_) _then_ became emphatically islanders, (_f_) in their
+politics, (_a_) feelings, and (_a_) manners, _and_ (30 _a_) _not
+merely in their geographical position_."
+
+     (_a_) Repeat the Pronominal Adjective, (_b_) Express the emphatic
+     "only that" by beginning the sentence thus: "It is in that
+     portion of our annals &c." (_c_) Omit. (_d_) "It was then that
+     &c." (_e_) Use words implying something more _marked_ than
+     "disposition," and more _forcible_ than "possessed;" in the
+     latter case, "retained." (_f_) Repeat "islanders."
+
+57. "(_a_) He was _the universal_ (54) _favourite of_ (54) _all_ (8)
+_who knew him_, and cemented many friendships at this period, (_a_)
+(33) (moving in the highest circle of society, and, _as he_ (_b_) (50)
+_had a_ (4 _a_) _certain property, being independent_ of the profits
+of literature), and soon completely extinguished the breath of slander
+which at the outset of his career had threatened to sap the
+foundations of his reputation."
+
+     (_a_) Begin "Moving in &c." (_b_) "rendered independent of ... by
+     &c." Show that Rule (14) is violated by the metaphors.
+
+58. "The outward and material form of that city which, during the
+brief period _which_ (10 _a_) _is_ comprised in our present book,
+reached the highest pitch of military, artistic, and literary glory,
+_was of this_ (_a_) (15) _nature_. The progress of _the_ (_b_) (5)
+_first_ has been already traced."
+
+     (_a_) Begin the sentence with "Such was." (_b_) By "the first" is
+     meant "military glory."
+
+59. "The detachment not only failed to take the fort, (30) spite of
+their numbers and the weakness of the garrison, but also to capture
+the small force that was encamped outside the town, and was, after
+some sharp fighting, driven back with inconsiderable loss."
+
+     Point out the ambiguity. Remedy it by inserting either "which,"
+     or "the assailants."
+
+60. "(_a_) (_b_) _Believing_ that these reforms can _only_ (_c_) (21)
+be effected as public opinion is prepared for them, and that (5)
+_this_ will be more or less advanced in different localities, the Bill
+of the Association, (_a_) (31) which has been for _a_ (3)
+_considerable period_ in draft, and will be introduced in the next
+Session of Parliament, provides for _placing_ (_d_) (3) _the control
+in regard to the points above-mentioned in the_ (3) _hands_ of the
+ratepayers of each locality; the power to be exercised through
+representative Licensing Boards to be periodically elected by them."
+
+     (_a_) Place the parenthesis first, as an independent sentence:
+     "The Bill of the Association has been ... Parliament." (_b_) What
+     noun is qualified by "believing?" Write "In the belief." (_c_)
+     "effected only so far as they are in accordance with public
+     opinion, which &c." (_d_) "it, or, the Bill provides that the
+     ratepayers ... shall receive control ... and shall exercise this
+     control."
+
+61. "I think they are very (1) _nice_ persons, for they kept me amused
+for a _long_ (_a_) (11) _time together_ yesterday by their (1) _nice_
+stories all about _what they_ (_b_) _have experienced_ in Japan, where
+they had been for (_a_) _ever so long_, and (_c_) (43) where they said
+that the natives ripped up _their_ (_d_) (5) stomachs."
+
+     (_a_) Mention some time. (_b_) "experiences" or "adventures."
+     (_c_) "among other things, they told us &c." (_d_) "their own."
+
+62. "To contend for advantageous monopolies, which are regarded with a
+dislike and a suspicion (_a_) _which daily_ (10 _a_) _increases_, (30)
+_however natural it may be to be annoyed at the loss of that which one
+has once possessed_, (15 _a_) is _useless_."
+
+     (_a_) A compound adjective can be used, including "daily."
+
+63. "Upon entering the rustic place of entertainment to partake of
+some refreshment, my nerves were horrified by lighting on a number of
+boisterous individuals who were singing some species of harvest song,
+and simultaneously imbibing that cup which, if it cheers, also
+inebriates; and when, banished from their society by the fumes of the
+fragrant weed, I wended my way to the apartment which adjoined the one
+in which I had hoped to rest my weary limbs, I found an interesting
+assortment of the fairer sex, who were holding a separate
+confabulation apart from the revels of their rougher spouses."
+
+     Write "village inn," "next room," &c., for these absurd
+     circumlocutions. See (3).
+
+64. "When Burgoyne was born, in 1782, Napoleon and Wellington _were
+both boys_ (11)."
+
+     Napoleon studied at Brienne, Wellington at Eton. Mention this,
+     and, in order to imply the _boyhood_, call Wellington "Arthur
+     Wellesley."
+
+65. "An honourable friend of mine, who is now, I believe, near
+me--(38) to whom I never can on any occasion refer without feelings of
+respect, and, on this subject, (36) feelings of the most grateful
+homage; (38) whose abilities upon this occasion, as upon some former
+ones, are not entrusted merely to the perishable eloquence of the
+(_a_) day, but will live to be the admiration of that (_a_) hour when
+all of us are mute and most of us forgotten: (_b_) (38) has told you
+that prudence _is_ (52) the first of virtues, _and_ (52) can never be
+used in the cause of vice."
+
+     (_a_) Though "of the day" is a recognized expression for
+     "ephemeral" or "transitory," yet to use "day" for a short time,
+     and "hour" for a longer, is objectionable. Write _moment_ for
+     _day_. Else write _future_ for _hour_. (_b_) "--this gentleman
+     has told &c."
+
+66. "To see the British artisan and his wife on the Sabbath, neat and
+clean and cheerful, with their children by their sides, (_a_) (19)
+_disporting_ themselves under the open canopy of heaven, _is_ (15)
+_pleasant_."
+
+     (_a_) There is no reasonable ground for mistaking the sense here,
+     as the context makes it clear; but since Lord Shaftesbury was
+     questioned whether he meant _disporting_ to qualify "artisan and
+     his wife" or "children," write "and, by their sides, their
+     children disporting &c."
+
+67. "Even if (_a_) _it were_ attended with extenuating circumstances,
+such conduct would deserve severe reprobation, (_b_) _and it_ is the
+more called for because _it_ would seem that (_c_) _it_ was the
+intention of _the author of the crime_, in perpetrating (_e_) _it_, to
+inflict all the misery that was possible, upon his victim." See (5).
+
+     (_a_) Omit "it were." (_b_) "which." (_c_) "to have been." (_d_)
+     Express "author of the crime" in one word. (_e_) Use the noun.
+
+68. "The (_a_) (1) _observance_ of the heavenly bodies must have been
+attended with great difficulties, (_b_) (30) before the telescope was
+(_a_) (1) _discovered_, and it is not to be wondered at if the
+investigations of astronomers were often unsatisfactory, and failed to
+produce complete (_a_) (1) _persuasion_, (30) (15, _a_) under these
+disadvantages."
+
+     (_a_) What is the difference between "observance" and
+     "observation," "discover" and "invent," "persuasion" and
+     "conviction"? (_b_) Begin "Before &c."
+
+69. "He plunged into the sea once more, (30) not content with his
+previous exertions. After a long and dangerous struggle, he succeeded
+in reaching a poor woman that was crying piteously for help, and (_a_)
+(35) was at last hauled safely to shore."
+
+     (_a_) Point put and remedy the ambiguity by inserting "he" or by
+     writing "who," according to the meaning.
+
+70. "Sir John Burgoyne himself, face to face with Todleben, became
+(_a_) (1) _conscious_ of the difference between the fortifications of
+San Sebastian and of Sebastopol, (_b_) _which_ (10 _e_) was (_c_) (12)
+_very weak_ compared with Metz or Paris."
+
+     (_a_) What is the exact meaning of _conscious_? (_b_) Avoid the
+     relative, by repeating the name, with a conjunction, (_c_)
+     "weakness itself."
+
+71. "Upon Richard's leaving the (_c_) stage, the Commonwealth was
+again set up; and the Parliament which Cromwell had (_a_) _broken_ was
+brought together; but the army and they fell into new disputes: so
+they were again (_a_) _broken_ by the army: and upon that the nation
+was like to fall into (_b_) (11) _great_ convulsions."
+
+     (_a_) Modern Eng., "broken up." (_b_) "violently convulsed."
+     (_c_) It is a question whether this metaphor is in good taste.
+     The meaning is that Richard "retired from public life." It might
+     be asserted that Richard, the Commonwealth, the Parliament are
+     regarded as so many puppets on a "stage." But this is extremely
+     doubtful. Make _Parliament_ the principal subject: "When Richard
+     retired ... and when the Commonwealth &c.... the Parliament was
+     ... but, falling into a dispute with &c., it was...." See (18)
+     and (43).
+
+72. "What a revolution in the military profession! He began with (_a_)
+(11) _unnecessary formality_, and (_b_) (11) _inefficient weapons_,
+and ended with (_c_) (_b_) (11) _greatly improved fire-arms_."
+
+     (_a_) "pig-tail and pipe-clay." (_b_) "Six-pounders and
+     flint-locks" are now inefficient compared with
+     "twenty-four-pounders and breech-loaders." (_c_) Something is
+     wanted antithetical to (_a_), perhaps "loose drill" or "open
+     order."
+
+73. "Children fear to go in the dark. Men fear death in the same way.
+The fear of children is increased by tales. So is the fear of death.
+The contemplation of death, as the 'wages of sin,' and passage to
+another world, is holy and religious. The fear of it, as a tribute due
+unto nature, is weak. In religious meditations on death there is
+sometimes mixture of vanity and of superstition."
+
+     Insert connecting adverbs or conjunctions. See (44).
+
+74. "I have often heard him _reiterate_ (54) _repeatedly_ that he
+would never again, if a _safe_ (54) _and secure path_ was open to him,
+prefer the _perilous_ (54) _road of danger_, however _alluring_ (54)
+_and attractive_ the latter might be."
+
+75. "I thought in my dream that when my friend asked me whether I did
+not observe anything curious in the conduct of the pigeons, I (_a_) (4
+_a_) _remarked_ that if any one of the birds was so bold as to take an
+atom from a heap of grain in the midst of them, (31) (which (_b_) a
+detachment guarded, and which, being continually increased and never
+eaten, seemed useless), all the rest turned against him and pecked him
+to death for the (_c_) (50) _action_."
+
+     (_a_) Point out the ambiguity. (_b_) This should come earlier in
+     the sentence, and not as a parenthesis. "I noticed a heap of
+     grain in the midst of them, guarded by ... Being continually ...,
+     to all appearance, useless: yet." (_c_) "theft."
+
+76. "If this low view of the royal office becomes generally adopted,
+then sovereigns _who_ (8) have always hitherto commanded the respect
+of Englishmen will by degrees fall into disrespect."
+
+     Point out the ambiguity. Show how it might be removed (_a_) by
+     punctuation, (_b_) by altering "who."
+
+77. "I struck the man in self-defence. I explained this to the
+magistrate. He would not believe me. Witnesses were called to support
+my statements. He committed me to prison. He had the right to do this.
+It is a right that is rarely exercised in such circumstances. I
+remonstrated."
+
+     See (44). Insert conjunctions or connecting adverbs.
+
+78. "He attained a very distinguished position by mere (15)
+perseverance and common sense, which (52) (10 _a_) qualities are
+perhaps mostly underrated, (30) though he was deficient in tact and
+not remarkable for general ability."
+
+79. "_Vindictiveness, which_ (_a_) (50) _is a fault_, (_b_) _and_
+which may be defined as _anger_ (10 _a_) _which is caused_ not by sin
+nor by crime but by personal injury, ought to be carefully
+distinguished from _resentment, which_ (_a_) (50) _is a virtue_,
+(_b_) _and_ which is _anger_ (49) _which is natural and_ (_c_) _right_
+caused by an act (_d_) which is unjust, because it is unjust, (30 _a_)
+not because it is inconvenient."
+
+     (_a_) "The fault of vindictiveness;" "the virtue of resentment."
+     (_b_) Omit _(c_) "Right" cannot be used as an adjective, but
+     "righteous" can. (_d_) "an act of injustice."
+
+80. "(_a_) He told his friend that (_a_) _his_ brother was surprised
+that (_a_) _he_ had given so small a contribution, for (_a_) _he_ was
+(_b_) (12) _a very rich man_, in spite of (_a_) _his_ recent losses
+and the bad state of trade, (19) (30) compared with himself."
+
+     (_a_) Use (6). (_b_) What Asian king was proverbial for wealth?
+
+81. "(_a_) (15 _b_) It must be indeed wrong to (_a_) _crucify_ a Roman
+citizen if to (_b_) (32) _slay_ one is almost parricide, to (_b_)
+_scourge_ him is a monstrous crime, and to (_b_) _bind_ him is an
+outrage."
+
+
+  (_a_) "What must it be...?"
+  (_b_) See (40).
+
+
+82. "The _universal_ (54) _opinion of all the_ citizens was that the
+citadel _had been_ (15) _betrayed_, (30) having been captured in broad
+daylight by a very small number of the enemy, and those unprovided
+with scaling ladders, and admitted by a postern gate, (15 _a_) and
+much wearied by a long march."
+
+     In any case "betrayed" must come at the end of a sentence. The
+     sentence may be converted into two sentences: "The citadel had
+     been captured.... Naturally therefore ...;" or, "The opinion ...
+     for it had been captured...." Else, if one sentence be used,
+     write "As the citadel had been captured &c."
+
+83. "This author surpassed all _those who were living_ (_a_) _at the
+same time with him_ in the _forcible_ (_b_) _manner in_ which he could
+_address_ (_c_) _an_ appeal to the popular sympathy, and in the ease
+with which he could _draw towards_ (_a_) _himself_ the hearts of his
+readers."
+
+     (_a_) Express in one word. (_b_) "force with." (_c_) Omit.
+
+84. "This great statesman was indeed a pillar of commerce, and a star
+in the financial world. He guided or impelled the people from the
+quicksands of Protection and false political economy to the safe
+harbour of Free Trade; and (_a_) (14 _a_) saved the country several
+millions."
+
+     (_a_) It would be well to literalize the preceding metaphors.
+     Else the literal statement must be changed into a metaphor.
+
+85. "The ministers were most unwilling to meet the Houses, (_a_) (43)
+(51) _because_ even the boldest of them (though their counsels were
+_lawless_ (15) _and desperate_) had too much value for his (_b_) (11)
+_personal safety_ to think of resorting to the (_c_) (12) unlawful
+modes of extortion that had been familiar to the preceding age."
+
+     (_a_) Begin a new sentence with "Lawless and desperate though
+     their counsels had been &c." (_b_) "neck." (_c_) Insert some of
+     these unlawful modes, "benevolences, ship-money, and the other
+     &c."
+
+86. "_We will not_ (_a_) (15) _pretend to guess what_ our
+grandchildren may think of the character of Lord Byron, as exhibited
+_in_ (15 _a_) _his poetry_." No writer ever had the whole eloquence of
+scorn, misanthropy, _and_ (_a_) (15) _despair_ (15 _a_) _so completely
+at his command_. That _fountain_ (_b_) (12) _of bitterness_ was never
+dry."
+
+     (_a_) "We will not pretend to guess" and "despair" are intended
+     by the author to be emphatic. (_b_) "Marah."
+
+87. "The captain asked to be allowed fifty men, a supply of food, and
+one hundred and fifty breech-loaders. (44) The general replied coldly
+that he could not let his subordinate have (_a_) (4) _anything_ that
+he wanted. (44) The captain was forced to set out (34) with an
+insufficient force, spite of the superabundance of soldiers doing
+nothing in the camp (34), and with every obstacle put in his way by a
+general who from the first had resolved not even to give him ordinary
+assistance, (_b_) (10 _a'_) _which_ the captain had for some time
+anticipated."
+
+     (_a_) Point out and remove the ambiguity. (_b_) Write, according
+     to the meaning, " ... assistance that" or " ... a resolution
+     that."
+
+88. "I am a practical man, and disbelieve in everything (8) _which_ is
+not practical; theories (_a_) _which_ amuse philosophers and pedants
+have no attractions for me, (30) _for this reason_."
+
+     (_a_) What difference in the meaning would be caused by the use
+     of "that" for the second "which"?
+
+89. "Yet, when that discovery drew no other severity but the (11 _a_)
+_turning_ (_a_) _him out of office_, and _the_ (11 _a_) _passing a
+sentence_ (_b_) _condemning him to die for it_ (31) (which was
+presently pardoned, and he was after a short confinement restored to
+his liberty), all men _believed_ that the king knew of the letter,
+(_c_) (43) and that (6 _b_) the pretended confession of the secretary
+was only collusion to lay the jealousies of the king's (_d_) (11 _a_)
+_favouring_ popery, (_e_) (43) which still hung upon him, (30)
+notwithstanding his (_e_) _writing_ on the Revelation, and his (_e_)
+_affecting_ to enter on all occasions into controversy, (_e_)
+asserting in particular that the Pope was Antichrist."
+
+     (_a_) "expulsion from." (_b_) "a pretended sentence to death--a
+     pretence that was soon manifested by his pardon and liberation."
+     (_c_) Begin a new sentence: "'The secretary's pretended
+     confession,' it was said, 'was &c.'" (_d_) "the suspicion that
+     the king favoured Popery." (_e_) The juxtaposition of the two
+     verbal nouns, "writing" and "affecting," with the participle
+     "asserting," is harsh. Write, "For, notwithstanding that he
+     affected controversy, and attacked the Pope as Antichrist in his
+     treatise on the Book of Revelation, the king was still
+     suspected."
+
+90. "The opinion that the sun is fixed was once too (_a_) (1)
+_universal_ to be easily shaken, and a similar prejudice has often
+(_b_) _rendered_ the progress of new inventions (15 _a_) _very slow_,
+(19) arising from the numbers of the believers, and not (36) the
+reasonableness of the belief."
+
+     (_a_) Write "general." Show the absurdity of appending "too" to
+     "universal." (_b_) What single word can be substituted for
+     "rendered slow"?
+
+91. "The rest of the generals were willing to surrender
+unconditionally, (30) _depressed by this unforeseen calamity_; (4)
+_only_ the young colonel, who retained his presence of mind,
+represented to them that they were increasing the difficulties of a
+position in itself very difficult (19) (15, _a_) _by their conduct_."
+
+92. "To (_a_) (31) _an author who_ is, in his expression of any
+sentiment, wavering between _the_ (_b_) _demands of_ perspicuity and
+energy (of which _the_ (_c_) (40 _a_) _former of course_ requires the
+first care, lest (40 _a_) he should fail of both), and (37) doubting
+whether the (_d_) phrase _which_ (8) _has_ (_e_) _the_ most force and
+brevity will be (_f_) readily _taken_ (_g_) _in, it may_ (_h_) (3) _be
+recommended to use_ both (_d_) expressions; first, (_h_) _to expound_
+the sense sufficiently to be clearly understood, and then (_i_) _to_
+contract it into the most compendious and striking form."
+
+     (_a_) Write "When an author &c." (_b_) Can be omitted. (_c_)
+     Assimilate the constructions: "Of which the former must, of
+     course, be aimed at first, lest both be missed." (_d_) Use
+     "expression" or else "phrase" in _both_ places. (_e_) Assimilate
+     the construction to what follows; write "that is most forcible
+     and brief." (_f_) Insert "also." (_g_) "understood." (_h_) "let
+     him use ...; first let him expound." (_i_) Omit.
+
+93. "When I say 'a great man,' I _not_ (22) _only_ mean a man
+intellectually great but also morally, (38) _who_ (8) has no
+preference for diplomacy (_a_) (23) _at all events which_ (10 _a_)
+_is_ mean, petty, and underhanded to secure ends _which_ (8) can be
+secured by an honest policy _equally_ (20) _well_, (38) _who_ (8) does
+not resemble Polonius, (_b_) who prefers to get at truth by untruthful
+tricks, and (_b_) who considers truth a carp _which_ (10 _g_) _is_ to
+be caught by the bait falsehood. We cannot call a petty intriguer
+great (_c_), (30) though we may be forced to call an unscrupulous _man
+by that_ (15 _a_) _name_."
+
+     (_a_) "at all events no preference." (_b_) Why is _who_ right
+     here? If you like, you can write, "does not, like Polonius,
+     prefer ... and consider." (_c_) End with "we cannot give the name
+     to a petty intriguer."
+
+94. "I regret that I have some (_a_) (3) _intelligence which_ (10 _a_)
+_is of a most_ (3) _painful nature_, and which I must tell you at
+once, though (_b_) _I should like to defer it_ on (_c_) (40 _a_)
+account of your ill-health, and _because_ (_c_) (40 _a_) _you have
+already had_ many troubles, and (40 _a_) _owing to_ the natural
+dislike _which_ (8) a friend must always feel to say _that_ (10 _f_)
+_which_ is unpleasant. Many old friends in this district have turned
+against you: I scarcely like to write the words: _only_ (21) I remain
+faithful to you, and I am sure you will believe that I am doing _that_
+(10 _f_) _which_ is best for your interests."
+
+     (_a_) "news." (_b_) In a letter these words should remain is they
+     are; but if a _period_ is desired, they must (30) come last,
+     after "unpleasant." (_c_) Write "because of your ill-health ...
+     and the troubles ... and because of...."
+
+95. "The general at once sent back word that the enemy had suddenly
+appeared on the other side of the river, and [(35) or (37)] then (_a_)
+retreated. (_b_) _It_ was thought that (_b_) _it_ would have shown
+more (_c_) (1) _fortitude_ on his (3) _part_ if he had attacked the
+fortifications, (_d_) _which_ were not tenable for more than a week at
+all events. Such was the (54) _universal_ opinion, _at_ (23) _least,
+of_ (54) _all_ the soldiers."
+
+     (_a_) Point out the ambiguity. (_b_) "It was thought he would
+     have shown &c." (_c_) Distinguish between "fortitude" and
+     "bravery." (_d_) What would be the meaning if "that" were
+     substituted for "which"? It will be perhaps better to substitute
+     for "which," "since they."
+
+96. "A notion has sprung up that the Premier, though he can legislate,
+cannot govern, and has attained an influence which renders it
+imperative, if this Ministry is to go on, that (_a_) _it_ should be
+dispersed."
+
+     (_a_) Who or what "has attained"? Write "and this notion has
+     become so powerful that, unless it is dispersed...."
+
+97. "Those who are _habitually silent_ (_a_) (3) _by disposition_ and
+morose are less liable to the fault of exaggerating than those who are
+_habitually_ (_a_) (3) _fond of talking_, and (40 _a_) _of_ (_a_) (3)
+_a pleasant disposition_."
+
+     (a) Each of these periphrases must be condensed into a single
+     adjective.
+
+98. "This author, (_a_) (31) though he is not (_b_) _altogether_ (_c_)
+_guiltless of_ (_b_) _occasional_ (_c_) _faults_ of exaggeration,
+which are to be found as plentifully in his latest works as in _those
+which he_ (_d_) _published when he was beginning his career as an
+author_, yet, _notwithstanding these_ (_e_) _defects_, surpassed all
+_those who were living_ _at the_ (_f_) _same time with him_ in the
+_clear_ (_g_) _manner in_ which he could, as it were, see into the
+feelings of the people at large, and in the power--_a power that
+indeed could not be_ (_f_) _resisted_--with which he _drew_ (_f_)
+_toward himself_ the sympathy of _those who_ (_f_) _perused his
+works_." See (54).
+
+     (_a_) Convert the parenthesis into a separate sentence. (_b_) One
+     of these words is unnecessary. (_c_) One of these is unnecessary.
+     (_d_) Condense: "his earliest." (_e_) Omit these words as
+     unnecessary. (_f_) Express all this in one word. (_g_) "clearness
+     with."
+
+99. "_Among the North_ (_a_) (23) _American Indians_ I had indeed
+heard of the perpetration of similar atrocities; but it seemed
+intolerable that such things should occur in a civilized land: and I
+rushed from the room at once, leaving the wretch where he stood, with
+his tale half told, (30) _horror-stricken at his crime_."
+
+     (_a_) Make it evident whether the speaker once _lived_ among the
+     North American Indians, or not, and show who is
+     "horror-stricken."
+
+100. "His (1) _bravery_ under this painful operation and the (1)
+_fortitude_ he had shown in heading the last charge in the recent
+action, (30) _though he was_ wounded at the time and had been unable
+to use his right arm, and was the only officer left in his regiment,
+out of twenty who were alive the day before, (19) inspired every one
+with admiration."
+
+     Begin, "Out of twenty officers &c.... Though wounded &c.... he
+     had headed." "The bravery he had then shown and...."
+
+101. "_Moral_ as well as (41) _other_ considerations must have weight
+when we are selecting an officer (_a_) _that_ (10 _b_) _will be placed
+in_ a position that will task his intelligence (_b_) (18) _and his
+fidelity_."
+
+     (_a_) The repetition of "that" is objectionable. Use "to fill."
+     (_b_) "and" can be replaced by some other conjunction to suit
+     what precedes.
+
+102. "It happened that at this time there were a few Radicals in the
+House _who_ (8) could not forgive the Prime Minister for being a
+Christian."
+
+     Point out the difference of meaning, according as we read "who"
+     or "that."
+
+103. "_It cannot be doubted_ (15 _b_) _that_ the minds of a vast
+number of men would be left poor shrunken things, full of melancholy
+and indisposition, and unpleasing to themselves, if (32) there were
+taken out of men's minds vain opinions, false valuations, imaginations
+as one (_a_) would, and _the_ (15 _a_) _like_."
+
+     (_a_) The meaning (which cannot easily be more tersely expressed
+     than in the original) is "castles in the air," "pleasant
+     fancies."
+
+104. "God never wrought a miracle to refute atheism, because His
+ordinary works refute it. (_a_) A little philosophy inclines man's
+mind to atheism: depth in philosophy brings men's minds back to
+religion. (44) While the mind of man looks upon second causes
+scattered, it may sometimes rest in them; (44) when it beholds the
+chain of them confederate and linked together, it must needs
+acknowledge a Providence. (44) That school which is most accused of
+atheism most clearly demonstrates the truth of religion."
+
+     (_a_) Insert a suspensive conjunction. See (34).
+
+105. "The spirit of Liberty and the spirit of Nationality were once
+for all dead; (_a_) (5) _it_ might be for a time a pious duty, but it
+could not continue always _expedient or_ (_c_) (15) (18) _profitable
+to_ (_b_) (13) _mourn_ (_c_) (15 _a_) _for their loss_. Yet this is
+the (_b_) (13) _feeling_ of the age of Trajan."
+
+     (_a_) Omit. (_b_) "To sit weeping by their grave;" "attitude."
+     (_c_) Notice that "expedient or profitable" are emphatic, as is
+     shown by "yet" in the next sentence. Make it evident therefore,
+     by their position, that these words are more emphatic than "to
+     mourn &c."
+
+106. "(_a_) _If we ask_ (15 _b_) what was the nature of the force by
+which this change was effected, (_a_) _we find it to have been_ (_b_)
+the force that had seemed almost dead for many generations--(38) of
+theology."
+
+     (_a_) Omit these words. (_b_) Begin a new sentence: "It was a
+     force &c."
+
+107. "I remember Longinus highly recommends a description of a storm
+by Homer, because (_a_) (5) (_c_) _he_ has not amused himself with
+little fancies upon the occasion, as authors of an inferior genius,
+whom he mentions, (_b_) (15 _a_) have done, (30) _but_ (_c_) _because_
+he has gathered together those (_d_) (1) _events_ which are the most
+apt to terrify the imagination, and (35) really happen in the raging
+of a tempest."
+
+     (_a_) "The poet." (_b_) Omit "have done" and write "like some
+     authors." (_c_) Suspend the sentence by writing "the poet ...
+     instead of ... has." (_d_) What is the word for "that which
+     happens _around_ one, or in connection with some central object?"
+
+108. "To have passed (_a_) (3) _in a self-satisfied manner_ through
+twenty years of office, letting things take their own course; to have
+(_b_) _sailed_ with consummate sagacity, never against the tide of
+popular (_c_) _judgement_; to have left on record as the sole title to
+distinction among English ministers a peculiar art of (_d_) _sporting
+with_ the heavy, the awful responsibility of a nation's destiny with
+the jaunty grace of a juggler (11) (_e_) _playing with_ his golden
+ball; to have joked and intrigued, and bribed and (_f_) _deceived_,
+with the result of having done nothing (_g_), (_h_) _either_ for the
+poor, (_h_) _or_ for religion (for (_i_) which indeed he did worse
+than nothing), (_h_) _or_ for art and science, (_h_) _or_ for the
+honour or concord or even the financial prosperity of the nation, (38)
+is surely a miserable basis on which the reputation of a great (15)
+statesman _can be_ (_k_) (15 _a_) _founded_."
+
+     (_a_) "complacently." (_b_) "Sail" implies will and effort: use a
+     word peculiar to a helpless ship, so as to contrast paradoxically
+     with "sagacity." (_c_) Use a word implying less thought and
+     deliberation. (_d_) _With_ is too often repeated; write "bearing"
+     so as to introduce the illustration abruptly. (_e_) "tossing."
+     (_f_) Use a word implying a particular kind of "deceit," not
+     "lying," but the next thing to "lying." (_g_) Insert the word
+     with a preceding and intensifying adverb, "absolutely nothing."
+     (_h_) Instead of "either," "or," repeat "nothing." (_i_) The
+     parenthesis breaks the rhythm. Write "nothing, or worse than
+     nothing." (_k_) "to found."
+
+109. "A glance at the clock will make you (1) _conscious_ that it is
+nearly three in the morning, and I therefore ask you, gentlemen,
+instead of wasting more time, to put this question to yourselves, 'Are
+we, or are we not, here, for the purpose of (1) _eliminating_ the
+truth?'"
+
+110. "The speech of the Right Honourable member, so far from
+_unravelling_ (14) _the obscurities of this knotty question_, is
+eminently calculated to mislead his supporters (_a_) (8 _a_) _who_
+have not made a special study of it. It may be (_b_) (23) _almost_
+asserted of every statement (8) _which_ he has made that the very (1)
+_converse_ is the fact."
+
+     (_a_) The meaning appears to be, not "_all_ his supporters," but
+     "_those of_ his supporters who:" the convenience of writing "his
+     supporters _that_" is so great that I should be disposed to use
+     "that." (_b_) "Every," not "asserted," requires the juxtaposition
+     of "almost."
+
+111. "The provisions of the treaty _which_ (8) require the consent of
+the Parliament of Canada await its assembling."
+
+     Point out the meaning conveyed by _which_, and by _that_.
+
+112. "Mrs. Smith demonstrated (26), in opposition to the general
+dictum of the press, that (_a_) _there had been_ a reaction against
+woman's suffrage, that there had really been a gain of one vote in the
+House of Commons."
+
+     (_a_) Substitute "instead of," and erase the second "that."
+
+113. "The practice of smoking hangs like a gigantic (14 _a_) cloud of
+evil over the country."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[18] That which treats of the thirteenth century.
+
+
+
+
+CONTINUOUS EXERCISES.
+
+
+CLEARNESS.
+
+The following exercises consist of extracts from Burnet, Butler, and
+Clarendon, modernized and altered with a view to remove obscurity and
+ambiguity. The modernized version will necessarily be inferior to the
+original in unity of style, and in some other respects. The charm of
+the author's individuality, and the pleasant ring of the old-fashioned
+English, are lost. It is highly necessary that the student should
+recognize this, and should bear in mind that the sole object is to
+show how the meaning in each case might have been more _clearly_
+expressed.
+
+Occasionally expressions have been altered, not as being in themselves
+obscure or objectionable, but as indicating a habit of which beginners
+should beware. For example, in the extract from Burnet, _he_ is often
+altered, not because, in the particular context, the pronoun presents
+any obscurity, but because Burnet's habit of repeating _he_ is faulty.
+
+These exercises can be used in two ways. The pupil may either have his
+book open and be questioned on the reasons for each alteration, or,
+after studying the two versions, he may have the original version
+dictated to him, and then he may reproduce the parallel version, or
+something like it, on paper.
+
+                         LORD CLARENDON.
+
+The principal faults in this style are, long heterogeneous sentences
+(43), use of phrases for words (47 _a_), ambiguous use of pronouns
+(5), excessive separation of words grammatically connected together
+(19).
+
+        ORIGINAL VERSION.                      PARALLEL VERSION.
+
+  (44) It will not be impertinent     And now, in order to explain, as
+  nor _unnatural to this_ (50)        far as possible, how so prodigious
+  _present discourse_, to set down    an alteration could take place in
+  in this place the present temper    so short a time, and how the[19]
+  and constitution of both  Houses    royal power could fall so low as
+  of Parliament, and (34) of the      to be unable to support itself,
+  court itself, (30) that (5) _it_    its dignity, or its faithful
+  may be the less wondered at, that   servants, it will be of use to set
+  so prodigious an alteration should  down here, where it comes most
+  be made in so short a time, and     naturally, some account of the[20]
+  (37) the crown fallen so low, that  present temper and composition,
+  it could neither support itself     not only of both Houses of
+  nor its own majesty, nor _those     Parliament, but also of the court
+  who would_ (47 _a_) _appear         itself.
+  faithful to it_.
+
+    *     *     *     *     *           *     *     *     *     *
+
+         (Here follows a description of the House of Lords.)
+
+  In the House of Commons were many   In the House of Commons
+  persons of wisdom and gravity, who  there were many men of wisdom
+  (7) _being possessed_ of great and  and judgment whose high
+  plentiful fortunes, though they     position and great wealth disposed
+  were undevoted enough to the        them, in spite of their indifference
+  court, (19) had all imaginable      to the court, to feel
+  duty for the king, and affection    a most loyal respect for the
+  to the government _established_(47  king, and a great affection for
+  _a_) _by law_ or ancient custom;    the ancient constitutional
+  (43) and without doubt, the _major  government of the country. Indeed,
+  part of that_ (54) _body_           it cannot be doubted that
+  consisted of men who had no mind    the majority had no intention to
+  to break the peace of the kingdom,  break the peace of the kingdom
+  or to make any considerable         or to make any considerable
+  alteration in the government of     alteration in Church or State.
+  Church or State: (43) and           Consequently, from the very
+  therefore (18) _all_ inventions     outset, it was necessary to resort
+  were set on _foot from the_ (15)    to every conceivable device
+  _beginning_ to work upon (5)        for the purpose of perverting
+  _them_, and (11) corrupt (5)        this honest majority into rebellion.
+  _them_, (43) (45) by suggestions
+  "of the dangers (8) _which_         With some, the appeal was
+  threatened all that was precious    addressed to their patriotism.
+  to the subject (19) in their        They were warned "of the
+  liberty and their property, by      dangers that threatened [all
+  _overthrowing_ (47 _a_) _or         that was precious in] the liberty
+  overmastering_ the law, _and_ (47   and property of the subject,
+  _a_) _subjecting_ it to _an         if the laws were to be made
+  arbitrary_ (47_a_) _power_, and by  subservient to despotism, and
+  countenancing Popery to the         if Popery was to be encouraged
+  subversion of the Protestant        to the subversion of the Protestant
+  religion," and then, by             religion."
+  infusing terrible apprehensions
+  into some, and so working upon      The fears of others were appealed
+  their fears, (6 _b_) "of (11 _a_)   to. "There was danger," so[21] it
+  being called in question for        was said, "that they might be
+  somewhat they had done," by which   called to account for something
+  (5) _they_ would stand in need of   they had done, and they would then
+  (5) _their_ protection; and (43)    stand in need of the help of those
+  (45) raising the hopes of others,   who were now giving them this
+  "that, by _concurring_ (47 _a_)     timely warning." In others, hopes
+  _with_ (5) _them_ (5) _they_        were excited, and offices,
+  should be sure to obtain offices    honours, and preferments were held
+  and honours and any kind of         out as the reward of adhesion.
+  preferment." Though there were too  Too many were led away by one or
+  many corrupted and misled by these  other of these temptations, and
+  several temptations, and (19)       indeed some needed no other
+  others (40 _a_) who needed no       temptation than their innate
+  other temptations than from the     fierceness and barbarity and the
+  fierceness and barbarity _of        malice they had contracted against
+  their_ (47 _a_) _own natures_, and  the Church and the court. But the
+  the malice they had contracted      leaders of the conspiracy were not
+  against the Church and against the  many. The flock was large and
+  court; (43) yet the number was not  submissive, but the shepherds were
+  great _of those in whom the         very few.
+  government of the rest_ (47 _a_)
+  _was vested_, nor were there many
+  who had the absolute authority
+  (13) to lead, though there were a
+  multitude (13) that was disposed
+  to follow.
+
+  (44) (30) Mr. Pym was looked upon   Of these, Mr. Pym was thought
+  as the man of greatest experience   superior to all the rest in
+  in parliaments, _where he had_      parliamentary experience. To this
+  (50) _served very long_, and _was   advantage he added habits of
+  always_ (50) _a man of business_,   business acquired from his
+  (7) being an officer in the         continuous service in the
+  Exchequer, (43) and of a good       Exchequer. He had also a good
+  reputation generally, (30) though   reputation generally; for, though
+  known to be inclined to the         known to be inclined to the
+  Puritan party; yet not of those     Puritan party, yet he was not so
+  furious resolutions against the     fanatically set against the Church
+  Church as the other leading men     as the other leaders. In this
+  were, and (44) wholly devoted to    respect he resembled the Earl of
+  the Earl of Bedford, who had        Bedford, to whom he was
+  nothing of that spirit.             thoroughly devoted.
