initial commit of ebook 22581HEADmain

1 files changed, 3005 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/22581-0.txt b/22581-0.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..13b1e7e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/22581-0.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,3005 @@
+Project Gutenberg's The Child-Voice in Singing, by Francis E. Howard
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Child-Voice in Singing
+       treated from a physiological and a practical standpoint
+       and especially adapted to schools and boy choirs
+
+Author: Francis E. Howard
+
+Release Date: September 12, 2007 [EBook #22581]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHILD-VOICE IN SINGING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, Nada Prodanovic, David Newman,
+David Edwards and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  [Transcriber’s Note:
+
+  A few pages in Chapter VI (Vowels) contain characters that will only
+  display correctly in unicode (utf-8) text readers:
+    ā, a̤, ē, Ī, ō, Ū (“long” vowels)
+    ă, ĕ, ĭ, o͡o (“short” vowels)
+
+  The “flat” symbol ♭ is also used a few times. Sharps are shown with
+  the “number” sign # instead of the less widely available ♯.
+
+  If any of these characters do not display properly--in particular,
+  if the diacritic does not appear directly above the letter--or if the
+  quotation marks in this paragraph appear as garbage, make sure your
+  text reader’s “character set” or “file encoding” is set to Unicode
+  (UTF-8). You may also need to change the default font.
+
+  In the printed text, all musical references--including single notes
+  showing pitch--were shown on a musical staff. In this e-text, these
+  brief passages are shown in brackets as [Music: e' e''], where c'-c''
+  is the octave beginning at middle C. Durations are not significant
+  and have generally been omitted.
+
+  Within illustrations, text in {braces} was added by the transcriber.
+  Typographical errors are listed at the end of the e-text.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+                THE CHILD-VOICE
+                  IN SINGING
+
+                 Treated From
+
+   A Physiological and a Practical Standpoint
+       and Especially Adapted to Schools
+                 and Boy Choirs
+
+
+                      By
+               FRANCIS E. HOWARD
+
+   Supervisor of Music in the Public Schools
+         and Choirmaster of St. John’s
+             and Trinity Churches,
+               Bridgeport, Conn.
+
+
+           _NEW AND REVISED EDITION_
+
+
+          New York: The H. W. Gray Co.
+                Sole Agents For
+          NOVELLO & CO., Ltd., London
+      Made in the United States of America
+
+
+
+
+    Copyright, 1895
+    By F. E. HOWARD
+
+    Copyright, 1898
+    By NOVELLO, EWER & CO.
+
+    Copyright renewed, 1923
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
+
+
+One of the most encouraging signs of the growth of musical taste and
+understanding at the present time as regards the singing of children,
+is the almost unanimous acquiescence of choirmasters, supervisors,
+teachers, and others in the idea that children should sing softly, and
+avoid loud and harsh tones; and the author ventures to hope that the
+first edition of this book has helped, in a measure at least, to bring
+about this state of opinion.
+
+It is true that for a long time the art of training children’s voices
+has been well understood by choirmasters of vested choirs, and by many
+others, but its basis was purely empirical.
+
+Something more, however, than the dictum of individual taste and
+judgment is needed to convince the educators of our schools of the
+wisdom of any departure from established customs and practices. The
+primary end, then, of the author has been to show a scientific basis for
+the use of what is herein called the head-voice of the child, and to
+adduce, from a study of the anatomy and physiology of the larynx and
+vocal organs, safe principles for the guidance of those who teach
+children to sing.
+
+The conditions under which music is taught in schools call for an appeal
+to the understanding first, and taste afterward. These conditions are:
+
+First, the actual teaching of music is done by class-room or grade
+teachers. The special teacher, who usually supervises also, visits each
+room, it may be as often as once a week, but in most towns and cities
+not oftener than once in three or four weeks. At any rate the class form
+their ideals and habits from the daily lessons, which are given by their
+grade teacher.
+
+Second, these teachers in the great majority of cases acquire their
+knowledge of music through teaching it, and must also, it can easily be
+understood, develop a sense of discrimination in musical matters in the
+same way. There is a strong natural tendency in the school-rooms to
+emphasize the _teaching_ of music, or teaching about music, as
+contrasted with actual singing. The importance of using the voice
+properly will not suggest itself to many teachers.
+
+It is necessary, then, that this, which is the essence of all
+instruction in vocal music, should be brought to the attention of the
+vast army of instructors in our public schools in as convincing a way as
+is possible. Now the best, and in fact the only way to secure the assent
+of our educators to a new idea in school work, is to prove its truth.
+“It is useless to dispute about tastes,” and so the less said about
+harsh tone to a teacher accustomed to hear it daily, and to like it,
+the better; but prove to this teacher that the harsh tone is physically
+hurtful to the child, and that for physiological reasons the voice
+should be used softly and gently, and you have won a convert, one, too,
+who will quickly recognize the æsthetic phase of the change in voice
+use. The author knows from observation and experience that children in
+the public schools can, under existing conditions, be taught good habits
+of voice use. There are wonderful possibilities of musical development,
+in the study of music in schools, and the active interest of every
+musician and music lover should be exercised to the end that its
+standard may be kept high.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+It will be generally admitted by those who are able to judge, that the
+singing of children is more often disagreeable than pleasant, and yet
+the charm of childhood and the effect of custom are so potent that many
+who are keenly alive to any deficiency in the adult singer, listen with
+tolerance, and it would seem with a degree of pleasure even, to the
+harsh tones of children.
+
+This tolerance of rough, strident singing by children is as strange as
+the singing. It cannot be right for children to sing with the coarse,
+harsh tone that is so common, and it is not right, although there is a
+prevalent idea that such singing is natural, that is, unavoidable.
+
+This idea is false. The child singing-voice is not rough and harsh
+unless it is misused. The truth of this statement can be easily
+demonstrated. If it were not true it would be difficult to justify the
+teaching of vocal music in schools, or the employment of boy sopranos in
+church choirs.
+
+It seems to the author that the chief difficulty experienced by teachers
+and instructors of singing, in dealing with children, lies in the
+assumption, expressed or implied, that their voices are to be treated as
+we treat the voices of adults-- adult women; but the vocal organs of the
+child differ widely from those of the adult in structure, strength and
+general character. As a consequence, there is a marked difference in
+voice.
+
+Vocal music has been very generally introduced into the schools of our
+country during the past few years, and there is evidently a very general
+and earnest desire that children be taught to sing. It is also the wish
+of those who are teachers to do their work well.
+
+While there are many books to aid educators upon every other subject
+taught in public schools, the literature on the voice, particularly the
+singing-voice, is meagre, and it is believed that some direct, practical
+hints on this topic may be welcome.
+
+The following pages are the result of several years’ experience in
+teaching, and of careful study of children’s voices. The author has
+attempted to describe the physiological characteristics of the
+child-voice and to give some practical hints regarding its management.
+It is sincerely hoped that what is herein written may be useful and
+helpful to those engaged in teaching children to sing.
+
+  FRANCIS E. HOWARD,
+  Bridgeport, Conn.
+  December, 1895
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+                                                 PAGE
+
+  Preface to the Second Edition,                    3
+
+  Preface,                                          7
+
+  CHAPTER I.
+  Physiology of the Voice,                         13
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+  Registers of the Voice,                          25
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+  How To Secure Good Tone,                         44
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+  Compass of the Child-Voice,                      72
+
+  CHAPTER V.
+  Position, Breathing, Attack, Tone-Formation,     81
+
+  CHAPTER VI.
+  Vowels, Consonants, Articulation,                95
+
+  CHAPTER VII.
+  Mutation of the Voice,                          112
+
+  CHAPTER VIII.
+  The Alto Voice in Male Choirs,                  125
+
+  CHAPTER IX.
+  General Remarks,                                132
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOICE.
+
+
+In former times the culture of the singing-voice was conducted upon
+purely empirical grounds. Teachers followed a few good rules which had
+been logically evolved from the experience of many schools of singing.
+
+We are indebted to modern science, aided by the laryngoscope, for many
+facts concerning the action of the larynx, and more especially the vocal
+cords in tone-production. While the early discoveries regarding the
+mechanism of the voice were hopefully believed to have solved all
+problems concerning its cultivation, experience has shown the futility
+of attempting to formulate a set of rules for voice-culture based alone
+upon the incomplete data furnished by the laryngoscope. This instrument
+is a small, round mirror which is introduced into the throat at such an
+angle, that if horizontal rays of light are thrown upon it, the larynx,
+which lies directly beneath, is illuminated and reflected in the mirror
+at the back of the mouth-- the laryngoscope. Very many singers and
+teachers, of whom Manuel Garcia was the first, have made use of this
+instrument to observe the action of their vocal bands in the act of
+singing, and the results of these observations are of the greatest
+value. Still, as before said, the laryngoscope does not reveal all the
+secrets of voice-production. While it tells unerringly of any departure
+from the normal, or of pathological change in the larynx, it does not
+tell whether the larynx belongs to the greatest living singer or to one
+absolutely unendowed with the power of song. Also, the subject of vocal
+registers is as vexing to-day as ever.
+
+While, then, we may confidently expect further and more complete
+elucidation of the physiology of the voice, there is yet sufficient data
+to guide us safely in vocal training, if we neglect not the empirical
+rules which the accumulated experience of the past has established.
+
+The organ by which the singing-voice is produced is the larynx. It forms
+the upper extremity of the windpipe, which again is the upper portion
+and beginning of the bronchial tubes, which, extending downward, branch
+off from its lower part to either side of the chest and continually
+subdivide until they become like little twigs, around which cluster the
+constituent parts of the lungs, which form the bellows for the supply of
+air necessary to the performance of vocal functions. Above, the larynx
+opens into the throat and the cavities of the pharynx, mouth, nose, and
+its accessory cavities, which constitute the resonator for vocal
+vibrations set up within the larynx.
+
+The larynx itself consists of a framework of cartilages joined by
+elastic membranes or ligaments, and joints. These cartilages move freely
+toward and upon each other by means of attached muscles. Also the larynx
+as a whole can be moved in various directions by means of extrinsic
+muscles joined to points above and below.
+
+The vocal bands are two ligaments or folds of mucous membrane attached
+in front to the largest cartilage of the larynx, called the thyroid, and
+which forms in man the protuberance commonly called Adam’s apple; and,
+extending horizontally backward, are inserted posteriorly into the
+arytenoid cartilages, the right vocal band into the right arytenoid
+cartilage and the left band into the left cartilage. These arytenoid
+cartilages, by means of an articulation or joint, move freely upon the
+cricoid, the second large cartilage of the larynx, forming its base, and
+sometimes called the ring cartilage, from its resemblance in shape to a
+seal ring. The vocal bands are composed of numberless elastic fibres
+running in part parallel to each other, and in part interwoven in
+various directions with each other. The fibres also vary in length; some
+are inserted into the extending projections, called processes of the
+arytenoid cartilages, and some extend further back and are inserted into
+the body of the cartilages. The vocal bands, then, lie opposite each
+other, on a level, raised a little in front, and with a narrow slit
+between, called the glottis.
+
+The muscles controlling the action of the vocal bands, and which
+regulate the mechanism producing sound, are of three groups, viz.,
+abductors (drawing-apart muscles), adductors (drawing-together muscles),
+and tensors.
+
+The abductors act to keep the bands apart during respiration, while the
+function of the adductors and tensors is to bring the bands into
+position for speech or singing. They are, since phonation is at will,
+voluntary muscles; but it is an interesting fact that the laryngeal
+muscles of either side invariably act together. It has been shown that
+it is not possible to move one vocal cord without the other at the same
+time executing the same movement. It is thus shown that the laryngeal
+muscles are, to a less extent, under the control of the will than are
+those of either hand or eye. The rational training of the singing-voice
+cannot, therefore, proceed upon any theory based upon the voluntary
+training of the muscles controlling the movements of the vocal cords.
+
+The mucous membrane which lines the larynx is liberally supplied with
+secreting glands, whose function is to keep the parts moist. Above the
+vocal bands, another pair of membranous ligaments are stretched across
+the larynx forming, with its sides and the vocal bands, a pouch or
+pocket. The upper ligaments are sometimes called the false vocal cords,
+but are more properly termed ventricular bands. Their function has
+occasioned much speculation, but whatever modification of tone they may
+be supposed to produce, they no doubt protect the true vocal bands and
+permit their free vibration. The larynx, in the production of sound, may
+be compared to an organ-pipe. The two vocal cords which act
+simultaneously and are anatomically alike, when set in vibration by the
+blast of air coming from the lungs, correspond to the reed of the
+organ-pipe; the vibration of the cords, producing sound, which is
+communicated to the air enclosed in the cavities of the chest and head.
+Pitch of tone is determined by the rapidity of vibrations of the bands,
+according to acoustical law, and the length, size, and tension of the
+cords will determine the number of vibrations per second, _i.e._, their
+rapidity.
+
+Strength or loudness of tone is determined primarily by the width or
+amplitude of the vibrations of the vocal membrane, and quality or timbre
+is determined by the form of the vibration.
+
+The infinitely varying anatomical divergencies in the form and structure
+of the nasal, pharyngeal and throat cavities, and possibly the
+composition of the vocal bands, modifies, in numberless ways, the
+character of tone in speech or song. It is a fascinating topic, but must
+be dismissed here with the remark that, as those anatomical differences
+in structure are far less marked in children than in adults, their
+voices are, in consequence, more alike in quality and strength. It takes
+long, patient training to blend adult voices, but children’s voices,
+when properly used, are homogeneous in tone.
+
+The voices of boys and girls, prior to the age of puberty, are alike.
+The growth of the larynx, which in each is quite rapid up to the age of
+six years, then, according to all authorities with which the writer is
+conversant, ceases, and the vocal bands neither lengthen nor thicken, to
+any appreciable extent, before the time of change of voice, which occurs
+at the age of puberty.
+
+It is scarcely possible, however, that the larynx literally remains
+_unchanged_ through the period of the child’s life, extending from the
+age of six to fourteen or fifteen years. In point of fact, authorities
+upon the subject refer only to the lack of growth and development in
+_size_ of the larynx during the period; but _undoubtedly, during these
+years, there is a constant gaining of firmness and strength, in both the
+cartilages and their connecting membranes and muscles_. None of the
+books written upon the voice have even mentioned this most important
+fact. It bears with great significance upon questions relating to the
+capacities of the child’s voice at different ages, and explains that
+phenomenon called the “movable break,” which has puzzled so many in
+their investigations of the registers of the child’s voice. The
+constant, though of course extremely slow, hardening of the
+cartilaginous portions of the larynx, and the steady increase in the
+strength of its muscles and ligaments is not in the least inconsistent
+with the previously noted fact, that the vocal bands during this time
+increase to no appreciable extent in length; for, it may be observed,
+after the change of voice, which often occurs with great rapidity, and
+during which the vocal bands increase to double their previous length in
+males, that, though the pitch of the voice, owing to increased length of
+the bands, suddenly lowers, yet not until full maturity is reached, do
+the laryngeal cartilages attain that rigidity, or the vocal bands that
+ready elasticity essential to the production of pure, resonant voice.
