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diff --git a/22458-h/22458-h.htm b/22458-h/22458-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..aa217ee --- /dev/null +++ b/22458-h/22458-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,11581 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Swedish Revolution Under Gustavus Vasa, by Paul Barron Watson + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4 { + text-align: center; + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 80%;} + + .toc1 {text-align: center; font-size: larger; font-weight: bold; font-variant: small-caps;} + .tocp {text-align: right; font-size: smaller; font-variant: small-caps;} + .toc2 {text-align: justify; padding-left: 5em; padding-right: 3em; text-indent: -2em;} + .toc3 {text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } + + .blockquot{margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: smaller;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: + 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px; margin-top: 2em;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: 0.25em; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + .trans1 {border: solid 1px; + margin: 3em 15%; padding: 1em; text-align: left;} + + .zerop {margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em;} + + img {border: none} + + .head1 {text-align: center; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 4em;} + .head2 {text-align: center; font-size: smaller;} + .head3 {text-align: center; margin-top: 5em;} + + a:link {text-decoration:none; } + a:visited {text-decoration:none; } + + ul {list-style-type: none} + + p.cap:first-letter {float: left; clear: left; + margin: 0 0.1em 0 0; + padding:0; + line-height: .8em; font-size: 3em;} + + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Swedish Revolution Under Gustavus Vasa, by +Paul Barron Watson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Swedish Revolution Under Gustavus Vasa + +Author: Paul Barron Watson + +Release Date: August 30, 2007 [EBook #22458] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SWEDISH REVOLUTION *** + + + + +Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + + + + + + +<h1><small><small>THE</small></small><br /><br /> +SWEDISH REVOLUTION<br /><br /> +<small><small><small>UNDER</small></small></small><br /><br /> +<small>GUSTAVUS VASA</small></h1> + +<p class="head1">BY</p> + +<h2>PAUL BARRON WATSON</h2> + +<p class="head2">AUTHOR OF "MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS" AND MEMBER OF<br /> +AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION</p> + + +<p class="head3"><big>BOSTON</big><br /> +LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p class="center"><i>Copyright, 1889</i>,<br /> +<span class="smcap">By Paul Barron Watson.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">University Press:<br /> +John Wilson and Son, Cambridge.</span><br /> +</p> + + + + + + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2> + + +<p class="cap">NO name in history lies deeper in Swedish +hearts than the name Gustavus Vasa. Liberator +of Sweden from the yoke of Denmark, and +founder of one of the foremost dynasties of Europe, +his people during more than three centuries +have looked back fondly to the figure of their +great ruler, and cherished with tender reverence +every incident in his romantic history. This enthusiasm +for Gustavus Vasa is more than sentiment; +it belongs to him as leader in a vast political upheaval. +When Gustavus came upon the stage, +the Swedish people had long been groaning under +a foreign despotism. During more than a century +their political existence had been ignored, +their rights as freemen trampled in the dust. +They had at last been goaded into a spirit of +rebellion, and were already struggling to be free. +What they most needed was a leader with courage +to summon them to arms, and with perseverance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span> +to keep them in the field. Possessing these +traits beyond all others, Gustavus called his +people forth to war, and finally brought them +through the war to victory. This revolution +extended over a period of seven years,—from +the uprising of the Dalesmen in 1521 to the coronation +of Gustavus in 1528. It is a period that +should be of interest, not only to the student of +history, but also to the lover of romance. In +order to render the exact nature of the struggle +clear, I have begun the narrative at a time considerably +before the revolution, though I have +not entered deeply into details till the beginning +of the war in 1521. By the middle of the year +1523, when Gustavus was elected king, actual +warfare had nearly ceased, and the scenes of the +drama change from the battle-field to the legislative +chamber. In this period occurred the +crowning act of the revolution; namely, the +banishment of the Romish Church and clergy.</p> + +<p>The history of the Swedish Revolution has +never before been written in the English language. +Even Gustavus Vasa is but little known +outside his native land. Doubtless this is due in +large measure to the difficulties which beset a +study of the period. It is not a period to which +the student of literature can turn with joy. One<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span> +who would know Gustavus well must traverse a +vast desert of dreary reading, and pore over +many volumes of verbose despatches before he +can find a drop of moisture to relieve the arid +soil. Sweden in the early part of the sixteenth +century was not fertile in literary men. Gustavus +himself, judged by any rational standard, +was an abominable writer. His despatches are +in number almost endless and in length appalling. +Page after page he runs on, seemingly with no +other object than to use up time. Often a document +covers four folios, which might easily have +been compressed into a single sentence. Such +was the habit of the age. A simple letter from a +man to his wife consisted mainly of a mass of +stereotyped expressions of respect. Language +was used apparently to conceal vacuity of mind. +Toward the close of the monarch's reign there +was a marked improvement in literary style, and +some few works of that period possess real worth. +These have recently been printed, and as a rule +have been edited with considerable care. The +king's despatches are also being systematically +printed by the authorities of the Royal Archives +at Stockholm, and the cloud of ignorance which +has hitherto hung over the head of Sweden's +early monarch is lifting fast. The tenth volume<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span> +of the king's despatches, known as <i>Gustaf I.'s +registratur</i> has now been published, carrying this +contemporary transcript of the king's letters +down to the summer of 1535. The only documents +bearing on the Swedish Revolution and not +yet published, are the MSS. known as <i>Gustaf I.'s +rådslagar</i>, <i>Gustaf I.'s acta historica</i>, and <i>Gustaf I.'s +bref med bilagor</i>,—all to be found in the Royal +Archives at Stockholm,—and the MSS. known +as the <i>Palmskiöld samlingar</i> in the Upsala Library. +All these I have carefully examined. I have also +browsed during several months among the libraries +of Sweden, and have spared no pains to get +at everything, written or printed, contemporary +or subsequent, that might throw light upon the +subject. The most important of these materials +are mentioned in the bibliography inserted immediately +before the Index to this work. In +order to add vividness as well as accuracy to the +narrative, I have visited personally nearly all the +battle-fields and other spots connected with this +history. My descriptions of the leading contemporaries +of Gustavus are based on a careful study +of the portraits in the Gripsholm gallery, most of +which were painted from life.</p> + +<p>Finally, a word of thanks is due to the libraries +and archives from which I have derived most aid.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span> +Of these the chief are the British Museum, the +University Library at Upsala, and above all, the +Royal Library and the Royal Archives at Stockholm. +To the last two institutions I owe more +than I can express. They are the storehouses +of Swedish history, and their doors were thrown +open to me with a generosity and freedom beyond +all that I could hope. I wish here to thank my +many friends, the custodians of these treasures, +for the personal encouragement and assistance +they have lent me in the prosecution of this +work.</p> + +<p><i><small>August 15, 1889.</small></i></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> + +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2">Chapter I.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH OF GUSTAVUS VASA. 1496-1513.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tocp" colspan="2">Page</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc2">Birth of Gustavus.—His Ancestors.—Anarchy in Sweden.—Its +Causes: Former Independence of the People; Growth of Christianity; +Growth of the Aristocracy; the Cabinet; Enslavement of Sweden; +Revolt of the People against Denmark.—Christiern I.—Sten +Sture.—Hans.—Svante Sture.—Sten Sture the Younger.—Childhood +of Gustavus.—His Education at Upsala</td><td class="toc3"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2">Chapter II.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">FIRST MILITARY ADVENTURES OF GUSTAVUS;<br /> +A PRISONER IN DENMARK. 1514-1519.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc2">Description of Stockholm.—Christina Gyllenstjerna.—Hemming +Gad.—Christiern II.—Gustaf Trolle.—Dissension between Sten Sture +and Gustaf Trolle.—Siege of Stäket.—First Expedition of Christiern +II. against Sweden.—Trial of the Archbishop.—Arcimboldo.—Second +Expedition of Christiern II. against Sweden.—Capture of Gustavus +Vasa.—Resignation of the Archbishop.—Hostilities of Christiern +II.—Farewell of Arcimboldo.</td><td class="toc3"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2">Chapter III.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">FLIGHT OF GUSTAVUS; UPRISING OF THE<br /> +DALESMEN. 1519-1521.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc2">Escape of Gustavus from Denmark.—Lubeck.—Return of Gustavus to +Sweden.—Excommunication of Sture.—Invasion of<a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii"></a> Sweden.—Death +of Sture.—Dissolution of the Swedish Army.—Heroism of +Christina.—Battle of Upsala.—Gustavus at Kalmar.—Fall of +Stockholm.—Coronation of Christiern II.—Slaughter of the +Swedes.—Flight of Gustavus to Dalarne.—Efforts to rouse the +Dalesmen.—Gustavus chosen Leader.</td><td class="toc3"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2">Chapter IV.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">WAR OF INDEPENDENCE; ELECTION OF GUSTAVUS<br /> +TO THE THRONE. 1521-1523.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc2">Causes of the War.—Character of the Dalesmen.—Growth of the +Patriot Army.—Didrik Slagheck.—Battle of Köping.—Capture of +Vesterås; of Upsala.—Skirmish with Trolle.—Skirmishes near +Stockholm.—Siege of Stegeborg.—Norby.—Rensel.—Brask.—Progress +of the War.—Coinage of Gustavus.—Christiern's Troubles in +Denmark.—Siege of Stockholm.—Fall of Kalmar.—Diet of +Strengnäs.—Fall of Stockholm.—Retrospect of the War.</td><td class="toc3"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2">Chapter V.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">BEGINNINGS OF THE REFORMATION. 1523-1524.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc2">Nature of the Reformation in Europe.—Cause of the Reformation in +Sweden.—The Debt to Lubeck.—Riches of the Church.—Relations of +Gustavus to the Pope.—Johannes Magni.—New Taxation.—Dissension +among the People.—Opposition of Gustavus to the Pope.—Trial +of Peder Sunnanväder.—Expedition against Gotland.—Repudiation +of the "Klippings."—Berent von Mehlen.—Negotiations between +Fredrik and Norby.—Congress of Malmö.—Efforts to appease the +People.—Lutheranism.—Olaus Petri.—Laurentius Andreæ.—Brask's +Efforts to repress Heresy.—Religious Tendencies of +Gustavus.—Character of Brask.</td><td class="toc3"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2">Chapter VI.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">RELIGIOUS DISCORD AND CIVIL WAR. 1524-1525.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc2">Riot of the Anabaptists.—Contest between Olaus Petri and Peder +<a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii"></a>Galle.—Marriage of Petri.—Conspiracy of Norby; of Christina +Gyllenstjerna; of Mehlen; of Sunnanväder.—Attitude of Fredrik to +Gustavus.—Proposition of Gustavus to resign the Crown.—Norby's +Incursion into Bleking.—Surrender of Visby.—Flight of +Mehlen.—Fall of Kalmar.</td><td class="toc3"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2">Chapter VII.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">DEALINGS WITH FOREIGN POWERS. 1525-1527.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc2">Negotiations between Fredrik and Gustavus.—Treachery of +Norby.—Sunnanväder and the Cabinet of Norway.—Overthrow and +Death of Norby.—Trial and Execution of Knut and Sunnanväder.—Debt +to Lubeck.—Treaty with Russia; with the Netherlands.—Dalarne and +the Lubeck Envoys.—Swedish Property in Denmark.—Province of +Viken.—Refugees in Norway.</td><td class="toc3"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2">Chapter VIII.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION. 1525-1527.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc2">Nature of the Period.—Translation of the Bible.—Quarrel between +the King and Brask.—Opposition to the Monasteries.—High-handed +Measures of the King.—Second Disputation between Petri and +Galle.—Opposition to Luther's Teaching.—Banishment of +Magni.—Further Opposition to the Monasteries.—Revolt of the +Dalesmen.—Diet of Vesterås.—"Vesterås Recess."—"Vesterås +Ordinantia."—Fall of Brask; his Flight; his Character.</td><td class="toc3"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2">Chapter IX.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">CORONATION OF THE KING. 1528.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc2">Reasons for Delay of the Coronation.—Preparations for the +Ceremony.—Consecration of the Bishops.—Coronation +Festival.—Retrospect of the Revolution.—Character of Gustavus.</td><td class="toc3"><a href="#Page_268">268</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc1" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc2">BIBLIOGRAPHY</td><td class="toc3"><a href="#Page_277">277</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc2">INDEX</td><td class="toc3"><a href="#Page_293">293</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS" id="ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> + + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> + +<tr><td class="tocp" colspan="2">Page</td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc2">Seal of Bishop Brask. Bears the inscription: S[IGILLVM] +IOH[ANN]IS DEI GRA[CIA] EPI[SCOPI] LINCOPENSIS</td><td class="toc3"><a href="#i103">103</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc3" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc2">"Klipping" issued by Gustavus Vasa in 1521 or 1522. On one side, +the bust of a man in armor. On the other, crowns and arrows, +with the inscription: ERI[KS]SO[N]</td><td class="toc3"><a href="#i107">107</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc3" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc2">Medal struck in commemoration of the deliverance of Sweden in +1522. On one side, a half-length figure of Gustavus Vasa, with +the date 1522 and the inscription: GVSTAF ERICSEN G[VBERNATOR] +R[EGNI] S[VECIAE]. On the other, crowns and arrows, with the +inscription: PROTEGE NOS IESV</td><td class="toc3"><a href="#i116">116</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc3" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc2">Coin issued in Stockholm in 1522. On one side, the inscription: +GOSTA[F] ERI[KS] SO[N] 1522, and in the centre, G[VBERNATOR]. On +the other, a crown, with the inscription: MONET[A] +STO[C]KHOLM[ENSIS]</td><td class="toc3"><a href="#i122">122</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc3" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc2">Coin issued in Stockholm in 1522. On one side, a full-length +figure, with the inscription: S[ANCTVS] ERICVS REX SWECIEI. On +the other, crowns and arrows, with the inscription: MONE[TA] +STO[C]KHOLM[ENSIS] 1522</td><td class="toc3"><a href="#i122">122</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc3" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc2">Coin issued in Stockholm in 1522 or 1523. On one side, three +crowns, with the inscription: S[ANCTVS] ERICVS REX SVE[CIAE]. On +the other, the inscription: MONETA STOC[K]HO[LMENSIS]</td><td class="toc3"><a href="#i122">122</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc3" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc2">Coin issued in Upsala in 1523. On one side, a bust with arrows +and sheaves of corn, and the inscription: S[ANCTVS] ERICVS REX +SWECIE. On the other, three crowns, with the inscription: +<a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi"></a>MONE[TA] NOVA VPSAL[ENSIS] 1523</td><td class="toc3"><a href="#i123">123</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc3" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc2">Coin issued in Vesterås in 1523. On one side, a crown, with the +inscription: GOST[AF] REX SWECIE. On the other, three crowns, +with the inscription: MONE[TA] NOVA WESTAR[OSIENSIS]</td><td class="toc3"><a href="#i123">123</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="toc3" colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="toc2">Coin issued at the coronation of Gustavus Vasa in 1528. On one +side, a full-length figure of the king, with crown, sword, and +sceptre, and the inscription: GOSTAVS D[EI] G[RACIA] SVECORVM +REX. On the other, the inscription: MONET[A] NOVA +STO[C]K[H]OL[MENSIS] 1528</td><td class="toc3"><a href="#i272">272</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> +<h1><a name="THE_SWEDISH_REVOLUTION" id="THE_SWEDISH_REVOLUTION"></a>THE SWEDISH REVOLUTION.</h1> + + + + +<h2><a name="Chapter_I" id="Chapter_I"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter I.</span></h2> + +<h3>CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH OF GUSTAVUS VASA. 1496-1513.</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Birth of Gustavus.—His Ancestors.—Anarchy in Sweden.—Its Causes: +Former Independence of the People; Growth of Christianity; Growth +of the Aristocracy; the Cabinet; Enslavement of Sweden; Revolt of +the People against Denmark.—Christiern I.—Sten Sture.—Hans.—Svante +Sture.—Sten Sture the Younger.—Childhood of Gustavus.—His +Education at Upsala.</p></div> + + +<p class="cap">THE manor of Lindholm lies in the centre of a +smiling district about twenty miles north of the +capital of Sweden. Placed on a height between two +fairy lakes, it commands a wide and varied prospect +over the surrounding country. The summit of this +height was crowned, at the close of the fifteenth century, +by a celebrated mansion. Time and the ravages +of man have long since thrown this mansion to the +ground; but its foundation, overgrown with moss and +fast crumbling to decay, still marks the site of the +ancient structure, and from the midst of the ruins +rises a rough-hewn stone bearing the name Gustavus +Vasa. On this spot he was born, May 12, 1496.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> +estate was then the property of his grandmother, Sigrid +Baner, with whom his mother was temporarily residing, +and there is no reason to think it continued long the +home of the young Gustavus.</p> + +<p>The family from which Gustavus sprang had been, +during nearly a hundred years, one of the foremost +families of Sweden. Its coat-of-arms consisted of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> +simple <i>vase</i>, or bundle of sticks; and the Vasa estate, at +one time the residence of his ancestors, lay only about +ten miles to the north of Lindholm.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> The first Vasa of +whom anything is definitely known is Kristiern Nilsson, +the great-grandfather of Gustavus. This man became +noted in the early part of the fifteenth century as an +ardent monarchist, and under Erik held the post of +chancellor. After the fall of his master, in 1436, his +office was taken from him, but he continued to battle +for the cause of royalty until his death. Of the chancellor's +three sons, the two eldest followed zealously in +the footsteps of their father. The other, Johan Kristersson, +though in early life a stanch supporter of King +Christiern, and one of the members of his Cabinet, later +married a sister of Sten Sture, and eventually embraced +the Swedish cause. Birgitta, the wife of Johan Kristersson, +is said to have been descended from the ancient +Swedish kings.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> The youngest son of Johan and Birgitta +was Erik Johansson, the father of Gustavus. Of +Erik's early history we know little more than that he +married Cecilia, daughter of Magnus Karlsson and +Sigrid Baner, and settled at Rydboholm, an estate which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> +he inherited from his father. To this place, beautifully +situated on an arm of the Baltic, about ten miles northeast +of the capital, Cecilia returned with her little boy +from Lindholm; and here Gustavus spent the first years +of his childhood.</p> + +<p>Sweden at this period was in a state of anarchy. In +order to appreciate the exact condition of affairs, it +will be necessary to cast a glance at some political +developments that had gone before. Sweden was originally +a confederation of provinces united solely for +purposes of defence. Each province was divided into +several counties, which were constituted in the main +alike. Every inhabitant—if we except the class of +slaves, which was soon abolished—was either a landowner +or a tenant. The tenants were freemen who +owned no land of their own, and hence rented the land +of others. All landowners possessed the same rights, +though among them were certain men of high birth, who +through their large inheritances were much more influential +than the rest. Matters concerning the inhabitants +of one county only were regulated by the county assemblies, +to which all landowners in the county, and none +others, were admitted. These assemblies were called +and presided over by the county magistrate, elected by +general vote at some previous assembly. All law cases +arising in the county were tried before the assembly, +judgment being passed, with consent of the assembly, +by the county magistrate, who was expected to know +and expound the traditional law of his county. Questions +concerning the inhabitants of more than one +county were regulated by the provincial assemblies,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> +composed of all landowners in the province, and presided +over by the provincial magistrate, elected by all +the landowners in his province. The power of the provincial +magistrate in the province was similar to that +of the county magistrate in the county; and to his judgment, +with consent of the assembly, lay an appeal from +every decision of the county magistrates. Above all +the provinces was a king, elected originally by the provincial +assembly of Upland, though in order to gain +the allegiance of the other provinces he was bound to +appear before their individual assemblies and be confirmed +by them. His duty was expressed in the old +formula, "landom råda, rike styre, lag styrke, och frid +hålla," which meant nothing more than that he was to +protect the provinces from one another and from foreign +powers. In order to defray the expense of strengthening +the kingdom, he was entitled to certain definite +taxes from every landowner, and half as much from +every tenant, in the land. These taxes he collected +through his courtiers, who in the early days were men of +a very inferior class,—mere servants of the king. They +lived on the crown estates, which we find in the very +earliest times scattered through the land. Besides his +right to collect taxes, the king, as general peacemaker, +was chief-justice of the realm, and to him lay an appeal +from every decision rendered by a provincial magistrate. +Such, in brief, was the constitution of Sweden +when first known in history.</p> + +<p>Christianity, first preached in Sweden about the year +830, brought with it a diminution of the people's rights. +When the episcopal dioceses were first marked out, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> +people naturally kept in their own hands the right to +choose their spiritual rulers, who were designated <i>lydbiskopar</i>, +or the people's bishops. But in 1164 the Court of +Rome succeeded in establishing, under its own authority, +an archbishopric at Upsala; and by a papal bull of +1250 the choice of Swedish bishops was taken from the +people and confided to the cathedral chapters under the +supervision of the pope. As soon as the whole country +became converted, the piety of the people induced them +to submit to gross impositions at the hands of those +whom they were taught to regard as God's representatives +on earth. In 1152 the so-called "Peter's Penning" +was established, an annual tax of one penning +from every individual to the pope. Besides this, it became +the law, soon after, that all persons must pay a +tenth of their annual income to the Church, and in +addition there were special taxes to the various bishops, +deans, and pastors. A still more productive source of +revenue to the Church was death-bed piety, through +which means a vast amount of land passed from kings +or wealthy individuals to the Church. By a law of the +year 1200 the clergy were declared no longer subject to +be tried for crime in temporal courts; and by the end of +the thirteenth century the Church had practically ceased +to be liable for crown taxation. It requires but a moment's +thought to perceive how heavy a burden all these +changes threw on the body of the nation.</p> + +<p>Simultaneously with the spread of Christianity still +another power began to trample on the liberties of the +people. This was the power of the sword. In early +times, before civilization had advanced enough to give<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> +everybody continuous employment, most people spent +their leisure moments in making war. Hence the Swedish +kings, whose duty it was to keep the peace, could +accomplish that result only by having a large retinue +of armed warriors at their command. The expense +which this entailed was great. Meantime the crown +estates had continually increased in number through +merger of private estates of different kings, through +crown succession to estates of foreigners dying without +descendants in the realm, and through other sources. +Some of the kings, therefore, devised the scheme of enlisting +the influential aristocracy in their service by +granting them fiefs in the crown estates, with right +to all the crown incomes from the fief. This plan was +eagerly caught at by the aristocrats, and before long +nearly all the influential people in the realm were in the +service of the king. Thus the position of royal courtier, +which had formerly been a mark of servitude, was now +counted an honor, the courtiers being now commonly +known as magnates. About the year 1200 castles were +first erected on some of the crown estates, and the +magnates who held these castles as fiefs were not slow +to take advantage of their power. Being already the +most influential men in their provinces, and generally +the county or provincial magistrates, they gradually +usurped the right to govern the surrounding territory, +not as magistrates of the people, but as grantees of the +crown estates. Since these fiefs were not hereditary, +the rights usurped by the holders of them passed, on +the death of the grantees, to the crown, and in 1276 we +find a king granting not only one of his royal castles,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> +but also right of administration over the surrounding +land. Thus, by continual enlargement of the royal fiefs, +the authority of the provincial assemblies, and even of +the county assemblies, was practically destroyed. Still, +these assemblies continued to exist, and in them the poor +landowners claimed the same rights as the more influential +magnates. The magnates, as such, possessed no +privileges, and were only powerful because of their +wealth, which enabled them to become courtiers or warriors +of the king. In 1280, however, a law was passed +exempting all mounted courtiers from crown taxation. +This law was the foundation of the nobility of Sweden. +It divided the old landowners, formerly all equal, into +two distinct classes,—the knights, who were the mounted +warriors of the king; and the poorer landowners, on whom, +together with the class of tenants, was cast the whole +burden of taxation. With the progress of time, exemption +from crown taxation was extended to the sons of +knights unless, on reaching manhood, they failed to +serve the king with horse. The knights were thus a +privileged and hereditary class. Those of the old magnates +who did not become knights were known as armigers, +or armor-clad foot-soldiers. The armigers also +became an hereditary class, and before long they too +were exempted from crown taxation. In many cases +the armigers were raised to the rank of knights. Thus +the wealthy landowners increased in power, while the +poor, who constituted the great body of the nation, grew +ever poorer. Many, to escape the taxes shifted to their +shoulders from the shoulders of the magnates, sank into +the class of tenants, with whom, indeed, they now had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> +much in common. The sword had raised the strong +into a privileged aristocracy, and degraded the weak +into a down-trodden peasantry.</p> + +<p>The aristocracy and the Church,—these were the +thorns that sprang up to check the nation's growth. +Each had had the same source,—a power granted by the +people. But no sooner were they independent of their +benefactors, than they made common cause in oppressing +the peasantry who had given them birth. They +found their point of union in the Cabinet. This was +originally a body of men whom the king summoned +whenever he needed counsel or support. Naturally he +sought support among the chief men of his realm. As +the power of the Church and aristocracy increased, the +king was practically forced to summon the chief persons +in these classes to his Cabinet, and furthermore, +in most cases, to follow their advice; so that by the +close of the thirteenth century the Cabinet had become +a regular institution, whose members, known as Cabinet +lords, governed rather than advised the king. In +the early part of the fourteenth century this institution +succeeded in passing a law that each new king must +summon his Cabinet immediately after his election. +The same law provided that no foreigner could be a +member of the Cabinet; that the archbishop should be +<i>ex officio</i> a member; that twelve laymen should be summoned, +but no more; and that, in addition, the king +might summon as many of the bishops and clergy as +he wished. As a matter of fact this law was never followed. +The Cabinet lords practically formed themselves +into a close corporation, appointing their own<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +successors or compelling the king to appoint whom +they desired. Generally the members were succeeded +by their sons, and in very many instances we find +fathers and sons sitting in the Cabinet together. A +person once a Cabinet lord was such for life. The +law providing that the archbishop should have a seat +in the Cabinet was strictly followed, and in practice +the bishops were also always members. The other +clergy seem never to have been summoned except in +certain instances to aid their bishops or represent them +when they could not come. The provincial magistrates +were generally members, though not always. As to the +number of temporal lords, it was almost invariably +more than twelve, sometimes double as many. From the +very first, this self-appointed oligarchy saw that in unity +was strength; and while the different members of the +royal family were squabbling among themselves, the +Cabinet seized the opportunity to increase its power. +Though not entitled to a definite salary, it was regularly +understood that Cabinet lords were to be paid by +grants of the chief fiefs; and when these fiefs were extended +so as to embrace the whole, or nearly the whole, +of a province, the grant of such a fief ordinarily carried +with it the office of provincial magistrate. Thus the +Cabinet became the centre of administration for the kingdom. +From this it gradually usurped the right to legislate +for the whole realm, to lay new taxes on the people, +and to negotiate treaties with foreign powers. Lastly, +it robbed the people of their ancient right to nominate +and confirm their kings. These prerogatives, however, +were not exercised without strong opposition. Throughout<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the peasantry +battled with vigor against the arrogant assumptions +of the Cabinet, never relinquishing their claim to be +governed as of yore. This struggle against the encroachments +of the oligarchy at last resulted in the +revolution under Gustavus Vasa. Hence we may with +profit trace the relation between the Cabinet and the +people from the start.</p> + +<p>The first case in which the Cabinet distinctly asserted +an authority over the whole land occurred in 1319, when +the king, after a long and bitter struggle with different +members of the royal house, had finally been driven +from the throne. The Cabinet then resolved to place +the crown on the head of the former monarch's grandson, +a child but three years old. With this in view, +they called all the magnates in the realm and four peasants +from every county to a general diet, where the +chancellor of the Cabinet stepped forward with the +infant in his arms, and moved that this infant be +elected king. "Courtiers, peasantry, and all with one +accord responded, 'Amen.'" This was the first general +diet held in Sweden, and it showed a marked decline +in the people's rights. From beginning to end +the proceedings of this diet were regulated by the Cabinet, +and the people were practically forced to acquiesce. +Even had the people possessed a real voice in the election, +their influence would have been far less than formerly, +since here they had but four representatives from +each county against the entire class of magnates, whereas +originally every landowner, whether magnate or peasant, +had an equal vote. During the minority of this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> +king the power of the Cabinet made rapid strides. He +was forced to borrow from them enormous sums of +money, for which he mortgaged nearly all the royal +castles; so that when he came of age he was thoroughly +under the dominion of the Cabinet. He struggled +hard, however, to shake off his shackles, and with +some success. Among other things, he passed a law +which was intended to restore to the people at large +their ancient right to choose their kings. This law provided +that whenever a king was to be chosen, each +provincial magistrate, with the assent of all landowners +in his province, should select twelve men, who on a day +appointed were to meet in general diet with all the magistrates, +and choose the king. Unhappily this law was +never followed, though the king by whom it was enacted +struggled hard to maintain the people's rights. +In 1359, after a series of internal disorders, his Cabinet +compelled him to call a meeting of all the magnates +in the realm; but in addition to the magnates he summoned +also delegates from the peasantry and burghers, +evidently with a view to gain their aid in curbing the +insolence of the Cabinet. This was the second general +diet. From this time forth the king did all he +could to strengthen the people, until at last he banished +a number of his chief opponents. They thereupon, in +1363, offered the crown to Albert of Mecklenburg, who +by their aid succeeded in overthrowing the king and +getting possession of the throne. For a time now the +Cabinet had things nearly as they wished. In 1371 +they forced the king to grant them all the royal estates +as fiefs, and to declare that on the death of any one of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> +them his successor should be chosen by the survivors. +This astounding grant the Cabinet owed chiefly to the +influence of their chancellor, Bo Jonsson, who had done +more than any other to set Albert on the throne; and to +him were granted as fiefs all the royal castles. In 1386 +he died, leaving all his fiefs, by will, to the chief magnates +of the land. Against this Albert ventured to +protest. He called in a large number of his German +countrymen, and by their aid recovered a large portion +of his power. He then began distributing royal favors +among them with a lavish hand, to the detriment of the +Swedish magnates. These magnates therefore turned, +in 1388, to Margaret, regent of Denmark and Norway, +and offered her the regency of Sweden, promising to +recognize as king whomever she should choose. In 1389 +she entered Sweden with her army, overthrew King Albert, +and got possession of the throne. In 1396 the Swedish +Cabinet, at her desire, elected her nephew, Erik of +Pomerania, already king of Denmark and Norway, to be +king of Sweden; and on the 17th of June, 1397, he was +crowned at Kalmar.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> Thus began the celebrated Kalmar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +Union, one of the greatest political blunders that a nation +ever made. It was the voluntary enslavement of a whole +people to suit the whims of a few disgruntled magnates.</p> + +<p>The century following this catastrophe was marked +by violence and bloodshed. In all the setting up and +pulling down of kings which ended in the Kalmar Union, +the Swedish peasantry, now the body of the nation, had +had no part. They had long watched in silence the +overpowering growth of the magnates and of the Church; +they had seen their own rights gradually, but surely, +undermined; and they now beheld the whole nation +given into the hand of a foreign king. All this tyranny +was beginning to produce its natural effect. A spirit of +rebellion was spreading fast. However, open insurrection +was for the moment averted by the prudence of the +regent; so long as she lived the people were tolerably +content. She ruled the Cabinet with an iron hand, and +refused to appoint a chancellor, the officer who had +hitherto done much to bind the Cabinet together. After +her death Erik attempted to carry out a similar policy, +and introduced a number of foreigners into the Swedish +Cabinet. But his continual absence from the realm +weakened his administration, and gave great license<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +to his officers, who by their cruelty won the hatred of +the people. At last, in 1433, the peasantry of Dalarne +rebelled against the tyranny of the steward whom their +Danish ruler had put over them, and in 1435, under the +leadership of a courageous warrior, Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson, +compelled the king to call a general diet, the +first since 1359, consisting of all the people in the realm +who cared to take part. This diet, under the enthusiasm +of the moment, elected Engelbrekt commander of the +kingdom. But the hopes of the peasantry were soon +blasted. In the next year Engelbrekt was murdered by +a Swedish magnate, and by a general diet Karl Knutsson, +another magnate, was chosen to fill his place. King +Erik was now tottering to his fall. He was no longer +king in anything but name. His fall, however, benefited +only the magnates of the realm. By a general diet of +1438, to which all people in the realm were called, +Knutsson was elected regent. But his reign came in +the next year to an untimely end. His fellow-magnates, +jealous of his power, forced him to lay it down; and in +1440 the Cabinet called Erik's nephew, Christopher of +Bavaria, already king of Denmark, to the Swedish +throne. Thus ended the first effort of the Swedish +peasantry to throw off the Danish yoke. It had begun +with high promises for the people, but had ended in the +restoration of the Cabinet to all its former power. From +this time forth the Cabinet was again practically the +governing body in the realm. But it was no longer at +unity with itself. One party, led by the great house of +Oxenstjerna, was for preserving the Union. The other +consisted of the adherents of Karl Knutsson, who hoped<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +to put the crown on his own head. In 1448 King +Christopher died, and, in the difference of feeling which +reigned, the Cabinet called a general diet of all the +magnates with representatives from the peasantry and +burghers, that the people at large might choose of the +two evils that which pleased them best. The result was +that Karl Knutsson was elected king. From this time +till his death, in 1470, he was in perpetual warfare with +the king of Denmark, with the Swedish priesthood, who +had now grown fat under Danish rule and wished to +continue so, and with the hostile party among the magnates. +Twice he was forced to lay down the crown +only to take it up again. Throughout his reign, though +in some regards a despot, he was, at all events, the +champion of the Swedish magnates as opposed to those +who favored the continuance of foreign rule. In 1470 +he died, after having intrusted Stockholm Castle to his +nephew, Sten Sture. The dissension that now reigned +throughout the land was great. On one side were the +powerful Vasa and Oxenstjerna families, striving to put +Christiern I. of Denmark on the throne. On the other +side was Sten Sture, the Tott, Gyllenstjerna, Bonde, +Bjelke, and Natt och Dag families, supported by the +burgher element in Stockholm and the peasantry of +Dalarne. With such odds on their side the issue could +not long be doubtful. At a general diet held in 1471, +Sten Sture was chosen regent of the kingdom. It is +impossible to overrate the significance of this event. +This was the first time that the burgher element played +an important part in the election of Sweden's ruler. +The peasantry had once before been prominent, but so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> +long as the oligarchy held firmly together, their actual +influence had been slight. Now the ranks of the oligarchy +were broken. One party looked for supporters +in Denmark and in the Church; the other, now gaining +the upper hand, was distinctly the party of the people. +The very name of regent, which was granted to Sten +Sture, bears witness to the popular character of the +movement. And this was destined to be the tendency +of the current during the next half-century. There +were many difficulties, however, with which the patriot +party had to contend. In the first place, the Swedish +party was in lack of funds. An enormous proportion of +the kingdom was exempt from taxes, being held by +magnates, who by this time claimed the right to inherit +their fathers' fiefs with all the ancient privileges, but +without the ancient duty to render military service. In +this juncture war broke out with Russia, at the same +time that the kingdom was continually harassed by +Christiern, king of Denmark. It was clear that some +new mode must be discovered for raising money. The +peasantry were already groaning under a heavier load +than they could bear. Sten therefore turned to some +of the magnates, and demanded of them that they should +give up a portion of their fiefs. They of course resisted, +and his whole reign was occupied with a struggle +to make them yield. In 1481 Christiern, king of Denmark, +died, and was succeeded by his son Hans. The +efforts of Sten Sture to curb the magnates had rendered +him so unpopular among them, that the Swedish Cabinet +now opened negotiations with the new king of Denmark. +These negotiations resulted in a meeting of the Cabinets<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +of the three Northern kingdoms, held at Kalmar in +1483. This body promulgated a decree, known in history +as the Kalmar Recess, accepting Hans as king of +Sweden. To this decree Sten Sture reluctantly affixed +his seal. The main clauses of the decree were these: +No one in Sweden was to be held accountable for past +opposition to King Hans; the king was to live one year +alternately in each kingdom; the high posts as well as +the fiefs of Sweden should be granted to none but +Swedes; and the magnates should be free to fortify their +estates and refuse the king admittance. This decree, if +strictly followed, would have practically freed Sweden +from the yoke of Denmark. But as a matter of fact it +was several years before it was destined to go into operation +at all. The Swedish Cabinet were determined +that no step should be taken to put the decree into +effect until certain preliminary duties were discharged; +among them, the cession of the island of Gotland to +Sweden. These preliminaries Hans was in no hurry to +perform. Meantime Sten Sture continued to act as +regent. His path remained as rugged as before. Beset +on all sides by enemies, each struggling for his own +aggrandizement, Sten had all he could do to keep the +kingdom from going to pieces. In every measure to +increase the income of the crown he was hampered by +the overweening power of the Cabinet, who were reluctant +to give up a jot or tittle of their ill-acquired wealth. +Chief among his opponents was the archbishop, Jacob +Ulfsson,—a man of rare ability, but of high birth and +far too fond of self-advancement. Another enemy, who +ought to have been a friend, was Svante Sture, a young<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +magnate of great talent, who first became imbittered +against his illustrious namesake because the latter, on +the death of Svante's father, in 1494, claimed that the +fiefs which he had held should be surrendered to the +crown. Of Erik Trolle, another opponent of Sten Sture, +we shall see more hereafter. His strongest supporter +was one Hemming Gad, a learned, eloquent, and dauntless +gentleman, who also was to play a leading rôle +before many years were past. In 1493 war broke out +again with Russia, and Hans resolved to seize this +opportunity to make good his claims in Sweden. He +opened negotiations once more with the disaffected +members of the Cabinet, still hoping to make compromise +with Sture; they hesitated, they promised, and +then made new demands; and it was in the midst of +this elaborate trifling, while the regent was in Finland +conducting the Russian war, that Gustavus Vasa was +born at Lindholm.</p> + +<p>Affairs in Sweden were now fast coming to a crisis. +The fitful struggle of a century had at last assumed a +definite and unmistakable direction. All Sweden was +now divided into two distinct and hostile camps, and to +the dullest intellect it was clear as day that Sweden was +soon to be the scene of open war. In the autumn of +1496 the Cabinet, seeing that Sture was thoroughly determined +to check their power, resolved to hesitate no +longer. They therefore despatched a messenger to Hans, +inviting him to a congress of the three realms to be held +at midsummer of the following year, when, as they gave +him reason to expect, the Kalmar Recess should be put +into effect. This news being brought to Sture in Finland,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +he set forth post-haste for Sweden, and called a +meeting of the Cabinet. The members failed to appear +on the day appointed, and when at last they came, they +were accompanied by a large body of armed retainers. +At a session held in Stockholm on the 7th of March, +the Cabinet declared Sture deposed, assigning as reasons, +first, that he had mismanaged the war with Russia, and, +secondly, that he had maltreated certain of the Swedish +magnates. The regent waited two days before making +a reply, and then informed the Cabinet that, as he had +been appointed to the regency by joint action of the +Cabinet and people, he felt bound to hold it till requested +by the same powers to lay it down. The Cabinet +had nothing for it but to acquiesce, and letters were +issued summoning a general diet. That diet, however, +was never held. On the very day when the Cabinet made +its armistice with Sture, Hans put forth a declaration of +war, and at once proceeded with his fleet to Kalmar. The +enemies of Sture now openly embraced the Danish cause; +and the regent was forced to go to Dalarne, to get together +a force with which to defend the kingdom. Here +he was received with enthusiasm by the people, who +saw in him the defender of their rights. At the head of +a detachment of Dalesmen, reinforced by his army now +recalled from Finland, he marched to Upsala, and laid +siege to the archbishop's palace. By the middle of +July it fell; and Sture advanced to Stäket, a strongly +fortified castle of the archbishop, about thirty miles +south of Upsala. While beleaguering this place, he +learned that a portion of the Danish forces were advancing +on the capital. He therefore relinquished the siege<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +of Stäket, and proceeded to Stockholm, where he held +himself in readiness to repel the enemy. On the 29th +of September, being led by a ruse outside the city, he +was surrounded by the Danes, and was able to recover +the castle only after heavy loss. This battle sealed his +fate. Finding himself far outnumbered, he deemed it +wise to yield; and on the 6th of October, 1497, Hans was +recognized by him as king.</p> + +<p>The reign of Hans lasted about four years. At first +he appeared desirous to promote the welfare of Sweden +and to conform to the terms of the Kalmar Recess. But +before long even the Cabinet began to grow weary of +their king. The benefits conferred upon them were not +so great as they had hoped. As for Sture, at his renunciation +of the regency he had been granted extensive +fiefs both in Sweden and in Finland; but in 1499 the +king forced him to resign a large portion of these fiefs. +The other members of the Cabinet, now having less +cause of jealousy, became more friendly to Sten Sture. +His old enemy, Svante Sture, was at length reconciled to +him through the mediation of their common admirer, +Dr. Hemming Gad. Even with the clergy Sten Sture +was now on better terms; and at his solicitation, in January, +1501, the Chapter of Linköping elected Gad to fill +their vacant see. The main ground of complaint against +Hans was that he disregarded the clause of the Recess +which forbade the granting of Swedish fiefs to Danes. +Matters reached a crisis in 1501, when Sten and Svante +Sture, Gad, and three others met in council and took oath +to resist the oppression of their foreign ruler. This step +was the signal for a general explosion. On every side<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +the people rose in arms. Hans was in despair. He +first took counsel with his warm supporter, the archbishop, +and then, on the 11th of August, 1501, set off +with his whole fleet for Denmark.</p> + +<p>In the royal castle at Stockholm he left his wife +Christina, who, with Erik Trolle and a force of one +thousand men, was determined to resist. Gad, whose +election to the bishopric of Linköping the pope refused +to ratify, undertook to besiege the castle. Meantime +Svante Sture laid siege to Örebro, and Sten proceeded +to Dalarne and other parts to gather forces. On the +12th of November the Cabinet again called Sten Sture +to the regency. In February the Castle of Örebro fell. +And still Christina with her brave followers held out. +Not till the 9th of May, after a bloody assault, could +the patriots force a passage. Then they found that, of +the one thousand who had formed the original garrison, +but seventy were alive. Christina was conveyed to +Vadstena, where she remained several months pending +negotiations. At the close of the year 1503 she was +accompanied to the frontier by the regent, who however +was taken ill on his return journey, and died at +Jönköping on the 13th of December, 1503. Sten Sture +had done much for Sweden. Though himself a magnate, +and ambitious to increase his power, he was zealous +for the welfare of his country, and did more than +any other of his time to awake Sweden to a sense of her +existence as a nation. It was on the foundation laid +by him that a still greater leader was soon to build a +mighty edifice.</p> + +<p>On the 21st of January, 1504, at a general diet of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +magnates, with delegates from the burghers and peasantry +of Sweden, Svante Sture was elected regent. His +reign was even more warlike than that of his predecessor. +The Cabinet, it is true, had come to see the +benefits resulting from Sten Sture's rule, and the majority +of them were lukewarm adherents of the Swedish +party. But Hans was more determined than ever to +seize the crown, and not only harassed Svante throughout +his reign by a long series of invasions, but did all +he could to compromise him with other foreign powers. +Svante, however, succeeded in winning many friends. +In 1504 he concluded a truce of twenty years with Russia, +which was extended, by treaty of 1510, to 1564. In +1510 an alliance was also formed between Sweden and the +Vend cities. In 1506 the Dalesmen, at one of their assemblies, +issued a letter to the people of their provinces, +urging them to support Svante with life and limb. But +this burst of enthusiasm was short-lived. The war with +Hans hung on. New taxes had to be imposed, and several +fiefs to which different magnates laid claim were +appropriated to the crown. Discontent spread once +more, and at a Cabinet meeting held in September, +1511, Svante was declared deposed. He refused to yield +till heard by a general diet of the kingdom, and while +negotiations were pending, on the 2d of January, 1512, +he died.</p> + +<p>Nothing could have given certain members of the +Cabinet greater pleasure. The clerical members especially, +being warmly attached to the Danish cause, +thought they now saw an opportunity to set Hans on the +throne. About the middle of January the Cabinet came<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +together and, at the solicitation of Archbishop Ulfsson, +resolved to intrust the government for the time being +to Erik Trolle. This gentleman, of whom we have already +seen something, was of high birth as well as +talent, thoroughly versed in affairs, and allied to the +Danish party not only by family connection, but also by +reason of large estates in Denmark. He was, moreover, +a warm friend of the archbishop.</p> + +<p>However, the hopes of Trolle were not destined to be +realized. At the death of Svante, the Castle of Örebro +was in command of a daring and ambitious youth of +nineteen, known to history as Sten Sture the Younger. +He was Svante's son, and in the preceding year had +married Christina Gyllenstjerna, a great-granddaughter +of King Karl Knutsson. Immediately on hearing of his +father's death, he hastened to Vesterås, took possession +of the castle, and despatched a messenger to convey the +news to Stockholm. On the 8th of January the steward +of Stockholm Castle declared his readiness to yield the +command to Sture, and within a day or two the castles +of Stegeborg and Kalmar were also given up. The energy +with which this chivalrous youth seized the helm +is all the more astounding when we reflect that he stood +almost alone against the Cabinet. He could not even +ask the advice of Gad, his father's trusty friend, for +that doughty patriot was at the moment outside the +realm. But his zeal won him numerous friends among +the younger magnates, and the peasantry throughout +the country were on his side. All winter long the battle +raged between the two factions, but meantime Sture +continually grew in favor. No general diet of the kingdom<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +was summoned, but it was understood on every +hand that the matter would be submitted to the people +when they came together on St. Erik's day at Upsala. +On that day, May 18, the archbishop and his followers +addressed the people in the Grand Square at Upsala, +and announced that the Cabinet had resolved to raise +Erik Trolle to the regency. But they were met by +shouts from the crowd, who declared that they would +have no Danes. Meantime Sture had been holding a +mass-meeting on the so-called Royal Meadow outside +the town, and had been enthusiastically applauded by +the people. Even yet, however, the conflict did not +cease. The Cabinet still clamored for Erik Trolle, and +it was not till the 23d of July, when every hope was +gone, that they finally gave way and recognized Sture +as regent. Sture now set forth on a journey through +Sweden and Finland, receiving everywhere the allegiance +of the people. All at last seemed in his favor, +when suddenly, on the 20th of February, 1513, the +face of things was changed by the unexpected death of +Hans.</p> + +<p>Before considering the effect of this catastrophe, let +us return to the little boy whom we last saw on his +father's estate at Rydboholm. Even he was not wholly +outside the conflict. His father, Erik, whom we find in +1488 subscribing his name as a knight,<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> took an +active part in the commotions of his times, and early +won ill-favor with King Hans. The young Gustavus +in his fifth year, so runs the story, happened to be +playing in the hall of Stockholm Castle, when King<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +Hans espied him, and, attracted by his winning manners, +patted him on the head and said, "You'll be +a great man in your day, if you live." But when he +found out who the child was, he wanted to carry him off +to Denmark with him. To this the boy's great-uncle, +Sture, raised serious objections, and lest the king should +use some treachery, hurried Gustavus out of the way at +once.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> In the very next year, 1501, occurred the rebellion +against Hans, which resulted in the election of +Sture to the regency. Erik was one of the supporters +of his uncle throughout this strife, and in 1502 we find +him signing a document as member of the Cabinet.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> +About the same time he was made commandant of +Kastelholm Castle.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> This post, however, he held but a +short time, and then retired to his old estate at Rydboholm.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> +Among his children, besides Gustavus, were +one younger boy, Magnus, and several girls. Gustavus, +we are told, was a handsome, attractive little fellow, +and it is added that in his sports he was always recognized +as leader by his playmates.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> In 1509, when +in his thirteenth year, he was sent by his parents to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +Upsala, and placed in a preparatory school.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> Soon +after, probably in the next year, Gustavus was admitted +to the University. This institution, which had been +founded in 1477, through the persistent efforts of Archbishop +Ulfsson, and of which the archbishop was chancellor, +was at this time in a semi-dormant state. Scarce +anything is known either about its professors or about +the number of its students. It is probable, however, +that Peder Galle, who was cantor of the Upsala Chapter +so early as 1504,<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> and whose powers as a theological +gladiator will become known to us further on, was one +of the professors. Another was Henrik Sledorn,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> whom +Gustavus later made his chancellor. Of the progress +made by Gustavus in his studies we know nothing. It +may well be surmised, however, that the politics of his +day engrossed a large share of his attention. Upsala +was not then the peaceful town that it now is, and +the chancellor of the University was in the very vortex +of the struggle. If Gustavus was still connected with +the University in 1512, we may suppose with reason +that he took his part in the great demonstration which +resulted in the election of the chivalric young Sture.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> With regard to the date of his birth our authorities are hopelessly +confused. Karl IX., whom we should expect to know something +about it, says, in his <i>Rim-chrön.</i>, p. 2, that his father was +seventy-three at his death, whence we should conclude that he was +born in 1487. But Svart, who was nearer the king's age, and was +also the king's confessor and preacher to the court, says, in his +<i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, p. 1, that Gustavus was born in 1495, on Ascension +day; which in that year, he adds, fell on the 12th of May. Tegel, +<i>Then stoormecht.</i>, p. 1, agrees that he was born on Ascension day, and +also that he was born on the 12th of May, but gives, as the year, 1490. +Ludvigsson, <i>Collect.</i>, p. 83, agrees with Tegel about the year, but says +nothing about the day. Now, it is noteworthy that while the authorities +name three different years, all of them who mention the day agree +that it was Ascension day, which in the year of his birth fell on May +12. Here, then, we have a clew. In 1487 Ascension day fell on May +24, in 1490 on May 21, and in 1495 on May 29; but, singularly enough, +in 1485, in 1491, and in 1496 it fell on May 12. The years 1485 and +1491 must be discarded as too early; for the mother of Gustavus was +then not old enough to have a child, her parents not having married +till 1475. This is proved by the grant of dowry from her father to +her mother, which, according to the old law of Sweden, was made on +the day following the marriage. This grant, dated Jan. 16, 1475, with +the seals of Magnus Karlsson and witnesses attached, is still preserved +among the parchment MSS. in the Royal Archives at Stockholm. It +reads thus: "Jack Magens Karlsson i Ekae aff wapn gör vitherligat +och oppenbare thet jack meth mynae frenders och neste wenners +godwilge oc samtyckae vpa rette hindersdagh haffwer wntt och giffwet ... +min elskelikae hustro Siggrid Eskelsdatter efter skrefne gotz +till heder och morgengaffwer.... Som giffwit ok giortt er pa Ekae +gard mandagen nest fore sancti Henrici Episcopi dagh anno domini +MCDLXXV." Hence the only possible date of the boy's birth is +May 12, 1496; and this, as we shall see further on, harmonizes better +than any other date with his later history.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Originally the Vasa arms were black, the bundle of sticks representing +one of the old fascines used in warfare to fill up ditches. Gustavus +changed the color of his arms to gold, and altered the old fascine +into a sheaf of grain.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Svart, <i>Ährapred.</i>, pp. 46-47; and Tegel, <i>Then stoormecht.</i>, pp. 1-2. +On this point our authorities agree. Tegel gives a table showing +Birgitta to have been a great-granddaughter of Karl Ulfsson, who, according +to the same table, was a great-grandson of King Erik X. As +the descent is traced through a line of females about whom history is +silent, we lack the means with which to disprove the assertion of our +chroniclers.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Until recently, historians have asserted that Margaret, at the coronation +of her nephew, signed a document providing, among other things, +that the three kingdoms were thereafter to be governed by a single +sovereign, to be elected alternately, if his predecessor died childless, +by each kingdom; that, in case of war in one kingdom, both the others +were to come to the rescue; and that each kingdom was to be governed +strictly according to its own laws. As a matter of fact, Margaret +signed nothing of the kind. The document which gave rise to this +error is still to be seen in the Private Archives at Copenhagen. It is +dated at Kalmar, July 20, 1397, purports to be the work of sixteen of +the chief Swedish magnates, and declares that unless the terms which +it contains are drawn up in six copies, signed by the king, the regent, +the Cabinet, and others, there shall be no lawful union. These six +copies, so far as we know, were never drawn up or signed. But unhappily +the union had been already formed at the coronation a month +before, and, seven days before, these very magnates with fifty-one other +persons had attached their seals to an affidavit of allegiance to their new +king. This affidavit, dated at Kalmar, July 13, 1397, is also still preserved +in the Private Archives at Copenhagen. Both documents are +printed in full in O. S. Rydberg's <i>Sverges traktater med främmande +magter</i>, Stockh., 1877-1883, 2 vols. 8vo, vol. ii. pp. 560-585.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> <i>Handl. till upplysn. af Finl. häfd.</i>, vol. i. p. 187.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, p. 2, and Tegel, <i>Then stoormecht.</i>, p. 3. +Tegel makes this incident occur in the child's seventh year, in 1497. +Here we have another proof that Tegel places the birth of Gustavus +too early. If the child had been born in 1490, this incident could +not have taken place till still later than his seventh year, for Hans did +not become king till 1497.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> <i>Kongl. och furstl. förlijkn.</i>, pp. 383-384.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Tegel, <i>Then stoormecht.</i>, p. 3.