+
+            (Here follow descriptions of Hampden and Saint John.)
+
+  It was generally believed that      These three persons, with the
+  these three persons, with the       three peers mentioned before, were
+  other three lords mentioned         united in the closest confidence,
+  before, were of the most intimate   and formed the mainspring of the
+  and entire trust with each other,   party. Such at least was the
+  and made _the engine which_ (47     general belief. But it was clear
+  _a_) _moved_ all the rest; (30)     that they also admitted to their
+  yet it was visible, that (15)       unreserved confidence two others,
+  _Nathaniel Fiennes, the second son  (45) whom I will now
+  of the Lord Say, and Sir Harry      describe,--Nathaniel Fiennes,
+  Vane, eldest son to the Secretary,  second son of Lord Say, and Sir
+  and Treasurer of the House_, were   Harry Vane, eldest son of the
+  received by them with full          Secretary, and Treasurer of the
+  confidence and without reserve.     House.
+
+  The former, being a man of good     Nathaniel Fiennes, a man of good
+  parts of learning, and after some   parts, was educated at New
+  years spent in New College in       College, Oxford, where[22] his
+  Oxford, (43) of which his father    family claimed and enjoyed some
+  had been formerly fellow, (43)      privileges in virtue of their
+  that family pretending[23] and      kindred to the founder, and
+  enjoying many privileges there, as  where[22] his father had formerly
+  of kin to the founder, (43) (19)    been a fellow. He afterwards spent
+  had spent his time abroad in        some time in Geneva and in the
+  Geneva and amongst the cantons of   cantons of Switzerland, where[22]
+  Switzerland, (30) where he          he increased that natural
+  improved his disinclination to the  antipathy to the Church which he
+  Church, with which milk he had      had imbibed almost with his
+  been nursed. From his travels he    mother's milk.[24] By a singular
+  returned through Scotland (52)      coincidence, he came home through
+  (which[24] few travellers took in   Scotland (not a very common route
+  their way home) at the time when    for returning travellers) just
+  (5) _that_ rebellion was in bud:    when the Scotch rebellion was in
+  (30) (43) (44) and was very little  bud. For some time he was scarcely
+  known, except amongst (5) _that_    known beyond the narrow and
+  people, _which conversed_ (47 _a_)  exclusive circle of his sect,
+  _wholly amongst themselves,_ until  until at last he appeared in
+  he was now (15) _found in           Parliament. Then, indeed, it was
+  Parliament_, (30) (43) (44) when    quickly discovered that he was
+  it was quickly discovered that,     likely to fulfil even the fond
+  as he was the  darling of his       hopes of his father and the high
+  father, so (5) _he_  was like to     promise of many years.
+  make good whatsoever _he_ had
+  for many years promised.
+
+  (5) _The other_, Sir H. Vane, was   Fiennes' coadjutor, Sir H. Vane,
+  a man of great natural parts[25]    was a man of great natural
+  (45) and of very profound           ability.[25] Quick in understanding
+  dissimulation, of a quick           and impenetrable in dissembling,
+  conception, and of very ready,      he could also speak with
+  sharp, and weighty expression. He   promptness, point, and weight. His
+  had an (50) unusual aspect, which,  singular appearance, though it
+  though it might naturally proceed   might naturally proceed from his
+  from his father and mother,         parents, who were not noted for
+  neither of which were beautiful     their beauty, yet impressed men
+  persons, yet (19) made men think    with the belief that he had in him
+  there was somewhat in him of        something extraordinary, an
+  extraordinary: and (52) his whole   impression that was confirmed by
+  life made good that imagination.    the whole of his life. His
+  Within a very short time after he   behaviour at Oxford, where he
+  returned from his studies in        studied at Magdalen College, was
+  Magdalen College in Oxford, where,  not characterized, in spite of the
+  (43) though he was under the care   supervision of a very worthy
+  of a very worthy tutor, he lived    tutor, by a severe morality. Soon
+  not with great exactness, (43) he   after leaving Oxford he spent some
+  spent some little time in France,   little time in France, and more in
+  and more in Geneva, and, (43)       Geneva. After returning to
+  after his return into England,      England, he conceived an intense
+  (38) contracted a full prejudice    hatred not only against the
+  and bitterness against the Church,  government of the Church, which
+  both against the form of the        was disliked by many, but also
+  government and the Liturgy, (43)    against the Liturgy, which was
+  which was generally in great        held in great and general
+  reverence, (15 _a_) _even with      reverence.
+  many of those who were not
+  friends_ to (5) _the other_. In     Incurring or seeming to incur, by
+  his giddiness, which then much      his giddiness, the displeasure of
+  displeased, or seemed to            his father, who at that time,
+  displease, (30) (43) his father,    beside strictly conforming to the
+  who still appeared highly           Church himself, was very bitter
+  conformable, and exceedingly sharp  against Nonconformists, the young
+  against those who were not,         Vane left his home for New
+  (5) _he_ transported himself into   England.
+  New England, (43) a colony within
+  few years before planted by a       This colony had been planted a few
+  mixture of all religions,[26] which years before by men of all sorts of
+  disposed the professors to dislike  religions, and their
+  the government of the Church; who   differences[26] disposed them to
+  (30) (43) (44) were qualified by    dislike the government of the
+  the king's charter to choose their  Church. Now, it happened that their
+  own government and governors,       privilege (accorded by the king's
+  under the obligation, "that every   charter) of choosing their own
+  man should take the oaths of        government and governors was
+  allegiance and supremacy;" (30)     subject to this obligation, "that
+  (43) (5) _which_ all the first      every man should take the oaths of
+  planters did, when they received    allegiance and supremacy." These
+  their charter, before they          oaths had been taken, not only by
+  transported themselves from hence,  all the original planters, on
+  nor was there in many years after   receiving their charter, before
+  the least scruple amongst them of   leaving England, but also for many
+  complying with those obligations:   years afterwards, without exciting
+  so far men were, _in the infancy_   the slightest scruple. Indeed,
+  (15) _of their schism_, from        scruples against lawful oaths were
+  refusing to take lawful oaths.      unknown[27] in the infancy of the
+  (45) He was no sooner landed        English schism. But with the
+  there, but his parts made him       arrival of Vane all this was
+  quickly taken notice of, (26) and   changed. No sooner had he landed
+  very probably his quality, being    than his ability, and perhaps to
+  the eldest son of a                 some extent his position, as eldest
+  Privy-councillor, might give him    son of a Privy-councillor,
+  some advantage; _insomuch_ (51)     recommended him to notice: and at
+  _that_, when the next season came   the next election he was chosen
+  for the election of their           Governor.
+  magistrates, he was chosen their
+  governor: (30) (45) (43) in which   In his new post, his restless and
+  place he had so ill fortune (26)    unquiet imagination found
+  (his working and unquiet fancy      opportunity for creating and
+  raising and infusing a thousand     diffusing a thousand conscientious
+  scruples of conscience, which (5)   scruples that had not been brought
+  _they_ had not brought over with    over, or ever even heard of, by the
+  them, nor heard of before) (19)     colonists. His government proved a
+  that he  unsatisfied with           failure: and, mutually
+  them and they with him,             dissatisfied, (45) governed and
+  he retransported himself            governor parted. Vane returned
+  into England; (30) (43) (44)        to England, but not till he had
+  having sowed such seed of           accomplished his mischievous task,
+  dissension there, as grew up too    not till he had sown the seeds of
+  prosperously, and miserably         those miserable dissensions which
+  divided the poor colony into        afterwards grew only too
+  several factions, and divisions     prosperously, till they split the
+  and persecutions of each (15 _a_)   wretched colony into distinct,
+  _other_, (30) (43) which still      hostile, and mutually persecuting
+  continue _to the great_ (54)        factions. His handiwork still
+  _prejudice of that plantation_:     remains, and it is owing to (15)
+  insomuch as some of (5) _them_,     _him_ that some of the colonists,
+  upon the ground of their first      on the pretext of liberty of
+  expedition, liberty of conscience,  conscience, the original cause of
+  have withdrawn themselves from (5)  their emigration, have withdrawn
+  _their_ jurisdiction, and obtained  themselves from the old colonial
+  other charters from the king, by    jurisdiction and have obtained
+  which, (30) (43) in other forms of  fresh charters from the king.
+  government, they have enlarged      These men have established new
+  their plantations, within new       forms of government, unduly
+  limits adjacent to (5) (15 _a_)     enlarged their boundaries, and set
+  _the other_.their plantations,      up rival settlements on the
+  within new limits adjacent to (5)   borders of the original colony.
+  (15 _a_) _the other_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[19] The original metaphor uses the crown as a prop, which seems a
+confusion. Though the metaphor is so common as scarcely to be regarded
+as a metaphor, it is better to avoid the appearance of confusion.
+
+[20] We sometimes say, briefly but not perhaps idiomatically, "the
+_then_ sovereign," "the _then_ temper," &c.
+
+[21] The personality of the tempters and organizers of the conspiracy
+is purposely kept in the background.
+
+[22] The relative is retained in the first two cases, because it
+conveys the _reason why_ Fiennes was educated at New College; and in
+the third case, because the increased "antipathy" is regarded as the
+natural _consequence_ of the residence in Calvinistic Geneva.
+
+[23] Claiming.
+
+[24] An insinuation of sedition seems intended.
+
+[25] This sentence is a preliminary summary of what follows.
+
+[26] If "which" is used here according to Rule (8), the meaning is,
+(_a_) "and their differences;" if it is used for "that," the meaning
+will be, (_b_) "all religions that were of a nature to dispose &c." I
+believe (_a_) is the meaning; but I have found difference of opinion
+on the question.
+
+[27] The following words appear to be emphatic, bringing out the
+difference between the _infancy_ and the development of schism.
+
+
+                              BURNET.
+
+The principal faults in Burnet's style are (_a_) the use of
+heterogeneous sentences (see 43); (_b_) the want of suspense (see 30);
+(_c_) the ambiguous use of pronouns (see 5); (_d_) the omission of
+connecting adverbs and conjunctions, and an excessive use of _and_
+(see 44); and (_e_) an abruptness in passing from one topic to another
+(see 45). The correction of these faults necessarily lengthens the
+altered version.
+
+       ORIGINAL VERSION.                      PARALLEL VERSION.
+
+  And his maintaining the honour of   He also gratified the English
+  the nation in all foreign           feeling of self-respect by
+  countries gratified the (1)         maintaining the honour of the
+  _vanity which is very natural_      nation in all foreign countries.
+  (50) _to Englishmen_; (30) (43) of  So jealous was he on this point
+  which he was _so_ (15) (17 _a_)     that, though he was not a crowned
+  _careful_ that, though he was not   head, he yet secured for his
+  a crowned head, yet his (40 _a_)    ambassadors all the respect that
+  ambassadors had all the respects    had been paid to the ambassadors
+  paid them which our (15) _kings'_   of our kings. The king, he said,
+  ambassadors ever had: he said (6    received respect simply as the
+  _b_) the dignity of the crown       nation's representative head,
+  was upon the account of the         and, since the nation was the
+  nation, _of which the king was_     same, the same respect should
+  (50) _only the representative       be paid to the[28] nation's
+  head_; so, the nation being the     ministers.
+  same, he would have the same
+  regards paid to (41) his
+  ministers.
+
+  Another[29] instance of (5) _this_  The following instance of jealousy
+  pleased _him_ much. Blake with the  for the national honour pleased
+  fleet _happened_ (50) _to be_ at    him much. When Blake was at Malaga
+  Malaga before he made war upon      with his fleet, before his war
+  Spain: (44) _and_ some of his       with Spain, it happened that some
+  seamen went ashore, _and_ met the   of his sailors going ashore and
+  Host carried about; (44) _and_ not  meeting the procession of the
+  only paid no respect to it, but     Host, not only paid no respect to
+  laughed at those who did; (43)      it, but even laughed at those who
+  (30) (51) so one of the priests     did. Incited by one of the priests
+  put the people upon resenting this  to resent the indignity, the
+  indignity; _and_ they fell upon     people fell on the scoffers and
+  (5) _them and_ beat them severely.  beat them severely. On their
+  When they returned to their ship    return to the ship the seamen
+  (5) _they_ complained of (5)        complained of this ill-usage,
+  _this_ usage; and upon that Blake   whereupon Blake sent a messenger
+  sent a trumpet to the viceroy to    to the viceroy to demand the
+  demand the priest who was the       priest who was the instigator of
+  chief (1) _instrument_ in that      the outrage. The viceroy answered
+  ill-usage. The viceroy answered     that he could not touch him, as he
+  _he_ had no authority over the      had no authority over the priests.
+  (15) _priests_, and so could not    To this Blake replied, that he did
+  dispose of him. Blake upon that     not intend to inquire to whom the
+  sent him word that _he_ would not   authority belonged, but, if the
+  inquire who had the (1) power to    priest were not sent within three
+  send the priest to him, but if      hours, he would burn the town. The
+  _he_ were not sent within three     townspeople being in no condition
+  hours, _he_ would burn their town;  to resist, the priest was at once
+  (43) and (5) _they_, being in no    sent. On his arrival, he defended
+  condition to resist _him_, sent     himself, alleging the insolence of
+  the priest to _him_, (43) (44) who  the sailors. But the English (50)
+  justified himself upon the           Admiral replied that a complaint
+  petulant behaviour of the seamen.    should have been forwarded to him,
+                                       and then he would have punished
+  (44) Blake answered that, if (5)     them severely, for none of his
+  _he_ had sent a complaint to (5)     sailors should be allowed to
+  _him of_(5) _it_, (5) _he_ would     affront the established religion
+  have punished them severely, since   of any place where they touched.
+  (5) _he_ would not suffer _his_      "But," he added, "I take it ill
+  men to affront the established       that you should set on your
+  religion of any place at which (5)   countrymen to do my work; for I
+  _he_ touched; but (5) (6) _he_       will have all the world know that
+  took it ill, that _he_ set on the    an Englishman is only to be
+  Spaniards to do (5) _it_; for _he_   punished, by an Englishman." Then,
+  would have all the world to know     satisfied with having had the (50)
+  that an Englishman was only to be    offender at his mercy, Blake
+  punished by an Englishman; (43)      entertained him civilly and sent
+  (44) and so he treated the priest    him back.
+  civilly, and sent him back (30),
+  being satisfied that he had him at
+  his mercy.
+
+  Cromwell was much delighted with    Cromwell was much delighted with
+  (5) _this_, (43) and read the       Blake's conduct. Reading the
+  letters in council with great       letters in council with great
+  satisfaction; _and_ said he (6)     satisfaction, he said, "I hope I
+  hoped he should make the name of    shall make the name of an
+  an Englishman as great as ever      Englishman as much respected as
+  that of a Roman (15 _a_) _had       ever was the name of Roman."
+  been_. (44) The States of Holland   Among other countries the States
+  were in such dread of (5) him that  of Holland were in such dread of
+  they took care to give him no sort  Cromwell that they took care to
+  of umbrage; (43) (44) _and_ when    give him no sort of umbrage.
+  at any time the king or his         Accordingly, whenever the king or
+  brothers came to see their sister   his brothers came to see the
+  the Princess Royal, (23) within a   Princess Royal their sister, they
+  day or two after, (5) _they_ used   were always warned in a day or two
+  to send a deputation to let _them_  by a deputation that Cromwell had
+  know that Cromwell had required of  required of the States to give
+  the States that (5) _they_ should   them no harbourage.
+  give _them_ no harbour.
+
+    *     *     *     *     *           *     *     *     *     *
+
+  Cromwell's favourite alliance was   The free kingdom of Sweden was
+  Sweden.[30] (44) Carolus Gustavus   Cromwell's favourite ally; not
+  and he lived in great conjunction   only under Charles Gustavus, with
+  of counsels. (44) Even Algernon     whom he was on most confidential
+  Sydney, (10 _a_) _who_ was not      terms, but also under Christina.
+  inclined to think or speak well of  Both these sovereigns had just
+  kings, commended _him_ (5) to me;   notions of public liberty; at
+  and  said _he_ (5) had just         least, Algernon Sydney, a man
+  notions of public liberty; (44)     certainly not prejudiced in favour
+  (43) _and_ added, that Queen        of royalty, assured me this was
+  Christina seemed to have _them_     true of Gustavus. He also held the
+  likewise. But (44) she was          same opinion of Queen Christina;
+  much changed from that, when        but, if so, she was much changed
+  I waited on her at Rome; for        when I waited on her at Rome; for
+  she complained of us as a factious  she then complained of the factious
+  nation, _that did not readily       and unruly spirit of our nation.
+  comply with the commands_ (47 _a_)
+  _of our princes_. (44) All Italy    All Italy, no less than
+  trembled at the name of Cromwell,   Holland,[31] trembled at the name
+  and seemed under a (1) _panic_ as   of Cromwell, and dreaded him till
+  long as he lived; (43) his fleet    he died. Nor durst the Turks
+  scoured the Mediterranean; and the  offend the great (50) Protector
+  Turks durst not offend him; but     whose fleet scoured the
+  delivered up Hyde, who kept up the  Mediterranean; and they even gave
+  character of an ambassador from     up Hyde, who, for keeping up in
+  the king there (23) (43), and was   Turkey the character of ambassador
+  brought over and executed for (5)   from the king, was brought to
+  _it_.                               England and executed.
+
+  (44) (11 _a_) The _putting_ the     In another instance of severity
+  brother of the king of Portugal's   towards foreigners--the execution
+  ambassador to death for murder,     of the brother of the Portuguese
+  was (11 _a_) _carrying_ justice     ambassador for murder--Cromwell
+  very far; (43) since, though in     carried justice very far. For,
+  the strictness of the law of        though in strictness the law of
+  nations, it is only the             nations exempts from foreign
+  ambassador's own person that is     jurisdiction the ambassador alone,
+  exempted from (4) _any authority_   yet in practice the exemption has
+  (47 _a_) _but his master's that     extended to the whole of the
+  sends him_, yet the practice has    ambassador's suite.
+  gone in favour of _all that the
+  ambassador owned_ (47 _a_) _to      Successful abroad, Cromwell was no
+  belong to him_. (41) (44) Cromwell  less successful at home in
+  showed his good (11)                selecting able and worthy men for
+  _understanding_ in nothing more     public duties, especially for the
+  than in seeking[32] out capable     courts of law. In nothing did he
+  and worthy men for all employments, show more clearly his great
+  but most particularly for the       natural insight, and nothing
+  courts of law, (43) (30 _a_)        contributed more to his popularity.
+  (10 _a_) which gave a general
+  satisfaction.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[28] The meaning is "_his_, and therefore _the nation's_, ministers."
+There is a kind of antithesis between "the nation" and "the nation's
+ministers."
+
+[29] No instance has yet been mentioned.
+
+[30] The thought that is implied, and should be expressed, by the
+words, is this: "Cromwell's favourite ally was a free country."
+
+[31] The remarks about Christina are a digression, and Burnet is now
+returning to the respect in which Cromwell was held by foreign
+nations.
+
+[32] He not only sought, but sought successfully. That "find" is not
+necessarily implied by "seek out" seems proved by the use of the word
+in the Authorized Version, 2 Tim. ii. 17: "He _sought_ me _out_ very
+diligently, and _found_ me."
+
+
+                              BISHOP BUTLER.
+
+The principal faults in this style are (_a_) a vague use of pronouns
+(5), and sometimes (_b_) the use of a phrase, where a word would be
+enough (47 _a_).
+
+       ORIGINAL VERSION.                       PARALLEL VERSION.
+
+  Some persons, (15) _upon            Some persons avowedly reject all
+  pretence[33] of the sufficiency of  revelation as[34]essentially
+  the light of Nature_, avowedly      incredible and necessarily
+  reject all revelation as, _in its_  fictitious, on the ground that the
+  (47 _a_) _very notion_,             light of Nature is in itself
+  incredible, _and what_ (47 _a_)     sufficient. And assuredly, had the
+  _must be fictitious_. And indeed    light of Nature been sufficient in
+  (32) it is certain that no          such a sense as to render
+  revelation would have been given,   revelation needless or useless, no
+  (32) had the light of Nature been   revelation would ever have been
+  sufficient in such a sense as to    given. But let any man consider
+  render (5) _one_ not[35] wanting,   the spiritual darkness that once
+  or useless. But no (15 _b_) man in  (41) prevailed in the heathen
+  seriousness and simplicity can      world before revelation, and that
+  possibly think _it_ (5) _so_, who   (41) still prevails in those
+  considers the state of religion in  regions that have not yet received
+  the heathen world before            the light of revealed truth; above
+  revelation, and _its_ (5) present   all, let him mark not merely the
+  state in those (11) _places_ (8)    natural inattention and ignorance
+  _which_ have borrowed no light      of the masses, but also the
+  from (5) it; particularly (19) the  doubtful language held even by a
+  doubtfulness of some of the (12)    Socrates on even so vital a
+  greatest men concerning _things of  subject as[36] the immortality of
+  the utmost_ (11) _importance_, as   the soul; and then can he in
+  well as the (15 _a_) _natural       seriousness and sincerity maintain
+  inattention and ignorance of        that the light of Nature is
+  mankind in general_. It is (34)     sufficient?
+  impossible to say (12) who would
+  have been able to have reasoned     It is of course impossible to deny
+  out that whole system which we      that some second[36] Aristotle
+  call natural religion, (30) in its  might have reasoned out, in its
+  genuine simplicity, clear of        genuine simplicity and without
+  superstition; but there is          a touch of superstition, the
+  certainly no ground to affirm       whole of that system which we
+  that the generality could.          call natural religion. But there
+  (44) If they could, there is        is certainly no ground for
+  no sort of probability that         affirming that this complicated
+  they would. (44) Admitting there    process would have been possible
+  were, they would highly want a      for ordinary men. Even if they had
+  standing admonition to remind them  had the power, there is no
+  of (5) _it_, and inculcate it upon  probability that they would have
+  them. And further still, were (5)   had the inclination; and, even if
+  _they_ as much _disposed_ (47 _a_)  we admit the probable inclination,
+  _to attend to_ religion as the      they would still need some
+  better sort of men (15 _a_) _are_;  standing admonition, whereby
+  yet, even upon this supposition,    natural religion might be
+  there would be various occasions    suggested and inculcated. Still
+  for supernatural instruction and    further, even if we suppose these
+  assistance, _and the greatest       ordinary men to be as attentive to
+  advantages_ (50) _might be          religion as men of a better sort,
+  afforded_ (15 _a_) _by_ (5)         yet even then there would be
+  _them_. So that, to say revelation  various occasions when
+  is a thing superfluous, _what       supernatural instruction and
+  there_ (47 _a_) _was no need of_,   assistance might be most
+  and _what can be of_ (47 _a_) _no   beneficially bestowed.
+  service_, is, I think, to talk
+  wildly and at random. Nor would it  Therefore, to call revelation
+  be more extravagant to affirm that  superfluous, needless, and
+  (40 _a_) _mankind_ is so entirely   useless, is, in my opinion, to
+  (40 _a_) _at ease_ in the present   talk wildly and at random. A man
+  state, and (40 _a_) _life so_       might as reasonably assert that we
+  completely (40 _a_) _happy_, that   are so entirely at ease and so
+  (5) _it_ is a contradiction to      completely happy in this present
+  suppose (40 _a_) our condition      life that our condition cannot
+  capable of _being in any respect_   without contradiction be supposed
+  (47 _a_) _better_.--(_Analogy of    capable of being in any way
+  Religion_, part ii. chap. 1.)       improved.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[33] "To pretend" once meant "to put forward," "maintain."
+
+[34] It has been suggested, however, that by "in its very notion
+incredible," is meant "inconceivable."
+
+[35] "Wanting" is used for modern "wanted."
+
+[36] This use of the particular for the general would be out of place
+in Butler's style, but it adds clearness.
+
+
+BREVITY.
+
+                         SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON.
+
+The following extract exhibits examples of tautology and lengthiness.
+The "implied statement" (50) can often be used as a remedy, but, more
+often, the best remedy is omission.
+
+       ORIGINAL VERSION.                        PARALLEL VERSION.
+
+  The Russian empire is (50) _a       Russia, with her vast strength and
+  state of_ (54) _such_ vast          boundless resources, is obviously
+  strength and boundless              destined to exercise on the course
+  resources, _that_ it is             of history a great and lasting
+  obviously destined to make a        influence. The slowness of her
+  great and lasting impression on     progress only renders her
+  human affairs. Its (50) progress    durability more probable. The
+  has been slow, but (5) _it_[37] is  Russian Empire has not, like the
+  only on that account the more       empires of Alexander the Great and
+  likely to be durable. (5) _It_ has  Napoleon, been raised to sudden
+  not suddenly risen to greatness,    greatness by the genius of
+  like the empire of Alexander in     individuals or the accidents of
+  ancient (19) (31), or that of       fortune, but has been slowly
+  Napoleon in modern, times, from     enlarged and firmly consolidated
+  the force of individual genius, or  by well-guided ambition and
+  the accidents of (54) casual        persevering energy,[38] during a
+  fortune, but has slowly advanced,   long succession of ages.
+  and (40 _a_) been firmly
+  consolidated (15) _during a
+  succession of ages_, from the
+  combined influence of ambition
+  skilfully directed and energy (15
+  _a_) _perseveringly applied_.
+
+    *     *     *     *     *           *     *     *     *     *
+
+  The extent and fertility of the     The extent and fertility of her
+  Russian territory are _such_ (54)   territory furnish unparalleled
+  _as to_ furnish facilities of       facilities for the increase of her
+  increase and elements of strength   population and power. European
+  _which no nation_ (47 _a_) _in the  Russia, that is, Russia to the
+  world enjoys_. European             west of the Ural Mountains,
+  Russia--that is, Russia to the      contains one million two hundred
+  westward of the Ural                thousand square geographical
+  Mountains--contains a hundred and   miles, or ten times the surface of
+  fifty thousand four hundred square  Great Britain and Ireland.
+  marine leagues, or about one
+  million two hundred thousand
+  square geographical miles, being
+  ten times the surface of the
+  British Islands, which contain,
+  including Ireland, one hundred and
+  twenty-two thousand. Great part,    This vast territory is intersected
+  no doubt, of this _immense_ (54,    by no mountain ranges, no arid
+  see below) _territory is covered_   deserts; and though much of it is
+  with forests, or (40 _a_) _lies_    rendered almost unproductive of
+  so far to the north as to be        food either by the denseness of
+  almost unproductive of food; but    forests, or by the severity of the
+  no ranges of mountains or arid      northern winter, yet almost all,
+  deserts intersect the _vast_ (54,   except that part which touches
+  see above) _extent_, and almost     the Arctic snows, is capable of
+  the whole, excepting that which     yielding something for the use
+  touches the Arctic snows, is        of man.
+  capable of yielding something for
+  the use of man. The (3) (54)        The steppes of the south present
+  _boundless_ steppes of the south    an inexhaustible pasturage to
+  present (54) _inexhaustible_        those nomad tribes whose numerous
+  fields of pasturage, and give       and incomparable horsemen form the
+  birth to those nomad tribes, in     chief defence of the empire.
+  whose numerous and incomparable
+  horsemen the chief defence of the
+  empire,[39] as of all Oriental
+  states, (15 _a_) _is to be found_.
+  The rich arable lands in the heart  The rich arable lands in the
+  _of the_ (54) _empire_ produce an   interior produce grain enough to
+  (2) _incalculable_ quantity of      support four times the present
+  grain, capable not only of          population of the empire, and yet
+  maintaining four times (5) _its_    leave a vast surplus to be
+  present inhabitants, but affording  transported by the Dnieper, the
+  a vast surplus for exportation by   Volga, and their tributaries, into
+  the Dnieper, the Volga, and their   the Euxine or other seas.
+  tributary streams, (30) which
+  _form so many_ (54) _natural
+  outlets_ into the Euxine or other
+  seas; (44) while the cold and       Lastly, the cold bleak plains
+  shivering plains which stretch      stretching towards Archangel and
+  towards Archangel and the shores    towards the shores of the White
+  of the White Sea are (48) covered   Sea, and covered with immense
+  with immense forests of fir and     forests of oak and fir, furnish
+  oak, furnishing at once (54)[40]    materials for shipbuilding and
+  _inexhaustible_ materials for       supplies of fuel that will for
+  shipbuilding and supplies of fuel.  many generations supersede the
+  (54) _These ample stores_ for many  necessity of searching for coal.
+  generations will supersede the
+  necessity of searching in the (14
+  _a_) _bowels_ of the earth for
+  _the purposes of_ (54) _warmth or
+  manufacture_.
+
+  Formidable as the power of Russia   Much as we may dread Russia for
+  is from the vast extent of its      the vastness of her territory and
+  territory, and the great and        of her rapidly increasing numbers,
+  rapidly increasing number _of       there is greater cause for fear
+  its_ (54) _subjects_, (5) _it_ is   in the military spirit and the
+  still more (5) _so_ from the        docility of her people.
+  military spirit and docile
+  disposition _by which they are_
+  (54)[41] _distinguished_. The
+  prevailing (54) _passion_ of the    A burning thirst for conquest is
+  nation is the (54) _love of         as prevalent a passion in Russia
+  conquest_, and this (54) _ardent_   as democratic ambition in the free
+  (54) _desire_, which (54) _burns    states of Western Europe. This
+  as_ (54) _fiercely_ in them as      passion is the unseen spring[2]
+  democratic ambition does in the     which, while it retains the
+  free states of Western Europe, is   Russians in the strictest
+  the unseen spring[42] which both    discipline, unceasingly impels
+  retains them _submissive_ (54)      their united forces against all
+  _under the standard of their        adjoining states.
+  chief_ and impels their
+  accumulated forces in ceaseless     The national energy, which is as
+  violence over all the adjoining     great as the national territory,
+  states. The energies of the         rarely wastes itself in disputes
+  people, great as[43] the territory  about domestic grievances. For all
+  they inhabit, are rarely wasted in  internal evils, how great soever,
+  internal disputes. Domestic         the Russians hope to find a
+  grievances, how great soever, are   compensation, and more than a
+  (54) overlooked in the thirst for   compensation, in the conquest of
+  foreign aggrandizement. (15) In     the world.
+  the conquest of the world the
+  people hope to find a
+  compensation, and more than a
+  compensation, (15 _a_) _for all
+  the evils of their interior
+  administration_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[37] Apparently "it" means, not "progress," but the "Russian empire."
+
+[38] Not "energy," but "a long succession of ages," needs to be
+emphasized.
+
+[39] There is nothing in the context that requires the words, "as of
+all Oriental states."
+
+[40] If they were really "inexhaustible," the "necessity of searching
+in the bowels of the earth" would be "superseded," not for "many," but
+for all generations.
+
+[41] The words can be implied, and besides they are expressed in the
+following sentence.
+
+[42] The metaphor is questionable; for a "spring," _qua_ "spring,"
+does not retain at all; and besides, "a passion" ought not to "burn"
+in one line, and be a "spring" in the next.
+
+[43] The meaning appears _not_ to be, "great as" (is), _i.e._ "though
+the territory is great."
+
+
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ENGLISH LESSONS
+
+FOR
+
+ENGLISH PEOPLE.
+
+
+BY
+
+
+THE REV. EDWIN A. ABBOTT, M.A.,
+
+HEAD MASTER OF THE CITY OF LONDON SCHOOL;
+
+AND
+
+J. R. SEELEY, M.A.,
+
+PROFESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE.
+
+
+"It is not so much a merit to know English as it is a shame not to
+know it; and I look upon this knowledge as essential for an
+Englishman, and not merely for a fine speaker."--ADAPTED FROM CICERO.
+
+
+  BOSTON:
+  ROBERTS BROTHERS.
+  1883.
+
+[Illustration: QUI LEGIT REGIT]
+
+  UNIVERSITY PRESS: JOHN WILSON & SON,
+  CAMBRIDGE.
+
+
+TO THE
+
+REV. G. F. W. MORTIMER, D.D.,
+
+_Prebendary of St. Paul's Cathedral, late Head Master of the City of
+London School_.
+
+DEAR DOCTOR MORTIMER,
+
+We have other motives, beside the respect and gratitude which must be
+felt for you by all those of your old pupils who are capable of
+appreciating the work you did at the City of London School, for asking
+you to let us dedicate to you a little book which we have entitled
+"English Lessons for English People."
+
+Looking back upon our school life, we both feel that among the many
+educational advantages which we enjoyed under your care, there was
+none more important than the study of the works of Shakspeare, to
+which we and our school-fellows were stimulated by the special prizes
+of the Beaufoy Endowment.
+
+We owe you a debt of gratitude not always owed by pupils to their
+teachers. Many who have passed into a life of engrossing activity
+without having been taught at school to use rightly, or to appreciate
+the right use of, their native tongue, feeling themselves foreigners
+amid the language of their country, may turn with some point against
+their teachers the reproach of banished Bolingbroke:--
+
+            My tongue's use is to me no more
+    Than an unstringed viol or a harp,
+    Or like a cunning instrument cased up,
+    Or, being open, put into his hands
+    That knows no touch to tune the harmony;
+    Within my mouth you have engaoled my tongue,
+    Doubly portcullis'd with my teeth and lips,
+    And dull, unfeeling, barren ignorance
+    Is made my gaoler to attend on me.
+    I am too old to fawn upon a nurse,
+    Too far in years to be a pupil now.
+
+It is our pleasant duty, on the contrary, to thank you for encouraging
+us to study the "cunning instrument" of our native tongue.
+
+Our sense of the benefits which we derived from this study, and our
+recollection that the study was at that time optional, and did not
+affect more than a small number of the pupils, lead us to anticipate
+that when once the English language and literature become recognized,
+not as an optional but as a regular part of our educational course,
+the advantages will be so great as to constitute nothing short of a
+national benefit.
+
+The present seems to be a critical moment for English instruction. The
+subject has excited much attention of late years; many schools have
+already taken it up; others are on the point of doing so; it forms an
+important part of most Government and other examinations. But there is
+a complaint from many teachers that they cannot teach English for want
+of text-books and manuals; and, as the study of English becomes year
+by year more general, this complaint makes itself more and more
+distinctly heard. To meet this want we have written the following
+pages. If we had had more time, we might perhaps have been tempted to
+aim at producing a more learned and exhaustive book on the subject;
+but, setting aside want of leisure, we feel that a practical
+text-book, and not a learned or exhaustive treatise, is what is wanted
+at the present crisis.
+
+We feel sure that you will give a kindly welcome to our little book,
+as an attempt, however imperfect, to hand on the torch which you have
+handed to us; we beg you also to accept it as a token of our sincere
+gratitude for more than ordinary kindnesses, and to believe us
+
+  Your affectionate pupils,
+
+                 J. R. SEELEY.
+                 EDWIN A. ABBOTT.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+_Messrs. Roberts Brothers' Publications._
+
+
+ENGLISH LESSONS FOR ENGLISH PEOPLE. By Rev. E. A. ABBOTT, M.A., and
+Prof. J. R. SEELEY, M.A. Part I.--Vocabulary. Part II--Diction. Part
+III.--Metre. Part IV.--Hints on Selection and Arrangement. Appendix.
+16mo. Price $1.50.
+
+_From the London Athenęum._
+
+     The object of this book is evidently a practical one. It is
+     intended for ordinary use by a large circle of readers; and
+     though designed principally for boys, may be read with advantage
+     by many of more advanced years. One of the lessons which it
+     professes to teach, "to use the right word in the right place,"
+     is one which no one should despise. The accomplishment is a rare
+     one, and many of the hints here given are truly admirable.
+
+_From the Southern Review._
+
+     The study of Language can never be exhausted. Every time it is
+     looked at by a man of real ability and culture, some new phase
+     starts into view. The origin of Language; its relations to the
+     mind; its history; its laws; its development; its struggles; its
+     triumphs; its devices; its puzzles; its ethics,--every thing
+     about it is full of interest.
+
+     Here is a delightful book, by two men of recognized
+     authority,--the head Master of London School, and the Professor
+     of Modern History in the University of Cambridge, the notable
+     author of "Ecce Homo." The book is so comprehensive in its scope
+     that it seems almost miscellaneous. It treats of the vocabulary
+     of the English Language; Diction as appropriate to this or that
+     sort of composition; selection and arguments of topics; Metre,
+     and an Appendix on Logic. All this in less than three hundred
+     pages. Within this space so many subjects cannot be treated
+     exhaustively; and no one is, unless we may except Metre, to which
+     about eighty pages are devoted, and about which all seems to be
+     said that is worth saying,--possibly more. But on each topic some
+     of the best things are said in a very stimulating way. The
+     student will desire to study more thoroughly the subject into
+     which such pleasant openings are here given; and the best
+     prepared teacher will be thankful for the number of striking
+     illustrations gathered up to his hand.
+
+     The abundance and freshness of the quotations makes the volume
+     very attractive reading, without reference to its didactic value.