+Yet, during these years, while the voice is developing, the vocal bands
+remain unchanged in _length_. Even in those cases where the voice
+changes slowly in consequence of the slow growth in length and thickness
+of the vocal cords, it takes several years, after laryngeal development
+has ceased, for the voice to attain its full size and resonance.
+
+Furthermore, the continual increase in strength and firmness of the
+larynx from six years onward to puberty, is consistent with the constant
+growth in strength and firmness of tissue characterizing the entire
+body. It is again proven by the continual improvement in the power and
+timbre of the tone through this period, always premising, be it
+understood, that the voice is used properly, and never forced beyond its
+natural capabilities. The voice, at the age of eleven or twelve, is far
+stronger, and is capable of more sustained effort than at the age of six
+or seven years, and, for the year or two preceding the break of voice,
+the brilliance and power of boys’ voices, especially in the higher
+tones, is often phenomenal, and in all cases is far superior to that of
+previous years.
+
+The resemblance between the voices of boys and girls, a resemblance
+which amounts to identity, save that the voices of boys are stronger and
+more brilliant in quality, disappears at puberty.
+
+Among the physical changes which occur at this period is a marked growth
+of the larynx, sufficient to alter entirely the pitch and character of
+the boy’s voice. As a female larynx is affected to a lesser extent, the
+voices of girls undergo little change in pitch, but become eventually
+more powerful, and richer in tone.
+
+This break of the voice, as it is called, occurs at about the age of
+fifteen years in this climate, but often a year or two earlier, and not
+infrequently a year or two later. The growth of the larynx goes on, with
+greater or less rapidity, varying in different individuals, for from six
+months to two or three years, until it attains its final size. In boys,
+the larynx doubles in size, and the vocal bands increase in the
+proportion of five to ten in length. This great gain in the length of
+the vocal cords is due to the lateral development of the larynx, for the
+male larynx, in its entirety, increases more in depth than in height.
+The result is a drop of an octave in the average boy’s voice, the longer
+bands producing lower tones. The change in size in the female larynx is
+in the proportion of five to seven, and the increase is in height
+instead of depth or width as in the male larynx. The vocal cords of
+women are, therefore, shorter, thinner and narrower than are those of
+men.
+
+The reason assigned for the peculiar antics of the boy’s voice, during
+the break, is unequal rapidity in the growth and development of the
+cartilages and of the muscles of the larynx. The muscles develop more
+slowly than do the cartilages, and so abnormal physical conditions
+produce abnormal results in phonation.
+
+No further changes occur in the laryngeal structure until middle life,
+when ossification of the cartilages commences. The thyroid is first
+affected, then the cricoid, and the arytenoids much later.
+
+The consequent rigidity of the larynx occasions diminished compass of
+the singing-voice, the notes of the upper register being the first to
+disappear. In some few cases of arrested development, the voice of the
+man retains the soprano compass of the boy through life.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+REGISTERS OF THE VOICE.
+
+
+It may be observed, in listening to an ascending series of tones sung by
+an untrained or by a badly-trained adult voice, that at certain pitches
+the tone-quality undergoes a radical change; while a well-trained singer
+will sing the same series of tones without showing any appreciable break
+or change in tone-quality, although the highest note will present a
+marked contrast in timbre to the lowest. The breaks or changes in
+register so noticeable in the untrained voice are covered or equalized
+in the voice trained by correct methods. These breaks in both male and
+female voices occur at certain pitches where the tone-producing
+mechanism of the larynx changes action, and brings the vocal bands into
+a new vibratory form. “A register consists of a series of tones produced
+by the same mechanism.”-- Emil Behnke in “Voice, Song, and Speech.”
+G. Edward Stubbs, in commenting upon the above definition, says:
+
+“By mechanism is meant the action of the larynx which produces
+_different sets of vibrations_, and by register is meant the range of
+voice confined to a given set of vibrations. In passing the voice from
+one register to another, the larynx changes its mechanism and calls into
+play a different form of vibration.”
+
+The number of vocal registers, or vibratory forms, which the vocal bands
+assume, is still a matter of dispute, and their nomenclature is equally
+unsettled. The old Italian singing-masters gave names to parts of the
+vocal compass corresponding to the real or imaginary bodily sensations
+experienced in singing them; as chest-voice, throat-voice, head-voice.
+Madame Seiler, in “The Voice in Singing,” gives as the result of
+original investigations with the laryngoscope five different actions of
+the vocal bands which she classifies as “first and second series of the
+chest-register,” “first and second series of the falsetto register” and
+“head-register.” Browne and Behnke, in “Voice, Song, and Speech,” divide
+the male voice into three registers, and the female into five. They are
+termed “lower thick,” “upper thick,” “lower thin,” “upper thin” and
+“small.” Other writers speak of three registers, “chest,” “medium” and
+“head,” and still others of two only, viz., the chest and the head.
+
+Modern research has shown what was after all understood before, that, if
+the vibratory form assumed by the vocal bands for the natural production
+of a certain set of tones is pushed by muscular exertion above the point
+where it should cease, inflammation and weakening of the vocal organs
+will result, while voice-deterioration is sure to follow.
+A physiological basis has reinforced the empirical deductions of the old
+Italian school. In dealing with children’s voices, it is necessary to
+recognize only two registers, the thick, or chest-register, and the
+thin, or head-register. Further subdivisions will only complicate the
+subject without assisting in the practical management of their voices.
+Tones sung in the thick or chest-register are produced by the full, free
+vibration of the vocal bands in their entire length, breadth and
+thickness. The tones of the thin or head-register result from the
+vibration of the vocal bands along their inner edges alone.
+
+We may then conclude from the foregoing that _children up to the age of
+puberty, at least in class or chorus singing, should use the thin or
+head-register only_.
+
+1st. It is from a physiological standpoint entirely safe. The use of
+this register will not strain or overwork the delicate vocal organs of
+childhood.
+
+2d. Its tones are musical, pure and sweet, and their use promotes the
+growth of musical sensibility and an appreciation of beauty in tone.
+
+3d. The use of the thick or chest-voice in class-singing is dangerous.
+It is wellnigh impossible to confine it within proper limits.
+
+It is unnecessary to discuss the second point. Anyone who has noted the
+contrast between the harsh quality of tone emitted from childish throats
+when using the chest-voice, and the pure, flute-like sound produced when
+the head-tones are sung will agree that the last is music and the first
+noise, or at any rate very noisy, barbaric music.
+
+The third point, if true, establishes the first, for, if the chest-voice
+cannot be safely used, it follows that children must use the
+head-register or stop singing. It must be said, before proceeding
+further, that it is not denied that the thick voice can be used by
+children without injury, if properly managed; that is, if the singing be
+not too loud, and if it be not carried too high. It is also fully
+recognized, that, when theoretically the head-voice alone is used, it
+yet, when carried to the lower tones, insensibly blends into the thick
+register; but if this equalization of registers is obtained so
+completely that no perceptible difference in quality of voice can be
+observed, why then the whole compass is practically the thin or
+head-register.
+
+Now, can the thick voice be used in school-singing, and confined to the
+lower notes? And is it fairly easy to secure soft and pure vocalizations
+in this register? Let the experience of thousands of teachers in the
+public schools of this and other lands answer the last question.
+
+It would be as easy to stop the growth of the average boy with a word,
+or to persuade a crowd of youngsters to speak softly at a game of
+baseball, as to induce them, or girls either for that matter, to use the
+voice gently, when singing with that register in which it is possible to
+push the tone and shout.
+
+There should be some good physiological reason for the habitual recourse
+to the strident chest-voice so common with boys, and nearly as usual
+with girls. And there is a good reason. It is _lack of rigidity in the
+voice-box or larynx_. Its cartilages harden slowly, and even just before
+the age of puberty the larynx falls far short of the firmness and
+rigidity of structure, that characterize the organ in adult life. It is
+physically very difficult for the adult to force the chest-voice beyond
+its natural limits, which become fixed when full maturity of bodily
+development is reached, but the child, whose laryngeal cartilages are
+far more flexible, and move toward and upon each other with greater
+freedom, can force the chest-voice up with great ease. The altitude of
+pitch which is attained before breaking into the thin register is with
+young children regulated by the amount of muscular exertion they put
+forth. Even up to the change of voice, boys can often force the thick
+register several notes higher than women sopranos.
+
+It must be borne in mind that the thick voice is produced by the full,
+free vibrations of the vocal bands in their entire length, breadth and
+thickness.
+
+Imagine children six years of age carrying tones formed in this manner
+to the extreme limit of their voice; yet they do it. The tone of infant
+classes in Sunday-schools, and the tone of the primary schools, as they
+sing their morning hymns or songs for recreation, is produced in nine
+hundred and ninety-nine cases out of a thousand in exactly the way set
+forth. If the vocal bands of children were less elastic, if they were
+composed of stronger fibres, and protected from undue exertion by firm
+connecting cartilage; in short, if children were not children, such
+forcing would not be possible. If it were not for the wonderful
+recuperative power of childhood, serious effects would follow such vocal
+habits.
+
+We are now prepared to understand that common phenomenon of the
+child-voice, termed the “movable break.” Every public school teacher who
+has had experience in teaching singing must be familiar with the meaning
+of the term, though possibly unaware of it. Allusion has already been
+made to the fact that, in primary grades, the thick quality, if
+permitted, will be carried as high as the children sing, to
+
+    [Music: e'']
+
+for example. If they are required to sing the higher tones lightly, then
+the three or four tones, just below the pitch indicated, will be sung in
+a thin quality of voice. The place of the break or the absence of any
+break at all will depend upon the degree of loudness permitted.
+
+Pass now to a grade in which the pupils average eleven years of age.
+These can use the thick tones as high as
+
+    [Music: d'' e'']
+
+only with great exertion, and, if required to sing softly, will pass
+into the thin register at a lower pitch than the primary class. Now, go
+to a room where the children range in age from thirteen to fifteen
+years. The girls will still use thick tones up to
+
+    [Music: b' c'' d'']
+
+The pitch at which the break occurs will vary in individual cases
+according to physique or ambition to sing well; but the boys (excluding
+those whose voices have begun to break) will manifest the utmost
+repugnance to singing the higher notes. “Can’t sing high” will be the
+reply when you ask them why they do not sing. And they are correct. They
+cannot, not with the thick voice. Even when putting forth considerable
+exertion, they will pass to the thin voice at
+
+    [Music: g' {or} a']
+
+and lower, if they sing softly. This phenomenon, then, is the “movable
+break” of the child-voice. The pitch at which the child-voice passes
+from the thick to the thin voice depends first upon the age; second,
+upon the amount of physical energy employed, and third, upon the bodily
+vigor of the child.
+
+It may also be added that boys’ voices break lower than girls’ during
+the year or two preceding change of voice. When, now, it is remembered
+that the adult female voice leaves the chest-register at
+
+    [Music: f' f#']
+
+it will be admitted by everyone who has had actual experience in class
+singing in schools or elsewhere, that the facts set forth in reference
+to the ability of the child to carry the thick voice from one to eight
+tones higher than the adult, has a very important bearing on the subject
+of training children’s voices.
+
+But, is it physically injurious? It may be said that, as regards upward
+forcing of the vocal register, authorities upon the adult voice are
+united. Leo Kofler, in “The Art of Breathing,” p. 168, says: “I have met
+female trebles that used this means of forcing up the chest-tones as
+high as middle A, B, C, and (one can hardly conceive of the physical
+possibility of so doing) even as far as D and E flat. The reason why
+this practice is so dangerous lies in the unnatural way in which the
+larynx is held down in the throat, and in the force that is exercised by
+the tension muscles of the vocal ligaments and the hard pressure of the
+muscles of the tongue-bone.... I have examined with the laryngoscope
+many ladies who had the habit of singing the chest-tones too high, and,
+without exception, I have found their throats in a more or less diseased
+condition. Laryngitis, either alone or complicated with pharyngitis,
+relaxation of the vocal ligaments, and sometimes paralysis of one of
+them, are the most frequent results of this bad habit. If a singer is
+afflicted with catarrhal trouble, it is always aggravated by this
+abominable method of singing.”
+
+Emma Seiler, in “The Voice in Singing,” p. 54, after describing the
+action of the vocal ligaments in the production of the chest-voice and
+alluding to the fact that such action can be continued several tones
+higher than the proper transitional point, goes on: “But such tones,
+especially in the female voice, have that rough and common timbre, which
+we are too often compelled to hear in our female singers. The glottis
+also in this case, as well as parts of the larynx near the glottis,
+betrays the effort very plainly; as the tones ascend, they grow more and
+more red. _Thus, as at this place in the chest-register, there occurs a
+visible and sensible straining of the organs, so also is it in all the
+remaining transitions, as soon as the attempt is made to extend the
+action by which the lower tones are formed beyond the given limits of
+the same_.” And again: “In the ignorance existing concerning the natural
+transitions of the registers, and in the unnatural forcing of the voice,
+is found a chief cause of the decline in the art of singing, and the
+present inability to preserve the voice is the consequence of a method
+of teaching unnatural, and, therefore, imposing too great a strain upon
+the voice.” Quotations innumerable might be made, to give more emphasis,
+were it needed, to the evils of register forcing.
+
+The only point remaining is the one very often raised. Is it not
+_natural for children_ to use the chest or thick voice? If their vocal
+organs are so flexible, may they not carry such tones higher than
+adults, and younger children higher than those a little older, and
+so on?
+
+It is quite obvious, for reasons herein set forth, that children do not
+experience the same degree of difficulty in continuing the use of the
+thick voice to their higher tones as do adults, but as to the effect
+upon their vocal organs there need be no reasonable doubt. A. B. Bach,
+in “Principles of Singing,” p. 142, says: “If children are allowed to
+sing their higher notes forte, before the voice is properly equalized,
+it will become hard, harsh and hoarse, and they will fail in correct
+intonation. A mistake in this direction not only ruins the middle
+register but destroys the voice altogether. The consequence of
+encouraging forte singing is to change a soprano rapidly to an alto; and
+they will generally sing alto equally forte because their vocal cords
+have lost their elasticity through overstraining and the notes will no
+longer answer to piano. . . . . The fact is that reckless singing often
+breaks tender voices and breaks them forever.” It may be observed that
+the writer cited evidently accepts the same classification in register
+for children and adult women’s voices, but this does not make the above
+extract any less applicable. The baneful effects of forcing the voice is
+clearly set forth. How to avoid it is another matter.