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> In Reuterdahl, <i>Swensk. Kyrk. hist.</i>, vol. iii. pt. ii. pp. 558-559, are +two letters, dated at Rydboholm, from Erik and his wife to the regent, +Svante Sture.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, p. 2.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, p. 2, and <i>Ährapred.</i>, pp. 50-51. Tegel, <i>Then +stoormecht.</i>, p. 3, agrees that it was in 1509 that Gustavus was sent to +Upsala, but seems to assert that he was admitted at once to the +University.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> C. A. Örnhjelm's <i>Diplomatarium</i>, a manuscript preserved in the +Vitterh., Hist., och Antiq. Akad. at Stockholm.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, p. 2, and <i>Ährapred.</i>, pp. 50-51.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_II" id="Chapter_II"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter II.</span></h2> + +<h3>FIRST MILITARY ADVENTURES OF GUSTAVUS; A PRISONER +IN DENMARK. 1514-1519.</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Description of Stockholm.—Christina Gyllenstjerna.—Hemming Gad.—Christiern +II.—Gustaf Trolle.—Dissension between Sten Sture and +Gustaf Trolle.—Siege of Stäket.—First Expedition of Christiern II. +against Sweden.—Trial of the Archbishop.—Arcimboldo.—Second +Expedition of Christiern II. against Sweden.—Capture of Gustavus +Vasa.—Resignation of the Archbishop.—Hostilities of Christiern II.—Farewell +of Arcimboldo.</p></div> + + +<p class="cap">THE old town of Stockholm was beyond all doubt +the most picturesque capital in Europe. Perched +on an isle of rock at the eastern extremity of Lake +Mälar, it stood forth like a sentinel guarding the entrance +to the heart of Sweden. Around its base on +north and south dashed the foaming waters of the Mälar, +seeking their outlet through a narrow winding channel +to the Baltic. Across this channel on the south, and +connected with the city by a bridge, the towering cliffs +of Södermalm gazed calmly down upon the busy traffic +of the city's streets; and far away beyond the channel +on the north stretched an undulating plain, dotted with +little patches of green shrubbery and forest. On the +west the city commanded a wide view over an enchanting +lake studded with darkly wooded isles, above whose trees +peeped here and there some grim turret or lofty spire.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> +Finally, in the east, the burgher standing on the city's +walls could trace for several miles the current of a +silver stream, glittering in the sunlight, and twisting in +and out among the islands along the coast until at last +it lost itself in the mighty waters of the Baltic.</p> + +<p>The town itself was small. The main isle, on which +"the city," so called, was built, stretched scarce a quarter +of a mile from east to west and but little more from +north to south. Nestling under the shadow of the main +isle were two smaller isles, Riddarholm on the west and +Helgeandsholm on the north, both severed from the +city by a channel about fifty feet in width. Through +the centre of the main isle ran a huge backbone of rock, +beginning at the south and rising steadily till within +a few feet of the northern shore. The summit of this +ridge was crowned by the royal citadel, a massive edifice +of stone, the northern wall of which ran close along the +shore, so that the soldier on patrol could hear the ripple +of the water on the rocks below. From either side of +the citadel the town walls ran south at a distance of +perhaps a hundred feet from the shore, meeting at a +point about the same distance from the southern channel. +Within the triangle thus formed, not over twenty-five +acres all told, lived and moved five thousand human +beings. The streets, it need scarce be said, were narrow, +dark, and damp. The houses were lofty, generally with +high pitch-roofs to prevent the snow from gathering on +them. The doors and windows were high, but narrow +to keep out the cold, and were built in the sides of the +house, not in front, owing to the darkness and narrowness +of the streets. To economize space, most of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +houses were built in blocks of five or six, wholly separated +from their neighbors and forming a sort of castle +by themselves. The only church inside the walls was +the so-called Great Church on the summit of the hill. +Adjoining this church on the south was the old town-hall. +As to public squares, there were but two,—the +Grand Square, on the summit of the hill immediately +south of the town-hall; and the so-called Iron Market, a +smaller square just inside the southern gate. These +squares, the largest not more than eighty yards in +length, served at once as the market, the promenade, +and the place of execution for the town. The town-walls +were fortified at several points by towers, and were +entered by gateways at the northwest corner and at the +southern point, as well as by several small gateways +along the sides. The city was connected with the mainland +north and south by turreted bridges, the north +bridge passing across the island of Helgeandsholm. +All around the main island, some fifty feet from the +shore, ran a long bridge on piles, built as a safeguard +against hostile ships. Protected thus by nature and by +art from foreign intrusion, the burghers of Stockholm +learned to rely on their own industry and skill for every +need. They formed themselves into various trades or +guilds, each under the surveillance of a master. To be +admitted to a guild it was necessary to pass a severe +examination in the particular trade. These guilds were +marked by an intense <i>esprit de corps</i>, each striving to +excel the others in display of wealth. Some guilds were +composed wholly of tradespeople, others wholly of artisans; +and there were still others formed for social or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> +religious purposes, comprising members of various trades. +Of these latter guilds the most aristocratic and influential +was the Guild of the Sacred Body. Inside a +guild the members were bound together by the warmest +bonds of friendship. They ordinarily lived in the same +quarter of the town; they cared for their brothers in +sickness or poverty, and said Mass in common for the +souls of their deceased. Each guild held meetings at +stated intervals to vote on various matters concerning +its affairs. In case of war the different guilds enlisted +in separate companies. Over and above all the guilds +were a burgomaster and council elected by their fellow-townsmen, +their duties being to regulate the relations of +the various guilds to one another, and provide for the +general welfare of the city. Thus the inhabitants of +Stockholm formed a miniature republic by themselves. +They governed themselves in nearly all local matters. +They bought, sold, and exchanged according to their +own laws and regulations. They married and gave in +marriage after their own caprice. Industrious, skilful, +with little ambition, they bustled about their narrow +streets, jostling those at their elbow and uttering slander +against those out of hearing. In short, they led the +humdrum life incident to all small towns in time of +peace, and were ever eager to vary this monotony at the +first sound of war.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> + +<p>Into this community Gustavus was ushered in the +year 1514. He was then but eighteen, and was summoned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> +by the regent to the royal court to complete his +education.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> He found himself at once in clover. Three +years before, his mother's half-sister, Christina Gyllenstjerna, +had married the young regent; and the youth +on coming to Stockholm was received as one of the +family in the royal palace.</p> + +<p>Among all the personages then at court, the most +interesting, by all odds, was the regent's wife, Christina. +This woman is one of the most puzzling characters in +Swedish history. On her father's side of royal lineage, +and on her mother's descended from one of the oldest +families in Sweden, she inherited at the same time a +burning desire for personal advancement and an enthusiasm +for the glory of her native land. Wedded to a +handsome, daring, impetuous youth of twenty-one, the +nation's favorite, she entered with her whole heart into +all his projects, and was among his most valuable counsellors +whether in peace or war. In force of character +and in personal bravery she was scarce inferior to her +heroic husband, and yet she lacked not discretion or +even shrewdness. She was the idol of the Swedish +people, and before many years were passed was to have +an opportunity to test their love.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p> + +<p>Another personage at court, with whom we have already +become acquainted, was Hemming Gad. Although +of humble birth, this man had received a careful education, +and during twenty years of his early life had held +the post of Swedish ambassador at the court of Rome. +On his return to Sweden he had been elected bishop of +the diocese of Linköping, but had never entered on his +duties owing to the opposition of the pope. He was +not indeed a priest. Diplomacy was above all else the +field in which he shone. A warm supporter of the +Stures, he had more than once averted trouble by his +powers of conciliation, and was regarded as an indispensable +servant of the people's cause. Fearless, eloquent, +untiring, conciliatory, persuasive, perhaps not too +conscientious, he was the most influential person in the +Cabinet and one of the very foremost statesmen of his +time. It was to this man, then seventy-four years of +age, that the care of the young Gustavus was intrusted +when he came to court.</p> + +<p>Affairs at this time were in a state of great confusion. +King Hans of Denmark had died a year before, +and after several months of hostile demonstration had +been succeeded by his son. This person, known as +Christiern II., was as vile a monster as ever occupied +a throne. Gifted by nature with a powerful frame, +tall, burly, with large head and short thick neck, broad +forehead and high cheek-bones, prominent nose, firmly +compressed lips, a plentiful supply of shaggy hair on +his head and face, heavy overhanging eyebrows, his +eyes small, deep-set, and fierce,—his appearance furnished +an excellent index to his character. Firm, courageous,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +by no means wanting in intellect or executive +ability, he was sensual, gross, and cruel. Though often +full of hilarity and hearty animal spirits, there was ever +hanging over him a cloud of melancholy, which occasionally +settled on him with such weight as to rob him +wholly of his reason. At such times he seemed transformed +into some fierce monster with an insatiable +thirst for blood. When a mere boy in the royal palace +at Copenhagen, he is said to have amused himself by +midnight orgies about the city's streets.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> He was well +educated, however, and early became a useful adjunct to +his father. At twenty-one he displayed much bravery +in an assault which Hans then made on Stockholm; +and a few years later he became his father's deputy +in the government of Norway. While there, his secretary +one day came to him and portrayed in glowing +terms the beauty of a maiden who had dazzled him in +Bergen. The sensitive heart of Christiern at once was +fired. He left his castle at Opslo without a moment's +waiting, and, crossing hill and vale without a murmur, +hastened to feast his eyes on the fair Dyveke. Being +of a romantic turn of mind, he resolved to see her first +amidst all the fashion of the town. A splendid ball +was therefore held, to which the aristocracy were bidden +with their daughters. Among the guests was the +renowned Dyveke, who outshone all in beauty. No +sooner did Christiern see her, than his whole soul +burned within him. He seized her hand, and led off +the dance in company with his fair enchanter. Rapture +filled his soul; and when the ball was over, Dyveke<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> +was secretly detained and brought to Christiern's bed. +This incident had a far-reaching influence on Christiern's +later life. Though already betrothed to the sister of +Charles V., his passion for Dyveke did not pass away. +He erected a palace at Opslo, and lived there with his +mistress until recalled to Copenhagen, when he took +her with him. The most singular feature in this whole +intrigue is that the royal voluptuary was from the +outset under the absolute sway, not of the fair Dyveke, +but of her mother, Sigbrit, a low, cunning, intriguing +woman of Dutch origin, who followed the couple to the +royal palace at Opslo, and afterwards accompanied them +to Stockholm, the complete ruler of her daughter's +royal slave. On the accession of Christiern to the +throne, he resolved, at the instance of this woman, to +add the Swedish kingdom to his dominions. In order +to comprehend the measures which he adopted, it will +be necessary to trace events in Sweden since the death +of Hans.</p> + +<p>The Danish party, in no way daunted by their futile +effort to secure the regency of Sweden, had kept up +continuous negotiations with their friends in Denmark, +with the object ultimately to place the king of Denmark +on the throne. Owing, however, to the manifest +and growing popularity of the young Sture, they deemed +it wise to wait for a more auspicious moment before +making open demonstration, and for the time being +yielded to the regent with the best grace they could +command. The thing which they most needed, in order +to counteract the influence of the chivalric young Sture, +was the infusion of new life among their ranks. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> +archbishop and Erik Trolle both were old, and, though +in the full vigor of their intellectual ability, lacked the +energy and endurance required to carry on a policy of +active war. It was resolved, therefore, to throw the +burden of leadership on younger shoulders. There was +at this time in Rome a man who seemed to possess +more qualifications than any other for the post. This +was Gustaf Trolle. He was young, highly educated, +energetic, and above all a son of Erik Trolle, the powerful +leader of the Danish faction. He had seen much +of the world, and had lived on terms of familiarity with +some of the greatest men in Europe. But his whole +power of usefulness was lost through his inordinate +personal and family pride. Weighted down by the sense +of his own importance, with haughty overbearing manners, +and a dogged obstinacy in dealing with his inferiors, +he was the last man in the world to be successful +as a party leader. Yet it was on this man that the +Danish party fixed its hopes. The matter first took +shape on the 31st of August, 1514, when the archbishop +in conversation with Sture suggested that old age was +now coming on so fast that he desired to resign his +office, and asked whom Sture deemed most fit to serve +as his successor. To this the courteous regent answered +that he knew no one better fitted for the post +than the archbishop himself. With this the conversation +ended. On the 12th of October following, the crafty +archbishop, not averse to feathering his own nest, +formed a compact with Erik Trolle by which Ulfsson +was to commend the latter's son for the archbishopric, +and in return Erik promised to support Ulfsson to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> +utmost of his power and to see that Gustaf Trolle did +not deprive Ulfsson of the archiepiscopal rents during +the latter's life.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> This done, Erik Trolle went +to the regent and asked him to recommend Gustaf +Trolle for the post of archdeacon of Upsala. This +request was complied with. But when, soon after, +Erik appeared again before the regent with a letter +from the archbishop informing him that the Chapter +of Upsala had decided on Gustaf Trolle as the new +archbishop, Sture was so startled that he wrote to +Upsala to say that he had never consented to such +a proposition, but nevertheless if God wished it he +would raise no opposition. The pope having already +declared that no one should be appointed without the +regent's consent, no effort was spared to dispose Sture +well towards the new candidate, and with so good +result that when the archbishop's messengers went to +Rome to secure the confirmation, they carried with them +a letter from Sture to his legate in Rome, instructing +him to do all he could before the pope in favor of +Gustaf Trolle.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p> + +<p>In May, 1515, the young man was consecrated archbishop +of Upsala by the pope,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> and started in the +following summer for the North. Passing through +Lubeck, where he is rumored to have had an audience<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> +of Christiern,<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> he pursued his journey by water, and at +last cast anchor off the Swedish coast about twelve +miles from Stockholm. Here he was met by certain of +the Danish party, who urged him to give the cold shoulder +to the regent. Instead, therefore, of proceeding +to the capital, he drove direct to Upsala, and was installed +in his new office: all this in spite of the fact +that the old archbishop had assured the regent, before +he wrote to Rome, that he would not hand over Upsala +nor Stäket to Trolle till the latter had sworn allegiance +to Sture.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> The immediate effect of his investiture was +to augment the haughtiness of the young archbishop. +Scarcely had he become domiciled in Upsala, when he +wrote a letter to the regent warning him that he, the +archbishop, was about to visit with punishment all who +had wronged his father or grandfather, or his predecessor +in the archiepiscopal chair. To this the regent, +wishing if possible to avert trouble, answered that +if any persons had done the wrong complained of, he +would see to it that they should be punished. But +the archbishop was in no mood for compromise. The +breach now opened, he resolved to make it wider; and +he had no difficulty in finding pretext. The fief of +Stäket had long been a bone of contention between +the Church and State. Though for many years in the +hands of the archbishops, it had never been clearly +settled whether they held it as a right or merely by +courtesy of the crown; and at the resignation of Archbishop<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> +Ulfsson the fief was claimed by his successor, +Trolle, as well as by the regent. In order to put an +end to this vexed question, the regent wrote to Ulfsson +asking him to produce the title-deeds on which his +claim was based. After considerable correspondence, +in which, however, the deeds were not produced, Sture, +deeming it unwise to leave the fief any longer without +a steward, entered into possession, and applied the incomes +to the royal treasury, at the same time assuring +Ulfsson that if he or the Chapter at Upsala could prove +a title to the fief, they should enjoy it. This only added +fuel to the flame. Trolle, unable as it seems to prove +his title, assumed the posture of one who had been +wronged, and scorned the urgent invitation of the regent +to come to Stockholm and discuss the matter. +Indeed, there were rumors in the air to the effect that +Trolle was engaged in a conspiracy against the throne.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p> + +<p>In this way matters continued till February of the +following year, 1516, when Sture resolved to attend +the annual Upsala fair and have a conference with +Trolle. The conference took place in presence of some +of the leading men of Sweden, in the sacristy of the +cathedral. But it led to no result. Trolle charged the +regent with unfair dealing, which the latter denied, at +the same time demanding proof. None was furnished; +and the regent withdrew, feeling more than ever convinced +that the conduct of the archbishop boded ill. +In this juncture he summoned a Cabinet meeting, to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> +held at Telge in July following, to arrange the differences +between himself and Trolle, and to resolve on +the stand to be taken by Sweden in the congress of +the three realms to be held at Halmstad in the February +following. The archbishop, by virtue of his +office, was a member of the Cabinet; but when that +body met, it was discovered that Trolle was not present. +He was in Upsala, nursing his wrath to keep it warm. +The regent therefore wrote and begged him to appear. +"Whatever," he wrote, "the Cabinet here assembled +shall decide as right between us, I will do." But the +proud archbishop would not listen. He and his father +kept away, together with one or two of their adherents; +and the Cabinet parted, having accomplished little.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p> + +<p>Meantime the archbishop was not idle. Shortly before +the Cabinet met, he with some of his adherents +had held a conference at Stäket, where he had persuaded +them to renounce the regent and form an alliance +with the king of Denmark. While the Cabinet +was in session, he despatched a messenger to King +Christiern, urging him to break the truce with Sweden, +and informing him that the Castle of Nyköping, now in +the hands of one of the archbishop's satellites, should be +thrown open to him if he would draw thither with his +army. At the same time the archbishop began to +fortify himself in Stäket. Learning this, the regent +saw that the hour for compromise was past. He dissolved +the Cabinet, and, advancing with all speed to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> +Nyköping, stormed the castle. So rapid had been his +action, that he took the archbishop's officers all unprepared, +and at the first assault the garrison surrendered. +This was on the 15th of August. After taking +the officer in command of the garrison to Stockholm, +where he was consigned to prison, the energetic +young regent proceeded to Vesterås, where, on the 8th +of September, in an address to the populace, he rendered +an account of his actions, and informed the people +that the archbishop and others were engaged in a plot +to yield the kingdom into the hands of Christiern. +Thence he proceeded to an island some six miles from +Stäket, and remained there through the autumn, keeping +an eye on the archbishop's castle and preparing, if +necessary, to besiege it. The Danish party by this time +saw that they were dealing with a man of mettle, and +began to change their tactics. Hoping to gain time, +they gave out that they would be glad to have the burgomaster +and Council of Stockholm act as mediators in +the dispute; and on the 20th of October Ulfsson wrote +to Sture to appoint a time for conference. The regent, +however, was not so easily deceived. Trolle was +still adding to his strength in Stäket, and looking forward +to aid from Denmark. The regent therefore replied +to Ulfsson that Trolle had brought on the dispute, +and he must answer for it. "As to a conference with +you," adds the regent, "my time is now so fully occupied +that I can appoint no day before the Cabinet meeting +to be held shortly at Arboga." About the same +time he wrote to the Chapter at Upsala, insisting on an +answer to a former letter, in which he had called on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> +them to declare whether they proposed to side with him +or the archbishop. In this letter he informs them: +"As to your question whether I intend to obey the ordinances +of the Church, I answer that I shall defend +the Holy Church and respect the persons of the clergy +as becomes a Christian nobleman, provided you will +allow me so to do; and I have never purposed otherwise." +Still, however, the Chapter prevaricated, and +gave no answer; till finally the regent sent them his +ultimatum, closed, like all his letters, with the modest +signature, "Sten Sture, soldier."<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p> + +<p>On New Year's day, 1517, the Cabinet met at Arboga, +where a general diet of the kingdom was gathering to +discuss the state of affairs concerning Denmark. At +this meeting, as at the one preceding, none of the archbishop's +followers were present. So soon as the Cabinet +had separated, the regent, in compliance with their +suggestion, sent envoys once more to Trolle, urging him +to renounce his allegiance to the Danish king and to +surrender Stäket. To this the stubborn archbishop +answered that he would not yield Stäket so long as his +heart beat within him. He then turned his guns upon +the regent's envoys, and fired on them as they withdrew. +A few days later the regent learned from one +of Trolle's officers whom he had taken prisoner that the +archbishop had received a letter from King Christiern +promising all who gave their aid in establishing him on +the throne a double recompense for any loss incurred in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +the attempt. No time was, therefore, to be lost. Collecting +a force with all haste from different parts of +Sweden, the regent advanced on Stäket to besiege the +castle. Immediately on their arrival, Trolle sent out +word that he desired a parley. This was granted, and +the archbishop came outside the walls to a spot before +the Swedish camp. In the course of the discussion, +Trolle, perhaps with a view to intimidate the regent, +declared that he had within the castle a letter from +King Christiern announcing that he would come to the +relief before the 1st of May. But the young regent was +not so easily to be intimidated. His terms were that +Trolle and his men might withdraw unharmed from +Stäket, and that the archbishop might continue in possession +of the Cathedral of Upsala and all the privileges +of his office; but that the Castle of Stäket, long a prolific +source of discord, should remain in the hands of +Sture till a tribunal composed of clergy as well as laity +could determine whether it should belong to Church or +State, or be demolished as a source of discord. These +terms were not accepted, and the siege continued. All +through the winter and spring the Swedish army bivouacked +outside the walls; and Trolle, ever looking for aid +from Denmark, refused to yield. At last, at midsummer, +having received tidings that rescue was near at hand, +his heart grew bold within him, and he resolved to make +a dupe of Sture. The latter not being at the time at +Stäket, the archbishop sent a messenger to say that he +was ready for a parley. The regent, daily fearing the +approach of Christiern, received the messenger with joy. +He called together the burgomaster and Council of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> +Stockholm, and instructed them to select delegates to +act in behalf of Stockholm. With these delegates and a +few advisers on his own account he proceeded to Stäket, +and after consultation as to the terms which they should +offer, signalled the guard on the castle walls that he was +ready to treat with Trolle. After standing some time +in the midst of a pouring rain, and without any prospect +of an answer, the regent grew impatient, and sent word +to Trolle that he could offer no other terms than those +already offered. The charlatan then threw off the mask. +He replied that he placed implicit confidence in Christiern, +and was in no hurry for a parley. Any time +within six weeks would do. At this announcement the +regent had nothing for it but to withdraw. Drenched +to the skin, and burning at the insult offered him, he +returned to Stockholm.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p> + +<p>He did so none too soon. The Danish forces, four +thousand strong, were already off the Swedish coast. +This was by no means the first proof of actual hostilities +on the part of Christiern. Six months before, while the +truce between the kingdoms was still in force, Christiern +had seized a Swedish vessel while lying in the +roads outside Lubeck, and at the general diet held at +New Year's in Arboga, it had been voted to resist the +tyrant till the dying breath. As a result, the congress +of the three realms which was to have been held in February +had never met. A broadside was issued by the +regent to all the men of Sweden, calling on them to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +prepare for war. Throughout the spring and summer +the advent of the tyrant was expected, and the announcement +that his army had at length arrived was a +surprise to none.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p> + +<p>It was early in the month of August, 1517, when the +Danish fleet was sighted off the coast twelve miles from +Stockholm. Sture proceeded at once to the point at +which it was expected they would land, and thus prevented +them. The fleet hovered about the coast for +several days, sending out pillaging parties in small +boats to the shore. One of these parties was intercepted; +and from a prisoner who was taken, Sture +learned definitely that the object of the expedition was +to go to the relief of Stäket. On this news Sture sent +some members of the Cabinet to Stäket to inform the +archbishop that the Danish force was now off Stockholm, +and to urge him in behalf of the town of Stockholm +to send word to the Danish force that it could +count on no aid from him, as he was resolved to remain +true to his native land. But this final appeal to the +archbishop's honor met with no response. The fleet +meantime had approached the capital, and was riding at +anchor about two miles down the stream. There the +whole force landed, intending to march direct to Stäket. +But the young regent was again ahead of them. Scarce +had they set foot on shore when he fell upon them with +his army. The conflict was sharp and bitter, but at last +the regent came off victorious. The Danes were driven +headlong to their ships, leaving many of their number<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> +dead upon the shore, while others fell captives into the +hand of Sture. This was a red-letter day in the calendar +of the regent, and is specially memorable as being +the first occasion on which the young Gustavus drew +sword in behalf of his native land.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p> + +<p>Elated by his victory, the regent now opened communications +once more with Trolle. With a view to +frighten him into submission, he sent some of the Danish +captives to Stäket, that the archbishop might hear from +his own allies the story of their disaster. Even at this +the proud spirit of the archbishop was not humbled. +He still persisted in his determination not to yield, +and it was only when his own officers began to leave +him that he signified his willingness to withdraw from +Stäket and retire to the duties of his cathedral. But +now it was Sture's turn to dictate. He answered curtly +that a murderer could no longer be archbishop, and +proceeded at once to summon a general diet of the +kingdom. This diet met at Stockholm in the last days +of November. It was a notable gathering. Among +those present were four of the six bishops,—all except +the bishops of Vexiö and Skara,—of laymen, Hemming +Gad and the father of young Gustavus, besides some ten +other knights and armigers, the burgomaster and Council +of Stockholm, and a large number of delegates from +the peasantry. Before this assembly the archbishop +appeared, under safe-conduct from the regent, to plead<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +his cause. Among the witnesses produced in favor of +the crown was a Danish officer captured in the battle +outside Stockholm. This man testified, among other +things, that before the Danish fleet set forth, a messenger +from Trolle had appeared before King Christiern +to solicit aid for Stäket. Indeed, the charge of conspiracy +was proved beyond the shadow of a doubt. The +whole house rose with one accord in denunciation of the +traitor. Without a dissenting voice it was decreed that +Stäket, "the rebel stronghold," should be levelled to the +ground; that Trolle should nevermore be recognized as +archbishop; that, though by the terms of his safe-conduct +he might return to Stäket, he should not come +forth therefrom till he had given pledge to do no further +injury to the kingdom; and, finally, that if Trolle or +any other in his behalf should solicit excommunication +on any of those present for this resolve or for besieging +or destroying Stäket, or should otherwise molest them, +they all should stand firm by one another. This resolve, +before the diet parted, was put into writing, and to it +every member attached his seal.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p> + +<p>The archbishop, as had been promised him, was permitted +to return to Stäket, which was again put into a +state of siege. The siege, however, was of short duration. +Deserted by the largest portion of his officers, +and with no immediate prospect of further aid from +Denmark, the archbishop had nothing for it but to +yield. Stäket thus fell into the hands of Sture; and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +archbishop was placed in the monastery of Vesterås, +to remain there captive till further disposition should be +made of his archbishopric.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p> + +<p>The whole country was by this time overrun with +rebels. Particularly along the southern frontier the +Danish party, in close alliance with the king of Denmark, +kept the inhabitants in a state of terror; and +their hostile demonstrations became at last so marked +that the regent found it necessary, in the autumn of +1517, to despatch his army thither to repress them. +This news was brought to Christiern's ears, still tingling +with the report of the disaster of his fleet. The monarch, +having no stomach for a winter campaign among +the snows of Sweden, bethought him of a truce until the +coming spring. There chanced to be in Denmark at the +time a smooth-mouthed scoundrel with the unsavory +name of Arcimboldo. He was by trade a dealer in +indulgences, having been commissioned by Leo X. to +vend his wares throughout the northern parts of Europe. +He had already spent some time in Lubeck, where he +had reaped a splendid harvest; and had now been +carrying on his business about two years in Denmark. +On every church he had affixed a chest with notice that +all who would contribute to the sacred cause should +receive full absolution from their sins. It certainly was +a tempting offer, and one which the unwary believers in +the papal authority were not slow to seize. They poured +in their contributions with a lavish hand, and the legate +soon amassed a princely fortune. At last, however, his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> +goods began to be a drug upon the market, and he prepared +to transfer his headquarters to another land. +It was about this time, early in the winter of 1518, that +Christiern made up his mind to suggest a truce with +Sweden, and the grand idea occurred to him of enlisting +the papal legate in his service. He summoned the +pardon-monger without delay, and suggested that he +should mediate with Sture. To this suggestion Arcimboldo, +by no means averse to turning an honest penny, +gave his assent. He sat down at once and wrote a letter +to the regent, instructing him that the pope desired to +see peace made between the kingdoms. He therefore, +as ambassador from his Holiness, suggested that Sture +should observe a truce by land with Denmark till the +23d of April next, and in the mean time should send +delegates to the town of Lund with full power to make +a lasting peace between the kingdoms. To this proposal +the legate added that Christiern had given his consent. +This document was handed to the regent about the +middle of February. He sent back a despatch at once, +thanking the legate for his efforts in behalf of peace, +and expressing a wish to accede in general to the proposition. +It would not be possible, however, to send +delegates to a congress on so short a notice. Before +doing so it would be necessary to hold a general diet, so +that the people of Sweden might vote upon the matter; +and as some of the members would have to come from +Finland, the diet could not be held unless the truce was +extended so as to embrace the sea. But he should be +pleased if Arcimboldo would effect a lasting treaty between +the kingdoms, or even a truce by sea and land<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +to continue for the life of Christiern. He, on his part, +would summon a general diet as soon as possible, with +a view to bring about a lasting peace. Thus the peace +negotiations came to naught. Christiern had no intention +of consenting to a lasting peace, and Sture was not +to be inveigled into a truce which had no other object +than to give the king of Denmark an opportunity to +recruit.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p> + +<p>And thus the winter wore away, and spring came, and +both parties were gathering up their forces to renew the +war. In the little town of Stockholm a spirit of patriotism +was growing fast. It was felt on every hand that +the coming summer would forever settle the question of +slavery or freedom, and all were fixed in purpose to +resist the tyrant till their dying breath. Children, from +fifteen upwards, were in arms, momentarily expecting +the arrival of the Danish fleet. But the agony was prolonged +day after day till the sturdy patriots were eager +to have it close. Excitement had been wrought up to a +fever heat, when, in the month of June, the news was +shouted through the narrow streets that the enemy's +vessels were at hand. The report was true. There in +the stream below the town were visible the white sails +of the Danish squadron,—eighty ships in all,—slowly +forging their way against the current towards the town. +It was a sight to make even the stout heart of a Stockholm +burgher quail. The fleet approached within a +short distance, and the troops were landed on the southern +shore, separated from the city only by a narrow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> +channel. The Danish king himself was in command. +His forces consisted of five thousand Germans, besides +a thousand light-armed soldiers chiefly Danes, a hundred +horse, and a vast multitude of laborers for building dikes +and trenches. Proceeding to the west, he took up his +position, June 29, on the hill opposite the city on the +north. But he soon discovered that this point was too +far from the town. He therefore crossed over to the +southern shore, and pitched his camp on the cliffs of +Södermalm. From this point he began to bombard the +tower at the southern corner of the town. After battering +this tower near a month, he sent a force across +the bridge with orders to burst through the wall at the +point which his guns had shaken. The effort, however, +was of no avail. His force was driven back and compelled +to seek safety beyond the bridge. At this juncture +news arrived that a detachment of the Swedish +army was coming against him on the south. Fearing a +simultaneous attack on both sides, he hastily advanced +in the direction of the expected onslaught, and threw up +a fortification at Brännkyrka, about three miles south +of Stockholm. On his right the land was boggy and overgrown +with brushwood, while on his left it was somewhat +higher and wooded. In these woods the Swedish army +gathered. It is reported that they were twelve thousand +strong, but they consisted chiefly of ill-trained and ill-armed +peasants. The regent had joined them, and was +leading them in person. The royal banners of the first +battalion were in charge of Gustavus Vasa. After a +few days' skirmishing, in which the patriots were twice +driven into the covert of their woods, the Danes made<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> +a final charge upon them, and put them once more to +flight. This time, however, the Danish soldiers lost +their heads, and followed in hot haste through the forest. +In this way they lost all advantage from their superior +arms and training. The Swedes, nearly twice as numerous +as their opponents, surrounded them, and closed in +upon them on every side. The forest was soon red +with blood. The patriots fought with vigor and determination; +and at length, though sixteen hundred of +their companions were stretched upon the ground, the +day was theirs. Sture collected his men as quickly as +possible and returned to Stockholm, while Christiern +took up his quarters again in Södermalm. A few days +later Christiern, his powder and provisions failing him, +ordered a retreat; but before his men were all embarked +the Swedes were on them, and killed or captured some +two hundred on the shore. After proceeding down the +stream about twelve miles, the fleet cast anchor near +the northern shore, and a foraging party was sent out +towards Upsala for provisions. Some of these were +captured, but the majority returned with a rich booty +to their ships. Nearly two months had now elapsed +since the arrival of the Danish fleet, and the cold +weather was approaching. Christiern, worsted at every +point, was eager to return to Denmark. But the equinoctial +storm would soon be coming, and he was afraid +to venture out in rough weather on short rations. His +men too, suffering for food and clamoring for their pay, +began to leave him. He therefore resolved to play upon +another string. On the 28th of August he despatched +envoys to the regent with the preposterous proposition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +that he should be received as king, or that in lieu thereof +he should receive from the regent and Cabinet of Sweden +a yearly stipend, and that the losses which he and +the Danish party in Sweden had suffered should be +repaid them. This ridiculous offer was of course rejected. +Christiern then came down from his high horse, +and proposed a cessation of hostilities till the difficulty +could be settled. After some bickering on both sides it +was agreed that a congress of the three realms should +meet on the 10th of the following July, to determine +Christiern's right to the crown of Sweden or to tribute; +and until that day there should be peace between the +realms. This agreement was put into writing and +signed and sealed by Christiern and the regent a few +days before September 8. The regent then ordered +provisions sent out to the Danish soldiers to relieve +their want. And still the fleet continued to hang about +the coast, waiting, so it was given out, for fair weather. +In reality, the Danish monarch was dallying with the +hope of putting into effect a diabolical scheme which he +had concocted. There being now a truce between the +kingdoms, he ventured to despatch a messenger to Sture +with hostages, to beg the regent to come out to the +fleet and hold a conference. After consultation with his +Cabinet, the regent answered that he could not accede +to this request, and the hostages were returned. Christiern +then sent again to say that he would gladly meet +him at an appointed spot on land, provided six persons +named—among them Hemming Gad and the regent's +nephew, Gustavus—should first be placed on board the +Danish fleet as hostages. A day was set and the hostages<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +set forth. All unconscious, the rope was already +tightening around their necks. On the 25th of September, +as had been agreed, the regent rode to the +appointed place of meeting. But the Danish king was +nowhere to be seen. Two whole days the regent waited, +and on the third discovered that he had been entrapped. +The fleet was on its way to Denmark, and the Swedish +hostages were prisoners on board. Before putting out +to sea, the monarch touched land once more to despatch +a couple of letters,—one to the burghers of Stockholm, +the other to all the inhabitants of Sweden. These letters +are dated October 2. Their purpose was to make his +treachery seem less brutal. He declared that the regent +had violated the terms of the truce by ill-treating the +Danish prisoners in his hands, and not surrendering +them as had been stipulated in the treaty. "On this +ground," said the tyrant, some four days after seizing the +hostages, "I declare the treaty off."<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p> + +<p>Repairing with his captives to Copenhagen, the tyrant +placed them in confinement in different parts of Denmark. +Gustavus was placed in Kalö Castle, under the +charge of the commandant, who was a distant relative +of the young man's mother. The commandant was +under bonds for the safe-keeping of his prisoner; but +being a man of tender feelings, he imposed little restraint<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> +upon Gustavus, merely exacting from him a +promise that he would make no effort to escape. His +life therefore was, to outward appearance, not devoid +of pleasure. The castle was situated on a promontory +in Jutland, at the northern end of Kalö Bay. Its wall +ran close along the cliffs, a hundred feet above the sea. +At either end of the castle was a gray stone tower, +and from the windows in the towers was a charming +prospect on every side. The promontory was connected +with the mainland by a low and narrow strip of land, +and along the main shore ran a dense forest belonging +to the castle and plentifully stocked with game. All +these pleasures were at the free disposal of the captive. +But there was a canker ever gnawing at his heart. No +matter which way he turned, he heard only rumors of +fresh preparations to conquer Sweden. When guests +visited the castle, they talked from morn till night of +the splendid armaments of Christiern. On one occasion +he heard them declare that so soon as Sweden fell, her +aristocracy were to be put to the sword and their wives +and daughters parted out among the peasantry of Denmark. +The Swedish peasants, they said, would soon +learn to drive the plough with one arm and a wooden leg. +Such jests made the young prisoner burn with indignation. +He felt it necessary to conceal his passion, +and yet he longed perpetually for a chance to burst his +fetters and fly to the rescue of his native land.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p> + +<p>Before tracing his adventures further, let us return +once more to Sweden. The dastardly escape of Christiern +with the Swedish hostages had stung the whole<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +country to the quick. Even the Chapter of Upsala, +which had up to this time clung to the hope of +restoring Trolle to his post, began to yield to the +oft-repeated exhortations of the regent, and prepared +to nominate a new archbishop. The man whom +Sture urged for the position was the bishop of Strengnäs, +one of those who had voted in favor of demolishing +Stäket; and so early as the preceding February +the chapter had practically assented to this choice. +Nothing further, however, was done about it; and when, +in the autumn of 1518, the papal legate with his proclamations +of pardon appeared in Sweden, the chapter +began to look toward him for help. Arcimboldo was +not the man to let slip an opportunity to aggrandize +himself. He therefore was prepared to listen impartially +to the arguments on every side, and as papal +legate to use his authority in favor of the highest bidder. +Now, it required little sagacity to see that Trolle, +whose cause the king of Denmark had commissioned +him to urge, but who was at this time stripped of his +prerogatives and in prison, could offer small reward; +and from the king of Denmark he had already received +quite as much as he had reason to expect. Moreover, +it appeared from the experience of the last two years +that Christiern's hopes of Sweden were likely to result +in air. Sture was to all appearances the rising star, +and on him the crafty legate resolved to fix his hopes. +There seemed no valid reason, however, for deserting +Christiern. It would be better so to trim his sails as +to receive any emoluments that might be forthcoming +from either party. He therefore approached the regent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +under the guise of mediator. The regent received him +kindly, and covered him with honors and rewards. In +the winter of 1518-1519 a meeting was held at Arboga +at which the case of Trolle was laid before the legate. +The outcome of it was that Trolle formally resigned +his archbishopric and was restored to freedom. Shortly +after, on the 5th of February, we find the legate reappointing +the old archbishop, Ulfsson, to the post. Just +why this course was taken it is impossible to state with +certainty. But the reasons which led to it may easily +be surmised. Ulfsson was a man of wealth, with few +enemies and many friends. He was, next to Trolle, the +choice of the Upsala Chapter and of Christiern, and he +had already some time before been asked by Sture to +reassume the post. To one of Arcimboldo's compromising +temper it is not strange that Ulfsson should +have seemed a person whose favor it was desirable to +win.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p> + +<p>Meantime the king of Denmark was not idle. He +still clung to the strange infatuation that the people +of Sweden might be persuaded to accept him as their +king, and almost while in the act of seizing the Swedish +hostages instructed Arcimboldo to beg the regent for a +friendly conference. This wild proposal Sture treated +with the contempt which it deserved. He wrote to +Christiern a straightforward letter in which he refused +to deal further with him, and demanded that the hostages<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> +be immediately returned. Christiern of course did +not comply. On the contrary, he continued his warlike +preparations, and throughout the whole of the next year, +1519, his fleet was busy in making incursions along the +Swedish coast. These incursions, though they caused +the regent great annoyance, had little permanent effect. +The king was still smarting under his recent defeat, +and did not venture at once to undertake another campaign +on an extensive scale.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p> + +<p>One thing the year 1519 did for Sweden. It ridded +her of that consummate scoundrel Arcimboldo. After +he had fleeced the regent and his people of every penny +that they had to give, he set forth with his ill-gotten +gains for Denmark. He soon learned, however, that he +had been serving too many masters. Christiern had got +wind of his ambassador's familiarity with the regent, +and had sent out spies to seize him on his return. +But the Italian proved more slippery than his royal +master had supposed. Scarce had he set foot on shore +when he perceived that Denmark was not the place for +him. He embarked once more for Sweden, whence he +soon crossed over to Germany on his way to more congenial +climes. The last thing we hear of him is that +the pope rewarded him with the Archbishopric of +Milan.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Olaus Magni, <i>Hist. de gent. Sept.</i>, pp. 409-410. This curious +book, written by a contemporary of Gustavus, gives an invaluable +picture of the details of Swedish life.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, p. 3, and <i>Ährapred.</i>, p. 51; and Tegel, <i>Then +stoormecht.</i>, p. 3. All authorities agree that this event took place in +1514; but they differ as to the boy's age at the time. Svart, who +places his birth in 1495, says he was eighteen, which would be equally +true after May 12, 1514, even though the birth was in 1496. Tegel +says he was twenty-four, as he would be if born in 1490; but as Tegel +says in the very next sentence that he was sent to court to be educated, +it is clear he could not have been so old as twenty-four, and hence could +not have been born so early as 1490.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Svaning, <i>Christ. II.</i>, pp. 20-23.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> <i>Hist. handl.</i>, vol. viii. p. 64. This is a deed to the effect stated +above, signed by Erik Trolle, and dated Oct. 12, 1514.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> <i>Svenska medeltid. rim-krön.</i>, vol. iii. p. 203; Olaus Petri, <i>Svenska +krön.</i>, pp. 305-306; Johannes Magni, <i>Hist. pont.</i>, p. 72; and <i>Handl. +rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xxiv. pp. 45-47.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> <i>Svenska medeltid. rim-krön.</i>, vol. iii. p. 203; and <i>Hist. handl.</i>, vol. +viii. pp. 68-70.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Olaus Petri, <i>Svenska krön.</i>, p. 306; and Laurent. Petri, <i>Then +Svenska chrön.</i>, p. 141.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xxiv. pp. 51 and 74-75.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> <i>Svenska medeltid. rim-krön.</i>, vol. iii. p. 204; Olaus Petri, <i>Svenska +krön.</i>, pp. 306-307; Laurent. Petri, <i>Then Svenska chrön.</i>, p. 141; and +<i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xxiv. pp. 48-49 and 76.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Olaus Petri, <i>Svenska krön.</i>, p. 307; Laurent. Petri, <i>Then Svenska +chrön.</i>, p. 141; and <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xxiv. pp. 39-40 and +76-77.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> <i>Svenska medeltid. rim-krön.</i>, vol. iii. p. 205; Olaus Petri, <i>Svenska +krön.</i>, pp. 307-309; Laurent. Petri, <i>Then Svenska chrön.</i>, pp. 141-142; +and <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xxiv. pp. 52-58, 62-71 and 77-81.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Olaus Petri, <i>Svenska krön.</i>, pp. 309-310; Johannes Magni, <i>De +omn. Goth.</i>, pp. 778-779; Laurent. Petri, <i>Then Svenska chrön.</i>, p. 142; +and <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xxiv. pp. 81-87.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Olaus Petri, <i>Svenska krön.</i>, p. 310; Laurent. Petri, <i>Then Svenska +chrön.</i>, p. 142; and <i>Kongl. och furstl. förlijkn.</i>, pp. 434-435.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> <i>Svenska medeltid. rim-krön.</i>, vol. iii. pp. 205-206; Olaus Petri, +<i>Svenska krön.</i>, pp. 310-311; Laurent. Petri, <i>Then Svenska chrön.</i>, pp. +142-143; Svart, <i>Ährapred.</i>, pp. 52-53; and <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, +vol. xxiv. pp. 87-88.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Olaus Petri, <i>Svenska krön.</i>, pp. 311-312; Laurent. Petri, <i>Then +Svenska chrön.</i>, p. 143; <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xxiv. pp. 94-105; +and <i>Kongl. och furstl. förlijkn.</i>, pp. 435-437.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Olaus Petri, <i>Svenska krön.</i>, p. 313; Johannes Magni, <i>De omn. +Goth.</i>, p. 779; and Laurent. Petri, <i>Then Svenska chrön.</i>, p. 143.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Svaning, <i>Christ. II.</i>, pp. 106-107; and <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. +xxiv. pp. 112-117, 127-128, and 130-145.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> <i>Svenska medeltid. rim-krön.</i>, vol. iii. pp. 207-209 and 232; Olaus +Petri, <i>Svenska krön.</i>, pp. 313-314; Rensel, <i>Berättelse</i>, p. 15; <i>Märk. +händl.</i>, p. 91; Johannes Magni, <i>De omn. Goth.</i>, p. 780; Laurent. Petri, +<i>Then Svenska chrön.</i>, pp. 143-144; Svart, <i>Ährapred.</i>, p. 53, and <i>Gust. I.'s +krön.</i>, pp. 4-5; Ludvigsson, <i>Collect.</i>, p. 86; <i>Acta hist. Reg. Christ. II.</i>, +p. 1; <i>Danske Mag.</i>, 3d ser., vol. ii. pp. 237-248; and <i>Handl. rör. Skand. +hist.</i>, vol. xxxii. pp. 58-63.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Svaning, <i>Christ. II.</i>, pp. 385-387, and Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 6-8.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Olaus Petri, <i>Svenska krön.</i>, p. 313; Johannes Magni, <i>Hist. pont.</i>, +pp. 71 and 73; Laurent. Petri, <i>Then Svenska chrön.</i>, p. 143; <i>Handl. +rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xxiv, pp. 110-112, 117-130; and <i>Skrift. och +handl.</i>, vol. i. pp. 363-364.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Olaus Petri, <i>Svenska krön.</i>, pp. 315-316; and <i>Handl. rör. Skand. +hist.</i>, vol. xxiv. pp. 245-247.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Eliesen, <i>Chron. Skib.</i>, p. 567.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_III" id="Chapter_III"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter III.</span></h2> + +<h3>FLIGHT OF GUSTAVUS; UPRISING OF THE DALESMEN. +1519-1521.</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Escape of Gustavus from Denmark.—Lubeck.—Return of Gustavus to +Sweden.—Excommunication of Sture.—Invasion of Sweden.—Death +of Sture.—Dissolution of the Swedish Army.—Heroism of Christina.—Battle +of Upsala.—Gustavus at Kalmar.—Fall of Stockholm.—Coronation of Christiern II.—Slaughter of the Swedes.—Flight of +Gustavus to Dalarne.—Efforts to rouse the Dalesmen.—Gustavus +chosen Leader.</p></div> + + +<p class="cap">ONE morning, in the early autumn of 1519, a young +man, clad in the coarse garments of a drover, +made a hasty exit from the gate of Kalö Castle, and +turning into the forest proceeded along the western +shore of Kalö Bay. His step was firm and vigorous, +and indicated by its rapidity that the wayfarer was endeavoring +to elude pursuit. Though apparently not +over twenty-four, there was something about the traveller's +face and bearing that gave him the look of a +person prematurely old. Of large frame, tall and broad-shouldered, +with heavy massive face, high cheek-bones, +a careworn dark blue eye, large straight nose, and compressed +lips,—the under lip projecting slightly,—he +would have been pointed out anywhere as a man not +easily to be led. The face would not, perhaps, be regarded +as particularly intellectual; but determination<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +and energy were stamped on every feature, and every +movement of the body displayed strength and power +of endurance. It was pre-eminently the face and body +of one made to govern rather than to obey. Such, in +his twenty-fourth year, was Gustavus Vasa. He had +made his escape from Kalö Castle, and was fleeing +with all speed to Lubeck, the busy, enterprising head of +the Hanseatic League.</p> + +<p>His way led him through some of the most picturesque +spots in Denmark. It was a lovely rolling country, +with fertile fields and meadows, relieved in places +by little clumps of forest, beneath which he could often +discern the time-worn front of some grim old mansion. +Sheep and cattle were grazing on the hillsides. Thatch-roofed +huts, with plastered walls, were all about him. +The fields, in those September days, were red with +buckwheat. Occasionally a broad meadow spread out +before him, and, to avoid the husbandmen gathering in +their crops, he was often forced to make a long circuit +through thick forests of beech and maple. Here and +there he came on mighty barrows raised over the bodies +of Danish warriors and kings. Well might it make his +blood boil within him to witness these honors heaped +upon the Danes for their deeds of blood and cruelty to +his fathers. Through such scenes, weary and footsore, +in constant dread of his pursuers, and with dark misgivings +as to the fate before him, he pressed on, until +at last, near the end of September, the gray walls of +Lubeck, to which he had looked forward as a refuge, +stood before him and he entered in.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p> +<p>Lubeck, the capital of the Hanse Towns, and by +virtue of this position monarch of the northern seas, +had been for three centuries a bitter foe to Denmark. +At intervals the Danish kings had sought to check the +naval supremacy of Lubeck, and more than once the +two powers had been at open war. Of late, by reason +of dissensions among the Towns, Denmark had gradually +been gaining the upper hand. But Lubeck was +still very far from acknowledging the right of Denmark +to carry on an independent trade, and the growing +power of the Danish kings only added fuel to the +flame. Lubeck was, therefore, at this time a peculiarly +favorable asylum for one who was at enmity with Christiern. +Gustavus doubtless had reckoned on this advantage, +and had resolved to throw himself on the +mercy of the town. He went directly to the senate, +laid his case before them, and asked them boldly for +a ship and escort to take him back to Sweden. This +request apparently was more than they were prepared +to grant. They hesitated, and in the mean time the +commandant of Kalö Castle tracked his prisoner to +Lubeck, and appeared before the senate to demand that +he be surrendered. Many of the senators, unwilling to +incur the wrath of Christiern, were minded to give him +up. Others, however, were opposed to such a course. +As a result, all action in the matter was for the time +suspended. Eight weary months dragged on, Gustavus +throughout that period remaining in Lubeck. Finally, +in May, 1520, one of the burgomasters, whose friendship +the youth had won, espoused his cause, and he was allowed +to sail for Sweden. By good fortune he steered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +clear of the Danish fleet, and on the 31st of May set +foot again on his native soil, near Kalmar.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p> + +<p>Meantime the Danish arms had not been idle. Soon +after the overthrow of Trolle and the destruction of his +castle, the king of Denmark had despatched a messenger +to Rome, to enlist the Holy Father in his cause. +Pope Leo, reluctant to take upon himself to decide a +matter of whose merits he could know so little, appointed +the archbishop of Lund, aided by a Danish +bishop, to investigate the question and report to him. +A tribunal so composed could scarcely be expected +to render other verdict than that which Christiern +wished. They reported adversely to the regent. Sture +and his adherents were therefore excommunicated by +the pope, and all church ministrations interdicted +throughout Sweden. To a pious people such a blow +was terrible in the extreme. All church bells were +for the moment hushed, the church doors barred, +and the souls of an entire nation doomed to eternal +death. But even in the face of this calamity the regent +persevered. He refused to restore Trolle to his +post, or even to make him amends for his losses. On +this news being brought to Rome, the pontiff made no +attempt to hide his wrath. He wrote at once to Christiern, +with instructions to enter Sweden and inflict punishment +on those who had thus set at naught the papal +power. Christiern was entranced. As champion of +the pope he felt certain of success. Without delay he +collected all the forces in the kingdom, horse and foot,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> +and placed them under the command of a gallant young +officer, Otto Krumpen, with orders to invade Sweden +from the south. They landed in the early days of January, +1520, and proceeded northwards, ravaging the +country as they went. Sture at once issued a broadside +to the people, calling them to arms. He likewise sent +his messengers to Trolle, to beg him to use his influence +against the enemies of Sweden. The deposed archbishop, +now cringing before his victor, yielded his assent. +Sture, thus emboldened, moved forward with his army +to meet the Danes. Knowing that they were advancing +through the province of Vestergötland, and that their +line of march in the winter season would be across the +lakes, Sture took up his position in a narrow cove at +the northern end of Lake Åsunden. In the centre of +this cove, through which the Danes must pass, he raised +a huge bulwark of felled trees, and within the bulwark +stationed his infantry, with provisions enough to last +two months. He then chopped up the ice about the +fort, and retired to the north with his cavalry to await +the onset. It was not long he had to wait. On the +18th of January the Danish army drew near, and seeing +the fortification began to storm it with their catapults. +As they approached, the Swedish cavalry, with +Sture at their head, dashed out along the shore to meet +them. The regent was mounted on a fiery charger, and +carried into the very thickest of the fight. But scarcely +had the first shot been fired when a missile glancing +along the ice struck Sture's horse from under him, and +in a moment horse and rider were sprawling on the ice. +So soon as Sture could be extricated, he was found to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> +have received an ugly wound upon the thigh. His followers +bore him bleeding from the field, and hastened +with his lacerated body to the north. But the battle +was not yet over. Long and hot it raged about the +fortress on the ice. Twice the Danish troops made a +mad assault, and after heavy losses were repulsed. At +last, however, their heavy catapults began to tell. The +sides of the bulwark weakened, and the Danish army +by a vigorous onslaught burst open a passage, and put +the Swedish infantry to the sword. This victory was +followed by a night of riot, the Swedes thus gaining +time to collect the scattered remnants of their army. +With a single impulse, though without a leader, they +fled across the marshy meadows of Vestergötland to the +north. Their goal was Tiveden, a dreary jungle of +stunted pines and underbrush, through which it was +expected the enemy would have to pass. Here after two +days' march they gathered, and threw up a mighty barrier +of felled trees and brushwood, thinking in that way +to impede the passage of the Danes. All about them +the land, though not mountainous, was rough and rugged +in the extreme, huge bowlders and fragments of +rock lying about on every side. In spots the undergrowth +was wanting, but its place was generally filled +by little lakes and bogs, quite as difficult to traverse as +the forest. In this region the patriots collected, and +with undaunted spirit once more awaited the coming of +the Danes. Again they were not disappointed. The +Danish army, recovering from its night of revelry, +proceeded on the track of the fugitives, stormed their +barrier, and on the 1st of February put them once<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> +more to flight. This done, the invaders pressed forward, +burning, robbing, murdering, and affixing bans to +every church door, till they arrived at Vesterås.