+
+
+_Sold by all booksellers. Mailed, postpaid, by the Publishers_,
+
+ROBERTS BROTHERS, BOSTON.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This book is not intended to supply the place of an English Grammar.
+It presupposes a knowledge of Grammar and of English idiom in its
+readers, and does not address itself to foreigners, but to those who,
+having already a familiar knowledge of English, need help to write it
+with taste and exactness. Some degree of knowledge is presumed in the
+reader; nevertheless we do not presume that he possesses so much as to
+render him incapable of profiting from _lessons_. Our object is, if
+possible, not merely to interest, but to _teach_; to write lessons,
+not essays,--lessons that may perhaps prove interesting to some who
+have passed beyond the routine of school life, but still lessons, in
+the strictest sense, adapted for school classes.
+
+Aiming at practical utility, the book deals only with those
+difficulties which, in the course of teaching, we have found to be
+most common and most serious. For there are many difficulties, even
+when grammatical accuracy has been attained, in the way of English
+persons attempting to write and speak correctly. First, there is the
+cramping restriction of an insufficient vocabulary; not merely a loose
+and inexact apprehension of many words that are commonly used, and a
+consequent difficulty in using them accurately, but also a total
+ignorance of many other words, and an inability to use them at all;
+and these last are, as a rule, the very words which are absolutely
+necessary for the comprehension and expression of any thought that
+deals with something more than the most ordinary concrete notions.
+There is also a very common inability to appreciate the differences
+between words that are at all similar. Lastly, where the pupil has
+studied Latin, and trusts too much for his knowledge of English words
+to his knowledge of their Latin roots, there is the possibility of
+misderiving and misunderstanding a word, owing to ignorance of the
+changes of letters introduced in the process of derivation; and, on
+the other hand, there is the danger of misunderstanding and
+pedantically misusing words correctly derived, from an ignorance of
+the changes of meaning which a word almost always experiences in
+passing from one language to another. The result of all this
+non-understanding or slovenly half-understanding of words is a habit
+of slovenly reading and slovenly writing, which when once acquired is
+very hard to shake off.
+
+Then, following on the difficulties attending the use of words, there
+are others attending the choice and arrangement of words. There is the
+danger of falling into "poetic prose," of thinking it necessary to
+write "steed" or "charger" instead of "horse," "ire" instead of
+"anger," and the like; and every teacher, who has had much experience
+in looking over examination papers, will admit that this is a danger
+to which beginners are very liable. Again, there is the temptation to
+shrink with a senseless fear from using a plain word twice in the same
+page, and often from using a plain word at all. This unmanly dread of
+simplicity, and of what is called "tautology," gives rise to a
+patchwork made up of scraps of poetic quotations, unmeaning
+periphrases, and would-be humorous circumlocutions,--a style of all
+styles perhaps the most objectionable and offensive, which may be
+known and avoided by the name of _Fine Writing_. Lastly, there is the
+danger of _obscurity_, a fault which cannot be avoided without extreme
+care, owing to the uninflected nature of our language.
+
+All these difficulties and dangers are quite as real, and require as
+much attention, and are fit subjects for practical teaching in our
+schools, quite as much as many points which, at present, receive
+perhaps an excessive attention in some of our text-books. To use the
+right word in the right place is an accomplishment not less valuable
+than the knowledge of the truth (carefully recorded in most English
+Grammars, and often inflicted as a task upon younger pupils) that the
+plural of _cherub_ is _cherubim_, and the feminine of _bull_ is _cow_.
+
+To smooth the reader's way through these difficulties is the object of
+the first three Parts of this book. Difficulties connected with
+Vocabulary are considered first. The student is introduced, almost at
+once, to _Synonyms_. He is taught how to _define_ a word, with and
+without the aid of its synonyms. He is shown how to _eliminate_ from a
+word whatever is not essential to its meaning. The processes of
+_Definition_ and _Elimination_ are carefully explained: a system or
+scheme is laid down which he can exactly follow; and examples are
+subjoined, worked out to illustrate the method which he is to pursue.
+A system is also given by which the reader may enlarge his vocabulary,
+and furnish himself easily and naturally with those general or
+abstract terms which are often misunderstood and misused, and still
+more often not understood and not used at all. Some information is
+also given to help the reader to connect words with their roots, and
+at the same time to caution him against supposing that, because he
+knows the roots of a word, he necessarily knows the meaning of the
+word itself. Exercises are interspersed throughout this Part which can
+be worked out with, or without, an English Etymological
+Dictionary,[44] as the nature of the case may require. The exercises
+have not been selected at random; many of them have been subjected to
+the practical test of experience, and have been used in class
+teaching.
+
+The Second Part deals with Diction. It attempts to illustrate with
+some detail the distinction--often ignored by those who are beginning
+to write English, and sometimes by others also--between the Diction of
+Prose, and that of Poetry. It endeavors to dissipate that excessive
+and vulgar dread of tautology which, together with a fondness for
+misplaced pleasantry, gives rise to the vicious style described above.
+It gives some practical rules for writing a long sentence clearly and
+impressively; and it also examines the difference between slang,
+conversation, and written prose. Both for translating from foreign
+languages into English, and for writing original English composition,
+these rules have been used in teaching, and, we venture to think, with
+encouraging results.
+
+A Chapter on Simile and Metaphor concludes the subject of Diction. We
+have found, in the course of teaching, that a great deal of confusion
+in speaking and writing, and still more in reading and attempting to
+understand the works of our classical English authors, arises from the
+inability to express the literal meaning conveyed in a Metaphor. The
+application of the principle of Proportion to the explanation of
+Metaphor has been found to dissipate much of this confusion. The
+youngest pupils readily learn how to "expand a Metaphor into its
+Simile;" and it is really astonishing to see how many difficulties
+that perplex young heads, and sometimes old ones too, vanish at once
+when the key of "expansion" is applied. More important still, perhaps,
+is the exactness of thought introduced by this method. The pupil knows
+that, if he cannot expand a metaphor, he does not understand it. All
+teachers will admit that to force a pupil to see that he does not
+understand any thing is a great stride of progress. It is difficult
+to exaggerate the value of a process which makes it impossible for a
+pupil to delude himself into the belief that he understands when he
+does not understand.
+
+Metre is the subject of the Third Part. The object of this Part (as
+also, in a great measure, of the Chapter just mentioned belonging to
+the Second Part) is to enable the pupil to read English Poetry with
+intelligence, interest, and appreciation. To teach any one how to read
+a verse so as to mark the metre on the one hand, without on the other
+hand converting the metrical line into a monotonous doggerel, is not
+so easy a task as might be supposed. Many of the rules stated in this
+Part have been found of practical utility in teaching pupils to hit
+the mean. Rules and illustrations have therefore been given, and the
+different kinds of metre and varieties of the same metre have been
+explained at considerable length.
+
+This Chapter may seem to some to enter rather too much into detail. We
+desire, however, to urge as an explanation, that in all probability
+the study of English metre will rapidly assume more importance in
+English schools. At present, very little is generally taught, and
+perhaps known, about this subject. In a recent elaborate edition of
+the works of Pope, the skill of that consummate master of the art of
+epigrammatic versification is impugned because in one of his lines he
+suffers _the_ to receive the metrical accent. When one of the
+commonest customs (for it is in no sense a license) of English
+poets--a custom sanctioned by Shakspeare, Dryden, Milton, Wordsworth,
+Byron, Shelley, and Tennyson--can be censured as a fault, and this in
+a leading edition of a leading poet of our literature, it must be
+evident that much still remains to be done in teaching English Metre.
+At present this Part may seem too detailed. Probably, some few years
+hence, when a knowledge of English Metre has become more widely
+diffused, it will seem not detailed enough.
+
+The Fourth Part (like the Chapter on Metaphor) is concerned not more
+with English than with other languages. It treats of the different
+Styles of Composition, the appropriate subjects for each, and the
+arrangement of the subject-matter. We hope that this may be of some
+interest to the general reader, as well as of practical utility in the
+higher classes of schools. It seems desirable that before pupils begin
+to write essays, imaginary dialogues, speeches, and poems, they should
+receive some instruction as to the difference of arrangement in a
+poem, a speech, a conversation, and an essay.
+
+An Appendix adds a few hints on some Errors in Reasoning. This
+addition may interfere with the symmetry of the book; but if it is
+found of use, the utility will be ample compensation. In reading
+literature, pupils are continually meeting instances of false
+reasoning, which, if passed over without comment, do harm, and, if
+commented upon, require some little basis of knowledge in the pupil to
+enable him to understand the explanation. Without entering into the
+details of formal Logic, we have found it possible to give pupils some
+few hints which have appeared to help them. The hints are so
+elementary, and so few, that they cannot possibly delude the youngest
+reader into imagining that they are any thing more than hints. They
+may induce him hereafter to study the subject thoroughly in a complete
+treatise, when he has leisure and opportunity; but, in any case, a boy
+will leave school all the better prepared for the work of life,
+whatever that work may be, if he knows the meaning of _induction_, and
+has been cautioned against the error, _post hoc, ergo propter hoc_. No
+lesson, so far as our experience in teaching goes, interests and
+stimulates pupils more than this; and our experience of debating
+societies, in the higher forms of schools, forces upon us the
+conviction that such lessons are not more interesting than necessary.
+
+Questions on the different paragraphs have been added at the end of
+the book, for the purpose of enabling the student to test his
+knowledge of the contents, and also to serve as home lessons to be
+prepared by pupils in classes.[45]
+
+A desire, expressed by some teachers of experience, that these lessons
+should be published as soon as possible, has rather accelerated the
+publication. Some misprints and other inaccuracies may possibly be
+found in the following pages, in consequence of the short time Which
+has been allowed us for correcting them. Our thanks are due to several
+friends who have kindly assisted us in this task, and who have also
+aided us with many valuable and practical suggestions. Among these we
+desire to mention Mr. Joseph Payne, whose labors on Norman French are
+well known; Mr. T.G. Philpotts, late Fellow of New College, Oxford,
+and one of the Assistant Masters of Rugby School; Mr. Edwin Abbott,
+Head Master of the Philological School; Mr. Howard Candler,
+Mathematical Master of Uppingham School; and the Rev. R. H. Quick, one
+of the Assistant Masters of Harrow School.
+
+In conclusion, we repeat that we do not wish our book to be regarded
+as an exhaustive treatise, or as adapted for the use of foreigners. It
+is intended primarily for boys, but, in the present unsatisfactory
+state of English education, we entertain a hope that it may possibly
+be found not unfit for some who have passed the age of boyhood; and in
+this hope we have ventured to give it the title of _English Lessons
+for English People_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[44] An Etymological Dictionary is necessary for pupils studying the
+First Part. Chambers's or Ogilvie's will answer the purpose.
+
+[45] Some of the passages quoted to illustrate style are intended to
+be committed to memory and used as repetition-lessons.--See pp. 180,
+181, 212, 237, 238, etc.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ON THE RIGHT USE OF BOOKS.
+
+A LECTURE. By WILLIAM P. ATKINSON, Professor of English and History in
+the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 16mo. Cloth. Price 50
+cents.
+
+     "Full of good sense, sound taste, and quiet humor.... It is the
+     easiest thing in the world to waste time over books, which are
+     merely tools of knowledge like any other tools.... It is the
+     function of a good book not only to fructify, but to inspire, not
+     only to fill the memory with evanescent treasures, but to enrich
+     the imagination with forms of beauty and goodness which leave a
+     lasting impression on the character."--_N. Y. Tribune._
+
+     "Contains so many wise suggestions concerning methods in study
+     and so excellent a summary of the nature and principles of a
+     really liberal education that it well deserves publication for
+     the benefit of the reading public. Though it makes only a slight
+     volume, its quality in thought and style is so admirable that all
+     who are interested in the subject of good education will give to
+     it a prominent and honorable position among the many books upon
+     education which have recently been published. For it takes only a
+     brief reading to perceive that in this single lecture the results
+     of wide experience in teaching and of long study of the true
+     principles of education are generalized and presented in a few
+     pages, each one of which contains so much that it might be easily
+     expanded into an excellent chapter."--_The Library Table._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+READING AS A FINE ART.
+
+By ERNEST LEGOUVÉ, of the Académie Franēaise. Translated from the
+Ninth Edition by ABBY LANGDON ALGER. 16mo. Cloth. 50 cents.
+
+(_Dedication._)
+
+     TO THE SCHOLARS OF THE HIGH AND NORMAL SCHOOL.
+
+     For you this sketch was written: permit me to dedicate it to you,
+     in fact, to intrust it to your care. Pupils to-day, to-morrow you
+     will be teachers; to-morrow, generation after generation of youth
+     will pass through your guardian hands. An idea received by you
+     must of necessity reach thousands of minds. Help me, then, to
+     spread abroad the work in which you have some share, and allow me
+     to add to the great pleasure of having numbered you among my
+     hearers the still greater happiness of calling you my assistants.
+     E. LEGOUVÉ.
+
+     We commend this valuable little book to the attention of teachers
+     and others interested in the instruction of the pupils of our
+     public schools. It treats of the "First Steps in Reading,"
+     "Learning to Read," "Should we read as we talk," "The Use and
+     Management of the Voice," "The Art of Breathing,"
+     "Pronunciation," "Stuttering," "Punctuation," "Readers and
+     Speakers," "Reading as a Means of Criticism," "On Reading
+     Poetry," &c., and makes a strong claim as to the value of reading
+     aloud, as being the most wholesome of gymnastics, for to
+     strengthen the voice is to strengthen the whole system and
+     develop vocal power.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+HOW TO PARSE.
+
+AN ATTEMPT TO APPLY THE PRINCIPLES OF SCHOLARSHIP TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
+With Appendixes in Analysis, Spelling, and Punctuation. By EDWIN A.
+ABBOTT, M.A., Head Master of the City of London School. 16mo. Cloth.
+Price $1.00.
+
+     "We recommend this little book to the careful attention of
+     teachers and others interested in instruction. In the hands of an
+     able teacher, the book should help to relieve parsing from the
+     reproach of being the bane of the school-room. The Etymological
+     Glossary of Grammatical Terms will also supply a long-felt want."
+     _N.Y. Nation._
+
+     "'How to Parse' is likely to prove to teachers a valuable, and to
+     scholars an agreeable, substitute for most of the grammars in
+     common use."--_Boston Daily Advertiser._
+
+     "The Rev. E.A. Abbott, whose books, 'English Lessons for English
+     People,' and 'How to Write Clearly,' have been accepted as
+     standard text-books on both sides of the ocean, has added another
+     work to his list of sensible treatises on the use of English. It
+     is called 'How to Parse,' and is best described by the further
+     title, 'An Attempt to apply the Principles of Scholarship to
+     English Grammar, with Appendices on Analysis, Spelling, and
+     Punctuation.' The little book is so sensible and so simple that
+     the greater number of its readers will perhaps forget to observe
+     that it is profoundly philosophical also, but it is so in the
+     best sense of the term."--_N. Y. Evening Post._
+
+     "Of all subjects of study, it may be safely admitted that grammar
+     possesses as a rule the fewest attractions for the youthful mind.
+     To prepare a work capable of imparting a thorough knowledge of
+     this important part of education in an attractive and
+     entertaining form, to many may appear extremely difficult, if not
+     impossible; nevertheless, the task has been accomplished in a
+     highly successful manner by Edwin A. Abbott, Head Master of the
+     City of London School, in a neat little volume entitled 'How to
+     Parse.' The author has succeeded admirably in combining with the
+     exercises a vast amount of useful information, which impacts to
+     the principles and rules of the main subject a degree of interest
+     that renders the study as attractive as history or fiction. The
+     value of the book is greatly increased by an excellent glossary
+     of grammatical forms and a nicely arranged index. The work
+     deserves the attention and consideration of teachers and pupils,
+     and will doubtless prove a highly popular addition to the list of
+     school-books."--_N.Y. Graphic._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Messrs. Roberts Brothers' Publications._
+
+
+GOETHE'S
+
+HERMANN AND DOROTHEA.
+
+TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN
+
+BY ELLEN FROTHINGHAM.
+
+WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+  _Thin 8vo, cloth, gilt, bevelled boards. Price $2.00._
+  _A cheaper edition, 16mo, cloth. Price $1.00._
+
+     "Miss Frothingham's translation is something to be glad of: it
+     lends itself kindly to perusal, and it presents Goethe's charming
+     poem in the metre of the original.... It is not a poem which
+     could be profitably used in an argument for the enlargement of
+     the sphere of woman: it teaches her subjection, indeed, from the
+     lips of a beautiful girl, which are always so fatally convincing;
+     but it has its charm, nevertheless, and will serve at least for
+     an agreeable picture of an age when the ideal woman was a
+     creature around which grew the beauty and comfort and security of
+     home."--_Atlantic Monthly._
+
+     "The poem itself is bewitching. Of the same metre as Longfellow's
+     'Evangeline,' its sweet and measured cadences carry the reader
+     onward with a real pleasure as he becomes more and more absorbed
+     in this descriptive wooing song. It is a sweet volume to read
+     aloud in a select circle of intelligent friends."--_Providence
+     Press._
+
+     "Miss Frothingham has done a good service, and done it well, in
+     translating this famous idyl, which has been justly called 'one
+     of the most faultless poems of modern times.' Nothing can surpass
+     the simplicity, tenderness, and grace of the original, and these
+     have been well preserved in Miss Frothingham's version. Her
+     success is worthy of the highest praise, and the mere English
+     reader can scarcely fail to read the poem with the same delight
+     with which it has always been read by those familiar with the
+     German. Its charming pictures of domestic life, the strength and
+     delicacy of its characterization, the purity of tone and ardent
+     love of country which breathe through it, must always make it one
+     of the most admired of Goethe's works."--_Boston Christian
+     Register._
+
+
+_Sold everywhere. Mailed, postpaid, by the Publishers_,
+
+                      ROBERTS BROTHERS, BOSTON
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                        DR. ABBOTT'S WORKS.
+
+
+HOW TO PARSE. An Attempt to Apply the Principles of Scholarship to
+English Grammar. With Appendixes on Analysis, Spelling, and
+Punctuation. 16mo. Cloth. Price, $1.00.
+
+HOW TO TELL THE PARTS OF SPEECH. An Introduction to English Grammar.
+American edition, revised and enlarged by Prof. JOHN G. R. McELROY, of
+the University of Pennsylvania. 16mo. Cloth. Price, 75 cents.
+
+HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY. Rules and Exercises in English Composition.
+16mo. Cloth. Price, 60 cents.
+
+ENGLISH LESSONS FOR ENGLISH PEOPLE. Jointly by Dr. ABBOTT and Prof.
+J. R. SEELEY, M.A., of Cambridge University, Eng. 16mo. Cloth. Price,
+$1.50.
+
+                 ROBERTS BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
+
+                                        _Boston_.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+[Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as
+possible, including obsolete and variant spellings and other
+inconsistencies.
+
+The transcriber made the following changes to the text to correct
+obvious errors:
+
+1. p. 90, "inpugned" --> "impugned"
+2. p. 51, to qualify "enemy. --> to qualify "enemy."
+
+Text set in bold print is indicated by asterisks, i.e., *Bold*.
+
+It is common to have footnotes referenced multiple times in the text.
+
+Advertisements for Dr. Abbott's other works published by Roberts
+Brothers have been moved from the front of the book to the end.
+
+End of Transcriber's Notes]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Write Clearly, by Edwin A. Abbott
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY ***
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@@ -0,0 +1,4950 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Write Clearly, by Edwin A. Abbott
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: How to Write Clearly
+       Rules and Exercises on English Composition
+
+Author: Edwin A. Abbott
+
+Release Date: September 14, 2007 [EBook #22600]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Richard J. Shiffer
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note: Every effort has been made to replicate this text
+as faithfully as possible, including obsolete and variant spellings
+and other inconsistencies. Text that has been changed to correct an
+obvious error is noted at the end of this ebook.
+
+Text set in bold print is indicated by asterisks, i.e., *Bold*.]
+
+
+
+
+  HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY.
+
+
+  _RULES AND EXERCISES_
+
+  ON
+
+  ENGLISH COMPOSITION.
+
+
+  BY THE
+
+  REV. EDWIN A. ABBOTT, M.A.,
+
+  HEAD MASTER OF THE CITY OF LONDON SCHOOL.
+
+
+  [Illustration: QUI LEGIT REGIT]
+
+
+  THE AUTHOR'S COPYRIGHT EDITION.
+
+
+  BOSTON:
+  ROBERTS BROTHERS.
+  1883.
+
+  UNIVERSITY PRESS: JOHN WILSON & SON.
+  CAMBRIDGE.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+Almost every English boy can be taught to write clearly, so far at
+least as clearness depends upon the arrangement of words. Force,
+elegance, and variety of style are more difficult to teach, and far
+more difficult to learn; but clear writing can be reduced to rules. To
+teach the art of writing clearly is the main object of these Rules and
+Exercises.
+
+Ambiguity may arise, not only from bad arrangement, but also from
+other causes--from the misuse of single words, and from confused
+thought. These causes are not removable by definite rules, and
+therefore, though not neglected, are not prominently considered in
+this book. My object rather is to point out some few continually
+recurring causes of ambiguity, and to suggest definite remedies in
+each case. Speeches in Parliament, newspaper narratives and articles,
+and, above all, resolutions at public meetings, furnish abundant
+instances of obscurity arising from the monotonous neglect of some
+dozen simple rules.
+
+The art of writing forcibly is, of course, a valuable
+acquisition--almost as valuable as the art of writing clearly. But
+forcible expression is not, like clear expression, a mere question of
+mechanism and of the manipulation of words; it is a much higher power,
+and implies much more.
+
+Writing clearly does not imply thinking clearly. A man may think and
+reason as obscurely as Dogberry himself, but he may (though it is not
+probable that he will) be able to write clearly for all that. Writing
+clearly--so far as arrangement of words is concerned--is a mere matter
+of adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and auxiliary verbs, placed
+and repeated according to definite rules.[1] Even obscure or illogical
+thought can be clearly expressed; indeed, the transparent medium of
+clear writing is not least beneficial when it reveals the illogical
+nature of the meaning beneath it.
+
+On the other hand, if a man is to write forcibly, he must (to use a
+well-known illustration) describe Jerusalem as "sown with salt," not
+as "captured," and the Jews not as being "subdued" but as "almost
+exterminated" by Titus. But what does this imply? It implies
+knowledge, and very often a great deal of knowledge, and it implies
+also a vivid imagination. The writer must have eyes to see the vivid
+side of everything, as well as words to describe what he sees. Hence
+forcible writing, and of course tasteful writing also, is far less a
+matter of rules than is clear writing; and hence, though forcible
+writing is exemplified in the exercises, clear writing occupies most
+of the space devoted to the rules.
+
+Boys who are studying Latin and Greek stand in especial need of help
+to enable them to write a long English sentence clearly. The periods
+of Thucydides and Cicero are not easily rendered into our idiom
+without some knowledge of the links that connect an English sentence.
+
+There is scarcely any better training, rhetorical as well as logical,
+than the task of construing Thucydides into genuine English; but the
+flat, vague, long-winded Greek-English and Latin-English imposture
+that is often tolerated in our examinations and is allowed to pass
+current for genuine English, diminishes instead of increasing the
+power that our pupils should possess over their native language. By
+getting marks at school and college for construing good Greek and
+Latin into bad English, our pupils systematically unlearn what they
+may have been allowed to pick up from Milton and from Shakespeare.
+
+I must acknowledge very large obligations to Professor Bain's treatise
+on "English Composition and Rhetoric," and also to his English
+Grammar. I have not always been able to agree with Professor Bain as
+to matters of taste; but I find it difficult to express my admiration
+for the systematic thoroughness and suggestiveness of his book on
+Composition. In particular, Professor Bain's rule on the use of "that"
+and "which" (see Rule 8) deserves to be better known.[2] The ambiguity
+produced by the confusion between these two forms of the Relative is
+not a mere fiction of pedants; it is practically serious. Take, for
+instance, the following sentence, which appeared lately in one of our
+ablest weekly periodicals: "There are a good many Radical members in
+the House _who_ cannot forgive the Prime Minister for being a
+Christian." Twenty years hence, who is to say whether the meaning is
+"_and they_, i.e. _all the Radical_ members in the House," or "there
+are a good many Radical members of the House _that_ cannot &c."?
+Professor Bain, apparently admitting no exceptions to his useful rule,
+amends many sentences in a manner that seems to me intolerably harsh.
+Therefore, while laying due stress on the utility of the rule, I have
+endeavoured to point out and explain the exceptions.
+
+The rules are stated as briefly as possible, and are intended not so
+much for use by themselves as for reference while the pupil is working
+at the exercises. Consequently, there is no attempt to prove the rules
+by accumulations of examples. The few examples that are given, are
+given not to prove, but to illustrate the rules. The exercises are
+intended to be written out and revised, as exercises usually are; but
+they may also be used for _viva voce_ instruction. The books being
+shut, the pupils, with their written exercises before them, may be
+questioned as to the reasons for the several alterations they have
+made. Experienced teachers will not require any explanation of the
+arrangement or rather non-arrangement of the exercises. They have been
+purposely mixed together unclassified to prevent the pupil from
+relying upon anything but his own common sense and industry, to show
+him what is the fault in each case, and how it is to be amended.
+Besides references to the rules, notes are attached to each sentence,
+so that the exercises ought not to present any difficulty to a
+painstaking boy of twelve or thirteen, provided he has first been
+fairly trained in English grammar.
+
+The "Continuous Extracts" present rather more difficulty, and are
+intended for boys somewhat older than those for whom the Exercises are
+intended. The attempt to modernize, and clarify, so to speak, the
+style of Burnet, Clarendon, and Bishop Butler,[3] may appear
+ambitious, and perhaps requires some explanation. My object has, of
+course, not been to _improve upon_ the style of these authors, but to
+show how their meaning might be expressed more clearly in modern
+English. The charm of the style is necessarily lost, but if the loss
+is recognized both by teacher and pupil, there is nothing, in my
+opinion, to counterbalance the obvious utility of such exercises.
+Professor Bain speaks to the same effect:[4] "For an English exercise,
+the matter should in some way or other be supplied, and the pupil
+disciplined in giving it expression. I know of no better method than
+to prescribe passages containing good matter, but in some respects
+imperfectly worded, to be amended according to the laws and the
+proprieties of style. Our older writers might be extensively, though
+not exclusively, drawn upon for this purpose."
+
+To some of the friends whose help has been already acknowledged in
+"English Lessons for English People," I am indebted for further help
+in revising these pages. I desire to express especial obligations to
+the Rev. J. H. Lupton, late Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge,
+and Second Master of St. Paul's School, for copious and valuable
+suggestions; also to several of my colleagues at the City of London
+School, among whom I must mention in particular the Rev. A. R. Vardy,
+Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Before electrotyping the Fourth and Revised Edition, I wish to say one
+word as to the manner in which this book has been used by my highest
+class, as a collection of Rules for reference in their construing
+lessons. In construing, from Thucydides especially, I have found Rules
+5, 30, 34, 36, 37, and 40_a_, of great use. The rules about Metaphor
+and Climax have also been useful in correcting faults of taste in
+their Latin and Greek compositions. I have hopes that, used in this
+way, this little book may be of service to the highest as well as to
+the middle classes of our schools.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Punctuation is fully discussed in most English Grammars, and is
+therefore referred to in this book only so far as is necessary to
+point out the slovenly fault of trusting too much to punctuation, and
+too little to arrangement.
+
+[2] Before meeting with Professor Bain's rule, I had shown that the
+difference between the Relatives is generally observed by Shakespeare.
+See "Shakespearian Grammar," paragraph 259.
+
+[3] Sir Archibald Alison stands on a very different footing. The
+extracts from this author are intended to exhibit the dangers of
+verbosity and exaggeration.
+
+[4] "English Composition and Rhetoric," p. vii.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+                                                  PAGE
+
+  INDEX OF RULES                                 11-13
+
+  RULES                                          14-40
+
+  SHORT EXERCISES                                41-63
+
+  CONTINUOUS EXERCISES--CLARENDON                64-70
+
+       "        "       BURNET                   70-73
+
+       "        "       BUTLER                   74-75
+
+       "        "       SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON     76-78
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF RULES.
+
+
+I. CLEARNESS AND FORCE.
+
+
+WORDS.
+
+1. Use words in their proper sense.
+
+2. Avoid exaggerations.
+
+3. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing."
+
+4. Be careful in the use of "not ... and," "any," "but," "only," "not
+... or," "that."
+
+4 _a_. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, _e.g._ "certain."
+
+5. Be careful in the use of "he," "it," "they," "these," &c.
+
+6. Report a speech in the First Person, where necessary to avoid
+ambiguity.
+
+6 _a_. Use the Third Person where the exact words of the speaker are
+not intended to be given.
+
+6 _b_. Omission of "that" in a speech in the Third Person.
+
+7. When you use a Participle implying "when," "while," "though," or
+"that," show clearly by the context what is implied.
+
+8. When using the Relative Pronoun, use "who" or "which," if the
+meaning is "and he" or "and it," "for he" or "for it." In other cases
+use "that," if euphony allows. Exceptions.
+
+9. Do not use "and which" for "which."
+
+10. Equivalents for the Relative: (_a_) Participle or Adjective; (_b_)
+Infinitive; (_c_) "Whereby," "whereto," &c.; (_d_) "If a man;" (_e_)
+"And he," "and this," &c.; (_f_) "what;" (_g_) omission of Relative.
+
+10 _a'_. Repeat the Antecedent before the Relative, where the
+non-repetition causes any ambiguity. See 38.
+
+11. Use particular for general terms. Avoid abstract Nouns.
+
+11 _a_. Avoid Verbal Nouns where Verbs can be used.
+
+12. Use particular persons instead of a class.
+
+13. Use metaphor instead of literal statement.
+
+14. Do not confuse metaphor.
+
+14 _a_. Do not mix metaphor with literal statement.
+
+14 _b_. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject.
+
+
+ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE.
+
+15. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions; _i.e._, for the
+most part, at the beginning or the end of the sentence.
+
+15 _a_. Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the end.
+Exceptions.
+
+15 _b_. An interrogation sometimes gives emphasis.
+
+16. The Subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be transferred
+from the beginning of the sentence.
+
+17. The Object is sometimes placed before the Verb for emphasis.
+
+18. Where several words are emphatic, make it clear which is the most
+emphatic. Emphasis can sometimes be given by adding an epithet, or an
+intensifying word.
+
+19. Words should be as near as possible to the words with which they
+are grammatically connected.
+
+20. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended to
+qualify.
+
+21. "Only"; the strict rule is that "only" should be placed before the
+word it affects.
+
+22. When "not only" precedes "but also," see that each is followed by
+the same part of speech.
+
+23. "At least," "always," and other adverbial adjuncts, sometimes
+produce ambiguity.
+
+24. Nouns should be placed near the Nouns that they define.
+
+25. Pronouns should follow the Nouns to which they refer, without the
+intervention of any other Noun.
+
+26. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as close
+together as possible. Avoid parentheses. But see 55.
+
+27. In conditional sentences, the antecedent or "if-clauses" must be
+kept distinct from the consequent clauses.
+
+28. Dependent clauses preceded by "that" should be kept distinct from
+those that are independent.
+
+29. Where there are several infinitives, those that are dependent on
+the same word must be kept distinct from those that are not.
+
+30. The principle of Suspense.
+
+30 _a_. It is a violation of the principle of suspense to introduce
+unexpectedly at the end of a long sentence, some short and unemphatic
+clause beginning with (_a_) "not," (_b_) "which."
+
+31. Suspense must not be excessive.
+
+32. In a sentence with "if," "when," "though," &c., put the
+"if-clause," antecedent, or protasis, first.
+
+33. Suspense is gained by placing a Participle or Adjective, that
+qualifies the Subject, before the Subject.
+
+34. Suspensive Conjunctions, _e.g._ "either," "not only," "on the one
+hand," &c., add clearness.
+
+35. Repeat the Subject, where its omission would cause obscurity or
+ambiguity.
+
+36. Repeat a Preposition after an intervening Conjunction, especially
+if a Verb and an Object also intervene.
+
+37. Repeat Conjunctions, Auxiliary Verbs, and Pronominal Adjectives.
+
+37 _a_. Repeat Verbs after the Conjunctions "than," "as," &c.
+
+38. Repeat the Subject, or some other emphatic word, or a summary of
+what has been said, if the sentence is so long that it is difficult to
+keep the thread of meaning unbroken.
+
+39. Clearness is increased, when the beginning of the sentence
+prepares the way for the middle, and the middle for the end, the whole
+forming a kind of ascent. This ascent is called "climax."
+
+40. When the thought is expected to ascend, but descends, feebleness,
+and sometimes confusion, is the result. The descent is called
+"bathos."
+
+40 _a_. A new construction should not be introduced unexpectedly.
+
+41. Antithesis adds force and often clearness.
+
+42. Epigram.
+
+43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject of
+thought. Avoid heterogeneous sentences.
+
+44. The connection between different sentences must be kept up by
+Adverbs used as Conjunctions, or by means of some other connecting
+words at the beginning of the sentence.
+
+45. The connection between two long sentences or paragraphs sometimes
+requires a short intervening sentence showing the transition of
+thought.
+
+
+II. BREVITY.
+
+46. Metaphor is briefer than literal statement.
+
+47. General terms are briefer, though less forcible, than particular
+terms.
+
+47 _a_. A phrase may sometimes be expressed by a word.
+
+48. Participles may often be used as brief (though sometimes
+ambiguous) equivalents of phrases containing Conjunctions and Verbs.
+
+49. Participles, Adjectives, Participial Adjectives, and Nouns may be
+used as equivalents for phrases containing the Relative.
+
+50. A statement may sometimes be briefly implied instead of being
+expressed at length.
+
+51. Conjunctions may be omitted. Adverbs, _e.g._ "very," "so."
+Exaggerated epithets, _e.g._ "incalculable," "unprecedented."
+
+51 _a_. The imperative may be used for "if &c."
+
+52. Apposition may be used, so as to convert two sentences into one.
+
+53. Condensation may be effected by not repeating (1) the common
+Subject of several Verbs; (2) the common Object of several Verbs or
+Prepositions.
+
+54. Tautology. Repeating what may be implied.
+
+55. Parenthesis maybe used with advantage to brevity. See 26.
+
+56. Brevity often clashes with clearness. Let clearness be the first
+consideration.
+
+
+
+
+CLEARNESS AND FORCE.
+
+
+_Numbers in brackets refer to the Rules._
+
+
+WORDS.
+
+*1. Use words in their proper sense.*
+
+Write, not "His _apparent_ guilt justified his friends in disowning
+him," but "his _evident_ guilt." "Conscious" and "aware," "unnatural"
+and "supernatural," "transpire" and "occur," "circumstance" and
+"event," "reverse" and "converse," "eliminate" and "elicit," are often
+confused together.
+
+This rule forbids the use of the same word in different senses. "It is
+in my _power_ to refuse your request, and since I have _power_ to do
+this, I may lawfully do it." Here the second "power" is used for
+"authority."
+
+This rule also forbids the slovenly use of "nice," "awfully,"
+"delicious," "glorious," &c. See (2).
+
+
+*2. Avoid exaggerations.*
+
+"The _boundless_ plains in the heart of the empire furnished
+_inexhaustible_ supplies of corn, that would have almost sufficed for
+twice the population."
+
+Here "inexhaustible" is inconsistent with what follows. The words
+"unprecedented," "incalculable," "very," and "stupendous" are often
+used in the same loose way.
+
+
+*3. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing."*
+
+"Her Majesty here _partook of lunch_." Write "_lunched_."
+
+"Partook of" implies sharing, and is incorrect as well as lengthy.
+
+So, do not use "apex" for "top," "species" for "kind," "individual"
+for "man," "assist" for "help," &c.
+
+
+*4. Be careful how you use the following words: "not ... and," "any,"
+"only," "not ... or," "that."*[5]
+
+*And.* See below, "Or."
+
+*Any.*--"I am not bound to receive _any_ messenger that you send."
+Does this mean _every_, or _a single_? Use "every" or "a single."
+
+*Not.*--(1) "I do _not_ intend to help you, because you are my enemy
+&c." ought to mean (2), "I intend not to help you, and my reason for
+not helping you is, because you are my enemy." But it is often wrongly
+used to mean (3), "I intend to help you, not because you are my enemy
+(but because you are poor, blind, &c.)." In the latter case, _not_
+ought to be separated from _intend_. By distinctly marking the limits
+to which the influence of _not_ extends, the ambiguity may be removed.
+
+*Only* is often used ambiguously for _alone_. "The rest help me to
+revenge myself; you _only_ advise me to wait." This ought to mean,
+"you only _advise_, instead of _helping_;" but in similar sentences
+"you only" is often used for "you alone." But see 21.
+
+*Or.*--When "or" is preceded by a negative, as "I do not want butter
+_or_ honey," "or" ought not, strictly speaking, to be used like "and,"
+nor like "nor." The strict use of "not ... or" would be as follows:--
+
+"You say you don't want both butter _and_ honey--you want butter _or_
+honey; I, on the contrary, _do not want butter or honey_--I want them
+both."