+
+Leo Kofler, in the work previously mentioned, p. 168, refers to this
+point as follows: “It frequently happens that the tones of the lower
+range, or the so-called chest-tones, are forced up too high into the
+middle range. This bad habit is often contracted while the singers are
+quite young. Boy trebles have this habit to an unendurable degree,
+usually screaming those horrible chest-tones up to middle C. Of all bad
+habits, this one is the most liable to injure a voice and to detract
+from artistic singing.”
+
+To cite Madame Seiler once more, p. 176: “While it often happens that at
+the most critical age while the vocal organs are being developed,
+children sing with all the strength they can command. Boys, however, in
+whom the larynx at a certain period undergoes an entire transformation,
+reach only with difficulty the higher soprano or contralto tones, but
+are not assigned a lower part until perceiving themselves the
+impossibility of singing in this way, they beg the teacher for the
+change, often too late, unhappily, to prevent an irreparable injury.
+Moderate singing without exertion, and above all things, within the
+natural limits of the voice and its registers, would even during the
+period of growth be as little hurtful as speaking, laughing or any other
+exercise which cannot be forbidden to the vocal organs.”
+
+Browne and Behnke, who separately and together have given most valuable
+additions to the literature of the voice, in a small book entitled “The
+Child-Voice,” have collated a large number of answers from distinguished
+singers, teachers and choir-trainers to various questions relating to
+the subject. The following citation is from this interesting work,
+p. 39: “The necessity of limiting the compass of children’s voices is
+frequently insisted upon, no attention whatever being paid to
+_registers_; and yet in finitely more mischief is done by forcing the
+registers than would be accomplished by allowing children to exceed the
+compass generally assigned to them, always provided that the singing be
+the result of using the mechanism set apart by nature for different
+parts of the voice.”
+
+There can really be no doubt that the use of the chest or thick voice
+upon the higher tones is injurious to a child of six years, or ten
+years, or of any other age. The theory that in the child-voice the
+breaks occur at higher fixed pitches than in the adult is shown to be
+untenable. The fact would seem to be that comparisons between the
+registers of the child and the adult voice are misleading, since the
+adult voice has fixed points of change in the vocal mechanism, which can
+be transcended only with great difficulty, while the child-voice has _no
+fixed points of change in its vocal registers_. This point must not be
+overlooked. It is the most important fact connected with the child-voice
+in speech or song. It is the fundamental idea of this work and is the
+basis for whatever suggestions are herein contained upon the management
+of the child-voice. The rigidity of the adult larynx, the strength of
+the tensor and adductor muscles and the elastic firmness of the vocal
+ligaments, are to those of the child as the solid bony framework and
+strongly set muscles of maturity are to the imperfectly hardened bones
+and soft muscles of childhood. Nature makes no fixed limits of the vocal
+registers until full maturity is reached. A fixed register in a childish
+throat involving a completely developed larynx would be a startling
+anomaly. The laryngeal muscles of childhood are not strong. They are
+weak. Most of the talk about strength of voice in children is utter
+nonsense. When the muscles and other parts concerned in tone-production
+perform their physiological functions in a healthy manner, that is, in
+such a way that no congestion, or inflammation or undue weariness will
+result, the singing-tone of the child will never be loud. High or low,
+under these conditions it must perforce be soft, and if proper
+directions be followed the quality will be as good as the voice is
+capable of.
+
+Everyone who has observed has also noticed the contrast in the lower
+tones of children and women. The chest-voice of the woman, which she
+uses in singing her lower register, is normally very beautiful in its
+quality. Its tones are the product of a perfectly developed, full-grown
+organ. The chest-voice of the child is an abnormal product of a weak,
+growing, undeveloped organ. It possesses, even when used carefully,
+little of the tone tints of the adult voice. The chest-voice belongs to
+adult life, not to childhood. The so-called chest-voice of children is
+only embryonic. It cannot be musical, for the larynx has not reached
+that stage of growth and development where it can produce these tones
+musically. The constant use of this hybrid register with children is
+injurious in many ways. Its use is justified in schools merely through
+custom, and it can not be doubted that as soon as the attention of
+teachers is called to its evils, they will no longer tolerate its use.
+
+The usual analogies then which are drawn between the adult female voice
+and the child-voice, in so far as they imply a similar physiological
+condition of the vocal organ and similar vocal training, are not only
+useless, but misleading. He who tries to train the average child-voice
+on the theory of two, three or five clearly-defined breaks, or natural
+changes in the forms for vocal vibration assumed by the vocal bands will
+get very little help from nature.
+
+With due consideration it is said that it is a harder task to train
+children’s voices properly than to train the voices of adults. Where
+nature is so shifty in her ways, it requires keen penetration to
+discover her ends.
+
+The child-voice is a delicate instrument. It ought not to be played upon
+by every blacksmith.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+HOW TO SECURE GOOD TONE.
+
+
+The practical application of the teaching of the two preceding chapters
+may at first thought seem to be difficult. On the contrary, it is quite
+easy. We have favorable conditions in schools; graded courses in music,
+regular attendance, discipline, and women and men in charge who are
+accustomed to teach. No more favorable conditions for teaching vocal
+music exist than are to be found in a well-organized and
+well-disciplined school. The environments of both pupils and teachers
+are exactly adapted to the ready reception of ideas, on the one hand,
+and the skilful imparting of them, on the other.
+
+The abilities of the trained teachers of to-day are not half
+appreciated. They often possess professional skill of the highest order,
+and the supervisor of music in the public schools may count himself
+exceedingly fortunate in the means he has at hand for carrying on his
+work. But knowledge of voice is no more evolved from one’s inner
+consciousness than is knowledge of musical notation, or of the Greek
+alphabet; therefore, if regular teachers in the school permit singing
+which is unmusical and hurtful, it is chiefly because they are following
+the usual customs, and their ears have thereby become dulled, or it may
+be that even if the singing is unpleasant to them, that they do not
+_know how_ to make it better. As before said, all energies have so far
+been directed to the teaching of music reading. Tone has been neglected,
+forgotten, or at most its improvement has been sought spasmodically. The
+carelessness regarding tone, which is so prevalent, is due to an almost
+entire absence of good teaching on the subject of the child-voice-- to
+ignorance, let us say-- not altogether inexcusable.
+
+Now and then, when listening to the soprani of some well-trained
+boy-choir, sounding soft and mellow on the lower notes and ringing clear
+and flutey on the higher, it may have dimly occurred to the teacher of
+public school music that there might be things as yet unheard of in his
+musical philosophy, a vague wonder and dissatisfaction, which has slowly
+disappeared under the pressure of routine work.
+
+When one reflects upon the results which the patience and skill of our
+regular teachers have accomplished in teaching pupils to read music; it
+can never be reasonably doubted that the same patience and skill, if
+rightly directed, will be equally successful in teaching a correct use
+of the voice.
+
+Two principles form the basis of good tone-production as applied to
+children’s voices.
+
+1st. _They must sing softly._
+
+2d. _They must be restricted in compass of voice._
+
+If these two rules are correctly applied in each grade, if pupils sing
+_softly enough_, and carry their tones neither too high nor too low,
+always taking into account the grade or average age of the class, then
+the voice will be used _only in the thin or head-register_, and the
+tones of the thick or chest-register will never be heard. But the two
+rules must be as one, for if soft singing be carried too low with infant
+voices, they are forced to use the thick tones; and children of all
+ages, even if singing within the right compass of voice, will use the
+thick register if permitted to sing too loud.
+
+There is nothing particularly original in insisting upon soft singing
+from children. The writer has never seen a book of school music that
+does not mention its desirability, nor hardly a reference to the
+child-voice in the standard works or writings of the day of which this
+idea has not formed a part.
+
+The general direction “Sing softly” is good so far as it goes, but is,
+first, indefinite. Softly and loudly are relative terms, and subject to
+wide diversity of interpretation. The pianissimo of a cultivated singer
+is silence compared to the tone emitted by vocalists of the main
+strength order, when required to produce soft tone. Secondly, the
+direction is seldom or never found coupled with instruction upon the
+vocal compass of children. Hence, it does not seem very strange that the
+injunction “Sing softly” has not corrected vocal errors in school
+singing.
+
+It is not easy, it is even impossible, to accurately define soft
+singing, and no attempt will be made further than to describe as clearly
+as may be the degree of softness which it is necessary to insist upon if
+we would secure the use of the thin or head register.
+
+The subject of register has already been discussed, but it may not be
+amiss to repeat just here that in the child larynx as in the adult the
+head-register is that series of tones which are produced by the
+vibration of the thin, inner edges of the vocal band. If breathing is
+natural, and if the throat is open and relaxed, no strain in singing
+this tone is possible. It is evident in a moment that children with
+their thin, delicate vocal ligaments can make this tone even more easily
+than adult sopranos, whose vocal ligaments are longer and thicker; and
+it is also perfectly evident that no danger of strain to the vocal bands
+is incurred when this voice is used, for all the muscles and ligaments
+of the larynx are under far less tension than is required for the
+production of tones in the thick register.
+
+It must also be remembered in connection with this fact, that children
+often enter school at five years of age, and that according to
+physiologists the larynx does not reach the full growth in _size_,
+incidental to childhood until the age of six years. We must then be
+particularly careful with infant classes-- for the vocal bands of
+children prior to six years of age are very, very weak. Speaking of
+infant voices, Mr. W. M. Miller, in Browne and Behnke’s afore-mentioned
+work, “The Child-Voice,” is quoted as saying; “Voice-_training_ cannot
+be attempted, but voice-_destruction_ may be prevented. Soft singing is
+the cure for all the ills of the vocal organs.” It would be hard to find
+a more terse or truthful statement than the first sentence of the above
+as regards the voices of little children from five to seven or eight
+years of age. It is unmitigated foolishness to talk about vocal training
+as applied to children of that age. The voice-culture which is suited to
+little children is that sort of culture which promotes growth-- food and
+sleep and play. As well train a six months’ old colt for the race track,
+as attempt to develop the voice of a child of six or seven years with
+exercises on _o_, and _ah_, _pianissimo_ and _fortissimo_, _crescendo_,
+_diminuendo_ and _swell_. Their voices must be used in singing as
+_lightly as possible_. This answers the question, how softly should they
+sing?
+
+Children during the first two or three years of school-life may be
+permitted to sing from
+
+    [Music: e' e'']
+
+or if the new pitch is used from
+
+    [Music: f' f'']
+
+Two or three practical difficulties will at once occur to the teacher
+with reference to songs and exercises which range lower than E first
+line, and with reference to the customary teaching of the scale of C as
+the initial step in singing.
+
+The subject of compass of children’s voices will be discussed at some
+length in a following chapter, but for the present it may be said that
+the difficulty with songs and exercises ranging below the pitch
+indicated may be overcome easily by pitching the songs, etc., a tone or
+two higher. If they then range too high, don’t sing them, sing something
+else. In teaching the scale, take E or F as the keynote, and sing either
+one or the other of those scales first. The children must sing as softly
+as possible in all their singing exercises, whether songs or note drill.
+They should be taught to open their mouths well, to sit or stand erect
+as the case may be, and under no circumstances should the instructor
+sing with them. Too much importance can hardly be given to this last
+statement. If teachers persist in leading the songs with their own
+voices and in singing exercises with the children, they can and most
+probably will defeat all efforts to secure the right tone in either the
+first, or any grade up to that in which changed voices are found. This
+sounds rather cynical, and might seem to imply that instructors cannot
+sing well. The meaning, however, is quite different.
+
+The quality or timbre of the adult woman’s voice is wholly unlike that
+of the child’s thin register. Her medium tones, even when sung softly,
+have a fuller and more resonant quality, and if she lead in songs, etc.,
+the pupils, with the proverbial aptitude for imitation, will inevitably
+endeavor to imitate her tone-quality. They can only do so by using the
+thick register, which it is so desirable to utterly avoid. It is worse
+yet for a man to lead the singing. Neither should one of the pupils be
+allowed to lead, for not only will the one leading force the voice in
+the effort, but a chance is offered to any ambitious youngster to pitch
+in and outsing the leader; from all of which follows naturally the idea
+that all prominence of individual voice must be discouraged, forbidden
+even. The songs and exercises must be led, it is true, but by the
+teacher and _silently_. Then, again, unless the teacher is silent she
+cannot be a good critic. Think of a voice-trainer singing each solfeggio
+and song with his pupil during the lesson.
+
+Certainly it is often necessary for the teacher to sing, but only to
+illustrate or correct, or to teach a song. In the last, if the teacher
+will remain silent while the class repeat the line sung to them, and
+will proceed in the same way until the whole is memorized by the class,
+not only will time be economized, but the tone can be kept as soft as is
+desired and individual shouters checked. Once more it must be insisted
+that soft, very soft singing only, can be allowed. And this applies to
+the entire compass used. Children of the ages mentioned can, as has
+already been shown, break from the thin to the thick voice at any pitch,
+it only requiring a little extra push for the upper tones.
+
+Finally, as an excellent test to settle if the tone is soft enough to
+ensure the use of the thin register beyond doubt, require the class to
+sing so that no particular voice can be distinguished from the others,
+which will make the tone as that of one voice, and perhaps lead you to
+doubt if all are singing, until convinced by the movement of their
+mouths. The tone will seem pretty light and thin, but will be sweet as
+the trill of a bird.
+
+
+_To Distinguish Registers._
+
+The difficulty which may be experienced in attempting to distinguish
+between the two registers must not be disregarded. If the voices of
+children were never entrusted to any save professional voice-teachers,
+a very few hints upon their management would perhaps suffice, for the
+ear of the teacher of voice and singing is presumably trained in the
+differentiation in tone-quality occasioned by changes in the action of
+the vocal mechanism. When, however, we reflect that of the thousands of
+teachers in our public schools very few, indeed, have ever heard of
+voice-registers, and much less been accustomed to note distinctions in
+tone-timbre between them, the need of a detailed plan of procedure is
+seen.
+
+It is safe to assert that anyone with a musical ear can with a little
+patience learn to distinguish one register from another. There is no
+vocal transition so marked as the change from thick to thin register in
+the child-voice, unless it be the change from the chest to the head or
+falsetto in the man’s voice. Suppose we take a class of say twelve from
+the fourth year averaging nine years of age. Give them the pitch of C.