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p> + +<p>Let us turn for a moment to another scene. Sture, +who had been carried bleeding from the field of battle, +had been taken first to Örebro. But the journey over +the ice and snow at the dead of winter so aggravated +his wound that it was clear to all he could take no +further part in carrying on the war. He gave orders +therefore to be removed to Stockholm, where he might +be under the tender care and sympathy of his wife. It +was God's will, however, that he should never see her +more. On the 2d of February, when almost within sight +of the castle walls, he died; and the loved one for whose +sympathy he had longed was given nothing but her husband's +lifeless corpse.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> They buried of him all that +earth could bury; but his undaunted spirit remained still +among his people, cheering them in their misfortunes, +and ever calling upon them to resist the hand of the +oppressor. Sten Sture's character is one which draws +forth a warmth of sentiment such as can be felt for no +other character of his time. Living in an age when +hypocrisy was looked upon with honor, and when falsehood +was deemed a vice only when unsuccessful, he +showed in all his dealings, whether with friends or foes, +a steadfast integrity of purpose with an utter ignorance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> +of the art of dissimulation. Not a stain can history fix +upon his memory. Highly gifted as a statesman, courageous +on the field of battle, ever courteous in diplomacy, +and warm and sympathetic in the bosom of his family, +his figure stands forth as one of the shining examples of +the height to which human character can attain. It is +with a sigh we leave him, and turn again to trace the +history of his people.</p> + +<p>Grim ruin now stared the patriot army in the face. +Bereft of the only person who seemed competent to +guide them, beaten at every point, without arms or +provisions, and with a horde of trained and well-armed +soldiers at their heels, the fleeing patriots came +straggling into Strengnäs on the Mälar. Hubbub and +confusion reigned supreme. Many of the magnates +counselled immediate surrender. Others, somewhat +more loyal to their country, raised a timid voice in +favor of continuing the war, but no one ventured to +come forth and lead his fellow-countrymen against the +foe. Thus they frittered away the precious moments +while the Danes were getting ready for another onset. +All this time there was one brave heart still beating for +them in the capital. The regent's widow, nothing +daunted by her own calamity or by the disasters that +had come upon her husband's people, kept sending messengers +one after another to implore them to unite in +defence of their native land. At length it seemed as if +her supplications were destined to prevail. A firmer +purpose spread among them, and they girded up their +loins for another conflict. Their spark of courage, +however, proved abortive. No sooner did the enemy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> +again appear than the patriots turned their backs and +fled in wild dismay. On coming once more together +after this bloodless battle, they resolved without further +ado to lay down arms. A letter was despatched to +Krumpen requesting parley. This was granted; and on +the 22d of February it was agreed that the two parties +should hold a conference in Upsala on the 3d of March, +for the purpose of making terms. The Swedish party +then urged Christina to attend the conference. She +however turned a deaf ear to their entreaties, and sent +off a despatch at once to Dantzic begging for aid against +King Christiern; so the conference began without her. +As a preliminary, Krumpen produced a document from +the king of Denmark empowering him to offer terms +of peace. This done, a proposition to declare allegiance +to King Christiern was at once brought forward; and at +the instance of Gustaf Trolle and the other Danish-minded +magnates present, the proposal was finally accepted, +though not until Krumpen had consented to +certain terms on which the patriots insisted. These +terms were that all past offences against the Danish +crown should be forgiven, that all fiefs hitherto granted +to their fellow-countrymen should be preserved, and +that Sweden should continue to be governed in accordance +with her ancient laws and customs. The document +reciting these terms was issued on the 6th of March, and +on the 31st it was confirmed by Christiern.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p> +<p>The main body of the Swedish nation being thus again +in the hand of Denmark, it was expected that Christina +would no longer dare to offer resistance. It was therefore +resolved to approach her once more upon the subject. +An armed body of some three thousand men was +despatched forthwith to Stockholm, a couple of ambassadors +being sent ahead to invite Christina to a conference +outside the town. The reception which they +met was such as to convince them that the regent's +widow possessed, at any rate, a portion of her husband's +courage. No sooner did they near the capital than the +portcullis was raised and a volley fired upon them from +within the walls. Thus discomfited, the ambassadors +withdrew, and Krumpen, having insufficient forces to +undertake a siege, returned to Upsala, and the Swedish +forces that had joined him retired to their homes.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p> + +<p>Christina was thus afforded a short respite in which +to gather strength. The bravery and determination +which she had displayed, even from the moment of her +husband's death, already began to inspire confidence +among the people. Most of the great men in the realm, +intimidated by the threats or allured by the promises of +Krumpen, had sworn allegiance to the king of Denmark. +But the chief castles were still held by the patriots, and +throughout the land there was a strong undercurrent of +feeling against the Danes. In most parts the people +were only waiting to see which way the wind was going +to blow, and for the time being it seemed likely to blow +in favor of the Swedes. The regent's widow used every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> +effort to rouse the people from their lethargy, and with +increased success. All winter long the king of Denmark +was burning to send reinforcements, and dickering +with the Powers of Europe to obtain the necessary funds. +But his credit was bad, and it was only with great difficulty +that he at last despatched a body of some fifteen +hundred men. Christina, on the other hand, was being +reinforced by the Hanse Towns along the Baltic, and in +the early spring the current of sentiment had set so +strongly in her favor that a plot was formed to drive off +the Danish troops beleaguering the Castle of Vesterås, on +the Mälar. So soon as this plot reached the ears of the +Danish leader, he resolved to break the siege and hurry +off to join the forces of Krumpen at Upsala. He did +so; but he did so none too soon. He found his path +beset by the peasantry lying in ambush in the woods, +and before he succeeded in pushing through them, he +was led into a bloody battle from which the patriots +came off victorious, though their leader fell.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p> + +<p>Emboldened by this success, Christina now sent a +messenger among the peasantry to collect a force with +which to attack the Danish army in Upsala. In a short +space of time he had gathered a strong band of peasantry +and miners, with whom, reinforced by a detachment +from Stockholm, he marched forward to Upsala. +As the patriots approached the town, a squad stationed +by Krumpen outside the walls descried them and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +sounded the alarm. This was on Good Friday, April +6, 1520, and Krumpen was in the cathedral when the +news arrived. Without delay he hurried forth and gave +orders that every man, both horse and foot, should gird +on his armor and assemble in the square. As soon as +they had come together, he led them outside the town +and drew up his line of battle close beneath the walls. +In front of this line he formed a solid phalanx, with a +wing on either side composed of horse and foot. Still +farther ahead he placed his catapults, with the largest of +which he opened fire first, the sharpshooters at the same +time picking off the enemy. The sky was heavily overcast, +and at the very beginning of the battle a driving +storm with rain and sleet came beating down in the +faces of the Danes, thus blinding them. Their cavalry, +too, was almost useless; for the ground was covered with +melting snow, which formed in great cakes under the +horses' hoofs, and soon sent horses and riders sprawling +on the ground. The patriots, however, being without +cavalry or muskets, suffered little from the rain. They +were not slow to take advantage of the opportunity +thus afforded them, and pressed forward madly on the +left wing until finally it began to yield. The standard-bearer, +half frozen, was about to drop the standard, +when a Danish veteran rushed forward, seized it from +his hands, and fixed it in the nearest fence, at the +same time shouting: "Forward, my men! Remember +your own and your fathers' valor! Shall this standard +of your country fall unstained into the hands of the +enemy?" At these words the company rallied and, +hacking at the hands of the patriots who strove to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +pluck the standard from the fence, compelled them to +withdraw. This company then joined the others, and +a long and bitter conflict followed, the two armies +fighting face to face. At length, as soon as the snow +began to be well packed, the Danish cavalry came to +the front once more, and after a series of violent +charges, broke in two places through the enemy's ranks. +The patriots, now cut into three distinct bodies, fled +in wild despair. One body of them was surrounded +and massacred on the spot. Another fled to a brick-kiln +near at hand, hoping thus to be sheltered from the +fury of the Danes. But they were pursued, the whole +place was set on fire, and all who issued from it were put +to the sword. The third portion of the Swedes fled in +terror to the river, but many of them weighted down +by their arms were drowned. Thus ended a fearful +battle. The snow was literally drenched with blood. +Of the Swedes, who numbered 30,000, it is said two +thirds were killed; while the Danes, 8,000 strong, lost +half.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p> + +<p>After this fearful slaughter both parties were for the +nonce more cautious. Messengers were sent by each +throughout the land to gain recruits, but they were +careful to avoid a general conflict. Skirmishes and +trickery were the order of the day. The patriots were +frittering away their chances for lack of a leader, and +Krumpen was waiting for the arrival of King Christiern. +This was delayed only till the breaking of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> +ice. Towards the close of April, 1520, Christiern set +sail with a large fleet for Sweden, having on board the +Archbishop of Lund and some other influential prelates, +to lend to his expedition the aspect of a religious +crusade. Proceeding first to Kalmar, he called upon +the castle to surrender, but in vain. Seeing that his only +mode of reducing the castle was by siege, he resolved for +the present to give it up, and after issuing a broadside +to the people of Vestergötland, summoning them to a +conference to be held a month later, on the 3d of June, +he advanced to Stockholm and dropped anchor just outside +the town. This was on the 27th of May, four days +before the landing of Gustavus Vasa on the Swedish +coast.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p> + +<p>The arrival of Gustavus Vasa marks an epoch in the +history of Sweden. It is the starting-point of one of +the most brilliant and successful revolutions that the +world has ever known. Other political upheavals have +worked quite as great results, and in less time. But rarely +if ever has a radical change in a nation's development +been so unmistakably the work of a single hand,—and +that, too, the hand of a mere youth of four-and-twenty. +The events immediately preceding the return of Gustavus +prove conclusively, if they prove anything, how impotent +are mere numbers without a leader. For years the +whole country had been almost continuously immersed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> +in blood. One moment the peasantry were all in arms, +burning to avenge their wrongs, and the next moment, +just on the eve of victory, they scattered, each satisfied +with promises that his wrongs would be redressed and +willing to let other persons redress their own. What was +needed above all else was a feeling of national unity and +strength; and it was this feeling that from the very +outset the young Gustavus sought to instil in the minds +of the Swedish people. As we now follow him in his +romantic wanderings through dreary forest and over +ice and snow and even down into the bowels of the +earth, we shall observe that the one idea which more +than any other filled his mind was the idea of a united +Swedish nation. At first we shall find this idea laughed +at as visionary, and its promoter driven to the far corners +of the land. But before three years are over, we +shall see a Swedish nation already rising from the dust, +until at last it takes a high place in the firmament of +European powers.</p> + +<p>The memorable soil on which Gustavus disembarked +lay two miles south of Kalmar; and he hurried to the +town without delay. Kalmar was at this time, next to +Stockholm, the strongest town in Sweden. Lying on two +or three small islands, it was guarded from the mainland +by several narrow streams, while on the east it was +made secure through a stupendous castle from attack by +sea. This castle was at the time in charge of the widow +of the last commandant, and was strongly garrisoned, +as was also the town below, with mercenaries from +abroad. On entering the town Gustavus was received +with kindness by the burghers, and sought in every way<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> +to rouse their drooping spirits. He even approached the +German soldiers with a view to inspire comfort in their +souls. But his words of courage fell on stony ground. +It is the nature of mercenaries to fight like madmen +when the prospect of reward is bright, but no sooner +does a cloud gather on the horizon, than they throw +down their arms and begin to clamor for their pay. +Such at that moment was the state of things in Kalmar. +Christiern, backed by the leading powers of Europe, and +upheld in his expedition by the authority of Rome, had +just arrived in Sweden with a powerful army, and was +now lying at anchor in the harbor of the capital. The +Swedish forces, broken in many places and without a +leader, were gradually scattering to their homes. The +cloud that had long been gathering over the head of +Sweden seemed about to burst. The future was already +black, and a listening ear could easily catch the mutterings +of the approaching storm. The Kalmar mercenaries +therefore were only irritated by the importunities of +the youthful refugee, and it was only through the intercession +of the burghers that he was saved from violence +and allowed to leave the town.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p> + +<p>To revisit the scenes of his boyhood and his father's +house was no longer possible. The brave Sten Sture, +from whose palace he had been stolen two years since, +was lying beneath the sod; and Stockholm, held by the +young man's aunt Christina, was in a state of siege. +All access to her or to the capital would have been at +the peril of his life. He therefore; renounced for the +time being his desire to see his family, and proceeded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> +stealthily to approach the capital by land. His way lay +first across the dreary moors and swamps of Småland. +Here he went from house to house, inciting the peasantry +to rebel. Among others he sought out some of +his father's tenants, in the hope that they at least would +hear him. But he found them all sunk in lethargy, +cowering under the sword of Christiern. His voice was +truly the voice of one crying in the wilderness. The +golden hope of lifting his country out of her misery +seemed shattered at a blow. Instead of being received +with open arms as a deliverer, he was jeered at in every +town, and finally so bitter grew the public sentiment +against him that he was forced to flee. Hardly daring +to show his face lest he should be shot down by the +soldiers of the king, he betook himself to a farm owned +by his father on the south shore of the Mälar. Here he +remained in secrecy through the summer, hoping for +better times,—an unwilling witness of the subjugation +of his land,—till finally he was driven from his refuge +by an act of Christiern so revolting in its villany that it +made the whole of Europe shudder.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p> + +<p>Christiern, on the 27th of May, was riding at anchor +in the harbor of the capital. Among his men was Hemming +Gad, over the spirit of whose dream had come a +vast change since his capture some eighteen months +before. Just when this change began, or how it was +effected, is unknown. But already, in March of 1520, the +report had spread through Sweden that Gad had turned +traitor to his native land, and we find him writing to +the people of Stockholm to tell them that he and they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> +had done Christiern wrong, and begging them to reconcile +themselves to Christiern as he had done. Gad +was a statesman,—a word synonymous in those days +with charlatan,—and he did not hesitate to leave his +falling comrades in order to join the opposite party on +the road to power. Doubtless Christiern took care that +he lost nothing by his change of colors, and doubtless it +was with a view to aid himself that he brought Gad +back to Sweden.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p> + +<p>No sooner did Christiern arrive off Stockholm than +Krumpen came with Archbishop Trolle from Upsala, to +receive him. They held a council of war on board the +fleet, and resolved to lay siege once more to Stockholm. +The capital was by this time well supplied with food; +but the summer had only just begun, and Christiern +thought by using strict precautions to starve the town +ere winter. Pitching his camp along the shore both +north and south, and blockading the harbor on the east, +he sent messengers through the land to enlist the peasantry +in his cause. Many of them he propitiated by a +generous distribution of salt which he had brought with +him from Denmark. Things, however, were not entirely +to his taste. Christina too had ambassadors inciting +the people to revolt. On the 27th of June a large body +of the patriots laid siege to the palace of the bishop of +Linköping. About the same time also the monastery +of Mariefred, inhabited by the old archbishop Ulfsson, +was threatened; and a throng of peasants marched to +Strengnäs to burn and plunder. How crude the patriot +forces at this time were is apparent from a letter from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +a Danish officer to Krumpen, in which it is said that out +of a body of about three thousand only one hundred and +fifty were skilled soldiers. Christiern finally deemed it +best to send a force to Vesterås to storm the castle. +This was done, the castle fell, and the officer in command +was taken prisoner. It was now August, and the +Stockholmers, no aid thus far having come to them from +abroad, were losing heart. In this state of things the +king sent Gad and others inside the walls to urge the +people to surrender. Christina and her sturdy burghers +received the messengers with scorn; but the magnates, +already more than half inclined to yield, vehemently +advocated the proposal. Soon the whole town was in an +uproar. A riot followed, and some blood was shed. +But at last Christina and her adherents yielded, and +delegates were sent outside the town to parley. After +several days of bickering it was agreed that Stockholm +should be surrendered on the 7th of September next, +but on the other hand that all hostility to Christiern +and to his fathers, as well as to Archbishop Trolle and +the other prelates, should be forgiven.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p> + +<p>Two days later, on the 7th of September, the burgomasters +crossed over in a body to Södermalm, and +delivered the keys of the city gates into the hands of +Christiern. Then, with bugles sounding and all the +pomp and ceremony of a triumph, he marched at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> +head of his army through the city walls and up to the +Great Church, where he offered thanksgiving to Almighty +God. That over, he proceeded to the citadel and took +possession. The same day and the day following he obtained +two documents,—one from the Cabinet members +then in Stockholm, and the other from the burgomaster +and Council,—granting the castle to Christiern during +his life, and at his death to his son Hans, or, if he should +die before the king, then to the king's wife Elizabeth, +to revert, after the death of all three, to the Cabinet +of Sweden. Christiern then appointed his officers +throughout the country, after which he sailed away +for Denmark.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p> + +<p>Not long, however, was Sweden freed from his contaminating +presence. Within a month he had returned, +breathing out threatenings and slaughter against the +nation that he had vanquished. A general diet had +been summoned to meet at Stockholm on the first day of +November. As this diet was to be immediately followed +by the coronation of the king, special efforts had been +made to secure a large attendance of the Danish party. +The venerable Ulfsson, now tottering to the grave, had +recently written to Christiern that he would be present +at the triumphal entry into Stockholm, "even if," as he +says, "I have to crawl upon my knees;" and he was +present at the diet. When the appointed day arrived, +the delegates were summoned to a hill outside the +town, and were shut in on every side by the pikes and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> +rapiers of the royal soldiers. The proceedings were +cut and dried throughout. A pompous oration was delivered +by one of the king's satellites, declaring the +grounds on which his master claimed the throne of +Sweden, at the close of which the people were asked +whether they would have him for their king, and with +their tyrants' weapons brandished before their eyes they +answered yes. With this elaborate farce the ceremony +ended and the people scattered, being first ordered to +return on the following Sunday and share in the coronation +festivities of the king whom they had thus elected +against their will. The ostentatious mummery of these +mock ceremonies would cause a smile but for the frightful +tragedy with which they were to close. None but the +blindest partisans could have felt anything else than +aversion for this monster on whose head they were to +place the crown. Even his own friends hated him, and +despised the very ground on which he trod. But it was +the age of heaven-born rulers; so the masses bent their +knee and sang their pæans to the demon whom fate had +made their king.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p> + +<p>It was on the 4th of November—a dreary Sunday—that +the tragedy began. On that day, with a great flourish +of trumpets and display of power, the monarch +proceeded to the Great Church to be crowned. The +huge edifice was filled to overflowing. From north and +south, from mountain and valley, all of note in the three +kingdoms had flocked thither on this day to behold the +imposing spectacle. Gustaf Trolle, now once more archbishop,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> +stood at the high altar, lined on either side by +the six Swedish bishops and the Upsala Chapter. The +whole chancel was one blaze of gold and silver; and as +the king marched through the main aisle with his splendid +retinue, every eye was bent upon him and every +whisper hushed. Proceeding straight up to the high +altar, he bent his knee before the God whose name he +was now so soon to desecrate. Then the archbishop +raised from the altar a crown of gold glittering with +precious jewels, and placed it reverently upon the monarch's +brow. The sacred rite of consecration over, the +monarch rose and turning was met by a herald of +Charles V., who came from his master bringing a fleece +which he attached with chains of gold around the monarch's +neck, thus receiving him into the great Burgundian +League. After this, a throne was placed before the +altar, and Christiern conferred the order of knighthood +on Krumpen and some of his other officers. It was observed, +however, that all thus honored were of Danish +birth. With this the ceremony of consecration closed, +and the whole concourse poured forth once more from +the house of God.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p> + +<p>During three days the whole town now was given over +to mirth and merrymaking. These days seem like the +lull that goes before a storm. All strife was ended, +all past injuries forgotten. The future seemed full of +promise, and the Swedish peasants went hurrying back +to their firesides to tell their wives and children of the +peace and blessings promised them by Christiern. But<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> +it was not yet. Scarce had the echo of warfare died +upon the wind when a frightful tragedy took place in +Stockholm which sent a thrill of horror to the heart of +Europe. At noon on the Wednesday following the coronation +all the Swedish magnates with the authorities of +Stockholm were summoned to the citadel and ushered +into the august presence of their king. As they ranged +themselves about the great hall, the nobles and their +wives, all wondering what this dismal summons meant, +they heard the castle gates grate upon their hinges, and +a cold shudder gradually spread among them, as the +thought now flashed upon them for the first time that +they were no longer free. They had been decoyed by the +fulsome promises of their ruler into the trap which he +had laid. The noose was already tightening around +their necks. Before them, on the throne hallowed by +memories of former rulers, sat their tyrant, grim and +lowering. Not a trace of mercy was visible in his features. +Through a long pause, awful in its uncertainty, +they waited, the cold sweat fast gathering on their +brows. At length the pause was ended. Archbishop +Trolle, chuckling at the near prospect of his revenge, +stepped forward and addressed the throne. He began +by portraying in ardent language the sufferings he had +undergone. He declared that the cathedral at Upsala +had been plundered while he was being besieged in +Stäket. He dwelt at great length on the wrong which +had been done him in the destruction of his castle. He +drew attention to the conspiracy entered into against +him by certain of the magnates, and their united oath +never again to recognize him as archbishop. Finally, he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> +denounced the conspirators by name, and called upon +the king to visit them with the punishment which they +deserved. At this Christina was summoned before the +throne and asked for an explanation of her husband's +conduct. She was at first struck dumb with terror; +then, recovering herself, she pleaded that her husband +had been no more guilty than the other conspirators, as +would appear from the document which they all had +signed. Christiern, learning for the first time of this +document, demanded that it be produced. When this +was done, and the king had examined it to his heart's +content, he gave it to his clerk to copy, and called on +each of the signers in turn to answer for his act. Christiern +with his Cabinet then withdrew, leaving the patriot +leaders in the great hall guarded by a body of Danish +soldiers. At dusk two Danish officers entered with +lanterns, "like Judas Iscariot" says a contemporary, +and the doomed magnates were led out to the tower and +thrown into prison to await the morn. When day broke, +Christiern ordered the trumpets sounded and proclamation +made that no citizen should leave his house. About +noon the condemned patriots were led from their dungeons +to the Grand Square, and huddled together beneath +the platform on which they were to bleed. The +citizens had by this time been permitted to leave their +houses and had gathered around the foot of the scaffold, +from which they were addressed in soothing language +by several of the Danish Cabinet, whose words however +were interrupted by constant cries of the victims calling +on their fellow-countrymen to avenge them. At last the +agony of suspense was over. One after another the condemned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> +mounted the scaffold and were decapitated with +all the refinement of cruelty that the bloodthirsty monarch +and his satellites could devise. Over seventy in all +were slaughtered, and their gory bodies piled up in one +promiscuous mass in the centre of the square. On the +following day the scene of carnage was renewed, several +suspected citizens being seized in their houses and +dragged to the place of blood. One poor wretch was +executed for no other reason than because he was discovered +weeping at the sight of his friends' death. Not +till the following Saturday was the carnage over and the +weltering mass conveyed outside the town. The body +of Sture, together with the body of one of his babes, +was dug up by Christiern's orders and burned, and the +property of all who were slaughtered was seized and +confiscated. Having thus effected his diabolical purpose +and ridded himself of the flower of the Swedish +patriots, the gory monarch set his officers at the head +of affairs, and taking Christina and her two boys with +him, marched through the land to Denmark, where he +threw Christina and her children into prison.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p> + +<p>Through all that summer and autumn Gustavus Vasa +had been cooped up in his hiding-place on the Mälar. +Once, in peril of his life, he had approached the venerable +Archbishop Ulfsson and solicited his advice. But +he found little comfort there. Ulfsson urged him to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> +go boldly to Christiern and beg for mercy. He even +offered to intercede for the young man, and encouraged +him with the assertion that he had been included among +those to whom the king had promised immunity at the +surrender of Christina. Gustavus, however, knew too +well what reliance he could place on Christiern's word. +With a downcast spirit he went back to his hiding-place, +resolved to await further developments before he ventured +forth. It was a time of harrowing suspense, the +iron entering into his very soul. Each day brought new +intelligence of the victories of Christiern and the gradual +dismemberment of the Swedish forces. His hopes +were already well-nigh shattered when the report was +wafted across the lake that his father, along with the +other patriot leaders, had been slaughtered in the capital. +Horror-stricken and overwhelmed with grief, he +sprang to his feet, resolved to brave death rather +than prolong this agony. Buckling on his sword, he +mounted one of his father's steeds, and set forth for the +north, filled with the dream of rescuing his native land. +It was near the 25th of November, and the scenery was +well in keeping with the dreary thoughts that flooded +the horseman's mind. The stern gnarled oaks along +the wayside, twisting their leafless boughs athwart the +sky, seemed as perverse as the Swedes whom he had +vainly sought to rouse. Even the frosty soil beneath +him, unyielding to his tread, recalled the apathy with +which his fellow-countrymen had listened to his cries. +Had he been fired solely by a love of Sweden, he would +very likely long ere this have renounced his hopeless +task. But a selfish purpose kept him in the path. He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> +was a pariah, hunted down by his enemies, and driven +through sheer necessity to play the patriot. It was +liberty or death. And so he pushed on, resolved +to mingle among the hardy mountaineers of Dalarne, +and strive at all hazards to rouse the flagging pulses +of their hearts.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p> + +<p>Crossing Lake Mälar about four miles from his father's +house, Gustavus hurried through the forests north +of the lake with all the speed that a patriot's zeal could +lend. To one companioned by happier thoughts the +journey in those late autumn days must have been filled +with delight. Dalarne, through which his journey lay, +is the paradise of Sweden. As its name imports, it is +"the land of valleys." The whole province stands high +above the sea, rising higher as we travel farther north. +The hills which separate the valleys are mostly crowned +with pine and fir, and down their sides run broad and +gently sloping fields. Here and there the scenery is +varied by a little hamlet nestling along the hillside. +Little lakes, too, dot the surface of the land, and tiny +brooks go babbling across the fields. One stream, famous +in Swedish history, bisects the district from north +to south, passing through various lakes, and finally +pours its waters into the Baltic. This tortuous river, +called the Dalelf, is in some places broad and majestic, +while in others it is narrow and goes foaming like a cataract +over the rocks. Along the banks of this stream +Gustavus traced his steps, making first for a village on +Lake Runn, where an old Upsala schoolmate dwelt. +Here he arrived some five days after he left his father's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> +house, and presenting himself in peasant's dress was +given refuge. However, he declared to no one who he +was, probably wishing first to learn how his host and +others were affected towards the king. While yet uncertain +what course he should pursue, one of the servants +noticed that he wore a gold-embroidered shirt, and +told her master; and this, coupled with his language +and general appearance, led to his discovery. He thereupon +appealed to his old schoolfellow to shield him +from his enemies, but in vain. The danger was too +great; and though full of sympathy for the young +refugee, he told him he must leave the place. Thus +once more an outcast, Gustavus hurriedly skirted the +south shore of the lake, and after a narrow escape by +breaking through the ice, reached the house of another +schoolmate, who offered him protection and then went +off to inform the Danish officers. From this catastrophe +Gustavus was rescued by a warning from his +betrayer's wife, and had fled ere the officers appeared. +His next asylum was some twenty miles farther north, +where he found protection at the hands of the parish +priest. The king's officers were now upon the scent. +The whole province was alive to the fact that it was +harboring within its borders the regent's ward. The +strictest vigilance was therefore necessary in order to +save his life. So the priest kept him but a week, and +then hurried him some thirty miles farther through the +woods to Rättvik, a hillside village at the eastern extremity +of Lake Siljan. There he tarried several days, +talking with the peasantry, and urging them to rebel +against the tyranny of their Danish ruler. He was now<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> +on ground to be ever afterwards famous in Swedish history. +Here for the first time his words were heard with +some degree of favor. The proud spirits of these mountain +peasants had been already often roused by evidences +of foreign usurpation, and it needed little to induce them +to rebel. But their isolated position in a measure saved +them from the burdens of the Danish yoke, and they +answered they could venture nothing till they had held +a conference with their neighbors. The disheartened +outlaw therefore set forth once more. He traversed the +icy meadows that lie along the eastern side of Lake +Siljan, and after a journey of about twenty-five miles +reached the village of Mora, lying at the head of the +lake. It was on Christmas day that he addressed the +people of this village. Knowing this to be his last hope +of success, he took his stand on an elevated mound, and +gazed over the white fields, dotted here and there with +little hamlets, and to the snow-clad hills beyond. The +surroundings added even to the zeal with which his own +needs made him speak. He portrayed in burning terms +the wrongs and insults that had been heaped upon the +Swedish people. He alluded to his own affliction and +to the general scene of carnage that had taken place in +Stockholm. He pictured the evils in store for the proud +highlanders before him, and appealed to them in the +name of Almighty God to join him in a war for liberty. +But all this eloquence was wasted. His appeal struck +no responsive chord. The people flatly refused to give +him their assistance. He had, therefore, but one course +left. With no further hope of keeping his whereabouts +unknown, he hastened with all speed from the town, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +fled over the ice-bound hills of the west, to seek a last +asylum in the wilds of Norway.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p> + +<p>Black indeed were the clouds now gathering over the +head of Sweden. Even the liberty-loving province of +Dalarne had refused to strike a blow for freedom. +Soon, it seemed, the whole of Sweden would be groaning +under the burden of a foreign despotism. Yet such an +issue was by the design of Providence to be averted. +But a few days after the flight of Gustavus out of Mora +news arrived that Christiern was preparing a journey +through the land, and had ordered a gallows to be +raised in every province. Rumor was rife, too, with +new taxes soon to be imposed. Nor was it long before +a messenger arrived who confirmed the words of +Gustavus as to the cruelties in Stockholm, and added +further that there were many magnates throughout the +realm who not only had not bowed the knee to Christiern, +but had declared that rather than do so they would +die with sword in hand. Then the blood of the villagers +of Mora boiled within them. Post-haste, and +trembling lest it were now too late, they put men on the +track of the young fugitive with orders to push on by +day and night and not rest till they had found Gustavus +and brought him back. They found him on the very +frontier of Norway, and announced to him that their +people were ready to join his banner and with him +pour out their blood for freedom. With a joyous heart +he turned about and hurried back to Mora. The whole +province was now awake. Rättvik had already had a +conflict with a body of Danish horsemen; and when the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> +outcast hero appeared once more at Mora, he found a +vast throng of peasants flocking from every side to join +his ranks. By common consent he was chosen to be +their leader and a body of sixteen stout highlanders +selected to be his guard. This was in the early days of +1521. The perseverance of the stanch young outlaw +was rewarded, and the supremacy of Gustavus Vasa +had begun.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Svaning, <i>Christ. II.</i>, p. 387; and Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, p. 8.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Rensel, <i>Berättelse</i>, p. 17; Svaning, <i>Christ. II.</i>, pp. 387-388; and +Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 8-9.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> <i>Svenska medeltid. rim-krön.</i>, vol. iii. pp. 210-212; Olaus Petri, +<i>Svenska krön.</i>, pp. 316-317; Johannes Magni, <i>De omn. Goth.</i>, p. 780; +Svaning, <i>Christ. II.</i>, pp. 173, 279, and 281-299; and Laurent. Petri, +<i>Then Svenska chrön.</i>, p. 144.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Olaus Petri, <i>Svenska krön.</i>, pp. 318-320; Johannes Magni, <i>De omn. +Goth.</i>, p. 781; Svaning, <i>Christ. II.</i>, pp. 299-315; Laurent. Petri, <i>Then +Svenska chrön.</i>, p. 145; <i>Bidrag till Skand. hist.</i>, vol. v. pp. 618-623; +and <i>Kongl. och furst. förlijkn.</i>, pp. 437-440.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Olaus Petri, <i>Svenska krön.</i>, pp. 320-321; and Svaning, <i>Christ. II.</i>, +pp. 316-320.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Olaus Petri, <i>Svenska krön.</i>, pp. 321-322; Svaning, <i>Christ. II.</i>, pp. +320-329; Laurent. Petri, <i>Then Svenska chrön.</i>, p. 145; <i>Christ. II.'s +arkiv</i>, vol. i. pp. 147-152; and <i>Nya Källor till Finl. Medeltidshist.</i>, +pp. 704-705.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Olaus Petri, <i>Svenska krön.</i>, pp. 322-323; Svaning, <i>Christ. II.</i>, +pp. 330-341; Laurent. Petri, <i>Then Svenska chrön.</i>, p. 145; and <i>Bidrag +till Skand. hist.</i>, vol. v. pp. 631-632.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Olaus Petri, <i>Svenska krön.</i>, p. 323; Svaning, <i>Christ. II.</i>, pp. 341-353; +Laurent. Petri, <i>Then Svenska chrön.</i>, pp. 145-146; <i>Bidrag till +Skand. hist.</i>, vol. v. pp. 632-634; <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv.</i>, vol. i. pp. 152-153; +<i>Dipl. Dal.</i>, vol. i. pp. 231-235; and <i>Kongl. och furst. förlijkn.</i>, +pp. 440-442.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, p. 9.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 9-10.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> <i>Bidrag till Skand. hist.</i>, vol. v. pp. 624-627.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Olaus Petri, <i>Svenska krön.</i>, pp. 323-326; Svaning, <i>Christ. II.</i>, pp. +353-362; Laurent. Petri, <i>Then Svenska chrön.</i>, p. 146; Ludvigsson, +<i>Collect.</i>, p. 87; <i>Bidrag till Skand. hist.</i>, vol. v. pp. 637-648; <i>Dipl. Dal.</i>, +vol. i. pp. 235-236; <i>Kongl. och furst. förlijkn.</i>, pp. 444-450; and <i>Nya +Källor till Finl. Medeltidshist.</i>, pp. 705-708.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Olaus Petri, <i>Svenska krön.</i>, p. 326; Svaning, <i>Christ. II.</i>, p. 362; +Laurent. Petri, <i>Then Svenska chrön.</i>, p. 146; <i>Acta hist. Reg. Christ. II.</i>, +pp. 3-4; and <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. i. pp. 153-157.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Olaus Petri, <i>Svenska krön.</i>, pp. 326-327; Svaning, <i>Christ. II.</i>, pp. +363-366; and Laurent. Petri, <i>Then Svenska chrön.</i>, p. 147.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Olaus Petri, <i>Svenska krön.</i>, pp. 327-328; Svaning, <i>Christ. II.</i>, +pp. 366-369; and Laurent. Petri, <i>Then Svenska chrön.</i>, pp. 147-148.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> <i>Svenska medeltid. rim-krön.</i>, vol. iii. pp. 218-219 and 233-234; +Eliesen, <i>Chron. Skib.</i> p. 569; Olaus Petri, <i>Svenska krön.</i>, pp. 328-334; +Johannes Magni, <i>De omn. Goth.</i>, p. 781; Olaus Magni, <i>Hist. de gent. +Sept.</i>, p. 612; Svaning, <i>Christ. II.</i>, pp. 369-384; Laurent. Petri, <i>Then +Svenska chrön.</i>, pp. 148-150; and <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. ii. pp. +1-12.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 10-12.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 12-15.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 15-17.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_IV" id="Chapter_IV"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter IV.</span></h2> + +<h3>WAR OF INDEPENDENCE; ELECTION OF GUSTAVUS TO +THE THRONE. 1521-1523.</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Causes of the War.—Character of the Dalesmen.—Growth of the Patriot +Army.—Didrik Slagheck.—Battle of Köping.—Capture of Vesterås; +of Upsala.—Skirmish with Trolle.—Skirmishes near Stockholm.—Siege +of Stegeborg.—Norby.—Rensel.—Brask.—Progress of the +War.—Coinage of Gustavus.—Christiern's Troubles in Denmark.—Siege +of Stockholm.—Fall of Kalmar.—Diet of Strengnäs.—Fall of +Stockholm.—Retrospect of the War.</p></div> + + +<p class="cap">THERE are periods in the history of most nations +when all that has been hallowed by time and custom +seems of a sudden to lose its sanctity and bow +down before the commanding influence of some new +force. These periods are of rare occurrence and generally +of short duration. They remind one of those +thunderstorms which burst upon us at the close of a +sultry August day, unheralded but by the stifling heat +of a burning sky, and in a few moments leaving the atmosphere +behind them pure and clear and cool. Sudden +and unheralded as they appear, they are yet the direct +result of a long series of forces, whose ultimate issue +might have been accurately predicted did we but thoroughly +understand the forces themselves. So, too, it is +with great political upheavals. The revolution which +drenched the whole of France with blood in 1789 is no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> +more difficult to explain than the thunderstorm which +drenches the parched earth with rain on a hot midsummer +night. It was simply the reaction after a century +of oppression, extravagance and vice. In like manner +the great revolution whose development we are about +to trace was merely the natural result of long years of +tyranny culminating in the fearful carnage of the autumn +of 1520. The Revolution in Sweden is, however, +in one respect pre-eminent among the great crises known +to history. Never was a revolution so thoroughly the +work of a single man as that in Sweden. From beginning +to end there was one figure whose presence alone +infused life into a lukewarm people, and who, working +upon the forces which had been forged by years of +tyranny, shaped them gradually to his own commanding +will. The Revolution in Sweden is the history of Gustavus +Vasa. He it was who set the torch, and he, too, +pointed out the direction in which the flame should +burn.</p> + +<p>Early in January, 1521, the war of independence +already had begun. By this time news of the revolt in +Dalarne had spread throughout the land, and the Danish +officers were wild with irritation that the young Gustavus +had escaped their clutches. The charge of affairs, +at the withdrawal of Christiern, had been placed in +the hands of a wretch scarce less contemptible than +his master. This was one Didrik Slagheck, a Westphalian +surgeon who, we are told, had "ingratiated +himself with Christiern and ravished the wives and +daughters of the Swedish magnates." Gad, for a time +the councillor of the Danish king, was now no more.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +Christiern, shrewdly divining that one who had deserted +his former master might desert again, had used him to +mediate for the surrender of Stockholm and had then +removed his head. In place of the old burgomaster +and Council of Stockholm, the city was now held by +satellites of Christiern, and any whose hearts revolted +against his sickening cruelties were discreet enough to +hold their tongues. Dalarne had become the only spot +in Sweden where liberty still lived, and thither all +liberty-loving Swedes whose hands were not yet tied +repaired. Whenever these recruits appeared, Gustavus +placed them in the midst of his little army, and called +upon them to declare what they had seen of Christiern's +deeds. It makes a striking picture, this little band of +patriots, in a far-off mountain region in the dead of winter, +with no arms but their picks and axes, strong only +in their high resolve, and yet breathing defiance against +the whole army of the Danish king. Gustavus knew +the Swedish people well. He knew them slow to move, +dull of intellect, and averse from reason. But he knew +also that they were ardent in their emotions, permeated +with a love of liberty, courageous in defence of their +ancestral rights; and he foresaw that if he could once +but rouse their passions by a vivid picture of Danish +tyranny, he could make of them the finest soldiers in +all Christendom. By Lent the little army was four +hundred strong. With this force Gustavus marched to +the great copper-mine at Falun, where he seized the +Danish steward and took possession of the royal rents, +as well as of a quantity of clothing and some silk which +he at once turned to a good use as banners for his army.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> +He then retired to his camp, but shortly after returned, +this time fifteen hundred strong. This rapid increase in +his forces produced an instantaneous effect. No sooner +did he appear than the miners joined his ranks, and further +than that they wrote to their friends in all the +neighboring provinces to join him too. Gustavus then +fixed the headquarters of his army near the southern +boundary of Dalarne, and started, April 3, on a journey +in person through several of the northern provinces +to enlist recruits.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p> + +<p>Meantime Slagheck had concentrated the Danish forces +in and near the Castle of Vesterås, deeming this the +best point at which to hold the patriots at bay. One detachment, +indeed, proceeded north as far as the Dalelf, +on the southern frontier of Dalarne, and encamped there, +thinking to prevent the enemy from crossing. While +waiting, the Danish leader is said to have inquired the +population of Dalarne, and on being told that it was +about twenty thousand, to have asked how the province +could support so many. The answer was that the +people were not used to dainties, that their only drink +was water, and in hard times their only food a bread +made from the bark of trees. "Even the Devil," ejaculated +the officer, "could not vanquish men who live on +wood and water;" and with that he ordered a retreat. +Before they got off, however, the Swedes fell upon them +and drove them home in flight. About the same time +the burgomaster and Council of Stockholm despatched a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> +letter to the northern provinces, urging them to pay no +heed to the lies of Gustavus; and Archbishop Trolle, +after several epistles of a like nature, set sail along the +coast of the Baltic to the north to use his influence in +quelling the insurrection. But wherever he tried to +land he was met by the peasantry with threats and imprecations; +and he soon beat a hasty and ignominious +retreat.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p> + +<p>On returning from his recruiting-tour to the headquarters +of his army, Gustavus put his men through a +regular course of training. Most of them were farmers, +with scarce enough knowledge of military affairs to +distinguish a javelin from a flagstaff. Their weapons +were of the rudest sort,—axes and bows and arrows. +He therefore taught them first of all to forge javelin +and arrow heads. He also introduced a pike with +spiral point which could be driven into a man's armor +so as to hold him fast. To meet the necessities of a +soldier, who was prevented by his occupation from paying +for his goods with wheat or rye, Gustavus issued a +copper coin which was at once received as money. These +preparations seem all to have been made with the prospect +of a long-continued war. While they were in progress, +a letter came from the burgomaster and Council +of Stockholm, dated April 10, and addressed to the +people of Dalarne, informing them that a number of +vessels had just arrived from the Hanse Towns, laden +by order of Christiern with clothing and food, which +were to be distributed among the people. After administering<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> +this mealy morsel the letter of the burgomaster +and Council went on to urge the Dalesmen to +have nothing to do with the lies and treachery of Gustavus, +but to consider their own and their children's +welfare and bow humbly before their gracious king. +This letter seems not to have produced the effect that +was intended. Another that came about the same time +was more effective. It was from some German soldiers +who declared, with more or less exaggeration, that they +were four thousand strong, that they had come to lend +their succor to Gustavus, had already seized nine of +Christiern's best men-of-war, and expected within a few +days to get possession of Stockholm. The news of this +marvellous achievement seems never to have been confirmed, +but at all events it fanned the enthusiasm of +the infant army.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p> + +<p>Discontent had by this time spread throughout the +land. On the 18th of April we find the Danish authorities +in Stockholm writing that tumult and confusion +reign in all parts of the kingdom, and on the 23d of +April they write of an insurrection that has broken out +in Stegeholm. This rapid spread of the conflagration +made it necessary for the Danish officers to increase +their vigilance, and on the 26th of April they found an +opportunity to win their spurs. It occurred in this wise. +One of the recruiting-officers of Gustavus, in his eagerness +to advance the patriot cause, had pushed south into +the very heart of the enemy's country, and finally burst<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> +into the town of Köping. Here, with all the rashness of +a new-made officer, he let loose his soldiers on the town. +The result was just what might have been expected. +Ere nightfall the whole army, officers and men, were +drunk. They retired to their camp, built blazing fires, +and lay down to sleep without watch or guard. News +of the situation was carried at once to Vesterås, where +a force of three thousand men was got together and +sent post-haste to Köping. It reached the patriot camp +soon after midnight on April 26. The scene of debauchery +was not yet past. The Danes fell upon them +as they lay there in their drunken stupor, and slew +them.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p> + +<p>Three days before this catastrophe Gustavus divided +his entire forces into two parts, placing one under the +command of an officer named Olsson and the other +under one Eriksson. He then reviewed his troops, +and prepared to march against the Castle of Vesterås. +He had planned an attack on the east side of the castle, +and the force sent down to Köping had been given orders +to attack it simultaneously on the west. On learning +of the disaster at Köping he seems to have made no +change in his own manoeuvres. He waited till the 29th, +and then advanced to the walls of Vesterås. His design +was not to attack the town that day. But the Danish +soldiers, chafing for the fight and already glorying in +success, gave him no choice. They came boldly forth +to meet him, led by a line of cavalry, who dashed upon +the patriots, so runs the chronicle, "like raging lions."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> +The patriots received the charge like men. In their +front rank were the halberdiers, armed with sharp weapons +some fifteen or twenty feet in length. With these +they kept the cavalry at bay, and worried the horses till +at length confusion began to spread along the line. No +sooner did the patriots see this than they discharged a +volley of arrows, hitherto reserved. Under this double +discomfiture, from their own horses and their opponents' +arrows, the cavalry yielded, then finally turned and fled, +leaving four hundred dead upon the field. Nor was this +all. As the cavalry, frenzied with terror, dashed through +the town-gate, they found the narrow streets blocked +with the infantry, on whom their ungovernable steeds +rushed with all the fury lent by fear. A large number +were thus trampled to death, while the rest were precipitated +into flight. Eriksson followed them a short +distance, and then retired; but meantime Olsson entered +the city from another quarter, and got possession of the +enemy's cannon, ball, and powder. This he carried to +Gustavus, who had taken up his position on a ridge to +the north of the town. When now the garrison saw +that they were worsted, they set fire to the town and +then retired to the castle. At this many patriots rushed +back into the burning town, burst open the shops and +wine-vaults, and parted their booty among them. As +soon as the Danes saw what was going on, their courage +once more rose, and they fell upon the plundering patriots, +already half drunk with wine. Gustavus therefore sent +a detachment under Olsson into the town to drive the +Danish soldiers back. They met in the public square, +and a long and bloody battle followed; but at last the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> +remnant of the Danish soldiers fled and took refuge in +the monastery. Here they remained three weeks, and +then escaped by boat to Stockholm. Gustavus, after the +fight was over, entered the town and destroyed every +wine-cask in the place. Though the town had fallen, +the Castle of Vesterås still held out. Experience, however, +had made clear that it could not be reduced except +by siege. He therefore pitched his camp on the west +side of the castle, and despatched the main body of his +forces to other parts.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p> + +<p>First of all, he ordered Eriksson and Olsson to attack +Upsala. They therefore proceeded with a body of infantry +to a forest some twelve miles from the city, and +pitched their camp. As soon as the canons, with the +burgomaster and Council, heard that the city was to be +attacked, they sent a letter to the patriots urging them +to postpone the onset till after the 18th of May, Saint +Erik's day, that they might celebrate the festival. But +their messenger brought back answer that as Saint +Erik's day was a Swedish festival, the patriots would +enter the town before that day and attend to the festival +themselves. However, the archbishop's steward, +who held command of the town, felt no anxiety; and +out of bravado gave a sumptuous feast one evening on +the esplanade. The festivities were protracted with +song and dance till after midnight; and scarce had +the sound of revelry died away, when the patriots, +warned of the midnight orgies, burst upon the town, +beat down the guard, and held possession of the streets +before any of the carousers knew they were at hand.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +So soon as they did come to their senses they poured a +volley from their arquebuses into the spot where they +thought the enemy were collected. But they were +aiming in the dark, and not a finger of the Swedes +was hurt. The archbishop's steward then planned a +strategic movement on the rear, and endeavored to +move his troops through a long wooden passageway +running from the palace to the cathedral; but the +Swedes, perceiving it, set fire to the passageway, and +at the same time shot blazing arrows up into the palace +roof. The Danes retaliated by setting fire to the +buildings all about the palace; but the patriots in each +case extinguished the fire before it got fully under +way. The palace, however, was soon a mass of flames; +and the archbishop's forces, seeing all was lost, mounted +their steeds, burst open the palace-gate, and galloped in +all haste over the fields to the south. The Swedes pursued, +but, finding the enemy's steeds too fleet for them, +showered a volley of arrows after the flying horsemen, +and returned.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p> + +<p>Early in June Gustavus came from Vesterås, and +opened negotiations with the canons of Upsala, with a +view to win them over to his side. As they refused, +however, to take action without consulting the archbishop, +he begged them to consult him at once, and he +himself wrote a pacific letter urging the archbishop to +champion his country's cause. Trolle, then in Stockholm, +scorned the message and seized the messenger +who brought it. Then he placed himself at the head +of a troop of three thousand foot and five hundred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> +horse, in glittering armor, and marched to Upsala, declaring +that his answer to the message he would convey +in person. Gustavus, expecting daily the return of +his messenger, was taken wholly unawares. The great +body of his soldiers had gone back to their farms, and +he had but six hundred of them left. With these it +would be madness to withstand the archbishop's force. +He therefore evacuated the city, and hurried over the +meadows to the west. As soon as he was out of danger, +he despatched officers to call back the farmers to his +ranks, and meantime drew up an ambuscade on the +road between Stockholm and Upsala, thinking to spring +upon the archbishop as he returned. The plot was discovered, +and when the troops returned they took another +path. Gustavus, however, did not give up the chase. +With his ranks once more replenished, he pursued the +enemy, and a battle followed so hot that when the archbishop +arrived at Stockholm, he entered the town with +only an eighth part of the glittering troop with which +he had started out.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p> + +<p>The patriot army now proceeded to the capital, and +pitched their camp on the hill north of the town. There +they found four gallows from which were hanging the +bodies of four Swedes, murdered to glut the rapacity +of their Danish masters. One day, while encamped on +this spot, the Danes came out against them, and dividing +their forces into two bodies stormed the Swedish +redoubt simultaneously on both sides. The charge was +fierce, and lasted half a day, when the Swedes were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +driven from their stronghold with heavy loss, and forced +to take up a new position about twelve miles farther +north. There they remained three weeks, battling daily +with the enemy with varying success. At last the commandant +of Stockholm had recourse to strategy. Advancing +with a powerful army till near the vicinity of +the Swedish camp, he halted and placed his force in +ambuscade. He then pushed forward with some forty +horse and a few weak infantry to the enemy's earthworks, +as if to storm them. After a slight skirmish, +in which some eight or ten of the horse were captured, +the Danish leader shouted that all was lost, and took +to flight. The patriots, all unsuspecting, dashed after +them, and followed blindly into the very midst of the Danish +army, into the jaws of death. Thus ended the first +attempt of Gustavus Vasa to capture Stockholm.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p> + +<p>Better fared it with him in other parts. One of the +most valiant officers of Gustavus was Arvid Vestgöte. +This man was despatched, about the middle of May, to +the provinces south of Stockholm, to enlist the peasantry +in the Swedish cause. Collecting his forces along +the way, he advanced from one town to another, plundering +the estates of all who would not join him, and +before the end of June reached Stegeborg, a strongly +fortified castle on the Baltic coast. This he proceeded +to besiege. In July, Norby, the most famous naval +officer of Christiern, came to the rescue of the beleaguered +castle with sixteen men-of-war. Landing his +forces on the shore, he drew them up in battle-array, +three hundred strong. The Swedes, however, rushed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> +furiously upon them, and drove them to the sea. A few +days later, after provisioning the castle, Norby sailed +away to Denmark.