+
+Practically, however, this meaning is so rare, that "I don't want
+butter _or_ honey" is regularly used for "I want neither butter nor
+honey." But where there is the slightest danger of ambiguity, it is
+desirable to use _nor_.
+
+The same ambiguity attends "not ... and." "I do not see Thomas _and_
+John" is commonly used for "I see neither Thomas nor John;" but it
+might mean, "I do not see them both--I see only one of them."
+
+*That.*--The different uses of "that" produce much ambiguity, _e.g._
+"I am so much surprised by this statement _that_ I am desirous of
+resigning, _that_ I scarcely know what reply to make." Here it is
+impossible to tell, till one has read past "resigning," whether the
+first "that" depends upon "so" or "statement." Write: "The statement
+that I am desirous of resigning surprises me so much that I scarcely
+know &c."
+
+*4 a. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, e.g. "certain."*
+
+"Certain" is often used for "some," as in "Independently of his
+earnings, he has a _certain_ property," where the meaning might be
+"unfailing."
+
+Under this head may be mentioned the double use of words, such as
+"left" in the same form and sound, but different in meaning. Even
+where there is no obscurity, the juxtaposition of the same word twice
+used in two senses is inelegant, _e.g._ (Bain), "He turned to the
+_left_ and _left_ the room."
+
+I have known the following slovenly sentence misunderstood: "Our
+object is that, with the aid of practice, we may sometime arrive at
+the point where we think eloquence in its most praiseworthy form _to
+lie_." "To lie" has been supposed to mean "to deceive."
+
+
+*5. Be careful how you use "he," "it," "they," "these," &c.* (For
+"which" see 8.) The ambiguity arising from the use of _he_ applying to
+different persons is well known.
+
+"He told his friend that if _he_ did not feel better in half an hour
+he thought _he_ had better return." See (6) for remedy.
+
+Much ambiguity is also caused by excessive use of such phrases as _in
+this way_, _of this sort_, &c.
+
+"God, foreseeing the disorders of human nature, has given us certain
+passions and affections which arise from, or whose objects are, these
+disorders. _Of this sort_ are fear, resentment, compassion."
+
+Repeat the noun: "Among these passions and affections are fear &c."
+
+Two distinct uses of _it_ may be noted. _It_, when referring to
+something that precedes, may be called "retrospective;" but when to
+something that follows, "prospective." In "Avoid indiscriminate
+charity: _it_ is a crime," "it" is retrospective.[6] In "_It_ is a
+crime to give indiscriminately," "it" is prospective.
+
+The prospective "it," if productive of ambiguity, can often be omitted
+by using the infinitive as a subject: "To give indiscriminately is a
+crime."
+
+
+*6. Report a speech in the First, not the Third Person, where
+necessary to avoid ambiguity.* Speeches in the third person afford a
+particular, though very common case, of the general ambiguity
+mentioned in (5). Instead of "He told his friend that if _he_ did not
+feel better &c.," write "He said to his friend, 'If, _I_ (or _you_)
+don't feel better &c.'"
+
+*6 a. Sometimes, where the writer cannot know the exact words, or
+where the exact words are unimportant, or lengthy and uninteresting,
+the Third Person is preferable.* Thus, where Essex is asking Sir
+Robert Cecil that Francis Bacon may be appointed Attorney-General, the
+dialogue is (as it almost always is in Lord Macaulay's writings) in
+the First Person, _except where it becomes tedious and uninteresting
+so as to require condensation_, and then it drops into the Third
+Person:
+
+"Sir Robert _had nothing to say but_ that he thought his own abilities
+equal to the place which he hoped to obtain, and that his father's
+long services deserved such a mark of gratitude from the Queen."
+
+*6 b. Omission of "that" in a speech reported in the Third
+Person.*--Even when a speech is reported in the third person, "that"
+need not always be inserted before the dependent verb. Thus, instead
+of "He said that he took it ill that his promises were not believed,"
+we may write, "'He took it ill,' he said, 'that &c.'" This gives a
+little more life, and sometimes more clearness also.
+
+
+*7. When you use a Participle, as "walking," implying "when," "while,"
+"though," "that," make it clear by the context what is implied.*
+
+"Republics, in the first instance, are never desired for their own
+sakes. I do not think they will finally be desired at all,
+_unaccompanied_ by courtly graces and good breeding."
+
+Here there is a little doubt whether the meaning is "_since_ they are,
+or, _if_ they are, unaccompanied."
+
+*That or when.*--"Men _walking_ (_that_ walk, or _when_ they walk) on
+ice sometimes fall."
+
+It is better to use "men walking" to mean "men _when_ they walk." If
+the relative is meant, use "men that walk," instead of the participle.
+
+  (1) "_While_   he was } _Walking_ on { (1) the road, } he fell."
+  (2) "_Because_ he was }              { (2) the ice,  }
+
+When the participle precedes the subject, it generally implies a
+cause: "_Seeing_ this, he retired." Otherwise it generally has its
+proper participial meaning, _e.g._ "He retired, _keeping_ his face
+towards us." If there is any ambiguity, write "_on_ seeing,"--"_at the
+same time_, or _while_, keeping."
+
+ (1) "_Though_ he was}                       {(1) he nevertheless stood
+                     }                       {    his ground."
+ (2) "_Since_ he was } _Struck_ with terror, {(2) he rapidly retreated."
+ (3) "_If_ he is     }                       {(3) he will soon retreat."
+
+
+*8. When using the Relative Pronoun, use "who" and "which" where the
+meaning is "and he, it, &c.," "for he, it, &c." In other cases use
+"that," if euphony allows.*
+
+"I heard this from the inspector, _who_ (and he) heard it from the
+guard _that_ travelled with the train."
+
+"Fetch me (all) the books _that_ lie on the table, and also the
+pamphlets, _which_ (and these) you will find on the floor."
+
+An adherence to this rule would remove much ambiguity. Thus: "There
+was a public-house next door, _which_ was a great nuisance," means
+"_and this_ (_i.e._ the fact of its being next door) was a great
+nuisance;" whereas _that_ would have meant "Next door was a
+public-house _that_ (_i.e._ the public-house) was a great nuisance."
+*"Who," "which," &c. introduce a new fact about the antecedent,
+whereas "that" introduces something without which the antecedent is
+incomplete or undefined.* Thus, in the first example above,
+"inspector" is complete in itself, and "who" introduces a new _fact_
+about him; "guard" is incomplete, and requires "_that_ travelled with
+the train" to complete the meaning.
+
+It is not, and cannot be, maintained that this rule, though observed
+in Elizabethan English, is observed by our best modern authors.
+(Probably a general impression that "that" cannot be used to refer to
+persons has assisted "who" in supplanting "that" as a relative.) But
+the convenience of the rule is so great that beginners in composition
+may with advantage adhere to the rule. The following are some of the
+cases where _who_ and _which_ are mostly used, contrary to the rule,
+instead of _that_.
+
+*Exceptions:*--
+
+(_a_) When the antecedent is defined, _e.g._ by a possessive case,
+modern English uses _who_ instead of _that_. It is rare, though it
+would be useful,[7] to say "His English friends _that_ had not seen
+him" for "the English friends, or those of his English friends, that
+had not seen him."
+
+(_b_) _That_ sounds ill when separated from its verb and from its
+antecedents, and emphasized by isolation: "There are many persons
+_that_, though unscrupulous, are commonly good-tempered, and _that_,
+if not strongly incited by self-interest, are ready for the most part
+to think of the interest of their neighbours." Shakespeare frequently
+uses _who_ after _that_ when the relative is repeated. See
+"Shakespearian Grammar," par. 260.
+
+(_c_) If the antecedent is qualified by _that_, the relative must not
+be _that_. Besides other considerations, the repetition is
+disagreeable. Addison ridicules such language as "_That_ remark _that_
+I made yesterday is not _that_ _that_ I said _that_ I regretted _that_
+I had made."
+
+(_d_) _That_ cannot be preceded by a preposition, and hence throws the
+preposition to the end. "This is the rule _that_ I adhere _to_." This
+is perfectly good English, though sometimes unnecessarily avoided.
+But, with some prepositions, the construction is harsh and
+objectionable, _e.g._ "This is the mark _that_ I jumped _beyond_,"
+"Such were the prejudices _that_ he rose _above_." The reason is that
+some of these disyllabic prepositions are used as adverbs, and, when
+separated from their nouns, give one the impression that they are used
+as adverbs.
+
+(_e_) After pronominal adjectives used for personal pronouns, modern
+English prefers _who_. "There are many, others, several, those, _who_
+can testify &c."
+
+(_f_) After _that_ used as a conjunction there is sometimes a dislike
+to use _that_ as a relative. See (_c_).
+
+
+*9. Do not use redundant "and" before "which."[8]*
+
+"I gave him a very interesting book for a present, _and which_ cost me
+five shillings."
+
+In short sentences the absurdity is evident, but in long sentences it
+is less evident, and very common.
+
+"A petition was presented for rescinding that portion of the bye-laws
+which permits application of public money to support sectarian
+schools over which ratepayers have no control, this being a violation
+of the principle of civil and religious liberty, _and which_ the
+memorialists believe would provoke a determined and conscientious
+resistance."
+
+Here _which_ ought grammatically to refer to "portion" or "schools."
+But it seems intended to refer to "violation." Omit "and," or repeat
+"a violation" before "which," or turn the sentence otherwise.
+
+
+*10. Equivalents for Relative.*
+
+*(_a_) Participle.*--"Men _thirsting_ (for 'men _that thirst_') for
+revenge are not indifferent to plunder." The objection to the
+participle is that here, as often, it creates a little ambiguity. The
+above sentence may mean, "men, _when_ they thirst," or "_though_ they
+thirst," as well as "men _that_ thirst." Often however there is no
+ambiguity: "I have documents _proving_ this conclusively."
+
+*(_b_) Infinitive.*--Instead of "He was the first _that_ entered" you
+can write "_to_ enter;" for "He is not a man _who_ will act
+dishonestly," "_to_ act." This equivalent cannot often be used.
+
+*(_c_) Whereby, wherein, &c.,* can sometimes be used for "by _which_,"
+"in _which_," so as to avoid a harsh repetition of "_which_." "The
+means _whereby_ this may be effected." But this use is somewhat
+antiquated.
+
+*(_d_) If.*--"The man _that_ does not care for music is to be pitied"
+can be written (though not so forcibly), "_If_ a man does not care for
+music, he is to be pitied." It is in long sentences that this
+equivalent will be found most useful.
+
+*(_e_) And this.*--"He did his best, _which_ was all that could be
+expected," can be written, "_and this_ was all that, &c."
+
+*(_f_) What.*--"Let me repeat _that which_[9] you ought to know, that
+_that which_ is worth doing is worth doing well." "Let me repeat,
+_what_ you ought to know, that _what_ is worth doing is worth doing
+well."
+
+*(_g_) Omission of Relative.*--It is sometimes thought ungrammatical
+to omit the relative, as in "The man (that) you speak of." On the
+contrary, _that_ when an object (not when a subject) may be omitted,
+wherever the antecedent and the subject of the relative sentence are
+brought into juxtaposition by the omission.
+
+*10 a'. Repeat the Antecedent in some new form, where there is any
+ambiguity.* This is particularly useful after a negative: "He said
+that he would not even hear me, _which_ I confess I had expected."
+Here the meaning may be, "I had expected that he would," or "that he
+would not, hear me." Write, "_a refusal_, or, _a favour_, that I
+confess I had expected." See (38).
+
+
+*11. Use particular for general terms.*--This is a most important
+rule. Instead of "I have neither the necessaries of life nor the means
+of procuring them," write (if you can _with truth_), "I have not a
+crust of bread, nor a penny to buy one."
+
+CAUTION.--There is a danger in this use. The meaning is vividly
+expressed but sometimes may be exaggerated or imperfect. _Crust of
+bread_ may be an exaggeration; on the other hand, if the speaker is
+destitute not only of bread, but also of shelter and clothing, then
+_crust of bread_ is an imperfect expression of the meaning.
+
+In philosophy and science, where the language ought very often to be
+inclusive and brief, general and not particular terms must be used.
+
+*11 a. Avoid Verbal Nouns where Verbs can be used instead.* The
+disadvantage of the use of Verbal Nouns is this, that, unless they are
+immediately preceded by prepositions, they are sometimes liable to be
+confounded with participles. The following is an instance of an
+excessive use of Verbal Nouns:
+
+"The pretended confession of the secretary was only collusion to lay
+the jealousies of the king's _favouring_ popery, which still hung upon
+him, notwithstanding his _writing_ on the Revelation, and _affecting_
+to enter on all occasions into controversy, _asserting_ in particular
+that the Pope was Antichrist."
+
+Write "notwithstanding that he wrote and affected &c."
+
+
+*12. Use a particular Person instead of a class.*
+
+"What is the splendour of _the greatest monarch_ compared with the
+beauty of _a flower_?" "What is the splendour of Solomon compared with
+the beauty of a daisy?"
+
+Under this head may come the forcible use of Noun for Adjective: "This
+fortress is _weakness_ itself."
+
+An excess of this use is lengthy and pedantically bombastic, _e.g._,
+the following paraphrase for "in every British colony:"--"under Indian
+palm-groves, amid Australian gum-trees, in the shadow of African
+mimosas, and beneath Canadian pines."
+
+
+*13. Use Metaphor instead of literal statement.*
+
+"The ship _ploughs_ the sea" is clearer than "the ship _cleaves_ the
+sea," and shorter than "the ship _cleaves_ the sea _as a plough
+cleaves the land_."
+
+Of course there are some subjects for which Metaphor should not be
+used. See (14 _a_) and (14 _b_).
+
+
+*14. Do not confuse Metaphor.*
+
+"In a moment the thunderbolt was upon them, _deluging_ their country
+with invaders."
+
+The following is attributed to Sir Boyle Roche: "Mr. Speaker, I smell
+a rat, I see him brewing in the air; but, mark me, I shall yet nip him
+in the bud."
+
+Some words, once metaphorical, have ceased to be so regarded. Hence
+many good writers say "_under_ these _circumstances_" instead of "_in_
+these circumstances."
+
+An excessive regard for disused metaphor savours of pedantry:
+disregard is inelegant. Write, not, "_unparalleled_ complications,"
+but "_unprecedented_ complications;" and "_he threw light on_
+obscurities," instead of "_he unravelled_ obscurities."
+
+*14 a. Do not introduce literal statement immediately after Metaphor.*
+
+"He was the father of Chemistry, and brother to the Earl of Cork."
+
+    "He was a very thunderbolt of war,
+    And was lieutenant to the Earl of Mar."
+
+*14 b. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject.*
+Thus, we may say "a poet _soars_," or even, though rarely, "a nation
+_soars_ to greatness," but you could not say "Consols _soared to_
+94-1/2." Even commonplace subjects may be illustrated by metaphor: for
+it is a metaphor, and quite unobjectionable, to say "Consols
+_mounted_, or _jumped_ to 94-1/2." But commonplace subjects must be
+illustrated by metaphor that is commonplace.
+
+
+ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE.
+
+*15. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions; i.e. for the
+most part, at the beginning or at the end of the sentence.* This rule
+occasionally supersedes the common rules about position. Thus, the
+place for an adverb, as a rule, should be between the subject and
+verb: "He _quickly_ left the room;" but if _quickly_ is to be
+emphatic, it must come at the beginning or end, as in "I told him to
+leave the room slowly, but he left _quickly_."
+
+Adjectives, in clauses beginning with "if" and "though," often come at
+the beginning for emphasis: "_Insolent_ though he was, he was silenced
+at last."
+
+*15 a. Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the end of the
+sentence.* It is a common fault to break this rule by placing a short
+and unemphatic predicate at the end of a long sentence.
+
+"To know some Latin, even if it be nothing but a few Latin roots, _is
+useful_." Write, "It is useful, &c."
+
+So "the evidence proves how kind to his inferiors _he is_."
+
+Often, where an adjective or auxiliary verb comes at the end, the
+addition of an emphatic adverb justifies the position, _e.g._ above,
+"is _very_ useful," "he has _invariably_ been."
+
+A short "chippy" ending, even though emphatic, is to be avoided. It is
+abrupt and unrhythmical, _e.g._ "The soldier, transfixed with the
+spear, _writhed_." We want a _longer_ ending, "fell writhing to the
+ground," or, "writhed in the agonies of death." A "chippy" ending is
+common in bad construing from Virgil.
+
+*Exceptions.*--Prepositions and pronouns attached to emphatic words
+need not be moved from the end; _e.g._ "He does no harm that I hear
+_of_." "Bear witness how I loved _him_."
+
+*N.B. In all styles, especially in letter-writing, a final emphasis
+must not be so frequent as to become obtrusive and monotonous.*
+
+*15 b. An interrogation sometimes gives emphasis.* "No one can doubt
+that the prisoner, had he been really guilty, would have shown some
+signs of remorse," is not so emphatic as "Who can doubt, Is it
+possible to doubt, &c.?"
+
+Contrast "No one ever names Wentworth without thinking of &c." with
+"But Wentworth,--who ever names him without thinking of those harsh
+dark features, ennobled by their expression into more than the majesty
+of an antique Jupiter?"
+
+
+*16. The subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be removed from
+the beginning of the sentence.* The beginning of the sentence is an
+emphatic position, though mostly not so emphatic as the end. Therefore
+the principal subject of a sentence, being emphatic, and being wanted
+early in the sentence to tell us what the sentence is about, comes as
+a rule, at or near the beginning: "_Thomas_ built this house."
+
+Hence, since the beginning is the _usual_ place for the subject, if we
+want to emphasize "Thomas" _unusually_, we must remove "Thomas" from
+the beginning: "This house was built by _Thomas_," or "It was _Thomas_
+that built this house."
+
+Thus, the emphasis on "conqueror" is not quite so strong in "_A mere
+conqueror_ ought not to obtain from us the reverence that is due to
+the great benefactors of mankind," as in "We ought not to bestow the
+reverence that is due to the great benefactors of mankind, _upon a
+mere conqueror_." Considerable, but less emphasis and greater
+smoothness (19) will be obtained by writing the sentence thus: "We
+ought not to bestow upon a mere conqueror &c."
+
+Where the same subject stands first in several consecutive sentences,
+it rises in emphasis, and need not be removed from the beginning, even
+though unusual emphasis be required:
+
+"The captain was the life and soul of the expedition. _He_ first
+pointed out the possibility of advancing; _he_ warned them of the
+approaching scarcity of provisions; _he_ showed how they might
+replenish their exhausted stock &c."
+
+
+*17. The object is sometimes placed before the verb for emphasis.*
+This is most common in antithesis. "_Jesus_ I know, and _Paul_ I know;
+but who are ye?" "_Some_ he imprisoned, _others_ he put to death."
+
+Even where there is no antithesis the inversion is not uncommon:
+
+"Military _courage_, the boast of the sottish German, of the frivolous
+and prating Frenchman, of the romantic and arrogant Spaniard, he
+neither possesses nor values."
+
+This inversion sometimes creates ambiguity in poetry, _e.g._ "The son
+the father slew," and must be sparingly used in prose.
+
+Sometimes the position of a word may be considered appropriate by
+some, and inappropriate by others, according to different
+interpretations of the sentence. Take as an example, "Early in the
+morning the nobles and gentlemen who attended on the king assembled in
+the great hall of the castle; and here they began to talk of what a
+dreadful storm it had been the night before. But Macbeth could
+scarcely understand what they said, for he was thinking of something
+worse." The last sentence has been amended by Professor Bain into
+"_What they said_, Macbeth could scarcely understand." But there
+appears to be an antithesis between the guiltless nobles who can think
+about the weather, and the guilty Macbeth who cannot. Hence, "what
+they said" ought not, and "Macbeth" ought, to be emphasized: and
+therefore "Macbeth" ought to be retained at the beginning of the
+sentence.
+
+The same author alters, "The praise of judgment Virgil has justly
+contested with him, but his invention remains yet unrivalled," into
+"Virgil has justly contested with him the praise of judgment, but no
+one has yet rivalled his invention"--an alteration which does not seem
+to emphasize sufficiently the antithesis between what had been
+'contested,' on the one hand, and what remained as yet 'unrivalled' on
+the other.
+
+More judiciously Professor Bain alters, "He that tells a lie is not
+sensible how great a task he undertakes; for he must be forced to
+invent twenty more to maintain one," into "for, to maintain one, he
+must invent twenty more," putting the emphatic words in their emphatic
+place, at the end.
+
+
+*18. Where several words are emphatic, make it clear which is the most
+emphatic.* Thus, in "The state was made, under the pretence of serving
+it, in reality the prize of their contention to each of these opposite
+parties," it is unpleasantly doubtful whether the writer means (1)
+_state_ or (2) _parties_ to be emphatic.
+
+If (1), "As for the _state_, these two parties, under the pretence of
+serving it, converted it into a prize for their contention." If (2),
+write, "Though served in profession, the state was in reality
+converted into a prize for their contention by these two _parties_."
+In (1) _parties_ is subordinated, in (2) _state_.
+
+Sometimes the addition of some intensifying word serves to emphasize.
+Thus, instead of "To effect this they used all devices," we can write
+"To effect this they used _every conceivable device_." So, if we want
+to emphasize fidelity in "The business will task your skill and
+fidelity," we can write "Not only your skill _but also_ your
+fidelity." This, however, sometimes leads to exaggerations. See (2).
+
+Sometimes antithesis gives emphasis, as in "You _do_ not know this,
+but you _shall_ know it." Where antithesis cannot be used, the
+emphasis must be expressed by turning the sentence, as "I _will make
+you_ know it," or by some addition, as "You shall _hereafter_ know
+it."
+
+
+*19. Words should be as near as possible to the words with which they
+are grammatically connected.* See Paragraphs 20 to 29. For exceptions
+see 30.
+
+
+*20. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended to
+affect.* When unemphatic, adverbs come between the subject and the
+verb, or, if the tense is compound, between the parts of the compound
+tense: "He _quickly_ left the room;" "He has _quickly_ left the room;"
+but, when emphatic, after the verb: "He left, or has left, the room
+_quickly_."[10] When such a sentence as the latter is followed by a
+present participle, there arises ambiguity. "I told him to go slowly,
+but he left the room _quickly_, dropping the purse on the floor." Does
+_quickly_ here modify _left_ or _dropping_? The remedy[11] is, to give
+the adverb its unemphatic place, "He _quickly_ left the room, dropping
+&c.," or else to avoid the participle, thus: "He _quickly_ dropped the
+purse and left the room," or "He dropped the purse and _quickly_ left
+the room."
+
+
+*21. "Only" requires careful use. The strict[12] rule is, that "only"
+should be placed before the word affected by it.*
+
+The following is ambiguous:
+
+"The heavens are not open to the faithful _only_ at intervals."
+
+The best rule is to avoid placing "only" between two emphatic words,
+and to avoid using "only" where "alone" can be used instead.
+
+In strictness perhaps the three following sentences:
+
+(1) He _only_ beat three,
+
+(2) He beat _only_ three,
+
+(3) He beat three _only_, ought to be explained, severally, thus:
+
+(1) He did no more than beat, did not kill, three.
+
+(2) He beat no more than three.
+
+(3) He beat three, and that was all he did. (Here _only_ modifies the
+whole of the sentence and depreciates the action.)
+
+But the best authors sometimes transpose the word. "He _only_ lived"
+ought to mean "he did not die or make any great sacrifice;" but "He
+_only_ lived but till he was a man" (_Macbeth_, v. 8. 40) means "He
+lived _only_ till he was a man." Compare also, "Who _only_ hath
+immortality."
+
+_Only_ at the beginning of a statement = _but_. "I don't like to
+importune you, _only_ I know you'll forgive me." Before an imperative
+it diminishes the favour asked: "_Only_ listen to me." This use of
+_only_ is mostly confined to letters.
+
+Very often, _only_ at the beginning of a sentence is used for _alone_:
+"_Only_ ten came," "_Only_ Caesar approved." _Alone_ is less ambiguous.
+The ambiguity of _only_ is illustrated by such a sentence as, "Don't
+hesitate to bring a few friends of yours to shoot on my estate at any
+time. _Only_ five (fifteen) came yesterday," which might mean, "I
+don't mind a _few_; _only_ don't bring so many as _fifteen_;" or else
+"Don't hesitate to bring a few _more_; no more than _five_ came
+yesterday." In conversation, ambiguity is prevented by emphasis; but
+in a letter, _only_ thus used might cause unfortunate mistakes. Write
+"Yesterday _only_ five came," if you mean "no more than five."
+
+
+*22. When "not only" precedes "but also," see that each is followed by
+the same part of speech.*
+
+"He _not only_ gave me advice _but also_ help" is wrong. Write "He
+gave me, _not only_ advice, _but also_ help." On the other hand, "He
+_not only_ gave me a grammar, _but also_ lent me a dictionary," is
+right. Take an instance. "He spoke _not only_ forcibly _but also_
+tastefully (adverbs), and this too, _not only_ before a small
+audience, _but also_ in (prepositions) a large public meeting, and his
+speeches were _not only_ successful, _but also_ (adjective) worthy of
+success."
+
+
+*23. "At least," "always," and other adverbial adjuncts, sometimes
+produce ambiguity.*
+
+"I think you will find my Latin exercise, _at all events_, as good as
+my cousin's." Does this mean (1) "my Latin exercise, though not
+perhaps my other exercises;" or (2), "Though not very good, yet, at
+all events, as good as my cousin's"? Write for (1), "My Latin
+exercise, at all events, you will find &c." and for (2), "I think you
+will find my Latin exercise as good as my cousin's, at all events."
+
+The remedy is to avoid placing "at all events" between two emphatic
+words.
+
+As an example of the misplacing of an adverbial adjunct, take "From
+abroad he received most favourable reports, but in the City he heard
+that a panic had broken out on the Exchange, and that the funds were
+fast falling." This ought to mean that the "hearing," and not (as is
+intended) that the "breaking out of the panic," took place in the
+City.
+
+In practice, an adverb is often used to qualify a remote word, where
+the latter is _more emphatic than any nearer word_. This is very
+common when the Adverbial Adjunct is placed in an emphatic position at
+the beginning of the sentence: "_On this very spot_ our guide declared
+that Claverhouse had fallen."
+
+
+*24. Nouns should be placed near the nouns that they define.* In the
+very common sentence "The death is announced of Mr. John Smith, an
+author whose works &c.," the transposition is probably made from a
+feeling that, if we write "The death of Mr. John Smith is announced,"
+we shall be obliged to begin a new sentence, "He was an author whose
+works &c." But the difficulty can be removed by writing "We regret to
+announce, or, we are informed of, the death of Mr. John Smith, an
+author, &c."
+
+
+*25. Pronouns should follow the nouns to which they refer without the
+intervention of another noun.* Avoid, "John Smith, the son of Thomas
+Smith, _who_ gave me this book," unless _Thomas Smith_ is the
+antecedent of _who_. Avoid also "John supplied Thomas with money: _he_
+(John) was very well off."
+
+When, however, one of two preceding nouns is decidedly superior to the
+other in emphasis, the more emphatic may be presumed to be the noun
+referred to by the pronoun, even though the noun of inferior emphasis
+intervenes. Thus: "At this moment the colonel came up, and took the
+place of the wounded general. _He_ gave orders to halt." Here _he_
+would naturally refer to _colonel_, though _general_ intervenes. A
+_conjunction_ will often show that a pronoun refers to the subject of
+the preceding sentence, and not to another intervening noun. "The
+sentinel at once took aim at the approaching soldier, and fired. He
+_then_ retreated to give the alarm."
+
+It is better to adhere, in most cases, to Rule 25, which may be called
+(Bain) the Rule of Proximity. The Rule of Emphasis, of which an
+instance was given in the last paragraph, is sometimes misleading. A
+distinction might be drawn by punctuating thus:
+
+"David the father of Solomon, who slew Goliath." "David, the father of
+Solomon who built the Temple." But the propriety of omitting a comma
+in each case is questionable, and it is better to write so as not to
+be at the mercy of commas.
+
+
+*26. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as close
+together as possible.* (But see 55.) The introduction of parentheses
+violating this rule often produced serious ambiguity. Thus, in the
+following: "The result of these observations appears to be in
+opposition to the view now generally received in this country, that
+in muscular effort the substance of the muscle itself undergoes
+disintegration." Here it is difficult to tell whether the theory of
+"disintegration" is (1) "the result," or, as the absence of a comma
+after "be" would indicate, (2) "in opposition to the result of these
+observations." If (1) is intended, add "and to prove" after "country;"
+if (2), insert "which is" after "country."
+
+There is an excessive complication in the following:--"It cannot, at
+all events, if the consideration demanded by a subject of such
+importance from any one professing to be a philosopher, be given, be
+denied that &c."
+
+Where a speaker feels that his hearers have forgotten the connection
+of the beginning of the sentence, he should repeat what he has said;
+_e.g._ after the long parenthesis in the last sentence he should
+recommence, "it cannot, I say, be denied." In writing, however, this
+licence must be sparingly used.
+
+A short parenthesis, or modifying clause, will not interfere with
+clearness, especially if antithesis he used, so as to show the
+connection between the different parts of the sentence, _e.g._ "A
+modern newspaper statement, _though probably true_, would be laughed
+at if quoted in a book as testimony; but the letter of a court gossip
+is thought good historical evidence if written some centuries ago."
+Here, to place "though probably true" at the beginning of the sentence
+would not add clearness, and would impair the emphasis of the contrast
+between "a modern newspaper statement" and "the letter of a court
+gossip."
+
+
+*27. In conditional sentences, the antecedent clauses must be kept
+distinct from the consequent clauses.*--There is ambiguity in "The
+lesson intended to be taught by these manoeuvres will be lost, if the
+plan of operations is laid down too definitely beforehand, and the
+affair degenerates into a mere review." Begin, in any case, with the
+antecedent, "If the plan," &c. Next write, according to the meaning:
+(1) "If the plan is laid down, and the affair degenerates &c., then
+the lesson will be lost;" or (2) " ... then the lesson ... will be
+lost, and the affair degenerates into a mere review."
+
+
+*28. Dependent clauses preceded by "that" should be kept distinct from
+those that are independent.*
+
+Take as an example:
+
+(1) "He replied that he wished to help them, and intended to make
+preparations accordingly."
+
+This ought not to be used (though it sometimes is, for shortness) to
+mean:
+
+(2) "He replied ..., and he intended."
+
+In (1), "intended," having no subject, must be supposed to be
+connected with the nearest preceding verb, in the same mood and tense,
+that has a subject, _i.e._ "wished." It follows that (1) is a
+condensation of:
+
+(3) "He replied that he wished ..., and that he intended."
+
+(2), though theoretically free from ambiguity, is practically
+ambiguous, owing to a loose habit of repeating the subject
+unnecessarily. It would be better to insert a conjunctional word or a
+full stop between the two statements. Thus:
+
+(4) "He replied that he wished to help them, and _indeed_ he
+intended," &c., or "He replied, &c. He intended, &c."
+
+Where there is any danger of ambiguity, use (3) or (4) in preference
+to (1) or (2).
+
+
+*29. When there are several infinitives, those that are dependent on
+the same word must be kept distinct from those that are not.*
+
+"He said that he wished _to_ take his friend with him _to_ visit the
+capital and _to_ study medicine." Here it is doubtful whether the
+meaning is--
+
+"He said that he wished to take his friend with him,
+
+(1) _and also_ to visit the capital and study medicine," or
+
+(2) "that his friend might visit the capital _and might also_ study
+medicine," or
+
+(3) "on a visit to the capital, _and that he also_ wished to study
+medicine."
+
+From the three different versions it will be perceived that this
+ambiguity must be met (_a_) by using "that" for "to," which allows us
+to repeat an auxiliary verb [_e.g._ "might" in (2)], and (_b_) by
+inserting conjunctions. As to insertions of conjunctions, see (37).
+
+"In order to," and "for the purpose of," can be used to distinguish
+(wherever there is any ambiguity) between an infinitive that
+_expresses a purpose_, and an infinitive that does not, _e.g._ "He
+told his servant to call upon his friend, _to_ (in order to) give him
+information about the trains, and not to leave him till he started."
+
+
+*30. The principle of suspense.* Write your sentence in such a way
+that, until he has come to the full stop, the reader may feel the
+sentence to be incomplete. In other words, keep your reader in
+_suspense_. _Suspense_ is caused (1) by placing the "if-clause" first,
+and not last, in a conditional sentence; (2) by placing participles
+before the words they qualify; (3) by using suspensive conjunctions,
+_e.g._ _not only_, _either_, _partly_, _on the one hand_, _in the
+first place_, &c.
+
+The following is an example of an _unsuspended_ sentence. The sense
+_draggles_, and it is difficult to keep up one's attention.
+
+"Mr. Pym was looked upon as the man of greatest experience in
+parliaments, | where he had served very long, | and was always a man
+of business, | being an officer in the Exchequer, | and of a good
+reputation generally, | though known to be inclined to the Puritan
+party; yet not of those furious resolutions (_Mod. Eng._ so furiously
+resolved) against the Church as the other leading men were, | and
+wholly devoted to the Earl of Bedford,--who had nothing of that
+spirit."
+
+The foregoing sentence might have ended at any one of the eight points
+marked above. When suspended it becomes:--
+
+"Mr. Pym, owing to his long service in Parliament in the Exchequer,
+was esteemed above all others for his Parliamentary experience and for
+his knowledge of business. He had also a good reputation generally;
+for, though openly favouring the Puritan party, he was closely devoted
+to the Earl of Bedford, and, like the Earl, had none of the fanatical
+spirit manifested against the Church by the other leading men."
+
+*30 a. It is a violation of the principle of Suspense to introduce
+unexpectedly, at the end of a long sentence, some short and unemphatic
+clause beginning with (a) " ... not" or (b) " ... which."*
+
+(_a_) "This reform has already been highly beneficial to all classes
+of our countrymen, and will, I am persuaded, encourage among us
+industry, self-dependence, and frugality, _and not, as some say,
+wastefulness_."
+
+Write "not, as some say, wastefulness, but industry, self-dependence,
+and frugality."
+
+(_b_) "After a long and tedious journey, the last part of which was a
+little dangerous owing to the state of the roads, we arrived safely at
+York, _which is a fine old town_."
+
+*Exception.*--When the short final clause is intended to be
+unexpectedly unemphatic, it comes in appropriately, with something of
+the sting of an epigram. See (42). Thus:
+
+"The old miser said that he should have been delighted to give the
+poor fellow a shilling, but most unfortunately he had left his purse
+at home--_a habit of his_."
+
+Suspense naturally throws increased emphasis on the words for which we
+are waiting, _i.e._ on the end of the sentence. It has been pointed
+out above that *a monotony of final emphasis is objectionable,
+especially in letter writing and conversation*.
+
+
+*31. Suspense must not be excessive.* _Excess of suspense_ is a common
+fault in boys translating from Latin. "Themistocles, having secured
+the safety of Greece, the Persian fleet being now destroyed, when he
+had unsuccessfully attempted to persuade the Greeks to break down the
+bridge across the Hellespont, hearing that Xerxes was in full flight,
+and thinking that it might be profitable to secure the friendship of
+the king, wrote as follows to him." The more English idiom is: "When
+Themistocles had secured the safety of Greece by the destruction of
+the Persian fleet, he made an unsuccessful attempt to persuade the
+Greeks to break down the bridge across the Hellespont. Soon
+afterwards, hearing &c."
+
+A long suspense that would be intolerable in prose is tolerable in the
+introduction to a poem. See the long interval at the beginning of
+_Paradise Lost_ between "Of man's first disobedience" and "Sing,
+heavenly Muse." Compare also the beginning of _Paradise Lost_, Book
+II.:
+
+    "_High on a throne of royal state, which far
+    Outshone the wealth of Ormuz and of Ind,
+    Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand
+    Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold--
+    Satan exalted sat._"
+
+with the opening of Keats' _Hyperion_:
+
+    "_Deep in the shady sadness of a vale,
+    Far sunken from the healthy breath of morn,
+    Far from the fiery noon and eve's one star--
+    Sat grey-haired Saturn, quiet as a stone._"
+
+
+*32. In a long conditional sentence put the "if-clause," antecedent,
+or protasis, first.*
+
+Everyone will see the flatness of "Revenge thy father's most unnatural
+murder, if thou didst ever love him," as compared with the suspense
+that forces an expression of agony from Hamlet in--
+
+  "_Ghost._ If thou didst ever thy dear father love--
+  _Hamlet._ O, God!
+  _Ghost._ Revenge his foul and most unnatural murder."
+
+The effect is sometimes almost ludicrous when the consequent is long
+and complicated, and when it precedes the antecedent or "if-clause."
+"I should be delighted to introduce you to my friends, and to show you
+the objects of interest in our city, and the beautiful scenery in the
+neighbourhood, if you were here." Where the "if-clause" comes last, it
+ought to be very emphatic: "if you were _only_ here."
+
+The introduction of a clause with "if" or "though" in the middle of a
+sentence may often cause ambiguity, especially when a great part of
+the sentence depends on "that:" "His enemies answered that, for the
+sake of preserving the public peace, they would keep quiet for the
+present, though he declared that cowardice was the motive of the
+delay, and that for this reason they would put off the trial to a more
+convenient season." See (27).