+
+    [Music: c']
+
+Require them to sing up the scale loudly. As they reach the upper tone
+
+    [Music: c'']
+
+stop them and ask them to sing that, and the two tones above _very
+softly_. The change in tone will be quite apparent. The tone used in
+ascending the scale of C, singing loudly, will be reedy, thick and
+harsh-- the thick register. The tone upon
+
+    [Music: c'' d'' e'']
+
+singing very softly, will be flute-like, thin and clear-- the thin
+register. Again, let them sing E first line with full strength of voice
+and then the octave lightly, or have them sing G second line, first
+softly and then loudly, or, again, let them ascend the scale of E
+singing as light a tone as possible, and then descend singing as loud as
+they can. In each case the change from thick to thin voice, or vice
+versa, will be illustrated; and in singing the scale of E as suggested,
+the break of voice a little higher or lower in individual cases will be
+noticed. It is quite possible that some members of the class may use the
+thick voice on each tone of the descending scale beginning with the
+highest.
+
+Care must always be taken that in singing softly the mouth be well
+opened. The tendency will be to close it when required to sing lightly,
+but the tone, then, will be nothing but a humming noise. It may as well
+be said here that a great deal of future trouble and labor may be
+avoided, if, from the first, pupils are taught to keep the mouth fairly
+well opened, and the lips sufficiently apart to permit the free emission
+of tone. Let the lower jaw have a loose hinge, so to speak. It is well
+enough to point out also that when the lower jaw drops, the tongue goes
+down with it, and should remain extended along the floor of the mouth
+with the tip against the teeth while vowel-sounds are sung.
+
+There are many other ways than those already suggested, in which the
+distinction between the registers may be shown. Let the whole class sing
+
+    [Music: d'' c'' b']
+
+softly, and then the next lower tone or tones loudly. The thick quality
+will be heard easily enough. Or from the room select a pupil, one of the
+class who has, in the phraseology of the schoolroom, a good voice, to
+sing the scale of D ascending and descending. If the pupil be not timid,
+and the kind referred to are not usually, and if loud singing has been
+customary, the tone will be coarse and reedy throughout. Now let another
+pupil who has what is called a light voice, and who daily sits modestly
+in the shade of his boisterous brother, sing the same scale. The tone in
+all likelihood will be pure and flutey, at least upon the higher notes.
+
+Take the scale of E now and have each pupil in the room sing it alone.
+There may certainly be some who cannot sing the scale, and if the daily
+singing has been harsh, the number may be large, but postponing the
+consideration of these so-called monotones and directing the attention
+wholly to the quality or timbre of tone used by the different pupils, it
+may be observed that some use the thick voice only, some use the thin
+voice, others break from the thick voice into the thin at one pitch as
+they ascend, and from the thin to thick voice at a lower pitch as they
+descend; and if required to sing again, may perhaps pass from one voice
+to the other at different pitches. Others again may exhibit a blending
+of the two voices at certain pitches. In fact, unless the degree of
+power is suddenly changed, a break from the thick tone upon one note to
+the thin tone upon the next note or vice versa seldom occurs.
+
+The same illustrative tests may be applied to children of any grade, or
+of any age up to the period when the voice changes, only the break will
+occur lower with older pupils. Suppose, now, the teacher has obtained a
+tolerably clear idea of the differences between the registers; she
+should then arouse a perception of tone-quality in her pupils. Let the
+beauty of soft, light tone as contrasted with loud, harsh tone be once
+clearly demonstrated to a class, and the interest and best efforts of
+every girl or boy who has the germ of music within them will be
+enlisted. Those who grumble because they may not sing out good and loud
+may be disregarded, and with a clear conscience. The future will most
+likely reveal such incipient lovers of noisy music as pounders of drums
+and blowers of brass.
+
+Select now a number of the class who upon trial have been found to have
+light, clear voices and who are not prone to shout. Let them sing
+
+    [Music: e'' {or} f'']
+
+and then slowly descend the scale of E or F, singing each tone softly,
+and those below C
+
+    [Music: c'']
+
+very lightly. This will insure the uninterrupted use of the thin
+register to the lowest note. Let them now sing up and down the scale
+several times, observing the same caution when notes below C or B are
+sung, and also insisting that no push be given to the upper notes. Now,
+first excusing monotones, let the other pupils in the room sing first
+down the scale and then up, imitating the quality and softness of tone
+of the picked class. Recollect, you are asking something of your pupils
+which it is perfectly easy for them to do. It may be that the strength
+of well-formed habits stands opposed to the change, but, on the other
+hand, every musical instinct latent, or partly awakened, is becoming
+alert and proving the truth of your teaching better and faster than can
+any finespun reasoning. Illustrate the difference in tone-quality
+between the thick and thin register as often as it is necessary, to show
+your pupils what you wish to avoid and how you wish them to sing. When
+in doubt whether or not the thin quality is being sung, require softer
+singing until you are sure. It is better to err upon the side of soft
+singing than to take any chances.
+
+In time teachers will become quick to detect the change in register, and
+in time also the pupils who are trained to sing in the thin voice will
+yield to the force of good habit, as they once did to bad habit, and
+seldom offend by too loud or too harsh tone.
+
+The inquiry may naturally have arisen ere this: Are syllables, i.e.,
+_do_, _re_, _mi_, etc., to be used, or the vowel-sounds? It is
+immaterial from the standpoint of tone-production, whether either or
+both are used. Until children are thoroughly accustomed to sing softly,
+they will be kept upon the thin register more easily when singing with a
+vowel-sound, than when using the syllables. The reason is that the
+articulation of the initial consonants of the syllables requires
+considerable movement of the organs of speech, viz., the tongue, lips,
+etc., and these movements are accompanied by a continually-increasing
+outrush of air from the lungs, occasioning a corresponding increase in
+the volume of sound. Adult voices show the same tendency to increase the
+volume of tone when first applying words to a passage practiced
+pianissimo with a vowel-sound. It is advisable then to sing scales and
+drill upon them with a vowel-sound, and to recur to the same drill for a
+corrective, when a tendency to use the thick voice in singing note
+exercises appears.
+
+Scale drill may be carried on as follows: If the scales are written upon
+a blackboard staff, they may from day to day be in different keys. It is
+a very easy matter to extend the scale neither above nor below the
+pitches within which it is desired to confine the voice. For example,
+the scale of E or F may be written complete, that of G as follows:
+
+    [Music: {scale in G running down to e' and up to e''}]
+
+or A
+
+    [Music: {scale in A running down to e' and up to f#''}]
+
+or B♭
+
+    [Music: {scale in B♭ running down to e♭' and up to f''}]
+
+and so on. Now let the teacher with a pointer direct the singing of the
+class upon the selected scale in such a manner as to secure the desired
+result in tone, and incidentally a familiarity with pitch relations,
+etc. Of course, if charts are used the trouble of writing scales is
+saved, only it is advised that the notes lying outside the prescribed
+compass be omitted in the lower grades entirely, and in the upper until
+the habit of good tone is established, when, of course, the tones may be
+carried below E with safety. The extent and variety of vocal drill which
+can be given with a pointer and a scale of notes is wonderful; but
+nothing more need be now suggested, than those exercises which are
+peculiarly intended to secure good tone, and fix good vocal habits,
+although it must be evident that all such drill is very far-reaching in
+its effects.
+
+A few exercises which are very simple are here suggested. First, taking
+the scale of
+
+    [Music: {scale in F running down to e' and up to f''}]
+
+for example. Let the teacher, after the pitch of the keynote is given to
+the class, place the pointer upon F, and slowly moving it from note to
+note, ascend and descend the scale, the class singing a continuous tone
+upon some vowel, _o_ for instance. The pointer should be passed from
+note to note in such a manner that the eye can easily follow it. If the
+notes are indicated to the class by a series of dabs at the chart or
+blackboard, the pointer each time being carried away from the note
+several inches, and then aimed at the next note and so on, the eye
+becomes weary in trying to follow its movements, and the mental energy
+of the pupils, which should be concentrated upon tone, is wasted in
+watching the gyrations of the pointer. If, on the other hand, the
+pointer is made to glide from note to note, passing very quickly over
+intervening spaces, then the eye is not wearied in trying to follow it.
+These directions may seem pretty trivial, but practical experience has
+proved their importance. The vowel _o_ is suggested because it has been
+found easier to secure the use of the head-register with this vowel than
+with _ah_, when it is sought to break up the habit of singing loudly and
+coarsely.
+
+The term continuous tone used to describe the style of singing desired
+is meant literally. If the class in this scale-drill all stop and take
+breath at the same time, making frequent breaks in the continuity of the
+tone, there will be found with each new attack a tendency to increase in
+volume of sound. For certain reasons, which will be explained in the
+chapter on breath-management, the attack of tone will become more and
+more explosive, demanding constant repression. This irritating tendency
+may, in a short time, be almost entirely overcome, if, instead of
+letting the class take breath and attack simultaneously, each pupil is
+told to take breath only when he or she is obliged to, and then at once
+and softly to join again with the others. This will effect the
+continuous tone, useful not alone as a corrective for the tendencies to
+loud singing, but also to establish good breathing-habits.
+
+This same swift, silent breath-taking and succeeding soft attack of tone
+must be insisted upon in _all_ school singing.
+
+The exercise already suggested is slow singing or rapid singing of the
+scale with the vowel _o_ softly, and with continuous tones. Other simple
+exercises are obtained by repetitions of the following exercise figures
+at higher or lower pitches throughout an entire scale, or parts of a
+scale, ascending and descending progressively:
+
+  [Transcriber’s Note:
+
+  The exercises in Figure I are in the key of F in 4/4 time; those in
+  Figure II are in E, 6/8 time; and those in Figure III are in B♭,
+  4/4 time on eighth notes. All text is from the original.]
+
+FIGURE I.
+
+    [Music: Ascending.
+    (Same figure tone higher.)
+    (Again raised.) etc.]
+
+    [Music: Descending.
+    (Same figure tone lower.)
+    (Again lowered) etc.]
+
+The next figure, in which the voice ascends or descends four tones at
+each progressive repetition, has a different rhythm.
+
+FIGURE II.
+
+    [Music: Ascending.
+    (Same figure raised.)
+    (Again raised.) etc.]
+
+    [Music: Descending.
+    (Same, tone lower.)
+    (Still lower.) etc.]
+
+Another exercise figure is to use five ascending and descending tones.
+
+In the illustration which follows, in the key of B flat, it is shown how
+the exercises may be sung, beginning upon the keynote, and keeping
+within the voice-compass.
+
+    [Music: FIGURE III. etc.]
+
+    [Music: (Same Ex. inverted.) etc.]
+
+These exercises are to be sung with vowel-sounds, softly, four measures
+with one breath, if possible, and in strict time.
+
+Only so many of these tone-groups may be sung in any one scale, as lie
+within the extremes of pitch set for the grade, but if different scales
+and upward and downward extensions of the same be used, then all
+possible combinations of tones in the major scale may be sung, that is,
+these exercise figures may upon a piano be repeated seven times in _any_
+key, in phrases of four measures each, both ascending and descending,
+but, owing to the limitations of the vocal compass, only a certain
+number of ascending or descending phrases can be _sung_ in any one key.
+
+While it is suggested that drill upon these musical figures or groups of
+tones may be given from scales, the teacher tracing out the tones with a
+pointer with a rhythmical movement, yet it is still better to practice
+these groups or some of them from memory, the teacher keeping time for
+and directing the class.
+
+    [NOTE.--The directions given are for rooms in which the teacher
+    has only a pitch pipe or tuning-fork to get pitch from. If there
+    is a piano the drill work for tone will be conducted a little
+    differently.]
+
+Pages of musical phrases adapted to vocal drill might be given, but to
+what end except to produce confusion. Our greatest singers use but few
+exercises to keep their voices in good condition, but they practice them
+very often. The exercises suggested are intended for daily practice, and
+the fewer in number and simpler in form they are, the better will be the
+results in tone. This vocal drill which should precede or begin the
+daily music lesson must not be for over five minutes at most. Half of
+that time is enough, if it be spent in singing, and not frittered away
+in useless talk, and questions and answers. A practical application of
+the vocal drill is to be made to the note-singing from the book and
+chart, and to the school repertoire of songs.
+
+The phrases voice-culture, voice-training, voice-development, etc., have
+been avoided in treating the subject of children’s voices, because of
+possible misapprehension of their intended meaning. The terms are not,
+of course, inapplicable to children’s voices, but they must convey quite
+a different significance than they do when applied to the adult voice.
+In each case, the end of voice-culture is the formation of correct vocal
+habits; but it would seem, that while it is possible to develop the
+adult voice very considerably in power, range and flexibility, we ought,
+in dealing with children’s voices, to adopt those methods which will
+protect weak and growing organs. The aim is not more power, but beauty
+and purity rather. It should not be inferred that beauty of tone is not
+equally the aim in culture of the adult voice, but in that case it is
+consistent with development of strength and brilliancy of voice, while
+with young children it is not. If the tone is clear, beautiful, well
+poised, and under the singer’s control, then the training is along safe
+lines. If the tone is bad, harsh, pinched or throaty, then the training
+is along unsafe lines. When the parts act harmoniously together, and
+there is a proper and normal adjustment of all the organs concerned in
+the production of tone, the result is good. Bad tone follows from the
+ill-adjustment of the parts concerned in voice production. It is the
+office of the teacher to correct this ill-adjustment and bring about a
+perfect, or nearly perfect functional action. The teacher must judge of
+the proper or improper action of the parts concerned in tone production
+by the sense of hearing. No accumulation of scientific knowledge can
+take the place of a careful and alert critical faculty in training
+voice. Tone color must guide the school teacher in determining register
+as it does the professional voice trainer. But we can also call the
+mental perceptions of the child to our aid, and will find a more lively
+sense of discrimination in tone quality than the average adult shows. We
+can encourage the growth of high ideals of tone-beauty. We can cultivate
+nice discrimination. We can, in short, use music in our schools not to
+dull, but to quicken, the musical sensibilities of childhood.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+COMPASS OF THE CHILD-VOICE.