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p> + + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="i103" id="i103"></a> +<a href="images/103.png"><img src="images/103t.png" width="300" height="295" alt="" title="" /></a> +</div> + +<p>All through this spring and summer Gustavus was +busy passing from camp to camp, giving orders as to +the disposition of his forces, and receiving the allegiance +of the people. His practice, as far as possible, seems to +have been to use persuasion, and only when that failed +did he resort to force. This method proved successful +in a marvellous degree. One after another the provinces +recognized him as their leader; and on the 14th of July +we find him issuing a proclamation as commander of +five provinces, named in the order of their declaration +of allegiance. His greatest difficulty at this time was +in finding the means with which to pay his men. Possessing +no authority to levy taxes, he was often forced +to close the mouths of his clamoring soldiers by allowing +them to plunder. The great body of his army was of +course made up of Swedes. These were fighting for the +welfare of their wives and children, and were content if +he provided them only with the necessities of life. The +mercenaries whom he employed were few. One of them, +a tough old warrior named Rensel, has left us a chronicle +of his life. He tells us he came over from Livonia +in the winter of 1521, and was among the four thousand +German veterans that counted on entering Stockholm +in the spring. Gustavus sent him back to the Continent +for more men and ammunition; and when he returned +in July of that year, he brought back sixty mercenaries +with him. In August Gustavus made an inspection of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> +the camp at Stegeborg. While there, he learned that +the Bishop of Linköping was more than half minded to +join the patriot cause. This bishop, Hans Brask, was a +man of rare shrewdness, excellent common-sense, and +as time-serving as any man in Europe. He had strong +convictions, but he always looked to see how the wind +was blowing before he spoke them out. He had, among +others, signed the decree for the demolition of Stäket, +but had taken the precaution to place under his seal a +slip of paper declaring +that he affixed his signature +perforce, and when +his fellows were brought +out to be beheaded, he +removed the seal; by +this little bit of Romanism +he saved his head +and the emoluments of +his priestly office. To +this man Gustavus wrote +in August, asking for a conference. The aspect of the +heavens was not such as to justify the wily bishop in +refusing. The continued brutality of Didrik Slagheck +had raised such a storm of indignation in the country, +that his own followers had found it necessary, on June +16, to hurry him out of Sweden, and announce that they +had thrown him into jail. Nearly all of Sweden, except +the fortified castles, was in the patriots' hands. The +forces of Gustavus were growing stronger day by day, +and in the continued absence of Christiern the fortresses +that still held out were likely soon to yield for want of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> +food and ammunition. In this state of affairs Hans +Brask made up his mind without delay. He granted +the interview with Gustavus, and was very easily persuaded +to join the Swedish cause. It now seemed best +that the vague authority conferred upon Gustavus by +the different provinces should be defined, so that he +might as representative of the Swedish nation treat +with foreign powers. He therefore announced that a +general diet would be held at Vadstena on August 24, +and all the chief men of different classes in the kingdom +were summoned to attend. By whom the delegates +were selected we are not told. Certainly they were not +selected by Gustavus. At all events, they came together +in vast numbers, and, if we are to believe the chronicle, +urged Gustavus to accept the crown. This, however, he +refused, but accepted the title of Commander of the +Swedish Army, at the same time adding that after they +had wholly freed themselves from Christiern, a general +diet might then be held to discuss the propriety of +choosing some man of their own nation king.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p> + +<p>While the patriots were occupied with their diet, the +Danes in Stockholm sent a force by water to the relief +of Vesterås. The patriots, still in possession of the +town, sought by aid of their falconets to prevent a +landing, but without avail. The relief-party made its +way into the castle, replenished it with men and ammunition,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> +and withdrew. Gustavus, knowing that the +Danes on their return to Stockholm must pass through +a narrow inlet some thirty yards in width, sent thither +a force to throw up earthworks on both sides of the +passage and await the coming of the enemy. The battle +which ensued was fierce, and lasted two whole days; +but finally, having inflicted as well as suffered heavy +loss, the Danish fleet escaped. Shortly after, in September, +Gustavus sent a force to Finland. This force received +large reinforcements from the people in that +province, and on the 24th of November, being furnished +ammunition by the bishop of Åbo, laid siege to Åbo +Castle. On December 18 the Castle of Stegeborg still +besieged by Arvid Vestgöte, fell; and the commandant, +Berent von Mehlen, after two months in prison swore +fealty to Gustavus. Six days after the castle yielded, +Norby, not having heard of the disaster, came sailing +boldly into the harbor with food and men. The patriots +soon informed him of his error by firing upon him from +the castle walls, and in the conflict which took place +it is reported that six hundred of his men were lost. +Most of Vestgöte's forces, after the fall of Stegeborg, +were transferred to the vicinity of Stockholm, to which +Gustavus early in the autumn had again laid siege. +The summer's experience had made manifest that it +would be useless to assault the capital. Gustavus therefore +held his forces several miles away from the city, +and with a view to cut off supplies divided them into +three camps,—one on the north, another on the south, +and the third on an island to the west. On Christmas +eve the garrison, finding that no assault was likely to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> +made, embarked some fifteen hundred men on yawls +and coasting-vessels, and proceeded against the island-camp. +The Swedish leader watched the preparations +from a hill; and when he saw that the enemy were +coming against himself, divided his men into squads of +fourteen and sixteen, and placed these squads at intervals +through the woods with orders to sound their horns +as soon as the neighboring squad had sounded theirs. +He then waited till the enemy were all on shore, when +he gave the signal, and in a moment it was re-echoed all +along the line. The effect was marvellous. The enemy, +horrified by the apparent number of the Swedes, turned +and fled. The Swedes, who had but about four hundred +and fifty men in all, pursued them to their boats and +cut down two hundred of them on the shore. After this +the garrison from time to time made raids upon the +northern and southern camps, and generally got the +better of the Swedes, though nothing of marked importance +was accomplished by either side. On the 30th of +January the Castle of Vesterås, hard pressed for food +and cut off from supplies, surrendered. Later in the +winter, seemingly in March, Norby came from Denmark +with a large force to Stockholm, and replenished the garrison +with fresh men. About the same time the Swedish +camp on the north was moved nearer; and the Danes, +thus reinforced by Norby, came out against them +April 17, and routed them with heavy loss. The day +following, a like sally was made on the southern camp +with like result. Having thus raised the siege of Stockholm, +Norby set sail for Finland, and routed the Swedish +forces still besieging Åbo. The bishop of Åbo, finding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> +his own land too hot for him, embarked for Sweden; but +his vessel foundered, and all on board were drowned. +In April Gustavus recruited a strong force in Dalarne +and the other northern provinces, and pitched his camps +once more to the north and south of Stockholm.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="i107" id="i107"></a> +<a href="images/107.png"><img src="images/107t.png" width="300" height="140" alt="" title="" /></a> +</div> + + + +<p>The war had now been raging over a year, and Gustavus +had experienced the utmost difficulty in obtaining +money with which to pay his men. In the absence +of any authority to levy taxes, he had resorted to the +practice of coining money, and had established mints +in several places through +the realm. His coins, which +were known as "klippings," +consisted of copper with a +very slight admixture of silver, +and twenty-four of them +were issued for a mark. As a matter of fact their actual +value fell far below what they purported to be worth. For +such a practice it is difficult to find excuse, except that +it was a practice universal at the time. Why a monarch +should be justified any more than an individual in giving +a penny where he owed a pound, is difficult to comprehend. +Yet this had been for centuries the custom, +and each successive monarch had pared a little from +the standard, so that in the eight hundred years preceding +Gustavus Vasa the various monetary units all over +Europe had declined to little more than an eighteenth +part of their original value. In Denmark the debasement<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> +of the currency had been more rapid than in almost +any other land, and the "klippings" of Christiern +II. fell farther below their nominal value than any coin +in Europe—till the "klippings" were issued by Gustavus, +which were a trifle worse than those of Christiern. +Of course, as the standard of currency is lowered, its +buying-power gradually declines, so that ultimately, under +whatever name a particular coin may go, it will +buy no more than could be had for the actual bullion +which it contains. A mark in the sixteenth century +would have bought, provided the relative supply of +bullion and merchandise remained the same, only an +eighteenth part of what it bought originally. The aim +of monarchs was, therefore, to get rid of their debased +coins at more than the real value, and after they had +depreciated, to get them back at the depreciated value, +melt them down, and lower the standard further. Precisely +how much Gustavus made by tampering with the +currency is impossible to say, for there is no means of +determining how many of his "klippings" he threw +upon the market. It is clear, however, that the scheme +was from a financial point of view successful, and that +a vast number of the "klippings" were absorbed before +the public detected their inferiority.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p> + +<p>Unquestionably the marvellous progress made by Gustavus +in this first year of the revolution was owing in +great measure to the critical state of things in Denmark<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>. +Christiern had by this time made enemies all over Europe. +Lubeck, always a latent enemy, was particularly +imbittered by Christiern's favoritism of the market +towns of the Netherlands and his avowed intention of +making Copenhagen the staple market for his kingdom; +France hated him because he was the brother-in-law of +her enemy, Charles V.; Fredrik, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, +opposed him because he had laid claim to those +dominions; and his own clergy opposed him because of +his rumored leaning towards Lutheranism and his efforts +to check their power. All these things prevented his +return to Sweden, and conspired against his credit so +that he was unable to raise an army of any strength. +Didrik Slagheck, too, whom he had placed at the head +of affairs in Sweden, had fallen into disgrace, and, to +appease the public clamor, had been beheaded. Even +Gustavus Trolle, after several attempts to exert his papal +authority in Sweden, had found the land too hot for +him, and for the present had withdrawn to Denmark.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p> + +<p>Norby was at this time the most valuable officer that +Christiern had. He infested the shores of the Baltic +with his fleet, making frequent incursions on the land +to plunder; and at length became so obnoxious that +Gustavus sent to Lubeck for a fleet. On the 7th of June +it came, ten ships of war, laden with all sorts of merchandise, +and fully equipped with powder, shot, and men.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> +For this aid Gustavus is said to have paid an enormous +figure, giving his promissory note for the amount. Picking +out a battalion of five hundred men, he sent them +down to Kalmar, to which castle Vestgöte had just laid +siege. The rest of the reinforcements he despatched to +Stockholm, quartering them in his different camps, and +then discharged all of the Swedish peasants except the +young unmarried men. Shortly after this change the commandant +of Åbo Castle crossed the Baltic with a powerful +fleet, and sought to break the siege of Stockholm. But +the Swedish fleet met him outside the harbor, captured or +burnt his vessels, and took him prisoner. In October, +seeing that the garrison was losing strength, Gustavus +advanced his camps nearer to the town. His southern +camp he moved to Södermalm, from which he built a pontoon +bridge to connect it with the west camp now on +an island some three or four hundred yards from Stockholm. +Another bridge he threw across the channel +east of the city, and built upon it a turret which he +armed with heavy guns. The city was thus hemmed in +on every side, and a contemporary writes, "We cannot +find in any of the old chronicles that Stockholm ever +was so hard besieged before." Unless relief came it +was merely a question of time when the garrison would +have to yield. Once, in November, Norby came sailing +into the harbor with five ships-of-war; but the Swedish +fleet, consisting of fifteen vessels, drove him off, and, +were it not for the half-heartedness of the German +mercenaries, would very likely have destroyed his fleet.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p> +<p>The high spirit of the garrison had fallen. Wasted +in numbers, with hunger and dissension spreading fast +among them, and with scarce enough ammunition to resist +an assault upon their walls, they waited impatiently +for the army of Christiern, and marvelled that it did not +come. All servants, old men, monks, burghers, and +prostitutes they sent away, that there might be fewer +mouths to feed. Each day, too, their numbers were +diminished through the desertion of able-bodied men +who escaped through the gates or over the walls and +made their way by one means or another to the Swedish +camp. There being no longer possibility of driving off +the enemy by force, they felt that their only hope was +fraud. They therefore one day sent a Swedish magnate +to the enemy, with instructions to pretend that he had +fled, and after finding out how matters stood, set fire to +the camp and either return to the garrison, or, that +being impossible, make his way to Denmark and induce +the monarch to send immediate relief. This piece of +stratagem, however, proved abortive; for two refugees +from the garrison came forward and denounced the +magnate as a spy.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p> + +<p>When winter came, Gustavus sent a large part of his +army, chiefly the cavalry, to take up winter-quarters in +Upsala. Others were sent to other towns. Some, too, +were sent, in February, 1523, to the Norwegian frontier +to gain the allegiance of the people. Towards the close +of winter Gustavus ordered his German troops to the +south of Sweden on a similar errand, but within six +weeks they came back and reported that the spring<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> +freshets had carried away the bridges and they could +not proceed. Norby meantime lay with a strong force +in the town and castle of Kalmar, and was making preparations +to attack Vestgöte, who was still carrying on +the siege, as soon as spring should open. But just as he +was getting ready, he received word from the Danish +Cabinet that Christiern had been deposed in Denmark, +and Fredrik, duke of Schleswig-Holstein, summoned to +the throne. At this news he set sail with all his force +for Denmark, leaving only sixty men to hold the castle +and town of Kalmar. Their orders were to form two +garrisons of thirty each, one to guard the castle and the +other to guard the town; and if through assault or +failure of provisions they could not maintain the stronghold, +they were to slaughter all the Swedes in Kalmar, +set fire to the town, and sail to Gotland. As soon as +the burghers of Kalmar learned of these instructions, +they sent a messenger to the Swedish camp to tell the +Swedes to enter the town by the north gate on the 27th +of May, when the burghers would take care that the +gate should be opened for them. On the day appointed +Vestgöte advanced with all his cavalry, and drew them +up in battle-array along the west and south side of the +town as if to storm the southern gate. The garrison, +all unsuspecting, flocked to that point in order to receive +the charge. But meantime the Swedish infantry +had massed themselves outside the northern gate, which +at a concerted signal was thrown open on its hinges, +and the infantry pressed in. It was but the work of a +moment to put the little garrison to the sword. For a +few weeks more the castle refused to yield, and it was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> +not till the 7th of July that, reduced to the last extremity, +it fell.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p> + +<p>Kalmar had not yet fallen when it became clear that +the war of independence was drawing to its close, and it +was felt on every hand that the country had been too +long without a king. The powers which Gustavus possessed +as regent were too vague to meet the necessities +of a time of peace. While the army was in the field, +he had authority, as commander of the forces, to levy +the taxes necessary to sustain his men; but, so soon +as the war was over, there would be no means for raising +the money needed to pay the nation's debts. He therefore, +shortly before the fall of Kalmar, summoned a +general diet to be held at Strengnäs on the 27th of May. +Whether or not all the magnates of Sweden were summoned +to the diet is not known, but at any rate the +peasantry were represented. The wily Brask, who had +once saved his head by a bit of strategy, dared not +put it in jeopardy again, and fearing that matters of +weight might be brought before the diet, was suddenly +taken ill and rendered unable to attend. The Cabinet, +hitherto the sum and substance of a general diet, was +practically dead, having been carried off in the fearful +slaughter of 1520. One of the first things to be done, +therefore, after the opening of the diet, was to fill these +vacant seats. This was accomplished on the 2d of June, +but whether the members were chosen by Gustavus or +by vote of the general diet we are not told. Noteworthy +it is, that the persons selected, nine in number, were all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +of them laymen and warriors in the service of Gustavus. +Four days later, on the 6th of June, the question of +electing a king of Sweden was brought before the house. +The proposal was received with shouts of acclamation, +and with one accord the delegates raised their voices in +favor of Gustavus. But the regent, so the reporter +tells us, rose to his feet, and, mid the deafening shouts +of those about him, declared that he had no wish for +further honor, that he was weary of leadership, that he +had found more gall than honey in the post, and that +there were others more worthy than himself on whom to +lay the crown. So importunate, however, were the delegates, +that at last he yielded, accepted their allegiance, +and took the royal oath. This done, the diet voted to +levy a tax to defray the expenses of the war. Among +the very first Acts to which the newly chosen monarch +attached his seal was one which granted the cities of +Lubeck and Dantzic, with their allies, the perpetual monopoly +of all foreign trade with Sweden. At the same +time it was provided that Stockholm, Kalmar, Söderköping, +and Åbo should be the only ports of entry for +foreign merchants in the realm. This Act was the result +of an application made by Lubeck the year before, +and was carried by the importunities of Lubeck's ambassadors +to the diet. It was a sop to stay the flood of +their demands for immediate payment of the debt incurred +to Lubeck by the war. As it granted these +Hanse Towns entry for all goods free of duty, it must +be deemed a marked concession. One favorable clause, +however, was incorporated in the Act, providing that no +alien should thereafter be a burgher either of Stockholm<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> +or of Kalmar. Another measure of weight which the +diet passed provided that a tax payable in silver should +be levied to defray the expenses of the war, though apparently +nothing was fixed by the diet as to the amount +to be raised or as to the mode of levy. With this +meagre record our information regarding this celebrated +diet ends; but the new Cabinet, before it parted, drew up +a long-winded account of the cruelties of Christiern, +which it sent abroad among the people for a lasting +memorial of their tyrant king.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p> + +<p>No sooner had the diet closed its doors than the +monarch sped with all the haste he could command +to Stockholm. That city had been for several days in +the last stages of despair. The garrison was miserably +wasted in numbers, and its food was gone. Longer to +look for aid from Denmark was to hope against all +hope. Indeed, the wretched soldiers now thought only +of the terms on which they should capitulate. During +a month or more they had parleyed with their besiegers, +but the terms which they had offered had thus far been +refused. As soon as Gustavus reached the spot, negotiations +were once more opened. The new monarch, +fresh from the honors of Strengnäs, seems to have +shown them mercy. Apparently he granted their requests; +for on the 20th of June the castle yielded, and +the garrison, supplied with food and ships, set sail for +Denmark. Three days later, June 23, the monarch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +entered the capital in triumph, amid the hosannas of +his people. With this glorious issue the Swedish war +of independence closed.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="i116" id="i116"></a> +<a href="images/116.png"><img src="images/116t.png" width="300" height="133" alt="" title="" /></a> +</div> + + + +<p>In contemplating this struggle as a whole, the reader +will doubtless be impressed by the extraordinary ease +with which the victory was won. In less than two years +and a half after the first blow was struck, the Danish +tyrants had been +driven from every +stronghold, and +the patriots had +placed their leader +on the throne. +Indeed, eighteen +months had scarcely passed when the issue was practically +decided. The remaining year consisted mainly +in the reduction of Sweden's strongholds, and was +marked by little bloodshed. It furnished small opportunity +either for brilliant strategy or for acts of startling +courage. The enforced absence of the Danish +monarch prevented his army from entering the field, +and the patriots had neither arms nor ammunition +with which to storm the forts. Both parties, therefore, +waited; and the last year was little more than a test +to determine the endurance of the contending armies. +While, however, this period wants many of the features +that make war grand, it is yet instructive if not interesting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> +in its results. The struggle at the beginning was +against overwhelming odds. The patriots had neither +ammunition nor resources, and their leader was without +prestige. On the other hand the Danes were well supplied +with men and arms, and were led by one of the +powerful monarchs of Europe backed by all the authority +and influence of Rome. In spite of all this, +the patriots grew in numbers day by day, while the +Danish forces steadily declined. The patriots succeeded +in obtaining rich supplies of men and arms from abroad, +while Christiern was scarce able to keep his army from +starvation. One by one the strongholds which he had +seized surrendered, till finally his entire army was forced +to yield, and Sweden, from her place as a weak and +down-trodden Danish province, attained an enviable +position among the great monarchies of Europe. The +key to this marvellous transformation in the two parties +can be found only in the characters of their respective +leaders. The people were horrified by the brutal cruelties +of Christiern, while allured by the evident sincerity +and enthusiasm of Gustavus. In all history there is +no more striking example of the far-reaching influence +which individual characters sometimes exert upon a +nation's growth.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Svaning, <i>Christ. II.</i>, pp. 432-433; Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. +17-18 and 20-21; Ludvigsson, <i>Collect.</i>, pp. 86-87; and <i>Sver. trakt.</i>, +vol. iv. pp. 1-5.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 18-19 and 21-23; <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, +vol. iv. pp. 1340-1348; and <i>Dipl. Dal.</i>, vol. i. pp. 237-238.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Rensel, <i>Berättelse</i>, p. 19; Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, p. 26; <i>Christ. +II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. iv. pp. 1338-1339 and 1353-1356; and <i>Dipl. Dal.</i>, +vol. i. pp. 240-241.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 25-26; and <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. iv. +pp. 1349-1350 and 1352-1353.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 24 and 26-30.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 31-34.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 35-37; and <i>Sver. trakt.</i>, vol. iv. pp. +7-15.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 37-39.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 30 and 42-43.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Rensel, <i>Berättelse</i>, pp. 22-23; <i>Diar. Vazsten.</i>, p. 217; Svart, <i>Gust. +I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 39-41 and 43-46; <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. iv. pp. 1356-1369 +and 1374-1375; <i>Dipl. Dal.</i>, vol. i. pp. 240-241, and Suppl. p. 30; +<i>Nya Källor till Finl. Medeltidshist.</i>, pp. 708-709; and <i>Sver. trakt.</i>, vol. +iv. pp. 5-6 and 27-35.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> <i>Diar. Vazsten.</i>, p. 217; Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 43 and 46-55; +<i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. i. pp. 197-211 and 214-220; and <i>Nya Källor +till Finl. Medeltidshist.</i>, pp. 712-714.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 23 and 53; and <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, +vol. i. p. 214. See on this subject a most valuable discussion by Hans +Forssell in his <i>Anteckningar om mynt, vigt, mått, och varupris i Sverige</i>, +pp. 19-43, printed at the end of his <i>Sver. inre hist.</i>, vol. ii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Eliesen, <i>Chron. Skib.</i>, p. 570; Rensel, <i>Berättelse</i>, p. 24; Svaning, +<i>Christ. II.</i>, pp. 389-392 and 432-437; <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. i. pp. +159-196 and vol. iv. pp. 1369-1379; <i>Dipl. Dal.</i>, vol. i. pp. 242-244; +<i>Nya Källor till Finl. Medeltidshist.</i>, pp. 718-726; and <i>Skrift. och handl.</i>, +vol. iv. pp. 351-357.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Rensel, <i>Berättelse</i>, pp. 24-30; Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 51, 55-56 +and 61-64; and <i>Sver. trakt.</i>, vol. iv. pp. 15-27.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 65-66.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Rensel, <i>Berättelse</i>, pp. 30-33; Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 67-69; +and <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. i. p. 106.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 70-73; <i>Alla riksdag. och möt. besluth</i>, +vol i. pp. 1-17; <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. iv. pp. 1457-1458 and 1677-1682; +<i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. i. pp. 63-86; <i>Svenska +riksdagsakt.</i>, vol. i. pp. 8-9; and <i>Sver. trakt.</i>, vol. iv. pp. 55-60.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Rensel, <i>Berättelse</i>, p. 34; Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 69-72; +<i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. iv. pp. 1452-1454, 1463 and 1474-1482; <i>Kon. +Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. i. pp. 90-95; and <i>Sver. trakt.</i>, vol. iv. +pp. 61-65.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_V" id="Chapter_V"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter V.</span></h2> + +<h3>BEGINNINGS OF THE REFORMATION. 1523-1524.</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Nature of the Reformation in Europe.—Cause of the Reformation in +Sweden.—The Debt to Lubeck.—Riches of the Church.—Relations +of Gustavus to the Pope.—Johannes Magni.—New Taxation—Dissension +among the People.—Opposition of Gustavus to the Pope.—Trial +of Peder Sunnanväder.—Expedition against Gotland.—Repudiation +of the "Klippings."—Berent von Mehlen.—Negotiations between +Fredrik and Norby.—Congress of Malmö.—Efforts to appease +the People.—Lutheranism.—Olaus Petri.—Laurentius Andreæ.—Brask's +Efforts to repress Heresy.—Religious Tendencies of Gustavus.—Character +of Brask.</p></div> + + +<p class="cap">WE have now reached that point in our narrative +where the history of modern Sweden takes its +start. With the close of the war of independence those +features which mark the face of mediæval Sweden disappear, +and a wholly new countenance gradually settles +upon the land. Nor is this transformation peculiar in +any way to Sweden. Early in the sixteenth century all +Europe was passing from mediæval into modern history. +In the Middle Ages there was but one criterion for +every question that arose, and that criterion was the +past. Whatever had been, should continue. All Church +dogmas were settled by an appeal to the ancient Fathers; +all political aspirations were fought out on the basis of +descent. Tradition was the god of mediæval Europe.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> +At last, however, questions arose for which tradition +had no answer. On the Renaissance in Italy, on the +invention of printing and of gunpowder, on the discovery +of America, the ancient Fathers had not spoken. +On these things, therefore, which raised the greatest +questions of the age, men had nothing for it but to do +their thinking for themselves. The practice thus evoked +soon spread to other questions, and gradually men grew +bold enough to venture opinions on certain stereotyped +matters of religion. As all the world knows, the Reformation +followed, and from an age of blind acceptance +Europe passed to an age of eager controversy. Instead +of searching to find out what had been, men +argued to determine what it was desirable should be. +If tradition was the characteristic of mediæval, policy +is the characteristic of modern, history. Some old +dogmas, like the divine right of kings, still linger; but +since the fifteenth century kings have had little chance +whose claims conflict with the balance of European +power.</p> + +<p>The beginnings of modern history are inextricably +bound up with the beginnings of the Reformation. It is +a common belief that the Reformation in Europe worked +a radical change in the doctrines of religious men, raising +up two parties with diametrically opposing creeds. +Such a conception, however, is misleading. The Reformation +was not so much a religious as a political revolt. +It was the natural outcome of a growth in the power of +northern Germany at a moment when Rome was losing +her political prestige. The alliance between the German +Empire and the popes of Rome had its origin in a need<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> +of mutual assistance. Western Europe consisted, at the +accession of Charlemagne, of many independent principalities +at war among themselves, and what they needed +was a powerful protector to adjust their various disputes. +Later this need of a protector became still more +urgent, when Germany and France fell under different +rulers, and the German Empire began to be threatened +by the monarchy across the Rhine. Rome, by reason +of her spiritual supremacy, was the arbiter to whom the +northern nations naturally turned, and she found ready +recompense for her services in the treasures poured generously +into her lap. Such was the basis of the Holy +Roman Empire. But by the beginning of the sixteenth +century all this had changed. Germany was no longer +weak. Her little principalities had become cemented +together under an emperor well able to repel every +invasion of the French. Society had made vast progress, +not only in its comforts, but in its demands. +Rome, on the other hand, had lost her prestige. In Italy, +where the brutality and licentiousness of the popes were +open to every eye, people had long since lost all reverence +for the Church. This feeling did not spread readily +across the Alps; but it came at last, and at a moment +when Germany no longer needed aid. A nation guarded +by the strong arm of Maximilian could ill brook new +levies to feed the extravagance of its decrepit ally, and +the infamous practices of Tetzel served as a timely pretext +to shake off the burdensome alliance of the papal +see. The abuses of popery were little more than a war-cry, +while the real struggle of the Reformation was +against the political supremacy of Rome.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p> + +<p>In Sweden, more than in almost any other land, the +Reformation was a political revolt. Indeed, it may well +be called a political necessity. At the moment when +Gustavus Vasa was elected king, Sweden was on the +verge of bankruptcy. The war just passed had drained +the resources of the country, and left her heavily involved +in debt. The principal creditor was Lubeck. +Precisely how much had been borrowed from that town +it is impossible to determine, though it is certain the +total amount fell not far short of 300,000 Swedish +marks.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> One payment of about 17,000 Swedish marks +Gustavus had made in 1522.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> This of course was a +mere drop in the bucket, and other devices were necessary +to relieve the general distress. One favorite device, +to which allusion has been already made, consisted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> +in a debasement of the currency. That device, +however, had soon lost its savor, and the coin which in +1522 Gustavus had issued for an öre and a half, he was +forced in 1523 to place upon the market as an öre.<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> So +that when the new monarch ascended the throne it was +manifest that the treasury must be replenished in other +modes. The natural direction was that in which the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> +greatest wealth of Sweden lay,—in other words, the +Church. We have already seen how completely, in the +centuries preceding the Reformation, the Church in +Sweden had freed herself from all authority of the people, +and had gradually accumulated for herself a vast +amount of wealth. Some conception of this treasure +may be had by comparing the edifices belonging to the +Church with those owned by individuals. Such a comparison +reveals at once an enormous disparity in favor +of the Church. At a time when well-to-do citizens +dwelt in what would at this day be known as hovels,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> +they worshipped in churches that must have seemed +to them palatial. The six cathedrals that existed in +the time of Gustavus still remain, and even at this day +compare favorably with the finest structures in the +land. In addition to a magnificent palace, the archbishop +and the five Swedish bishops each possessed a +fortified castle in his diocese. In each diocese, too, +there were an enormous number of estates belonging +to the bishopric; those in the diocese of Linköping, for +example, numbering over six hundred. The rents and +profits from these estates went directly to the bishopric, +and were wholly exempt from taxation, as were +also the untold treasures of gold and silver belonging +to the various churches. Beside all this tithes of every +species of farm produce raised in any part of Sweden +were due the Church, also tithes of all other personal +property acquired. Further, a small annual tax was +due the Church for every building in the land from a +palace to a pig-sty; also a fee for every wedding, death, or +childbirth. No one could inherit property, or even take +the sacrament, without a contribution to the Church. +And every peasant was bound one day each year to labor +for his pastor without reward.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> How all this money was +disbursed, seems difficult to comprehend. Some clew, +however, may be gained when we consider what a vast +horde of clergy the Swedish people had to feed. Take, +for example, the cathedrals. Most of them formed a +little hierarchy in themselves. First of all was the +archbishop or the bishop, who lived in regal splendor.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> +Around him was his chapter, comprising in one instance +as many as thirty canons. Then there was the archdeacon, +the cantor, the scholasticus, and some thirty +or forty prebends. This little army of Church officers required +to be fed, and fed well—and the people of Sweden +had to pay the bill. It was but natural, therefore, that, +Sweden being heavily involved in debt, the monarch +should seek to stay this wasteful extravagance and divert +a portion of the Church incomes to the crown.</p> + +<p>By the war of independence the way had been already +paved for a war against the Church. Christiern had declared +himself the champion of the pope; and the higher +clergy, as vicegerents of the pope in Sweden, had generally +allied themselves with the foreign party. So that the rebellion +had been in large measure directed against the +authorities of the Church itself, and the victory of Gustavus +was felt distinctly as a victory over the powers +of the Church. The Chapter of Upsala had therefore +deemed it policy to please Gustavus, and were talking +of electing his chancellor archbishop in place of +Trolle, who had fled the realm. For a like reason +the Chapter of Vesterås had chosen a former secretary +of Sture to their vacant bishopric. The bishoprics of +Strengnäs and Skara, made vacant by the expulsion of +the Danes, had also been filled by persons favorable +to the general policy of Gustavus. So that when the +new monarch assumed control, the dignitaries of the +Church seemed likely to listen to his demands.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p> + +<p>It is not for a moment to be supposed that Gustavus +at this time contemplated an opposition to the pope.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> +Such an idea had been spread abroad by Christiern +with a view to win sympathy in Europe; but Gustavus +had written to all the potentates of Europe to deny +the charge, and had sent a messenger to the pope to +raise a counter charge against Christiern as the murderer +of two Swedish bishops in the slaughter of 1520. +The pope, already distrustful of his Danish ally, had +listened favorably to the message, and in the following +summer, 1523, had sent a legate to Sweden to inform +him further on the subject.<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p> + +<p>This papal legate, Johannes Magni, was the son of +a pious burgher of Linköping, and along with his two +brothers had been educated from childhood for the +Church. At the age of eighteen so marvellous was his +precocity that he was made a canon both of Linköping +and of Skara. Later, as was the practice with scholars +of that period, he continued his studies at several of +the leading universities in Europe. But in spite of a +sojourn of some seventeen years away from Sweden, +he never ceased to keep up a fervid interest in the +affairs of his native land. As soon as the atrocities of +Christiern reached his ears, he made a personal visit to +Pope Leo X. and denounced the practices of the Danish +king. The suggestions which he offered seem to have +been scorned by Leo; but in 1521 that pontiff died, +and his successor, Adrian VI., listened more readily to +the Swedish canon. Adrian himself was from the north +of Europe, and had earlier been an instructor of Johannes +in the University of Louvain. The characters<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> +of the two were not unlike. Both held strong theological +opinions, and looked with dread upon all opposition +to the papal power. But they were both keenly alive +to the abuses that had gathered about the Church, and +were eager to repress them. Johannes was peculiarly +suited by nature for a work of compromise. With no +ordinary talents, of untiring energy, sympathetic, generous, +and conciliating, but withal imbued with an ardent +love of the Church, Adrian at once discerned in +him a valuable mediator. When, therefore, Gustavus +wrote to Rome to defend himself against the charge +of heresy, the pope selected Johannes as his legate, with +instructions to proceed to Sweden and investigate the +charges made against each other by Christiern and +Gustavus. The legate, complying with these orders, +arrived in Sweden while the diet of Strengnäs was in +session. He therefore made his way directly to that +town. While on the road the tidings reached him that +Gustavus Vasa had been elected king. As soon as the +new monarch learned of his approach, he sent for him +to come before the house. There he was overwhelmed +with expressions of gratitude for his past interest in +the Swedish cause. In return the legate addressed the +house at great length in favor of Gustavus. The impression +left upon his hearers was so pleasing that the +Cabinet drew up a letter to the pope requesting that +Johannes be given full authority, with the bishops of +Sweden, to reform the Swedish Church. In the same +letter opportunity was taken to denounce the vices of +Archbishop Trolle, and to beg that, he having already +resigned and fled the kingdom, the pope should use<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +his authority to have a new archbishop chosen in his +stead.<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p> + +<p>This document bears strong evidence of the influence +of the king. Its allusion to the resignation of Archbishop +Trolle was of course untrue. That prelate had +fled the realm to escape the fury of his opponents, but +he still looked for the restoration of Danish power and +a return of his own prerogatives in the Swedish Church. +The king's desire, as reflected in the letter of his Cabinet, +was to secure from the pope a recognition that the +archbishopric was vacant, and then to use this recognition +to force the unwilling Chapter of Upsala to nominate +as archbishop one who was in the interests of the king. +The scheme, however, failed; for Pope Adrian died before +he had had time to act, and was succeeded by a +pontiff who hated everything which savored of reform.</p> + +<p>During the first months of his reign Gustavus was +made wretched by the importunate demands of Lubeck. +Her ambassadors continually dogged his steps, and declared +they would not leave him till every cent that +Sweden owed was paid. After the fall of Kalmar the +monarch needed his foreign mercenaries no longer, and +would gladly have cashiered them and sent them off. +But the "klippings" struck the year before had so far +lost the confidence of his subjects that the soldiers +refused to take them at any price at all, and Gustavus +was compelled to keep his men on foot till he could obtain +the silver requisite to issue better coins. The diet +just dissolved had passed an act providing for the levy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> +of new taxes to be paid in silver, and the king apparently +had been given power to fix the mode in which +the levy should be made. This was a matter which +required skilful handling; and it is fair to say that the +policy which the king pursued, if not perfectly straightforward, +showed, at any rate, rare skill. Fearing lest +another direct call upon the peasantry would raise an +outcry, he resolved to make his application to the Church, +and give her the option of surrendering a portion of her +riches or of losing her prestige by laying new burdens +on her devotees. With this in view he wrote first of all +to Brask, and after demanding some five thousand guilders +which he understood that prelate had stored away +in Lubeck, he called upon him to collect four hundred +marks in silver from the clergy of his diocese. He then +issued a proclamation to the churches and monasteries +throughout the land to send him all the chalices, patens, +and ornaments that could be spared from the altars, as +well as all the silver coin that could be found; and +along with this he published a statement of the total +amount which each diocese and monastery must provide. +Two things are noticeable in this proclamation: +first, it does not specify the amount which each particular +church must furnish; and, secondly, it distinctly +states that the sums handed over are to be deemed as +loans, which he will duly acknowledge and ultimately +pay in full. In his letter to Brask, on the contrary, the +exact amount for which the bishop must be responsible +is named, and no definite promise is given to repay it. +The document seems part of a deliberate plan to crush +the power of the crafty bishop. This Brask noticed,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> +and in his reply adverted to a suspicion lest for some +reason he had incurred the king's displeasure, which he +would willingly avert. The simplest mode of averting +the king's displeasure would have been a speedy compliance +with the king's demand. For this, however, Brask +had little relish. So Gustavus, two weeks later, wrote +again. "We are much surprised," he said, "that you +show no more concern while a weight like this rests +upon the kingdom. The amount which we must raise +without a moment's delay is two hundred thousand guilders, +and the Lubeck ambassadors refuse point-blank to +depart unless they take that sum with them. If they +don't get it we fear open war, which God forbid! Therefore, +by the allegiance which you owe us and the realm, +we exhort you, send the four hundred marks' weight +without delay." Even this appeal had no immediate +effect, and after two weeks more he sent Brask another +despatch. "The Lubeck ambassadors," wrote the king, +"will not leave us till they get the money which we +owe in Lubeck,—a vast sum. It is, therefore, of necessity +that we lay this tax upon the churches and monasteries. +Strain every nerve to obtain some relief for +us in your diocese, especially from your churches and +monasteries; the clergy we shall spare for the present." +The bishop finally complied, though with an ill grace; +and on the 10th of August we find Gustavus writing +that he has so far satisfied the demands of Lubeck that +her ambassadors have parted from him on good terms.<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p> +<p>The tax had been collected, though not without much +friction. It had found the people in an irritable temper, +and it had left them more irritable still. The ruin +which the war had caused was visible on every hand, +and the blessings that were expected to follow were not +so easily discerned. During two years the fields had +been lying fallow, commerce had steadily declined, and +the people were actually suffering for food. Stockholm +had been rendered desolate. Its population had fallen +to about one quarter. "Every other house," wrote Gustavus, +"is now empty;" and there appeared so little +chance of a revival that the king issued a proclamation +calling on the burghers of other towns as far as possible +to sell their houses and settle down in Stockholm. +Another cause of dissatisfaction was that, though the +war was over in Sweden, the Swedish possessions in +Finland were still in the hands of the enemy, and a considerable +army was needed to reduce them. Fredrik, +king of Denmark, had resigned his claim to Sweden; +but certain islands off the coast, as well as some districts +along the frontier of Norway, were still matters of dispute. +All these circumstances tended to raise a spirit +of discontent, which, though for the nonce restrained, +was ready to break out into violence at any moment. +To prevent evil, Gustavus resolved to issue a proclamation +to the people.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p> + +<p>On the 8th of September the annual fair at Vesterås +was opened, and Gustavus seized this opportunity to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> +make a public statement of his doings. This statement +was in the nature of an apology for the recent tax. It +declared in the first place that the expenses of the war +had reached a higher figure than had ever been incurred +by Swedish king before, amounting to a total of over nine +hundred thousand marks. A large part of this sum was +for foreign troops, hired that the Swedish peasantry might +"stay at home in peace, tending their fields and pastures, +and caring for their wives and children." When the +war was over and the mercenaries were ready to depart, +they had demanded with threats of violence immediate +payment for all the arms and vessels they had furnished. +Having no means to satisfy them, Gustavus had consulted +with his Cabinet, and by their advice had called +upon the churches and monasteries for a loan, "which +with God's help shall be paid, if all goes well." "Nor," +continued the monarch, "was this tax in any way a +departure from the practice of former rulers, as may +be seen by referring to the ancient records.... Some +there are among you who assert openly or in private that +we have fleeced the churches and monasteries. This +we assert distinctly we have not done, but have merely +called upon them for a loan, which shall be paid.... +We trust you will give no heed to such conspirators and +traitors, but will aid us in bringing them to punishment." +The document closes with some remarks upon the coinage. +"It must be clear to all," it runs, "that with the +enormous expenses which have been rolling up against +us we could not issue coins of the quality which you are +accustomed to of old. From sheer necessity we have +issued 'klippings' after the pattern of King Christiern,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> +though his coins are now, thank God! departed from +the realm.... These 'klippings' are at present not +accepted for more than half their worth; and while +this has been strenuously forbidden, the only result thus +far has been that traders have refused to trade at all, +and have carried their salt and hops and clothing back +to Germany. We therefore intend at the first opportunity +to instruct our Cabinet with the most learned +men of the various classes to determine whether the +'klippings' shall be accepted for their present value or +for less; and whatever their decision, we promise faithfully +we shall obey."<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></p> + +<p>After administering this soothing drug, the monarch +turned his thoughts once more to the appointment of a +new archbishop. The letter despatched by the Cabinet +to Pope Adrian immediately after the diet of Strengnäs +had proved of little service, for Brask on the 18th of +July had secretly sent a messenger to the pope with +word that Church property was being confiscated. Gustavus, +ignorant of the bishop's perfidy and wondering at the +pope's delay, now wrote again. "For a long time, Holy +Father," began the courteous monarch, "our cathedral +chapters have urged us to solicit you in behalf of the +persons elected by them to fill their vacant posts. +Trolle having resigned the archbishopric, the prelates +and canons of Upsala have chosen your legate Johannes +Magni in his stead; the canons of Skara have chosen +their archdeacon Magnus Haraldsson to the bishopric +vacated by his predecessor's death; and the canons of +Strengnäs have chosen their provost Magnus Sommar.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> +The prelates and canons of Vesterås, their bishop having +died, present the name of Petrus Magni for the post. +In Åbo, though the bishop died a year ago, no successor +has as yet been chosen, that church having only recently +been captured from our enemies. As the persons above +named are satisfactory to us and to our people, we beg +you to confirm them as soon as possible, and thus avert +the danger to which vacancies in the episcopal office +would expose the Church." Whether or not the Chapters +had actually elected all the persons named, may well +be doubted, and is, indeed, of little moment; for their +spirit was by this time broken, and if they cherished any +preferences they dared not speak them. The letter was +intrusted to Johannes Magni with orders to obtain confirmation +from the pope and then return to Sweden. +But just as he was making ready to depart, the long-awaited +letter came from Adrian, though it differed +much in tenor from what had been expected. Instead +of urging the Upsala Chapter to choose a new archbishop, +it commanded Gustavus to restore Archbishop +Trolle to his post, threatening him with punishment if +he refused.<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p> + +<p>This change of colors on the part of Adrian has been +accounted for in many ways. Johannes Magni himself +suggested that it was the work of evil-minded counsellors +in Rome. The more probable supposition is that +Adrian had been influenced by Brask. If Church property +was being confiscated, as Brask declared, Archbishop +Trolle could be relied on to offer much more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> +strenuous resistance than the prelate talked of as his +successor. But the very reason which induced the pope +to favor Trolle seemed to the king sufficient ground for +supporting his opponent. It was precisely because of +Johannes Magni's pliable and compromising temper that +Gustavus would have rejoiced to see the mitre on his +head. He was determined that Trolle, at any rate, +should not wear it. So he sat down, as soon as Adrian's +letter came, and wrote a warm reply to the College of +Cardinals in Rome. "If our Most Holy Father," he +said, "has any care for the peace of our country, we +shall be pleased to have him confirm the election of his +legate Johannes to the archbishopric, and we shall comply +with the pope's wishes as to a reformation of the Christian +Church and religion. But if his Holiness, against +our honor and the peace of our subjects, sides with the +crime-stained partisans of Archbishop Trolle, we shall +allow his legate to return to Rome, and shall govern +the Church in this country with the authority which we +have as king, and in a manner which we believe will +please God as well as all the princes of Christendom. +We beg you, however, to use your authority in the +Apostolic See in such way as not to harm our state, nor +give the appearance of championing the crimes of Trolle +against the tranquillity of a Christian people." Three +days after writing this vehement despatch, the monarch +sent off another, couched in language even more determined, +to the pope. "We shall never," he declared, +"allow that man to return as our archbishop. He not +only is unworthy of the priesthood, he is unworthy even +to live. We respect the Roman Church, and if need be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> +would die in her behalf. But if she endeavors thus to +ruin our country, we shall resist her till the last drop +of blood is shed." This document was placed in the +hands of Olaus Magni, brother of the proposed archbishop, +with orders to inform the pope of the evils to +which the Church in Sweden was exposed, and to use +his utmost endeavor to secure the confirmation of the +bishops. The missive, however, never reached the pontiff +to whom it was addressed. Adrian was already +dead and buried ere the document was penned; and +when the messenger arrived in Rome, he found another +pontiff, Clement VII., seated in the papal chair.<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p> + +<p>The breach between the king and popery was now +open. Gustavus had actually flung down the gauntlet +at the feet of Rome, asserting that if officers satisfactory +to him were not appointed by the pope, he would +take the duty of appointing them upon himself. Still he +did not relinquish hope that the breach might yet be +healed; and on the 2d of November he wrote again, +this time requesting the pope to confirm the election of +Erik Svensson, a former secretary of Gustavus, to the +vacant bishopric of Åbo. "And if your Holiness," wrote +the king, "shall delay in confirming the bishops-elect, we +shall ourselves undertake the restoration of our ruined +churches, and shall have the bishops confirmed by Him +who is our High Pontifex, that His Church and religion +may not be injured through the negligence of the +Apostolic See. Moreover, Most Holy Father, we hear<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> +from certain men of Lubeck that one Francisco of Potentia +has returned from Rome to Denmark with arguments +in justification of that tyrant Christiern's massacre +of our bishops, and that your Holiness has rewarded +him with the bishopric of Skara. If this be true, +the Apostolic See has done us and the Church a +wrong equal in enormity to that of the Danish king, +and we shall by God's aid avert it if necessary with +our blood. Let not your Holiness fancy that we shall +permit foreigners to rule the Church in Sweden." At +about the same time with this letter the monarch, in +writing to Johannes Magni, uses even stronger language. +After suggesting that Christiern has so impoverished +the Church that it is unable to send its bishops +elect to Rome for confirmation, he asserts that it is +rumored the real cause of the delay is that the Church +has not been able to furnish the pope the customary +fees for confirmation. "Some assert, too," he adds, +"that there is no authority in Scripture for all the +dues that belong by custom to the pope.... So soon +as we find that our patience and moderation are of no +avail, we shall proceed to rigorous measures. We shall +not suffer our people to bend beneath a cruel foreign yoke, +for we are confident that Christ, who is our High Priest, +will not let his people die to suit the pope's caprice."<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p> + +<p>These were bold words to use of the potentate whose +command all Christendom obeyed. The youthful monarch, +it was already clear, intended to rule his country +with an iron hand. When only three months on the +throne, he chanced upon some letters in which the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> +bishop of Vesterås alluded to him in arrogant and +contumelious terms. This bishop, who gloried in the +name of Peder Sunnanväder, had been at one time +chancellor of the young Sten Sture, and though elected +in 1522 to the bishopric of Vesterås, had suffered the +same fate as the other bishops and never been confirmed. +Gustavus did not hesitate a moment. As soon +as the abusive letters reached him, he proceeded with +the entire Cabinet to Vesterås, and summoned the +bishop with all his canons to the chapter-house. There +he laid before them the evidences of the bishop's guilt. +Unable to furnish satisfactory explanation, the bishop +was removed; and the Chapter, at the instance of Gustavus, +elected Petrus Magni in his stead. Even with +this, however, the monarch's vengeance did not end. +Knut, the dean of Vesterås and a former chancellor of +Gustavus,—the man, indeed, who had been talked of +for the archbishopric of Upsala,—was indiscreet enough +to come forward at the trial with an apology for his +bishop. The monarch wanted no other proof of his +complicity, and discharged him along with Sunnanväder +from his post.<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p> + +<p>Gustavus was spurred on in his campaign against +the Church by a continued need of money to keep his +army in the field. Even after the subjection of Sweden +he had to carry on the war in Finland; and it was not +till nearly Christmas, and after he had sent a strong +force of mercenaries across the Baltic, that Finland was +subdued.<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> After this the great bone of contention was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> +the isle of Gotland. This island, or rather its capital, +the town of Visby, had been in ages past the leader +of the Hanseatic League. Its situation in the Baltic, not +far from the east coast of southern Sweden, made it +still of great value to merchant-vessels passing between +Sweden and the Hanseatic Towns. When Christiern +fled from Denmark, Gotland was under the control of +Norby, who continued after his master's fall to make +depredations along the coast of Sweden and seize all +merchantmen that came within his grasp. Danish, +Swedish, and Hanse vessels were alike his prey, till +Gotland came to be known by all as a "nest of robbers." +Fredrik and Lubeck, unwilling though they were +that Gotland should fall to Sweden, welcomed any +movement intended to root out this impediment to the +Baltic trade, and raised no opposition when Gustavus +offered, in the winter of 1524, to attack the island in +the coming spring. The attitude of Fredrik to Gustavus +recalls the fable of the monkey and the cat. The Danish +king hoped ultimately to secure the chestnuts for himself, +but in the mean time was not sorry to see an army +gathering in Sweden to bear the brunt of the assault. +Which party first proposed an expedition against Gotland +is not clear.<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> At the general diet held in Vadstena<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> +in January, representatives from Fredrik were present, +and it was agreed that the expedition should be made as +soon as the harbors opened. The quotas to be furnished +by the different parts of Sweden by the first week after +Easter were also fixed. The Danish envoys, it appears, +made no promises except that a congress of the two +realms should be held on the 14th of February to settle +all matters of dispute. The passports for the Danish +envoys to this convention were issued by Gustavus on +the spot. They were never used, however; for just before +the appointed day he received notice from the +Danish Cabinet that they wished the congress to be +postponed. This action caused Brask to suspect that +Fredrik's sole object was to use up time. Whatever +Fredrik's object, the congress could not be held without +him. Gustavus therefore postponed it till the end of +April, and set about raising an army for himself.<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a></p> + +<p>The first person to whom the monarch turned was +Bishop Brask. It appears that there had been some +dispute between the bishop and one of the hospitals in +his diocese as to the tithes from certain lands. The +shrewd monarch conceived the notion that the simplest +mode of settling the dispute was to hand the disputed +property over to the crown. He wrote, therefore, to +both parties to send him at once the original documents +on which they based their claims. "And meantime,"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> +he said, "we forbid you positively to collect the disputed +tithes. Should you touch them, we shall be forced to +take further steps. We have, indeed, been told that in +the times of our fathers the crown received from the +canons throughout the realm one fourth of their tithes +under the name of 'the poor man's portion,' with the +understanding that the money should be used to found +hospitals, and over these hospitals the crown has ever +since held <i>jus patronatus</i>." To this demand Brask answered +that he would send the documents desired, but +that the crown had never taken the tithes from the canons +except by force. A few weeks later, on the 18th +of February, the king wrote Brask that the expedition +would start as soon as the harbors opened, and that, as +Brask had been one of the promoters of the scheme, he +must expect to contribute generously toward it, especially +since he and his diocese, being nearest to the isle +of Gotland, would be the ones most benefited by the +overthrow of Norby. Brask, in his answer of March +8, repudiated the idea that the expedition was the +fruit of his brain, and expressed the hope that the matter +might be settled without bloodshed. "'T is never +wise," he said, "to break down doors already open." +Brask asserted, further, that he had never received a +penny of rent from Gotland, but promised to do all he +could to obtain aid from the churches of his diocese.<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a></p> + +<p>By this time it had become rumored that the king +was about to levy a new tax upon the people, and a +murmur of discontent had risen through the land. To<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> +allay this, Gustavus issued several letters, declaring that +the contribution was to be wholly voluntary. One of +the convents he begged to send him all the silver collected +for a certain shrine, and offered to give the crown's +note for the amount, secured, if the convent wished it, +by a mortgage of certain crown fiefs. In writing to the +people of Östergötland he pointed out that the expedition +was necessitated by the piracies of Norby, who had +caused a dreadful scarcity of food by checking imports; +and he called upon the people to have a detachment +of armed men ready by the first week after Easter at +the latest, promising at the same time that as soon as +the fleet should put to sea the men would be provided +for at the crown's expense. To the people of Brask's +diocese he wrote that he had heard a rumor to the effect +that he was imposing a new tax upon the people. This +rumor the king characterized as "a palpable lie." He +declared further that he had applied the crown rents +to pay for the expedition, and had asked their bishop +to make a loan from his rents for the same purpose, +to which Brask had replied that he would lend the +money, but would raise it by imposing a tax upon his +churches. This Gustavus declared was not his desire; +all he wished was a free-will offering. From this letter +it is clear the monarch sought to cast upon Brask the +odium which this new levy had brought upon himself, +and it is equally clear that in doing so he exceeded +the bounds of truth. In calling upon Brask for a contribution +he had in no way specified the mode in which +the money should be raised; and Brask, so far from +refusing to apply his own rents for the purpose, had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> +distinctly stated, in every letter which he wrote, that he +would do his utmost to furnish the desired sum.