+
+
+*33. Suspense[13] is gained by placing a Participle or Adjective that
+qualifies the Subject, before the Subject.*
+
+"_Deserted_ by his friends, he was forced to have recourse to those
+that had been his enemies." Here, if we write, "He, deserted by his
+friends, was forced &c.," _he_ is unduly emphasized; and if we write,
+"He was forced to have recourse to his enemies, having been deserted
+by his friends," the effect is very flat.
+
+Of course we might sometimes write "He was deserted and forced &c."
+But this cannot be done where the "desertion" is to be not stated but
+implied.
+
+Often, when a participle qualifying the subject is introduced late in
+the sentence, it causes positive ambiguity: "With this small force the
+general determined to attack the foe, _flushed_ with recent victory
+and _rendered_ negligent by success."
+
+An excessive use of the _suspensive participle_ is French and
+objectionable: _e.g._ "_Careless_ by nature, and too much _engaged_
+with business to think of the morrow, _spoiled_ by a long-established
+liberty and a fabulous prosperity, _having_ for many generations
+forgotten the scourge of war, we allow ourselves to drift on without
+taking heed of the signs of the times." The remedy is to convert the
+participle into a verb depending on a conjunction: "Because we are by
+nature careless, &c.;" or to convert the participle into a verb
+co-ordinate with the principal verb, _e.g._ "_We are_ by nature
+careless, &c., and therefore we _allow_ ourselves, &c."
+
+
+*34. Suspensive Conjunctions, e.g. "either," "not only," "on the one
+hand," add clearness.*--Take the following sentence:--"You must take
+this extremely perilous course, in which success is uncertain, and
+failure disgraceful, as well as ruinous, or else the liberty of your
+country is endangered." Here, the meaning is liable to be
+misunderstood, till the reader has gone half through the sentence.
+Write "_Either_ you must," &c., and the reader is, from the first,
+prepared for an alternative. Other suspensive conjunctions or phrases
+are _partly_, _for our part_; _in the first place_; _it is true_;
+_doubtless_; _of course_; _though_; _on the one hand_.
+
+
+*35. Repeat the Subject when the omission would cause ambiguity or
+obscurity.*--The omission is particularly likely to cause obscurity
+after a Relative standing as Subject:--
+
+"He professes to be helping the nation, which in reality is suffering
+from his flattery, and (he? or it?) will not permit anyone else to
+give it advice."
+
+The Relative should be repeated when it is the Subject of several
+Verbs. "All the pleasing illusions _which_ made power gentle and
+obedience liberal, _which_ harmonized the different shades of life,
+and _which_, by a bland assimilation, incorporated into politics the
+sentiments that beautify and soften private society, are to be
+dissolved by this new conquering empire of light and reason."
+
+
+*36. Repeat a Preposition after an intervening Conjunction, especially
+if a Verb and an Object also intervene.*
+
+"He forgets the gratitude that he owes to those that helped all his
+companions when he was poor and uninfluential, and (_to_) John Smith
+in particular." Here, omit _to_, and the meaning may be "that helped
+all his companions, and John Smith in particular." The intervention of
+the verb and object, "helped" and "companions," causes this ambiguity.
+
+
+*37. When there are several Verbs at some distance from a Conjunction
+on which they depend, repeat the Conjunction.*[14]
+
+"When we look back upon the havoc that two hundred years have made in
+the ranks of our national authors--and, above all, (_when_) we refer
+their rapid disappearance to the quick succession of new
+competitors--we cannot help being dismayed at the prospect that lies
+before the writers of the present day."
+
+Here omit "when," and we at once substitute a parenthetical statement
+for what is really a subordinate clause.
+
+In reporting a speech or opinion, "that" must be continually repeated,
+to avoid the danger of confusing what the writer says with what others
+say.
+
+"We might say that the Caesars did not persecute the Christians;
+(_that_) they only punished men who were charged, rightly or wrongly,
+with burning Rome, and committing the foulest abominations in secret
+assemblies; and (_that_) the refusal to throw frankincense on the
+altar of Jupiter was not the crime, but only evidence of the crime."
+But see (6 _b_).
+
+*37 a. Repeat Verbs after the conjunctions "than," "as," &c.*
+
+"I think he likes me better _than_ you;" _i.e._ either "than you like
+me," or "he likes you."
+
+"Cardinal Richelieu hated Buckingham as sincerely as _did_ the
+Spaniard Olivares." Omit "did," and you cause ambiguity.
+
+*38. If the sentence is so long that it is difficult to keep the
+thread of meaning unbroken, repeat the subject, or some other emphatic
+word, or a summary of what has been said.*
+
+"Gold and cotton, banks and railways, crowded ports, and populous
+cities--_these_ are not the elements that constitute a great nation."
+
+This repetition (though useful and, when used in moderation, not
+unpleasant) is more common with speakers than with writers, and with
+slovenly speakers than with good speakers.
+
+"The country is in such a condition, that if we delay longer some fair
+measure of reform, sufficient at least to satisfy the more moderate,
+and much more, if we refuse all reform whatsoever--I say, if _we adopt
+so unwise a policy, the country is in such a condition_ that we may
+precipitate a revolution."
+
+Where the relative is either implied (in a participle) or repeated,
+the antecedent must often be repeated also. In the following sentence
+we have the Subject repeated not only in the final summary, but also
+as the antecedent:--
+
+"But if there were, in any part of the world, a national church
+regarded as heretical by four-fifths of the nation committed to its
+care; a _church_ established and maintained by the sword; a _church_
+producing twice as many riots as conversions; a _church_ which, though
+possessing great wealth and power, and though long backed by
+persecuting laws, had, in the course of many generations, been found
+unable to propagate its doctrines, and barely able to maintain its
+ground; a _church_ so odious that fraud and violence, when used
+against its clear rights of property, were generally regarded as fair
+play; a _church_ whose ministers were preaching to desolate walls, and
+with difficulty obtaining their lawful subsistence by the help of
+bayonets,--_such a church_, on our principles, could not, we must own,
+be defended."
+
+
+*39. It is a help to clearness, when the first part of the sentence
+prepares the way for the middle and the middle for the end, in a kind
+of ascent. This ascent is called "climax."*
+
+In the following there are two climaxes, each of which has three
+terms:--
+
+"To gossip(a) is a fault(b); to _libel_(a'), a _crime_(b'); to
+slander(a''), a _sin_(b'')."
+
+In the following, there are several climaxes, and note how they
+contribute to the clearness of a long sentence:--
+
+"Man, working, has _contrived_(a) the Atlantic Cable, but I declare
+that it _astonishes_(b) me far more to think _that for his mere
+amusement_(c), that to _entertain a mere idle hour_(c'), he has
+_created_(a') 'Othello' and 'Lear,' and I am more than astonished, I
+am _awe-struck_(b'), at that inexplicable elasticity of his nature
+which enables him, instead of _turning away_(d) from _calamity and
+grief_(e), or instead of merely _defying_(d') them, actually to _make
+them the material of his amusement_(d''), and to draw from the
+_wildest agonies of the human spirit_(e') a pleasure which is not
+only _not cruel_(f), but is in the highest degree _pure and
+ennobling_(f')."
+
+The neglect of climax produces an abruptness that interferes with the
+even flow of thought. Thus, if Pope, in his ironical address to
+mankind, had written--
+
+    "Go, wondrous creature, mount where science guides;
+    Go, measure earth, weigh air, and state the tides;
+    Go, teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule"--
+
+the ascent would have been too rapid. The transition from earth to
+heaven, and from investigating to governing, is prepared by the
+intervening climax--
+
+    "Instruct the planets in what orbs to run;
+    Correct old Time, and regulate the Sun;
+    Go, soar with Plato to th' empyreal sphere,
+    To the first good, first perfect, and first fair."
+
+
+*40. When the thought is expected to ascend and yet descends,
+feebleness and sometimes confusion is the result. The descent is
+called "bathos."*
+
+"What pen can describe the tears, the lamentations, the agonies, the
+_animated remonstrances_ of the unfortunate prisoners?"
+
+"She was a woman of many accomplishments and virtues, graceful in her
+movements, winning in her address, a kind friend, a faithful and
+loving wife, a most affectionate mother, and she _played beautifully
+on the pianoforte_."
+
+INTENTIONAL BATHOS has a humorous incongruity and abruptness that is
+sometimes forcible. For example, after the climax ending with the
+line--
+
+    "Go, teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule,"
+
+Pope adds--
+
+    "Then drop into thyself, and be a _fool_."
+
+*40 a. A new construction should not be introduced without cause.*--A
+sudden and apparently unnecessary change of construction causes
+awkwardness and roughness at least, and sometimes breaks the flow of
+the sentence so seriously as to cause perplexity. Thus, write
+"virtuous and accomplished," or "of many virtues and accomplishments,"
+not "of many virtues and accomplished;" "riding or walking" or "on
+foot or horseback," not "on foot or riding." In the same way, do not
+put adjectives and participles, active and passive forms of verbs, in
+too close juxtaposition. Avoid such sentences as the following:--
+
+"He had good reason _to believe_ that the delay was not _an accident_
+(accidental) but _premeditated_, and _for supposing_ (to suppose, or
+else, for believing, above) that the fort, though strong both _by art_
+and _naturally_ (nature), would be forced by the _treachery of the_
+governor and the _indolent_ (indolence of the) general to capitulate
+within a week."
+
+"They accused him of being _bribed_ (receiving bribes from) by the
+king and _unwilling_ (neglecting) to take the city."
+
+
+*41. Antithesis adds force, and often clearness.*--The meaning of
+_liberal_ in the following sentence is ascertained by the
+antithesis:--
+
+"All the pleasing illusions which made _power_(a) _gentle_(b) and
+_obedience_(a') _liberal_(b') ... are now to be destroyed."
+
+There is a kind of proportion. As _gentleness_ is to _power_, so
+_liberality_ (in the sense here used) is to _obedience_. Now
+_gentleness_ is the check on the excess of power; therefore _liberal_
+here applies to that which checks the excess of obedience, _i.e._
+checks servility. Hence _liberal_ here means "free."
+
+The contrast also adds force. "They aimed at the _rule_(a), not at the
+_destruction_(a'), of their country. They were men of great _civil_(b)
+and great _military_(b') talents, and, if the _terror_(c), the
+_ornament_(c') of their age."
+
+Excessive antithesis is unnatural and wearisome:--
+
+"Who can persuade where _treason_(a) is above _reason_(a'), and
+_might_(b) ruleth _right_(b'), and it is had for _lawful_(c)
+whatsoever is _lustful_(c'), and _commotioners_(d) are better than
+_commissioners_(d'), and _common woe_(e) is named common
+_wealth_(e')?"
+
+*42. Epigram.*--It has been seen that the neglect of climax results in
+lameness. Sometimes the suddenness of the descent produces amusement:
+and when the descent is intentional and very sudden, the effect is
+striking as well as amusing. Thus:--
+
+(1) "You are not only not vicious, you are virtuous," is a _climax_.
+
+(2) "You are not vicious, you are vice," is not _climax_, nor is it
+_bathos_: it is _epigram_.[15]
+
+Epigram may be defined as a "short sentence expressing truth under an
+amusing appearance of incongruity." It is often antithetical.
+
+  "The Russian grandees came to { and diamonds," _climax_.
+     court dropping pearls      { and vermin," _epigram_.
+
+  "These two nations were divided  { and the bitter remembrance
+     by mutual fear                { of recent losses," _climax_.
+                                   { and mountains," _epigram_.
+
+There is a sort of implied antithesis in:--
+
+"He is full of information--(but flat also) like yesterday's _Times_."
+
+"Verbosity is cured (not by a small, but) by a large vocabulary."
+
+The name of epigram may sometimes be given to a mere antithesis;
+_e.g._ "An educated man should know something of everything, and
+everything of something."
+
+
+*43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject of
+thought.*
+
+"This great and good man died on the 17th of September, 1683, leaving
+behind him the memory of many noble actions, and a numerous family, of
+whom three were sons; one of them, George, the eldest, heir to his
+father's virtues, as well as to his principal estates in Cumberland,
+where most of his father's property was situate, and shortly
+afterwards elected member for the county, which had for several
+generations returned this family to serve in Parliament." Here we have
+(1) the "great and good man," (2) "George," (3) "the county,"
+disputing which is to be considered the principal subject. Two, if not
+three sentences should have been made, instead of one. Carefully avoid
+a long sentence like this, treating of many different subjects on one
+level. It is called _heterogeneous_.
+
+
+*44. The connection between different sentences must be kept up by
+Adverbs used as Conjunctions, or by means of some other connecting
+words at the beginning of each sentence.*--Leave out the conjunctions
+and other connecting words, and it will be seen that the following
+sentences lose much of their meaning:--
+
+"Pitt was in the army for a few months in time of peace. His
+biographer (_accordingly_) insists on our confessing, that, if the
+young cornet had remained in the service, he would have been one of
+the ablest commanders that ever lived. (_But_) this is not all. Pitt
+(, _it seems_,) was not merely a great poet _in esse_ and a great
+general _in posse_, but a finished example of moral excellence....
+(_The truth is, that_) there scarcely ever lived a person who had so
+little claim to this sort of praise as Pitt. He was (_undoubtedly_) a
+great man. (_But_) his was not a complete and well-proportioned
+greatness. The public life of Hampden or of Somers resembles a regular
+drama which can be criticised as a whole, and every scene of which is
+to be viewed in connection with the main action. The public life of
+Pitt (, _on the other hand_,) is," &c.
+
+The following are some of the most common connecting adverbs, or
+connecting phrases: (1) expressing consequence, similarity,
+repetition, or resumption of a subject--_accordingly_, _therefore_,
+_then_, _naturally_, _so that_, _thus_, _in this way_, _again_, _once
+more_, _to resume_, _to continue_, _to sum up_, _in fact_, _upon
+this_; (2) expressing opposition--_nevertheless_, _in spite of this_,
+_yet_, _still_, _however_, _but_, _on the contrary_, _on the other
+hand_; (3) expressing suspension--_undoubtedly ... but_; _indeed ...
+yet_; _on the one hand ... on the other_; _partly ... partly_; _some
+... others_.
+
+Avoid a style like that of Bishop Burnet, which strings together a
+number of sentences with "and" or "so," or with no conjunction at all:
+
+"Blake with the fleet happened to be at Malaga, before he made war
+upon Spain; _and_ some of his seamen went ashore, _and_ met the Host
+carried about; _and_ not only paid no respect to it, but laughed at
+those who did." Write "_When_ Blake &c."
+
+
+*45. The connection between two long sentences sometimes requires a
+short intervening sentence, showing the transition of thought.*
+
+"Without force or opposition, it (chivalry) subdued the fierceness of
+pride and power; it obliged sovereigns to submit to the soft
+collar[16] of social esteem, compelled stern authority to submit to
+elegance, and gave a dominating vanquisher of laws to be subdued by
+manners. But now (_all is to be changed_:) all the pleasing illusions
+which made power gentle and obedience liberal, which harmonized the
+different shades of life, and which, by a bland assimilation,
+incorporated into politics the sentiments that beautify and soften
+private society, are to be dissolved by this new conquering empire of
+light and reason." If the words italicized were omitted, the
+transition would be too abrupt: the conjunction _but_ alone would be
+insufficient.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[5] _For_, at the beginning of a sentence, sometimes causes temporary
+doubt, while the reader is finding out whether it is used as a
+conjunction or preposition.
+
+[6] _It_ should refer (1) either to the Noun immediately preceding, or
+(2) to some Noun superior to all intervening Nouns in emphasis. See
+(25).
+
+[7] So useful that, on mature consideration, I am disposed to adopt
+"that" here and in several of the following exceptional cases.
+
+[8] Of course "and which" may be used where "which" precedes.
+
+[9] "That which," where _that_ is an _object_, _e.g._ "then (set
+forth) _that which_ is worse," _St. John_ ii. 10, is rare in modern
+English.
+
+[10] Sometimes the emphatic Adverb comes at the beginning, and causes
+the transposition of an Auxiliary Verb, "_Gladly_ do I consent."
+
+[11] Of course punctuation will remove the ambiguity; but it is better
+to express oneself clearly, as far as possible, independently of
+punctuation.
+
+[12] Professor Bain.
+
+[13] See (30).
+
+[14] The repetition of Auxiliary Verbs and Pronominal Adjectives is
+also conducive to clearness.
+
+[15] Professor Bain says: "In the epigram the mind is roused by a
+conflict or contradiction between the form of the language and the
+meaning really conveyed."
+
+[16] This metaphor is not recommended for imitation.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BREVITY.
+
+*46. Metaphor is briefer than literal statement.* See (13).
+
+"The cares and responsibilities of a sovereign often disturb his
+sleep," is not so brief as "Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown,"
+where the effect of care on the mind is assimilated to the effect of a
+heavy crown pressing on the head.
+
+
+*47. General terms are briefer, though less forcible, than particular
+terms.* Thus: "He devours _literature_, no matter of what kind," is
+shorter than, "Novels or sermons, poems or histories, no matter what,
+he devours them all."
+
+*47 a. A phrase may be expressed by a word.*
+
+"These impressions _can never be forgotten_, i.e. are _indelible_."
+
+"The style of this book is _of such a nature that it cannot be
+understood_, i.e. _unintelligible_."
+
+The words "of such a nature that" are often unnecessarily inserted.
+See the extract from Sir Archibald Alison.
+
+
+*48. Participles can often be used as brief (though sometimes
+ambiguous) equivalents of phrases containing Conjunctions and Verbs.*
+
+"Hearing (when he heard) this, he advanced." See (7) for more
+instances. So "phrases _containing_ conjunctions" means "phrases _that
+contain_ conjunctions." "_This done_, (for, _when this was done_) he
+retired."
+
+Sometimes the participle "being" is omitted. "France at our doors, he
+sees no danger nigh," for "France being" or "though France is."
+
+
+*49. Participles and participial adjectives may be used like
+Adjectives, as equivalents for phrases containing the Relative.*
+
+"The never-_ceasing_ wind," "the _clamouring_ ocean," "the _drenching_
+rain," are instances. The licence of inventing participial adjectives
+by adding _-ing_ to a noun, is almost restricted to poetry. You could
+not write "the _crannying_ wind" in prose.
+
+
+*50. A statement may sometimes be briefly implied instead of being
+expressed at length.* Thus, instead of "The spirit of Christianity was
+humanizing, and therefore &c.," or "Christianity, since it was (or
+being) of a humanizing spirit, discouraged &c.," we can write more
+briefly and effectively, "Gladiatorial shows were first discouraged,
+and finally put down, by the _humanizing spirit of Christianity_." So
+instead of "The nature of youth is thoughtless and sanguine, and
+therefore &c.," we can write, "The danger of the voyage was
+depreciated and the beauty of the island exaggerated by _the
+thoughtless nature of youth_."
+
+Sometimes a mere name or epithet implies a statement. "It was in vain
+that he offered the Swiss terms: war was deliberately preferred by the
+_hardy mountaineers_," _i.e._ "by the Swiss, _because they were
+mountaineers and hardy_." "The deed was applauded by all honest men,
+but the Government affected to treat it as murder, and set a price
+upon the head of (him whom they called) the _assassin." "The conqueror
+of Austerlitz_ might be expected to hold different language from _the
+prisoner of St. Helena_," _i.e._ "Napoleon when elated by the victory
+of Austerlitz," and "Napoleon when depressed by his imprisonment at
+St. Helena."
+
+CAUTION.--Different names must not be used for the same person unless
+each of them derives an appropriateness from its context. Thus, if we
+are writing about Charles II., it would be in very bad taste to avoid
+repeating "he" by using such periphrases as the following: "The third
+of the Stewarts hated business," "the Merry Monarch died in the
+fifty-fourth year of his age," &c.
+
+
+*51. Conjunctions may be omitted.* The omission gives a certain
+forcible abruptness, _e.g._ "You say this: I (on the other hand) deny
+it."
+
+When sentences are short, as in Macaulay's writings, conjunctions may
+be advantageously omitted.
+
+Where a contrast is intended, the conjunction _but_ usually prepares
+the way for the second of the two contrasted terms: "He is good _but_
+dull." Where _and_ is used instead of _but_, the incongruity savours
+of epigram: "He always talks truthfully _and_ prosily." "He is always
+amusing _and_ false."
+
+*51 a. The Imperative Mood may be used for "if."*
+
+"_Strip_ (for, _if you strip_) Virtue of the awful authority she
+derives from the general reverence of mankind, and you rob her of half
+her majesty."
+
+
+*52. Apposition may be used so as to convert two sentences into one.*
+
+"We called at the house of a person to whom we had letters of
+introduction, _a musician_, and, what is more, a _good friend_ to all
+young students of music." This is as clear as, and briefer than, "He
+was a musician, &c."
+
+
+*53. Condensation may be effected by not repeating (1) the common
+subject of several verbs, (2) the common object of several verbs or
+prepositions.*
+
+(1) "He resided here for many years, and, after he had won the esteem
+of all the citizens, (_he_) died," &c. So, (2) "He came to, and was
+induced to reside in, this city," is shorter than "He came to this
+city, and was induced to reside in it."
+
+Such condensation often causes obscurity, and, even where there is no
+obscurity, there is a certain harshness in pausing on light,
+unemphatic words, such as _to_, _in_, &c., as in the first example.
+
+
+*54. Tautology.*--The fault of repeating the same word several times
+unnecessarily is called _tautology_, e.g.:
+
+"This is a painful _circumstance_; it is a _circumstance_ that I much
+_regret_, and he also will much _regret_ the _circumstance_." But the
+fault is not to be avoided by using different words to mean the same
+thing, as, "This is a painful _event_; it is a _circumstance_ that I
+_much regret_, and he also will _greatly lament_ the _occurrence_."
+The true remedy is to arrange the words in such a manner that there
+may be no unnecessary repetition, thus: "This is a painful
+circumstance, a circumstance that causes me, and will cause him, deep
+regret."
+
+The repetition of the same meaning in slightly different words is a
+worse fault than the repetition of the same word. See, for examples,
+the extract from Sir Archibald Alison, at the end of the book. Thus
+"_A burning thirst_ for conquests is a characteristic of this nation.
+It is an _ardent passion_ that &c." Other instances are--"The
+_universal_ opinion of _all_ men;" "His judgment is so _infallible_
+that it is _never deceived_," &c.
+
+
+*55. Parenthesis may be used with advantage to brevity.*
+
+"We are all (and who would not be?) offended at the treatment we have
+received," is shorter and more forcible than the sentence would have
+been if the parenthesis had been appended in a separate sentence:
+"Who, indeed, would not be offended?"
+
+Extreme care must, however, be taken that a parenthesis may not
+obscure the meaning of a long sentence.
+
+*56. Caution: let clearness be the first consideration.* It is best,
+at all events for beginners, not to aim so much at being brief, or
+forcible, as at being perfectly clear. Horace says, "While I take
+pains to be brief, I fall into obscurity," and it may easily be seen
+that several of the rules for brevity interfere with the rules for
+clearness.
+
+Forcible style springs from (1) vividness and (2) exactness of
+thought, and from a corresponding (1) vividness and (2) exactness in
+the use of words.
+
+(1) When you are describing anything, endeavour to _see_ it and
+describe it as you see it. If you are writing about a man who was
+killed, _see_ the man before you, and ask, was he _executed_, _cut
+down_, _run through the body_, _butchered_, _shot_, or _hanged_? If
+you are writing about the capture of a city, was the city _stormed_,
+_surprised_, _surrendered_, _starved out_, or _demolished before
+surrender_? Was an army _repelled_, _defeated_, _routed_, _crushed_,
+or _annihilated_?
+
+(2) Exactness in the use of words requires an exact knowledge of their
+meanings and differences. This is a study by itself, and cannot be
+discussed here.[17]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[17] See _English Lessons for English People_, pp. 1-53.
+
+
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_For an explanation of the manner in which these Exercises are
+intended to be used, see the Preface._
+
+_A number in brackets by itself, or followed by a letter,_ e.g. _(43),
+(40 a), refers to the Rules._
+
+_Letters_ by themselves _in brackets_, e.g. _(b), refer to the
+explanations or hints appended to each sentence._
+
+_N.B..--(10 a) refers to the first section of Rule (10); (10 a') to
+the Rule following Rule (10)._
+
+1. "Pleasure and excitement had more attractions for him _than_ (_a_)
+(36) (37 _a_) _his friend_, and the two companions became estranged
+(15 _a_) _gradually_."
+
+     (_a_) Write (1) "than for his friend," or (2) "than had his
+     friend," "had more attractions than his friend."
+
+2. "(_a_) He soon grew tired of solitude even in that beautiful
+scenery, (36) the pleasures of the retirement (8) _which_ he had once
+pined for, and (36) leisure which he could use to no good purpose,
+(_a_) (30) _being_ (15) _restless by nature_."
+
+     (_a_) This sentence naturally stops at "purpose." Also "being
+     restless" seems (wrongly) to give the reason why "leisure" could
+     not be employed. Begin "Restless by nature...."
+
+3. "The opponents of the Government are naturally, and not (_a_) (40
+_a_) _without justification_, elated at the failure of the bold
+attempt to return two supporters of the Government at the recent
+election, (_b_) (10 _a'_) _which_ is certainly to be regretted."
+
+     (_a_) "unjustifiably." (_b_) Write, for "which," either (1) "an
+     attempt that &c.," or (2) "a failure that &c."
+
+4. "Carelessness in the Admiralty departments has co-operated with
+Nature to weaken the moral power of a Government that particularly
+needs to be thought efficient in (_a_) (5) _this_ _respect_, (_b_)
+(29) _to_ counterbalance a general distrust of its excessive _desire_
+(_c_) (47 _a_) _to please everybody_ in Foreign Affairs."
+
+     (_a_) Write "the Navy." (_b_) Instead of "to" write "in order
+     to," so as to distinguish the different infinitives, (_c_)
+     "obsequiousness."
+
+5. "(_a_) He was sometimes supported by Austria, who, oddly enough,
+appears under Count Beust to have been more friendly to Italy _than_
+(37 _a_) _France_, (30) _in this line of action_."
+
+     (_a_) Begin with "In this line of action." Why? (_b_) Write "than
+     was France" or "than France was."
+
+6. "There was something so startling in (_a_) (5) _this_ assertion,
+(_a_) (4) _that_ the discoveries of previous investigators were to be
+(_b_) (47 _a_) _treated as though they had never been made_, and (4)
+_that one who had not yet_ (47 _a_) _attained the age of manhood_ had
+superseded the grey-headed philosophers (8) _who_ had for centuries
+patiently sought after the truth, (4) _that_ (_a_) (5) _it_ naturally
+provoked derision."
+
+     (_a_) "This," "that," and "it," cause a little perplexity. Write
+     "The startling assertion that the discoveries...." (_b_)
+     "ignored." (_c_) "a mere youth," "a mere stripling."
+
+7. "One of the recommendations (_on which very_ (_a_) (26) (47, _a_)
+_much depended_) of the Commission was that a council in each province
+should establish smaller councils, each to have the oversight of a
+small district, and (_b_) (37) report to a central council on the
+state of Education in (_c_) (5) it."
+
+     (_a_) Write "cardinal recommendations." Derive "cardinal." (_b_)
+     Write, either (1) "and should report," or (2) "and to report."
+     (_c_) Write "in its province," or "district."
+
+8. "At this (_a_) (1) _period_ an (_b_) (11) _event_ (_c_) (1)
+_transpired_ that destroyed the last hopes of peace. The king fell
+from his horse and died two hours after the fall (_d_) (30), _which
+was occasioned by his horse's stumbling on a mole-hill, while he was
+on his return from reviewing his soldiers_."
+
+     (_a_) What is a "period"? (_b_) Express the particular kind of
+     event ("accident"). (_c_) What is the meaning of "transpired"?
+     (_d_) Transpose thus: "While the king was on his return ... his
+     horse ...; the king fell and &c." The cause should precede the
+     effect.
+
+9. "He determined (_c_) on selling all his estates, and, as soon as
+this was done (40 _a_), _to_ (_c_) _quit_ the country, (_a_) (33)
+believing that his honour demanded this sacrifice and (40) (40 _a_)
+_in_ (_b_) _the_ hope of satisfying his creditors."
+
+     (_a_) Begin with "Believing that &c." (_b_) "hoping thereby to
+     satisfy &c." (_c_) "to sell" or "on quitting.".
+
+10. "He read patiently on, Leading Articles, Foreign Correspondence,
+Money Article and all; (_a_) (43) during which his father fell asleep,
+and he (_b_) went in search of his sister."
+
+     Point out the absurdity of "during which" applied to the last
+     part of the sentence. (_a_) "Meanwhile." (_b_) Insert "then."
+
+11. "The general was quite (_a_) (1) _conscious_ (40 _a_) _how_
+treacherous were the intentions of _those who were_ (_b_) (49)
+_entertaining_ him, and (40 _a_) _of the_ dangers from which he had
+_escaped_ (15) _lately_."
+
+     (_a_) Distinguish between "conscious" and "aware." _(b_)
+     "entertainers."
+
+12. "If _certain_ (_a_) (11) _books_ had been published a hundred
+years ago, there can be no doubt that _certain recent_ (_b_) (11)
+_historians_ would have made great use of them. But it _would_ (_c_)
+(15 _b_) _not_, on that account, be judicious in a writer of our own
+times to publish an edition of the works of _one of these_ (_b_) (11)
+_historians_, in which large extracts from these books should be
+incorporated with the original text."
+
+     (_a_) "Mrs. Hutchinson's Memoirs." (_b_) "Mr. Hume." (_c_) Add at
+     the end of the sentence, "Surely not."
+
+13. "He made no attempt to get up a petition, (32) though he did not
+like the new representative quite so well _as_ (_a_) (37 _a_) _his
+colleagues_."
+
+     (_a_) "as did his colleagues" or "as he liked his colleagues."
+
+14. "Though he was (_a_) (15) _obstinate_ and (15) _unprincipled_, yet
+he could not face an angered father (15 _a_) _in spite of his
+effrontery_."
+
+     (_a_) Begin with "Obstinate."
+
+15. "He was known to his country neighbours (_a_) (15) _during more
+than forty years_ as a gentleman of cultivated mind, (40 _a_) _whose
+principles were high_, (40 _a_) _with polished address_, happy in his
+family, and (_b_) (40 _a_) _actively_ discharging local duties; and
+(40 _a_) _among_ political men, as an honest, industrious, and
+sensible member of Parliament, (40 a) _without_ (_c_) _eagerness_ to
+display his talents, (40 _a_) _who_ (10 _g_) _was_ stanch to his
+party, and attentive to the interests of _those whose_ (_d_) (47 _a_)
+_representative he was_."
+
+     (_a_) "During more &c.," is emphatic, and affects the latter as
+     well as the former half of the sentence: hence it should stand
+     first. (_b_) "in the discharge of." (_c_) "not eager." (_d_)
+     Condense into one word.
+
+16. "The poor think themselves no more disgraced by taking bribes at
+elections _than_ (_a_) (37 _a_) _the rich_ by offering them."
+
+     (_a_) Write (1) "Than the rich think themselves disgraced," or
+     (2) "Than they think the rich disgraced."
+
+17. "We are told that the Sultan Mahmoud, by his perpetual wars, (_a_)
+(41) and his tyranny, (_a_) (41) had filled his dominions with (_b_)
+(1) _misfortune and_ (_c_) (11) _calamity_, and _greatly_ (_d_) (11)
+_diminished_ the population of the Persian Empire. _This great Sultan
+had_ (_e_) (50) _a Vizier_. _We are not_ (_f_) (55) (15) _informed_
+whether he was a humorist or an enthusiast, (_g_) _but he_ pretended
+(_h_) that he had learned from (_i_) (11) _some one_ how to understand
+the language of birds, so that _he_ (_j_) (5) knew what was said by
+any bird that opened its mouth. (_k_) (44) One evening he was with the
+Sultan, returning from hunting. They saw a couple of owls _which_ (10
+_g_) _were_ sitting upon a tree (_l_) (8) _which_ grew near an old
+wall out of a heap of rubbish. The Sultan said (6) he should like to
+know what the two owls were saying to one another, _and asked the_
+(_m_) _Vizier to_ listen to their discourse and give him an account of
+it. The Vizier, (_n_) (31) pretending to be very attentive to the
+owls, approached the tree. He (_o_) returned to the Sultan and said
+that (6) he had heard part of their conversation, but did not wish to
+tell him what it was. (_p_) (5) _He_, not (_q_) (31) being satisfied
+with this answer, forced him to repeat everything the owls had said
+(20) _exactly_. (_r_) (44) (5) (6) _He_ told (5) _him_ that the owls
+were arranging a treaty of marriage between their children, and that
+one of them, after agreeing to settle five hundred villages upon the
+female owl, had prayed (6) that God would grant a long life to Sultan
+Mahmoud, because as long as he reigned over them they would never want
+ruined villages. The story says (_s_) _that_ (_t_) (5) _he_ was
+touched with the fable, (30) and (_s_) _that_ he (_a_) (39) from that
+time forward _consulted_ (15) _the good of his people_, and that he
+rebuilt the towns and villages (_v_) _which_ had been destroyed."
+
+     (_a_) "abroad ... at home." (_b_) "ruin." (_c_) "desolation."
+     (_d_) "half unpeopled." (_e_) "The Vizier of &c." (_f_) "We are
+     not informed" is emphatic, and therefore should be inverted,
+     "whether he was, &c., we are not informed." (_g_) "but he" will
+     be omitted when "the Vizier" is made the subject of "pretended."
+     (_h_) "Pretended" once meant "claimed," "professed." Write
+     "professed." (_i_) "a certain dervish." (_j_) Introduce a new
+     subject that you may substitute "Vizier" for "he," thus: "so that
+     not a bird could open its mouth, but the Vizier knew &c." (_k_)
+     "As he was, one evening, &c." (_l_) Note that the tree is
+     represented as growing out of _ruins_. This is in accordance with
+     the story of the mischief Mahmoud had done. (_m_) Omit this.
+     (_n_) "Suspense" is out of place in a simple narrative like this;
+     the sentence therefore ends with "owls." (_o_) "Upon his return."
+     (_p_) "The Sultan" (_q_) "would not be satisfied." (_r_) "You
+     must know then, &c." (_s_) Omit. (_t_) "so touched ... that."
+     (_u_) end with "people." (_v_) Addison here uses "_which_"
+     probably because of the preceding "that." We have to choose
+     between sound and clearness. "Which" implies that _all_ the
+     villages in the country had been destroyed, whereas the country
+     had been only (see above) "_half_ unpeopled."
+
+18. "Though this great king never permitted any pastime to interfere
+with the duties of state, which he considered to be _superior to_ (54)
+_all other claims and of paramount importance_, and (_a_) (37) kept
+himself so far under control that he allowed no one pursuit or
+amusement to run to any excess, yet he _took_ (54) _great pleasure in_
+the chase, _of which he was_ (_b_) (2) _excessively_ (54) _fond_, and
+for the purposes of which he created several _large_ parks _of
+considerable_ (54) _magnitude_."
+
+     (_a_) Either repeat "though," or else strikeout the first
+     "though" and begin a new sentence after "excess." (_b_) Point out
+     the contradiction between "excessively" and what precedes.
+
+19. "To inundate (_a_) (11) their land, to man their ships, to leave
+their country, with all its miracles of art and industry, its cities,
+its villas, and its (_b_) (11) pastures buried under the waves (_c_)
+(11); to bear to a distant climate their (_d_) (11) faith and their
+old (_e_) (11) liberties; to establish, with auspices _that_(10 _a)
+might perhaps be happier_, the new (_f_) (11) _constitution of their
+commonwealth_, in a (_g_) (11) foreign and strange (_h_) (11) land, in
+the Spice Islands of the Eastern Seas, (38) were the plans which they
+had the spirit to form."
+
+     (_a_) Introduce "dykes." (_b_) Introduce something _peculiar_ to
+     the Dutch, _e.g._ "canals," "tulip gardens." (_c_) "of the German
+     Ocean." (_d_) The Dutch were Calvinists. (_e_) The country was in
+     old times "Batavia," so that "Batavian" would be a fit epithet to
+     denote what the Dutch had inherited from their forefathers. (_f_)
+     "Stadthaus," the German for "town-hall." (_g_) "other stars."
+     (_h_) "strange vegetation."
+
+20. "During twenty years of unexampled prosperity, _during_ (_a_)
+_which_ the wealth of the nation had shot (14 _a_) _up and extended
+its branches_ on every side, and the funds _had_ (14 _a_) _soared_ to
+a higher point than had been ever attained before, (_b_) (15)
+speculation had become general."
+
+     (_a_) Omit. (_b_) Begin a new sentence: "This, _or_ Prosperity,
+     had increased the taste for speculation."
+
+21. "At that time (_a_) (16) a mere narrow-minded pedant (for he
+deserves no better name) had been set up by the literary world as a
+great author, and as the supreme (_b_) critic, alone qualified to
+deliver decisions _which could never be_ (_b_) _reversed_ upon (15
+_a_) _the literary productions of the day_."