+
+
+There is the greatest diversity of opinion upon this subject among those
+who have any opinion at all. It might be supposed that, among the
+thousands of educators who are interested in school music and in the
+singing of children generally, many might be found who have given the
+subject careful attention, but such does not appear to be the case. If
+we consult the musical literature published for children, the prevalence
+of songs suited to the contralto voice is noticeable, indicating
+apparently that the compass of infant voices at least is about the same
+as that of the adult contralto. If there is any generally recognized
+theory upon the subject, it would seem to be this; but from a
+physiological standpoint the voices of children are totally unlike the
+woman contralto, and especially is this true of children of from six to
+eight years of age whose songs are usually written so low in range. An
+error, started anywhere or at any time, of theory or of practice, if it
+once become incorporated into the literature of a subject, is liable to
+be frequently copied, and enjoy a long and useless life. So with this
+treatment of the child-voice. The error is in supposing that it consists
+of a limited number of quite low tones. It has its origin in the sole
+use of the so-called chest-voice of the child, and when the evident
+strain under which a child of six or seven years labors to sing up is
+observed, the conclusion seems safe that they cannot sing high. While,
+on the other hand, they manage with apparent ease to sing down even as
+low as
+
+    [Music: a]
+
+This conception has in divers ways so imbedded itself into the musical
+literature for little children, that all efforts to uproot it have so
+far been apparently futile. There are, however, very many supervisors of
+school music, and the number is growing, who have recognized that this
+treatment of little children’s voices is a vocal barbarity, and the
+device of pitching songs higher than they are written to overcome the
+difficulty is more common than might be supposed. There can be no doubt
+that in a short time the practice of carrying the tones of little
+children three and four notes below the first line of the staff will not
+be tolerated.
+
+The common, even universal, tendency of primary classes to drop in pitch
+when singing with the usual thick tone might show anyone that the voice
+was being used in an abnormal manner. Furthermore, the intonation of
+children of any age is something horrible when the thick voice is used.
+Even carefully-selected and trained boy choristers, if they use this
+voice, are frequently off the key even when supported by men’s voices
+and the organ. So in addition to other reasons for using the thin
+register may be added this, that habits of faulty intonation are surely
+fostered by the use of the thick voice.
+
+Picture to yourself the short, thin, weak vocal bands of a child of six
+or seven years attached to cartilaginous walls so devoid of rigidity
+that in that dreaded disease of childhood-- croup-- they often collapse.
+That is not an instrument for the production of tones in the contralto
+compass. No wonder the pitch is wavering. If infant classes are to sing
+with the usual tones, the common advice to make the singing-exercise
+short is extremely judicious. It would be better to omit it.
+
+The intimation that the last word can now be said on this subject is not
+for a moment intended, but experience has given some tolerably safe
+hints in reference to the compass of the child-voice in the thin
+register at the ages mentioned, and it is advised never to carry the
+compass lower than E first line, nor higher than F fifth line of the
+staff, and the upper extreme must be sung sparingly. The easiest tones
+lie from
+
+    [Music: f' d'']
+
+The injunction to sing very softly need hardly be repeated.
+
+Passing now to children who range in age from nine to eleven years, who
+are found in the fourth and fifth years of school-life, it may be
+observed that there is quite a marked increase in the evenness and
+firmness of their tones. It is quite possible, especially at the age of
+about eleven years, to extent the compass to G above the staff and to D
+or C below; but if it does no harm, it serves no particular good end
+either, and unless care is taken, the children will push the highest
+tones. All of the necessary music drill can be kept within the suggested
+range, and it is just as well to keep on the safe side. Then again, the
+extremes in age between children of the same class grow farther apart as
+we ascend in grade, and the compass must be kept within the vocal powers
+of the youngest, and, from a voice-standpoint, weakest pupils. Protect
+the voice, and nature will attend to its development.
+
+From the time children pass the age of twelve years on to the period of
+puberty, the child-voice is at its best, and if the use of the thin
+register has been faithfully adhered to in the lower grades, the
+singing-tone will now be both pure and brilliant. It will be found not
+at all difficult to carry the same voice as low or lower than middle C
+without any perceptible change in tone-quality, and G above the staff
+will be sung with absolute ease. How much higher, if any, the compass
+may be carried is open to discussion. It is not at all necessary in
+school music to go any higher, for, even where it is deemed best to
+raise the pitch of the song or exercise to avoid too low tones, the
+pitch of the highest note will seldom be above G-- space above.
+
+Still, it is the practice of choirmasters to carry the tone of soprano
+boys much higher in vowel-practice, as high even as
+
+    [Music: c''']
+
+and although that is a pretty altitudinous pitch, there are very few
+choir-boys who, when taught to breathe properly, etc., will not take it
+occasionally with perfect ease. The head-register, even in woman’s
+voice, is capable of great expansion, if good habits of tone-production
+are followed. But again it is well to be on the safe side; and
+choir-boys, who are selected because they have good vocal organs, and
+who are drilled far more than school children, are hardly a criterion to
+go by.
+
+It must not be forgotten that the thin voice can be pushed and forced.
+Good judgment must be exercised in controlling the power of voice, or
+children will strain the vocal mechanism in trying to outsing each other
+on _high_ tones.
+
+The question, How high may boys or girls sing who have passed twelve
+years of age and whose voices show no signs of break, is not so very
+important after all, for if they have been well trained in soft tone, no
+danger of vocal strain need be feared even if an occasional high A or B
+flat is struck.
+
+The reason for the ease with which children sing the high head-tones is
+found in the structure of the vocal bands. They are _thin_.
+Consequently, there is, compared to the entire substance of the vocal
+bands, a larger portion proportionately set in vibration than for the
+production of the head-tone in woman’s voice. And when the child-voice
+is so used that no strain of the laryngeal structure is occasioned, that
+is, when the vocal ligaments are exercised in a normal manner, it cannot
+but happen that the muscles controlling the vocal bands will increase in
+strength, and that the bands themselves, composed as they are of
+numberless elastic fibres, will improve in general tone and elasticity.
+
+The suggestions made in regard to the compass of voice are, be it said,
+simply suggestions based on experimental teaching and are such as it is
+believed may be followed with safety in school singing. If they do not
+square with the music of books and charts, why, as before said, it is a
+very simple matter to give a higher key for any exercise, than the one
+in which it is written. A supervisor, by marking the exercises in the
+desk copy, can ensure the use of the key he desires. If it is objected
+that the tones then sung will not represent the real pitch of the
+written notes, why that is at once admitted. What then? The idea of
+teaching absolute pitch is a chimera. Pianos are not alike in pitch,
+neither are tuning-forks. Classes will often for one cause or another
+end a half tone or a tone lower than they began even if the pitch as
+written is given. It may not be desirable to sing in one key music that
+is read in another, but it certainly is less objectionable in every way
+than is an unsafe use of the voice. The correct use of the voice must
+transcend all considerations in vocal music, and no sort of practice
+which misuses the vocal organs can be excused for a moment.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+POSITION, BREATHING, ATTACK, TONE FORMATION.
+
+
+One way to secure good position is to require the pupils to stand.
+Unless the singing-period directly follows a recess, or the drill in
+physical exercises, the pupils will welcome the opportunity. As soon as
+standing becomes irksome resume the seats. No further direction in
+regard to sitting position is necessary than that the body should be
+held not stiffly, but easily erect and self-supporting, resting neither
+upon the back of chair nor upon the desk in front. A doubled-up, cramped
+position is, of course, all wrong, and may be avoided if the pupils are
+permitted to alternate between sitting and standing positions; but, if
+required to sit as suggested for too long a time, the rule will soon “be
+honored more in the breach than in the observance.” This brings us to
+the consideration of
+
+
+_Breathing_,
+
+for the latter in its relations to vocalization depends much upon
+position. The breath is the motive power of the voice in speech or song,
+and the fundamental importance of managing it aright has been understood
+by every teacher of voice since the time of Porpora.
+
+How for singing purposes breath shall be taken, how exhaled, how managed
+in short, is not yet entirely settled and presumably never will be, for
+people are not born wise, and some never acquire wisdom, of whom a few
+teach music. Browne and Behnke, in “Voice, Song, and Speech,” p.
+138-142, describe the process of breathing as follows:
+
+“There are three ways of carrying on the process of respiration, namely,
+midriff breathing, rib-breathing, and collar-bone breathing. These three
+ways are not wholly independent of one another. They overlap or partly
+extend into one another. Nevertheless, they are sufficiently distinct
+and it is a general and convenient practice to give to each a separate
+name, according to the means by which it is chiefly called into
+existence. The combined forms of midriff and of rib-breathing constitute
+the right way, and collar-bone breathing is totally wrong and vicious,
+and should not in a state of health be made under any circumstances.
+When enlarging our chests by the descent of the midriff, we inflate our
+lungs where they are largest and where consequently we can get the
+largest amount of air into them. When expanding our chests by raising
+the shoulders and collar-bones, we inflate the lungs where they are
+smallest and where, consequently, we get the smallest amount of air into
+them. _The criterion of correct inspiration is an increase of size of
+the abdomen and the lower part of the chest. Whoever draws in the
+abdomen and raises the upper part of the chest breathes wrongly._”
+
+In normal breathing the body at inspiration increases in girth at the
+waist, and the abdomen moves slightly outward as the viscera are forced
+downward by the descent of the diaphragm. The diaphragm is a large
+muscle which serves as a partition between the thorax or chest-cavity
+and the abdomen. When relaxed its middle portion is extended upward into
+the chest-cavity, presenting a concave surface to the abdomen. At
+inspiration it contracts, descending so as to assume very nearly a plane
+figure. At expiration the process is reversed, the diaphragm relaxes and
+the abdominal viscera, released from its pressure and forced by the
+abdominal muscles which contract as the diaphragm relaxes, moves upward
+and inward.
+
+This kind of breathing in which the muscular contraction of the
+diaphragm calls in operation atmospheric pressure, supplies the body,
+when tranquil, with nearly or quite enough air. When for any reason a
+larger quantity of air is demanded, it may be secured by raising the
+ribs, thereby increasing the chest-cavity.
+
+In singing, the breath must be managed so that the air passing through
+the larynx at expiration shall be set into vibration at the vocal bands.
+Expiration, then, which ordinarily occurs very quickly must be retarded
+by slowly relaxing the muscles which contract at inspiration. At the
+same time the throat must be open, and the muscles surrounding the
+resonance cavities relaxed to allow free movement of the sound-waves set
+up at the vocal bands. Any upward movement of the shoulders and chest at
+inspiration involving the contraction of many powerful muscles of back
+and neck will occasion a stiffening of the throat, which prevents free
+vibration of the vocal bands and seriously interferes with the resonance
+of tone.
+
+The conclusion of the whole matter is, that in singing we should take
+breath exactly as in the ordinary quiet respiration, and avoid any
+lifting of the shoulders. This is at least enough to say to a class of
+children upon the subject.
+
+The means adopted in education should be as simple and direct as
+possible. It will be found unnecessary to say very much about breathing
+in dealing with classes of children. In the first place, the moment the
+subject is broached and the direction “take a good breath” or a similar
+one given, each child will draw up the chest and shoulders prepared for
+a mighty effort; while, if nothing is said about it, position alone
+being attended to, the breathing will be all right. And again, while
+adult singers for various reasons, one of which may be the supposition
+that the more energy put forth the better the tone, often present
+themselves to the voice-teacher with a fine assortment of bad
+breathing-habits, children, on the contrary, are sent to school at so
+young an age that a little watchfulness on the part of the teacher only
+is necessary to avoid improper ways of taking breath and establish good
+habits. If young children, then, are not permitted to raise the
+shoulders, they will perforce breathe properly.
+
+It seems inadvisable also to give any instruction regarding the emission
+of air from the lungs in singing. None but cultivated singers, after
+long practice and through a complete command of the muscles concerned,
+can vocalize _all_ the air at the vocal bands. The absolute purity of
+tone which is thus secured is a result that may or may not be reached in
+any particular case. It depends upon the mental and physical
+organization of the pupil as well as upon the method of the teacher.
+
+Exercises which are adapted to the formation of good breathing-habits
+are much more to the point in practical teaching than efforts at
+explanation. Therefore, a few hints are given, which, it is hoped, may
+be of practical value, for it is very important that good
+breathing-habits be formed in school singing.
+
+The change in structure which the larynx undergoes at puberty,
+demolishing as it does the boy-voice, and rendering of no avail the
+training of childhood in so far as it affects the larynx, does not
+extend in its effects to the breathing-apparatus. So, a habit of
+breath-management, good or bad, formed in school may continue through
+adult life. Special breathing-exercises are sometimes recommended, but
+their efficacy may be doubted, even if the length of time devoted to the
+music lesson permits them. The inclination of pupils in such exercises
+is to raise the chest and fill the lungs too full of air. The result is
+too much air pressure at the vocal bands, and a stiffening of throat and
+jaw muscles. The tone then will be loud; in fact, strong pressure of air
+at the vocal bands is almost sure to force them into the fullest
+vibration; that is, into the thick register, and, as a result of
+contracted throat, the tone will be pinched, or throaty. It is
+recognized, however, that it is just as easy to teach good habits of
+breathing as bad.
+
+This exercise may occasionally be given: The pupils first standing,
+shoulders well set, but with no pushing out of chest, place hands at the
+waist so that the movements of normal breathing may be felt. Now let the
+pupils take a little breath _quickly_. The movement at the waist must be
+outward and downward, never inward, at inspiration. The breath may be
+held a few seconds by keeping the waist expanded-- keeping an imaginary
+belt filled, for instance-- and then let go by relaxing at the waist.
+If, however, there is any stiffening of the throat, as if it were
+thought to cork up the air in the lungs, the object of the exercise, in
+so far as it relates to the formation of good breathing-habits suitable
+for easy vocalization, is defeated. Every teacher must use his judgment
+in this matter of breath-management in singing. If pupils are, unguided,
+using correct, easy methods, there is then no need to interfere. If some
+are inclined to take too much breath and lift the shoulders, a few hints
+may put them on the right track. _Loud singing and had breathing-habits
+go together._ If the first is desired, the lungs must work at full
+capacity, and hard blowing from the lungs forces the voice. On the
+contrary, soft singing promotes quiet habits of breathing; and, if the
+pressure of air at the larynx is moderate, soft tone is possible. If
+thin, soft singing alone be allowed, quiet deep breathing will be
+practiced instinctively.
+
+The easy control of the muscles whose relaxation permits the exhalation
+of air from the lungs is, as already said, gained by their proper
+exercise in speaking and singing, for the same mechanism is called into
+operation in speech as in song. In childhood the lungs can neither hold
+as much, nor retain it so long and easily as in adult life.
+
+There is no better way, perhaps, to acquire the ability to regulate the
+air-pressure at the vocal bands than by soft, sustained singing. The
+“continuous tone” described in a preceding chapter, secured in scale
+drill by letting each child breathe at will, is an excellent exercise
+for developing good breathing-habits. As there is no nervous tension
+whatever, each pupil will naturally sustain tone until the need of
+another breath is felt, when it will be taken quickly and the tone at
+once resumed.
+
+To sum up: Sit or stand in good position, the chest neither pushed out
+nor in a state of collapse. Avoid any, even the slightest, upward
+movement of the shoulders. Point out the movements at waist occurring at
+inspiration and at expiration if necessary, not otherwise. Let the
+breath be taken quickly, not too much at a time, and as often as need
+be, and sing softly.