<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></p> + +<p>A further cause of disaffection lay in the general +impression that the monarch was tampering with the +coinage. This impression had its origin naturally enough +in the fact that the general diet held in January had +repudiated the Swedish "klippings." The reason given +for that act was that, the Danish "klippings" having +been repudiated in Denmark the year before, merchants +were bringing barrelfuls of them into Sweden; so that +the Swedish "klipping," being scarcely discernible from +its Danish namesake, fell constantly in value, its fluctuations +depending upon the importations of the repudiated +coin from Denmark. In the Act repudiating the +Swedish "klipping" that coin was declared to be worth +four "hvitar;" that is, about one half of the amount +which the crown had received in issuing it. The outcry +which this Act called forth was universal, and the +king was forced to issue a letter to the people in which +he endeavored to allay their wrath. "We have never," +he declared with brazen falsehood,—"we have never +altered the coinage either by raising or by lowering its +value, but have permitted each coin to pass for the +same value as it had before;" and he added with bland +simplicity, "the coin has fallen by its own weight." +The striking feature in this matter is the audacity of +the king. He trusted that the people generally would +not have access to the documents which we now possess +to contradict him. After issuing this mendacious letter, +he approached the Stockholm merchants, and, by certain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> +persuasive arguments whose nature it is easy to conceive, +prevailed upon them to deposit all their "klippings" +in the treasury, to be weighed and bought by +the Government at their actual bullion value. He then +began the issue of a new series of coins approximating +though still below their face value, and published another +letter, this time acknowledging that he had repudiated +the "klippings," but asserting that the step was taken +to comply with a suggestion made him by the people.<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a></p> + +<p>Late in March Gustavus received a note from Fredrik +requesting a further postponement of the congress till +May 15. As the Vend Cities were to be present, Gustavus +answered that he would communicate with Lubeck, +and so soon as he had word from her would give a definite +reply. He then despatched the Danish monarch's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> +letter to Bishop Brask. The answer of that prelate was +full of wisdom. "I marvel much," wrote Brask, "that +his Grace should call a congress of these three realms +without first consulting you.... He must be well +aware that you cannot be present on so short notice, +especially since he knows that you are about to make +an expedition against Gotland. His real purpose, I +suspect, is to induce you to postpone your expedition." +In this surmise the shrewd bishop doubtless was correct. +Fredrik, though satisfied that Sweden should go +to great expense in preparing for an expedition against +Gotland, was reluctant to see her armies actually land +upon the isle, lest his own claims to Gotland might +thereby be lost. It seemed to him that Norby, terrified +by the armaments of Sweden, might be induced to go +to Denmark and yield the isle to him. He therefore +wrote to Sweden, requesting that the pirate be given a +safe-conduct through the land. But the army was already +in the field, and Gustavus answered firmly that he +would not comply with the request. To this answer +he was induced partly by a suspicion that Denmark was +already furnishing supplies to Norby.<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p> + +<p>On the 8th of May Gustavus despatched his fleet, eight +thousand strong, to Gotland. The command he gave to a +German adventurer who has already figured in this +story as Berent von Mehlen. This person, after breaking +faith with his former master, Christiern, had married +a cousin of Gustavus, and had become a trusted +counsellor of the king. By what traits he became attractive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> +in his monarch's eyes it is at this day difficult +to conceive. Certainly as a general he knew as little as +any general possibly could know. Again and again he +had been given opportunity to display his warlike power, +but thus far in every instance he had failed. He now +set forth, as admiral of the Swedish fleet, to besiege +the town of Visby. The siege began on the 19th of +May, and was enlivened during a few weeks by several +skirmishes. Nothing of importance, however, was accomplished. +The siege was protracted through the +summer, and at last the besiegers showed so little life +that their leader, the favorite of Gustavus, was reported +to have turned his coat once more and joined +the enemy.<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a></p> + +<p>Not yet had the siege begun when evidence was furnished +that Fredrik was in league with Norby. So +early as the 9th of May Gustavus wrote to Brask that +the Danes were rumored to be supplying Norby with +stores and ammunition. A few days later word arrived +from Fredrik that he wished once more to put off the +congress, this time till the 24th of June. Gustavus was +now fairly mad with indignation, and declared to Brask +that he would neither be present nor allow his envoys +to be present at the proposed congress. He was discreet +enough, however, to conceal his wrath from Fredrik; +and, without refusing the offer of the Danish king, +he called a meeting of his Cabinet, to which he urged +Lubeck to send her envoys. Fredrik in the mean time<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> +had been negotiating on his own account with Norby, +and had wrung promises from him which led to the +impression that Norby had thrown up his allegiance to +Christiern II. and was ready to accept the authority of +Fredrik. Elated by this false hope, the Danish monarch +felt in a position to ignore the slight that had been +put upon him by Gustavus, and sent delegates, apparently +unbidden, to the Swedish king and Cabinet, proposing +that a congress be held in Denmark to settle all +matters of dispute, the Swedish army in the mean time +to withdraw from Gotland, and Norby to be given safe-conduct +from the isle. These terms Gustavus rejected +with disdain, declaring that he had striven for the good +of all to scatter Norby with his "nest of robbers," and +would consent to a meeting with Fredrik only on condition +that in the interval Norby should receive no aid +of any shape or kind. Fredrik, finding that Gustavus +was determined, and that Norby's feigned alliance was +somewhat airy, yielded reluctantly to this condition. +The Swedish army continued in its camp at Visby; +and the two monarchs, attended by their Cabinets, proceeded +to the town of Malmö in hope of settling their +disputes. The congress opened on the first day of September. +The two monarchs with their retinues were +present, together with envoys from the Hanseatic Towns. +The meeting opened, as was usual, with an interchange +of courtesies and with mutual promises to resist their +common enemy, King Christiern. It was agreed, too, +that all renegades from either country should be returned, +and that citizens of one country should be entitled +to any property belonging to them in the other. As<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> +soon, however, as the question of disputed territory +arose, it became clear that no conclusion could be reached. +It was therefore resolved, after long debate, that this +question be postponed, to be decided by a congress of +certain Hanse Towns, to be held in Lubeck in June of +the following year. Till then a provisional frontier +agreed upon by Norway, Denmark, and Sweden was to +be observed; and Gotland was to remain during the +interval in the hands of that party which held it on +September 1. If it should be found that Norby held +it on that day, he should be called upon to surrender +it to Fredrik, to be placed by him under the temporary +control of some person satisfactory to Sweden, Denmark, +and Lubeck. If Sweden should continue the war +in Gotland, she was to pay for all damage she might +do. Either party by violating these terms was to become +indebted to the other to the amount of one hundred +thousand guilders. This conclusion reached, the +congress was dissolved, envoys being first sent to Gotland +to carry out the terms. Finding that Norby was +still in possession, they entered into negotiations, and +soon obtained a contract, signed by Norby as well as +Mehlen, that each should withdraw his forces from the +land. In conformity with this contract Mehlen at once +broke camp and sailed with all the Swedish fleet to Kalmar; +but Norby, laughing at the credulity of his opponent, +continued to dominate the island, and began his +piracies afresh.<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p> +<p>This disastrous expedition caused a heavy drain upon +the Swedish treasury, an evil which the monarch sought +to meet by new demands upon the Church. On the 9th +of May he wrote to Brask that he must have more +money, and that the bishopric of Linköping, being benefited +more than others by the expedition, must expect +to bear the chief part of the cost. To this Brask answered +humbly that he had already furnished more than +his proper share, but would do his utmost to obtain the +needed sum. This promise, however, did not satisfy +the king; and a few days later he sent a letter to Brask's +chapter, declaring that they had collected certain rents +belonging to the crown which must be yielded up without +delay. Brask appears to have been a special object +of the monarch's greed. On one occasion Gustavus +seized some tithes belonging to that prelate, and then +had face enough to write him that he had done so, his +only excuse being that the army was in need of food. +This high-handed mode of dealing with the Church is +in marked contrast to the monarch's complaisance when +dealing with the people. Before the common people +Gustavus grovelled in the dust. Every day nearly he +despatched some document granting new privileges to +this town or to that; and when the people of Kalmar +refused to contribute on the ground that their trade +had been ruined by foreign merchants, Gustavus sent +back answer that he would remedy this wrong. The +notion getting abroad in Brask's diocese that new taxes +were being levied, Gustavus insisted that the bishop<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> +should counteract this view, thus practically forcing him +to make the contribution from his private means.<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a></p> + +<p>In spite of every effort to appease the people, discontent +was fast spreading through the land. To attribute +this entirely to the actions of Gustavus is unfair. His +expedition against Gotland, it is true, had proved a failure, +and had cost his country dear. The monarch should +have seen that, in the impoverished state of his finances, +the duty of destroying Norby belonged to Denmark or +Lubeck. But, granted that the expedition was ill-judged, +its failure certainly did not justify revolt. The truth is, +the Swedish people were so used to insurrection that the +slightest disappointment sufficed to set the whole country +by the ears, and no sooner was the expedition +brought to its humiliating end than the people began +to look about for pretexts for revolt. One of the first +cries raised against Gustavus was that he had transgressed +the law by admitting foreign citizens into the +Cabinet of Sweden. To this charge the monarch was +unable to make a rational reply. At the very outset +of his reign, he had displayed his first infatuation for +foreign men by raising Mehlen to the highest honors of +the state. Later another adventurer, one Count Johan +von Hoya, had appeared upon the scene. The king +had forthwith showered royal favors upon his head. +Scarcely two months after landing Hoya had betrothed +himself to the king's sister, and had been received by the +infatuated monarch into the Swedish Cabinet. Such a +course appeared to the people in direct opposition to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> +promise made by Gustavus that he would drive out +foreign power. This evil, however, was but slight, in +comparison with others that the people had to bear. In +plain English, they were starving. The long-protracted +war with Denmark, followed by the brutal piracies of +Norby, had so reduced the supply of necessaries, particularly +salt, that few except the rich were able to get +enough to stay their hunger. Hoping to allay the people's +indignation in these matters, Gustavus called a +meeting of his Cabinet in October, summoning at the +same time two Linköping burghers to advise the Cabinet +as to the best methods of improving trade. It is +worthy of note, however, that though the meeting was +expressly announced to be called for the purpose of +improving trade, the documents describing the debate +are devoted almost wholly to a consideration of methods +to augment the royal funds. The king, it seems, came +forward with a suggestion that, since he was likely soon +to marry, some, provision should be made for adding +to his income, and some steps be taken to reimburse him +for the sums advanced by him to carry on the war. +What he particularly wanted was the right to fix, according +to his own judgment, the amount of rents to +be paid by crown estates. He suggested, further, that, +since the pope would not confirm the bishops till they paid +their fees, his coronation should be delayed no longer, but +the bishops should perform the ceremony without the papal +sanction. He recommended also that, there being no +satisfactory place in which to keep the Swedish cavalry, +they be quartered in the various monasteries, "where," +he added, "we find plenty of money, but very few<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> +monks." As to Hoya, he requested the Cabinet's sanction +of the proposed marriage, shrewdly intimating that +while he favored citizens of Germany, he believed no +marriage between a Swede and Dane should be allowed. +The answer which the Cabinet made to these proposals +shows traces of a feeble opposition along with a manifest +endeavor to accommodate the king. First of all, +the Cabinet advised the king to appoint a few of the +most intelligent and able debaters in the realm to represent +the cause of Sweden at the congress to be held +next year in Lubeck; and in accordance with this suggestion +the king named Hoya, and the new archbishop, +Johannes Magni. Regarding the matter of conferring +fiefs on Hoya, the Cabinet yielded to the king's desire. +"Though the law declares," they said, "that no foreigner +shall enter the Cabinet or govern land or castle, +yet we shall gladly see you grant him both castle and +land as you deem best, doubting not that you will so +watch over his and all other grants that your subjects +suffer not." In accordance with this concession Hoya +was given Stegeborg in fee, and his marriage with Margareta +was arranged to take place in January next. As +to quartering in the monasteries, the conservative element +prevailed, the Cabinet decreeing that it was not +advisable to fill the monasteries with horse and men. +That the coronation take place at once, the Cabinet +strongly urged, though they refrained from expressing +opinion as to the confirmation of the bishops. The +proposition that the king be given power to regulate the +royal rents was not rejected, but a hint was thrown +out that the proper step was rather to prepare an accurate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> +list of all crown property and collect the rents as +due thereon of old.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a></p> + +<p>Clearly enough this meeting would not satisfy a hungry +people. In fact apparently it added to their rage, +and we find the people of Dalarne at this time drawing +up a long list of grievances to be laid before the king. +Their first and weightiest complaint was that certain +rich men, stewards of the king, had bought up all the +grain in their district, and had made a corner in it so +that the poor man could not get enough to eat. Further +than this, they protested against the king's practice of +admitting into the kingdom all sorts of foreigners, "who +have put their heads together to ruin the common people." +This vehement lament aroused Gustavus to the +gravity of his position, particularly as he learned that +Sunnanväder was inciting the people to rebel. Hoping +to quiet matters, he despatched his messengers to all +parts of the kingdom with soothing words. He endeavored +in every way to impress upon the people that the +high price of food was due entirely to the war between +the emperor and the King of France; and as to +the repudiation of the "klippings," of which some people +had complained, he asserted that he had thereby suffered +far greater injury than his people. Sunnanväder's +conspiracy was the thing that caused him most anxiety, +and on the 9th of December he addressed the Dalesmen +on that theme. "Dear friends," he suavely wrote, "report +has reached our ears that Sunnanväder has gone<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> +among you with plots to throw the kingdom into strife +once more. We beg you in the name of God give him +no heed. He has made statements about us, we are +told, which are absolutely false; among others, that we +are about to restore Trolle to his archbishopric,—the +man who deprived us of father and mother and threw +our kingdom into ruin. As we have called a diet to be +held in January, to investigate these charges among +other things, we request you at that time or earlier to +send representatives from every parish to judge between +us; and we hereby promise the said Sunnanväder safe-conduct +to and from Stockholm for this investigation. +You may make this proclamation to him; and if he +will not come, you may know that he is false.... +Further, since we are informed that you are suffering +from great lack of salt, we have just despatched to you +between ten and twenty cargoes of salt to relieve your +want."<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a></p> + +<p>While Gustavus was thus dickering with the Dalesmen, +a far more weighty matter kept him continually +on an anxious seat at home. This was the Reformation +of the Romish Church. It has been already noted that +the Swedish Reformation was a political revolt, and at +its outset had but little connection with theological dispute. +The conflagration that had raged in Germany +since 1519 produced no immediate effect in Sweden, and +it was not till the spring of 1523 that the Swedish +prelates felt real dread of Martin Luther. The father +of the Swedish Reformation was Olaus Petri, a blacksmith's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> +son, of Örebro. From his earliest years this +champion of Luther had been educated by a pious father +for the Romish Church. His childhood had been passed +amid the religious influence of a monastery in his native +town. There, with his younger brother Laurentius, he +had shared the daily routine of a monk. When a mere +boy his father, little knowing the temptation to which +his son would be exposed, had placed him in the University +of Wittenberg, where he sat for some years at +the feet of Luther. On his return to Sweden in 1519, +he was appointed to give instructions in the Bible to the +youth of Strengnäs. Though only twenty-two, he already +showed such promise that within a year he was +chosen deacon of Strengnäs, and placed at the head of +the school belonging to the Chapter. The opportunity +thus given him was great. The bishopric being vacant, +the charge of things in Strengnäs fell upon Laurentius +Andreæ, at the time archdeacon. Andreæ, though fifteen +years his senior, was of a kindred spirit, and by a +contemporary is described as a willing pupil of the +young reformer. There can be no question that even at +this period Petri was regarded as a man of strength. A +portrait of him painted when still a youth shows in a +marked degree the traits by which he was distinguished +later. The face is full and round, with large, warm +eyes twinkling with merriment, and a high, clear forehead, +from which is thrown back a heavy mass of waving +hair. The mouth is firm as adamant, and the +sharp-cut lips and chin are eloquent of strength. Altogether, +it is the picture of just the man that Petri afterward +became,—a brilliant orator, daring, good-natured,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> +and gifted with a generous supply of common-sense. +Precisely how much Petri owed to Martin Luther we +cannot know. It is not, however, likely that at first his +teaching in Strengnäs differed materially from that inculcated +by the Romish Church. At any rate, he taught +four years before any serious complaint was made. The +first to charge him with heresy was Bishop Brask. On +the 7th of May, 1523, that much-enduring prelate wrote +to a member of the Upsala Chapter that a certain person +in Strengnäs had inflamed the people by preaching heresies; +"and God knows," he added, "we are grieved +enough to learn that he is not silenced." What these +heresies preached by Petri were, appears from a polemic +hurled at the young reformer by Brask's deacon. They +include, among other things, a denial of the priest's +authority to solicit alms, with assertions that men +should place no faith in the Virgin or in other saints, +but in God alone; that the priest's first duty is to +preach, not pray, and that confession should be made +to none but God. Surely we have here the very essence +of the Reformation. Brask was already trembling with +apprehension, and despatched a letter to a brother bishop +to say that the heresies of Petri had begun to break +out in Upsala. "We must use our utmost vehemence," +he gasped, "to persuade Johannes Magni to apply the +inquisition to this Petri; otherwise the flame will spread +throughout the land." Magni, it is clear, was deemed a +little lukewarm by such ardent men as Brask, and on +the 12th of July we find Brask pouring out a flood of +Latin eloquence to excite the tranquil legate. In nothing +is Brask's sagacity more manifest than in the enthusiasm<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> +which he here displayed. He discerned with perfect +clearness that the battle must be fought at once. If +Petri should once gain the people's ear, all hope was lost. +Romanism was no match for Lutheranism in an open +war. He therefore sought to stamp out the new teachings +without allowing them to be fairly known; and +had his superiors shown equal zeal, the Reformation +might have been delayed.<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a></p> + +<p>A few days after his earnest appeal to Magni, Brask +despatched to the Vadstena Chapter a tract in refutation +of the Lutheran doctrines, and along with it a +sermon preached by Petri, "in which," so wrote the +bishop, "you will observe his blasphemy of the Holy +Virgin." Brask, despite his spiritual duties, was no +ascetic, and, though suffering at the time from illness, +added a postscript begging the Chapter to let him have +a box of nuts. Apparently these delicacies came; for +the bishop's next letter, written to the pope, was in a +happier vein. "I have just had from Johannes Magni +a letter on exterminating heresy which fills my soul +with joy.... I grieve, however, to tell you that the +heresy which had its birth in Germany has spread its +branches across this kingdom.... I have sought to +the utmost of my power to stay the pestilence, but +through lack of authority outside my diocese, could not +accomplish what I would.... Give me your orders to +act outside my diocese, and I will crush the heresy with +my utmost zeal." About this time the bishop received +a letter from Johannes Magni that must have soothed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> +his temper. "God knows," the legate wrote, "how +eagerly I burn to effect the hoped-for freedom of the +Christian Church, had not circumstances been adverse. +I have at any rate pleaded with the king, and he has +promised to maintain our rights. He says that if any +of his soldiers wrong our tenants, they do so at their +peril. When I spoke to him of the burdens that had +been put upon us, he exclaimed with tears in his eyes +that no one felt it more than he, that it had been necessary +and contrary to his will, and that it was his full +intention so soon as peace was restored to refund the +money we had furnished. He promised also to repress +the Lutheran heresy, though he urged me to use persuasion +rather than force, lest by conflict of opinions the +whole Church be overturned." The impression left on +Magni by his monarch's tears is probably the impression +that the monarch had designed. We have no +reason to suppose Gustavus cherished any affection +yet for Luther, but neither is there reason to suppose +he hated him. What he hoped for above all else was +to keep the bishops under his control, and the surest +way to do so was to keep the Church at enmity with +Luther.<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a></p> + +<p>That Gustavus played his cards with skill is manifest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> +from a letter written by Magni to the Linköping +Chapter. "I understand," he wrote, "that you feel +little anxiety at my proposed return to Rome, thinking +that I have not shown enough energy in restoring the +disabled Church. I may say, however, that I have +pleaded and now plead for her before the king, who +protests that his whole heart is in her preservation, +and that any harm done by his officers to our tenants +has been done against his will. He says too, and with +tears in his eyes regrets, that the importunity of his +soldiers has forced him to lay burdens on the Church. +Nor is it his Majesty's intention to compel our weary +priests to give up the care of souls. His excuse for +exacting tribute from the churches to aid the kingdom +is that he undertook the war as much for the freedom +of the Church as for the safety of the kingdom. I give +you this excuse for whatever it is worth. His Majesty +promises that when he has paid the enormous debt +contracted to Lubeck, and has wholly freed the kingdom, +both clergy and people shall rejoice as never they +have rejoiced before. In the extirpation of Lutheranism +I am aided as much by the efforts of his Majesty +as by the authority of the pope. It seems to me that the +strife going on by letters among the clergy should be put +to an end, and more toleration shown. I know it will, +if continued, spread conflagration in other lands. The +clergy of Strengnäs have promised me firmly that they +will abstain from all new doctrines, and will send out +no more letters unless they are harassed." This warning +from the legate proves that the Swedish prelates +were already cutting one another's throats. Apparently,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> +too, it worked like magic in quieting their disputes, for +six months now elapsed before the charge of heresy +was raised again.<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p> + +<p>On the 21st of February, 1524, Laurentius Andreæ +returned to the assault with a long epistle to the Vadstena +Chapter. This epistle is moderate in tone, and +contains this sound advice: "His Majesty desires that +when you discover strange doctrines in the books of +Luther or of any other, you should not reject them without +a fair examination. If then you find anything +contrary to the truth, write a refutation of it based on +Holy Writ. As soon as scholars have seen your answer +and have determined what to accept and what reject, +you can preach according to their judgment and not according +to your individual caprice. I suspect, however, +there will hardly be many among you able to refute +these doctrines; for, though but little of the so-called +Lutheran teaching has come to my knowledge, I am +convinced that Luther is too great a man to be refuted +by simple men like us, for the Scriptures get their +strength from no man, but from God. Even if we have +the truth on our side, 'tis folly for us who have no arms +to attack those who are well equipped, since we should +thus do nothing but expose our own simplicity.... +Prove all things; hold fast that which is good. Search +the spirit to see whether it be of God. I would urge every +one to read the new doctrines. Those who persuade or +command you otherwise, appear to me to act contrary to +the Scriptures, and I suspect they do not wish the truth to +come to light.... If there be any among you whom this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> +letter offends, let him write to me, pointing out where I +am wrong, and I will withdraw my statements." Brask, +though offended deeply, scorned the challenge. Instead +of answering Andreæ, he wrote to the bishop of Skara, +saying: "Certain persons are beginning to urge that we +should not banish Luther's writings, but should study +them carefully to the end that we may write against +them, as if, forsooth, we were simple enough to trouble +ourselves about the effrontery of Luther. He flatters +himself that he possesses greater wisdom than all the +saints. But we shall bow the knee to God, not man, +and shall do our utmost that the kingdom be not corrupted +by this new heresy." Brask was now boiling +with indignation, and a few days later wrote a friend: +"I have no fear of Luther or any other heretic. Were +an angel from heaven to predict his victory, I should not +waver."<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p> + +<p>This feigned assurance on the part of Brask was not +deep-set. In the secrecy of his own cloisters he contemplated +the issue with fear and trembling. This is clear +from a letter penned at this period to the monarch. +"By the allegiance which I owe you," wrote the bishop, +"I deem it my duty to urge you not to allow the sale +of Luther's books within the realm, nor give his pupils +shelter or encouragement of any kind, till the coming +council of the Church shall pass its judgment.... I +know not how your Grace can better win the love of +God, as well as of all Christian kings and princes, than +by restoring the Church of Christ to the state of harmony +that it has enjoyed in ages past." The same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> +day that this letter was despatched, Brask wrote to a +friend in terms which show that his anxiety was great. +After intimating that the king's constant demands on +him for money were probably inspired by the friends +of Luther, he exclaimed: "This party is growing all too +fast among us, and I greatly fear lest some new heresy, +which God forbid! may break out soon." As the king +appeared not likely to take very stringent measures to +repress the heresy, the bishop hastened to exert his own +authority, and issued a mandate, to be read from all +the pulpits in his diocese, forbidding the sale of Luther's +books and teachings. A few days later the monarch's +answer came. It was couched in temperate language, +but offered little solace to the bishop. "Regarding +your request," so wrote Gustavus, "that we forbid the +sale of Luther's writings, we know not by what right +it could be done, for we are told his teachings have +not yet been found by impartial judges to be false. +Moreover, since writings opposed to Luther have been +circulated through the land, it seems but right that his, +too, should be kept public, that you and other scholars +may detect their fallacies and show them to the people. +Then the books of Luther may be condemned. As to +your charge that Luther's pupils are given shelter at +our court, we answer that they have not sought it. If +indeed they should, you are aware it is our duty to protect +them as well as you. If there be any in our protection +whom you wish to charge, bring your accusation +and give their names." The method of trial suggested +in this letter was not in harmony with the bishop's +views. What he wanted was an inquisition, and in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> +writing to a fellow-bishop he did not hesitate to say so. +"I maintain that every diocese should have an inquisition +for this heresy, and I think our Most Holy Father +ought to write his Majesty to that effect." The +mere prohibition of Luther's writings was of no avail. +As Brask declared to Johannes Magni, "The number of +foreign abettors of Lutheranism is growing daily, despite +our mandate, through the sale of Luther's books. I fear +the remedy will be too late unless it is applied at once."<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></p> + +<p>This letter was written on the 20th of June, 1524. +About the same time Petri was called to Stockholm to +fill the post of city clerk, and Andreæ, already secretary +to the king, was made archdeacon of Upsala. This +double advancement of the Lutheran leaders left no +room longer to doubt the king's designs. From this +time forth he was felt on every hand to be an enemy to +the Romish Church. The striking fact in all this history +is the utter absence of conscientious motives in +the king. Though the whole of Christendom was ablaze +with theological dispute, he went on steadily reducing +the bishops' power with never a word of invective against +their teaching or their faith. His conduct was guided +solely by a desire to aggrandize the crown, and he seized +without a scruple the tools best fitted to his hand. Had +Brask been more compliant, or the Church less rich, +the king would not unlikely have continued in the faith. +The moral of all this is to hide your riches from those +that may become your foes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p> + +<p>The part that Brask played in this drama calls forth +a feeling of respect. Artful and manœuvring though he +was, there were certain deep principles within his breast +that only great adversity could touch. Of these the +most exalted was his affection for the Church. Apart +from all her splendor and the temporal advantages to +which her service led, Brask loved her for herself. She +was the mother at whose breast he had been reared, and +the feelings that had warmed his soul in childhood could +not easily be extinguished now that he was old. Every +dart that struck her pierced deep into his own flesh, and +a premonition of the coming ruin overwhelmed him with +bitter grief. It was this very grief, however, that raised +him to rebel. The old vacillating temper that he had +shown in days gone by was his no longer. Drear and +dismal though the prospect was, he did not hesitate, but +threw himself into the encounter heart and soul. From +this time forth, with all his cunning and sagacity, he +was the steadfast leader of the papal cause.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> July 13, 1523, a payment of about 17,000 marks having been already +made, Gustavus wrote to Brask that Lubeck still demanded +200,000 guilders, which was equivalent to about 300,000 Swedish +marks. This probably was an exaggeration for the purpose of getting +a generous contribution from Brask. Another source states it as more +than 120,000 Swedish marks. Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, p. 72. This +clearly was too low an estimate; for we know that Gustavus paid at least +42,945 Lubeck marks (or 83,000 Swedish marks) in the course of 1523, +and that in the following spring the amount claimed by Lubeck was +about 240,000 Swedish marks. See <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, +vol. i. pp. 109-110, and the documents in the Archives at Lubeck cited +in Handelmann's <i>Die letzten Zeiten der hanseatischen Uebermacht im +Norden</i>, pp. 165-170. The matter is ably discussed by Forssell in his +<i>Sver. inre hist.</i>, vol. i. pp. 134-138. Much confusion is caused by the +fact that the debtor and creditor reckoned the sum each according to +his own monetary standard, and there can be no question, too, that between +the parties there was some dispute as to the exact sum due.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> See a document in the Archives at Lubeck cited in Handelmann's +<i>Die letzten Zeiten der hanseatischen Uebermacht im Norden</i>, p. 165.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 254px;"><a name="i122" id="i122"></a> +<a href="images/122.png"><img src="images/122t.png" width="254" height="300" alt="" title="" /></a> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="i123" id="i123"></a> +<a href="images/123.png"><img src="images/123t.png" width="300" height="249" alt="" title="" /></a></div> + +<p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> +Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 64-65. Svart, whose chronicle was +written with a view to flatter Gustavus, informs us of the reduction in +the value at which the coin was +issued, and appears to attribute +this reduction to the generosity +of his master. It was "a good +fat coin," he adds, which merchants +carried out of the country +as an excellent piece of merchandise. +The zeal with +which the chronicler +defends the coin is +enough to raise suspicion +as to its true +value. If it was +really worth an öre +and a half, it is incredible +that Gustavus +in the strait in +which he then was should have ultimately +given it for an öre. Forssell, +in his <i>Anteckn. om mynt, vigt, +mått och varupris i Sverige</i>, pp. 44-51, +suggests that probably the coin +was first issued for an öre and a +half, and then with the same size and weight but containing more alloy, +was issued for an öre. I think the true explanation is more simple. +Gustavus had been found out. The "klippings" which he had issued +a year before were such a palpable fraud that the Danish commandant +of Stockholm had actually forbidden their use, lest the Danish "klippings" +(which were about as bad as anything could be) might through +association with the others fall into ill repute. <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. i. +pp. 214 and 218. +So that when he +issued a new coin +and called it an +öre and a half, +people were suspicious +and refused +to take it +till he reduced it +to something like +its value. This view is strengthened +by the fact that of the few +extant coins of Gustavus, dated +1522, not one contains enough +silver to have been worth an +öre and a half, and most of them +fall considerably below the value +of an öre. It is noticeable also that those stamped 1523, which were +presumably issued for an öre, contain a trifle more in value than those +stamped 1522, and called an öre and a half. As none of them have any +value stamped upon their face, it was a simple matter to start the figure +high, and then reduce it to what the coin would bring.</p> + + + + + + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> As to Church fees and incomes see a letter of Brask, dated Dec. +21, 1514, in <i>Hist. handl.</i>, vol. viii. pp. 65-67.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, p. 58.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> <i>Von der graüsamen tyrannischen myssehandelung</i>; Svart, <i>Gust. +I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 56-58; and <i>Sver. trakt.</i>, vol. iv. pp. 35-44.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> Johannes Magni, <i>Hist. pont.</i>, pp. 74-75; Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, +p. 70; and <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. i. pp. 88-89.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, p. 73; <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, +vol. i. pp. 97, 99-101, 108-111, 114-115, 119, and 298-300; and Linköping, +<i>Bibliotheks handl.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 204-205.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. i. pp. 107-108 and 121-129; +Forssell, <i>Sver. inre hist.</i>, vol. ii. p. 72; and <i>Sver. trakt.</i>, vol. iv. pp. +44-55, 65-67, and 69-74.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. i. pp. 121-129.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. i. pp. 129-134 and 139-140; +and Theiner, <i>Schwed. u. seine Stell. z. heil. Stuhl</i>, vol. ii. pp. 6-11.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Johannes Magni, <i>Hist. pont.</i>, p. 75; <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, +vol. i. pp. 143-150; and <i>Nya Källor till Finl. Medeltidshist.</i>, pp. +737-740.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. i. pp. 172-174 and 178-181.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 74-75.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 73-74; and <i>Sver. trakt.</i>, vol. iv. pp. 67-69.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> No one apparently wished to father the expedition. Svart, who +presents the king's side of the case, says, in his <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 78-81, +that Gustavus undertook the campaign at the urgent solicitation +of Lubeck, who promised to defer payment of her loan for several years +without interest, provided Gustavus would undertake the war. This +proposition appears generous, but there is no trace of it in the contemporary +letters of the king. Those letters assert that Brask was +the prime mover of the scheme; but as Brask repudiated it at once, the +responsibility for it cannot be fairly laid on him. See <i>Kon. Gust. den +Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. i. pp. 190 and 301.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Rensel, <i>Berättelse</i>, pp. 34-35; <i>Acta hist. Reg. Christ. II.</i>, pp. 4-9; +<i>Alla riksdag. och möt. besluth</i>, vol. i. pp. 29-30; <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, +vol. xvii. p. 172; and <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. i. +pp. 182, 184-185, 187-189, and 301-302.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. i. pp. 185-186, 189-191, and +300-302; and Linköping, <i>Bibliotheks handl.</i>, vol. i. pp. 153-155.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. i. pp. 191-192 and 193-197.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> The documents relating to the repudiation of the "klippings" +vary somewhat in phraseology. In the Royal Archives at Stockholm +is an official contemporary statement of the business transacted by the +general diet in January, 1524, which declares: "The 'klippings' were +in so far repudiated as to be valued at only four 'hvitar,' though any +person may accept them for what he will." <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, +vol. i. p. 182; and <i>Svenska riksdagsakt.</i>, vol. i. pp. 17-20. Svart, +<i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, p. 76, asserts that the diet "repudiated the 'klippings.'" +Tegel, <i>Then stoormecht.</i>, p. 81, says, "the 'klippings' were +utterly repudiated." In a letter issued by Gustavus to the people of +Dalarne immediately after the passage of the Act he says the diet advised +"that the 'klippings' fall so that they pass for only five 'hvitar,' +to which we and our Cabinet consented." <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, +vol. i. pp. 182-183. In a letter issued at about the same time +to the people of Vadstena, Gustavus made the same statement, except +that he used the word "four" instead of "five." <i>Kon. Gust. den +Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. i. p. 184. The later letters of Gustavus, in +which he declares that he has not repudiated his coinage, are printed in +<i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. i. pp. 196-197 and 202-207.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. i. pp. 198-201, 211-212 +and 303-306.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> <i>Diar. Minor. Visbyens.</i>, p. 39; Rensel, <i>Berättelse</i>, pp. 36-38; +Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 81-82; and <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, +vol. i. pp. 218-219.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> Eliesen, <i>Chron. Skib.</i>, p. 577; Rensel, <i>Berättelse</i>, pp. 38-40; +Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 82-83 and 93-96; <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. +ii. pp. 688-765; <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. i. pp. 223-224, +229-230, 236-241, 245-250 and 309-327; and <i>Sver. trakt.</i>, vol. iv. +pp. 94-103.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. i. pp. 223-225, 227-236 +and 306-309.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> <i>Alla riksdag. och möt. besluth</i>, vol. i. pp. 31-35; <i>Kon. Gust. den +Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. i. pp. 251-265; and <i>Svenska riksdagsakt.</i>, vol. i. +pp. 22-29.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> <i>Dipl. Dal.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 31-39; and <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, +vol. i. pp. 271-281 and 327-328.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> Johannes Magni, <i>Hist. pont.</i>, p. 75; Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, p. 92; +and <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xvii. pp. 117-119 and 135-148.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xvii. pp. 151-155 and 157-159. +There is preserved among Brask's documents of this period a proclamation, +purporting to be issued by Gustavus, forbidding the sale of +Lutheran tracts within the realm. <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xvii. +pp. 159-160. No reference, however, is made to it in other writings; +and as it is clearly contrary to all the monarch's later views, it is certain +that it did not emanate from him. Probably it was a mere concept +drawn by Brask in the hope that it would meet with royal favor.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xvii. pp. 162-164.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xvii. pp. 205-216 and 220-223.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xiii. pp. 48-50 and 52-54, and vol. +xviii. pp. 234-236 and 237-239; and <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, +vol. i. pp. 231-233 and 306-309.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_VI" id="Chapter_VI"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter VI.</span></h2> + +<h3>RELIGIOUS DISCORD AND CIVIL WAR. 1524-1525.</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Riot of the Anabaptists.—Contest between Olaus Petri and Peder Galle.—Marriage +of Petri.—Conspiracy of Norby; of Christina Gyllenstjerna; +of Mehlen; of Sunnanväder.—Attitude of Fredrik to Gustavus.—Proposition +of Gustavus to resign the Crown.—Norby's Incursion +into Bleking.—Surrender of Visby.—Flight of Mehlen.—Fall of +Kalmar.</p></div> + + +<p class="cap">BY the autumn of 1524 the whole of Sweden was in +a ferment of theological dispute. When Gustavus +returned from the congress of Malmö to the capital, he +found the people in a wild frenzy of religious zeal. The +turmoil was occasioned mainly by the efforts of two +Dutchmen, Melchior and Knipperdolling, who had renounced +their respective callings as furrier and huckster +to spread abroad the teachings of a new religious sect. +The history of this strange movement has been so often +told that it is hardly necessary to waste much time +upon it here. It originated doubtless in the stimulus +that Luther's preaching had given to religious thought. +As so frequently occurs, the very enthusiasm which the +Reformers felt for things divine led them to disregard +their reason and give their passions undivided sway. +One of the chronicles puts it: "Wherever the Almighty +builds a church, the Devil comes and builds a chapel by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> +its side." The thing that most distinguished these weird +Dutchmen was their communistic views. They taught +that, since we all were equal in the eyes of God, we +should all be equal likewise in the eyes of men, that +temporal government along with class distinctions of +every kind should be abolished, and that Christians +should indulge in absolute community of goods. In religious +matters, too, they had peculiar views, believing +that only adults should receive baptism, and that all +adults who had been baptized in infancy should be baptized +again. By reason of this tenet they were known +as Anabaptists. Their first appearance in the Swedish +capital occurred at a moment when the monarch was +away. In that, at any rate, they manifested sense. The +capital was all agog with Luther's doctrines, and everything +that bore the stamp of novelty was listened to with +joy. Melchior and Knipperdolling were received with +open arms, the pulpits were placed at their disposal, and +men and women flocked in swarms to hear them. The +town authorities raised no opposition, believing the influence +of these teachers would be good. In a short time, +however, they were undeceived. The contagion spread +like wildfire through the town, and every other citizen +began to preach. Churches, monasteries, and chapels +were filled from morn till eve, and pulpits resounded +with doctrines of the most inflammatory kind. All +government was set at naught, and every effort to stay +the tempest merely added to its force. Finally these +fanatics made war upon the altars, throwing down statues +and pictures, and piling the fragments in huge heaps +about the town. They dashed about like maniacs, a witness<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> +writes, not knowing what they did. How far their +madness would have led them, it is idle to conceive. +Gustavus returned to Stockholm while the delirium +was at fever heat, and his presence in an instant +checked its course. He called the leaders of the riot +before him, and demanded sharply if this raving lunacy +seemed to them religion. They mumbled some incoherent +answer, and, the fury having spent its force, most +of them were reprimanded and discharged. Melchior +with one or two others was kept in jail awhile, and then +sent back to Holland, with orders not to return to Sweden +on pain of death. Some ten years later Melchior +was executed along with Knipperdolling for sharing in +the famous riot of the Anabaptist sect in Münster.<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p> + +<p>The hurricane had swept past Stockholm and was +gone, but evils of every kind existed to attest its force. +Among the greatest sufferers from this fanaticism were +the partisans of Luther. Their attitude to the rioters +had at first been doubtful, and the condemnation heaped +on Melchior and Knipperdolling fell partially on them. +People in general could not distinguish between fanatics +and Luther. They were all deemed heretics, and Gustavus +was roundly cursed for neglecting the religion of +his fathers. To soothe the people Gustavus planned a +journey through the realm, intending to set forth before +the autumn closed. This journey he was forced by stress +of circumstances to postpone. He therefore turned to +other methods to effect his end. The strongest feature +of the Lutheran doctrine was that it purported to be +based upon the Word of God. To such a pretension no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> +one but an unbeliever could object. Lutheranism was +opposed on the ground of its presumed basis in the +idiosyncrasies of men. Gustavus, confident that this +idea was false, resolved to put the question to a test. +Accordingly, among matters to be discussed at the Cabinet +meeting in October, we find a proposition that all +priests be ordered to confine their teaching to the Word +of God. The fate of this sound measure is not known. +It appears nowhere in the list of subjects on which the +Cabinet took a vote. A fair conclusion is that the question +was too broad to be determined at the time, and +therefore was omitted from the calendar by consent +of all.<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></p> + +<p>Gustavus was determined, however, that the matter +should not drop. Convinced that any discord inside the +Church would be a benefit to the crown, he resolved to +hold a theological disputation, and selected a champion +from the two chief factions, with orders to appear at +Christmas in Upsala and defend the doctrines of his +party in open court. The Lutheran gladiator of course +was Petri, his opponent being one Peder Galle, a learned +canon of Upsala. The main points that were discussed +are these: man's justification; free will; forgiveness +of sins; invocation and worship of saints; purgatory; +celebration of vigils and masses for the dead; chanting +of the service; good works, and rewards; papal and +monastic indulgences; sacraments; predestination; excommunication; +pilgrimages. The battle on these questions +was fought, December 27, in the Chapter-house at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> +Upsala; and the chronicle tells us, somewhat unnecessarily, +that the fight was hot. Each party was struggling +for the very kernel of his faith. If the Bible +were acknowledged to be our sole authority in religious +things, the whole fabric of the papal Church was wrong. +On the other hand, if power were granted to the Fathers +to establish doctrines and methods supplementary to the +Bible, the Lutherans had no right to disobey. As Gustavus +was arbiter of the battle, there could be no doubt +of the result. Petri is asserted to have come off victor, +on the ground that his citations were all from Holy +Writ.<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a></p> + +<p>Flattered by this great victory, the Lutherans grew +bold. Though not so turbulent as before the riot, they +showed much indiscretion, and Gustavus often found it +necessary to interfere. What annoyed him chiefly was +their bravado in alluding to the popes and bishops. +The hierarchy of Romanism was fixed so firmly in people's +hearts that every effort to dislodge it caused a jar. +Especially in the rural districts was it necessary not to +give alarm. A single deed or word might work an injury +which many months of argument could not efface. +It is not strange, therefore, that the king was troubled +when Petri, in February, 1525, violated every rule of +Church propriety by being married publicly in Stockholm. +The marriage fell like a thunderclap upon the +Church. Brask apparently could not believe his ears. +He dashed off a letter to another prelate to inquire +whether the report was true, and finding that it was, +wrote to the archbishop as well as to the king, denouncing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> +the whole affair. "Though the ceremony has been +performed," he argued, "the marriage is invalid, for +such was the decree made by the sixth Council of the +Church." In his letter to the king, Brask used these +words: "Your Majesty must be aware that much talk +has been occasioned by the marriage in your capital of +Olaus Petri, a Christian priest. At a future day, should +the marriage result in children, there will be much +trouble, for the law declares that children of a priest +shall stand, in matters of inheritance, on a par with +bastards.... Even in the Grecian Church, where persons +who are married may be ordained on certain terms, +those already priests have never been allowed to marry. +Petri's ceremony is not a lawful marriage, and places +him under the ban, according to the doctrines of the +Church. For God's sake, therefore, act in this matter +as a Christian prince should do." On receiving this letter, +Gustavus, who had been in Upsala when the act +occurred, called for the offending preacher and asked +him what excuse he offered for violating the ancient +customs of the Church. To this the culprit answered +that he was ready to defend his conduct in open court, +and prove that the laws of God should not be sacrificed +to the laws of men. The king then wrote to Brask +and assured him that if Petri should be shown to have +done wrong, he should be punished. The king's own +prejudices are manifest in the words with which his +letter closed. "As to your assertion," he said, "that +Petri's act has placed him under the ban, it would +seem surprising if that should be the effect of marriage,—a +ceremony that God does not forbid,—and yet that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> +for debauchery and other sins which are forbidden, one +should not fall beneath the ban.... In making this +charge concerning Petri, you appear elated at the opportunity +thus given you to censure me." This last insinuation +the bishop strenuously denied. "God knows," he +wrote the king, "that I have acted for your welfare in +this matter, as well as for my own. What joy I or any +other could feel in my present age and infirmity, I leave +to God. Petri has sent me an apology for his act. It +is full of words, but void of sense. I shall see to it, +however, that it gets an answer."<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a></p> + +<p>These stormy scenes within the Church were but the +echo of what was going on outside. As the autumn +advanced it became each day more clear that Fredrik +had victimized the king at Malmö. The Swedish army +had retired from Gotland, and Norby with his horde of +pirates remained <i>in statu quo</i>. Brask, who had the interests +of Sweden constantly at heart, was the first person +to suspect foul play. So early as December 9 he +told a friend his fears had been aroused. Gustavus, +if he had suspicions, kept them dark. He opened correspondence +with Norby, hoping to inveigle him into a +conference in Stockholm. Norby, however, knew the +trick himself. The weather was such, he answered, that +he could not come. Some few weeks later Gustavus wrote +to Mehlen that the promises made to him at Malmö had +not been fulfilled. He also sent his messengers to Denmark +denouncing Norby's course. But all this time<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> +his communications with Norby were filled with warm +assurance of respect.<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></p> + +<p>The truth was, Norby cherished a project far more +ambitious than either Fredrik or Gustavus could suppose. +In January, 1524, the brave Christina, widow of +the young Sten Sture, had returned to Sweden after her +long captivity in Denmark. The same ambitious spirit +that had filled her breast in earlier days was with her +still, and she longed to see upon her son's head the crown +that but for his early death would have been worn by +her husband. This son, a mere boy of twelve, had recently +returned from Dantzic, whither he had been sent +as exile four years before by Christiern. He had disembarked +at Kalmar, and still remained there under custody +of Mehlen. In this state of affairs the piratical +Norby conceived the project of marrying Christina, and +then of conjuring with the name of Sture to drive Gustavus +out of Sweden. To this bold scheme Christina +apparently gave her consent. At all events, the news +of her projected marriage was spread abroad, and nothing +was done on her part to deny it.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a></p> + +<p>Norby's chief anxiety was to get possession of the boy.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> +Mehlen had shown reluctance to give him to Christina, +and one might readily conclude his purpose was to hand +him over to the king. Such a purpose, however, Mehlen +seems never to have entertained. He preferred to +watch developments, and at the proper moment resign +his charge to the party that should make the highest +bid. The truth is, Mehlen had fallen into disrepute. +His pusillanimous conduct in the siege of Visby had +gradually dawned upon the king, and ere the close +of 1524 report was spread that Mehlen had incurred +his monarch's wrath. Though summoned to Stockholm +in January to the marriage of the monarch's sister, he +did not venture to appear, but wrote a letter to Gustavus +begging for a continuance of favor at the court. The +answer that came back was characteristic of the king. +Stripped of all its verbiage, it was an assurance that +the general report was wrong. Mehlen might still bask +in the smiles of royalty, and must pay no heed to public +slander. In confirmation of these sentiments Gustavus +induced the Cabinet to enclose a letter. "Dear brother," +the Cabinet lovingly began, "we hear a rumor is abroad +that you have grown distasteful to the king, and you +are said to shun his presence in fear of danger to your +life. We declare before Almighty God we never heard +the monarch speak one word in your disfavor, though +we can well believe there may be slanderers who would +rejoice to see such discord spread. We doubt not you +will stamp out such discord with your utmost power. +Therefore we beg you pay no heed to evil messengers, +but come here at the earliest opportunity to the king." +This urgent exhortation meeting with no response, some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> +three weeks later the monarch wrote again, still with a +show of friendship, but insisting on the immediate presence +of the erstwhile favorite in Stockholm. So imperative +an order Mehlen dared not disobey. Proceeding at +once to Stockholm, he appeared before the king, and +soon discovered that his worst suspicions were not far +from true. The assurances of his monarch's favor had +been a blind to decoy the officer away from Kalmar. +On the 12th of March Gustavus removed him from the +post, and appointed another officer, Nils Eriksson, in his +stead. Anticipating that the change might cause some +friction, the monarch sent off a whole batch of letters +in explanation of his act. One of these letters, though +a trifle lengthy, is perhaps worth quoting. It is addressed +to the fief of Kalmar, and runs in this wise: +"Dear friends, we thank you warmly for the devotion +and allegiance which you, as true and loyal subjects, +have exhibited toward us as well as toward the kingdom +of your fathers. You will remember that last +summer, when we despatched our fleet to Gotland to +besiege Norby in the castle and town of Visby, and when +he found that he could expect no aid from Christiern, +he sent his ambassadors to take oath of allegiance to +Fredrik, King of Denmark. His purpose, which we +clearly saw, was simply to cause dissension between the +kingdoms, thus giving Christiern opportunity to come +forward and seize the reins once more. It appearing to +us and to our Cabinet unwise to permit a new war at that +time to spring up between the kingdoms, we proceeded +with delegates from our Cabinet to a congress of the +realms at Malmö. There we made a permanent alliance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> +with each other and the Hanseatic Towns against King +Christiern. We agreed, moreover, that our respective +claims to Gotland should be left to arbitration. When, +now, Norby saw that the dissension which he had longed +for was not likely to ensue, he disregarded every oath +that he had made to Fredrik, and continued in his old +allegiance to King Christiern. He also feigned a willingness +to come to terms with us, if we would protect +his interests in this kingdom. This he offered, as we +have now found out, in hope of causing discord between +us and the Hanseatic Towns. He has, too, spread a +rumor among the Danes and Germans that we had +entered into an alliance with him against them. Of +any such alliance we assure you we are ignorant. Now, +as to Mehlen, we are told he does not wholly please +you. We have therefore recalled him from his post, +and made Nils Eriksson commander of Kalmar Castle +and governor of the town and fief. We beg you be submissive +and pay to him all rents and taxes which fall +due until we find an opportunity to visit you in person. +He will govern you, by God's help, according to Saint +Erik's law and the good old customs of your fathers. +If any among you are found encouraging dissension or +engaged in plots, we pray you all be zealous in aiding +Eriksson to bring them to destruction." Along with +this letter Gustavus sent one to the burghers in the +town of Kalmar. It appears they had protested against +the taxes imposed on them by Mehlen. There can be +little doubt these taxes were imposed by order of the +king. As matters stood, however, it seemed poor policy +to claim them. These are the monarch's words: "Some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> +of your fellow-townsmen have let us understand that +taxes have been laid on you for which you are in no +wise liable. We have already written you that you +are to be free therefrom; but that letter, we now are +told, has never reached you. God knows we grieve extremely +that any such burden should have been imposed +against our wish and orders, and we hereby notify you +that we shall not claim these taxes laid on you by +Mehlen." Simultaneously with this document others of +like tenor were despatched to other persons to allay +their wrath.<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a></p> + +<p>These summary proceedings of Gustavus made Mehlen +more ready to accept proposals from the other side; +and he was further impelled in that direction by recent +plots among the Dalesmen. The insurrection under +Sunnanväder, which the monarch had fancied he could +extinguish by a generous supply of salt, had not yet +yielded to the treatment. Indeed, according to the best +reports, the malady had spread. How serious the insurrection +was, appears from the frequency of the monarch's +exhortations. All through the winter he was +writing to the people, condoling with them for the exorbitant +price of food, and attributing all their evils to +the continuance of wars in Europe. The Cabinet also +addressed the Dalesmen, urging them not to ally themselves +with Sunnanväder, who was disgruntled, so they +heard, because he had not been given the bishopric of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> +Vesterås. In one of his appeals Gustavus warned the +rebels to be still, lest Christiern might be encouraged +to return. The spectre of their gory tyrant seems not, +however, to have haunted them, and in February we +find that Knut, the deposed dean of Vesterås, had joined +their ranks. To him Gustavus wrote a note, assuring +him that the archbishopric would have been conferred +upon him had he but done his duty. Knut, apparently, +did no great benefit to his brother's cause. Only a few +days after he arrived, his leader wrote archly to a person +who had loaned him funds, that he could stay no +longer in the land, for certain peasants were already +on his track, intending to capture him and take him to +the king. If these suspicions were correct, it was probably +as well for him that he escaped. Some two weeks +later these two scoundrels were both in Norway, waiting +for a more auspicious moment to return.