+
+     (_a_) End with " ... one who was--for he deserves no better
+     name--a mere narrow-minded pedant." (_b_) "Which could never be
+     reversed" can be expressed in one word; or else "the supreme ...
+     reversed" may be condensed into a personification: "a very Minos
+     of contemporary criticism."
+
+22. "With the intention of fulfilling his promise, and (40 _a_)
+_intending also_ to clear himself from the suspicion that attached to
+him, he determined to ascertain _how_ (40 _a_) _far this testimony_
+was corroborated, and (_a_) (40 _a_) the motives of the prosecutor,
+(_b_) (43) who had begun the suit last Christmas."
+
+     (_a_) "what were." (_b_) Begin a new sentence, "The latter &c.,"
+     or "The suit had been begun &c."
+
+23. "The Jewish nation, relying on the teaching of their prophets,
+looked forward to a time when its descendants should be as numerous as
+_the heavenly_ (11) _bodies_, and when the _products_ (_a_) (11) _of
+the earth_ should be _so increased as to create an abundant_ (54)
+_plenty_, when each man should rest beneath the shade of his own (_a_)
+(11) _trees_, and when the _instruments_ (11) _of war_ should be
+_converted to the_ (11) _uses of peace_."
+
+     (_a_) Mention some "products," "trees" of Palestine.
+
+24. "He replied (32), when he was asked the reason for his sudden
+unpopularity, that he owed it to his refusal to annul the commercial
+treaty, (_a_) (8) _which_(10 _a'_) gave great displeasure to the
+poorer classes."
+
+     (_a_) Point out the ambiguity, and remove it by (8) or (10 _a'_).
+
+25. "I saw my old schoolfellow again by mere accident when I was in
+London at the time of the first Exhibition, (19) _walking_ down Regent
+Street and looking in at the shops."
+
+     Point out and remove the ambiguity.
+
+26. "He remained in the House while his speech was taken into
+consideration; _which_ (52) _was_ a common practice with him, because
+the debates amused his sated mind, and indeed _he used to say_ (_a_)
+(6 _b_) _that they_ were sometimes as good as a comedy. His Majesty
+had certainly never seen _a more_ (17) _sudden turn_ in any comedy of
+intrigue, either at his own play-house or the Duke's, than that which
+this memorable debate produced."
+
+     (_a_) "and were sometimes, he used to say, as good &c."
+
+27. "The Commons would not approve the war (20) _expressly_; neither
+did they as yet condemn it (20) _expressly_; and (_a_) (18) the king
+might even have obtained a supply for continuing hostilities (19) from
+them, on condition _of_ (_b_) _redressing_ grievances _connected with
+the_ (_c_) _administration of affairs at home_, among which the
+Declaration of Indulgence was a very _important_ (_d_) (15_a_) one."
+
+     (_a_) Write "they were even ready to grant the king &c." (_b_)
+     Use the verb with a subject, (_c_) Condense all this into one
+     adjective, meaning "that which takes place at home." (_d_) End
+     with a noun, "importance," or "foremost place."
+
+28. "Next to thinking clearly, (_a_) (5) _it is_ useful to speak
+clearly, and whatever your position in life may hereafter be _it_
+cannot be such (54) as not to be improved by _this_, (_b_) so that
+_it_ is worth while making almost any effort to acquire (_c_) _it_, if
+_it_ is not a natural gift: (_d_) _it_ being an undoubted (_d_) fact
+that the effort to acquire _it_ must be successful, to some extent at
+least, if (_d_) _it_ be moderately persevered in."
+
+     (_a_) "Next in utility ... comes speaking clearly--a power that
+     must be of assistance to you &c." (_b_)" If, therefore, you
+     cannot speak clearly by nature, you &c." (_c_) "this power."
+     (_d_) Omit "fact;" "for undoubtedly, with moderate perseverance
+     &c."
+
+29. "_It_ (_a_) (38) _appears to me_ (15) _a greater victory than
+Agincourt, a grander triumph of wisdom and faith and courage than even
+the English constitution or_ (_b_) _liturgy_, to have beaten back, or
+even fought against and stemmed in ever so small a degree, those
+_basenesses that_ (_c_) (10_a_) _beset_ human nature, which are now
+held so invincible that the influences of them are assumed as the
+fundamental axioms of economic science."
+
+     (_a_) Begin with "To have beaten &c.," and end with "liturgy."
+     (_b_) Repeat for clearness and emphasis, "the English." (_c_)
+     "The besetting basenesses of &c."
+
+30. "The (_a_) (2) _unprecedented_ impudence of our youthful
+representative reminds us forcibly of the _unblushing and_ (54) (40)
+_remarkable_ effrontery (_c_) (which (26) he almost succeeds in
+equalling) of the Member for St. Alban's, whom our (_b_) (1)
+_neophyte_ (_b_) (1) _alluded to_, in the last speech with which he
+favoured _those whom_ (47_a_) _he represents_, (19) as his pattern and
+example."
+
+     (_a_) Show that "unprecedented" is inconsistent with what
+     follows. (_b_) What is the meaning of "neophyte," "alluded to"?
+     (_c_) Begin a new sentence, "Our young adventurer &c.," and end
+     with "and he almost succeeds in equalling his master."
+
+31. "The (_a_) (1) _veracity_ of this story is questionable, and there
+is the more reason for doubting the (_a_) (1) _truth_ of the narrator,
+because in his remarks on the (1) _observation_ of the Sabbath he
+distinctly (_a_) (1) _alludes to_ a custom that can be shown never to
+have existed."
+
+     (_a_) Distinguish between "veracity" and "truth," "observation"
+     and "observance." Show the inconsistency between "allude" and
+     "distinctly."
+
+32. "It (_a_) (5) is a most just distribution, (10 _a_) _which_ the
+late Mr. Tucker has dwelt upon _so_ (_b_) largely in his works,
+between pleasures in which we are passive, and pleasures in which we
+are active. And I believe every attentive observer of human life will
+_assent to_ (_c_) _this position_, that however (_d_) _grateful_ the
+sensations may occasionally be in which we are passive, it is not
+these, but the latter class of our pleasures, (8) _which_ constitutes
+satisfaction, (_e_) (38) _which_ supply that regular stream of
+moderate and miscellaneous enjoyments in (10 _c_) _which_ happiness,
+as distinguished from voluptuousness, consists."
+
+     (_a_) "There is great justice in &c." (b) Omit "so." (_c_)
+     "admit." (_d_) Not often now used in this sense. (_e_) Repeat the
+     antecedent, "I mean those (pleasures) &c."
+
+33. "The prince seemed to have before him a _limitless_ (54) _prospect
+of unbounded_ prosperity, carefully (33) _trained_ for the (_a_)
+_tasks_ of the throne, and stimulated by the (_a_) _pattern_ of his
+father, (_b_) who (43) _breathed his_ (3) _last_ suddenly at the age
+of sixty-two, just after the conclusion of the war."
+
+     (_a_) Find more appropriate words. (_b_) Begin a new sentence.
+
+34. "On his way, he visited a son of an old friend (_a_) (25) _who_
+had asked _him_ to call upon _him_ on his journey northward. _He_
+(_b_) (5) was overjoyed to see _him_, and (_c_) _he_ sent for one of
+_his_ most intelligent workmen and told (_d_) _him_ to consider
+_himself_ at (_e_) _his_ service, (30) as _he himself_ could not take
+(_f_) _him_ as _he_ (_g_) wished about the city."
+
+     (_a_) If you mean that the "son" had "asked him," write "An old
+     friend's son who;" if you mean that the "friend" had "asked him,"
+     write "He had been asked by an old friend to call, on his journey
+     northward, upon his son. Accordingly he visited him on his way."
+     (_b_) Use, instead of _he_, some name meaning "one who entertains
+     others." (_c_) Use participle, (_d_) "The man." (_e_) "the
+     stranger's." (_f_) "his guest." (_g_) Write "could have wished"
+     to make it clear that "he" means "the host."
+
+35. "Tillotson died in this year. He was exceedingly beloved both by
+King William and by Queen Mary (43), who nominated Dr. Tennison,
+Bishop of Lincoln, to succeed him."
+
+36. "(_a_) The entertainment was arranged with a magnificence that was
+(_b_) perfectly _stupendous_ and (_c_) _most unprecedented_, and
+which quite kept up his Lordship's _unrivalled_ reputation for
+_unparalleled_ hospitality, and, thanks to the _unequalled_ energy of
+Mr. Smith, who is _rapidly becoming one of the most effective_
+toast-masters in the kingdom, the toasts were given with a spirit
+_quite unexampled_ on occasions of this nature; and indeed we were
+forcibly reminded in this respect of the _inimitable_ entertainment of
+three years ago (2)."
+
+     (_a_) Omit most of the epithets, or soften them down. Point out
+     the contradictions in the sentence as it stands. (_b_) Write "a
+     remarkable magnificence that quite &c.," thus dispensing with the
+     following "and." (_c_) Show that "most" is superfluous.
+
+37. "If we compare Shakespeare with the other dramatic authors of the
+Elizabethan era, _his wonderful superiority to them in the_ (15)
+_knowledge of human nature_ is _what_ (15 _a_) _principally strikes
+us_."
+
+38. "The prince found himself at once in sore perplexity how to
+provide himself with the commonest comforts or even necessaries of
+life, when he landed on this desolate coast, being (33) accustomed to
+luxury."
+
+39. "This make-shift policy recommended itself to the succeeding
+_ministers_ (_a_) (50), _both because they were timid and because they
+were prejudiced_, and they were delighted to _excuse_ (_b_) (13)
+_themselves by quoting_ the example of one who (_c_) (34) had
+controlled the Liberals and humoured the Conservatives, (37) commended
+himself to the country at large by his unfailing good-humour, and
+(_d_) (44) (37) done nothing worthy of the name of statesman."
+
+     (_a_) "to the timidity and prejudices of &c." (_b_) "shelter
+     themselves behind." (_c_) "while he had at once." (_d_) "had yet
+     done."
+
+40. "William Shakespeare was the sun among the lesser lights of
+English poetry, and a native of Stratford-on-Avon (14 _a_)."
+
+41. "(15 _b_) I think, gentlemen, you must confess that any one of you
+would have done the same (32), if you had been tempted as I was then,
+placed starving and ragged among wasteful luxury and comfort,
+deliberately instigated to acts of dishonesty by those whom I had been
+taught from infancy to love, (_a_) praised when I stole, mocked or
+punished when I failed to (15 _a_) _do_ (_b_) _so_."
+
+     (_a_) Insert another infinitive beside "love." "Love" produces
+     "obedience." (b) Repeat the verb instead of "do so."
+
+42. "So far from being the first (54) _aggressor_, he _not_ (22)
+_only_ refused to prosecute his old friend when a favourable
+opportunity presented itself for revenging himself thus upon him,
+_but also_ his friend's adviser, John Smith. Smith (_a_) _at all_ (23)
+_events_ suspected, if he did not know of the coming danger, and had
+given no information of it."
+
+     (_a_) If "at all events" qualifies "Smith," the sentence must be
+     altered. "Yet, however innocent his friend may have been, at all
+     events Smith suspected...." If the words qualify "suspected,"
+     place them after "suspected."
+
+43. "It is quite true that he paid 5_s._ per day to English navvies,
+_and even 6s._, (19) in preference to 2_s._ 6_d._ to French navvies."
+
+44. "Having climbed to the _apex_ of the Righi to enjoy the spectacle
+of the sun-rise, I found myself so _incommoded_ by a number of
+_illiterate individuals_ who had _emerged_ from the hotel for a (_a_)
+(1) _similar_ purpose, that I determined to quit them _at the earliest
+practicable period_; and therefore, without stopping to _partake of
+breakfast_, I _wended my way_ back _with all possible celerity_." (3)
+
+     (_a_) "the same."
+
+45. "You admit that miracles are _not natural_. Now whatever _is
+unnatural_ is wrong, and since, by your own admission, miracles are
+_unnatural_, it follows that miracles are wrong." (1)
+
+46. "Who is the man that has dared to call into _civilized_ alliance
+the (_a_) (41) inhabitant of the woods, to delegate to the (_a_)
+Indian the defence of our disputed rights?
+
+     (_a_) Insert some antithetical or other epithets.
+
+47. "A (_a_) _very_ (11) _small proportion_ indeed of those who have
+attempted to solve this problem (_b_) (19) have succeeded in obtaining
+even a plausible solution."
+
+     (_a_) State what proportion succeeded, or, if you like, what
+     failed: "not one in a hundred." (_b_) Begin, "Of all those that
+     &c."
+
+48. "_To be suddenly_ (_a_) (47 _a_) _brought into contact_ with a
+system (8) _which_ forces one to submit to wholesale imposture, and
+_to being_ (40 _a_) _barbarously ill-treated_, naturally repels (_a_)
+(15 _a_) _one_."
+
+     (_a_) Write, either (1) "Collision ... causes a natural
+     repulsion," or (2) "When brought into contact ... one is
+     naturally repelled," or (if "ill-treatment" is emphatic), (3)
+     "One is naturally repelled by collision with &c."
+
+49. "We annex a letter recently addressed by Mr. ----'s direction to
+the Editor of the ----, in contradiction of statements, equally
+untrue, which appeared in that periodical, _and_ (_a_) (9) _which_ the
+editor has undertaken to insert in the next number.... I am sure that
+all must regret that statements _so_ (_b_) (51) _utterly_ erroneous
+should have (_c_) (23) _first_ appeared in a publication of such high
+character."
+
+     (_a_) What the writer intended to express was that the editor had
+     undertaken to insert, not the "statements," but the
+     "contradiction." (_b_) Omit either "so" or "utterly." (_c_)
+     "appeared first," or, "for the first time."
+
+50. "This is a book _which_ (10 _a_) _is_ short and amusing, _which_
+(10 _a_) _can be easily_ (_a_) _understood, which_ (10 _a_) is
+admirably adapted for _the purpose for which it_ (_b_) _was_ (54)
+_written_; and (10 _e_) _which_ ought to be more popular than the last
+work _which_ (10 _a_) _was_ published by the same author."
+
+     (_a_) Express "which can be understood" in one adjective. (_b_)
+     "Its purpose."
+
+51. "When thousands are _left_ (19) without (40) _pity_ and without
+(40) _attention_ (19) _on_ a field of battle, amid (40) the insults of
+an enraged foe and (40) the trampling of horses, while the blood from
+their wounds, freezing as it flows, binds them to the earth, and (40)
+they are exposed to the piercing air, _it_ (15 _a_) _must be indeed a
+painful scene_."
+
+     The whole sentence must be remedied by (40).
+
+52. "(_a_) The youth was naturally thoughtful, and disposed (19)
+besides by his early training--(31) which had been conducted with
+great care, the object of his parents being to _pave_ (14) _his way_
+as far as possible over the _stormy_ (14) _sea of temptation_ and to
+_lead_ him into the _harbour_ of virtue--to a sincere (_b_) (1)
+_remorse_ (19) for the (_b_) (1) _crimes_ that he had committed in the
+sight of heaven, and also for his recent (_b_) (1) _sin_ in breaking
+the laws of his country."
+
+     (_a_) First state the reasons for his being "disposed." "The
+     youth was naturally thoughtful; moreover, his early training had
+     been conducted with great care by his parents, whose &c. .... He
+     was therefore disposed &c." (_b_) What is the difference between
+     "remorse" and "repentance," between "sin" and "crime"?
+
+53. "(_a_) _One day_ (54) _early in the morning_, the general was
+approached by a messenger, (30) in the midst of the _entanglements and
+perplexities_ which had _unexpectedly surprised_ him, when the
+_perilous hour of_ (54) _danger_ was at hand, and (37), in spite of
+their promises, even the tribes that were _well disposed_ (54) _and
+friendly_, were threatening to _desert him, and_ (54) _leave him to
+face the enemy_ (_b_) (23) _alone_."
+
+     Condense the sentence by omitting some of the italicized words,
+     _e.g._ (_a_) "Early one morning." (_b_) Though there is no real
+     ambiguity (unless a wrong emphasis is placed on "enemy"), yet, in
+     strictness, "alone" ought to qualify "enemy." Write therefore,
+     "alone in the face of the enemy."
+
+54. "_A man_ (_a_) (10 _d_) _who_ neglected the ordinary duties *of*
+life, and, immersed in study, devoted himself to grand plans for the
+benefit of mankind, (_b_) (44) _and_ refused to provide for the wants
+of those dependent on him, and suffered his aged relatives to become
+paupers because he would not help them, (_c_) would, in my opinion,
+(34) be a bad man, and not altogether (_d_) (40 _a_) without
+hypocrisy."
+
+     (_a_) "If a man." (_b_) "if he refused," or "while he refused."
+     (_c_) "such a man" or "he." (_d_) "to some extent a hypocrite."
+
+55. "I cannot believe in the guilt of (_a_) _one_ (_b_) (10 _e_)
+_who_, whatever may have been said to the contrary, can be shown, and
+has been shown by competent testimony proceeding from those who are
+said to have carefully examined the facts, _in spite_ (23) _of many
+obstacles_, to have resisted all attempts to (29) induce him to leave
+his situation, (_c_) (29) to consult his own interests and to (29)
+establish a business of his own."
+
+     (_a_) "his guilt;" (_b_) (1) "for, whatever &c.... it can be
+     shown by &c.... that, in spite of &c., he resisted." Or (2)
+     insert "in spite ... obstacles" between "have" and "carefully."
+     (_c_) (1) "for the purpose of consulting ... and establishing."
+     Or (2) write "and to consult his own interests by establishing
+     &c."
+
+56. "We must seek for the origin of our freedom, (_a_) (37)
+prosperity, and (_a_) (37) glory, in _that and only_ (_b_) _that_[18]
+portion of our annals, (30) though _it_ (_c_) _is_ sterile and
+obscure. The great English people was (_d_) _then_ formed; the
+notional (_e_) _disposition_ began (_d_) _then_ to exhibit those
+peculiarities which it has ever since (_e_) _possessed_; and our
+fathers (_d_) _then_ became emphatically islanders, (_f_) in their
+politics, (_a_) feelings, and (_a_) manners, _and_ (30 _a_) _not
+merely in their geographical position_."
+
+     (_a_) Repeat the Pronominal Adjective, (_b_) Express the emphatic
+     "only that" by beginning the sentence thus: "It is in that
+     portion of our annals &c." (_c_) Omit. (_d_) "It was then that
+     &c." (_e_) Use words implying something more _marked_ than
+     "disposition," and more _forcible_ than "possessed;" in the
+     latter case, "retained." (_f_) Repeat "islanders."
+
+57. "(_a_) He was _the universal_ (54) _favourite of_ (54) _all_ (8)
+_who knew him_, and cemented many friendships at this period, (_a_)
+(33) (moving in the highest circle of society, and, _as he_ (_b_) (50)
+_had a_ (4 _a_) _certain property, being independent_ of the profits
+of literature), and soon completely extinguished the breath of slander
+which at the outset of his career had threatened to sap the
+foundations of his reputation."
+
+     (_a_) Begin "Moving in &c." (_b_) "rendered independent of ... by
+     &c." Show that Rule (14) is violated by the metaphors.
+
+58. "The outward and material form of that city which, during the
+brief period _which_ (10 _a_) _is_ comprised in our present book,
+reached the highest pitch of military, artistic, and literary glory,
+_was of this_ (_a_) (15) _nature_. The progress of _the_ (_b_) (5)
+_first_ has been already traced."
+
+     (_a_) Begin the sentence with "Such was." (_b_) By "the first" is
+     meant "military glory."
+
+59. "The detachment not only failed to take the fort, (30) spite of
+their numbers and the weakness of the garrison, but also to capture
+the small force that was encamped outside the town, and was, after
+some sharp fighting, driven back with inconsiderable loss."
+
+     Point out the ambiguity. Remedy it by inserting either "which,"
+     or "the assailants."
+
+60. "(_a_) (_b_) _Believing_ that these reforms can _only_ (_c_) (21)
+be effected as public opinion is prepared for them, and that (5)
+_this_ will be more or less advanced in different localities, the Bill
+of the Association, (_a_) (31) which has been for _a_ (3)
+_considerable period_ in draft, and will be introduced in the next
+Session of Parliament, provides for _placing_ (_d_) (3) _the control
+in regard to the points above-mentioned in the_ (3) _hands_ of the
+ratepayers of each locality; the power to be exercised through
+representative Licensing Boards to be periodically elected by them."
+
+     (_a_) Place the parenthesis first, as an independent sentence:
+     "The Bill of the Association has been ... Parliament." (_b_) What
+     noun is qualified by "believing?" Write "In the belief." (_c_)
+     "effected only so far as they are in accordance with public
+     opinion, which &c." (_d_) "it, or, the Bill provides that the
+     ratepayers ... shall receive control ... and shall exercise this
+     control."
+
+61. "I think they are very (1) _nice_ persons, for they kept me amused
+for a _long_ (_a_) (11) _time together_ yesterday by their (1) _nice_
+stories all about _what they_ (_b_) _have experienced_ in Japan, where
+they had been for (_a_) _ever so long_, and (_c_) (43) where they said
+that the natives ripped up _their_ (_d_) (5) stomachs."
+
+     (_a_) Mention some time. (_b_) "experiences" or "adventures."
+     (_c_) "among other things, they told us &c." (_d_) "their own."
+
+62. "To contend for advantageous monopolies, which are regarded with a
+dislike and a suspicion (_a_) _which daily_ (10 _a_) _increases_, (30)
+_however natural it may be to be annoyed at the loss of that which one
+has once possessed_, (15 _a_) is _useless_."
+
+     (_a_) A compound adjective can be used, including "daily."
+
+63. "Upon entering the rustic place of entertainment to partake of
+some refreshment, my nerves were horrified by lighting on a number of
+boisterous individuals who were singing some species of harvest song,
+and simultaneously imbibing that cup which, if it cheers, also
+inebriates; and when, banished from their society by the fumes of the
+fragrant weed, I wended my way to the apartment which adjoined the one
+in which I had hoped to rest my weary limbs, I found an interesting
+assortment of the fairer sex, who were holding a separate
+confabulation apart from the revels of their rougher spouses."
+
+     Write "village inn," "next room," &c., for these absurd
+     circumlocutions. See (3).
+
+64. "When Burgoyne was born, in 1782, Napoleon and Wellington _were
+both boys_ (11)."
+
+     Napoleon studied at Brienne, Wellington at Eton. Mention this,
+     and, in order to imply the _boyhood_, call Wellington "Arthur
+     Wellesley."
+
+65. "An honourable friend of mine, who is now, I believe, near
+me--(38) to whom I never can on any occasion refer without feelings of
+respect, and, on this subject, (36) feelings of the most grateful
+homage; (38) whose abilities upon this occasion, as upon some former
+ones, are not entrusted merely to the perishable eloquence of the
+(_a_) day, but will live to be the admiration of that (_a_) hour when
+all of us are mute and most of us forgotten: (_b_) (38) has told you
+that prudence _is_ (52) the first of virtues, _and_ (52) can never be
+used in the cause of vice."
+
+     (_a_) Though "of the day" is a recognized expression for
+     "ephemeral" or "transitory," yet to use "day" for a short time,
+     and "hour" for a longer, is objectionable. Write _moment_ for
+     _day_. Else write _future_ for _hour_. (_b_) "--this gentleman
+     has told &c."
+
+66. "To see the British artisan and his wife on the Sabbath, neat and
+clean and cheerful, with their children by their sides, (_a_) (19)
+_disporting_ themselves under the open canopy of heaven, _is_ (15)
+_pleasant_."
+
+     (_a_) There is no reasonable ground for mistaking the sense here,
+     as the context makes it clear; but since Lord Shaftesbury was
+     questioned whether he meant _disporting_ to qualify "artisan and
+     his wife" or "children," write "and, by their sides, their
+     children disporting &c."
+
+67. "Even if (_a_) _it were_ attended with extenuating circumstances,
+such conduct would deserve severe reprobation, (_b_) _and it_ is the
+more called for because _it_ would seem that (_c_) _it_ was the
+intention of _the author of the crime_, in perpetrating (_e_) _it_, to
+inflict all the misery that was possible, upon his victim." See (5).
+
+     (_a_) Omit "it were." (_b_) "which." (_c_) "to have been." (_d_)
+     Express "author of the crime" in one word. (_e_) Use the noun.
+
+68. "The (_a_) (1) _observance_ of the heavenly bodies must have been
+attended with great difficulties, (_b_) (30) before the telescope was
+(_a_) (1) _discovered_, and it is not to be wondered at if the
+investigations of astronomers were often unsatisfactory, and failed to
+produce complete (_a_) (1) _persuasion_, (30) (15, _a_) under these
+disadvantages."
+
+     (_a_) What is the difference between "observance" and
+     "observation," "discover" and "invent," "persuasion" and
+     "conviction"? (_b_) Begin "Before &c."
+
+69. "He plunged into the sea once more, (30) not content with his
+previous exertions. After a long and dangerous struggle, he succeeded
+in reaching a poor woman that was crying piteously for help, and (_a_)
+(35) was at last hauled safely to shore."
+
+     (_a_) Point put and remedy the ambiguity by inserting "he" or by
+     writing "who," according to the meaning.
+
+70. "Sir John Burgoyne himself, face to face with Todleben, became
+(_a_) (1) _conscious_ of the difference between the fortifications of
+San Sebastian and of Sebastopol, (_b_) _which_ (10 _e_) was (_c_) (12)
+_very weak_ compared with Metz or Paris."
+
+     (_a_) What is the exact meaning of _conscious_? (_b_) Avoid the
+     relative, by repeating the name, with a conjunction, (_c_)
+     "weakness itself."
+
+71. "Upon Richard's leaving the (_c_) stage, the Commonwealth was
+again set up; and the Parliament which Cromwell had (_a_) _broken_ was
+brought together; but the army and they fell into new disputes: so
+they were again (_a_) _broken_ by the army: and upon that the nation
+was like to fall into (_b_) (11) _great_ convulsions."
+
+     (_a_) Modern Eng., "broken up." (_b_) "violently convulsed."
+     (_c_) It is a question whether this metaphor is in good taste.
+     The meaning is that Richard "retired from public life." It might
+     be asserted that Richard, the Commonwealth, the Parliament are
+     regarded as so many puppets on a "stage." But this is extremely
+     doubtful. Make _Parliament_ the principal subject: "When Richard
+     retired ... and when the Commonwealth &c.... the Parliament was
+     ... but, falling into a dispute with &c., it was...." See (18)
+     and (43).
+
+72. "What a revolution in the military profession! He began with (_a_)
+(11) _unnecessary formality_, and (_b_) (11) _inefficient weapons_,
+and ended with (_c_) (_b_) (11) _greatly improved fire-arms_."
+
+     (_a_) "pig-tail and pipe-clay." (_b_) "Six-pounders and
+     flint-locks" are now inefficient compared with
+     "twenty-four-pounders and breech-loaders." (_c_) Something is
+     wanted antithetical to (_a_), perhaps "loose drill" or "open
+     order."
+
+73. "Children fear to go in the dark. Men fear death in the same way.
+The fear of children is increased by tales. So is the fear of death.
+The contemplation of death, as the 'wages of sin,' and passage to
+another world, is holy and religious. The fear of it, as a tribute due
+unto nature, is weak. In religious meditations on death there is
+sometimes mixture of vanity and of superstition."
+
+     Insert connecting adverbs or conjunctions. See (44).
+
+74. "I have often heard him _reiterate_ (54) _repeatedly_ that he
+would never again, if a _safe_ (54) _and secure path_ was open to him,
+prefer the _perilous_ (54) _road of danger_, however _alluring_ (54)
+_and attractive_ the latter might be."
+
+75. "I thought in my dream that when my friend asked me whether I did
+not observe anything curious in the conduct of the pigeons, I (_a_) (4
+_a_) _remarked_ that if any one of the birds was so bold as to take an
+atom from a heap of grain in the midst of them, (31) (which (_b_) a
+detachment guarded, and which, being continually increased and never
+eaten, seemed useless), all the rest turned against him and pecked him
+to death for the (_c_) (50) _action_."
+
+     (_a_) Point out the ambiguity. (_b_) This should come earlier in
+     the sentence, and not as a parenthesis. "I noticed a heap of
+     grain in the midst of them, guarded by ... Being continually ...,
+     to all appearance, useless: yet." (_c_) "theft."
+
+76. "If this low view of the royal office becomes generally adopted,
+then sovereigns _who_ (8) have always hitherto commanded the respect
+of Englishmen will by degrees fall into disrespect."
+
+     Point out the ambiguity. Show how it might be removed (_a_) by
+     punctuation, (_b_) by altering "who."
+
+77. "I struck the man in self-defence. I explained this to the
+magistrate. He would not believe me. Witnesses were called to support
+my statements. He committed me to prison. He had the right to do this.
+It is a right that is rarely exercised in such circumstances. I
+remonstrated."
+
+     See (44). Insert conjunctions or connecting adverbs.
+
+78. "He attained a very distinguished position by mere (15)
+perseverance and common sense, which (52) (10 _a_) qualities are
+perhaps mostly underrated, (30) though he was deficient in tact and
+not remarkable for general ability."
+
+79. "_Vindictiveness, which_ (_a_) (50) _is a fault_, (_b_) _and_
+which may be defined as _anger_ (10 _a_) _which is caused_ not by sin
+nor by crime but by personal injury, ought to be carefully
+distinguished from _resentment, which_ (_a_) (50) _is a virtue_,
+(_b_) _and_ which is _anger_ (49) _which is natural and_ (_c_) _right_
+caused by an act (_d_) which is unjust, because it is unjust, (30 _a_)
+not because it is inconvenient."
+
+     (_a_) "The fault of vindictiveness;" "the virtue of resentment."
+     (_b_) Omit _(c_) "Right" cannot be used as an adjective, but
+     "righteous" can. (_d_) "an act of injustice."
+
+80. "(_a_) He told his friend that (_a_) _his_ brother was surprised
+that (_a_) _he_ had given so small a contribution, for (_a_) _he_ was
+(_b_) (12) _a very rich man_, in spite of (_a_) _his_ recent losses
+and the bad state of trade, (19) (30) compared with himself."
+
+     (_a_) Use (6). (_b_) What Asian king was proverbial for wealth?
+
+81. "(_a_) (15 _b_) It must be indeed wrong to (_a_) _crucify_ a Roman
+citizen if to (_b_) (32) _slay_ one is almost parricide, to (_b_)
+_scourge_ him is a monstrous crime, and to (_b_) _bind_ him is an
+outrage."
+
+
+  (_a_) "What must it be...?"
+  (_b_) See (40).
+
+
+82. "The _universal_ (54) _opinion of all the_ citizens was that the
+citadel _had been_ (15) _betrayed_, (30) having been captured in broad
+daylight by a very small number of the enemy, and those unprovided
+with scaling ladders, and admitted by a postern gate, (15 _a_) and
+much wearied by a long march."
+
+     In any case "betrayed" must come at the end of a sentence. The
+     sentence may be converted into two sentences: "The citadel had
+     been captured.... Naturally therefore ...;" or, "The opinion ...
+     for it had been captured...." Else, if one sentence be used,
+     write "As the citadel had been captured &c."
+
+83. "This author surpassed all _those who were living_ (_a_) _at the
+same time with him_ in the _forcible_ (_b_) _manner in_ which he could
+_address_ (_c_) _an_ appeal to the popular sympathy, and in the ease
+with which he could _draw towards_ (_a_) _himself_ the hearts of his
+readers."
+
+     (_a_) Express in one word. (_b_) "force with." (_c_) Omit.
+
+84. "This great statesman was indeed a pillar of commerce, and a star
+in the financial world. He guided or impelled the people from the
+quicksands of Protection and false political economy to the safe
+harbour of Free Trade; and (_a_) (14 _a_) saved the country several
+millions."
+
+     (_a_) It would be well to literalize the preceding metaphors.
+     Else the literal statement must be changed into a metaphor.
+
+85. "The ministers were most unwilling to meet the Houses, (_a_) (43)
+(51) _because_ even the boldest of them (though their counsels were
+_lawless_ (15) _and desperate_) had too much value for his (_b_) (11)
+_personal safety_ to think of resorting to the (_c_) (12) unlawful
+modes of extortion that had been familiar to the preceding age."
+
+     (_a_) Begin a new sentence with "Lawless and desperate though
+     their counsels had been &c." (_b_) "neck." (_c_) Insert some of
+     these unlawful modes, "benevolences, ship-money, and the other
+     &c."
+
+86. "_We will not_ (_a_) (15) _pretend to guess what_ our
+grandchildren may think of the character of Lord Byron, as exhibited
+_in_ (15 _a_) _his poetry_." No writer ever had the whole eloquence of
+scorn, misanthropy, _and_ (_a_) (15) _despair_ (15 _a_) _so completely
+at his command_. That _fountain_ (_b_) (12) _of bitterness_ was never
+dry."
+
+     (_a_) "We will not pretend to guess" and "despair" are intended
+     by the author to be emphatic. (_b_) "Marah."
+
+87. "The captain asked to be allowed fifty men, a supply of food, and
+one hundred and fifty breech-loaders. (44) The general replied coldly
+that he could not let his subordinate have (_a_) (4) _anything_ that
+he wanted. (44) The captain was forced to set out (34) with an
+insufficient force, spite of the superabundance of soldiers doing
+nothing in the camp (34), and with every obstacle put in his way by a
+general who from the first had resolved not even to give him ordinary
+assistance, (_b_) (10 _a'_) _which_ the captain had for some time
+anticipated."
+
+     (_a_) Point out and remove the ambiguity. (_b_) Write, according
+     to the meaning, " ... assistance that" or " ... a resolution
+     that."
+
+88. "I am a practical man, and disbelieve in everything (8) _which_ is
+not practical; theories (_a_) _which_ amuse philosophers and pedants
+have no attractions for me, (30) _for this reason_."
+
+     (_a_) What difference in the meaning would be caused by the use
+     of "that" for the second "which"?
+
+89. "Yet, when that discovery drew no other severity but the (11 _a_)
+_turning_ (_a_) _him out of office_, and _the_ (11 _a_) _passing a
+sentence_ (_b_) _condemning him to die for it_ (31) (which was
+presently pardoned, and he was after a short confinement restored to
+his liberty), all men _believed_ that the king knew of the letter,
+(_c_) (43) and that (6 _b_) the pretended confession of the secretary
+was only collusion to lay the jealousies of the king's (_d_) (11 _a_)
+_favouring_ popery, (_e_) (43) which still hung upon him, (30)
+notwithstanding his (_e_) _writing_ on the Revelation, and his (_e_)
+_affecting_ to enter on all occasions into controversy, (_e_)
+asserting in particular that the Pope was Antichrist."
+
+     (_a_) "expulsion from." (_b_) "a pretended sentence to death--a
+     pretence that was soon manifested by his pardon and liberation."
+     (_c_) Begin a new sentence: "'The secretary's pretended
+     confession,' it was said, 'was &c.'" (_d_) "the suspicion that
+     the king favoured Popery." (_e_) The juxtaposition of the two
+     verbal nouns, "writing" and "affecting," with the participle
+     "asserting," is harsh. Write, "For, notwithstanding that he
+     affected controversy, and attacked the Pope as Antichrist in his
+     treatise on the Book of Revelation, the king was still
+     suspected."
+
+90. "The opinion that the sun is fixed was once too (_a_) (1)
+_universal_ to be easily shaken, and a similar prejudice has often
+(_b_) _rendered_ the progress of new inventions (15 _a_) _very slow_,
+(19) arising from the numbers of the believers, and not (36) the
+reasonableness of the belief."
+
+     (_a_) Write "general." Show the absurdity of appending "too" to
+     "universal." (_b_) What single word can be substituted for
+     "rendered slow"?
+
+91. "The rest of the generals were willing to surrender
+unconditionally, (30) _depressed by this unforeseen calamity_; (4)
+_only_ the young colonel, who retained his presence of mind,
+represented to them that they were increasing the difficulties of a
+position in itself very difficult (19) (15, _a_) _by their conduct_."
+
+92. "To (_a_) (31) _an author who_ is, in his expression of any
+sentiment, wavering between _the_ (_b_) _demands of_ perspicuity and
+energy (of which _the_ (_c_) (40 _a_) _former of course_ requires the
+first care, lest (40 _a_) he should fail of both), and (37) doubting
+whether the (_d_) phrase _which_ (8) _has_ (_e_) _the_ most force and
+brevity will be (_f_) readily _taken_ (_g_) _in, it may_ (_h_) (3) _be
+recommended to use_ both (_d_) expressions; first, (_h_) _to expound_
+the sense sufficiently to be clearly understood, and then (_i_) _to_
+contract it into the most compendious and striking form."
+
+     (_a_) Write "When an author &c." (_b_) Can be omitted. (_c_)
+     Assimilate the constructions: "Of which the former must, of
+     course, be aimed at first, lest both be missed." (_d_) Use
+     "expression" or else "phrase" in _both_ places. (_e_) Assimilate
+     the construction to what follows; write "that is most forcible
+     and brief." (_f_) Insert "also." (_g_) "understood." (_h_) "let
+     him use ...; first let him expound." (_i_) Omit.