+
+
+_Attack._
+
+The beginning of each tone is called attack. The common faults of attack
+in class-singing are sliding to the pitch instead of striking it
+accurately, and beginning to sing with the mouth still closed, or only
+partly open. When the attack presents the combined effects of these two
+common habits, a quite realistic caterwaul is the result.
+
+Both faults may be generally overcome or prevented by calling attention
+to them. Good mental attention is the most infallible cure for slovenly
+habits of attack. It may be that there are in all schools a certain
+proportion of the pupils who have very weak and imperfect vocal organs;
+in their cases, even good attention cannot overcome physical inability.
+
+In repose the vocal bands are separated to allow the free passage of air
+to and from the lungs. At phonation the bands are drawn toward each
+other, meeting just as it commences. There need be no preliminary escape
+of air. Also the resonance cavities above should be open, that the
+vibrations generated at the vocal bands may find expansion and
+resonance. The mouth and throat should then be opened a moment before
+tone is attacked, when, if the pitch to be sung is clearly pictured in
+the mind, both the “slide” and “hum” will be avoided.
+
+
+_Tone-Formation._
+
+Beauty of tone implies absence of disagreeable qualities, and freedom
+from unpleasant sounds. Faulty tones are called nasal, guttural,
+palatal, throaty, muffled, and so on, the peculiar timbre of each
+suggesting the name. If the throat is relaxed, and if the soft parts of
+the vocal tube lying between the larynx and the teeth are kept out of
+the way, most of the disagreeable qualities of voice enumerated
+disappear. Certain requisites are necessary to good tone-formation.
+
+First, a movable lower jaw.
+
+It is astonishing that so many of young and old will, when they wish to
+open the mouth for song, try to keep it closed. Paradoxical as the
+statement is, it nevertheless describes a very common phenomenon-- the
+“fixed jaw,” it may be called. As soon as the teeth are parted slightly,
+the muscles of the face and neck which control the movement of the lower
+jaw contract, holding it in a fixed position, and incidentally
+tightening the muscles of the throat until the larynx is in a grip as of
+rubber bands. The mouth must not be held open as if the jaws were pried
+apart. It is opened by the relaxation of the closing muscles and should
+hang by its own weight, as it were. If then the lower jaw drops easily,
+and with no accompanying muscular contraction of face or throat, the
+tone may be formed or shaped well forward in the mouth, unless the soft
+parts referred to obstruct it.
+
+These soft parts are the tongue and the soft-palate. The soft-palate is
+a structure which hangs from the posterior edge of the hard-palate. The
+uvula, the pillars of the palate, and the tonsils are parts of the
+structure.
+
+The tongue which, when the mouth is closed, nearly fills it, should in
+vocalization lie as much out of the way as is possible. If the tip be
+pressed against the lower teeth and its sides upon the molars, it forms
+a floor to the cavity of the mouth. If the tip turns toward the roof of
+the mouth, or if it is drawn back and under, so as to arch the tongue,
+tone is seriously interfered with, while if the root of the tongue is
+drawn backward, the tone is shut in.
+
+If the soft-palate is not raised in singing, the tone is diverted into
+the cavities of the nose, and that color given to the tone called nasal.
+If the lower jaw is held too high, the tone is again forced through the
+nose. A nasal quality can be modified by opening the mouth. The muffled
+voice is sometimes the result of the tongue’s unruly behavior. The
+throaty, pinched voice, due to a stiff and pinched throat, will hardly
+appear if good conditions as regards position, breathing, soft tone,
+open mouth, etc., are maintained. The tone should not be swallowed nor,
+on the other hand, blown out of the mouth. It should be formed in the
+mouth and kept vibrating within it. When the right conditions are hit
+upon, the tone seems to sing itself. Whether soft or loud, the tone
+should fill the mouth, so to speak.
+
+It must now be remembered that beauty of tone improves along with growth
+of thought and feeling. Encourage discrimination in tone-quality and
+help in any way advisable the growth of good ideals, and verily shalt
+thou be rewarded.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+VOWELS, CONSONANTS, ARTICULATION.
+
+
+Sound-vibrations generated at the larynx are modified as to their form,
+by the size and shape of the resonating cavities of the mouth and
+pharynx. Through the movements of the soft-palate, tongue, lower jaw and
+lips, the shape and size of the mouth can, within certain limits, be
+changed at will. As every vowel-sound requires a peculiar form of the
+resonating cavity for its production, it will be easily understood that
+each vowel-sound of which the human voice is capable can be made by a
+proper adjustment of the movable parts of the vocal organs. As all
+singing-tone is vocal or vowel in its character, the production of the
+various vowel-sounds takes precedence in the study of vocal music. Just
+how much of this study can be carried on in school music will depend
+upon circumstances, the chief of which is the time assigned for music.
+It is very easy to suggest that if the time given is not enough, that
+longer lesson periods be demanded; but it is quite probable that, owing
+to the pressure of elaborate courses of study, the request would be
+seldom granted. It remains, then, for those in charge of school music to
+expedite their work by means of simple and direct methods.
+
+Each division of the music work must be carried so as to secure unity of
+result. The vocal drill, oral or written, will train the eye and ear for
+sight-singing, and the sight-singing be a practical application of
+correct vocal drill.
+
+The study and practice of the different vowel-sounds must then _fit in_
+with the scheme of study. The practice of singing the vowels by name as,
+_a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_, is not to be recommended, as only one, namely
+_e_, stands for a single sound-element; nor is it probable that the
+results will justify extensive drill upon the more obscure
+vowel-elements, if the term may be applied to those sounds which are
+differentiated only slightly from the more pronounced vowel-sounds.
+
+There are some twenty vowel-sounds that are used in English speech, but
+for various reasons a less number are employed in song. For, while it is
+desirable to give to each word and syllable its correct vowel-sound in
+singing, those which are unfavorable to good tone are usually
+approximated to the sound of those more favorable to good tone.
+
+If too marked distinctions in the vowel-sounds are made by the singer,
+the result is disagreeable; while if the voice preserves a similar hue
+or tone-color throughout, the effect is pleasing.
+
+The listener is unaware of the slight deviations from the spoken
+vowel-sound which the singer makes, that the requirements of tonal
+beauty may be met.
+
+It is advisable in vowel-practice to avoid letters or symbols which
+represent two sounds, an initial and a vanish; and to use simple vowel
+elements instead. The combinations of different elements represented by
+certain letters and diphthongs may easily be explained when they appear
+in the words of a song, if, indeed, the study of phonics has not already
+cleared away all difficulties.
+
+In singing, however, it is necessary to understand which of the two
+sounds, the initial or the vanish, is to be sustained. In _ā_, for
+instance, which is _eh_+_e_, if the vanish _e_ is sustained in a word
+like _day_ the effect is _deh-ee_. The first sound should be sustained,
+and the vanish _e_ be heard only slightly as the mouth partly closes at
+the end of the tone. _Ī_, again, which is equivalent to _ah_+_e_, is
+often sung by prolonging the _e_ instead of the initial _ah_, as
+_light--li-eet_. _Ō_ is a compound sound _ō_+_ōō_, but the tendency to
+sing the first sound short and prolong the second is very slight
+usually. _O_, then, can be used to represent a simple element. _Ū_,
+which equals _e_+_oo_, is best sung by making the initial sound short
+and the vanish the longer tone.
+
+It will thus be seen that of the five vowel names, _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_,
+_u_, _e_ only stands for one sound, though the two sounds of _o_ are so
+closely allied that the vanish is often imperceptible. The sound of ā
+in ăt is the most unfavorable sound for song in the language, and those
+extremely consistent singers who wish to use it can do so.
+
+The nasal twang of Yankeedom is a plant that needs no nourishing. Its
+roots are grown wide and deep; so much so, that those who love it need
+not fear that it will pine away and die, if it bears no fruit of song,
+but only that of speech.
+
+The sound of _ă_ will survive even if it is unused in song. It should in
+singing be broadened nearly to the sound of _ah_.
+
+A number of simple elements are suggested which may be used in various
+ways in vocal drill. They are _ē_, _ĭ_, _ĕ_, _ä_, _a̤_, _ō_, _o͡o_. Or
+_ē_ (as in _be_), _ĭ_ (as in _it_), _eh_, _ah_, _aw_, _ō_ (as in _go_),
+_o͡o_. The vowel-elements remaining are each so closely allied to some
+of those indicated that the attempt to differentiate them from the above
+in vowel-drill is hardly worth while. In fact, the use of _ĭ_-- _i_ as
+in _it_-- may be omitted if pupils have learned to sing _ē_ with fair
+breadth of sound, and _oo_ may be dropped in grades above the primary.
+It is the final sound of _ō_, as before said. This leaves five
+vowel-elements.
+
+
+_E._
+
+This vowel is often badly sung, and its form is none too favorable to
+good tone even when made as large as distinctness will allow. The lips
+must be drawn a little away from the teeth as in a smile, _but don’t
+overdo it_, and the teeth slightly parted. The lips should not be drawn
+back, exposing the teeth and gums, nor should they be contracted and
+pressed against the teeth. In _e_ and in all vowel singing the lips
+should be relaxed, not contracted, and kept about as far from the teeth
+as they are in repose. If the opening of the mouth, that is, if the
+cavity back of the teeth is kept too small and narrow, the tone will be
+nasal and twangy. The mouth must be opened enough to permit purity of
+tone and free emission. The sound should verge toward _i_ in _it_.
+
+
+_I._
+
+This sound is _ē_ broadened. The teeth may be a little farther apart
+than when _ē_ is sung.
+
+
+_Ĕ or EH._
+
+This is the sound of _e_ in the word _get_. It is also the initial sound
+of the vowel _ā_ or long _a_. It is true that this sound is not usually
+so given, but if _ā_ is sung with this sound as its initial sound, and
+the one to be prolonged, the very best vocal results can be obtained.
+The vowel _ă_ is more often poorly sung than otherwise. This is,
+perhaps, for the reason that comparatively few singers recognize that
+long _a_ stands for two sounds, and that the first, which may be spelled
+_eh_, can be sung with large form and placed well forward in the mouth,
+while the second sound _ē_ is small in form, and not adapted to the
+finest tone-effects. In singing this element, the jaw should drop much
+lower than for _ĭ_ and nearly as low as for _ah_.
+
+
+_Ä or AH._
+
+This is the tone universally accepted as the best for voice-development;
+but in school-singing it is not permissible to use the voice except in
+the lightest manner, therefore purity of tone must content our
+ambitions; power can come later in life. The mouth opens widely for this
+tone and the whole throat is expanded.
+
+
+_A̤ or AW._
+
+This element is formed very much like _ah_. It is _ah_ broadened a
+little. The jaw drops to a lower point and the mouth-cavity deepens,
+while at the same time the extension from side to side narrows a little.
+
+
+_Ō and OO._
+
+These sounds are better adapted to securing the use of the thin voice,
+where pupils have been accustomed to the use of the thick voice, than
+any other vowel-element. The mouth is well opened back of the lips,
+which should not be puckered as if to whistle, but relaxed instead.
+
+In actual practice there may be observed a tendency, more or less
+marked, but pretty sure to manifest itself if practice on one sound is
+continued too long at a time, to deviate from any one toward some other
+vowel-element, as _ĭ_ to _ē_, _eh_ to _ĭ_, _ah_ to _er_ or _er_ or _uh_,
+_aw_ to _uh_, _ō_ to _oo_.
+
+If this tendency to deviate from the right tone be permitted, the most
+slovenly habits will be formed, and all distinctions in vowel-sound
+disappear. Vowel-practice had better be omitted from class-work unless
+carefully and conscientiously taught.
+
+If the course of music embraces drill upon scales, vowel-practice may be
+incorporated into the course easily. For instance, the drill outlined
+upon p. 70 may one day be given with _e_ for a few moments, then with
+_o_. On another day the drill may be upon _ah_, followed by _eh_, and
+so on. It is unnecessary to particularize. Every teacher will at once
+see how to apply practically vowel-singing to his music course. The
+exercises and songs may be sung with vowel-sounds. Nearly all books
+advise the use of _la_, _lo_, etc., in vocal exercises; but while that
+method of singing is unobjectionable, the vocalization of solfeggii, it
+may be observed, is established by the sanction of time and the
+experience of thousands of voice-trainers the world over.
+
+The advantages which flow from vocalizing exercises and songs on a
+single vowel-sound are too many to be described in a word. No supervisor
+or teacher of music can afford to use _do_, _re_, _mi_, exclusively.
+
+Another class of exercises is now suggested which may be sung upon one
+breath. They will be found especially adapted to develop flexibility and
+a ready adjustment of the movable parts of the vocal tube to the
+positions suited to the formation of the different vowel-sounds. If
+three sounds are used as here given, they must be sung quite slowly, the
+change from one sound to the next being made by a quick, easy change of
+position of the jaw, tongue, etc., but without interrupting the
+continuity of the tone.
+
+Sufficient pause to obtain a new breath must be made at the end of each
+group, and the mouth opened properly for the production of the first
+sound of the next group before it is attacked. The time should be
+
+    [Music: f' f' f' {sung on o, e, o}]
+
+quite slow and as in illustration, or the breath will not be used, and
+at each succeeding group of tones the lungs will become too full of air.
+The attack will then be explosive, and the tone too loud, if, indeed,
+the effort to control the breath does not contract and pinch the throat.
+
+Eight groups are given for ascending a scale and eight for descending:
+
+  ō  ē   ō   ō   ē    ĭ
+  ō  ĭ   ō   ō   ē    oo
+  ō  ah  ō  _o_  ah  _e_
+  ō  eh  ō   ō   ah   eh
+  ō  aw  ō   ō   ah   aw
+  ō  ē   eh  ō   ah   ĭ
+  ō  ē   ah  ō   ah   oo
+  ō  ē   aw  ō   eh   ē
+
+It will be observed that a certain system of arrangement of the
+vowel-elements is followed. First, there are five groups, of which _o_
+is the first and last sound, the others being placed between. Then _o_
+is the first tone with _e_ as the second, the other sounds in turn
+ending the group. Next _ah_ is the second sound, then _eh_, _i_, _oo_
+and _ah_ might be used as the second vowel-element, making thirty-five
+combinations with _o_ as the initial sound of each group. The same
+number of combinations can be made with _ah_ as the first tone, and so
+on with each of the seven vowel-elements.
+
+Sixteen of these groups, changed from time to time as may be desired,
+can be written upon the blackboard and sung by the class in the way set
+forth, the teacher meanwhile keeping time for and directing the class.