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a></p> + +<p>Whether their movements were in any way inspired +by Norby, is not clear. One thing, however, is very +sure. Whomever Norby thought could be of service, he +did not hesitate to use. In the previous summer, even +while truckling with Fredrik, he had been in steady communication +with Christiern, who was Fredrik's bitter +foe. And now, though every one believed him to have +broken with Fredrik, there was a story afloat that Fredrik's +hand was really behind the pirate's opposition to +Gustavus. No one could place the slightest confidence +in what he said. In January he started a rumor that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> +he was ready to give up Gotland, provided the king +would grant him a like domain in Finland; but soon +it turned out that the whole project was a ruse. In +February he had so far befogged the intellect of Fredrik +as to induce that monarch to request of Gustavus a +full pardon for all of Norby's doings. It need scarce +be added, this ridiculous proposal met with no success; +and Fredrik, almost as soon as it was sent, had cause to +rue it, for Norby toward the close of winter sent an +army into Bleking,—a province ceded to Fredrik by the +Congress of Malmö,—and there spread ruin far and +wide.<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></p> + +<p>The relations of Fredrik to Sweden at this juncture +are very strange. Though nominally at peace, the two +nations were utterly distrustful of each other, and at +frequent intervals tried in secret to cut each other's +throats. Their only bond of union was their common +abhorrence of the tyrant Christiern; and whenever Fredrik +fancied that danger averted, he spared no effort to +humiliate his rival beyond the strait. One instance of +his treachery was noticed in the comfort given to Knut +and Sunnanväder when they fled to Norway. The treaty +of Malmö had stated with sufficient clearness that all +fugitives from one country to the other should be returned; +and Fredrik, as king of Norway, was bound +to see to it that the treaty was observed. It cannot +be stated positively that he encouraged the fugitives +himself, but it is very certain that his officers in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> +Norway did, and that he made no effort to restrain +them.<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a></p> + +<p>The share Christina had in this conspiracy is likewise +doubtful. So early as February Gustavus suspected +her, and ordered one of his officers to keep spies upon +her track. As a result one of her servants was detected +in treacherous proceedings and arrested. It appears, +however, that she did not merit all the king's severity; +for Brask in April wrote a friend, that the monarch was +treating her with undue harshness. She was widely +popular, and Gustavus would have been more wise had his +hostility to her been less open. "Nescit regnare qui nescit +dissimulare," wrote the wily bishop. Christina was not, +at any rate, on the best of terms with Mehlen, for her +boy was kept in Kalmar till the castle passed from +Mehlen's hands.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a></p> + +<p>This last result was not effected till a long time +after Mehlen had been deposed. Before leaving Kalmar +he had intrusted matters to his brother, with orders +not to yield the castle to any but himself. As soon, +therefore, as the new officer approached to take his fief, +the reply was given him that the castle would not be +yielded till Mehlen should return. After some three +weeks spent in futile negotiation, Gustavus wrung from +Mehlen a letter directed to his brother, instructing him<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> +to yield. This the monarch sent to Kalmar, April 8, +along with a letter of his own. Convinced that the +whole delay on the part of Mehlen was to use up time, +he instructed his messenger to warn the occupants that +if the castle were not surrendered by the 1st of May, +he would make them smart for it. In his letter, however, +Gustavus used more gentle language. "We have +kept your brother here," he wrote, "in order to protect +him from the populace, whose mouths are full of scandal +about our relations to him. From your letter it +appears you thought we held him in confinement.... +We are minded to treat him well and kindly, unless we +shall be forced by you to treat him otherwise. We warn +you, however, we shall deal with Kalmar in the way +that we deem best, for the town and castle belong to +God, to us, and to the Swedish crown.... Our counsel +is that you obey our mandate, and the earlier you do +so the better it will be for you." Accompanying this +letter was a passport, similar to one drawn up for Mehlen, +to take his brother from the realm. He was not, +however, to be allured by passports or even terrified by +threats. The castle continued firm, and Gustavus began +to levy forces to besiege it.<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a></p> + +<p>While these forces were being gathered, Gustavus +renewed his efforts to gain favor through the land. +This he soon discovered to be no easy task. Surrounded +by conspirators on every hand, he could not +turn without confronting some new rumor. Stories of +the most contradictory nature were set afloat each day.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> +At one time the report was spread through Dalarne +that he had cast Christina into jail. After that it was +rumored that he was sending despatches frequently to +Gotland, from which some persons caught the notion he +was in secret league with Norby. This notion was so +baleful that Gustavus felt it best to answer it. "No +one need think," he said, "we attach the slightest importance +to anything that Norby says. As he asked +us for a hearing, we have promised to let him have +it. He used smooth words to us, and we have given +him smooth answers in return.... As to these slanderous +stories," continued Gustavus, in writing to an +officer, "you are aware we cannot close men's mouths. +We believe our actions toward our people will bear +examination before both God and man." Such an examination +he proposed to make, and on the 25th of +March he sent out notice of a general diet to be held +in the early part of May. This notice contained among +other things these startling words: "If it shall happen +that the Cabinet and people then assembled believe the +present evils are in any respect the outcome of our +methods of government, we shall lay it before them to +determine whether they wish us to continue in the government +or not. It was at their request and exhortation +that we assumed the reins at Strengnäs, and whatever +their judgment now may be, it shall be followed." In +addition to this notice, sent to all portions of the land, +Gustavus wrote to the people of Mora that he had +heard of a complaint from them that the kingdom was +going to pieces and that he was causing it. He assured +them that the rumor was untrue, and that he was doing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> +all he could to hold the realm together. When these +assurances reached Dalarne, the poor peasants of that +district were already starving. Half mad with hunger, +they called a mass meeting of their little parishes, and +drew up a heart-rending though unfair statement of their +wrongs. A copy of these grievances they despatched at +once to Stockholm. It charged the king with appointing +German and Danish officers to the highest positions +in the state, and with quartering foreign soldiers in the +towns and villages till the inhabitants were constrained +to flee. He had further, they asserted, laid taxes on the +monasteries and churches, and on the priests and monks; +he had seized jewels consecrated to God's service; he +had robbed the churches of all their Swedish money, and +substituted "klippings," which he then had repudiated; +and he had seized the tithes. Finally they charged him +with imprisoning Christina and her boy. The letter +ended with a warning that unless he at once drove out +all foreigners, released Christina with the others whom +he had in prison, and took some measures to better +trade, they would renounce allegiance to him. Gustavus +received this document while the diet was in session. +His answer to the people of Dalarne contained these +words: "We cannot believe this letter was issued by +your consent. Rather, we think, it was inspired by certain +wiseacres among you hoodwinked by Sunnanväder +and the like. That the purpose of these men is to bring +back Christiern we have definite proofs, not only within +the kingdom but without. Ever since Sunnanväder went +among you, letters and messengers have been passing +between Dalarne and Norby, the meaning of all which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> +is that Norby is to attack the government on one side +and Dalarne on the other, and that we are to be dragged +down from the throne, which is then to be handed over +to Norby for the benefit of Christiern." This letter +reflected in some degree the spirit of the diet. The +main object for which it had been called was to spread +an impression that the king was acting as representative +of his people. It was not asked to legislate, and it +did not do so. Gustavus, however, went through the +farce which he had promised, and asked the delegates if +they wished him to resign the crown. Of course the +answer was a shower of plaudits upon the king. As +Gustavus modestly puts it, "The Cabinet and people +over all the land besought us not to resign, but govern +them hereafter as heretofore; and they promised obedience +as in the past, swearing by hand and mouth to +risk in our service their lives and everything they had." +With this seductive ceremony the diet was dismissed.<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a></p> + +<p>Ere the diet had come together, Norby had made a +second irruption into Fredrik's territory in the south +of Sweden. Toward the end of March he had sailed +from Gotland with twelve men-of-war, had captured a +couple of the strongest fortresses in Bleking, and had +enlisted many inhabitants of that province in the cause +of Christiern. Fredrik was by this time fully alive to +the error he had made in relying for a moment on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> +promises of Norby. His anxiety was increased still further +when the news was brought him that Christiern's +brother-in-law, the emperor, had defeated the king of +France, and was coming with all his forces to the relief +of Christiern. One drop of comfort was granted him +when he heard that a fleet from Lubeck had sailed to +Gotland in Norby's absence, and on May 13 had seized +the town of Visby. In spite of this disaster, Norby's +hopes ran high. He sent letters every day to Christiern, +telling him that Denmark as well as Sweden was overrun +with rebels, and that he now had a chance of restoration +such as he had never had before. But Norby's +hopes were at the very highest when the bubble burst. +The emperor proved too busy with his own affairs to +send his army to the North, and Christiern could not +raise the armament requisite for a foreign war. Gustavus, +moreover, sent his troops to drive back the invader, +and the Danish nobility enlisted in behalf of Fredrik. +The result was that ere the close of May the pirate was +routed in two important battles. Gustavus literally +hugged himself for joy, and sent off a letter of congratulation +to the army that had won the day. "My good +men," he began, "you may rest assured that if Norby +shall escape you and come this way, he will meet with +a reception that will cause him little joy. From his +assertion that he expected aid from us, you will perceive +he sought to foster discord between your realm and us.... +We had already ordered our men in Vestergötland +to go to your relief as soon as you should need them, +which now, thank God, we trust will never be." The monarch's +congratulation was a little premature. Norby's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> +force was scattered, but it was not lost. Retiring with his +stragglers to one of the Danish strongholds, he ensconced +himself within, and there remained,—a constant menace +to the neighborhood. Late in June the pirate, reduced +to the utmost extremity, opened negotiations with Fredrik. +That monarch, still in dread of Christiern, readily +complied. Norby proceeded to Copenhagen, where it +was finally arranged that he should yield the castle +of Visby, which the Lubeck army had been besieging +ever since the town of Visby fell; and that in return +the pirate should be granted the whole province of +Bleking with all its strongholds, to hold as a fief of +Denmark. Norby was then conveyed to Denmark, and +before the first of August these terms were carried out. +Visby passed into the hands of Lubeck, and the pirate +returned to Bleking to guard his fief.<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a></p> + +<p>Gustavus, it need scarce be said, was vexed. The +congress which was to have been held in Lubeck to discuss +his claim to Gotland had been indefinitely postponed. +In place thereof, the island had been seized +by Lubeck, and Bleking—another of the disputed territories—had +been conferred upon a bitter foe. What +most irritated him was the close proximity of Norby's +fief to Sweden. He was at a loss, moreover, to understand +the king of Denmark's motives. "It may be," he +suggested in a letter of July 9, "that Fredrik's purpose<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> +was to secure Gotland, and then deal with Norby as he +pleased. However this may be, we must keep watch on +every side." The same day he wrote to another person, +"We are in no wise pleased to have Norby for a neighbor, +since we have noticed that he always seeks to do +us harm." Still, Gustavus believed in making a virtue +of necessity, and a few days later wrote: "We are glad +that hostilities between Fredrik and Norby are at an end, +and that the kingdom is once more on the road to peace +and quiet."<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a></p> + +<p>This letter was written by Gustavus in his camp at +Kalmar. The castle there was still in the hands of +Mehlen's brother, though it had been under siege about +two months. Early in June Gustavus, unwilling to shed +more blood, had ordered Mehlen to proceed to Kalmar +and bid the castle yield. The confidence with which +the monarch even yet regarded Mehlen is astounding, +and the issue proved at once the monarch's folly. On +reaching Kalmar, Mehlen, after a conference with Eriksson, +was allowed to enter the castle to persuade his men +to yield. The following day, the portcullis was lowered +and Mehlen came out upon the bridge. But while he +pretended to be crossing, a portion of the garrison dashed +out of the castle and massacred a number of the people, +all unsuspecting, in the town. The alarm was then given +to the royal guard, and Mehlen's soldiers, finding themselves +outnumbered, retired across the bridge. Five +days later, Mehlen, with his wife and brother, scaled the +castle wall and sailed for Germany, leaving his wretched +soldiers to withstand the siege. If ever there was a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> +cowardly, bustling, impotent, insignificant adventurer, +Berent von Mehlen was that man. During his two +years' stay in Sweden he had dabbled in every project +that arose, and he had accomplished absolutely nothing. +He had been the hero of a six months' bloodless siege, +that left matters precisely as they had begun; and he +had set on foot a conspiracy that had no object and that +ended in the air. It is a pleasure to dismiss him from +our thoughts. His subsequent career in Germany was +of a piece with his career in Sweden. He scurried about +from one court to another, endeavoring to raise an army +with which to conquer Sweden. But nothing came of +any of his projects, and after a short period oblivion +settled on his name.<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a></p> + +<p>Gustavus now learned definitely that Norby, ever since +his fleet left Gotland, had been in secret conspiracy +with Mehlen. He determined, therefore, that, since the +pirate had gained a foothold on the mainland, Kalmar +must be secured at any risk. So he collected men from +every quarter and sent them down to Kalmar to reinforce +the town. Some few weeks later, as the castle +had not yielded, he proceeded to the town himself. +The burghers, hoping the conflict would now be ended, +welcomed him with joy. But the garrison still believed +in Mehlen, and confidently awaited his return with aid. +Gustavus sent an envoy to the castle, to persuade the +garrison to yield. The answer was, the garrison would +not be yielded till every one of them was dead. But<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> +one course, therefore, was open to the monarch,—the +castle must be stormed. This, with the guns which he +possessed, demanded almost more than human strength. +The castle was surrounded on all sides by a moat, beyond +which rose a perpendicular wall of masonry twenty +feet in height. This rampart was washed on three +sides by the sea, and on the other was protected by a +broad deep dike and then an outer wall. From within, +the rampart was guarded by eight huge towers that +stood out from the castle-walls, and the four corners of +the ramparts were further strengthened by four more +towers with apertures for crossbows, cannon, and muskets. +Such was the fortress that Gustavus, late in July, +resolved to storm. He began by throwing up a line of +earthworks, behind which he placed his heavy guns, +hoping to batter down the towers and ramparts, while +his pikemen and halberdiers were scaling the unprotected +parts. But his men at first were lukewarm. +The task seemed herculean, and every effort to ascend +the ramparts met with certain death. Those in the +castle fought like maniacs, the men with guns and crossbows, +and the women firing stones. Gustavus, it is reported, +stormed and swore, and finally put on his armor, +declaring that he would either have the castle or die +within its walls. His enthusiasm spread among his +men, and they shouted they would do their best, though +every man of them should fall. The effect was visible +at once. Each charge left the ramparts weaker than +before; and when night closed in, there was not a tower +or rampart whole. The next morning, when Gustavus +turned his culverins again upon the wall, the flag of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> +truce was raised. The garrison hoped that if they sued +before the ramparts actually fell, they might be granted +favorable terms. But the monarch, who had now lost +nearly half his men, demanded an unconditional surrender. +As Norby had been conquered, and no signs of +Mehlen's succor had appeared, the garrison, after much +palaver, threw themselves upon the mercy of the king. +The castle, on the 20th of July, passed into the monarch's +hands once more, and a large portion of the rebel +garrison was put to death. With this scene the conspiracy +of Norby, Mehlen, and their adherents was at +an end.<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a></p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 96-98.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 98-99; and <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes +registrat.</i>, vol. i. p. 254.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 99-100.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, p. 99; <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xiv. +pp. 33-41 and vol. xviii. pp. 265-266 and 273-276; and <i>Kon. Gust. +den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 83-86 and 272-276.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xiii. pp. 107-110; and <i>Kon. Gust. +den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. i. pp. 281-284 and vol. ii. pp. 12 and 19.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. ii. p. 781 and vol. iv. p. 1530; <i>Handl. +rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xiv. pp. 30-33, 41-44 and 61-65, and vol. xvii. +pp. 182 and 188-189; and <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. ii. +pp. 24-26. Some modern writers, unwilling to believe Christina base +enough to marry Norby, regard the whole story of her consent as false. +It seems impossible, however, that a false rumor should have been so +generally believed by those who knew her. The more natural assumption +is that her ambition caused her to accept the advances of her suitor +even if she did not positively yield to his request.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> Rensel, <i>Berättelse</i>, pp. 42-43; <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. iv. pp. +1520-1521 and 1527-1533; <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xiv. pp. 61-65; +and <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. i. pp. 283-284 and +vol. ii. pp. 7-9, 23-24 and 36-42.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, p. 86; <i>Dipl. Dal.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 39-47; +<i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xxiii. pp. 28-34; and <i>Kon. Gust. den +Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 3-5, 10-12, 13-14 and 20-21.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. iv. pp. 1531-1532; <i>Handl. rör. Skand. +hist.</i>, vol. xiii. pp. 124-127; and <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, +vol. ii. pp. 28-29.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. iv. pp. 1485-1486; <i>Handl. rör. Skand. +hist.</i>, vol. xxiii. pp. 65-67; <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. ii. +pp. 33-34, 46 and 49-50; and <i>Saml. til det Norske Folks Sprog og +Hist.</i>, vol. i. pp. 482-484.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. iv. p. 1530; <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. +xiv. p. 64 and vol. xviii. pp. 269-270 and 276-277; and <i>Kon. Gust. +den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 24-25.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xiv. p. 45; and <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes +registrat.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 72-80, 91-93, 106-107 and 113.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> <i>Alla riksdag. och möt. besluth</i>, vol. i. pp. 36-37; <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, +vol. iv. pp. 1482-1487 and 1496-1497; <i>Dipl. Dal.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 50-51 +and 63-64; <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xiv. pp. 41-44 and 60-61 and +vol. xxiii. pp. 77-81; <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 42-48, +52-57, and 110-118; and <i>Svenska riksdagsakt.</i>, vol. i. pp. 32-39.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> <i>Diar. Minor. Visbyens.</i>, p. 39; Rensel, <i>Berättelse</i>, p. 44; Svart, +<i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 83-84; <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. i. pp. 7-36; <i>Handl. +rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xiv. pp. 55-57 and 72-73; and <i>Kon. Gust. den +Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 59-60, 89-93, 97-102, 119-120, 146-147, +167-168 and 170.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 170-176.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> Rensel, <i>Berättelse</i>, pp. 43-45; Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 86-89; +<i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xiv. pp. 61-65; and <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes +registrat.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 143-144 and 160-161.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> Rensel, <i>Berättelse</i>, pp. 45-47; Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 89-92; +<i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xiv. pp. 72-73; and <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes +registrat.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 143-146, 155-158, 160-165, 168-169, 181-183 +and 188.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_VII" id="Chapter_VII"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter VII.</span></h2> + +<h3>DEALINGS WITH FOREIGN POWERS. 1525-1527.</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Negotiations between Fredrik and Gustavus.—Treachery of Norby.—Sunnanväder +and the Cabinet of Norway.—Overthrow and Death +of Norby.—Trial and Execution of Knut and Sunnanväder.—Debt +to Lubeck.—Treaty with Russia; with the Netherlands.—Dalarne +and the Lubeck Envoys.—Swedish Property in Denmark.—Province +of Viken.—Refugees in Norway.</p></div> + + +<p class="cap">THE Swedish Revolution was the work of three +nations, all foes at heart, endeavoring to effect a +common object on utterly divergent grounds. Gustavus +wished to free his country from a tyrant's rule, while +Fredrik's purpose was to gain the throne of Denmark, +and Lubeck's was to crush her rival in the Baltic trade. +Without the alliance of these three parties, it is not +likely that any one of them could have gained his end. +So long, therefore, as the common object was in view, +each felt an assurance that the others would not fail. +It was only when Christiern's power was altogether +gone that this triple alliance was dissolved.</p> + +<p>The varying hopes of Christiern may be gauged with +singular accuracy by Fredrik's show of friendship to +Gustavus. One cannot read the despatches sent from +Denmark without observing a constant change of attitude; +the monarch's feelings cooling somewhat as the +chance that Christiern would recover Denmark grew<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> +more remote. At the moment when Norby returned to +Bleking, the movements of Christiern caused the monarch +much alarm, and his letters to Gustavus were +filled with every assurance of good-will. This assurance, +however, Gustavus took at little more than it was +worth. So long as Knut and Sunnanväder were protected +by Fredrik's officers in Norway, the Danish monarch's +assurances of friendship carried little weight. +Gustavus seems not to have appealed to Fredrik in this +matter till every effort to persuade the Danish officers +in Norway had been tried. He wrote even to the Norwegian +Cabinet, and begged them to keep the promises +made to him in Malmö. While in the midst of these +entreaties, a letter came from Fredrik asking for the +release of certain prisoners, among them Norby's daughter, +whom Gustavus had captured in the war with Norby. +This was the very opportunity which Gustavus craved. +He wrote back that in the same war in which these +prisoners had been taken, some guns belonging to him +had been lost, and he offered to exchange the prisoners +for the guns. He requested, further, that Fredrik command +his officers in Norway to yield the refugees. +While this answer was on the road, Fredrik received +a note from Norby, to whom Gustavus had written to +say that Fredrik had promised that the guns should be +returned. Fredrik, therefore, wrote Gustavus that these +guns were not in his possession, but if the Danish prisoners +were surrendered, he would try to get them. +When this letter came, the monarch was indignant. +Fredrik, it was clear, was playing with him, and hoped +to get the prisoners and give nothing in return. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> +answer which the monarch made was this: "We have +just received your letter with excuses for the detention +of our guns and ammunition, along with a request for +the surrender of Søren Brun, whom you assert we captured +in a time of truce. Of such a truce we wish to +inform you we are ignorant. He was lawfully taken, +inasmuch as he was one of Norby's men.... As to +our ammunition you say that it was captured from you +and carried off to Gotland. If so, it was no fault of +ours. We have written frequently about it, but have +met with nothing but delays. If Norby, who you say +has sworn allegiance to you, holds this ammunition in +Visby Castle, it is unquestionably in your power to order +that it be returned. So soon as this is done, the prisoners +shall be released." Before this determined letter +arrived in Denmark, Fredrik had modified his plans, +for news had come that Christiern's fleet was on the +way to Norway, intending to winter there and make an +incursion into Denmark in the spring. Fredrik, therefore, +despatched a note to Norby telling him to yield +the ammunition, and wrote Gustavus that the guns were +ready, and if he would send his officers to Denmark +for them they should be delivered. A few days later +an officer of Fredrik wrote Gustavus that property of +Danish subjects had been seized in Sweden, and begged +that the persons wronged be recompensed. To this +Gustavus answered that Swedish subjects had been +treated in the same way in Denmark, and promised to +observe the treaty if the Danes would do so in return. +He likewise wrote to Fredrik thanking him for his +action relating to the guns, declaring that he would<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> +send for them as requested, and as soon as they were +yielded would set the prisoners free.<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a></p> + +<p>This amicable adjustment of their difficulty was on +paper, but much more shuffling was required before it +was reduced to fact. Gustavus feared that Fredrik was +in league with Norby, and rumor had it that Norby +was preparing for another war. Late in 1525, the pirate +wrote the Swedish officer in Kalmar that he had come +to terms with Fredrik, and that all the injury which he +had done to Sweden had been forgiven. To this the +officer replied: "I fail to see how Fredrik can have +promised that you may keep our ammunition." Norby +at all events did keep it, and early in 1526 Gustavus +wrote: "We hear that Norby has let fall calumnies +against us. We place no confidence whatever in him, +especially as he is growing stronger every day.... +From his own letters we discover he has no thought +of giving up our ammunition." To Fredrik himself +the monarch wrote: "From Norby's letters we learn +he has no intention of obeying your commands." In +the same strain Gustavus addressed the Danish Cabinet, +and expressed the hope that Norby was not acting under +their behest. If the Cabinet's assertion can be trusted, +he was not; for several of the Cabinet wrote Gustavus +to keep an eye on Norby, as he was raising a large +force in Bleking despite their orders to him to desist.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> +There being little hope that Fredrik would force the +pirate to obey, Gustavus ventured to arrange the matter +for himself. It so happened at this moment that one +of Norby's vessels, laden with arms and ammunition, +stranded on the coast not far from Kalmar. The +monarch's officers hurried to the spot, and seized what +ammunition they could find. This stroke, however, was +in some degree offset by a reprisal which Norby managed +to secure upon the coast of Bleking. Matters +now appeared so serious that the king addressed himself +to Norby. "We find," he said, "that a part of +the ammunition taken from the wreck off Kalmar is +our own. All the rest of it you may have, provided +we are given the guns and ammunition promised us +by Fredrik.... As soon as these are handed over, +your daughter and the other prisoners shall be freed." +This proposition would have satisfied any man but +Norby. To him it seemed unfair. The fleet of Christiern +was looked for early in the spring, and Norby +thought by waiting to obtain more favorable terms. +He wrote back, therefore, that, though Fredrik may +have told Gustavus he should have his guns, he could +not have them, for in the treaty recently drawn up +between himself and Fredrik, it had been stipulated +that all injury done by him to Sweden should be forgotten, +and a part of this injury consisted in the seizure +of these guns. Norby closed his letter with an offer +to hold a personal conference with the king. The reply +which Norby had to this proposal was sharp and warm. +"We shall permit no nonsense," wrote the king. If +Norby wanted his daughter, let him return the guns.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> +"As to a personal meeting with you, we cannot spare +the time." Norby's pride apparently was not touched +by this rebuke. He wrote again, simply repeating what +he had said before, and in reply obtained another letter +from the king. "We have already told you," wrote +Gustavus, "that you may have your daughter when we +get our guns. We were promised them by the treaty +of Malmö, which we desire in every particular to observe. +And we will hand over the property belonging +to you in the wreck off Kalmar, if you will forward to +that town our ammunition together with a promise in +writing never from this day forth to wrong us or our +men." This letter, dated on the 4th of March, was the +last communication that passed between the pirate and +the king. Norby had at length discovered that he could +not dupe the king, and Gustavus deemed it folly to +continue parley with one whose only object was to use +up time.<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a></p> + +<p>Unable to accomplish anything with Norby, it was +more than ever important that Gustavus should be on +terms of amity with Fredrik. For the moment it appeared +that Fredrik would be fair. At all events, he +had made Gustavus a generous promise about the guns, +and his Cabinet kept Gustavus constantly informed +about the acts of Norby. In February, when the lakes +were frozen, the monarch sent, as Fredrik had suggested, +for his ammunition, and intrusted to the same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> +emissary a letter for the Danish king. This letter was +in reply to one from Fredrik, asking for the surrender +of a Danish refugee. Gustavus could not comply with +his request, for the refugee was gone; but he seized +again the opportunity to mention Sunnanväder. "We +earnestly entreat you," were his words, "to write your +Cabinet in Norway no longer to protect this man or any +of his party." It was certainly time that something +should be done by Fredrik, for at the very moment +while Gustavus was writing this appeal, the Norwegian +Cabinet were issuing a passport for the traitors through +their realm; and to a request from Gustavus for their +surrender, the Cabinet offered the absurd excuse that +the fugitives themselves protested they were innocent. +"However," it was added, "the fugitives will return if +they are given your assurance that they may be tried, +as priests, before a spiritual tribunal." In this reply +the reason for the detention of the fugitives leaked +out. They were high in office in the Church, and the +archbishop of Trondhem, with whom they had taken +refuge, feared the Lutheran tendencies of the king. +Fredrik did not wholly share this fear, and on the 4th +of March for the first time addressed the archbishop, +commanding him to revoke the passport of the renegades. +This letter producing no immediate effect, Gustavus +waited about six weeks, and then despatched to +the Cabinet of Norway a safe-conduct for the renegades +to be tried before "a proper tribunal," and, if adjudged +not guilty, to return to Norway. The passport was +directed to the Cabinet of southern Norway, to whom +the monarch used these words: "We marvel much at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> +the language of your northern brothers, and particularly +that they are deceived by the treachery of these rascals, +which is well known hundreds of miles from here, and +might be known in Norway if the people were not +blind. I might tell you how they lay a long while in +Dalarne, and in the name of the people sent deceitful +letters through the land, to stir up hostility against us. +But as soon as the people began to leave them, and +the Dalesmen announced that these letters were not +issued with their consent, they betook themselves to +Norway.... If, now, the fugitives will come before a +proper tribunal, we cannot and we would not refuse to +let them do so. We therefore send a safe-conduct to +guard them against all wrong, according to their request. +If they do not come, it will be manifest whether +they are innocent." The safe-conduct, it may be well to +say, ran only to the 10th of August following, and no +notice apparently was taken of it till near the expiration +of that time.<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a></p> + +<p>Gustavus now devoted himself to the task of fighting +Norby. The pirate had given the king of Denmark a +written promise that he would do no injury to Sweden, +but it was very soon apparent that this promise was +not likely to be kept. By the end of January Norby's +acts so far aroused suspicion that Gustavus ordered +spies to enter Bleking and discover Norby's plans. No<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> +very definite information, however, was obtained, probably +for the reason that Norby did not know his plans +himself. He was waiting for intelligence from Christiern. +Late in March Gustavus fancied the pirate was +preparing to depart for Norway. A few days afterwards, +Brask wrote the monarch: "A report is spread +that Norby has seized some seven or eight small craft +and two large ships. I do not comprehend his purpose. +Merchants just arrived from Denmark add that +the Germans have handed Gotland over to the Danes, +though on the other hand it is declared that Lubeck +has sent a strong force of men and ammunition to the +isle." The day following the writing of this letter, +Gustavus despatched a note to Finland, with a warning +to beware of Norby, for the news had reached him +secretly that the pirate was about to make an incursion +into Finland. This was followed, after a week's +interval, by another letter announcing that Norby's fleet +was lying at anchor, all ready to set sail. The monarch's +apprehensions proved to be unfounded. Norby +had important business nearer home. Christiern had not +wintered in Norway, as some persons had supposed he +would, but had continued his efforts to raise a force in +Holland. His efforts had been attended with some +measure of success, and early in May the Swedish Cabinet +had word that Christiern had despatched a force +of seven or eight thousand men under Gustaf Trolle +to make an attack on Denmark. While this fleet was +believed to be under sail, the tortuous Norby wrote +to Denmark that he was ready to sacrifice his life for +Fredrik, and took the opportunity to charge Gustavus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> +with every sort of crime. The expedition of Christiern +appears to have miscarried, but it so startled +Fredrik that he hastened to rid himself of his doubtful +ally, Norby. On pretence of wanting an escort for his +daughter, about to sail for Prussia, he asked the pirate +to come to Copenhagen. Norby, willing though he was +to sacrifice his life for Fredrik, thought he scented bait. +He could not go, he said, unless he did so in his own +vessel attended by seven hundred of his men, and as an +additional guaranty demanded at the outset that his men +be paid. This was a little more than Fredrik could +digest. His answer was a letter to Gustavus, declaring +that the pirate was in constant communication with +Christiern, and meantime spared no efforts to stir up +discord between Gustavus and himself. He was now +preparing with a fleet and body of seven hundred men +to make an incursion into Sweden. Should this occur, +Gustavus might rely upon the aid of Fredrik. For this +generous assurance Gustavus in his answer thanked the +king, and promised, in return, that if the pirate should +make war on Denmark, Fredrik might count on him. +Despite these mutual promises of fidelity, neither party +relied much on the other. Gustavus, in a letter to his +Cabinet in Finland, openly declared his discontent with +Fredrik. However, a common danger kept the allies +together, and early in August Gustavus sent a fleet to +Kalmar Sound with orders to make an incursion into +Bleking on the north, at the same moment that Fredrik's +fleet was attacking Norby from the south. For some +reason Fredrik did not hear of the Swedish movement +till the day was won. On August 24 the Danish and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> +Lubeck fleets were lying off the coast of Bleking, and, +thinking that an attack would soon be made by land, +bore down upon the fleet of Norby. It was an unequal +contest, and the allied fleets were victorious. Seven of +Norby's vessels were captured, with four hundred of his +men. The conquerors then entered Bleking, and placed +the district once more under Danish rule. Norby himself +escaped across the Baltic Sea to Russia. There he +expected to enlist the grand duke in a war against +Gustavus. He found, however, that he had mistaken +the opinions of his host. The grand duke threw him +into prison, where he remained two years. At the end +of that time he was set at liberty by request of Charles +V., under whose banner he then enlisted. After serving +about a year, he was killed outside the walls of Florence, +whither he had been sent with the emperor's forces to +storm the town. "Such was the end," so runs the +chronicle, "of one who in his palmy days had called +himself a friend of God and an enemy to every man."<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a></p> + +<p>Meantime matters had progressed to some extent with +Norway. On the 22d of July, the passport issued for +the refugees having nearly expired without intimation +that it would be used, Gustavus wrote to Fredrik: "Sunnanväder +and the other fugitives are still maintained with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> +honor in Norway, and are continually plotting new revolt. +They receive especial favor from the archbishop +of Trondhem, who is said to have appointed one of them +his deacon. We have written frequently about them to +the Cabinet of Norway, but the more we write the more +honor they receive." This charge was proved by subsequent +events to be a trifle hasty. Scarce had the +letter been despatched when Knut, who was probably +the least guilty of the two conspirators, arrived. He +came by order of the archbishop of Trondhem, and +along with him came a letter from the archbishop, declaring +that, as the king had promised the fugitives they +should be tried by prelates of the Church, one of them +was surrendered. Sunnanväder would likewise have +been handed over but that he was ill. The archbishop +closed by urging Gustavus to show mercy. It +is to be noted that the king had never promised that +the tribunal should consist of prelates. What he had +said was that they should be tried before a "proper +tribunal." Doubtless it was customary that priests +should not be tried by laymen, but the practice was not +invariably followed, and the language of the passport +was enough to throw the conspirators on their guard. +In a case of conspiracy against the crown, the Swedish +Cabinet would seem to be a proper tribunal, and as a +matter of fact it was before the Cabinet that this case +was tried. The Cabinet consisted of the archbishop of +Upsala, three bishops, and eight laymen. Their decree +was, in the first place, that the passport did not protect +Knut from trial, and secondly, that he was guilty of +conspiracy against the crown. The decree was dated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> +August 9. On that very day the king of Denmark +wrote Gustavus that he had ordered the archbishop of +Trondhem to give no shelter to the traitors, and added: +"We are told that you are ready to promise them a trial +before yourself and the Swedish Cabinet, after which +they shall be permitted to go free." Gustavus had never +promised that they should go free, and it was preposterous +for anybody to expect it. The only object of the +trial was to give the traitors an opportunity to prove +their innocence, and if they failed to do so, it was only +fair that they should suffer. As soon as the decree was +signed, Gustavus wrote the archbishop of Trondhem that +Knut had been found guilty, but that his life should be +spared to satisfy the archbishop, at any rate until Gustavus +could learn what the archbishop proposed to do +with the other refugees. A similar letter was sent also +by the Cabinet, declaring that "many serious charges +were made against Knut, which he was in no way able +to disprove." One of the Cabinet members, who had +been asked by the archbishop to intercede for Knut, +wrote back: "His crime is so enormous and so clearly +proved by his own handwriting, that there is no hope for +him unless by the grace of God or through your intercession." +Even Brask wrote: "He has won the king's +ill-favor in many ways, for which he can offer no defence." +Against such a pressure of public opinion the +archbishop of Trondhem dared no longer stand, and on +the 22d of September despatched Sunnanväder to the +king, adding, with the mendacity of a child, that he had +detained him in Norway only in order that he might +not flee. Gustavus, with grim humor, thanked him for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> +his solicitude, and begged him now to return all other +refugees. Sunnanväder was kept in jail till the 18th of +February, 1527. He was then brought before a tribunal +consisting of the entire Chapter of Upsala, two bishops, +and a number of laymen. The king produced some +sixty letters written by the traitor, establishing his conspiracy +beyond the shadow of a doubt. He was condemned +at once, and executed the same day outside the +Upsala walls. Three days later, his accomplice, Knut, +was similarly put to death in Stockholm. Thus ended a +conspiracy which had cost the monarch infinite annoyance, +and which during a period of three years had been +a constant menace to the realm.<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a></p> + +<p>What most annoyed the king at this time was the +importunate demands of Lubeck. Ever since Gotland, +in the summer of 1525, had fallen into the hands of +Lubeck, Gustavus had appreciated the necessity of keeping +the Hanseatic town in check. So early as August of +that year the monarch wrote Laurentius Andreæ: "You +have advised us to cling to Lubeck and place no confidence +in the Danes, since they have always played us false. +We are not sure, however, that even Lubeck can be +trusted, for we have no certainty what she has in mind, +especially as she is sheltering in Gotland that outspoken +traitor, Mehlen." The Swedish envoys, who had arrived<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> +in Lubeck too late to meet the Danes, as had been agreed +in Malmö, seem to have reached no terms with Lubeck, +and, when they returned to Sweden in September, Gotland +was in Lubeck's hands, and Lubeck had announced +her purpose of defending Mehlen. Her strongest hold +on Sweden lay in the fact that Sweden was still her +debtor in a very large amount. Early in 1526 this burden +had become so great that the Cabinet passed an act +decreeing that two thirds of all the tithes accrued for +the year just ended should be surrendered by the Church +to meet the nation's debt. The announcement of this +levy made Lubeck for the moment more importunate than +before. Believing that the money would soon be pouring +in, she kept her envoys constantly dogging the monarch's +steps, and in the month of April Gustavus wrote: +"Our creditors will scarce permit us to leave the castle-gate." +They were, therefore, as greatly disappointed as +Gustavus when the money did not come. In June Gustavus +wrote that he had got together ten thousand marks,—a +mere nothing,—and that Lubeck had written to demand +immediate payment of the whole. "Her envoys +have now closed our doors so tight that it is hardly +possible for us to go out." It was clear that some new +scheme must be devised, and on the 23d of June the +king applied to certain members of his Cabinet. "We +have now," he wrote, "as frequently before, had letters +from Lubeck demanding in curt language the payment +of her debt. You are aware that we have often, especially +in Cabinet meetings, asked you to suggest some +mode of meeting this requirement, and have never yet +been able to elicit any tangible response. Indeed, you<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> +have not had the matter much at heart, but have rather +left it to be arranged by us. You have, it is true, suggested +that the tithes be used, but we find that, though +we much relied upon them, they are but a tittle. Our +entire taxes for last year, including iron, skins, butter, +salmon, amounted to somewhat over ten thousand +marks. This sum, which would naturally be used to +pay the expenses of our court, has been handed over +to pay the debt. The tithes received, which we were +assured would be a considerable sum, are shown by our +books not to have exceeded two thousand marks in all. +The treasury balance has now run so low that we have +but a trifle left, and our soldiers, who are now much +needed to keep off Christiern and Norby, must be paid. +We therefore beg you take this matter seriously to heart, +and devise some means by which the debt may soon be +paid.... It is utterly impossible from the taxes alone +to keep an army and pay this heavy debt, for the taxes +are no greater than they were some years ago, though +the expenses are very much increased; and, moreover, +we have no mines to turn to, as our fathers had." This +urgent appeal inspired the Cabinet to act, and at a meeting +held in August they provided that a new tax be laid +on every subject in the realm. In the table that accompanied +this Act, the amounts to be contributed by the +different provinces were accurately fixed, as well as the +amounts to be collected in the towns. The bishops, too, +were called upon to furnish each his quota, based upon +an estimate of his means: the archbishop of Upsala +paying four thousand marks, the bishop of Åbo three +thousand marks, Linköping two thousand five hundred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> +marks, Skara and Strengnäs each two thousand marks, +Vesterås one thousand marks, and Vexiö five hundred +marks. The amount imposed on Åbo seems unreasonably +large, which is probably to be accounted for by the +fact that Åbo was not present at the meeting. Brask, +in writing to Åbo, told the bishop that his quota was +three thousand marks, but did not name to him the +individual amounts to be contributed by the other bishops. +Gustavus, in a letter to the members of his Cabinet +in Finland, was even more unfair. He told them +that Åbo was to pay three thousand marks, and added +that Linköping and Skara were to pay the same. Brask's +letter is particularly important in that it puts the balance +of the debt to Lubeck at forty-five thousand Lubeck +marks, equivalent to ninety thousand Swedish marks, +of which amount the archbishop and bishops were expected +to raise fifteen thousand marks. Brask, with his +usual shrewdness, urged the king to pay the debt that +autumn, and thus get rid of Lubeck before the winter +came. Gustavus doubtless shared with him this view, +but there were several grave difficulties in the way. +Early in October the monarch held a conference with +the Lubeck envoys, and found the balance, as they figured +it, to be larger than he had supposed. Moreover, +the peasants in the north of Sweden declared they could +not spare the funds, and urged Gustavus to postpone the +levy till a more convenient time. So that at the close +of 1526 the Lubeck envoys were still clamoring for their +pay.<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span></p> +<p>The cramped position in which Gustavus was held by +Lubeck made it of great importance that he should be +on amicable terms with other powers. So early as 1523, +he had sent ambassadors to Russia to ratify the treaty +made by Sture. They had returned, however, with announcement +that the grand duke's envoys would come +to Stockholm and arrange the terms. This promise had +never been fulfilled. As soon, therefore, as opportunity +was found, the monarch prepared to send ambassadors +again. The person to whom the matter was intrusted +was the monarch's brother-in-law, Johan von Hoya. In +November, 1525, this officer, who had just returned from +an expedition to Lubeck, set sail for Finland, where he +already had been granted fiefs, with orders to determine +whether or not it was desirable that the embassy should +go. Considerable delay ensued because Gustavus was in +want of funds. He thought that since the expedition +would be mainly for the benefit of Finland, the cost of +sending it should be borne by her. It was, therefore, +not till May of 1526, when Russian depredations became +unbearable in Finland, that an arrangement could be +made. Envoys then were sent to Moscow, and presented +to the grand duke a letter from Gustavus under +date of 20th of May. In this document the monarch +stated that his envoys had once before been sent to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> +Moscow to ratify the treaty made with Sture, but for +some reason had never reached the capital. Since then +great injury had been done in Finland by Russian subjects. +Gustavus desired, therefore, to renew the treaty, +and begged the grand duke to recompense his subjects, +and also to make known to him in what towns in Russia +his subjects would be allowed to trade. This letter +appears to have been some months upon the road, for +the grand duke's answer was not given till the 2d of +September. In this answer he declared that the previous +embassy of Gustavus had held a conference with +Russian envoys, and by them the treaty made with +Sture had been ratified. Swedish merchants were allowed +to trade in all the towns of Russia, and all +wrongs done to Swedish subjects should be punished +and the persons injured recompensed. On the other +hand, he should expect Gustavus to punish his own +subjects for wrongs which they had done in Russia, and +all buildings by them erected on Russian soil must be +torn down. While the Swedish envoys were returning +with this letter, Norby reached the grand duke and +complained that Swedes had injured Russian subjects +in Lapland. The grand duke therefore ordered that +Gustavus be notified of the complaint, and asked to +punish the offenders if the charge were true. When +the embassy returned to Sweden, and the monarch +found they had not yet obtained the grand duke's seal, +he resolved to go to Finland in the spring of 1527 and +meet the Russian emissaries there. This plan, however, +was given up for lack of funds, and the Russian emissaries +were asked to meet the king in Stockholm. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> +offer was accepted, the emissaries came, and after an +elaborate exchange of costly presents, both parties +signed a ratification of the treaty made for seventy +years with Sture. The ratification was dated on the +26th of May.<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a></p> + +<p>The main reason why Gustavus dreaded a rupture +between himself and Lubeck was that it would cause +great injury to his commerce. Immediately after his +election in 1523, the monarch in a moment of enthusiasm +had conferred on Lubeck, Dantzic, and their allies +a perpetual monopoly of Swedish trade. In an earlier +century, when these so-called Vend Cities controlled the +Baltic trade, Lubeck would have claimed the monopoly +even without a grant. But another branch of the Hanse +Towns had ere this grown up in Holland, with a power +so formidable that the Vend Cities dared not assert their +claim. So long, however, as the privileges granted Lubeck +were unrepealed, the Dutch Towns were reluctant +to incur her enmity by sending ships to Sweden. The +result was that practically all imports came from Lubeck, +and when relations between that city and Gustavus +became a trifle strained, great difficulty was experienced +in obtaining food. To remedy this evil, the envoys sent +to Lubeck in 1525, finding themselves too late for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> +congress with the Danes, entered into negotiations with +the Dutch envoys that happened to be there. They +found at once that Holland wished to trade in Sweden, +and was ready to do so if the terms could be arranged. +As a provisional measure, the ambassadors on both +sides promised, August 17, that the two nations should +remain at peace during the next three years, and before +the end of that time another congress should be held +to make a more systematic treaty. It was agreed further +that in the coming autumn a consignment of salt +and other wares should be forwarded by the Dutch to +Sweden. Apparently this consignment did not come +till the spring of 1526, but both parties were eager to +arrange a treaty, and it was agreed that a congress for +this purpose should be held in Bremen, May 20, 1526. +This congress was afterwards postponed, though the +Swedish envoy brought a ratification of the former treaty +signed by Gustavus under date of May 12, 1526, and +promised further that salt should be admitted into +Sweden free. A similar ratification was signed by +Charles V., Sept. 19, 1526. This accomplished, Holland +opened negotiations with Sweden to the end that all +articles of commerce be placed upon the free-list along +with salt; and she requested further that all the Swedish +harbors be open to her ships. So ambitious a +proposal terrified Gustavus. He would have been rejoiced +to grant it, but he feared by doing so to irritate +Lubeck. It is somewhat amusing to trace the steps by +which he convinced himself that such a course was +right. Brask, as usual, was the first to question whether +Lubeck would consent. On the 9th of December, 1526,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> +he wrote: "I advocate the treaty, but I doubt much +whether Lubeck will not raise objections, for she has +wished to have the Baltic to herself." A few days later +Gustavus put out a feeler to his Cabinet in the south of +Sweden. "So far as we know," he wrote with caution, +"our relations with Lubeck and the Vend Cities do not +forbid this treaty." By the spring of 1527 he had grown +more confident of his position, and wrote as follows: +"The provisional arrangement made with Holland has +proved greatly to our advantage. We now desire to +make a perpetual treaty with her before Whitsunday +next, and for this purpose recommend that Olaus Magni +be sent at once to Amsterdam." Two weeks after this +he added: "The privileges which the German cities +wrung from us in Strengnäs are so grinding that we can +no longer adhere to them in all their points." On the +22d of April the monarch had so far removed his doubts +as to commission Magni to negotiate the treaty, and +he intrusted him with a written promise over the royal +signature and seal, conferring on Holland, Brabant, Zealand, +and East and West Friesland the right to enter all +the Swedish rivers and harbors, on payment of the customary +duties. It is noticeable that in this document +Gustavus did not remit the duties, as had been desired, +nor even promise that salt should be admitted free; and +in the letter to his envoy the diplomatic monarch used +these words: "Do not be too liberal, especially in the +matter of duties. If they really insist upon free-trade, +you must discreetly avoid promising it, and suggest that +probably the privilege will be granted them as a favor." +Brask, who feared lest these negotiations might cause<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> +trouble, hastened to throw a favorable light upon his +own position. "You will remember," he wrote his +fellow-counsellors, "that I opposed the grant of these +great privileges to Lubeck, believing them injurious to +the welfare of our people." Magni, in conformity with +the king's injunctions, proceeded to the town of Ghent, +where he was given an audience of Margaret, regent of +the Netherlands. As soon as the letters of May 12, +1526, and April 18, 1527, were translated for her, she +raised a number of objections, chief of which were that +the latter letter did not provide that salt should be +admitted free, and did not seem to open to her vessels +all the Swedish ports. To these objections Magni answered +that certain harbors were made ports of entry +out of convenience to Gustavus, and as to duties, Magni +seems to have assured her that they would probably be +taken off. After more palaver, Margaret signed a document +accepting the offer assumed to have been made by +Sweden; namely, that vessels of the emperor might enter +all the rivers and harbors of Sweden, paying only the +same duties that were paid by Swedish subjects, salt, +however, to be admitted free. She expressed a hope, +moreover, that other articles might be exempt from duty +too. To this document she attached her seal, July +29, 1527.<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span></p> +<p>It is particularly to be noted that Lubeck did not raise +her voice against the treaty. A probable solution is that +she wished beyond all else to secure her money, and felt +that Sweden would be more able to meet the debt in +case she were allowed to trade with Holland. All +through the winter of 1527 Gustavus struggled to raise +funds. Some portions of the country seem to have +responded freely, but in Dalarne and other northern +provinces it appeared likely that the levy would end in +actual revolt. In January Gustavus warned the people +that all responsibility in the matter lay with them. If +Lubeck made war upon the kingdom, it would be because +of their unwillingness to pay the debt. As a matter of +fact, the Dalesmen had much reason for delay. The +monarch, by his ill-judged privileges to Lubeck, had +kept the country in a state of famine, from which it +now was just beginning to emerge. Many of the people +were utterly devoid of means, and the new levy seemed +like wringing water from a stone. This in the course of +time Gustavus learned, and in March he prudently suggested +to his officers that the tax be modified in special +cases. The Dalesmen, however, were not so easily to +be appeased. Other causes of complaint were rife among +them, and they formed a compact to the end that no tax +should be paid until these grievances had been redressed. +On the 2d of April Gustavus asserted that the Dalesmen +had not contributed a cent. Brask, for reasons that will +be manifest later on, was in sympathy with the people, +and declared: "I fear danger, for the Dalesmen are +reported to be incensed, and rightfully incensed, against +the king. If it lay with me, I should remit a portion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> +of the tax rather than give occasion for this revolt." +Gustavus, however, was still harassed by Lubeck, and +dared not take this step. As there were several matters +to be straightened out in Dalarne, he summoned a +general diet of the realm. The Dalesmen showing opposition, +Gustavus urged the people in the south of Sweden +to persuade the people of Dalarne to come. "We should +be glad," he urged, "if you would write to the people of +Dalarne, and ask them to lay their complaints before +the diet to be held in Vesterås. We shall there explain +our conduct, and if our people are not satisfied, shall +gladly resign the throne. The German envoys will be +present, and the Dalesmen can then adopt some means +to quiet their incessant demands." All efforts to persuade +the Dalesmen failed. They despatched a long list +of their grievances to Stockholm, but they did not attend +the diet. When the other delegates came together, +Gustavus laid these grievances before them. The Dalesmen +had complained, he said, that they were burdened +with heavy taxes. If they had been more obedient, a +smaller army would have been sufficient, and the taxes +would not have been so heavy. He told them, further, +that the whole debt occasioned by the war amounted to +about one hundred thousand marks, of which sum a large +portion was still unpaid.<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> The outcome of the matter +was that the delegates voted to quell the insurrection in +Dalarne, and if enough money could not now be raised +to pay the debt, to levy further taxes. These stringent +measures were not, however, put into effect at once.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> +Gustavus was busy, in the autumn of 1527, with other +things; and furthermore a dispute had arisen between +himself and Lubeck as to the exact total of the debt. +The year closed, therefore, with the debt still hanging +over Sweden's head. The Lubeck envoys accepted all +the goods and money they could get, the whole amount +thus paid in 1527 being in the neighborhood of 22,800 +Swedish marks.