+
+93. "When I say 'a great man,' I _not_ (22) _only_ mean a man
+intellectually great but also morally, (38) _who_ (8) has no
+preference for diplomacy (_a_) (23) _at all events which_ (10 _a_)
+_is_ mean, petty, and underhanded to secure ends _which_ (8) can be
+secured by an honest policy _equally_ (20) _well_, (38) _who_ (8) does
+not resemble Polonius, (_b_) who prefers to get at truth by untruthful
+tricks, and (_b_) who considers truth a carp _which_ (10 _g_) _is_ to
+be caught by the bait falsehood. We cannot call a petty intriguer
+great (_c_), (30) though we may be forced to call an unscrupulous _man
+by that_ (15 _a_) _name_."
+
+     (_a_) "at all events no preference." (_b_) Why is _who_ right
+     here? If you like, you can write, "does not, like Polonius,
+     prefer ... and consider." (_c_) End with "we cannot give the name
+     to a petty intriguer."
+
+94. "I regret that I have some (_a_) (3) _intelligence which_ (10 _a_)
+_is of a most_ (3) _painful nature_, and which I must tell you at
+once, though (_b_) _I should like to defer it_ on (_c_) (40 _a_)
+account of your ill-health, and _because_ (_c_) (40 _a_) _you have
+already had_ many troubles, and (40 _a_) _owing to_ the natural
+dislike _which_ (8) a friend must always feel to say _that_ (10 _f_)
+_which_ is unpleasant. Many old friends in this district have turned
+against you: I scarcely like to write the words: _only_ (21) I remain
+faithful to you, and I am sure you will believe that I am doing _that_
+(10 _f_) _which_ is best for your interests."
+
+     (_a_) "news." (_b_) In a letter these words should remain is they
+     are; but if a _period_ is desired, they must (30) come last,
+     after "unpleasant." (_c_) Write "because of your ill-health ...
+     and the troubles ... and because of...."
+
+95. "The general at once sent back word that the enemy had suddenly
+appeared on the other side of the river, and [(35) or (37)] then (_a_)
+retreated. (_b_) _It_ was thought that (_b_) _it_ would have shown
+more (_c_) (1) _fortitude_ on his (3) _part_ if he had attacked the
+fortifications, (_d_) _which_ were not tenable for more than a week at
+all events. Such was the (54) _universal_ opinion, _at_ (23) _least,
+of_ (54) _all_ the soldiers."
+
+     (_a_) Point out the ambiguity. (_b_) "It was thought he would
+     have shown &c." (_c_) Distinguish between "fortitude" and
+     "bravery." (_d_) What would be the meaning if "that" were
+     substituted for "which"? It will be perhaps better to substitute
+     for "which," "since they."
+
+96. "A notion has sprung up that the Premier, though he can legislate,
+cannot govern, and has attained an influence which renders it
+imperative, if this Ministry is to go on, that (_a_) _it_ should be
+dispersed."
+
+     (_a_) Who or what "has attained"? Write "and this notion has
+     become so powerful that, unless it is dispersed...."
+
+97. "Those who are _habitually silent_ (_a_) (3) _by disposition_ and
+morose are less liable to the fault of exaggerating than those who are
+_habitually_ (_a_) (3) _fond of talking_, and (40 _a_) _of_ (_a_) (3)
+_a pleasant disposition_."
+
+     (a) Each of these periphrases must be condensed into a single
+     adjective.
+
+98. "This author, (_a_) (31) though he is not (_b_) _altogether_ (_c_)
+_guiltless of_ (_b_) _occasional_ (_c_) _faults_ of exaggeration,
+which are to be found as plentifully in his latest works as in _those
+which he_ (_d_) _published when he was beginning his career as an
+author_, yet, _notwithstanding these_ (_e_) _defects_, surpassed all
+_those who were living_ _at the_ (_f_) _same time with him_ in the
+_clear_ (_g_) _manner in_ which he could, as it were, see into the
+feelings of the people at large, and in the power--_a power that
+indeed could not be_ (_f_) _resisted_--with which he _drew_ (_f_)
+_toward himself_ the sympathy of _those who_ (_f_) _perused his
+works_." See (54).
+
+     (_a_) Convert the parenthesis into a separate sentence. (_b_) One
+     of these words is unnecessary. (_c_) One of these is unnecessary.
+     (_d_) Condense: "his earliest." (_e_) Omit these words as
+     unnecessary. (_f_) Express all this in one word. (_g_) "clearness
+     with."
+
+99. "_Among the North_ (_a_) (23) _American Indians_ I had indeed
+heard of the perpetration of similar atrocities; but it seemed
+intolerable that such things should occur in a civilized land: and I
+rushed from the room at once, leaving the wretch where he stood, with
+his tale half told, (30) _horror-stricken at his crime_."
+
+     (_a_) Make it evident whether the speaker once _lived_ among the
+     North American Indians, or not, and show who is
+     "horror-stricken."
+
+100. "His (1) _bravery_ under this painful operation and the (1)
+_fortitude_ he had shown in heading the last charge in the recent
+action, (30) _though he was_ wounded at the time and had been unable
+to use his right arm, and was the only officer left in his regiment,
+out of twenty who were alive the day before, (19) inspired every one
+with admiration."
+
+     Begin, "Out of twenty officers &c.... Though wounded &c.... he
+     had headed." "The bravery he had then shown and...."
+
+101. "_Moral_ as well as (41) _other_ considerations must have weight
+when we are selecting an officer (_a_) _that_ (10 _b_) _will be placed
+in_ a position that will task his intelligence (_b_) (18) _and his
+fidelity_."
+
+     (_a_) The repetition of "that" is objectionable. Use "to fill."
+     (_b_) "and" can be replaced by some other conjunction to suit
+     what precedes.
+
+102. "It happened that at this time there were a few Radicals in the
+House _who_ (8) could not forgive the Prime Minister for being a
+Christian."
+
+     Point out the difference of meaning, according as we read "who"
+     or "that."
+
+103. "_It cannot be doubted_ (15 _b_) _that_ the minds of a vast
+number of men would be left poor shrunken things, full of melancholy
+and indisposition, and unpleasing to themselves, if (32) there were
+taken out of men's minds vain opinions, false valuations, imaginations
+as one (_a_) would, and _the_ (15 _a_) _like_."
+
+     (_a_) The meaning (which cannot easily be more tersely expressed
+     than in the original) is "castles in the air," "pleasant
+     fancies."
+
+104. "God never wrought a miracle to refute atheism, because His
+ordinary works refute it. (_a_) A little philosophy inclines man's
+mind to atheism: depth in philosophy brings men's minds back to
+religion. (44) While the mind of man looks upon second causes
+scattered, it may sometimes rest in them; (44) when it beholds the
+chain of them confederate and linked together, it must needs
+acknowledge a Providence. (44) That school which is most accused of
+atheism most clearly demonstrates the truth of religion."
+
+     (_a_) Insert a suspensive conjunction. See (34).
+
+105. "The spirit of Liberty and the spirit of Nationality were once
+for all dead; (_a_) (5) _it_ might be for a time a pious duty, but it
+could not continue always _expedient or_ (_c_) (15) (18) _profitable
+to_ (_b_) (13) _mourn_ (_c_) (15 _a_) _for their loss_. Yet this is
+the (_b_) (13) _feeling_ of the age of Trajan."
+
+     (_a_) Omit. (_b_) "To sit weeping by their grave;" "attitude."
+     (_c_) Notice that "expedient or profitable" are emphatic, as is
+     shown by "yet" in the next sentence. Make it evident therefore,
+     by their position, that these words are more emphatic than "to
+     mourn &c."
+
+106. "(_a_) _If we ask_ (15 _b_) what was the nature of the force by
+which this change was effected, (_a_) _we find it to have been_ (_b_)
+the force that had seemed almost dead for many generations--(38) of
+theology."
+
+     (_a_) Omit these words. (_b_) Begin a new sentence: "It was a
+     force &c."
+
+107. "I remember Longinus highly recommends a description of a storm
+by Homer, because (_a_) (5) (_c_) _he_ has not amused himself with
+little fancies upon the occasion, as authors of an inferior genius,
+whom he mentions, (_b_) (15 _a_) have done, (30) _but_ (_c_) _because_
+he has gathered together those (_d_) (1) _events_ which are the most
+apt to terrify the imagination, and (35) really happen in the raging
+of a tempest."
+
+     (_a_) "The poet." (_b_) Omit "have done" and write "like some
+     authors." (_c_) Suspend the sentence by writing "the poet ...
+     instead of ... has." (_d_) What is the word for "that which
+     happens _around_ one, or in connection with some central object?"
+
+108. "To have passed (_a_) (3) _in a self-satisfied manner_ through
+twenty years of office, letting things take their own course; to have
+(_b_) _sailed_ with consummate sagacity, never against the tide of
+popular (_c_) _judgement_; to have left on record as the sole title to
+distinction among English ministers a peculiar art of (_d_) _sporting
+with_ the heavy, the awful responsibility of a nation's destiny with
+the jaunty grace of a juggler (11) (_e_) _playing with_ his golden
+ball; to have joked and intrigued, and bribed and (_f_) _deceived_,
+with the result of having done nothing (_g_), (_h_) _either_ for the
+poor, (_h_) _or_ for religion (for (_i_) which indeed he did worse
+than nothing), (_h_) _or_ for art and science, (_h_) _or_ for the
+honour or concord or even the financial prosperity of the nation, (38)
+is surely a miserable basis on which the reputation of a great (15)
+statesman _can be_ (_k_) (15 _a_) _founded_."
+
+     (_a_) "complacently." (_b_) "Sail" implies will and effort: use a
+     word peculiar to a helpless ship, so as to contrast paradoxically
+     with "sagacity." (_c_) Use a word implying less thought and
+     deliberation. (_d_) _With_ is too often repeated; write "bearing"
+     so as to introduce the illustration abruptly. (_e_) "tossing."
+     (_f_) Use a word implying a particular kind of "deceit," not
+     "lying," but the next thing to "lying." (_g_) Insert the word
+     with a preceding and intensifying adverb, "absolutely nothing."
+     (_h_) Instead of "either," "or," repeat "nothing." (_i_) The
+     parenthesis breaks the rhythm. Write "nothing, or worse than
+     nothing." (_k_) "to found."
+
+109. "A glance at the clock will make you (1) _conscious_ that it is
+nearly three in the morning, and I therefore ask you, gentlemen,
+instead of wasting more time, to put this question to yourselves, 'Are
+we, or are we not, here, for the purpose of (1) _eliminating_ the
+truth?'"
+
+110. "The speech of the Right Honourable member, so far from
+_unravelling_ (14) _the obscurities of this knotty question_, is
+eminently calculated to mislead his supporters (_a_) (8 _a_) _who_
+have not made a special study of it. It may be (_b_) (23) _almost_
+asserted of every statement (8) _which_ he has made that the very (1)
+_converse_ is the fact."
+
+     (_a_) The meaning appears to be, not "_all_ his supporters," but
+     "_those of_ his supporters who:" the convenience of writing "his
+     supporters _that_" is so great that I should be disposed to use
+     "that." (_b_) "Every," not "asserted," requires the juxtaposition
+     of "almost."
+
+111. "The provisions of the treaty _which_ (8) require the consent of
+the Parliament of Canada await its assembling."
+
+     Point out the meaning conveyed by _which_, and by _that_.
+
+112. "Mrs. Smith demonstrated (26), in opposition to the general
+dictum of the press, that (_a_) _there had been_ a reaction against
+woman's suffrage, that there had really been a gain of one vote in the
+House of Commons."
+
+     (_a_) Substitute "instead of," and erase the second "that."
+
+113. "The practice of smoking hangs like a gigantic (14 _a_) cloud of
+evil over the country."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[18] That which treats of the thirteenth century.
+
+
+
+
+CONTINUOUS EXERCISES.
+
+
+CLEARNESS.
+
+The following exercises consist of extracts from Burnet, Butler, and
+Clarendon, modernized and altered with a view to remove obscurity and
+ambiguity. The modernized version will necessarily be inferior to the
+original in unity of style, and in some other respects. The charm of
+the author's individuality, and the pleasant ring of the old-fashioned
+English, are lost. It is highly necessary that the student should
+recognize this, and should bear in mind that the sole object is to
+show how the meaning in each case might have been more _clearly_
+expressed.
+
+Occasionally expressions have been altered, not as being in themselves
+obscure or objectionable, but as indicating a habit of which beginners
+should beware. For example, in the extract from Burnet, _he_ is often
+altered, not because, in the particular context, the pronoun presents
+any obscurity, but because Burnet's habit of repeating _he_ is faulty.
+
+These exercises can be used in two ways. The pupil may either have his
+book open and be questioned on the reasons for each alteration, or,
+after studying the two versions, he may have the original version
+dictated to him, and then he may reproduce the parallel version, or
+something like it, on paper.
+
+                         LORD CLARENDON.
+
+The principal faults in this style are, long heterogeneous sentences
+(43), use of phrases for words (47 _a_), ambiguous use of pronouns
+(5), excessive separation of words grammatically connected together
+(19).
+
+        ORIGINAL VERSION.                      PARALLEL VERSION.
+
+  (44) It will not be impertinent     And now, in order to explain, as
+  nor _unnatural to this_ (50)        far as possible, how so prodigious
+  _present discourse_, to set down    an alteration could take place in
+  in this place the present temper    so short a time, and how the[19]
+  and constitution of both  Houses    royal power could fall so low as
+  of Parliament, and (34) of the      to be unable to support itself,
+  court itself, (30) that (5) _it_    its dignity, or its faithful
+  may be the less wondered at, that   servants, it will be of use to set
+  so prodigious an alteration should  down here, where it comes most
+  be made in so short a time, and     naturally, some account of the[20]
+  (37) the crown fallen so low, that  present temper and composition,
+  it could neither support itself     not only of both Houses of
+  nor its own majesty, nor _those     Parliament, but also of the court
+  who would_ (47 _a_) _appear         itself.
+  faithful to it_.
+
+    *     *     *     *     *           *     *     *     *     *
+
+         (Here follows a description of the House of Lords.)
+
+  In the House of Commons were many   In the House of Commons
+  persons of wisdom and gravity, who  there were many men of wisdom
+  (7) _being possessed_ of great and  and judgment whose high
+  plentiful fortunes, though they     position and great wealth disposed
+  were undevoted enough to the        them, in spite of their indifference
+  court, (19) had all imaginable      to the court, to feel
+  duty for the king, and affection    a most loyal respect for the
+  to the government _established_(47  king, and a great affection for
+  _a_) _by law_ or ancient custom;    the ancient constitutional
+  (43) and without doubt, the _major  government of the country. Indeed,
+  part of that_ (54) _body_           it cannot be doubted that
+  consisted of men who had no mind    the majority had no intention to
+  to break the peace of the kingdom,  break the peace of the kingdom
+  or to make any considerable         or to make any considerable
+  alteration in the government of     alteration in Church or State.
+  Church or State: (43) and           Consequently, from the very
+  therefore (18) _all_ inventions     outset, it was necessary to resort
+  were set on _foot from the_ (15)    to every conceivable device
+  _beginning_ to work upon (5)        for the purpose of perverting
+  _them_, and (11) corrupt (5)        this honest majority into rebellion.
+  _them_, (43) (45) by suggestions
+  "of the dangers (8) _which_         With some, the appeal was
+  threatened all that was precious    addressed to their patriotism.
+  to the subject (19) in their        They were warned "of the
+  liberty and their property, by      dangers that threatened [all
+  _overthrowing_ (47 _a_) _or         that was precious in] the liberty
+  overmastering_ the law, _and_ (47   and property of the subject,
+  _a_) _subjecting_ it to _an         if the laws were to be made
+  arbitrary_ (47_a_) _power_, and by  subservient to despotism, and
+  countenancing Popery to the         if Popery was to be encouraged
+  subversion of the Protestant        to the subversion of the Protestant
+  religion," and then, by             religion."
+  infusing terrible apprehensions
+  into some, and so working upon      The fears of others were appealed
+  their fears, (6 _b_) "of (11 _a_)   to. "There was danger," so[21] it
+  being called in question for        was said, "that they might be
+  somewhat they had done," by which   called to account for something
+  (5) _they_ would stand in need of   they had done, and they would then
+  (5) _their_ protection; and (43)    stand in need of the help of those
+  (45) raising the hopes of others,   who were now giving them this
+  "that, by _concurring_ (47 _a_)     timely warning." In others, hopes
+  _with_ (5) _them_ (5) _they_        were excited, and offices,
+  should be sure to obtain offices    honours, and preferments were held
+  and honours and any kind of         out as the reward of adhesion.
+  preferment." Though there were too  Too many were led away by one or
+  many corrupted and misled by these  other of these temptations, and
+  several temptations, and (19)       indeed some needed no other
+  others (40 _a_) who needed no       temptation than their innate
+  other temptations than from the     fierceness and barbarity and the
+  fierceness and barbarity _of        malice they had contracted against
+  their_ (47 _a_) _own natures_, and  the Church and the court. But the
+  the malice they had contracted      leaders of the conspiracy were not
+  against the Church and against the  many. The flock was large and
+  court; (43) yet the number was not  submissive, but the shepherds were
+  great _of those in whom the         very few.
+  government of the rest_ (47 _a_)
+  _was vested_, nor were there many
+  who had the absolute authority
+  (13) to lead, though there were a
+  multitude (13) that was disposed
+  to follow.
+
+  (44) (30) Mr. Pym was looked upon   Of these, Mr. Pym was thought
+  as the man of greatest experience   superior to all the rest in
+  in parliaments, _where he had_      parliamentary experience. To this
+  (50) _served very long_, and _was   advantage he added habits of
+  always_ (50) _a man of business_,   business acquired from his
+  (7) being an officer in the         continuous service in the
+  Exchequer, (43) and of a good       Exchequer. He had also a good
+  reputation generally, (30) though   reputation generally; for, though
+  known to be inclined to the         known to be inclined to the
+  Puritan party; yet not of those     Puritan party, yet he was not so
+  furious resolutions against the     fanatically set against the Church
+  Church as the other leading men     as the other leaders. In this
+  were, and (44) wholly devoted to    respect he resembled the Earl of
+  the Earl of Bedford, who had        Bedford, to whom he was
+  nothing of that spirit.             thoroughly devoted.
+
+            (Here follow descriptions of Hampden and Saint John.)
+
+  It was generally believed that      These three persons, with the
+  these three persons, with the       three peers mentioned before, were
+  other three lords mentioned         united in the closest confidence,
+  before, were of the most intimate   and formed the mainspring of the
+  and entire trust with each other,   party. Such at least was the
+  and made _the engine which_ (47     general belief. But it was clear
+  _a_) _moved_ all the rest; (30)     that they also admitted to their
+  yet it was visible, that (15)       unreserved confidence two others,
+  _Nathaniel Fiennes, the second son  (45) whom I will now
+  of the Lord Say, and Sir Harry      describe,--Nathaniel Fiennes,
+  Vane, eldest son to the Secretary,  second son of Lord Say, and Sir
+  and Treasurer of the House_, were   Harry Vane, eldest son of the
+  received by them with full          Secretary, and Treasurer of the
+  confidence and without reserve.     House.
+
+  The former, being a man of good     Nathaniel Fiennes, a man of good
+  parts of learning, and after some   parts, was educated at New
+  years spent in New College in       College, Oxford, where[22] his
+  Oxford, (43) of which his father    family claimed and enjoyed some
+  had been formerly fellow, (43)      privileges in virtue of their
+  that family pretending[23] and      kindred to the founder, and
+  enjoying many privileges there, as  where[22] his father had formerly
+  of kin to the founder, (43) (19)    been a fellow. He afterwards spent
+  had spent his time abroad in        some time in Geneva and in the
+  Geneva and amongst the cantons of   cantons of Switzerland, where[22]
+  Switzerland, (30) where he          he increased that natural
+  improved his disinclination to the  antipathy to the Church which he
+  Church, with which milk he had      had imbibed almost with his
+  been nursed. From his travels he    mother's milk.[24] By a singular
+  returned through Scotland (52)      coincidence, he came home through
+  (which[24] few travellers took in   Scotland (not a very common route
+  their way home) at the time when    for returning travellers) just
+  (5) _that_ rebellion was in bud:    when the Scotch rebellion was in
+  (30) (43) (44) and was very little  bud. For some time he was scarcely
+  known, except amongst (5) _that_    known beyond the narrow and
+  people, _which conversed_ (47 _a_)  exclusive circle of his sect,
+  _wholly amongst themselves,_ until  until at last he appeared in
+  he was now (15) _found in           Parliament. Then, indeed, it was
+  Parliament_, (30) (43) (44) when    quickly discovered that he was
+  it was quickly discovered that,     likely to fulfil even the fond
+  as he was the  darling of his       hopes of his father and the high
+  father, so (5) _he_  was like to     promise of many years.
+  make good whatsoever _he_ had
+  for many years promised.
+
+  (5) _The other_, Sir H. Vane, was   Fiennes' coadjutor, Sir H. Vane,
+  a man of great natural parts[25]    was a man of great natural
+  (45) and of very profound           ability.[25] Quick in understanding
+  dissimulation, of a quick           and impenetrable in dissembling,
+  conception, and of very ready,      he could also speak with
+  sharp, and weighty expression. He   promptness, point, and weight. His
+  had an (50) unusual aspect, which,  singular appearance, though it
+  though it might naturally proceed   might naturally proceed from his
+  from his father and mother,         parents, who were not noted for
+  neither of which were beautiful     their beauty, yet impressed men
+  persons, yet (19) made men think    with the belief that he had in him
+  there was somewhat in him of        something extraordinary, an
+  extraordinary: and (52) his whole   impression that was confirmed by
+  life made good that imagination.    the whole of his life. His
+  Within a very short time after he   behaviour at Oxford, where he
+  returned from his studies in        studied at Magdalen College, was
+  Magdalen College in Oxford, where,  not characterized, in spite of the
+  (43) though he was under the care   supervision of a very worthy
+  of a very worthy tutor, he lived    tutor, by a severe morality. Soon
+  not with great exactness, (43) he   after leaving Oxford he spent some
+  spent some little time in France,   little time in France, and more in
+  and more in Geneva, and, (43)       Geneva. After returning to
+  after his return into England,      England, he conceived an intense
+  (38) contracted a full prejudice    hatred not only against the
+  and bitterness against the Church,  government of the Church, which
+  both against the form of the        was disliked by many, but also
+  government and the Liturgy, (43)    against the Liturgy, which was
+  which was generally in great        held in great and general
+  reverence, (15 _a_) _even with      reverence.
+  many of those who were not
+  friends_ to (5) _the other_. In     Incurring or seeming to incur, by
+  his giddiness, which then much      his giddiness, the displeasure of
+  displeased, or seemed to            his father, who at that time,
+  displease, (30) (43) his father,    beside strictly conforming to the
+  who still appeared highly           Church himself, was very bitter
+  conformable, and exceedingly sharp  against Nonconformists, the young
+  against those who were not,         Vane left his home for New
+  (5) _he_ transported himself into   England.
+  New England, (43) a colony within
+  few years before planted by a       This colony had been planted a few
+  mixture of all religions,[26] which years before by men of all sorts of
+  disposed the professors to dislike  religions, and their
+  the government of the Church; who   differences[26] disposed them to
+  (30) (43) (44) were qualified by    dislike the government of the
+  the king's charter to choose their  Church. Now, it happened that their
+  own government and governors,       privilege (accorded by the king's
+  under the obligation, "that every   charter) of choosing their own
+  man should take the oaths of        government and governors was
+  allegiance and supremacy;" (30)     subject to this obligation, "that
+  (43) (5) _which_ all the first      every man should take the oaths of
+  planters did, when they received    allegiance and supremacy." These
+  their charter, before they          oaths had been taken, not only by
+  transported themselves from hence,  all the original planters, on
+  nor was there in many years after   receiving their charter, before
+  the least scruple amongst them of   leaving England, but also for many
+  complying with those obligations:   years afterwards, without exciting
+  so far men were, _in the infancy_   the slightest scruple. Indeed,
+  (15) _of their schism_, from        scruples against lawful oaths were
+  refusing to take lawful oaths.      unknown[27] in the infancy of the
+  (45) He was no sooner landed        English schism. But with the
+  there, but his parts made him       arrival of Vane all this was
+  quickly taken notice of, (26) and   changed. No sooner had he landed
+  very probably his quality, being    than his ability, and perhaps to
+  the eldest son of a                 some extent his position, as eldest
+  Privy-councillor, might give him    son of a Privy-councillor,
+  some advantage; _insomuch_ (51)     recommended him to notice: and at
+  _that_, when the next season came   the next election he was chosen
+  for the election of their           Governor.
+  magistrates, he was chosen their
+  governor: (30) (45) (43) in which   In his new post, his restless and
+  place he had so ill fortune (26)    unquiet imagination found
+  (his working and unquiet fancy      opportunity for creating and
+  raising and infusing a thousand     diffusing a thousand conscientious
+  scruples of conscience, which (5)   scruples that had not been brought
+  _they_ had not brought over with    over, or ever even heard of, by the
+  them, nor heard of before) (19)     colonists. His government proved a
+  that he  unsatisfied with           failure: and, mutually
+  them and they with him,             dissatisfied, (45) governed and
+  he retransported himself            governor parted. Vane returned
+  into England; (30) (43) (44)        to England, but not till he had
+  having sowed such seed of           accomplished his mischievous task,
+  dissension there, as grew up too    not till he had sown the seeds of
+  prosperously, and miserably         those miserable dissensions which
+  divided the poor colony into        afterwards grew only too
+  several factions, and divisions     prosperously, till they split the
+  and persecutions of each (15 _a_)   wretched colony into distinct,
+  _other_, (30) (43) which still      hostile, and mutually persecuting
+  continue _to the great_ (54)        factions. His handiwork still
+  _prejudice of that plantation_:     remains, and it is owing to (15)
+  insomuch as some of (5) _them_,     _him_ that some of the colonists,
+  upon the ground of their first      on the pretext of liberty of
+  expedition, liberty of conscience,  conscience, the original cause of
+  have withdrawn themselves from (5)  their emigration, have withdrawn
+  _their_ jurisdiction, and obtained  themselves from the old colonial
+  other charters from the king, by    jurisdiction and have obtained
+  which, (30) (43) in other forms of  fresh charters from the king.
+  government, they have enlarged      These men have established new
+  their plantations, within new       forms of government, unduly
+  limits adjacent to (5) (15 _a_)     enlarged their boundaries, and set
+  _the other_.their plantations,      up rival settlements on the
+  within new limits adjacent to (5)   borders of the original colony.
+  (15 _a_) _the other_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[19] The original metaphor uses the crown as a prop, which seems a
+confusion. Though the metaphor is so common as scarcely to be regarded
+as a metaphor, it is better to avoid the appearance of confusion.
+
+[20] We sometimes say, briefly but not perhaps idiomatically, "the
+_then_ sovereign," "the _then_ temper," &c.
+
+[21] The personality of the tempters and organizers of the conspiracy
+is purposely kept in the background.
+
+[22] The relative is retained in the first two cases, because it
+conveys the _reason why_ Fiennes was educated at New College; and in
+the third case, because the increased "antipathy" is regarded as the
+natural _consequence_ of the residence in Calvinistic Geneva.
+
+[23] Claiming.
+
+[24] An insinuation of sedition seems intended.
+
+[25] This sentence is a preliminary summary of what follows.
+
+[26] If "which" is used here according to Rule (8), the meaning is,
+(_a_) "and their differences;" if it is used for "that," the meaning
+will be, (_b_) "all religions that were of a nature to dispose &c." I
+believe (_a_) is the meaning; but I have found difference of opinion
+on the question.
+
+[27] The following words appear to be emphatic, bringing out the
+difference between the _infancy_ and the development of schism.
+
+
+                              BURNET.
+
+The principal faults in Burnet's style are (_a_) the use of
+heterogeneous sentences (see 43); (_b_) the want of suspense (see 30);
+(_c_) the ambiguous use of pronouns (see 5); (_d_) the omission of
+connecting adverbs and conjunctions, and an excessive use of _and_
+(see 44); and (_e_) an abruptness in passing from one topic to another
+(see 45). The correction of these faults necessarily lengthens the
+altered version.
+
+       ORIGINAL VERSION.                      PARALLEL VERSION.
+
+  And his maintaining the honour of   He also gratified the English
+  the nation in all foreign           feeling of self-respect by
+  countries gratified the (1)         maintaining the honour of the
+  _vanity which is very natural_      nation in all foreign countries.
+  (50) _to Englishmen_; (30) (43) of  So jealous was he on this point
+  which he was _so_ (15) (17 _a_)     that, though he was not a crowned
+  _careful_ that, though he was not   head, he yet secured for his
+  a crowned head, yet his (40 _a_)    ambassadors all the respect that
+  ambassadors had all the respects    had been paid to the ambassadors
+  paid them which our (15) _kings'_   of our kings. The king, he said,
+  ambassadors ever had: he said (6    received respect simply as the
+  _b_) the dignity of the crown       nation's representative head,
+  was upon the account of the         and, since the nation was the
+  nation, _of which the king was_     same, the same respect should
+  (50) _only the representative       be paid to the[28] nation's
+  head_; so, the nation being the     ministers.
+  same, he would have the same
+  regards paid to (41) his
+  ministers.
+
+  Another[29] instance of (5) _this_  The following instance of jealousy
+  pleased _him_ much. Blake with the  for the national honour pleased
+  fleet _happened_ (50) _to be_ at    him much. When Blake was at Malaga
+  Malaga before he made war upon      with his fleet, before his war
+  Spain: (44) _and_ some of his       with Spain, it happened that some
+  seamen went ashore, _and_ met the   of his sailors going ashore and
+  Host carried about; (44) _and_ not  meeting the procession of the
+  only paid no respect to it, but     Host, not only paid no respect to
+  laughed at those who did; (43)      it, but even laughed at those who
+  (30) (51) so one of the priests     did. Incited by one of the priests
+  put the people upon resenting this  to resent the indignity, the
+  indignity; _and_ they fell upon     people fell on the scoffers and
+  (5) _them and_ beat them severely.  beat them severely. On their
+  When they returned to their ship    return to the ship the seamen
+  (5) _they_ complained of (5)        complained of this ill-usage,
+  _this_ usage; and upon that Blake   whereupon Blake sent a messenger
+  sent a trumpet to the viceroy to    to the viceroy to demand the
+  demand the priest who was the       priest who was the instigator of
+  chief (1) _instrument_ in that      the outrage. The viceroy answered
+  ill-usage. The viceroy answered     that he could not touch him, as he
+  _he_ had no authority over the      had no authority over the priests.
+  (15) _priests_, and so could not    To this Blake replied, that he did
+  dispose of him. Blake upon that     not intend to inquire to whom the
+  sent him word that _he_ would not   authority belonged, but, if the
+  inquire who had the (1) power to    priest were not sent within three
+  send the priest to him, but if      hours, he would burn the town. The
+  _he_ were not sent within three     townspeople being in no condition
+  hours, _he_ would burn their town;  to resist, the priest was at once
+  (43) and (5) _they_, being in no    sent. On his arrival, he defended
+  condition to resist _him_, sent     himself, alleging the insolence of
+  the priest to _him_, (43) (44) who  the sailors. But the English (50)
+  justified himself upon the           Admiral replied that a complaint
+  petulant behaviour of the seamen.    should have been forwarded to him,
+                                       and then he would have punished
+  (44) Blake answered that, if (5)     them severely, for none of his
+  _he_ had sent a complaint to (5)     sailors should be allowed to
+  _him of_(5) _it_, (5) _he_ would     affront the established religion
+  have punished them severely, since   of any place where they touched.
+  (5) _he_ would not suffer _his_      "But," he added, "I take it ill
+  men to affront the established       that you should set on your
+  religion of any place at which (5)   countrymen to do my work; for I
+  _he_ touched; but (5) (6) _he_       will have all the world know that
+  took it ill, that _he_ set on the    an Englishman is only to be
+  Spaniards to do (5) _it_; for _he_   punished, by an Englishman." Then,
+  would have all the world to know     satisfied with having had the (50)
+  that an Englishman was only to be    offender at his mercy, Blake
+  punished by an Englishman; (43)      entertained him civilly and sent
+  (44) and so he treated the priest    him back.
+  civilly, and sent him back (30),
+  being satisfied that he had him at
+  his mercy.
+
+  Cromwell was much delighted with    Cromwell was much delighted with
+  (5) _this_, (43) and read the       Blake's conduct. Reading the
+  letters in council with great       letters in council with great
+  satisfaction; _and_ said he (6)     satisfaction, he said, "I hope I
+  hoped he should make the name of    shall make the name of an
+  an Englishman as great as ever      Englishman as much respected as
+  that of a Roman (15 _a_) _had       ever was the name of Roman."
+  been_. (44) The States of Holland   Among other countries the States
+  were in such dread of (5) him that  of Holland were in such dread of
+  they took care to give him no sort  Cromwell that they took care to
+  of umbrage; (43) (44) _and_ when    give him no sort of umbrage.
+  at any time the king or his         Accordingly, whenever the king or
+  brothers came to see their sister   his brothers came to see the
+  the Princess Royal, (23) within a   Princess Royal their sister, they
+  day or two after, (5) _they_ used   were always warned in a day or two
+  to send a deputation to let _them_  by a deputation that Cromwell had
+  know that Cromwell had required of  required of the States to give
+  the States that (5) _they_ should   them no harbourage.
+  give _them_ no harbour.
+
+    *     *     *     *     *           *     *     *     *     *
+
+  Cromwell's favourite alliance was   The free kingdom of Sweden was
+  Sweden.[30] (44) Carolus Gustavus   Cromwell's favourite ally; not
+  and he lived in great conjunction   only under Charles Gustavus, with
+  of counsels. (44) Even Algernon     whom he was on most confidential
+  Sydney, (10 _a_) _who_ was not      terms, but also under Christina.
+  inclined to think or speak well of  Both these sovereigns had just
+  kings, commended _him_ (5) to me;   notions of public liberty; at
+  and  said _he_ (5) had just         least, Algernon Sydney, a man
+  notions of public liberty; (44)     certainly not prejudiced in favour
+  (43) _and_ added, that Queen        of royalty, assured me this was
+  Christina seemed to have _them_     true of Gustavus. He also held the
+  likewise. But (44) she was          same opinion of Queen Christina;
+  much changed from that, when        but, if so, she was much changed
+  I waited on her at Rome; for        when I waited on her at Rome; for
+  she complained of us as a factious  she then complained of the factious
+  nation, _that did not readily       and unruly spirit of our nation.
+  comply with the commands_ (47 _a_)
+  _of our princes_. (44) All Italy    All Italy, no less than
+  trembled at the name of Cromwell,   Holland,[31] trembled at the name
+  and seemed under a (1) _panic_ as   of Cromwell, and dreaded him till
+  long as he lived; (43) his fleet    he died. Nor durst the Turks
+  scoured the Mediterranean; and the  offend the great (50) Protector
+  Turks durst not offend him; but     whose fleet scoured the
+  delivered up Hyde, who kept up the  Mediterranean; and they even gave
+  character of an ambassador from     up Hyde, who, for keeping up in
+  the king there (23) (43), and was   Turkey the character of ambassador
+  brought over and executed for (5)   from the king, was brought to
+  _it_.                               England and executed.
+
+  (44) (11 _a_) The _putting_ the     In another instance of severity
+  brother of the king of Portugal's   towards foreigners--the execution
+  ambassador to death for murder,     of the brother of the Portuguese
+  was (11 _a_) _carrying_ justice     ambassador for murder--Cromwell
+  very far; (43) since, though in     carried justice very far. For,
+  the strictness of the law of        though in strictness the law of
+  nations, it is only the             nations exempts from foreign
+  ambassador's own person that is     jurisdiction the ambassador alone,
+  exempted from (4) _any authority_   yet in practice the exemption has
+  (47 _a_) _but his master's that     extended to the whole of the
+  sends him_, yet the practice has    ambassador's suite.
+  gone in favour of _all that the
+  ambassador owned_ (47 _a_) _to      Successful abroad, Cromwell was no
+  belong to him_. (41) (44) Cromwell  less successful at home in
+  showed his good (11)                selecting able and worthy men for
+  _understanding_ in nothing more     public duties, especially for the
+  than in seeking[32] out capable     courts of law. In nothing did he
+  and worthy men for all employments, show more clearly his great
+  but most particularly for the       natural insight, and nothing
+  courts of law, (43) (30 _a_)        contributed more to his popularity.
+  (10 _a_) which gave a general
+  satisfaction.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[28] The meaning is "_his_, and therefore _the nation's_, ministers."
+There is a kind of antithesis between "the nation" and "the nation's
+ministers."
+
+[29] No instance has yet been mentioned.
+
+[30] The thought that is implied, and should be expressed, by the
+words, is this: "Cromwell's favourite ally was a free country."
+
+[31] The remarks about Christina are a digression, and Burnet is now
+returning to the respect in which Cromwell was held by foreign
+nations.