+
+It may be observed in this connection, that, as the voice ascends in
+pitch, there is a tendency to blend the various vowel-sounds into one
+sound. As the tones grow higher the sound-waves are focused at higher
+points upon the hard-palate, the sounding-board of the resonance
+cavities, and more difficulty is experienced in moulding these
+sound-waves into the forms characteristic of the different
+vowel-elements. As the parts concerned in tone-formation gain in
+flexibility, the result appears in the ease with which the alterations
+in shape of the resonance tube are made at higher pitches.
+
+Fads and devices which divert attention from the subject and retard
+rather than accelerate the progress of pupils are common enough in
+schools, but the following simple illustrations of different vowel-forms
+may be found useful:
+
+  [Illustration:
+  {mouth shapes}
+  ē  ĭ  eh
+  {mouth shapes}
+  ah  aw  o  oo]
+
+The base line represents the floor or base of the mouth-cavity, and the
+arch, the height and width of the mouth for each sound; the depth is not
+indicated. The width of the mouth from side to side is represented as
+greatest in _ē_, _ĭ_ and _eh_, while the height is greater in _ah_ and
+_aw_, _o_ is pictured as nearly round, and _oo_ the same, only small.
+
+It is not contended that these diagrams picture the actual form assumed
+by the resonance cavities very accurately. The various positions which
+the tongue and the soft-palate assume are not shown at all, nor,
+perhaps, is it necessary; for if the pupil is taught to drop the lower
+jaw to the right position for each sound, and to keep the tongue prone
+in the mouth, a mental picture of each tone will be formed, and the
+thought will regulate the action. When the pupil can think the sound
+desired, the conditions for its formation will be met by the vocal
+organs. The usefulness of diagrams will then cease.
+
+
+_Consonants and Articulation._
+
+“Consonants are the bones of speech. By means of consonants we
+articulate our words; that is, we give them joints. We utter vowels, we
+articulate consonants. If we utter a single vowel-sound and interrupt it
+by a consonant, we get an articulation. Consonants, then, not only give
+speech its articulation or joints, but they help words to stand and have
+form, just as a skeleton keeps the animal from falling into a shapeless
+mass of flesh; therefore, consonants are the bones of speech. The
+consonant is the distinguishing element of human speech. Man has been
+defined in various ways according to various attributes, functions and
+habits. He might well be called the consonant-using animal. He alone of
+all animals uses consonants. It is the consonant which makes the chief
+difference between the cries of beasts and the speech of man.”
+--_Richard Grant White_.
+
+Consonants are not to be sung. The effort so common among singers to
+pronounce, by sustaining consonant sounds, is entirely misdirected.
+_M_, _n_ and _ng_, which are made by shutting off the escape of the
+air-current at either the lips or the hard-palate, and so forcing it
+through the nose, are often sustained to the detriment of beauty of tone
+and clear pronunciation as well.
+
+Articulation, which is the pronunciation of a consonantal sound, is
+accomplished by interrupting the air-current, whether vibratory or not,
+at certain points. The interruptions are made by the meeting of the lips
+with each other or with the teeth, by the tongue with the teeth or
+hard-palate, and the root of the tongue with the soft-palate. The
+interruption may be complete, as in _p_ or _t_, or only partial, as in
+_th_. The sound of the consonant results from the slight explosion or
+puff which follows the recoil of the movable parts from the point of
+contact.
+
+All consonants may for singing purposes be considered as preceding or
+following some vowel-sound. If preceding, then after the sound is made
+the vocal organs must be adjusted at once for the proper formation of
+the succeeding vowel. If the consonant sound follows a vowel-tone, the
+movement of the vocal organs to the interrupting point must be quick and
+vocalization at once cease; for if the vowel-sound is prolonged after
+the production of the consonant, the effect will be an added syllable to
+the word as _at-at-er_, _up-up-pah_, etc. The movements of the organs of
+speech for both contact and recoil must be more rapid in singing to
+produce distinct articulation than in spoken language.
+
+Slovenly habits of articulation in speech will reappear in song, and the
+converse is also true. The study and practice of phonics, which is now
+general in schools, is of the highest practical importance in singing,
+as well as in reading or speaking. As consonant sounds cannot be sung,
+they are best taught in spoken language. The application of the
+knowledge and skill thus gained is readily applied to the pronunciation
+of words in singing. If the vowel-elements have been carefully practiced
+in vocalizes, there will be little effort required to secure the correct
+formation of all the vowel-sounds of words.
+
+The nasal twang must, however, be ruthlessly suppressed. As before
+suggested, this will frequently appear in words containing the sound of
+_a_ as in _at, past, fast_, etc. It is recommended that such words be
+sung with _a_ as in _father_, or if not quite as broadly, at least
+approaching the sound of _ah_.
+
+If the movements of the vocal organs are quick, flexible and without
+muscular tension or stiffness, and if the mouth opens neither too much
+nor too little for each vowel-sound, words may be sung and understood
+while beauty of tone is not sacrificed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+MUTATION OF THE VOICE.
+
+
+The anatomical and physiological changes which occur in the larynx at
+puberty have been described in the chapter on “Physiology of the Voice.”
+It may be added that at this period the resonance cavities also undergo
+considerable alteration in size and form.
+
+As childhood is left behind the individual emerges. Divergences in face,
+in form and in mental characteristics become emphasized. The traits of
+race and family are manifested and self-consciousness becomes more
+acute. This period of development, bringing as it does so much
+disturbance to the vocal organs, is particularly inimical to singing;
+and yet public school music is expected to produce its most elaborate
+results in those grades where the pupils are just about to enter, or are
+passing through this period of rapid growth and change. The singing in
+such grades may be discussed with reference first to the singing of
+girls and then to that of boys.
+
+The vocal organs of girls often develop so gradually in size, and with
+so little congestion of the laryngeal substance, that no aversion is
+manifested to singing. In other cases the inflamed condition of the
+vocal organs is shown by the hoarseness which follows their use, and the
+huskiness of the singing-tone. The voices of nearly all during the
+mutation period show more volume of tone on the lower tones and
+evidences of strain at the higher tones.
+
+It is a good plan to put girls who show throat-weakness, characteristic
+of their age, upon that part which requires only a medium range of
+tones, and to repress all inclination to force and push the voice. The
+desire which girls often express to sing the upper soprano need not
+affect the teacher to any great extent. A multitude of strong and
+constantly-shifting ambitions are thronging through their minds. Some
+wish to sing the highest part because it seems to them to be the most
+prominent part; some wish to sing it because they can do so with the
+least mental effort, and so on. These whims and wishes must be treated
+tactfully, but if the teacher is sure that a certain course is right,
+there is no alternative but to carry it out, with as little friction as
+may be. Large voices, that is, voices that proceed from large resonance
+cavities, are often badly strained at this period of life by too loud
+and too high singing. It must not for a moment be forgotten that the age
+is a critical one for vocal effort, and a strain that the adult woman’s
+voice will endure with apparent impunity may produce lasting evil
+effects on the voice of a girl of from fourteen to sixteen years of age.
+
+If the requirements of the music are such that pitches above F, the
+fifth line G clef, must be occasionally sung, let the voices upon the
+part sing lightly. If some of the girls are put upon the lower of three
+parts, do not let them use the chest-voice, which is just beginning to
+develop, otherwise than lightly also.
+
+The boy’s voice may change from the soprano to a light bass of eight or
+twelve tones in compass in a few months, or the change may extend over
+two or three years; that is, two or three years may elapse after the
+first distinct break before there is any certainty of vocal action in
+the newly-acquired compass. When the voice changes rapidly, all singing
+should be stopped. Really, in such cases, boys cannot sing even if they
+attempt to do so.
+
+They are so hoarse, and the pitch alternates so unexpectedly between an
+“unearthly treble and a preternatural bass” that a boy can usually sing
+only in monotone, if, with courage proof against the ridicule occasioned
+by his uncontrollable vocal antics, he tries to join in. In those cases,
+where the larynx undergoes a slow change in growth, it is often possible
+for the boy to sing all through the period of change. The upper tones
+may be lost, while there is a corresponding gain of lower tones. This
+process, in many cases, goes on slowly and with so little active
+congestion of the larynx that the voice changes from soprano to alto,
+and thence to tenor almost imperceptibly. Voices which change in this
+way often become tenor, but not invariably.
+
+The question now arises, Should those boys who can sing while the voice
+is breaking be required to take part in school singing exercises?
+
+In Browne and Behnke’s work, “The Child Voice,” to which allusion has
+been made, there is given a resumé of 152 replies to the question: Have
+you ever known of boys being made to sing through the period of puberty,
+and, if so, with what result?
+
+The answers were:
+
+Forty correspondents have no knowledge.
+
+Five think the voice is improved by the experiment.
+
+Ten quote _solitary instances_ where no harm has arisen.
+
+Ten know of the experiment having been made, and consider it has caused
+no harm to the voice.
+
+Eight mention results so variable as to admit of no conclusion.
+
+Seventy-nine say the experiment causes _certain injury_, deterioration
+or ruin to the after voice, and of this number ten observe that they
+have suffered disastrous effects _in their own person_.
+
+These answers were from English choirmasters, organists, music teachers,
+singers, etc. It will be noticed that only fifteen of those who give a
+positive opinion upon the subject think that boys can sing through the
+period of break safely; while seventy-nine are positive that the result
+is unsafe. The other replies are vague.
+
+It must be remembered that many of the opinions are those of instructors
+in cathedral schools, where one or two rehearsals and a daily church
+service means a great deal of singing; while other answers come from
+choirmasters who require of their boys equally hard work, though less in
+quantity.
+
+Every individual voice must be judged by itself, if such demands as
+choir-singing are made upon it; and, while there are some cases, as
+every choirmaster will probably agree, where no perceptible injury
+results from singing during the change, the rule is that even when
+possible, it is very unsafe.
+
+But the daily time given to singing in schools is very short; the work
+bears no comparison with choir-singing. It might almost be thought as
+necessary to forbid reading and talking during the break of voice as to
+forbid its use in a daily drill of fifteen or twenty minutes in singing.
+
+Certainly it is absurd to advocate entire non-use of the voice at this
+period in either speech or song. It is rather correct to guard against
+its misuse. If boys have up to this time used only the thick register,
+they will in singing through the break intensify their bad habits;
+throatiness, harshness, nasality will become chronic. This would be bad
+enough, but each bad vocal habit results from the abnormal use of the
+vocal organs, and occasions hoarseness, chronic sore throat, catarrh,
+etc.
+
+It is quite customary in school music to assign the boys to the lower
+part, in part music. This practice continued from the time part-singing
+begins in the music course, compels the boys to use the thick register.
+As the larynx gains in firmness from year to year, they experience more
+and more difficulty with their upper tones-- those lying from F to C.
+Having used only the thick voice in all their school singing, they know
+of no other, and very likely consider the thin voice which they are now
+obliged to use in singing the higher tones as altogether too girlish for
+the prospective heirs of manly bass tones.
+
+The reluctance of boys to sing the soprano would be amusing were it not,
+in the light of utterly false training, so pitiful.
+
+School music is educational; its scope is controlled by those in charge.
+The public expects good educational, rather than show work, and employs
+those to supervise and teach who are supposed to know what good
+educational work is in vocal music.
+
+The supposition that children’s voices can, owing to individual
+differences analogous to those existing among adults, be divided into
+alto and soprano voices, is erroneous; children can most assuredly sing
+in parts, but the quality of tone which in the woman’s voice is called
+alto or contralto cannot be secured for certain physical reasons
+previously explained; and the use of the chest-tone, which resembles the
+adult woman’s chest-voice as a clarinet resembles a viola, is wholly
+objectionable.
+
+If, however, the voices have been trained in the use of the thin
+register only, the management of the boy’s voice during the change is
+simplified; the influence of good vocal habits will be felt; the vocal
+bands which have never been strained will respond when their condition
+admits of tone-production. The boy who has been accustomed to sing with
+an easy action of the vocal ligaments and with open throat will at once
+become conscious of any unusual strain or wrong adjustment in the vocal
+organs. If he has learned to sing well, he has also learned not to sing
+badly.
+
+The test to apply to the subject of boys’ singing in school during the
+break may be: Can they sing without strain or push? Can they sing
+easily, or does it hurt? There is a certain amount of humbug in boys
+that must be allowed for, but it does not affect calculations as to
+their singing-powers more than upon their other abilities, if singing is
+well taught.
+
+The speaking-voice also indicates the state of the vocal organs, and
+shows the effect of the break sooner than does the singing-voice. If the
+tones in speech are steady in pitch, singing is possible in all
+probability. If, on the contrary, the speaking-voice is croaky and
+wavering, singing is difficult, if not impossible. As the object of the
+study of vocal music in the public schools, in so far as it relates to
+the treatment of the voice, is to develop good vocal habits, not bad
+ones, it follows that if boys sing during the break it must be only upon
+those tones which lie within their compass at any time, and that the
+vocal organs must be used lightly, and without strain.
+
+In nearly every upper grade room there will be a percentage of boys
+whose voices are in a transition stage, some of whom can sing and others
+of whom cannot. It requires judgment and tact to handle these voices,
+but if boys have sung as they should up to this period, and have taken
+pleasure in it, the mutual good understanding between them and their
+teacher need not be disturbed. They are likely to do their best.
+
+In this connection it should be said, that really it may be doubted if
+the common practice of assigning all boys, whose voices show signs of
+breaking, to the bass part, is right.
+
+If boys have been kept upon the lower part, in all part singing and have
+never used other than the thick chest voice, then, when the voice begins
+to break up, it may be that they must sing bass or not sing at all. Boys
+trained in this way have never used the soprano head register and so if
+they sing alto, it will be with the thick chest voice of boyhood, which
+will now be the upper tones of the developing man’s voice.
+
+Singing alto at the mutation period in _this_ manner, strains the vocal
+bands beyond reason, and should not under any circumstances be allowed.
+It must be understood then in what follows, that singing alto in this,
+the chest voice, either before or during the break, is unqualifiedly
+condemned.
+
+But we will suppose now that boys have been permitted to sing only in
+the head register, that they have been assigned to the upper part in
+part singing, for notwithstanding that usage is to the contrary, this is
+what should be done. As has already been suggested the voices of girls
+change less, and at a younger age than do boys, and they begin to show
+weight of tone and increased volume, at an age when boys are at their
+best as sopranos. Girls at this period should sing the middle and lower
+parts, but it must be said in passing that much of the music contained
+in our text-books ranges too low in pitch for them, or any voice except
+a low contralto or a tenor. They must not be permitted to use their
+voices at full strength, and special care should be taken of those who
+at this age show hoarseness. With girls as with boys, the change is
+accompanied with periods of great relaxation of the vocal bands, and
+during these periods the singing tone is either very light, or very
+loud.