<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a></p> + +<p>All through this period Gustavus was in constant negotiation +with Fredrik. Christiern's efforts to recover +the crown had been brought to a halt by the sudden +collapse of Norby, and Fredrik had assumed in consequence +a more aggressive attitude toward Sweden. By +the treaty signed at Malmö each monarch promised to +protect the interests which citizens of the other held +within his realm. But the ink was scarcely dry when +complaints were heard that Fredrik had failed to substantiate +this clause. The most flagrant breach occurred +in the case of property owned in Denmark by Margaret, +sister of the king of Sweden. So great difficulty was +experienced by Margaret in protecting this estate, that +early in 1526 the monarch counselled her to sell it. He +wrote also to certain Danish officers, and begged them +to defend her rights. These exhortations proving futile,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> +Margaret sent her agent to the spot to see what he +could do. This only irritated the natives, and they fell +upon the agent with their fists. It was reported, too, +that the deed was ordered by an officer of Fredrik. At +all events, the agent was given no redress, and Gustavus, +after urging Margaret's husband to appeal to Fredrik, +wrote finally to the Danish king himself. He laid +the whole affair before him, and declaring that he had +ever upheld the rights of Danes in Sweden, urged Fredrik +to investigate the matter and punish those by whom +the violence had been committed. With this request +the Danish monarch promised to comply; and as we find +no further mention of the case, it is probable the quarrel +was adjusted and the rights of Margaret maintained.<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a></p> + +<p>Another dispute originating in the Malmö treaty concerned +the province of Viken, which lay along the +Swedish frontier in the southeast part of Norway. +This province had joined Gustavus in the war with +Christiern, and after the war was over had continued +under Swedish rule. In course of time, however, the +inhabitants grew eager to return once more to Norway. +With a view to satisfy their longing, Gustavus +allowed them, early in 1526, to be governed by +Norwegian law and custom. Possibly this would have +appeased the natives, but Fredrik was desirous for +more. He thought that Viken, being originally a province +of Norway, should be ruled by him. He therefore +wrote Gustavus, and begged a conference to settle their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> +respective claims. Gustavus, defrauded of his rights in +Gotland, answered that he would gladly hold a conference +to settle all matters of dispute between them. +Fredrik waited nearly six months before making his +reply. He then informed Gustavus that the Danish +envoys had appeared in Lubeck at the day fixed for the +conference, but that nothing was accomplished simply +because the Swedish envoys did not come. He therefore +urged Gustavus to name a time and place at which +the question of Viken should be settled. The Swedish +monarch had learned by sad experience that a conference +with Denmark meant no benefit to him. He answered +that his envoys had been sent to Lubeck, as agreed, but +had failed through stress of weather to reach the place +of meeting on the day arranged. Gustavus appears not +to have cared particularly to retain the province, though +he was not willing to yield it without obtaining something +in return. He saw no reason why Viken should +be given up to Fredrik unless Gotland should be given +up to him. In answer, therefore, to repeated solicitations, +he declared his readiness to meet the Danish king +half-way; he would treat with him concerning Viken, +but at the same time some definite conclusion must be +reached about the isle of Gotland. When negotiations +had reached this point, they were interrupted for the +moment by a new dispute.<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span></p> +<p>Ever since the fall of Kalmar, Christina's boy had +been in Stockholm, under the surveillance of the king. +Gustavus for some reason had never liked the boy, and +in April, 1527, he sent him to his mother with a reprimand, +at the same time urging that he be placed for a +period under the quiet influence of some rural town. +This incident was the signal for another conspiracy +against the crown. This time the aspirant was a gay +young hostler, who conceived the desperate project of +posing as the regent's son. Relying on his own audacity +and on the perennial state of insurrection in the +north of Sweden, he went to Dalarne with the story that +he had escaped the clutches of Gustavus, whose orders +were that he be put to death. He then proceeded from +one village to another, extolling the virtues of the young +Sten Sture, and urging the people, since they had sworn +allegiance to his father, to do the same to him. The +support which he received was small. One or two villages +were at first deceived, but the majority of them +told him flatly that he lied. He therefore followed the +course of earlier impostors, and betook himself to Norway. +Approaching first the archbishop of Trondhem, +he told his story and awoke the archbishop's interest by +announcing that Gustavus had fallen from the faith. It +being bruited that certain of the church dignitaries were +on terms of friendship with this impostor, the archbishop +received him kindly, and though he refused to +give him shelter, promised he would take no steps to +harm him. Gustavus then addressed the archbishop +and the Cabinet of Norway, urging that the traitor be +returned. He pointed out, moreover, that, Sten Sture<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> +having been married only fourteen years before, it was +impossible that this traitor was his son. This argument +producing no effect, Gustavus prevailed upon Fredrik's +emissaries, then in Stockholm, to join him in his appeal. +An answer then came back from the archbishop of +Trondhem that he had refused to shelter the impostor, +though he had promised that he would not harm him. +Since then a letter had arrived from Dalarne saying +that the Swedish king was dead. The impostor had +therefore collected a band of refugees in Norway, and +was now once more in Sweden. With this mendacious +explanation Gustavus was forced to be content. The +fraud had been discovered, and by the close of 1527 the +insurrection in Dalarne was practically at an end.<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a></p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. iv. pp. 1510-1511, 1517-1588 and 1568-1575; +<i>Dipl. Dal.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 66-67; <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xxiii. +pp. 60-65; <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 169-170, +187-188, 196-197, 204-206, 208-213, 218-219, 240-242, 252-257 +and 278-285; and <i>Saml. til det Norske Folks Sprog og Hist.</i>, vol. i. +pp. 484-485.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. iv. pp. 1576-1584, 1587-1591, 1593-1596 +and 1602-1605; and <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. iii. pp. 2-3, +13-15, 30-32, 38-39, 61-62, 78-80, 353-355, 364-365, 369-370 and +375-376.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. iv. pp. 1585-1587 and 1589-1593; <i>Dipl. +Dal.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 82-83 and 89; <i>Handl. rör. Sver. inre förhåll.</i>, vol. i. +pp. 23-25; <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. iii. pp. 50-51, 55, 57-58, +59-60, 71, 367-369, 372, 373-374 and 381-384; and <i>Saml. til det +Norske Folks Sprog og Hist.</i>, vol. i. pp. 485-486 and 488-495.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 84-85; <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. i. +pp. 1-144 and vol. iv. pp. 1584, 1606-1612, 1614-1626, 1633-1635, +1639-1643 and 1646-1651; <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xv. pp. 5-7, +19-24, 27-29 and 32-47; <i>Handl. till upplysn. af Finl. häfd.</i>, vol. ii. +p. 158; <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. iii. pp. 46, 97-98, 110-111, +117, 167-169, 170-172, 188-190, 195-196, 199-200, 203-207, +218-220, 250-251, 256-260, 380-381, 386-393, 394-404, 406-407, +411-414 and 415-416; and <i>Sver. trakt.</i>, vol. iv. pp. 104-105.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 112-114; <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. iii. +pp. 1075-1083, and vol. iv. pp. 1627-1628; <i>Dipl. Dal.</i>, vol. ii. p. 92, +and vol. iii. pp. 30-32; <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xvi. pp. 18-20; +<i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. iii. pp. 207-208, 220-224, 326-327, +405-406, 408-410 and 419, and vol. iv. pp. 61-62; <i>Saml. til det +Norske Folks Sprog og Hist.</i>, vol. i. pp. 496-513; and <i>Skrift. och handl.</i>, +vol. ii. pp. 267-268 and 270-271.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> <i>Alla riksdag. och möt. besluth</i>, vol. i. pp. 42-56; <i>Christ. II.'s +arkiv</i>, vol. iv. pp. 1492 and 1613; <i>Dipl. Dal.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 79-80 and +<i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xiv. pp. 89-90, vol. xv. pp. 29-32, +and vol. xvi. pp. 15-16; <i>Handl. rör. Sver. inre förhåll.</i>, vol. i. pp. 15-18 +and 30-31; <i>Handl. till upplysn. af Finl. häfd.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 185-187; +<i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 190-191, 222-223 and 229-231, +and vol. iii. pp. 15-16, 18-21, 32-34, 109-110, 122, 173-176, 179-181, +236-243, 248-249, 294-295, 308-309, 324-326 and 416-417; and +<i>Svenska riksdagsakt.</i>, vol. i. pp. 39-47.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. iv. pp. 1548-1553; <i>Handl. rör. Skand. +hist.</i>, vol. xvi. pp. 107-113; <i>Handl. til uplysn. af Svenska hist.</i>, vol. i. +pp. 121-123; <i>Handl. till upplysn. af Finl. häfd.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 151-153, +156-157, 161-183, 193-195, 201-205 and 207-209, and vol. viii. pp. +14-18; <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 51-52, 225-226 +and 242-244, vol. iii. pp. 132-135, 141-155, 287-288 and 429-430, and +vol. iv. pp. 127-129, 147-148, 152-153, 196-198 and 411-413; and +<i>Sver. trakt.</i>, vol. iv. pp. 74-89.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. iv. pp. 1491-1492; <i>Dipl. Dal.</i>, vol. ii. pp. +90-91 and 115-116; <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. i. pp. 1-35 and +vol. xvi. pp. 45-52 and 124-127; <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, +vol. ii. pp. 201-204, 206-207, 227-228 and 262-265, vol. iii. pp. 51-52, +111-112, 119-121, 308-309, 335-336 and 421-424, and vol. iv. +pp. 101-103, 113-116, 143-145, 413-414, 419-420 and 428-432; Linköping, +<i>Bibliotheks handl.</i>, vol. i. pp. 193-199; and <i>Sver. trakt.</i>, vol. +iv. pp. 106-124.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> This was clearly a misstatement. It has been already shown +(p. 121) that in 1523 Gustavus put the debt at over 300,000 marks.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> <i>Alla riksdag. och möt. besluth</i>, vol. i. pp. 60-61; <i>Dipl. Dal.</i>, vol. ii. +pp. 97, 99-101, 105-109 and 115-116; <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, +vol. iv. pp. 6-7, 22-23, 64-65, 66-67, 83-85, 95-96, 102-103, +113-117, 131-132, 163-165, 170, 206-207, 257-259, 333-334, 419-420 +and 445-446; and the documents cited in Handelmann's <i>Die letzten Zeiten +der hanseatischen Uebermacht im Norden</i>, p. 170. The question of the +Lubeck debt is ably treated by Forssell in his <i>Sver. inre hist.</i>, vol. i. pp. +134-138.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. iv. pp. 1666-1668; and <i>Kon. Gust. den +Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. iii. pp. 41, 57-58, 65, 76-78 and 291-292, and +vol. iv. pp. 48-49, 68-70 and 426-427.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. iv. 1622-1626, 1662-1664, 1669-1670 and +1671-1676; <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. iii. pp. 47-48 and +203-207, and vol. iv. pp. 45-47, 66-67, 102-103, 113-117, 285-286, +377-382, 398-399, and 439-440; and <i>Saml. til det Norske Folks Sprog +og Hist.</i>, vol. i. pp. 328-336.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 104-112; <i>Dipl. Dal.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 115-116; +<i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xvi. pp. 124-127; <i>Kon. Gust. den +Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. iv. pp. 120, 348-349, 350-354, 415, 419-420, +438-439, 441-442 and 443-445; and <i>Saml. til det Norske Folks Sprog +og Hist.</i>, vol. i. pp. 518-528.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_VIII" id="Chapter_VIII"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter VIII.</span></h2> + +<h3>INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION. 1525-1527.</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Nature of the Period.—Translation of the Bible.—Quarrel between the +King and Brask.—Opposition to the Monasteries.—High-handed +Measures of the King.—Second Disputation between Petri and Galle.—Opposition +to Luther's Teaching.—Banishment of Magni.—Further +Opposition to the Monasteries.—Revolt of the Dalesmen.—Diet +of Vesterås.—"Vesterås Recess."—"Vesterås Ordinantia."—Fall of +Brask; his Flight; his Character.</p></div> + + +<p class="cap">IN most instances the stirring periods of a nation's +history are not the periods in which the nation +grows. Warfare, even though it end in victory, must +be accompanied by loss, and the very achievements that +arouse our ardor bring with them evils that long years +of prosperity cannot efface. Take, as a single example, +the dazzling victories of Charles XII. He was, beyond +all doubt, the most successful general that Sweden ever +had. One after another the provinces around the Baltic +yielded to his sway, and at one time the Swedish frontiers +had been extended into regions of which no man +before his age had dreamt. Yet with what result? +Sweden was impoverished, commerce was at a standstill, +education had been neglected, and the dominions for +which his people had poured out their blood during +many years were lost almost in a single day. His career +shows, if it shows anything, that prosperity is incompatible<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> +with war. No man can serve two masters. So +long as nations are in active and continued warfare, they +cannot enjoy the blessings or even the comforts that +belong to them in time of peace.</p> + +<p>A like argument may be drawn from the reign of +Gustavus Vasa. The early years of the Swedish Revolution +were marked by bloodshed. The country was in +a state of famine, superstition was universal, literature +was almost without a champion, and art was practically +dead. Not till the warfare ceased did people turn their +thoughts to matters of education, of religion, or of other +things that lend a charm to life; and even then the +country was hampered during a considerable period by +poverty,—an outcome of the war. It is in this last +period of the Revolution—a period of peace—that the +chief work of Gustavus Vasa was accomplished. Then +occurred the great changes in Church government and +doctrine that made Lutherans out of Roman Catholics, +and in place of accountability to the pope made every +soul accountable to God. In the first few years of his +supremacy the monarch's opposition to popery was based +almost entirely on politics, but by the middle of 1525 +he began openly to oppose the Romish Church on grounds +of faith.</p> + +<p>The heaviest blow to popery was the order issued +by the king in 1525 that the Scriptures be translated +into Swedish. This all-important measure resulted +doubtless from the general dissension that had arisen +about the Word of God. If, as Luther urged, the Scriptures +were our sole criterion of faith, it was obviously +proper that they should be published in a form which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> +every one could understand. Luther had already three +years before translated the Bible into German, but in +Swedish the only effort at a translation was in a manuscript +of several centuries before, which even Brask +knew only by report. Gustavus, therefore, toward the +middle of 1525, instructed Archbishop Magni to have a +new translation made. His purpose, he affirmed, was +not merely to instruct the people but to instruct the +priests, for many of them were themselves incompetent +to read the Latin version. As shepherds their duty was +to feed Christ's flock with the Word of God; and if +they failed to do so, they were unworthy of their name. +This reasoning the archbishop was unable to refute. He +was himself disgusted with the ignorance of his clergy, +and promised Gustavus that the translation should be +made. Not wishing, however, to undertake too much, +he devoted his attention wholly to the New Testament, +dividing it into several parts and assigning the translation +of different parts to different men. Matthew and +the Epistle to the Romans he took himself. Mark and +the Epistles to the Corinthians were assigned to Brask, +while Luke and the Epistle to the Galatians were given +to the Chapter of Skara, and John and the Epistle to +the Ephesians to the Chapter of Strengnäs. The announcement +of this choice was made to Brask on the +11th of June, and he was asked to forward his translation +to Upsala by September 10, when a congress of the +translators should be held to arrange the various portions +into one harmonious whole. This project was not +received with favor by the crafty bishop. He felt it to +be the knell of popery, and in writing to Peder Galle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> +he inveighed against it. "We marvel much," he wrote, +"that the archbishop should enter this labyrinth without +consulting the prelates and chapters of the Church. +Every one knows that translations into the vernacular +have already given rise to frequent heresy.... It is +said the Bible is capable of four different interpretations. +Therefore it would imperil many souls were a +mere literal translation made. Moreover, laymen cannot +read the Bible even if it be translated, and the +clergy can understand it quite as well in Latin as in +Swedish. We fear that if this translation be published +while the Lutheran heresy is raging, the heresy will +become more pestilent, and, new error springing up, the +Church will be accused of fostering it." This letter +was dated on the 9th of August. Clearly Brask's share +of the translation would not be ready by September 10. +The fact was, Brask had no notion of furthering the +scheme. At every opportunity he raised his voice +against it, and the weight of his influence was such that +finally the whole project was given up. The Lutherans, +however, were not disheartened. Finding that nothing +could be effected through the Church, they proceeded +to make a translation of their own. This was published, +though without the translators' names, in 1526. It did +not, of course, receive the sanction of the archbishop, but +it paved the way for new reforms by checking the Roman +Catholics in their scholastic doctrine and by educating +the common people in the Word of God.<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span></p> +<p>Brask was now openly beneath the monarch's frown. +The rupture between them was becoming every day +more wide, and both parties gradually grew conscious +it could not be healed. Brask had never forgiven the +king for sanctioning the marriage of Olaus Petri. Some +six months after the event he alluded to it in a letter +to Peder Galle. "I am much troubled," he declared, +"that marriage is permitted to the clergy, and that no +one cries out against it. I have urged the king that +Petri be excommunicated for his act, that evil example +may not spread, but have had only a half-hearted answer +from his Majesty." While this wrong still rankled +in the prelate's breast, his ire was further kindled by +the monarch's evident intention to rob the Church of +several of her chief estates. As an entering wedge +Gustavus had pastured his soldiers' horses on the rich +but fallow lands belonging to the monasteries, and in +some cases the officers had been billeted in the monasteries +themselves. Against this practice Brask protested, +and received this soothing answer: "When you +say that this mode of billeting cripples the service of +God, you are right, provided his service consists in feeding +a body of hypocrites sunk, many of them, in licentiousness, +rather than in providing protection for the +common people. As to your assertion that the monasteries +were not founded by the crown, and hence are not +subject to our dominion, we will look into the matter, +though our humble opinion is that the monasteries were +originally bound to pay taxes to the crown." The argument +which the monarch strove to make was this: +Those monasteries which were founded by individuals<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> +comprised estates held by the donors in consideration of +military service to be rendered to the crown; and so soon +as the military service ended, the tenure by which the +lands were held no longer existed, and the crown once +more became entitled to the lands. It is difficult to feel +that the monarch's view was right. In countries where +there is no written law, all controversies must be determined +by the law of custom, and it is certain that for +centuries Swedish subjects had been allowed to dedicate +for religious purposes the property which they held by +military tenure of the crown. With Gustavus it appears +that custom was of little moment. The monasteries +were wealthy, and could be encroached upon without +directly injuring the people. He resolved, therefore, +as soon as possible to confiscate their property, using a +plausible argument if one was ready; otherwise, to close +their doors by force.<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a></p> + +<p>In May, 1525, the king found pretext for interfering +with the Dominican monks of Vesterås. That order +numbered among its brothers a very large proportion of +Norwegians; and one of them had assumed the generalship +of the order in Sweden, contrary to the mandates +of the king. This seemed an opportunity to play the +patriot and at the same time secure a footing in the +monastery. So Gustavus wrote to the Swedish vicar-general +and declared: "We understand that the conspiracy +in Dalarne and other places is largely due to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> +this man and several of the Norwegian brothers. We +have therefore appointed our subject Nils Andreæ to +be prior of Vesterås, trusting that he will prove a friend +to Sweden, by expelling the foreigners and preventing +all such conspiracies in future. We beg you also ... to +punish all offenders among your brotherhood, that we +be not forced to punish them ourselves."<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></p> + +<p>Later in the same year Gustavus asserted his claim +with even more distinctness to the monastery of Gripsholm. +That monastery, it will be remembered, was +on the estate at one time belonging to the monarch's +father. It therefore was a special object of his greed. +At a meeting of the Cabinet he laid his case before +them, and offered to abide by their decree. There was, +of course, no question what their decree would be. The +monastery was adjudged the property of the king, and +all the inmates were instructed to withdraw. This +judgment naturally caused an outcry in certain quarters. +So Gustavus addressed the monks of Gripsholm +with unctious promises, and under the mask of friendship +obtained from them a written statement that they +were satisfied of the justice of his claim. This document, +a copy of which was filed among the royal papers, +bears singular testimony to the meanness of the king. +"Our title to Gripsholm Monastery," the wretched victims +wrote, "has been disputed, and, the matter being +laid before the Cabinet, they have determined that Gustavus, +as heir of the founder, is entitled to the premises.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> +He has offered us another monastery in place of this, but +we feared lest that too might some day prove to be the +property of other heirs, and have requested permission +to disband and retire each of us according to his own +caprice. It has now been agreed that Gustavus shall +provide us with the money and clothing which we need, +and in return that he shall be entitled to the monastery +together with all the property that we have acquired." +At the close of this affecting document the writers expressed +their gratitude to the monarch for his generosity. +Armed with this evidence of his good intentions, +Gustavus addressed the Dalesmen with a view to calm +their wrath. "You are aware," he wrote with confidence, +"that the elder Sten Sture, who was a brother of +our father's mother, founded Gripsholm Monastery with +property that would have descended by law to our +father, and that Sten Sture induced our father to append +his signature to the deed. The signature was +obtained, however, only on condition that if the monastery +should be unable to keep up its standing, Gripsholm +and all its possessions should revert to the heirs. +Hence we have good right to protest and to claim the +inheritance of which our father was deprived by threats +and fraud. Indeed, the good brothers have considered +the matter well, and have agreed to withhold no longer +property to which they have no right. We have therefore +offered them another monastery.... But they have +not ventured to accept it, fearing to offend the brothers +already occupying it. So they have asked permission to +go back to their friends and to the posts which they +held before entering the monastery. This, at the desire<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> +of our Cabinet, we have granted, since we are ever ready +to listen to their counsel, and we have furnished the +good brothers with clothing and money to aid them. +We trust they will be grateful; and to prove to you that +such is the case, we enclose herewith an extract from +the letter which they have written." As the deed conveying +Gripsholm to the brotherhood is lost, we cannot +discuss with thoroughness the merits of the case. It is +enough that the monarch's action accorded with the +policy which he adopted later toward all the monasteries +in the land. The seizure of Gripsholm was justified, +at any rate, by a show of right. Of later cases it is +difficult to say even this. The Gripsholm Monastery +had not been closed six months when Gustavus claimed +another monastery, this time in the diocese of Brask. +The abbot it appears had died, and Brask was busy +making a list of the monastery's property, that nothing +should be lost. Gustavus wrote to Brask with orders to +leave the place alone. "Your fathers," he added, "did +not found the monastery; and even though your predecessors +in the bishopric may have founded it, they did +so with money belonging to the people.... We intend, +therefore, to take charge of it ourselves." To these imperative +orders the wearied bishop answered: "I feel +a special obligation to this monastery, since it was +founded by the yearly incomes of the bishopric." This +assertion, however, proved of no avail. Within a year +the monastery was yielded to the crown, and one of the +monarch's officers took the entire property in fee.<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span></p> +<p>All things apparently conspired to bring the aged +bishop to the dust. The seizure of his monastery occurred +at a moment when he was in deep distress about +the newly levied tax. Early in 1525 Gustavus had +written him to surrender all the tithes accruing in his +diocese for the year last past; and following close upon +this order, the royal stewards had deprived him of a +right of fishery which he possessed. The hapless bishop +murmured, but did not rebel. In writing to a fellow +bishop, he declared: "The king has recently demanded +of us all our tithes, and the chief prelates of Upland +have yielded their consent. This policy appears to me +unwise. I dread an outburst from the people, and +scarce have courage to make the announcement to +them." A few days later he said: "I have written +Gustavus about the tithes, but do not dare to discuss +the matter seriously with the people.... Only a year +ago the officers seized our tithes without consulting us. +You can imagine, therefore, what the people will say to +this new levy. However, if his Majesty will not countermand +the order, we shall do our duty by writing and +speaking to the people. The feeding of the army, which +he wishes by consent of his advisers to impose upon the +monasteries, we asserted at Vadstena was a foreign +practice that ought never to be introduced." Despite +these protests, Brask appears to have obeyed the monarch's +orders. He wrote to the clergy of his diocese<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> +urging them to send their quota, and to send it quickly. +"Bis dat qui cito dat," translated for the ignorant +among his clergy, "He gives nothing who delays." +The result was precisely what the bishop feared. The +people fought against the imposition, and Brask, as a +reward for his efforts, was accused by Gustavus of being +a party to the revolt. The charge was utterly groundless +and unfair. From beginning to end the bishop's +object had been to avoid friction, and finally he had +sacrificed his own interests in order to prevent friction +with the king. When in January, 1526, it was once +more voted that the tithes be given to the crown, he +wrote to all his clergy urging them immediately to obey. +Gustavus, however, would not be appeased; and a parishioner +claiming that the bishop had withheld some +jewels that belonged to her, Gustavus, without examining +the matter, wrote to Brask: "The law, as we interpret +it, gives you no power to take high-handed measures +of this sort." A few days later Brask asserted: "The +royal officers are beginning to enter upon the possessions +of the Church, much to the displeasure of the +people." What he alluded to particularly was the acts +of Arvid Vestgöte, who had seized Church tithes and +committed every sort of violence to the priests in Öland. +Against this Brask protested, and before the year was +over Vestgöte was removed. By this time the spirit +of the aged bishop was well-nigh broken. In answer +to a summons from Gustavus in 1526, he wrote the +king: "Though shattered by illness and the infirmities +of age, I will obey your orders with all the haste<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> +I can, provided the weather or my death does not prevent +me."<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a></p> + +<p>Early in 1526, at one of the public fairs, an enthusiast +came forward and announced in public that a leading +Lutheran in Stockholm was preaching heresy, and that +the king himself had violated old Church customs in his +food and drink. This silly assertion burst like a bomb +upon the town, and for a short period there was danger +that the fanaticism of the year before would be renewed. +However, the excitement soon died away; and Gustavus, +when he heard of it, declared the story to be a fabrication. +"Would to God," he wrote, "that people would +examine into their own lives and not borrow trouble +about the lives of others! Let them first pluck the +beam out of their own eye, and then they can see +clearly to pluck the mote out of their brother's eye." +Lutheranism had by this time attained so general acceptance +that the monarch deemed it unnecessary to offer +arguments in its support. In August, 1526, Laurentius +Andreæ forwarded to the archbishop of Trondhem the +New Testament in Swedish, and added that some two +or three hundred copies of the edition were still unsold, +and could be had if he desired them. This wide-spread +distribution of the Scriptures produced its natural effect. +The flame of theological discord that had been slumbering<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> +for a year broke out afresh. Brask, as an offset to +the new translation, interpreted into Swedish some +tracts composed in Germany against the Lutherans; +and the monarch, hearing of this move, sent off a letter +commanding the aged bishop to desist. "Report has +reached us, venerable father," he began, "that you have +translated into Swedish certain proclamations of the +emperor against the doctrines now current, ... and +that you have circulated them among the common people. +We are well aware that these proclamations are +used to cast aspersions on us, since we are not so zealous +as he is in opposition to these doctrines. It is, +therefore, our desire and our command that you be +patient, and send hither certain scholars from your +cathedral to prove that anything is taught here other +than the holy gospel. They shall be given a fair hearing, +and may postulate their views without prejudice in +any way. And if they can prove that any one preaches +unchristian doctrine, he shall be punished. Furthermore, +we object to having a printing-press established +in Söderköping, lest it may do injury to the one established +here." Gustavus was determined that the +enemies of Luther should defend their faith. The disputation +between Galle and Olaus Petri two years before +had been unsystematic, and had produced no permanent +effect. So the king resolved to force the parties +to debate again. This time he put down in writing +certain questions, and sent them to the leading prelates +of the land, with orders to forward him their answers. +The questions were similar to those already raised; +among them being these: Whether we may reject all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> +teaching of the Fathers and all Church customs that are +unsupported by the Word of God; whether the dominion +of the pope and his satellites is for or against Christ; +whether any authority can be found in the Bible for monastic +life; whether any revelation is to be relied on +other than that recorded in the Bible; whether the saints +are to be considered patrons, or in any way are mediators +between ourselves and God. Gustavus intended +that when the answers were all received, a public hearing +should be had, and every prelate given an opportunity +to refute the doctrines of his opponents. Some of +the Roman Catholics, however, refused to enter the arena. +Brask, in writing to the monarch, declared his clergy +to be satisfied with their present doctrines, and unwilling +to discuss them publicly. The bishop also wrote +to Galle, hoping to dissuade him from the contest. +But Galle, it appears, was eager for the fray. He put +his answers down in writing, and sent them to the king. +Other prelates, it is reported, did the same. The contest, +however, presumably from lack of combatants, did +not succeed. Petri therefore took the written answers +filed by Galle, and printed them in book form, along with +comments by himself. This book does little credit +either to Petri or to the general intelligence of his +time. Should any one ask proof that we are more rational +creatures than our fathers, he can do no better +than study in Petri's book the controversy that raged +between the intellectual giants of Sweden at the close +of 1526. Of the positions taken by the two contestants, +Petri's was certainly less consistent than that of his +opponent. Galle declared explicitly: "Not everything<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> +done by the Apostles or their successors is written in +the Scriptures;"<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> and on matters concerning which the +Bible does not speak we must obey the practices handed +down by the Apostles through the Church. Petri, while +granting that many Fathers were inspired, declared we +must not follow their instructions, "lest we be led away +by the devil;"<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> and yet the Bible, compiled from various +sources by the Fathers, he held should be implicitly +obeyed. In the light of recent scholarship, both combatants +were wrong. The Bible is no more intelligible +without a knowledge of its history than is the teaching +of the Fathers without a knowledge of the Bible.<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a></p> + +<p>The contest has its chief value in the opportunity +that it gives us to study the methods of the king. From +first to last it was a blow at popery and the temporal +supremacy of Rome. Each question was worded with +the very purpose of offering insult to the Church. Take +for example the second question: whether the dominion +of the pope and his satellites is for or against Christ. +The monarch could not have thrown the question into +a more irritating form. Certainly Galle showed forbearance +in arguing the point at all. His answer was +an appeal to history. From the days of Gregory popes +had enjoyed vast riches along with temporal power; this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> +showed that they were justified in possessing wealth.<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> +Galle's logic on the subject is not altogether clear. +Petri's was somewhat better. Christ had distinctly told +the Apostles that his kingdom was not of this world,<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> +and Paul had declared that the Apostles were not to +be masters but servants.<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> Petri then broke out into a +tirade against his opponent's view. What right, he +asked, had Galle to set up Gregory against Christ and +Paul? "What authority has he to expound the Word +of God according to the deeds of petty men? Rather, I +conceive, are the deeds of men to be judged according +to the Word of God."<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> To an assertion by Galle that +the Church had held temporal power for the last twelve +centuries, Petri answered: "For that matter, the Word +of God has lasted still longer than twelve centuries.... +However, the question is not how old the thing is, but +how right it is. The devil is old, and none the better +for it. That bishops are temporal lords is contrary to +the Word of God; and the longer they have been so, the +worse for them. Princes and emperors have granted +the pope vast privileges, by which in course of time he +has become their master, till now all men bow down +and kiss his feet. Where he was given an inch, he has +taken an ell.... Christ told Saint Peter to feed his +lambs. But the popes with their satellites have long +since ceased to feed Christ's lambs, and for centuries +have done naught but fleece and slaughter them, not +acting like faithful shepherds, but like ravening wolves."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> +This vehement language must have pleased the king. +If bishops were not entitled to worldly goods, it was +an easy task to confiscate their property to the crown. +A like incentive called forth the question: whether any +authority can be found in the Bible for monastic life. +The question, in that form, permitted no reference to +the Fathers. So Galle cited the command of Jesus: +"Go, sell all that thou hast, and give to the poor;" and +he further commended monastic life as a step on the +way to heaven.<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> Petri replied that monks did not sell +all they had and give to the poor, but clung fast to +their possessions, bringing vast treasures into the monasteries +with them.<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a></p> + +<p>The disputation, while strengthening the hands of +Petri, caused a momentary shout of opposition to the +king. The cry arose that he was introducing strange +and novel faiths. His faiths perhaps were novel, but +they were not strange. The strangest feature in the +matter was the position taken by the king. By this +time, there can be no question, he was at heart with +Luther; yet, judging from his own assertions, he was a +firm defender of the Church. The king's duplicity, of +course, is easily explained. He wished to rob the Roman +Catholics of their power without incurring their ill-will. +He intended to reform their doctrines, and at the same +time spread abroad the notion that these doctrines had +reformed themselves. Some time before the disputation, +he had written to the north of Sweden to explain his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> +views. "Dear friends," he courteously began, "we hear +that numerous reports have spread among you to the +effect that we have countenanced certain novel doctrines +taught by Luther. No one can prove, however, that we +have countenanced aught except the teaching of God +and his Apostles. For the faith given us by our fathers +we shall battle so long as life remains, and die, as our +fathers died before us, in the faith. The seditious libels +spread by Sunnanväder and his followers have occasioned +all the injury that has fallen in days gone by +upon this kingdom, as every reasonable man must know. +Doubtless there are among the clergy as well as among +the people many who are conscious of what they ought +to do. But certain monks and priests have raised this +cry against us, chiefly for the reason that we have denounced +their ambitious projects and their unrighteous +dealings toward the people. If any person owes them +anything, they withhold from him the sacrament, and +thus wring his money from him against the law of God.... +Again, if a man kills a bird or catches a fish on +the Sabbath day, they fine him in behalf of their bishop. +This they have no right to do unless the act is committed +during church service, when the culprit should +have been listening to the Word of God. Again, whenever +a priest has wronged a layman, the layman is +practically without a remedy. He ought, however, to +have the same remedy as the priest. Again, if a layman +kills a priest, he is at once put under the ban, whereas +if a priest kills a layman, he is not put under the ban. +Yet God has forbidden priests to kill laymen as well +as laymen to kill priests, making no difference in fact<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> +between them, but commanding all men to be affectionate +and peaceable toward one another. Finally, if a +priest dies intestate, his heirs lose their inheritance and +his property is taken by the bishop. Even the crown +estates, which they know we are bounden by our oath of +office to protect, they have confiscated, and now they +proclaim that we have introduced new faiths and doctrines +taught by Luther. All we have done, as you +already know, is to command them not to carry on +their ambitious practices to the ruin of our realm." +This explanation did not wholly calm the peasants; +and when they found Gustavus holding another contest +over their religious tenets, their suspicions were +aroused again. Gustavus determined, therefore, that +he must take some drastic measure to prevent revolt. +What he needed was a vote of all the people to support +his views. So he issued a proclamation in January, +1527, informing the whole country that, since he was +reported to be introducing new beliefs, he should soon +summon a general diet to discuss the more important +matters of belief, particularly the overweening power +of the pope.<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a></p> + +<p>To this serious step Gustavus was impelled by several +things. In the first place he desired to fortify himself +against the pope. During the last three years the pope +had practically been without authority in Sweden. Gustavus +had selected as his bishops men whose actions he +was able to control, and the pope had deprived himself<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> +of even the semblance of authority by refusing +to confirm them. However, the nominal supremacy of +Rome was not yet shaken off; and until it was so, there +was constant danger that her actual supremacy would +revive. The monarch's chief anxiety concerned Archbishop +Magni. That prelate owed his appointment +mainly to the pliability of his temper, and to the assumption +on the monarch's part that he would prove a ready +tool. In this assumption Gustavus had soon discovered +he was wrong. Magni, though of pliant temper, was a +thorough Papist, and, as time went on, displayed a growing +tendency to oppose the king. In consequence he +gradually fell from favor, till he became an object of +open distrust. The earliest evidence of this feeling appeared +in 1525, when Magni, as one of the envoys sent +to Lubeck, was warned to take no action without the +acquiescence of the other envoys. This mandate was +issued from a fear lest Magni should encourage Lubeck +to raise her voice against the spread of Lutheranism in +the Swedish kingdom. How far this fear was justified, it +is difficult to say. As Lubeck had not yet embraced the +Reformation, she doubtless sympathized in some degree +with Magni, but there is not the slightest evidence that +Magni was unfaithful to the king. In February, of the +following year, when Magni was starting for the Norwegian +frontier to administer the rite of confirmation, he +wrote the archbishop of Trondhem that he would like to +meet him and discuss the dangerous condition of the +Church. Gustavus, hearing of the contents of this letter, +was aroused again. The archbishop of Trondhem +had given offence by harboring Swedish refugees, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> +Magni's simple letter caused the monarch to believe that +the two archbishops were, as he expressed it, "in secret +negotiation." Some two months later, Gustavus being in +the archbishop's palace, a stately feast was given in his +honor. This only added to the feud. The monarch was +incensed to find that Magni was capable of such display. +Hot words ensued between them, and finally the archbishop +was arrested and conveyed to Stockholm. There +he was charged with conspiracy against the king. Certain +letters that had passed between him and the Roman +Catholics of Germany were produced; and though they +showed no evidence of fraud, the archbishop was remanded +to his prison to await the further disposition of his case. +Never was greater injustice done a worthy man. There +was not a scintilla of evidence against him. He was a +generous, kindly, single-minded prelate, and the only +reason for this cruelty was that he had no sympathy +with the methods of the king. After some months in +prison he was released upon the pretext of an embassy +to Poland. Nobody could be ignorant what this pretext +meant. He was to be an exile from his native land. +He sailed from Sweden in the autumn of 1526, never to +return. By such ignoble practices the monarch cleared +his path.<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a></p> + +<p>After the banishment of Archbishop Magni, Gustavus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> +gave free rein to his ambition. The principal object of +his greed was still the monasteries and convents. The +practice of quartering his soldiers in them was by this +time accepted as a necessary evil. But in August, 1526, +he raised a new pretension. The provost of the Åbo Chapter +having died, its members had chosen another in his +stead, and had begun to distribute his property in accordance +with a will that he had left, when a letter came +from Sweden ordering them to stop. After expressing +surprise that they should have chosen a provost without +consulting him, Gustavus added: "We learn that your +last provost left a large amount of property by his testament +to those persons to whom he wished to have it +go. It is clear, however, that it would do more good if +given to the public, since the kingdom is in a state of +distress brought on by the long-protracted war against +King Christiern. We therefore command you, after distributing +the legacies given to his family and friends +as well as the poor, to hand the balance over to us +to pay the nation's debt." Against this high-handed +measure there was no redress. It was but part of a +policy by this time well established in the monarch's +mind. Some six months later, the burgomaster and +Council of Arboga wrote Gustavus that affairs in their +monastery were managed in a very slipshod way; that +when a brother died, the prior took possession of his +estate, and the monastery itself got nothing for it. To +prevent this state of things, Gustavus sent an officer +to take up quarters in the monastery and send him a +list of all the property he could find. "You will discover +also," he declared, "some chests belonging to foreign<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> +monks. Take a look at them, and see what they +contain." This letter, it should be remembered, was +not intended for the public eye. Gustavus was careful +to keep his actions dark, and, the monks of Arboga +being accused of secreting certain treasures, the royal +officer was instructed to make a diligent investigation, +but to lay his hands on nothing until he received more +positive commands. He was careful, also, that his +practice of confiscating Church property should not be +taken as an excuse for private individuals to do the +same. In one case, where such a thing was done, he +denounced the perpetrator in the strongest terms. Moreover, +when the monasteries began to murmur against the +soldiers quartered with them, he sent out an open letter +to them, declaring that he had instructed his officers to +be as courteous to them as they could. It may be noted, +however, that he showed no signs of mitigating their +distress.<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a></p> + +<p>Early in 1527 Gustavus determined that the crucial +moment for the Reformation had arrived. Dalarne, as +usual, was in a state of insurrection, and every effort +which he made to check the Church called forth a storm +of imprecations from the northern provinces. The tax +imposed upon the Dalesmen being still withheld, it was +particularly necessary that the insurrection should be +stayed. In February, therefore, Gustavus wrote a letter +to appease the people. "Dear friends," began the monarch,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> +"we understand a report is spread among the people +that some new creed is preached here to the dishonor +of God, the Virgin, and the saints. Before God we +declare this rumor to be false. Nothing is here preached +or taught except the pure word of God, as given by +Christ to his Apostles.... It is indeed true, that denunciations +have been heard in public against the vice +and avarice of the clergy, and against the flagrant abuse +of their privileges. They have oppressed the ignorant +with excommunication, withholding of the sacrament, +and all sorts of impositions. Wholly without authority +from Holy Writ, they have imposed their Romish indulgences +upon you, carrying vast treasures of gold +and silver out of the kingdom, thus weakening our +realm and impoverishing our people, while the high +prelates have grown rich and haughty toward the +lords and princes from whom these very privileges +were derived.... We therefore urge you all by your +sworn allegiance, not to be deceived by false rumors +about us, doubting nothing that we shall move +heaven and earth to promote your interests. And we +beg you earnestly to believe that we are as good a +Christian as any living man, and shall do our utmost +to promote the Christian faith." Every one could see +that this assertion was intended to persuade the Dalesmen +to pay the newly levied tax. As the effort +proved without avail, the monarch called a general +diet to be held on the 9th of June, the object being, +as he declared, to put an end to the dissension that +had arisen in divine affairs. Later, the diet was postponed +to June 15, and, to appease the Dalesmen, was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> +ordered to be held in Vesterås, a city that was near +their province.<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a></p> + +<p>Before the day appointed for the diet, a long list of +their grievances was drawn up by the Dalesmen and +sent to Stockholm to the king. To these complaints +Gustavus issued a reply, in which he strove to pacify +the malcontents and thus obtain their presence at the +diet. The complaints themselves are somewhat trivial, +but the monarch's answer is important as an instance of +his peculiar power in avoiding discord without directly +compromising his affairs. To their murmur at the +abolition of the mint in Vesterås, and the scarcity of +coins of small denominations, he answered that the mint +was closed because the mines adjacent were no longer +worked; so soon as the mines in question should be +opened he would reinstate the mint, and moreover he +would please them by issuing small coins. As to the +complaint of heavy taxes, the Cabinet were responsible +for that. He would say, however, that he did not contemplate +any further tax. The practice of billeting in +the towns and monasteries was made necessary by the +paucity of land about the royal castles, but this necessity +he hoped would not exist much longer. The charge +of reducing the number of monasteries and churches he +denied. He had not closed a single monastery except +Gripsholm, which was the property of his father and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> +had been made a monastery against his father's will. +To the ludicrous charge that he was planning to restore +Archbishop Trolle, he made a flat denial. One thing, +he said, was certain,—those who favored Trolle favored +Christiern; he could scarce be charged with that. Finally, +the Dalesmen complained of Luther's teachings, +particularly the doctrines that were taught in Stockholm +and the practice of allowing Swedish chants and hymns. +To this he could say only that he had ordered nothing +to be preached except the Word of God; and as to +Swedish chants, he could see no reason for punishing in +Stockholm what was permitted in all other portions of +the kingdom; it was certainly better to praise God in +a language that everybody understood than in Latin, +which no one understood. "I wonder much," he said +in closing, "that the Dalesmen trouble themselves concerning +matters of which they have no knowledge. It +would be wiser to leave the discussion of these things to +priests and scholars.... I do not believe, however, +that these complaints are made of your own free will, +but rather at the instigation of certain priests and +monks, whose desire is to keep the truth unknown." +This sentence with which he closed contains the pith +of the entire letter. The monarch felt that in the coming +contest the opposing parties were to be the Church +and State. He endeavored, therefore, by every means +to win the Dalesmen to his side. Letters were despatched +to Dalarne from various portions of the realm, +to instruct the peasants that if they persisted in their +opposition to Gustavus, they would have to fight alone. +The Dalesmen, however, were no more influenced by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> +threats than by persuasion. They stood firm in their +determination; and when the diet assembled on the 24th +of June, no delegates from Dalarne appeared.<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a></p> + +<p>The Diet of Vesterås is the bulwark of the Swedish +Reformation. It is the first embodiment in the Swedish +law of the reforms of Martin Luther. Gustavus had +been making ready for this diet ever since the day of +his election, and at last the opportunity was ripe. One +by one the prelates that were hostile to his views had +been removed; and Brask, the only man of strength that +still held out against him, was tottering to the grave. +His enemies abroad had been by this time silenced, and +except in the little province of Dalarne, Sweden was +at peace. It was this revolt among the Dalesmen that +served as a pretext for the diet. Gustavus was too +shrewd a politician to make an open avowal of his aim. +He announced that the purpose of the diet was to quell +the constant riots in the realm, and hinted with mock +innocence that he wished also to end the dissension that +had arisen in matters of the Church. Among the persons +who answered to the summons we find the names +of four bishops, including Brask, together with representatives +from Upsala and all the other Chapters excepting +Åbo. Beside these, there were present one hundred +and forty-four of the nobility (of whom sixteen +were Cabinet members), thirty-two burghers, one hundred +and five peasants, and fourteen delegates from the +mining districts. The king's design had been made<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> +manifest before the diet met; for on the previous Sunday, +at a banquet given by him to the delegates already +arrived in Vesterås, he had taken especial pains to show +the bishops that their temporal supremacy was at an +end. Despising every venerated custom, he had ranged +about himself the higher members of the nobility, and +had consigned the bishops to an inferior position. The +affront thus put upon them galled them to the quick, +and on the following day they held a secret meeting to +discuss their wrongs. All of the bishops present excepting +Brask discerned the hopelessness of their cause, +and advocated a humble submission to the monarch's +will. But Brask was boiling over with indignation. +He sprang to his feet and shouted that they must be +mad. If the king wanted to deprive them of their rights +by force, he might do so. But they ought never to consent +to such a course, lest they might thereby offend the +Holy See. In times gone by, princes had frequently +attempted the same thing that Gustavus was attempting +now, but the thunders of the Vatican had always overwhelmed +them. If the bishops now should fall away +from their allegiance to the pope, their only refuge +would be gone. They would become mere puppets of +the king, afraid to speak a word in favor of their old +prerogatives. These sentiments of Brask's were listened +to with favor. The warmth with which he spoke +produced its natural effect, and before the prelates +parted they drew up a set of "protests," as they +called them, agreeing never to abandon the pope or +accept a single article of Luther's teaching. To these +"protests" the prelates all attached their seals; and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> +fifteen years afterward the document was discovered +under the floor of Vesterås Cathedral, with all the seals +attached.<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a></p> + +<p>Directly following this secret session of the prelates, +the general diet assembled in the grand hall of the +monastery. The proceedings opened with a laborious +address from Gustavus,—his secretary, Laurentius Andreæ, +acting as spokesman for the king. This address +reviewed the entire history of the monarch's reign. He +began by thanking his subjects for their presence at +the diet, and went on to remind them that he had +already more than once expressed his willingness to +resign the crown. Nothing had induced him to retain +it except their earnest prayer. He had therefore +striven, night and day, to promote the welfare of his +people, and in return for all his labors insurrection had +sprung up on every hand, till now, the Dalesmen having +once again rebelled, he was determined that he would no +longer be their king. They charged him now with imposing +heavy taxes, with keeping up the price of food, +with billeting his soldiers in the towns and monasteries, +with robbing churches and confiscating religious property, +with favoring new creeds and sanctioning new customs. +All these charges were untrue. He had commanded +that nothing should be preached except the +Word of God; but his orders had not been obeyed, for +the people preferred to cling to their ancient customs, +whether right or wrong. As it was impossible, under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> +the present system, to avoid continual rebellion, he +wished to retire from the government. If they desired +him to remain, some method must be found to increase +the royal income. He was at present wholly unable to pay +the expenses of his army, for war had grown to be a much +more costly matter than it was in former days. Other +expenses, too, were very heavy. The cost of embassies +to foreign powers was a serious drain upon his revenue. +Moreover, the royal castles had all sunk into decay and +must be rebuilt; and if he married the daughter of some +foreign prince, a vast outlay would be required. The +nobility also were impoverished through constant warfare, +and were calling on the crown for aid. His present +income was twenty-four thousand marks per annum, +while his expenses in round numbers amounted to sixty +thousand marks.<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a></p> + +<p>At the close of this address Gustavus called upon the +knights and bishops to reply. Although the monarch's +speech had not in terms denounced the bishops, it was +clear to all men that his purpose was to humble them. +The duty of making answer, therefore, naturally fell to +Brask. That venerable prelate rose, and with his usual +complaisance declared that, having sworn allegiance to +his gracious lord the king, he felt in duty bound to honor +his commands. He had, however, by his oath of office +promised to do nothing contrary to the will of Rome; +and since the pope had ordered him and the other prelates +to defend all property, whether real or personal, of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> +the holy Church, they must not consent to sacrifice their +rights. But he would promise that any deacons, priests, +or monks who might devise tricks or superstitious practices +not prescribed by their superiors, should be ordered +to desist and should be punished.<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a></p> + +<p>At this, Gustavus demanded of the Cabinet and nobility +whether they were satisfied with the answer. As +none seemed eager to defend the monarch's cause, Gustavus +took the floor himself and said: "I have no +further desire, then, to be your king. Verily I had +not counted on such treatment at your hands. I now +no longer wonder at the perversity of the people, since +they have such men as you for their advisers. Have +they no rain? They lay the blame on me. Have they +no sun? Again they lay the blame on me. When +hard times come, hunger, disease, or whatever it may +be, they charge me with it, as if I were not man, but +God. This is your gratitude to me for bringing corn +and rye and malt at great expense and trouble from +foreign lands, that the poor of Sweden might not starve. +Yea, though I labor for you with my utmost power +both in spiritual and in temporal affairs, you would gladly +see the axe upon my neck; nay, you would be glad to +strike the blow yourselves. I have borne more labor +and trouble both at home and abroad than any of you +can know or understand,—and all because I am your +king. You would now set monks and priests and all +the creatures of the pope above my head, though we +have little need of these mighty bishops and their retinue. +In a word, you all would lord it over me; and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> +yet you elected me your king. Who under such circumstances +would desire to govern you? Not the worst +wretch in hell would wish the post, far less any man. +Therefore I, too, refuse to be your king. I cast the +honor from me, and leave you free to choose him whom +you will. If you can find one who will continue ever +to please you, I shall be glad. Be so considerate, however, +as to let me leave the land. Pay me for my +property in the kingdom, and return to me what I have +expended in your service. Then I declare to you I will +withdraw never to return to my degenerate, wretched, +and thankless native land."<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a></p> + +<p>After this burst of passion, the monarch strode in +anger from the hall. He had studied his position well, +and knew that his opponents in the end must yield. +No sooner had he left the meeting than his secretary +rose and sought to bring the members to the monarch's +views. "My good men," he began, "let us arrive at +some conclusion in this matter, seeking aid from God. +It is a weighty question that we are to answer, and +one upon which hangs the welfare of our people. You +heard the king say truly there were but two courses +open. One was to follow his request, imploring him to +be our leader hereafter as heretofore; the other was to +choose the king's successor." But the delegates continued +silent, and adjourned toward evening without +putting the question to a vote.<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a></p> + +<p>During three whole days the deadlock lasted. From +the inactivity of the king's adherents, it would seem +that they were acting according to advice. Gustavus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> +wished to force his enemies' hand. It was clear to +everybody that the blessings conferred by him on Sweden +were beyond all praise, and he was confident that +no one would be rash enough to talk seriously about +selecting another for the throne. His object was to wait +until the patience of his enemies was exhausted, in the +hope that ultimately the offer of a compromise should +come from them. If such methods of procedure are +to be allowed, it must be granted that the monarch's +policy was shrewd. During the three days following +his stormy action in the diet, he kept himself in the +castle, entertaining his trusty courtiers and feigning +utter indifference to what was going on outside. On +the very day after his withdrawal, this independent +policy began to tell. The bishop of Strengnäs was apparently +the first to waver. He appreciated the folly of +longer holding out against the king, and rose to say +that he regarded such a step as fraught with danger. +Something must be done, he said, without delay. To +put aside Gustavus and elect another king was simply +childish, and to buy up all his property would be impossible. +While he wished the clergy's rights to be protected, +he asked for nothing that would be a detriment +to the realm. Matters in general were now improving, +and the future apparently was bright. If Gustavus should +be permitted to withdraw, nations that had ever coveted +the kingdom would no longer leave it unmolested. The +effect of these words was in a measure lost through a +wrangle that ensued between Laurentius Petri and the +Papist champion, Peder Galle. What they were fighting +over, no one knew, for Petri made his argument in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> +Swedish for the benefit of the people, and Galle would +not answer in anything but Latin. Nothing had been +accomplished, therefore, when the disputation ceased. +And the morning and the evening were the second day.