+
+[32] He not only sought, but sought successfully. That "find" is not
+necessarily implied by "seek out" seems proved by the use of the word
+in the Authorized Version, 2 Tim. ii. 17: "He _sought_ me _out_ very
+diligently, and _found_ me."
+
+
+                              BISHOP BUTLER.
+
+The principal faults in this style are (_a_) a vague use of pronouns
+(5), and sometimes (_b_) the use of a phrase, where a word would be
+enough (47 _a_).
+
+       ORIGINAL VERSION.                       PARALLEL VERSION.
+
+  Some persons, (15) _upon            Some persons avowedly reject all
+  pretence[33] of the sufficiency of  revelation as[34]essentially
+  the light of Nature_, avowedly      incredible and necessarily
+  reject all revelation as, _in its_  fictitious, on the ground that the
+  (47 _a_) _very notion_,             light of Nature is in itself
+  incredible, _and what_ (47 _a_)     sufficient. And assuredly, had the
+  _must be fictitious_. And indeed    light of Nature been sufficient in
+  (32) it is certain that no          such a sense as to render
+  revelation would have been given,   revelation needless or useless, no
+  (32) had the light of Nature been   revelation would ever have been
+  sufficient in such a sense as to    given. But let any man consider
+  render (5) _one_ not[35] wanting,   the spiritual darkness that once
+  or useless. But no (15 _b_) man in  (41) prevailed in the heathen
+  seriousness and simplicity can      world before revelation, and that
+  possibly think _it_ (5) _so_, who   (41) still prevails in those
+  considers the state of religion in  regions that have not yet received
+  the heathen world before            the light of revealed truth; above
+  revelation, and _its_ (5) present   all, let him mark not merely the
+  state in those (11) _places_ (8)    natural inattention and ignorance
+  _which_ have borrowed no light      of the masses, but also the
+  from (5) it; particularly (19) the  doubtful language held even by a
+  doubtfulness of some of the (12)    Socrates on even so vital a
+  greatest men concerning _things of  subject as[36] the immortality of
+  the utmost_ (11) _importance_, as   the soul; and then can he in
+  well as the (15 _a_) _natural       seriousness and sincerity maintain
+  inattention and ignorance of        that the light of Nature is
+  mankind in general_. It is (34)     sufficient?
+  impossible to say (12) who would
+  have been able to have reasoned     It is of course impossible to deny
+  out that whole system which we      that some second[36] Aristotle
+  call natural religion, (30) in its  might have reasoned out, in its
+  genuine simplicity, clear of        genuine simplicity and without
+  superstition; but there is          a touch of superstition, the
+  certainly no ground to affirm       whole of that system which we
+  that the generality could.          call natural religion. But there
+  (44) If they could, there is        is certainly no ground for
+  no sort of probability that         affirming that this complicated
+  they would. (44) Admitting there    process would have been possible
+  were, they would highly want a      for ordinary men. Even if they had
+  standing admonition to remind them  had the power, there is no
+  of (5) _it_, and inculcate it upon  probability that they would have
+  them. And further still, were (5)   had the inclination; and, even if
+  _they_ as much _disposed_ (47 _a_)  we admit the probable inclination,
+  _to attend to_ religion as the      they would still need some
+  better sort of men (15 _a_) _are_;  standing admonition, whereby
+  yet, even upon this supposition,    natural religion might be
+  there would be various occasions    suggested and inculcated. Still
+  for supernatural instruction and    further, even if we suppose these
+  assistance, _and the greatest       ordinary men to be as attentive to
+  advantages_ (50) _might be          religion as men of a better sort,
+  afforded_ (15 _a_) _by_ (5)         yet even then there would be
+  _them_. So that, to say revelation  various occasions when
+  is a thing superfluous, _what       supernatural instruction and
+  there_ (47 _a_) _was no need of_,   assistance might be most
+  and _what can be of_ (47 _a_) _no   beneficially bestowed.
+  service_, is, I think, to talk
+  wildly and at random. Nor would it  Therefore, to call revelation
+  be more extravagant to affirm that  superfluous, needless, and
+  (40 _a_) _mankind_ is so entirely   useless, is, in my opinion, to
+  (40 _a_) _at ease_ in the present   talk wildly and at random. A man
+  state, and (40 _a_) _life so_       might as reasonably assert that we
+  completely (40 _a_) _happy_, that   are so entirely at ease and so
+  (5) _it_ is a contradiction to      completely happy in this present
+  suppose (40 _a_) our condition      life that our condition cannot
+  capable of _being in any respect_   without contradiction be supposed
+  (47 _a_) _better_.--(_Analogy of    capable of being in any way
+  Religion_, part ii. chap. 1.)       improved.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[33] "To pretend" once meant "to put forward," "maintain."
+
+[34] It has been suggested, however, that by "in its very notion
+incredible," is meant "inconceivable."
+
+[35] "Wanting" is used for modern "wanted."
+
+[36] This use of the particular for the general would be out of place
+in Butler's style, but it adds clearness.
+
+
+BREVITY.
+
+                         SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON.
+
+The following extract exhibits examples of tautology and lengthiness.
+The "implied statement" (50) can often be used as a remedy, but, more
+often, the best remedy is omission.
+
+       ORIGINAL VERSION.                        PARALLEL VERSION.
+
+  The Russian empire is (50) _a       Russia, with her vast strength and
+  state of_ (54) _such_ vast          boundless resources, is obviously
+  strength and boundless              destined to exercise on the course
+  resources, _that_ it is             of history a great and lasting
+  obviously destined to make a        influence. The slowness of her
+  great and lasting impression on     progress only renders her
+  human affairs. Its (50) progress    durability more probable. The
+  has been slow, but (5) _it_[37] is  Russian Empire has not, like the
+  only on that account the more       empires of Alexander the Great and
+  likely to be durable. (5) _It_ has  Napoleon, been raised to sudden
+  not suddenly risen to greatness,    greatness by the genius of
+  like the empire of Alexander in     individuals or the accidents of
+  ancient (19) (31), or that of       fortune, but has been slowly
+  Napoleon in modern, times, from     enlarged and firmly consolidated
+  the force of individual genius, or  by well-guided ambition and
+  the accidents of (54) casual        persevering energy,[38] during a
+  fortune, but has slowly advanced,   long succession of ages.
+  and (40 _a_) been firmly
+  consolidated (15) _during a
+  succession of ages_, from the
+  combined influence of ambition
+  skilfully directed and energy (15
+  _a_) _perseveringly applied_.
+
+    *     *     *     *     *           *     *     *     *     *
+
+  The extent and fertility of the     The extent and fertility of her
+  Russian territory are _such_ (54)   territory furnish unparalleled
+  _as to_ furnish facilities of       facilities for the increase of her
+  increase and elements of strength   population and power. European
+  _which no nation_ (47 _a_) _in the  Russia, that is, Russia to the
+  world enjoys_. European             west of the Ural Mountains,
+  Russia--that is, Russia to the      contains one million two hundred
+  westward of the Ural                thousand square geographical
+  Mountains--contains a hundred and   miles, or ten times the surface of
+  fifty thousand four hundred square  Great Britain and Ireland.
+  marine leagues, or about one
+  million two hundred thousand
+  square geographical miles, being
+  ten times the surface of the
+  British Islands, which contain,
+  including Ireland, one hundred and
+  twenty-two thousand. Great part,    This vast territory is intersected
+  no doubt, of this _immense_ (54,    by no mountain ranges, no arid
+  see below) _territory is covered_   deserts; and though much of it is
+  with forests, or (40 _a_) _lies_    rendered almost unproductive of
+  so far to the north as to be        food either by the denseness of
+  almost unproductive of food; but    forests, or by the severity of the
+  no ranges of mountains or arid      northern winter, yet almost all,
+  deserts intersect the _vast_ (54,   except that part which touches
+  see above) _extent_, and almost     the Arctic snows, is capable of
+  the whole, excepting that which     yielding something for the use
+  touches the Arctic snows, is        of man.
+  capable of yielding something for
+  the use of man. The (3) (54)        The steppes of the south present
+  _boundless_ steppes of the south    an inexhaustible pasturage to
+  present (54) _inexhaustible_        those nomad tribes whose numerous
+  fields of pasturage, and give       and incomparable horsemen form the
+  birth to those nomad tribes, in     chief defence of the empire.
+  whose numerous and incomparable
+  horsemen the chief defence of the
+  empire,[39] as of all Oriental
+  states, (15 _a_) _is to be found_.
+  The rich arable lands in the heart  The rich arable lands in the
+  _of the_ (54) _empire_ produce an   interior produce grain enough to
+  (2) _incalculable_ quantity of      support four times the present
+  grain, capable not only of          population of the empire, and yet
+  maintaining four times (5) _its_    leave a vast surplus to be
+  present inhabitants, but affording  transported by the Dnieper, the
+  a vast surplus for exportation by   Volga, and their tributaries, into
+  the Dnieper, the Volga, and their   the Euxine or other seas.
+  tributary streams, (30) which
+  _form so many_ (54) _natural
+  outlets_ into the Euxine or other
+  seas; (44) while the cold and       Lastly, the cold bleak plains
+  shivering plains which stretch      stretching towards Archangel and
+  towards Archangel and the shores    towards the shores of the White
+  of the White Sea are (48) covered   Sea, and covered with immense
+  with immense forests of fir and     forests of oak and fir, furnish
+  oak, furnishing at once (54)[40]    materials for shipbuilding and
+  _inexhaustible_ materials for       supplies of fuel that will for
+  shipbuilding and supplies of fuel.  many generations supersede the
+  (54) _These ample stores_ for many  necessity of searching for coal.
+  generations will supersede the
+  necessity of searching in the (14
+  _a_) _bowels_ of the earth for
+  _the purposes of_ (54) _warmth or
+  manufacture_.
+
+  Formidable as the power of Russia   Much as we may dread Russia for
+  is from the vast extent of its      the vastness of her territory and
+  territory, and the great and        of her rapidly increasing numbers,
+  rapidly increasing number _of       there is greater cause for fear
+  its_ (54) _subjects_, (5) _it_ is   in the military spirit and the
+  still more (5) _so_ from the        docility of her people.
+  military spirit and docile
+  disposition _by which they are_
+  (54)[41] _distinguished_. The
+  prevailing (54) _passion_ of the    A burning thirst for conquest is
+  nation is the (54) _love of         as prevalent a passion in Russia
+  conquest_, and this (54) _ardent_   as democratic ambition in the free
+  (54) _desire_, which (54) _burns    states of Western Europe. This
+  as_ (54) _fiercely_ in them as      passion is the unseen spring[2]
+  democratic ambition does in the     which, while it retains the
+  free states of Western Europe, is   Russians in the strictest
+  the unseen spring[42] which both    discipline, unceasingly impels
+  retains them _submissive_ (54)      their united forces against all
+  _under the standard of their        adjoining states.
+  chief_ and impels their
+  accumulated forces in ceaseless     The national energy, which is as
+  violence over all the adjoining     great as the national territory,
+  states. The energies of the         rarely wastes itself in disputes
+  people, great as[43] the territory  about domestic grievances. For all
+  they inhabit, are rarely wasted in  internal evils, how great soever,
+  internal disputes. Domestic         the Russians hope to find a
+  grievances, how great soever, are   compensation, and more than a
+  (54) overlooked in the thirst for   compensation, in the conquest of
+  foreign aggrandizement. (15) In     the world.
+  the conquest of the world the
+  people hope to find a
+  compensation, and more than a
+  compensation, (15 _a_) _for all
+  the evils of their interior
+  administration_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[37] Apparently "it" means, not "progress," but the "Russian empire."
+
+[38] Not "energy," but "a long succession of ages," needs to be
+emphasized.
+
+[39] There is nothing in the context that requires the words, "as of
+all Oriental states."
+
+[40] If they were really "inexhaustible," the "necessity of searching
+in the bowels of the earth" would be "superseded," not for "many," but
+for all generations.
+
+[41] The words can be implied, and besides they are expressed in the
+following sentence.
+
+[42] The metaphor is questionable; for a "spring," _qua_ "spring,"
+does not retain at all; and besides, "a passion" ought not to "burn"
+in one line, and be a "spring" in the next.
+
+[43] The meaning appears _not_ to be, "great as" (is), _i.e._ "though
+the territory is great."
+
+
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ENGLISH LESSONS
+
+FOR
+
+ENGLISH PEOPLE.
+
+
+BY
+
+
+THE REV. EDWIN A. ABBOTT, M.A.,
+
+HEAD MASTER OF THE CITY OF LONDON SCHOOL;
+
+AND
+
+J. R. SEELEY, M.A.,
+
+PROFESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE.
+
+
+"It is not so much a merit to know English as it is a shame not to
+know it; and I look upon this knowledge as essential for an
+Englishman, and not merely for a fine speaker."--ADAPTED FROM CICERO.
+
+
+  BOSTON:
+  ROBERTS BROTHERS.
+  1883.
+
+[Illustration: QUI LEGIT REGIT]
+
+  UNIVERSITY PRESS: JOHN WILSON & SON,
+  CAMBRIDGE.
+
+
+TO THE
+
+REV. G. F. W. MORTIMER, D.D.,
+
+_Prebendary of St. Paul's Cathedral, late Head Master of the City of
+London School_.
+
+DEAR DOCTOR MORTIMER,
+
+We have other motives, beside the respect and gratitude which must be
+felt for you by all those of your old pupils who are capable of
+appreciating the work you did at the City of London School, for asking
+you to let us dedicate to you a little book which we have entitled
+"English Lessons for English People."
+
+Looking back upon our school life, we both feel that among the many
+educational advantages which we enjoyed under your care, there was
+none more important than the study of the works of Shakspeare, to
+which we and our school-fellows were stimulated by the special prizes
+of the Beaufoy Endowment.
+
+We owe you a debt of gratitude not always owed by pupils to their
+teachers. Many who have passed into a life of engrossing activity
+without having been taught at school to use rightly, or to appreciate
+the right use of, their native tongue, feeling themselves foreigners
+amid the language of their country, may turn with some point against
+their teachers the reproach of banished Bolingbroke:--
+
+            My tongue's use is to me no more
+    Than an unstringed viol or a harp,
+    Or like a cunning instrument cased up,
+    Or, being open, put into his hands
+    That knows no touch to tune the harmony;
+    Within my mouth you have engaoled my tongue,
+    Doubly portcullis'd with my teeth and lips,
+    And dull, unfeeling, barren ignorance
+    Is made my gaoler to attend on me.
+    I am too old to fawn upon a nurse,
+    Too far in years to be a pupil now.
+
+It is our pleasant duty, on the contrary, to thank you for encouraging
+us to study the "cunning instrument" of our native tongue.
+
+Our sense of the benefits which we derived from this study, and our
+recollection that the study was at that time optional, and did not
+affect more than a small number of the pupils, lead us to anticipate
+that when once the English language and literature become recognized,
+not as an optional but as a regular part of our educational course,
+the advantages will be so great as to constitute nothing short of a
+national benefit.
+
+The present seems to be a critical moment for English instruction. The
+subject has excited much attention of late years; many schools have
+already taken it up; others are on the point of doing so; it forms an
+important part of most Government and other examinations. But there is
+a complaint from many teachers that they cannot teach English for want
+of text-books and manuals; and, as the study of English becomes year
+by year more general, this complaint makes itself more and more
+distinctly heard. To meet this want we have written the following
+pages. If we had had more time, we might perhaps have been tempted to
+aim at producing a more learned and exhaustive book on the subject;
+but, setting aside want of leisure, we feel that a practical
+text-book, and not a learned or exhaustive treatise, is what is wanted
+at the present crisis.
+
+We feel sure that you will give a kindly welcome to our little book,
+as an attempt, however imperfect, to hand on the torch which you have
+handed to us; we beg you also to accept it as a token of our sincere
+gratitude for more than ordinary kindnesses, and to believe us
+
+  Your affectionate pupils,
+
+                 J. R. SEELEY.
+                 EDWIN A. ABBOTT.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+_Messrs. Roberts Brothers' Publications._
+
+
+ENGLISH LESSONS FOR ENGLISH PEOPLE. By Rev. E. A. ABBOTT, M.A., and
+Prof. J. R. SEELEY, M.A. Part I.--Vocabulary. Part II--Diction. Part
+III.--Metre. Part IV.--Hints on Selection and Arrangement. Appendix.
+16mo. Price $1.50.
+
+_From the London Athenaeum._
+
+     The object of this book is evidently a practical one. It is
+     intended for ordinary use by a large circle of readers; and
+     though designed principally for boys, may be read with advantage
+     by many of more advanced years. One of the lessons which it
+     professes to teach, "to use the right word in the right place,"
+     is one which no one should despise. The accomplishment is a rare
+     one, and many of the hints here given are truly admirable.
+
+_From the Southern Review._
+
+     The study of Language can never be exhausted. Every time it is
+     looked at by a man of real ability and culture, some new phase
+     starts into view. The origin of Language; its relations to the
+     mind; its history; its laws; its development; its struggles; its
+     triumphs; its devices; its puzzles; its ethics,--every thing
+     about it is full of interest.
+
+     Here is a delightful book, by two men of recognized
+     authority,--the head Master of London School, and the Professor
+     of Modern History in the University of Cambridge, the notable
+     author of "Ecce Homo." The book is so comprehensive in its scope
+     that it seems almost miscellaneous. It treats of the vocabulary
+     of the English Language; Diction as appropriate to this or that
+     sort of composition; selection and arguments of topics; Metre,
+     and an Appendix on Logic. All this in less than three hundred
+     pages. Within this space so many subjects cannot be treated
+     exhaustively; and no one is, unless we may except Metre, to which
+     about eighty pages are devoted, and about which all seems to be
+     said that is worth saying,--possibly more. But on each topic some
+     of the best things are said in a very stimulating way. The
+     student will desire to study more thoroughly the subject into
+     which such pleasant openings are here given; and the best
+     prepared teacher will be thankful for the number of striking
+     illustrations gathered up to his hand.
+
+     The abundance and freshness of the quotations makes the volume
+     very attractive reading, without reference to its didactic value.
+
+
+_Sold by all booksellers. Mailed, postpaid, by the Publishers_,
+
+ROBERTS BROTHERS, BOSTON.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This book is not intended to supply the place of an English Grammar.
+It presupposes a knowledge of Grammar and of English idiom in its
+readers, and does not address itself to foreigners, but to those who,
+having already a familiar knowledge of English, need help to write it
+with taste and exactness. Some degree of knowledge is presumed in the
+reader; nevertheless we do not presume that he possesses so much as to
+render him incapable of profiting from _lessons_. Our object is, if
+possible, not merely to interest, but to _teach_; to write lessons,
+not essays,--lessons that may perhaps prove interesting to some who
+have passed beyond the routine of school life, but still lessons, in
+the strictest sense, adapted for school classes.
+
+Aiming at practical utility, the book deals only with those
+difficulties which, in the course of teaching, we have found to be
+most common and most serious. For there are many difficulties, even
+when grammatical accuracy has been attained, in the way of English
+persons attempting to write and speak correctly. First, there is the
+cramping restriction of an insufficient vocabulary; not merely a loose
+and inexact apprehension of many words that are commonly used, and a
+consequent difficulty in using them accurately, but also a total
+ignorance of many other words, and an inability to use them at all;
+and these last are, as a rule, the very words which are absolutely
+necessary for the comprehension and expression of any thought that
+deals with something more than the most ordinary concrete notions.
+There is also a very common inability to appreciate the differences
+between words that are at all similar. Lastly, where the pupil has
+studied Latin, and trusts too much for his knowledge of English words
+to his knowledge of their Latin roots, there is the possibility of
+misderiving and misunderstanding a word, owing to ignorance of the
+changes of letters introduced in the process of derivation; and, on
+the other hand, there is the danger of misunderstanding and
+pedantically misusing words correctly derived, from an ignorance of
+the changes of meaning which a word almost always experiences in
+passing from one language to another. The result of all this
+non-understanding or slovenly half-understanding of words is a habit
+of slovenly reading and slovenly writing, which when once acquired is
+very hard to shake off.
+
+Then, following on the difficulties attending the use of words, there
+are others attending the choice and arrangement of words. There is the
+danger of falling into "poetic prose," of thinking it necessary to
+write "steed" or "charger" instead of "horse," "ire" instead of
+"anger," and the like; and every teacher, who has had much experience
+in looking over examination papers, will admit that this is a danger
+to which beginners are very liable. Again, there is the temptation to
+shrink with a senseless fear from using a plain word twice in the same
+page, and often from using a plain word at all. This unmanly dread of
+simplicity, and of what is called "tautology," gives rise to a
+patchwork made up of scraps of poetic quotations, unmeaning
+periphrases, and would-be humorous circumlocutions,--a style of all
+styles perhaps the most objectionable and offensive, which may be
+known and avoided by the name of _Fine Writing_. Lastly, there is the
+danger of _obscurity_, a fault which cannot be avoided without extreme
+care, owing to the uninflected nature of our language.
+
+All these difficulties and dangers are quite as real, and require as
+much attention, and are fit subjects for practical teaching in our
+schools, quite as much as many points which, at present, receive
+perhaps an excessive attention in some of our text-books. To use the
+right word in the right place is an accomplishment not less valuable
+than the knowledge of the truth (carefully recorded in most English
+Grammars, and often inflicted as a task upon younger pupils) that the
+plural of _cherub_ is _cherubim_, and the feminine of _bull_ is _cow_.
+
+To smooth the reader's way through these difficulties is the object of
+the first three Parts of this book. Difficulties connected with
+Vocabulary are considered first. The student is introduced, almost at
+once, to _Synonyms_. He is taught how to _define_ a word, with and
+without the aid of its synonyms. He is shown how to _eliminate_ from a
+word whatever is not essential to its meaning. The processes of
+_Definition_ and _Elimination_ are carefully explained: a system or
+scheme is laid down which he can exactly follow; and examples are
+subjoined, worked out to illustrate the method which he is to pursue.
+A system is also given by which the reader may enlarge his vocabulary,
+and furnish himself easily and naturally with those general or
+abstract terms which are often misunderstood and misused, and still
+more often not understood and not used at all. Some information is
+also given to help the reader to connect words with their roots, and
+at the same time to caution him against supposing that, because he
+knows the roots of a word, he necessarily knows the meaning of the
+word itself. Exercises are interspersed throughout this Part which can
+be worked out with, or without, an English Etymological
+Dictionary,[44] as the nature of the case may require. The exercises
+have not been selected at random; many of them have been subjected to
+the practical test of experience, and have been used in class
+teaching.
+
+The Second Part deals with Diction. It attempts to illustrate with
+some detail the distinction--often ignored by those who are beginning
+to write English, and sometimes by others also--between the Diction of
+Prose, and that of Poetry. It endeavors to dissipate that excessive
+and vulgar dread of tautology which, together with a fondness for
+misplaced pleasantry, gives rise to the vicious style described above.
+It gives some practical rules for writing a long sentence clearly and
+impressively; and it also examines the difference between slang,
+conversation, and written prose. Both for translating from foreign
+languages into English, and for writing original English composition,
+these rules have been used in teaching, and, we venture to think, with
+encouraging results.
+
+A Chapter on Simile and Metaphor concludes the subject of Diction. We
+have found, in the course of teaching, that a great deal of confusion
+in speaking and writing, and still more in reading and attempting to
+understand the works of our classical English authors, arises from the
+inability to express the literal meaning conveyed in a Metaphor. The
+application of the principle of Proportion to the explanation of
+Metaphor has been found to dissipate much of this confusion. The
+youngest pupils readily learn how to "expand a Metaphor into its
+Simile;" and it is really astonishing to see how many difficulties
+that perplex young heads, and sometimes old ones too, vanish at once
+when the key of "expansion" is applied. More important still, perhaps,
+is the exactness of thought introduced by this method. The pupil knows
+that, if he cannot expand a metaphor, he does not understand it. All
+teachers will admit that to force a pupil to see that he does not
+understand any thing is a great stride of progress. It is difficult
+to exaggerate the value of a process which makes it impossible for a
+pupil to delude himself into the belief that he understands when he
+does not understand.
+
+Metre is the subject of the Third Part. The object of this Part (as
+also, in a great measure, of the Chapter just mentioned belonging to
+the Second Part) is to enable the pupil to read English Poetry with
+intelligence, interest, and appreciation. To teach any one how to read
+a verse so as to mark the metre on the one hand, without on the other
+hand converting the metrical line into a monotonous doggerel, is not
+so easy a task as might be supposed. Many of the rules stated in this
+Part have been found of practical utility in teaching pupils to hit
+the mean. Rules and illustrations have therefore been given, and the
+different kinds of metre and varieties of the same metre have been
+explained at considerable length.
+
+This Chapter may seem to some to enter rather too much into detail. We
+desire, however, to urge as an explanation, that in all probability
+the study of English metre will rapidly assume more importance in
+English schools. At present, very little is generally taught, and
+perhaps known, about this subject. In a recent elaborate edition of
+the works of Pope, the skill of that consummate master of the art of
+epigrammatic versification is impugned because in one of his lines he
+suffers _the_ to receive the metrical accent. When one of the
+commonest customs (for it is in no sense a license) of English
+poets--a custom sanctioned by Shakspeare, Dryden, Milton, Wordsworth,
+Byron, Shelley, and Tennyson--can be censured as a fault, and this in
+a leading edition of a leading poet of our literature, it must be
+evident that much still remains to be done in teaching English Metre.
+At present this Part may seem too detailed. Probably, some few years
+hence, when a knowledge of English Metre has become more widely
+diffused, it will seem not detailed enough.
+
+The Fourth Part (like the Chapter on Metaphor) is concerned not more
+with English than with other languages. It treats of the different
+Styles of Composition, the appropriate subjects for each, and the
+arrangement of the subject-matter. We hope that this may be of some
+interest to the general reader, as well as of practical utility in the
+higher classes of schools. It seems desirable that before pupils begin
+to write essays, imaginary dialogues, speeches, and poems, they should
+receive some instruction as to the difference of arrangement in a
+poem, a speech, a conversation, and an essay.
+
+An Appendix adds a few hints on some Errors in Reasoning. This
+addition may interfere with the symmetry of the book; but if it is
+found of use, the utility will be ample compensation. In reading
+literature, pupils are continually meeting instances of false
+reasoning, which, if passed over without comment, do harm, and, if
+commented upon, require some little basis of knowledge in the pupil to
+enable him to understand the explanation. Without entering into the
+details of formal Logic, we have found it possible to give pupils some
+few hints which have appeared to help them. The hints are so
+elementary, and so few, that they cannot possibly delude the youngest
+reader into imagining that they are any thing more than hints. They
+may induce him hereafter to study the subject thoroughly in a complete
+treatise, when he has leisure and opportunity; but, in any case, a boy
+will leave school all the better prepared for the work of life,
+whatever that work may be, if he knows the meaning of _induction_, and
+has been cautioned against the error, _post hoc, ergo propter hoc_. No
+lesson, so far as our experience in teaching goes, interests and
+stimulates pupils more than this; and our experience of debating
+societies, in the higher forms of schools, forces upon us the
+conviction that such lessons are not more interesting than necessary.
+
+Questions on the different paragraphs have been added at the end of
+the book, for the purpose of enabling the student to test his
+knowledge of the contents, and also to serve as home lessons to be
+prepared by pupils in classes.[45]
+
+A desire, expressed by some teachers of experience, that these lessons
+should be published as soon as possible, has rather accelerated the
+publication. Some misprints and other inaccuracies may possibly be
+found in the following pages, in consequence of the short time Which
+has been allowed us for correcting them. Our thanks are due to several
+friends who have kindly assisted us in this task, and who have also
+aided us with many valuable and practical suggestions. Among these we
+desire to mention Mr. Joseph Payne, whose labors on Norman French are
+well known; Mr. T.G. Philpotts, late Fellow of New College, Oxford,
+and one of the Assistant Masters of Rugby School; Mr. Edwin Abbott,
+Head Master of the Philological School; Mr. Howard Candler,
+Mathematical Master of Uppingham School; and the Rev. R. H. Quick, one
+of the Assistant Masters of Harrow School.
+
+In conclusion, we repeat that we do not wish our book to be regarded
+as an exhaustive treatise, or as adapted for the use of foreigners. It
+is intended primarily for boys, but, in the present unsatisfactory
+state of English education, we entertain a hope that it may possibly
+be found not unfit for some who have passed the age of boyhood; and in
+this hope we have ventured to give it the title of _English Lessons
+for English People_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[44] An Etymological Dictionary is necessary for pupils studying the
+First Part. Chambers's or Ogilvie's will answer the purpose.
+
+[45] Some of the passages quoted to illustrate style are intended to
+be committed to memory and used as repetition-lessons.--See pp. 180,
+181, 212, 237, 238, etc.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ON THE RIGHT USE OF BOOKS.
+
+A LECTURE. By WILLIAM P. ATKINSON, Professor of English and History in
+the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 16mo. Cloth. Price 50
+cents.
+
+     "Full of good sense, sound taste, and quiet humor.... It is the
+     easiest thing in the world to waste time over books, which are
+     merely tools of knowledge like any other tools.... It is the
+     function of a good book not only to fructify, but to inspire, not
+     only to fill the memory with evanescent treasures, but to enrich
+     the imagination with forms of beauty and goodness which leave a
+     lasting impression on the character."--_N. Y. Tribune._
+
+     "Contains so many wise suggestions concerning methods in study
+     and so excellent a summary of the nature and principles of a
+     really liberal education that it well deserves publication for
+     the benefit of the reading public. Though it makes only a slight
+     volume, its quality in thought and style is so admirable that all
+     who are interested in the subject of good education will give to
+     it a prominent and honorable position among the many books upon
+     education which have recently been published. For it takes only a
+     brief reading to perceive that in this single lecture the results
+     of wide experience in teaching and of long study of the true
+     principles of education are generalized and presented in a few
+     pages, each one of which contains so much that it might be easily
+     expanded into an excellent chapter."--_The Library Table._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+READING AS A FINE ART.
+
+By ERNEST LEGOUVE, of the Academie Francaise. Translated from the
+Ninth Edition by ABBY LANGDON ALGER. 16mo. Cloth. 50 cents.
+
+(_Dedication._)
+
+     TO THE SCHOLARS OF THE HIGH AND NORMAL SCHOOL.
+
+     For you this sketch was written: permit me to dedicate it to you,
+     in fact, to intrust it to your care. Pupils to-day, to-morrow you
+     will be teachers; to-morrow, generation after generation of youth
+     will pass through your guardian hands. An idea received by you
+     must of necessity reach thousands of minds. Help me, then, to
+     spread abroad the work in which you have some share, and allow me
+     to add to the great pleasure of having numbered you among my
+     hearers the still greater happiness of calling you my assistants.
+     E. LEGOUVE.
+
+     We commend this valuable little book to the attention of teachers
+     and others interested in the instruction of the pupils of our
+     public schools. It treats of the "First Steps in Reading,"
+     "Learning to Read," "Should we read as we talk," "The Use and
+     Management of the Voice," "The Art of Breathing,"
+     "Pronunciation," "Stuttering," "Punctuation," "Readers and
+     Speakers," "Reading as a Means of Criticism," "On Reading
+     Poetry," &c., and makes a strong claim as to the value of reading
+     aloud, as being the most wholesome of gymnastics, for to
+     strengthen the voice is to strengthen the whole system and
+     develop vocal power.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+HOW TO PARSE.
+
+AN ATTEMPT TO APPLY THE PRINCIPLES OF SCHOLARSHIP TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
+With Appendixes in Analysis, Spelling, and Punctuation. By EDWIN A.
+ABBOTT, M.A., Head Master of the City of London School. 16mo. Cloth.
+Price $1.00.
+
+     "We recommend this little book to the careful attention of
+     teachers and others interested in instruction. In the hands of an
+     able teacher, the book should help to relieve parsing from the
+     reproach of being the bane of the school-room. The Etymological
+     Glossary of Grammatical Terms will also supply a long-felt want."
+     _N.Y. Nation._
+
+     "'How to Parse' is likely to prove to teachers a valuable, and to
+     scholars an agreeable, substitute for most of the grammars in
+     common use."--_Boston Daily Advertiser._
+
+     "The Rev. E.A. Abbott, whose books, 'English Lessons for English
+     People,' and 'How to Write Clearly,' have been accepted as
+     standard text-books on both sides of the ocean, has added another
+     work to his list of sensible treatises on the use of English. It
+     is called 'How to Parse,' and is best described by the further
+     title, 'An Attempt to apply the Principles of Scholarship to
+     English Grammar, with Appendices on Analysis, Spelling, and
+     Punctuation.' The little book is so sensible and so simple that
+     the greater number of its readers will perhaps forget to observe
+     that it is profoundly philosophical also, but it is so in the
+     best sense of the term."--_N. Y. Evening Post._
+
+     "Of all subjects of study, it may be safely admitted that grammar
+     possesses as a rule the fewest attractions for the youthful mind.
+     To prepare a work capable of imparting a thorough knowledge of
+     this important part of education in an attractive and
+     entertaining form, to many may appear extremely difficult, if not
+     impossible; nevertheless, the task has been accomplished in a
+     highly successful manner by Edwin A. Abbott, Head Master of the
+     City of London School, in a neat little volume entitled 'How to
+     Parse.' The author has succeeded admirably in combining with the
+     exercises a vast amount of useful information, which impacts to
+     the principles and rules of the main subject a degree of interest
+     that renders the study as attractive as history or fiction. The
+     value of the book is greatly increased by an excellent glossary
+     of grammatical forms and a nicely arranged index. The work
+     deserves the attention and consideration of teachers and pupils,
+     and will doubtless prove a highly popular addition to the list of
+     school-books."--_N.Y. Graphic._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Messrs. Roberts Brothers' Publications._
+
+
+GOETHE'S
+
+HERMANN AND DOROTHEA.
+
+TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN
+
+BY ELLEN FROTHINGHAM.
+
+WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+  _Thin 8vo, cloth, gilt, bevelled boards. Price $2.00._
+  _A cheaper edition, 16mo, cloth. Price $1.00._
+
+     "Miss Frothingham's translation is something to be glad of: it
+     lends itself kindly to perusal, and it presents Goethe's charming
+     poem in the metre of the original.... It is not a poem which
+     could be profitably used in an argument for the enlargement of
+     the sphere of woman: it teaches her subjection, indeed, from the
+     lips of a beautiful girl, which are always so fatally convincing;
+     but it has its charm, nevertheless, and will serve at least for
+     an agreeable picture of an age when the ideal woman was a
+     creature around which grew the beauty and comfort and security of
+     home."--_Atlantic Monthly._
+
+     "The poem itself is bewitching. Of the same metre as Longfellow's
+     'Evangeline,' its sweet and measured cadences carry the reader
+     onward with a real pleasure as he becomes more and more absorbed
+     in this descriptive wooing song. It is a sweet volume to read
+     aloud in a select circle of intelligent friends."--_Providence
+     Press._
+
+     "Miss Frothingham has done a good service, and done it well, in
+     translating this famous idyl, which has been justly called 'one
+     of the most faultless poems of modern times.' Nothing can surpass
+     the simplicity, tenderness, and grace of the original, and these
+     have been well preserved in Miss Frothingham's version. Her
+     success is worthy of the highest praise, and the mere English
+     reader can scarcely fail to read the poem with the same delight
+     with which it has always been read by those familiar with the
+     German. Its charming pictures of domestic life, the strength and
+     delicacy of its characterization, the purity of tone and ardent
+     love of country which breathe through it, must always make it one
+     of the most admired of Goethe's works."--_Boston Christian
+     Register._
+
+
+_Sold everywhere. Mailed, postpaid, by the Publishers_,
+
+                      ROBERTS BROTHERS, BOSTON
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                        DR. ABBOTT'S WORKS.
+
+
+HOW TO PARSE. An Attempt to Apply the Principles of Scholarship to
+English Grammar. With Appendixes on Analysis, Spelling, and
+Punctuation. 16mo. Cloth. Price, $1.00.
+
+HOW TO TELL THE PARTS OF SPEECH. An Introduction to English Grammar.
+American edition, revised and enlarged by Prof. JOHN G. R. McELROY, of
+the University of Pennsylvania. 16mo. Cloth. Price, 75 cents.
+
+HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY. Rules and Exercises in English Composition.
+16mo. Cloth. Price, 60 cents.
+
+ENGLISH LESSONS FOR ENGLISH PEOPLE. Jointly by Dr. ABBOTT and Prof.
+J. R. SEELEY, M.A., of Cambridge University, Eng. 16mo. Cloth. Price,
+$1.50.
+
+                 ROBERTS BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
+
+                                        _Boston_.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+[Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as
+possible, including obsolete and variant spellings and other
+inconsistencies.
+
+The transcriber made the following changes to the text to correct
+obvious errors:
+
+1. p. 90, "inpugned" --> "impugned"
+2. p. 51, to qualify "enemy. --> to qualify "enemy."
+
+Text set in bold print is indicated by asterisks, i.e., *Bold*.
+
+It is common to have footnotes referenced multiple times in the text.
+
+Advertisements for Dr. Abbott's other works published by Roberts
+Brothers have been moved from the front of the book to the end.
+
+End of Transcriber's Notes]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Write Clearly, by Edwin A. Abbott
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY ***
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #22600 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/22600)