+
+Returning to the subject of treatment of boys’ voices during mutation,
+and premising that they have sung only in the head voice during
+childhood, the question arises whether they are not in many cases set to
+singing bass prematurely. It is obvious that during this period the
+voice is actually _broken_, divided in two. The lower notes are produced
+in the chest or man’s register, while more or less of the boy’s voice
+remains as upper tones. These tones, by the way, never are lost, they
+remain as the falsetto or head voice of the man.
+
+Now the vibratory action of the vocal ligaments is much larger for the
+chest voice than for the head, or as we ordinarily call it, the
+falsetto. There is then no question that during mutation a boy can
+confine himself to the use of his old voice, or so much of it as is
+available at any time with very little strain. The tone will be light,
+in fact, during the active periods of laryngeal growth which
+characterize mutation, there will perhaps be no voice at all, owing to
+the congestion of the parts, but in the periods of rest separating the
+periods of growth, the vocal bands will respond. The compass of the head
+voice at this time varies largely, but it corresponds pretty closely to
+that of the second soprano, in three part exercises, or from C to C. If
+it is attempted to carry the voice down it changes to the chest register
+unless used very lightly.
+
+Without attempting then to lay down positive rules for treating a voice
+which consists of fragments of voices, the above suggestions are made in
+the hope that they may receive the consideration of teachers and
+musicians.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE ALTO VOICE IN MALE CHOIRS.
+
+
+The suggestions of the preceding chapters are addressed directly to
+those who teach vocal music in public or private schools, but the
+general principles and rules are equally applicable to the training of
+soprano choir boys.
+
+The results in beauty and power of tone which may be obtained from
+carefully selected choir boys can seldom be equalled in the school-room,
+first, because training is required to develop voices in strength and
+purity of tone, and the time devoted generally to school singing, one
+hour a week possibly, is no more than that given to a single rehearsal
+of choristers.
+
+Again school singing includes all members of the class, and while it is
+true that there may be but few pupils in each room who cannot sing, yet
+there are likely to be some.
+
+These voices, which we call monotones disappear almost entirely when
+pupils are trained to use the head voice. Still, there is a percentage
+in every class in school, whose inherited musical perceptions are very
+feeble, and their slowness cannot but retard the general progress.
+
+Many of the difficulties that beset the teacher of music in schools,
+then, are eliminated at the start by the choir trainer, when he selects
+boys with good voices, who sing in tune naturally.
+
+The increase in the number of vested choirs in this country has been
+very rapid during the past few years, and fortunately, the ideas which
+have prevailed among the majority of choir-masters on the subject of the
+boy voice, have been just. This is easily understood when we reflect
+that we have made the best English standards our ideal.
+
+The leaven of sound doctrine on the boy voice is working rapidly, and
+there are many choirs both in our large and small cities that are
+excellent examples of well-trained soprano boys.
+
+There is, however, one problem of male choir training which is not yet
+satisfactorily solved, at least it is troublesome to those choirs which
+have a small or moderate appropriation for music.
+
+Boy sopranos are plentiful, basses and tenors are easily obtained, but
+good male altos, men, not boys, are almost unknown outside of a few
+large cities. This state of affair has led, in many cases, to the
+employment of boys as altos, and they have of course sung with the thick
+or chest voice. It is an unmanageable and unmusical voice, it is harsh,
+unsympathetic, hard to keep in tune, its presence in a choir is a
+constant menace to the soprano tone, and were it not for the idea that
+there is no recourse from this voice, save in the employment of woman
+altos, it would not be tolerated by musicians.
+
+There is a recourse, however, and it is at the command of every choir
+trainer whose sopranos have been taught to sing with the head voice
+alone. It is to select certain sopranos, and when the voice breaks, let
+them pass to the alto part, and _continue to use the head voice_.
+
+The objection which will naturally occur, is, that no singing should be
+permitted during the break. Well, let us consider. The period during
+which the voice, in common parlance, is breaking, is a period of
+laryngeal growth, just as inevitable and natural, as is the growth of
+the body generally. The voice may be fractured, but the larynx is not.
+
+Every choir trainer must have observed the preliminaries to this period.
+A boy for instance, shows all at once a sudden increase of volume and
+finds it difficult to sing unless quite loudly or softly.
+
+This shows that the vocal bands are relaxed. Following this, the
+speaking voice will lower in pitch, and show hoarseness at times. As
+soon though, as this hoarseness passes away, that is, when the
+congestion at the larynx has passed, the voice is better perhaps than
+before. Then comes another break, as we say, that is, a period of sore
+throat and hoarseness.
+
+After this has passed, it may be that the boy has lost his upper notes,
+but can sing the lower ones with ease; the tone too, is changed in
+timbre. It has the color of the man’s head voice; or it may be that the
+boy can still sing his high notes, but that the lower ones are
+uncertain. Voice mutation is not one continuous period of growth of
+vocal bands and laryngeal cartilages. On the contrary, the periods of
+vocal disturbance are separated by intervals when the throat is
+comparatively free from irritation. These intervals may be long or
+short. It evidently depends upon the rapidity or slowness of the general
+growth and development.
+
+There can be no doubt now, that during a time when the voice is
+uncertain and hoarse from the irritation of the vocal bands and
+surrounding parts, that singing is positively harmful, but during the
+intervals separating these periods, especially where they extend, as in
+many cases, over several months, it would seem that the singing voice
+might be used.
+
+Each individual case must be observed and judged by itself. This is
+entirely possible in choirs. If then the choir-master is careful to
+observe and to humor the changing voice at all critical times; if he
+will insist that the boy sing very lightly or not at all if it hurts
+him, and if he will resolutely check any tendency to break into the
+tenor or chest quality, he can train in a short time a good alto force
+from his choir, and these young men so trained may become efficient male
+alto singers.
+
+It is true that in many cases boys may be carried through the mutation
+period, and at the end show such light tone upon the falsetto or head
+voice as to be of no value. The strength and timbre of the male falsetto
+depends partly upon the character of the vocal bands and partly of
+course upon the size and shape of the resonance cavities.
+
+Men who have voices of wide range and good volume in the chest or usual
+singing voice, generally possess strong head or falsetto tones, and it
+may be that soprano boys who possess large voices, that is those which
+show volume of tone along with purity, whose resonance cavities are
+large, will prove to develop a better falsetto, as men, than those boys
+whose voices are thinner. One other point remains to be disposed of.
+Will the use of this voice by youth or adult, injure his other voice, be
+it naturally bass, baritone, or tenor? No, it will not, and yet the
+average choir-master will most assuredly be met with this objection or
+fear. It is surprising that so many of those who are in the business of
+trying to teach voice, should be ignorant of the character and range of
+the male falsetto or head voice, but in spite of this ignorance, and
+more or less prejudice against its use, the fear that by using it one
+impairs the tones of the chest register or the usual singing voice, is
+utterly unfounded. It is produced with far less effort and tension of
+the vocal bands than is the chest voice, and is physiologically
+perfectly safe. The mechanism which the larynx employs to produce the
+falsetto is just as natural as the mechanism employed to produce the
+chest voice. That it is an unusual voice with us is due to circumstances
+of musical development. The advent of the male vested choir has,
+however, created a demand for it, and it may be met as indicated, by
+keeping boys upon the head voice during mutation or so much of the time
+as is safe, and afterward, when the age of adolescence is past, even if
+some prefer to sing bass or tenor, the number of those available for the
+alto parts will be sufficient to meet all requirements.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+GENERAL REMARKS.
+
+
+In the preceding chapters, dealing as they do with special subjects or
+subdivisions of the main topic, the effort has been to point out and to
+suggest some ways in which good vocal habits may be taught, and simple
+and effective vocal training carried on with whatever materials there
+may be at hand in the shape of books, charts, blackboards, staves, etc.
+The leading idea is the correct use of the voice; the particular song or
+exercise which maybe sung is of no special importance; the way in which
+it is sung is everything.
+
+The benefits of teaching music _reading_ in the schools are a matter of
+daily comment. Is it, then, likely that the good resulting from the
+formation of correct habits in the use of the voice will fail of
+recognition? Not so. For the effect of good vocal training in school
+music would be so general and so beneficent that even unfriendly critics
+might be silenced.
+
+The first effect upon singing when the thick tone is forbidden and the
+attempt made to substitute the use of the voice in the thin or head
+register may be disappointing. It will seem to take away all life and
+vigor from the singing. Teachers who enjoy _hearty_ singing will get
+nervous; they will doubt the value of the innovation. In those grades
+where children range in age from twelve to fourteen years, the apparent
+loss in vocal power will disconcert the pupils even. Never mind; the
+_use_ of the thin register will demonstrate its excellences, and it
+will, if slowly yet surely, increase in brilliance and telling quality
+of tone.
+
+Again, the compass downward needs to be more restricted at first than
+after the children have become habituated to its use. As long as there
+is any marked tendency to break into the chest-voice at certain pitches,
+the compass should be kept above them; as the tendency weakens, the
+voice may with due caution be carried to the lower tones, in higher
+grades be it understood. The tone should grow softer as the voice
+descends when the lower notes will sound mellow and sweet. At first they
+may be quite breathy, but as the vocal bands become accustomed to the
+new action, the breathiness will disappear. One thing at a time is
+enough to attempt in music, and while a change in the use of the voice
+is being sought, it may happen that sacrifices must be made in other
+directions; part-singing, until the voices become equalized, that is, of
+a similar tone-quality throughout the entire compass, may, as it
+requires the singing of tones so low as to occasion easy recurrence to
+the thick voice, be so antagonistic to the desired end that it must be
+dropped for a time. After the use of the thin voice has become firmly
+established, part-singing may be resumed. How low in pitch the lower
+part may with safety be carried depends partly upon the age of the
+pupils; but until the chest-voice begins to develop at puberty, all
+part-singing must be sung very lightly as to the lower part or voice.
+
+There is a class of pupils always to be found in our schools who cannot
+sing in tune; they vary in the degree of their inability from those who
+can sing only in monotone, to those who can sing in tune when singing
+with those whose sense of pitch is good, but alone, cannot. While the
+number of entire or partial monotone voices decreases under daily drill
+and instruction, yet there always remains a troublesome few, insensible
+to distinctions in pitch; it is, in view of the possible improvement
+they may make, a difficult matter to deal with them; for if they are
+forbidden to sing, the chance to improve is denied them, and if they
+sing and constantly drag down the pitch, why the intonation of those who
+would otherwise sing true is injuriously affected.
+
+Many who sing monotone when the thick voice is used, do so because the
+throat is weak and cannot easily sustain the muscular strain; if they
+are trained to the use of the light, thin tone, they can sing in tune.
+After children have been under daily music drill for two or three years
+in school, if they still sing monotone, it would seem inadvisable to let
+them participate with the class in singing. They do themselves no good,
+and they certainly injure the singing of the others; for, as before
+suggested, constant falling from pitch will in time dull the musical
+perceptions of those most gifted by nature.
+
+During the early years of school-life the pupils may often sing out of
+tune because the vocal bands and controlling muscles are very weak.
+
+It is an excellent idea to separate the pupils into two classes: First,
+those who can sing with reasonably good intonation; and second, those
+who can sing only a few tones, or only one.
+
+Let the second class frequently listen while the others sing. They will
+thus be taught to note both tone and pitch, and if any musical sense is
+dormant, this should arouse it; but, if after long and patient effort a
+pupil cannot sing, let him remain silent during the singing period.
+
+Every possible effort should certainly be put forth to teach children to
+sing in tune, but yet it is now, and will doubtless remain true, that a
+small per cent. cannot be so taught.
+
+The primary causes of monotone singing may be physical or mental; in
+many cases, weak vocal organs and feeble nervous power, in others lack
+of pitch-perception-- tonal blindness.
+
+The secondary causes include the influences of environment and heredity.
+The contempt in which music has been held by a portion of the
+English-speaking people from the time of the Reformation until quite
+recently, or shall we say until even now, has made its powerful impress
+upon opinions, tastes, and natural powers. Singing, with a part of our
+population, is literally a lost art, lost through generations of disuse.
+
+It is often urged by educators that each study must help other studies.
+The various subjects which are taught must move along, as it were, like
+the parts in a musical composition, dependent upon, sustaining, and
+harmonious with each other. Now, while it is not within the scope of
+this work to discuss the relation of music to other studies in all of
+its bearings, it is yet clearly in line with its general tenor to
+suggest that the tone in singing will react upon the speaking-voice, and
+_vice versa_.
+
+Now, if pupils recite and speak with a noisy, rough tone, it will not be
+easy to secure sweet, pure tone from them when they sing; but, on the
+other hand, while they may be specially trained in good singing-tone, it
+will not, as a result, follow that the speaking-voice will be similarly
+modified. Special attention must be given to this also; but if children
+invariably sing with pure tone, it must be very easy to direct them into
+good vocal habits in speaking and reading.
+
+It is no more necessary for children to recite in that horrible, rasping
+tone sometimes heard, than it is to sing with harsh tone; and if the
+same principles are applied to the speaking-voice as are herein given
+for the management of the singing-voice, in so far as they may be
+applicable, this harshness and coarseness may be avoided. It is the
+pushed, forced tone in speech or song that is disagreeable.
+
+If teachers will consign to well-merited oblivion those two phrases,
+“speak up” and “sing out,” and will, instead, secure purity and easy
+production of tone, with _distinctness of articulation_, they will do
+wisely. Let us not hesitate to teach our pupils to know and to feel that
+which is beautiful, and good, and true, that our schools may promote the
+growth of good taste, and stand for the highest morality and the best
+culture.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Errors and Inconsistencies:
+
+  to justify the teaching of vocal music in schools  [is schools]
+  inserted posteriorly into the arytenoid cartilages  [aryteniod]
+  forth. Even up to the change of voice  [comma for period]
+  to sing the higher tones lightly  [to sing the the]
+  _Ī_, again, which is equivalent to _ah_+_e_  [_I_ not italicized]
+  _light--li-eet_
+    [_text unchanged: error for “lah-eet”?_]
+  _ah_ to _er_ or _er_ or _uh_
+    [_text unchanged: one “er” may be an error for “eh”_]
+  the vocalization of solfeggii  [spelling unchanged]
+  he tries to join in  [trys]
+
+  The question, How high may boys or girls sing
+    [paragraph not indented]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Child-Voice in Singing, by Francis E. Howard
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHILD-VOICE IN SINGING ***
+
+***** This file should be named 22581-0.txt or 22581-0.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/2/2/5/8/22581/
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, Nada Prodanovic, David Newman,
+David Edwards and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.