<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a></p> + +<p>When the diet once more came together, the battle +opened with replenished strength. By this time the +peasantry and burghers had pretty generally sided with +the king, and threats were heard that, if the knights +persisted in their stubborn purpose, they would be made +to suffer for it. This language proved more efficacious +than persuasion. The knights and bishops could agree +upon no policy, nor upon a leader. They were terrified, +moreover, by the preponderance in number of their +foes. As a consequence, they gradually weakened, till +at last the delegates all voted to obey the monarch's will. +Andreæ and Petri were therefore chosen to approach +Gustavus and inform him that the delegates would now +consent to his requests. Gustavus then indulged once +more his love of masquerade. He feigned reluctance to +accept the proffered honor, and scorned the delegates +who came to him upon their knees. One after another +the recalcitrant members grovelled in the dust before +him, and begged that he would show them mercy. This +was the sort of ceremony that the monarch loved. He +kept his enemies in their humble posture till his vanity +was glutted, and then declared that he would go before +the diet on the following day.<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a></p> + +<p>Gustavus was at last in a position to dictate to the +diet. The opportunity for which he had been longing +since his first acceptance of the crown was now at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> +hand. He had won an unconditional victory over every +one of his opponents, and he was minded to use this +victory for all that it was worth. It is matter of regret +that practically no account is given us of the steps by +which the measures that he sought to have enacted +were attained. This very meagreness, however, is strong +evidence that the measures were enacted without much +friction. Apparently, the only object of the delegates +now was to suit their action to the monarch's will. +They therefore adopted as their guiding star the propositions +with which the diet had been opened by the +king, and formulated a set of answers in conformity +therewith. These answers were drawn respectively by +the Cabinet and nobility, by the burghers and mountaineers, +and by the common people. It is worthy of +more than passing notice that no answer was presented +by the clergy. Indeed, the clergy appear to have been +regarded in the light of victims. The whole object of +the diet was to crush the Church, and the clergy were +not permitted even to have a hand in the proceedings. +The monarch's notion was to give the clergy no voice +whatever in the diet, but after the lay delegates had +formulated their resolves, to force the bishops to issue +a proclamation certifying their assent.</p> + +<p>It seems desirable to describe in brief the answers +which the different classes of delegates presented. The +Cabinet and nobility began by promising that, if the +rebellion in Dalarne were not already quelled, they +would use every measure in their power to attain that +end. They were satisfied with the monarch's seizure of +Gripsholm. They deemed it proper, since the royal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> +rents were small, that Gustavus be at liberty to grant +the monasteries of the land as fiefs, but not, however, to +expel the monks. In order to increase the wealth of the +nobility, they advocated that all property granted by +former noblemen to churches or monasteries since 1454 +revert to the donors' heirs, though not until such heirs +should prove their title. To augment the crown's resources, +they believed the bishops, chapters, and cathedrals +should surrender to the king all that portion of +their income which they did not absolutely need. No +one should be permitted to preach falsehood or anything +beyond the simple Word of God, and old Church customs +ought to be maintained.<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a></p> + +<p>The burghers and mountaineers gave their answer in +a similar vein. They begged Gustavus to remain their +king, and promised to defend him with their blood. +They would express no opinion concerning Dalarne till +the Dalesmen who were going thither should bring +back their report. Since the monks were clearly at the +bottom of the trouble, no monk should be permitted to +leave his monastery more than twice a year. Gustavus +should be given the right of billeting whenever it were +necessary. Before deciding about the new beliefs they +wished to hear a disputation on the subject. As the +rents of the nobility and crown had been diminished by +the Church, the Church ought certainly to restore them; +and the mode of restoration should be determined by +Gustavus and his Cabinet. The royal castles having<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> +been demolished, the prelates should surrender theirs +until the castles belonging to the crown could be rebuilt. +Finally, from that day forth no bishop ought to send to +Rome for confirmation.<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a></p> + +<p>The answer of the common people began with a promise +that they would go to Dalarne and inflict punishment +upon the traitors; and since many monks were in +the habit of inciting the people to rebel, it seemed desirable +that they be permitted to leave their monasteries +only twice each year. Gustavus might quarter his soldiers +in the monasteries whenever it was necessary. +The churches and monasteries near Stockholm, having +in times past given shelter to the enemy, should be torn +down and their materials used to repair the city walls. +All matters of creed they were willing to leave to the +bishops and prelates, but asked that a disputation on +these subjects might be had in presence of representatives +of the people. The king should have authority to +increase his revenue in the way that seemed to him most +fitting. The king might take the bishops' castles till his +own could be rebuilt. The proper disposition of the +Church incomes they were content to leave to the king +and his Cabinet.<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a></p> + +<p>One cannot but be startled by the revolutionary tendency +of these replies. Never before had such a thing +been dreamt of as the surrender of all the bishops' castles<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> +to the crown. Gustavus must have been bewildered +by his own audacity. Within four days the diet that +had come together puffed up by a consciousness of its +own magnificence, had sunk into a position of absolute +servility. Things had been granted by the delegates +which, when the diet opened, Gustavus had not even +dared to ask. The very mode in which the votes were +taken and the acts were passed, shows how completely +everybody answered to the monarch's nod. Instead of +the answers being submitted to a general vote, they were +laid before the Cabinet to be passed upon by them. In +defiance of every precedent, the Cabinet usurped the right +to clothe the diet's sentiment in language of their own. +The result was a decree promulgated in the diet's name +and celebrated in Swedish history as the Vesterås Recess. +By this decree the delegates asserted, every one of them, +that they would do their utmost to punish all conspiracies +against the king. They declared, moreover, that as +the royal incomes were but meagre, the monasteries and +churches must come to the relief, and, to prevent all +danger, no bishop should keep up a larger retinue than +the king allowed. All bishops and cathedrals, with their +chapters, must hand over to the king all income not absolutely +necessary for their support. Since many monasteries +were dilapidated and their lands were lying waste, an +officer must be appointed by the crown to keep them up +and hand over all their rents not needed for that purpose +to the crown. The nobility were declared entitled +to all property that had passed from their ancestors to +the Church since 1454. Finally, Gustavus was ordered +to summon the two factions in the Church to hold a disputation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> +in presence of the diet, and the members promised +to quell the outcry that had arisen against Gustavus +and to punish the offenders.<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a></p> + +<p>It is reported that something in the nature of a disputation +was now held. But its significance, at any rate, +was small. The bishops and their clergy were to all +intents and purposes without a voice; and ere the diet +closed, a set of resolutions had been passed which did +away with all necessity for further disputation. These +so-called "Vesterås Ordinantia" were even more far-reaching +than the "Vesterås Recess." Since they are +the touchstone of the modern Swedish faith, the reader +will pardon prolixity if I give them all. They are as +follows: (1) Vacancies in the parish-churches are to be +filled by the bishop of the diocese. If, however, he appoints +murderers, drunkards, or persons who cannot or +will not preach the Word of God, the king may expel +them and appoint other priests who are more fit. (2) +Where a parish is poor, two of them may be joined together, +though not if such a step would be an injury to +the Word of God. (3) All bishops shall furnish the king +with a schedule of their rents and incomes of every kind. +From these schedules he shall determine the relative +proportions for them to keep and to hand over to the +crown. (4) A similar course shall be pursued with regard +to the cathedrals and chapters. (5) Auricular confession +must be given up as already commanded, and an account +must be rendered to the king of all fines imposed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> +(6) An account must also be rendered to the king of all +fees received for remitting the ban, and bishops with +their officers must not inflict the ban for petty offences, +as has been often done hitherto. (7) Bishops shall have +authority to determine as to the legality of marriages, +and may grant divorces, but an account shall be rendered +to the king of all fees received therefor. (8) Fees +for weddings, funerals, and churchings, may be taken as +provided in the Church ordinances, but no more. (9) +Since it has been decreed that the king and not the +bishop is to receive all fines imposed in cases within +ecclesiastical jurisdiction, the provosts may hereafter hold +court just as the bishops have done hitherto, and shall +render an account of their doings to the king. (10) For +desecration of holy days no penalty is to be imposed on +those who have been tilling the ground, or fishing, or +catching birds, but persons discovered hunting or quarrelling +shall be fined. (11) Priests shall be subject to +temporal laws and temporal courts, in all disputes, of +their own or of their churches, concerning property, +torts, or contracts, and shall pay to the king the same +penalties as laymen. But all complaints against the +clergy for non-fulfilment of their priestly duties shall +be laid before the bishop. (12) If a priest and layman +come to blows, one shall not be placed under the ban +any more than the other, for God has forbidden priests +to quarrel as well as laymen. Both shall suffer for their +acts according to the laws of the land. (13) Since it +has been found that mendicant monks spread lies and +deceit about the country, the royal stewards are to see +that they do not remain away from their monasteries<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> +more than five weeks every summer and five weeks every +winter. Every monk must get a license from the steward +or burgomaster before he goes out, and return it +when he comes back. (14) Monks who receive rents shall +not go out to beg at all. (15) When a priest dies, the +bishop is not to defraud the priest's heirs of their inheritance. +Priests shall be bound, in regard to their wills, +by the same law as other people. (16) If a man has +sexual intercourse with a woman to whom he is engaged, +he shall not be punished, since they are already married +in the eye of God. (17) No person who is infirm shall be +compelled by priests to make a will. (18) The sacrament +shall not be withheld from any one for debt or other +reason. The church or priest has a remedy in court. +(19) Fines for adultery and fornication belong to the +king, not to the bishop. (20) The Gospel shall hereafter +be taught in every school. (21) Bishops shall consecrate +no priest who is incompetent to preach the Word of God. +(22) No one shall be made a prelate, canon, or prebend +unless he has been recommended by the king, or his +name submitted to the king.<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span></p> +<p>These ordinances were practically a signal for the death +of popery. They not only transferred to the king the +rich emoluments on which for centuries the bishops had +grown fat; they transferred also to him a right to superintend +the actions of ecclesiastical authorities in matters +appertaining to the Church. It is hardly credible that +so vast an object should have been attained without more +friction, and that it was attained is a lasting testimony +to the shrewdness of the king. We may sneer at the +childish indignation with which Gustavus strode forth +from the diet, but the fact remains that this pretended +indignation gained its end. Above all else, Gustavus +knew the character of his people. They were particularly +prone to sentiment. A few sham tears or an exuberant +display of wrath had more effect upon them than +the most sagacious argument that the monarch could +employ. His policy, therefore, was to stir their feelings, +and then withdraw to watch their feelings effervesce. +It is not too much to say that no monarch has ever in +so short a time effected greater change in sentiment than +Gustavus effected among the members of this diet.</p> + +<p>Before the delegates departed, a letter was issued by +all the bishops present, and by representatives of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> +absent bishops, declaring to the people that Gustavus +had portrayed in graphic terms the evil inflicted on the +crown in former times by bishops; and that the lay +members had voted, to prevent such danger in the future, +that the bishops' retinues should be limited thereafter +by the king, and that all their superfluous rents and +castles, as well as the superfluous rents of the cathedrals +and chapters, should be surrendered to the crown. "To +this," the humbled prelates added, "we could not, even +if we would, object, for we wish to dispel the notion that +our power and castles are a menace to the realm. We +shall be satisfied whether we are rich or poor." To +one who reads between these lines, it is easy to discern +the language of the king. He also wrote, above his +own name, to the people, informing them that the diet +had been held; and for details of the proceedings he +referred them to a letter which the Cabinet had penned.<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a></p> + +<p>There was one man on whom the diet of Vesterås +had fallen like a clap of thunder from on high. His +cherished dream of finally restoring Romanism to her +old position in the eyes of men was now no more. +The knell of popery had been sounded, and nothing +remained for the aged bishop but despair. True to the +spirit of the ancient Church, he had looked askance on +every effort to discuss her faith. The doctrines handed +down through centuries appeared to him so sacred that +in his eyes it was sacrilege to open them again. In +answer to the monarch's oft-repeated counsel that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> +Church reform her doctrines, he had steadily asserted +his unwillingness to take that step, "for these new doctrines," +he declared, "have been investigated frequently +in other countries and have been condemned. No man +of wisdom, I believe, will champion a doctrine that is +contrary to the mandates of the Christian Church." +This constant opposition on the part of Brask had +brought him more and more beneath the monarch's +frown. Gustavus let no opportunity escape to add humiliation +to the venerable bishop. On one occasion +Brask unwittingly had consecrated as a nun a woman +who formerly had been betrothed; and when the woman +later left the convent to become her lover's wife, the +bishop placed them both beneath the ban. This act +called forth a condemnation from the king. "The +bearer tells us," were his words to Brask, "that he has +married a woman to whom he was engaged, and who +against her will was made a nun. We see no wrong +in such a practice, and wonder much that you did not +inform yourself before the girl received her consecration. +The husband informs us, further, that you have +placed them both beneath the ban. This course appears +to us unjust, and we command you to remit the punishment.... +We think it better to allow this marriage +than to drive the woman to an impure life." A +little later, when revolt arose in Dalarne, Gustavus fancied +that he saw the bishop's hand. "The priests," he +said to one of his officers, "are at the bottom of all +rebellion, and the diocese of Linköping is the heart of +this conspiracy." Gustavus had no ground for this +suspicion, and the charge was utterly untrue. Brask<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> +thought the tax imposed upon the Dalesmen altogether +too severe, and did not hesitate to say so; but he was +very far from sympathizing with the rebels, and when it +was ordered that the diet should be held in Vesterås to +please the Dalesmen, he was the first person to suggest +a danger in holding it so near the seat of the revolt.<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a></p> + +<p>Brask's influential position in the diet only added to +the monarch's wrath, and it was against him chiefly that +the diet's acts were framed. He was the wealthiest +of the Swedish bishops. Hence the reduction in their +incomes, as commanded by the diet, fell heaviest on him. +But even here the monarch's greed was not assuaged. +After the "Ordinantia" had been passed, Gustavus rose +and called upon the several bishops to resign their castles. +This step, though advocated by the burghers and +mountaineers as well as common people, had not been +ordered by the diet. Gustavus seems, therefore, to have +made the demand upon his own authority alone, and +the issue proved that his authority was great. The +bishops of Strengnäs and Skara, on whom the demand +was made first, acquiesced as gracefully as was possible +to so provoking a demand. But when the monarch came +to Brask, that prelate did not readily comply. One of +the nobility addressed the king, and begged him to +allow the aged bishop to retain his castle during the +few short years that yet remained to him of life. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> +reasonable request, however, the monarch would not +grant; and Brask persisting in his right to hold the +castle, Gustavus deprived him of his retinue and held +him prisoner till he furnished bail conditioned for his +good behavior as well as for the surrender of his castle. +The diet then adjourned, Gustavus sending forth a body +of men who entered the bishop's castle by main force, +and placed it under the supremacy of the king.<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a></p> + +<p>The ground of this barbaric treatment appears in a +negotiation between the king and Brask some five weeks +later. By the Vesterås Recess Gustavus was given a +claim to all the income not needed by the bishops, cathedrals, +and chapters for their support. But since the +sum required for the prelates was not named, the field +thus left for argument was wide. The prelates took a +much higher view of their necessities than was taken by +the king. Brask especially found it hard to do without +his ancient pomp and circumstance. Gustavus therefore +put the screws upon him to bring the lordly bishop +to the ground. How well this plan succeeded is shown +in a document of the 2d of August—about five weeks +after the seizure of Brask's castle—in which the bishop +is declared to have come to an understanding, and to +have promised the king fifteen hundred marks a year +beside some other tribute. In reward for this concession, +Gustavus declared himself contented, and received +the bishop once more into royal favor.<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span></p> +<p>There is now but little more to chronicle about the +aged bishop. Beaten at every point, and practically a +prisoner at the monarch's mercy, he had at last capitulated +and granted to Gustavus all that he had asked. +The surrender, furthermore, was but the prelude to the +bishop's flight. Conscious that every hope was crushed +forever, he craved permission to visit Gotland and perform +the sacred duties of his office. This request was +granted, and the venerable prelate set forth never to +return. On pretext of consulting eminent physicians, +he sailed across the Baltic, and watched the monarch's +movements from afar. Gustavus, when he learned of +this escape, confiscated all the property of Brask that +he could find, and, worse than all, he issued a letter, +filled with venom, denouncing the perfidy of the aged +bishop and telling the people of his diocese that Brask +had fled because of suits that certain persons were +about to bring against him for his wrongs.<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a></p> + +<p>It is difficult to take our leave of Brask without a word +in admiration of his character. He was, in point of intellect, +the most commanding figure of his time. Though +born and bred among a people strangely void of understanding, +he displayed some talents by which he would +have stood conspicuous in any court of Europe. His +learning possibly was not so great as that of Magni, nor +did his eloquence by any means compare with that of +Petri. But in matters of diplomacy, in the art of comprehending<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> +human nature, he was unsurpassed by any +prelate of the day. He was singularly acute in forming +his conclusions. Rarely if ever did he express +opinions that were not ultimately verified by facts. +His versatility, moreover, was something marvellous. +While weighted down with every sort of trouble and +anxiety, he spent his leisure moments in writing perfectly +delightful letters to his friends. These letters +bear the marks of suffering, but are calm in spirit, +charitable, and replete with thought. They treat of +botany, of geographical experiments, and of various +schemes to benefit the Swedish nation. As specimens +of literature they are superior to any other documents of +the time; and the writer evidently took keen pleasure in +their composition. "By means of letters," he declared, +"we keep our friends; and I would rather keep the +friends I have than make new ones." Brask's greatest +fault was his hypocrisy; but even this was due +more to his education than to any innate trait. He +was a Romanist of the deepest dye, and along with +Romanism he inherited a tendency to sacrifice the +means in order to effect the end. His very earnestness +impelled him to deceive. But his deception, if +only we may judge him leniently, was of a very pardonable +kind. Take him for all in all, he was an extremely +interesting man; and when he left the country, +Sweden lost a valuable son.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 101-102; <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, +vol. ii. p. 138; and <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xviii. pp. 295-303 +and 315-316.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xiv. pp. 48-53 and vol. xviii. pp. 300-303; +<i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 83-86; Linköping, +<i>Bibliotheks handl.</i>, vol. i. pp. 179-183; and <i>Skrift. och handl.</i>, vol. i. +pp. 347-351.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> <i>Dipl. Dal.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 62-63; <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xxiii. +pp. 59-60; <i>Handl. rör. Sver. inre förhåll.</i>, vol. i. pp. 5-8; and <i>Kon. +Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 126-129.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> <i>Dipl. Dal.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 86-88; <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xv. pp. +14-17 and vol. xv. pp. 15-16; <i>Handl. rör. Sver. inre förhåll.</i>, vol. i. +pp. 22, 25-29, 42-43 and 109-110; <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, +vol. iii. pp. 24-25, 101-104, 263-264, 385-386 and 416-417, and vol. iv. +pp. 292-293, 321-322 and 357-358; and <i>Smål. archiv.</i>, pp. 175-176.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xiv. pp. 66-70, vol. xv. pp. 5-7, 13-15, +25-29 and 49-50, vol. xvi. pp. 11-14 and 59-62, and vol. xviii. pp. +267-269, 276-282, 316-317, 320 and 341-342; <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes +registrat.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 29-31, 191-192, 214 and 277-278, and vol. iii. +pp. 166, 333-334, 406-408 and 425-428; and Linköping, <i>Bibliotheks +handl.</i>, vol. i. pp. 199-201.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> <i>Skrift. och handl.</i>, vol. i. p. 100.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 19 and 118.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> <i>Christ. II.'s arkiv</i>, vol. iii. pp. 1075-1083; <i>Handl. rör. Skand. +hist.</i>, vol. xvi. pp. 43-52, 59-62 and 76-78; <i>Handl. rör. Sver. inre +förhåll.</i>, vol. i. pp. 20-21 and 46-48; <i>Kon. Gust, den Förstes registrat.</i>, +vol. iii. pp. 100-101, 313-314, 331-333 and 421-426 and vol. iv. pp. +3-4; Linköping, <i>Bibliotheks handl.</i>, vol. i. pp. 192-201; and <i>Skrift. +och handl.</i>, vol. i. pp. 1-145.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> <i>Skrift. och handl.</i>, vol. i. p. 71.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 28.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 33.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 76.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 77-78.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> <i>Skrift. och handl.</i>, vol. i. p. 87.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 96. Petri's book, entitled <i>Swar påå tolff spörsmål</i>, published +in 1527, is printed in <i>Skrift. och handl.</i>, vol. i. pp. 1-145.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> <i>Dipl. Dal.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 95-96; <i>Handl. rör. Sver. inre förhåll.</i>, vol. i. +pp. 33-36 and 53-56; and <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. iii. +pp. 162-164 and vol. iv. pp. 18-20.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> Johannes Magni, <i>Hist. pont.</i>, pp. 76-80; Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, +pp. 100-104 and 120-121; <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xviii. pp. 341-342; +<i>Handl. rör. Sver. inre förhåll.</i>, vol. i. pp. 31-32; <i>Handl. till +upplysn. af Finl. häfd.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 193-195; <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes +registrat.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 185-186 and vol. iii. pp. 111-112, 193-194, 267-268, +287-289 and 378-379; and <i>Saml. til det Norske Folks Sprog og +Hist.</i>, vol. i. pp. 487-488.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> <i>Handl. rör. Sver. inre förhåll.</i>, vol. i. pp. 32-33, 40-42 and 53-54; +<i>Handl. till upplysn. af Finl. häfd.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 190-191; and <i>Kon. +Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. iii. pp. 124 and 260-261, and vol. iv. +pp. 70-71, 80, 91 and 130-131.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> <i>Dipl. Dal.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 102-104; <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xvi. +pp. 115-119; <i>Handl. rör. Sver. inre förhåll.</i>, vol. i. pp. 54-56 and 62-63; +<i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. iv. pp. 74-76, 135-136, +138-140, 147-150, 159-163 and 166-167; and <i>Svenska riksdagsakt.</i>, +vol. i. pp. 56-59.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> <i>Dipl. Dal.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 105-109 and 112-113; <i>Handl. rör. Sver. +inre förhåll.</i>, vol. i. pp. 64-67; and <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, +vol. iv. pp. 169-174, 177-180, 183-184 and 198-199.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 121-123; <i>Alla riksdag. och möt. besluth</i>, +vol. i. pp. 75-89; and <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. iv. +pp. 226-240 and 249-250.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 123-126; <i>Alla riksdag. och möt. besluth</i>, +vol. i. pp. 56-67; <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. iv, pp. 200-215; +and <i>Svenska riksdagsakt.</i>, vol. i. pp. 65-75.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, p. 126.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 126-128.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 128.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 128-131.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 131-133.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> <i>Alla riksdag. och möt. besluth</i>, vol. i. pp. 67-70; <i>Kon. Gust. den +Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. iv. pp. 216-220; and <i>Svenska riksdagsakt.</i>, vol. i. +pp. 75-78.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> <i>Alla riksdag. och möt. besluth</i>, vol. i. pp. <i>70-72</i>; <i>Kon. Gust. den +Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. iv. pp. 220-222; and <i>Svenska riksdagsakt.</i>, vol. i. +pp. 78-80.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> <i>Alla riksdag. och möt. besluth</i>, vol. i. pp. 72-74; <i>Kon. Gust. den +Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. iv. pp. 223-226; and <i>Svenska riksdagsakt.</i>, vol. i. +pp. 80-82.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, p. 133; <i>Alla riksdag. och möt. besluth</i>, vol. +i. pp. 75-79; <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. iv. pp. 226-231; +and <i>Svenska riksdagsakt.</i>, vol. i. pp. 82-87.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> There is a Latin version of the "Ordinantia" containing certain +regulations not given in the Swedish. They are these: The contribution +known as "Peter's penning" shall not be given hereafter to the +pope, but shall go to swell the royal revenue. A like disposition shall +be made of the money which the monasteries are wont to send to the +superiors of their orders. Bishops and other prelates shall not hereafter +pay anything to the pope for confirmation. It will be sufficient if +they take their office by consent of the king. All property, real and +personal, donated to the cathedrals, monasteries, and parochial or prebendal +churches, shall belong to the descendants of the noblemen who +gave it, and if there is any residue, it shall be conferred by the king on +whomsoever he will. All real property sold or pledged to churches +may be redeemed on payment of the sum received for the property. To +augment the crown's resources the bishops, cathedrals, and canons +ought to hand over to the king as large a sum as they can spare. All +these regulations in the Latin version bear on their face the stamp of +forgery. They are drawn in a careless manner, and convey the impression +of being part of a rough draught that never was perfected. Certainly they +never were enforced. See <i>Alla riksdag. och möt. besluth</i>, vol. i. pp. 90-93; +<i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. iv. pp. 241—247; and <i>Svenska +riksdagsakt.</i>, vol. i. pp. 89-96.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> <i>Alla riksdag. och möt. besluth</i>, vol. i. pp. 79-82 and 89; <i>Kon. +Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. iv. pp. 249-256; and <i>Svenska riksdagsakt.</i>, +pp. 87-88 and 96-100.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> <i>Dipl. Dal.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 110-112 and 115-116; <i>Handl. rör. Skand. +hist.</i>, vol. xvi. pp. 70-75, 78-80, 98-100, 105-106, 119-122 and 124-127; +<i>Handl. rör. Sver. inre förhåll.</i>, vol. i. pp. 58-59 and 60-62; <i>Kon. +Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. iv. pp. 3-4, 12-13, 42-43, 54-55, 111-112, +175-176, 400-404, 406-407, 417 and 419-420; <i>Monumenta polit. +Eccles.</i>, pp. 10-11 and 17-18; and <i>Skrift. och handl.</i>, vol. i. pp. 352-353.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 133-134; and <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes +registrat.</i>, vol. iv. p. 259.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> <i>Handl. rör. Sver. inre förhåll.</i>, vol. i. pp. 105-107; and <i>Kon. Gust. +den Förstes registrant.</i>, vol. iv. pp. 287-289.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 134-135; <i>Handl. rör. Sver. inre förhåll.</i>, +vol. i. pp. 120-123, 129 and 135-138; <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes +registrat.</i>, vol. iv. pp. 315-318, 325-326, 327-328, 340-343 and 391-394; +and <i>Smål. archiv.</i>, pp. 175 and 177.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_IX" id="Chapter_IX"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter IX.</span></h2> + +<h3>CORONATION OF THE KING. 1528.</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Reasons for Delay of the Coronation.—Preparations for the Ceremony.—Consecration +of the Bishops.—Coronation Festival.—Retrospect of +the Revolution.—Character of Gustavus.</p></div> + + +<p class="cap">THERE is but one scene needed now to bring the +drama of the Swedish Revolution to its close. +During a period of over four eventful years Gustavus +Vasa had been seated on the throne, but the final act +deemed necessary in the election of a king had not +yet taken place. Again and again the people had urged +Gustavus to be crowned, but on one pretext or another +he had put them off, and the ancient rite of coronation +was not yet performed. The mystery of this strange +delay can easily be explained by looking for a moment +into the condition of the Swedish Church.</p> + +<p>It was a time-honored theory all over Christendom +that no person could be legally installed in any royal +post without first having the sanction of the Church +of Rome; and such sanction, it was held, could only +be conferred through the consecrated archbishop of the +land. When Gustavus was elected king, the Swedish +archbishop was in voluntary exile, and nobody expected +that he ever would return. Indeed, he was so far an +object of suspicion at the papal court that, shortly after +the election of Gustavus, the pope appointed another<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> +prelate to perform the duties of archbishop till the +charges brought against Gustaf Trolle should be set at +rest. It is matter of common knowledge that Trolle +never succeeded in vindicating his position; and Magni, +though not confirmed, continued to perform the duties +of archbishop.</p> + +<p>In January, 1526, the Cabinet urged Gustavus to be +crowned, and he declared that he would do so in the +coming summer, trusting presumably that Magni would +receive his confirmation ere that time. A tax was even +levied to defray the expenses of the ceremony. But +some opposition was encountered when the royal officers +endeavored to collect the tax, and, the kingdom +being then in need of revenue, the project had to be +postponed. There is evidence, moreover, that Gustavus +was not eager for the confirmation of the prelates. +On one occasion he expressed a fear that they were +seeking to obtain their consecration with a view to +transfer their allegiance from himself to Rome. Apparently +his object was, by continual postponement of +the coronation, to have a standing argument whenever +he desired to obtain new funds.<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a></p> + +<p>Matters therefore dragged on in the same way till +Archbishop Magni had been banished and the diet of +Vesterås had voted an addition to the income of the +king. As the Cabinet had been beyond all others urgent +in their solicitations, the announcement of the monarch's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> +resolution was addressed to them. He would have still +preferred, he said, to delay his coronation till the summer +of 1528; but fearing that at that time he should be +too busy, he had resolved to have the rite performed +soon after Christmas, and the day he fixed at January 6. +Invitations were then sent out to all the noblemen of the +realm, who were instructed also to appear with all their +retinues, and to bring their wives and daughters with +them. Each town was asked to send two delegates to +the coronation, and a certain number of persons were to +represent the different parishes throughout the land. +Sheep, geese, and hens were ordered in enormous quantities +to be collected by the royal stewards for the festival. +These the thrifty monarch arranged should be +provided by the parishes themselves. Lest the Dalesmen, +already somewhat irritated, should have new cause +for discontent, Gustavus wrote them that they need not +take part in the contribution, nor even send their representatives +if they did not feel inclined.<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id="FNanchor_173_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a></p> + +<p>Although the Swedish Church was practically severed +from the Church of Rome, a doubt still lingered in the +monarch's mind as to the propriety of a coronation by +prelates whose authority had not been sanctioned by the +pope. Therefore, to remove all chance of contest, he +directed that those bishops who had not received their +confirmation should be sanctified through laying on of +hands by those who had. As a matter of fact the only +bishops whose authority had been derived from Rome +were the bishops of Vexiö and Vesterås. The former<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> +was too old to undertake the active duties of his office. +The bishop of Vesterås was selected, therefore, to consecrate +the bishops of Skara, Strengnäs, and Åbo. This +was effected on the 5th of January,—just before the +coronation festival began.<a name="FNanchor_174_174" id="FNanchor_174_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_174_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a></p> + +<p>The gorgeous ceremony was performed, according to +ancient practice, in the Cathedral of Upsala. Representatives +from every portion of the realm were present, and +the huge edifice was filled from choir to nave with all +the wealth and beauty that the land could boast. It +was the final tribute of gratitude to one whose ceaseless +energy had saved the nation from long years of tyranny. +Never had the Swedish people been more deeply bounden +to revere their ruler. If in the annals of all history a +king deserved to wear a crown, Gustavus Vasa was that +king. The honor, however, was not all his own. The +ceremony of coronation over, Gustavus selected from +among his courtiers twelve to whom he granted the degree +of knighthood. Here again, as on the day of his +election, he displayed the sentiments that inspired his +whole reign. No longer do we find among the monarch's +chosen counsellors the names of men illustrious +in the Church and Chapter. It was from the ranks of +the lower classes that the persons whom he was to knight +were chosen, and from this time forward the knights to +all intents and purposes composed his Cabinet. No +stronger argument can be offered to show the utter humiliation +of the Church.<a name="FNanchor_175_175" id="FNanchor_175_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span></p> +<p>The act of coronation was followed by a period of +mirth. A rich repast was offered by the king, at which +the representatives of all the classes were invited to be +present. A new coin, also, bearing the full-length figure +of Gustavus, with his sword and sceptre, and wearing +on his head a crown, was issued and distributed gratuitously +among the people. On the following days the +ceremony was prolonged by tilt and tourney. With all +the gallantry of a warmer climate two gladiators entered +the lists to combat for the hand of one of Sweden's +high-born ladies. The chronicler has immortalized the +combatants, but the fair lady's name, by reason of a +blemish in the manuscript, is gone forever. From beginning +to end the scene was one which no eyewitness +ever could forget. Years later, it stirred the spirit of +the author whose zeal has given us the leading features +of our narrative. It is a fitting picture with which to +close this tale.<a name="FNanchor_176_176" id="FNanchor_176_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="i272" id="i272"></a> +<a href="images/272.png"><img src="images/272t.png" width="400" height="189" alt="" title="" /></a> +</div> + + + +<p>The Swedish Revolution now was at an end, and the +great achievements of Gustavus Vasa had been done.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> +Though not yet thirty-two, the youthful monarch had +already secured a place among the foremost leaders of +the world. We have watched the Swedish nation rise +from insignificance, through a series of remarkable developments, +till its grandeur cast a lengthened shadow +across the face of northern Europe. In some regards +this revolution stands pre-eminent above all others known +in history. Few political upheavals have been more sudden, +and few, if any, have been more complete. Seven +years was all Gustavus needed to annihilate the ancient +constitution, and fashion another structure of an +absolutely new design. The Cabinet, at one time the +autocrat of Sweden, was now a mere puppet in the monarch's +hand. Under the guise of leader of the people, +Gustavus had crushed the magnates, with all their old +magnificence and power, beneath his feet. In place of +bishops and archbishops, whose insolence had been to +former kings a constant menace, his court was filled +with common soldiers selected from the body of the nation, +and raised to posts of highest honor, for no other +reason than their obedience to the monarch's will. Of +the old ecclesiastical authority not a trace was left. +Rome, in ages past the ultimate tribunal for the nation, +had now no more to say in Sweden than in the kingdom +of Japan. The Reformation was so thorough that from +the reign of Gustavus Vasa to the present day, it is +asserted, no citizen of Sweden has become a Romish +priest.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>The Revolution whose main incidents have here been +followed recalls another Revolution enacted near three<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> +centuries later amid the forests of the great continent of +North America. Both originated in a long series of acts +of tyranny, and each gave birth to a hero whose name +has become a lasting synonym of strength and greatness. +The lessons of history, however, are more often found +in contrasts than in similarities, and the points of difference +between these two upheavals are no less striking +than their points of likeness. The chief difference lies +in the individual characteristics of the leaders. George +Washington was pre-eminently a hero of the people. +He embraced the popular cause from no other motive +than a love of what he deemed the people's rights; and +when the war of independence closed, he retired from +public life and allowed the nation whose battle he had +fought to take the government of the country upon +itself. The result was the most perfect system of republican +government that the world has ever known. Gustavus +Vasa, on the other hand, though actuated in a +measure by enthusiasm for the public weal, was driven +into the contest mainly by a necessity to save himself. +The calm disinterestedness which marks the career of +Washington was wholly wanting in the Swedish king. +His readiness to debase the currency, his efforts to humiliate +the bishops, his confiscation of Church property, +his intimacy with foreign courtiers,—all show a desire +for personal aggrandizement inconsistent with an earnest +longing to benefit his race. One must regret that the +rare talents which he possessed, and the brilliant opportunities +that lay before him, were not employed in more +unselfish ends. It is true he gave his country a better +constitution than it had before; he freed it from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> +the atrocities of a horrid tyrant; he laid the axe at the +root of many religious absurdities; and he relieved the +people from a heavy load of religious burdens. But he +did not lay that foundation of public liberty which the +blood poured out by the Swedish people merited. Of +all nations on the face of the globe none are more fitted +by temperament for a republican form of government +than the Swedes. They are calm, they are thoughtful, +they are economical, and above all else, they are imbued +with an ardent love of liberty. It is hard, therefore, to +repress the wish that Gustavus Vasa had been allowed, +at the diet of Vesterås, to lay aside the crown, and that +in his place a leader had been chosen to carry on the +good work on the lines already drawn. The Revolution +had begun with a feeling that the Swedish nation was +entitled to be ruled according to its ancient laws,—that +it was entitled to a representative form of government; +and it was only because of the nation's admiration for +its leader that this object was relinquished. The people, +having expelled one tyrant, chose another; and ere Gustavus +closed his memorable reign, the principle of hereditary +monarchy was once more engrafted on the nation. +Nothing could demonstrate with greater clearness the +extreme danger that is always imminent in blind enthusiasm +for a popular and gifted leader.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> <i>Alla riksdag. och möt. besluth</i>, vol. i. pp. 37-39 and 45-47; <i>Dipl. +Dal.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 77, 80-81 and 93; <i>Handl. rör. Sver. inre förhåll.</i>, vol. i. +pp. 19-20; and <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. iii. pp. 12, 22-23, +95-96, 236-237 and 414-415.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. iv. pp. 334-335, 360-366 +and 416-417; and <i>Svenska riksdagsakt.</i>, vol. i. pp. 102-107.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s. krön.</i>, p. 136; <i>Handl. rör. Sver. inre förhåll.</i>, vol. i. +pp. 133-134; and <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, vol. iv. pp. 368-369.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_175_175" id="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, p. 136; and <i>Kon. Gust. den Förstes registrat.</i>, +vol. v. pp. 9-11.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_176_176" id="Footnote_176_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a> Svart, <i>Gust. I.'s krön.</i>, pp. 136-137.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY"></a>BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h2> + + +<h3>I. AUTHORITIES.</h3> + +<h4>A. <i>Books and Pamphlets.</i></h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>[In this list are included all works written for publication, whether +published or not, before the year 1600. The arrangement is strictly +chronological.]</p></div> + +<p><b>Beyer</b>, Christopher. <i>Chronicon Gedanensis.</i> [In <i>Scriptores rerum +Suecicarum medii aeui</i>, ed. E. M. Fant. Upsal., 1818-1828. 2 vols. +f<sup>o</sup>. vol. iii., ed. C. Annerstedt. Upsal., 1871-1876. f<sup>o</sup>. sect. 1, +pp. 339-340.]</p> + +<p>The author was born in 1502, and died in 1518. His chronicle +contains a few allusions to events in Sweden from 1507 to 1515.</p> + +<p><b>Ferber</b>, Eberhard. <i>Chronicon Gedanensis.</i> [In <i>Scriptores rerum +Suecicarum</i>, vol. iii. sect. 1, pp. 340-341.]</p> + +<p>Author died in 1529. A few statements in his chronicle refer to +the expedition of Christiern II. against Sweden in 1518.</p> + +<p><i>Svenska medeltidens rim-krönikor</i>, ed. G. E. Klemming. Stockh., +1865-1868. 3 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>This ancient collection of rhythmic chronicles, composed by various +unknown hands, is devoted chiefly to events occurring before +the sixteenth century; and most of the chronicles contained in it were +written before that time. Two of them, however, were written in +the monastery at Vadstena in 1520, one running through the reign +of Karl Knutsson, and the other running from 1452 to 1520. Beside +these there is a satire on Christiern II., written shortly after +1520. Although these chronicles are little to be relied on, they are +extremely valuable as specimens of early Swedish literature.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Kock</b>, Reimarus. <i>Chronicon Lubecensis.</i> [In <i>Scriptores rerum +Suecicarum</i>, vol. iii. sect. 1, pp. 239-274.]</p> + +<p>Author born at end of fifteenth century, lived in Lubeck, and +died in 1569. His chronicle runs to 1521.</p> + +<p><i>Von der graüsamen tyrannischen myssehandelung, so Künig Christiern, +des namēs der Ander vō Den̄marck jm reich zu Sweden begāgen +hatt.</i></p> + +<p>This little work, containing only twelve pages, bears no date or +place of publication on the titlepage, but at the end is dated at +Surcöping, Dec. 29, 1522. One copy of it is in the Royal Library +at Stockholm. It is merely a denunciation of the cruelties of Christiern +II., and was doubtless issued with a view to win friends for +Gustavus Vasa in different parts of Europe. It is written in High +German, and has since been translated and published several times +in Dutch and also in Swedish.</p> + +<p><i>Proelia inter Suecos et Danos annis 1452-1524.</i> [In <i>Scriptores +rerum Suecicarum</i>, vol. iii. sect. 1, pp. 33-34.]</p> + +<p>A short list of battles believed to have been composed by Spegelberg, +the secretary of Bishop Brask, about the year 1524.</p> + +<p><i>Diarium Minoritarum Visbyensium ab anno 686 ad annum 1525.</i> +[In <i>Scriptores rerum Suecicarum</i>, vol. i. sect. 1, pp. 32-39.]</p> + +<p>A meagre chronicle of events in Visby, composed by various unknown +hands in the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries.</p> + +<p><b>Stegmann</b>, Bernt. <i>Hanseatische Chronik.</i> [In <i>Scriptores rerum +Prussicarum</i>, ed. T. Hirsch, M. Töppen, and E. Strehlke. Leipz., +1861-1874. 5 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>. vol. v. pp. 492-528.]</p> + +<p>This chronicle runs to the year 1525. It was probably collected +by Stegmann, a Dantzic burgher of the time of Gustavus, but it +seems not to have been written by him. It is in Low German. +Pages 517-528 give the story of Christiern's cruelties in Sweden, +which the writer denounces in unmeasured terms.</p> + +<p><b>Ziegler</b>, Jacob. <i>Crudelitas Christierni Secundi.</i> [In <i>Scriptores +rerum Suecicarum</i>, vol. iii. sect. 1, pp. 71-77.]</p> + +<p>This description of the carnage of 1520 was written at some period +between that year and 1531.</p> + +<p><i>Chronicon episcoporum Arosiensium.</i> [In <i>Scriptores rerum Suecicarum</i>, +vol. iii. sect. 2, pp. 120-128.]</p> + +<p>This consists of some extracts made by Peder Svart from a +rhythmic Latin chronicle of an unknown author. It runs to 1534.</p> + +<p><b>Eliesen</b>, Povel. <i>Chronicon Skibyensis.</i> [In <i>Scriptorum rerum</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> +<i>Danicarum medii aeui</i>, ed. J. Langebek. Hafniae, 1772-1878. 9 vols. +f<sup>o</sup>. vol. ii. pp. 554-602.]</p> + +<p>This chronicle was written by Eliesen in the years 1519-1534, +closing abruptly with the year 1534, though it has been continued +by a later hand to the year 1555. The MS. was found in 1650, in the +church at Skiby in Seeland. Eliesen was a Danish priest, a Catholic, +and a vehement opponent of Christiern II.</p> + +<p><b>Petri</b>, Olaus. <i>Svenska krönika</i>, ed. G. E. Klemming. Stockh., +1860. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>Born in 1497; died in 1552. Called the Luther of Sweden. Was +a man of determined character, great eloquence, and common sense. +He wrote in a strong, pure style, and with a critical judgment. +His <i>Svenska krönika</i> is the first history of Sweden written in modern +Swedish. It was completed in 1534, but runs only to the year +1521. It awoke the hostility of Gustavus because of its leniency to +the old bishops and clergy.</p> + +<p><b>Rensel</b>, Clement. <i>Berättelse hörande till Konung Gustafs I.'s +historia.</i> [In <i>Handlingar rörande Skandinaviens historia</i>. Stockh., +1816-1865. 41 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>. vol. ii. pp. 13-54.]</p> + +<p>A native of Livonia, came to Sweden in 1521 to enlist under the +banner of Gustavus. He writes like a blunt soldier who revels in +the story of a battle. His <i>Berättelse</i> seems to have been written +for the king. It is chiefly a chronicle of Swedish wars, running +from 1518 to 1536. The original MS. is in the University Library +at Upsala, and seems to have run later than the year 1536, a portion +at the end of the MS. being lost.</p> + +<p><i>Diarium Vazstenense ab anno 1344 ad annum 1545.</i> [In <i>Scriptores +rerum Suecicarum</i>, vol. i. sect. 1, pp. 99-229.]</p> + +<p>A long chronology of Church affairs, chiefly relating to the monastery +at Vadstena. Written by unknown hands, and completed +in the sixteenth century.</p> + +<p><i>Märkvärdige händelser i Sverige ifrån 1220 till 1552.</i> [In <i>Scriptores +rerum Suecicarum</i>, vol. i. sect. 1, pp. 90-91.]</p> + +<p>A very short chronology of general events in Sweden, by an unknown +author, written in the sixteenth century.</p> + +<p><b>Magni</b>, Johannes. <i>De omnibus Gothorum Sueonumque regibus qui +unquam ab initio nationis extitere, eorumque memorabilibus bellis late +uarieque per orbem gestis, opera Olai Magni Gothi fratris eiusdem autoris +ac etiam archiepiscopi Upsalensis in lucem edita.</i> Romae, 1554. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>The author, the last Roman Catholic archbishop of Sweden, was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> +born in 1488 and died in 1544. The work is edited by his brother, +Olaus Magni. It runs to the year 1520. The writer lacks critical +judgment, and his work abounds in errors. He writes as one who, +though wronged, is unwilling to complain; yet he hints that later +generations may not think so highly of Gustavus as those living +at the time.</p> + +<p><b>Magni</b>, Olaus. <i>Historia de gentibus Septentrionalibus, earumque +diuersis statibus, conditionibus, moribus, ritibus, superstitionibus, disciplinis, +exercitiis, regimine, uictu, bellis, fructuris, instrumentis, ac +mineris metallicis, et rebus mirabilibus, necnon uniuersis pene animalibus +in Septentrione degentibus, eorumque natura.</i> Romae, 1555. 6<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>Author was a brother of Archbishop Johannes Magni. Born +in 1490, travelled through the northern portions of Scandinavia in +1518 and 1519 on a papal mission. As a canon of Upsala and Linköping +was employed by Gustavus Vasa in several missions, being +sent to Rome in 1523 to obtain papal confirmation of his brother's +election to the archbishopric. After his brother's disgrace he followed +him, as his secretary, to Rome, and at his brother's death +was appointed archbishop of Upsala by the pope, but never attempted +to assert his right. Died in Rome in 1558. He was a +man of remarkable memory, and possessed strong powers of observation; +but he lacked his brother's even temper. His <i>Hist. de gent. +Sept.</i> is one of the most singular books ever written. It is an encyclopædia +of Sweden in the sixteenth century; and though filled with +errors and barefaced exaggerations, is invaluable to any student of +Swedish history.</p> + +<p><b>Magni</b>, Johannes. <i>Historia pontificum metropolitanae ecclesiae +Upsaliensis in regnis Suetiae et Gothiae.</i> [In <i>Scriptores rerum Suecicarum</i>, +vol. iii. sect. 2, pp. 5-97.]</p> + +<p>This work was first printed at Rome in 1557, with a preface by +Olaus Magni. Reprinted at Rome in 1560.</p> + +<p><b>Petri</b>, Laurentius. <i>Then Svenska chrönikan.</i> [In <i>Scriptores rerum +Suecicarum</i>, vol. ii. sect. 2, pp. 3-151.]</p> + +<p>Born 1499, died 1573. First Protestant archbishop of Sweden, +and brother of Olaus Petri. Lacked his brother's eloquence, but +surpassed him and indeed all men of his time as a writer of Swedish +prose. This work is nothing but his brother's <i>Svenska krönika</i>, +wholly revised, with the omission of certain manifest errors. Like +his brother's work, it runs only to the year 1521, and is believed +to have been completed about 1559.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Svaning</b>, Hans. <i>Refutatio calumniarum cuiusdam Ioannis +Magni Gothi Upsalensis, quibus in historia sua ac famosa oratione +Danicam gentem incensit.</i> 1560. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>A Danish priest and royal historiographer; born 1503, died 1584. +Was a warm adherent of Fredrik II. of Denmark, and an opponent +of Christiern II. Wrote this book to refute the work <i>De omn. +Goth.</i> of Johannes Magni. It is so full of bitterness toward the +Swedes that, while it was going through the press, the Danish +chancellor suppressed the pages bearing Svaning's name, and the +book was published under that of a German professor named Rosefontanus, +who had died in 1559. The name of the printer and +place of publication was also left out, and it was made to appear +as if compiled many years before from some documents which +Rosefontanus had seen when Christiern II. took refuge at his house. +The copy in the Royal Library at Stockholm contains the suppressed +pages, all soiled and torn. A second edition, bearing the +author's real name, was printed in Copenhagen in 1561.</p> + +<p><b>Svaning</b>, Hans. <i>Christiernus II. Daniae rex.</i> Francof., 1658. +12<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>Published from an old MS. written by Svaning. Is written +with much vigor, though somewhat unfair both to Christiern II. +and to Gustavus Vasa.</p> + +<p><b>Svart</b>, Peder. <i>Ährapredikning öffwer then fordom stormechtigaste, +oöffwerwinnelige, och högloffligaste furstes och herres, H. Gostafs, +Sweriges, Göthes, Wändes etc. konungz och faders, christelige lijk.</i> +Holmiae, 1620. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>This is the funeral oration delivered over the body of Gustavus +in Upsala Cathedral, Dec. 21, 1560, by Peder Svart, who had formerly +been preacher to the court and had been made bishop of +Vesterås by Gustavus in 1556. It is ornate and pretentious, and +of little value.</p> + +<p><b>Svart</b>, Peder. <i>Gustaf I.'s krönika</i>, ed. G. E. Klemming. Stockh., +1870. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>This chronicle was begun in 1561, the year following the king's +death; and the author himself died in 1562, having brought his +work down only to the year 1533. The original MS. is in the Royal +Library at Stockholm. Svart writes in a forcible and at the same +time easy style. Nor does he lack good sense; though the work is +marred throughout by a bitterness toward popery and a total +blindness to the errors of Gustavus.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Svart</b>, Peder. <i>Historia om de forna Westerås stifts biscopar</i>, ed. +A. A. von Stiernman. Stockh., 1744. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>A history of the bishops of Vesterås, running to 1534.</p> + +<p><b>Toxites</b>, Michael. <i>Epicedion sereniss. ac potentiss. principis, ac +D. D. Gostaui, Suecorum, Gothorum, atq: Vandalorum regis.</i></p> + +<p>A copy of this rare little book is preserved in the British Museum. +It contains eight quarto pages without pagination, and is +without date or place of publication, though it is believed to have +been printed in Stockholm in 1561. It is a mere eulogy of Gustavus +in Latin verse, and is addressed to King Erik XIV.</p> + +<p><b>Grip</b>, Birger Nilsson. <i>Calendarium Hammarstadense.</i> [In <i>Scriptores +rerum Suecicarum</i>, vol. i. sect. 1, pp. 237-239.]</p> + +<p>This is a short calendar of the births and deaths of some eminent +persons arranged in the order of the days of the year. The compiler +was born about 1490, and died in 1565. He was a Cabinet member, +and a warm supporter of Gustavus Vasa, whose niece he married.</p> + +<p><b>Ludvigsson</b>, Rasmus. <i>Collectiones historicae.</i> [In <i>Scriptores rerum +Suecicarum</i>, vol. iii. sect. 1, pp. 79-87.]</p> + +<p>Born probably at beginning of sixteenth century. When Gustavus, +according to Act passed at Vesterås, 1527, established the +Royal Archives, he employed Ludvigsson to collect all the old +documents belonging to the various churches. These were then +deposited in the Royal Archives. Ludvigsson also, by order of +Gustavus, compiled a genealogical table of the old nobility of Sweden, +that Gustavus might know what estates to claim. Under +Erik XIV., as well as under his brother Johan, Ludvigsson held the +post of secretary to the king. He died in 1594. As a writer he +shows great industry and poor judgment. The <i>Collectiones</i> comprises +a continuation of Svart's chronicle to 1560, a chronicle of +Erik XIV., and a compilation of the early Swedish chronicles from +1362 to 1522. Of these the chief is the continuation of Svart, +which includes also Svart's chronicle slightly altered, and the whole +of it was long supposed to be Ludvigsson's own work, though the +name was erroneously spelt Rasmus Carlsson. The original MS. +of this continuation of Svart is in the University Library at Upsala. +The MSS. of Ludvigsson's other works are in the Royal Library +at Stockholm.</p> + +<p><b>Karl IX.</b> <i>Rim-chrönika</i>, ed. B. Bergius. Stockh., 1759. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>This is a metrical chronicle, written by one of the sons of Gustavus +Vasa, and containing one or two references to Gustavus.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>B. <i>Letters, Treaties, and other Documents.</i></h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The contemporary documents bearing on the Swedish +Revolution number several thousand. Nearly all of these +have now been printed except the following collections:—</p></div> + +<p><i>Gustaf I.'s registratur.</i></p> + +<p>This consists of thirty-one MS. folios containing copies of the +letters written by Gustavus throughout his reign, and is preserved +in the Royal Archives at Stockholm. The letters are arranged +in chronological order, each folio as a rule embracing the +letters of a year. Nearly all the folios were compiled by the king's +secretary in the course of the year which they represent, though +some of them were not compiled till 1600 or even later; and portions +of the contemporary folios, left incomplete at the time, are +filled out by a later hand. Besides this collection, the <i>Registratur</i> +originally embraced fifteen folios of the king's letters to foreign +powers, and some folios of his letters on the crown estates; but +these are lost. The thirty-first volume of the extant portion of the +<i>Registratur</i> does not properly belong there, being a transcription of +Claes Christersson's letters to Gustavus in 1558-1561. Of the <i>Registratur</i>, +ten volumes have now been published, extending through +the year 1535.</p> + +<p><i>Gustaf I.'s acta historica.</i></p> + +<p>This is the name given to nine bundles of MSS., chiefly originals, +in the Royal Archives at Stockholm, bearing on the reign of Gustavus +Vasa. Many of them are found transcribed in the <i>Registratur</i>. +Some, not so transcribed, have been published in the already +printed volumes of the <i>Registratur</i>, as supplements, and in the +<i>Svenska riksdagsakter</i> edited by Hildebrand and Alin.</p> + +<p><i>Gustaf I.'s bref med bilagor.</i></p> + +<p>This is the name given to three bundles of MS. letters, chiefly +originals, of Gustavus Vasa. These, too, are preserved in the +Royal Archives at Stockholm. Most of them are found transcribed +in the <i>Registratur.</i> Some, not so transcribed, have been published +in the already printed volumes of the <i>Registratur</i>, as supplements, +and in the <i>Svenska riksdagsakter</i> edited by Hildebrand and Alin.</p> + +<p><i>Gustaf I.'s rådslagar.</i></p> + +<p>This is the name given to a bundle of original MSS. of the +Cabinet resolutions under Gustavus Vasa. It is preserved in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> +Royal Archives at Stockholm. Most of these <i>rådslagar</i> have been +published in the <i>Svenska riksdagsakter</i> edited by Hildebrand and +Alin.</p> + +<p><i>Palmskiöld samlingar.</i></p> + +<p>This consists of over five hundred folios of documents collected +and copied by Erik and Elias Palmskiöld about the year 1700, and +contains copies of many original MSS. now lost. Portions of these +folios have been printed. As now bound, volumes 2, 3, and 4 of +that portion of the collection called number 1 are entitled <i>Acta ad +historiam R. Gustaui I.</i>, and are devoted wholly to the reign of +Gustavus Vasa.</p> + + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Apart from the above-named MSS., practically all documents +bearing on the Swedish Revolution will be found +printed in one of the following collections:—</p></div> + +<p><i>Acta et litterae ad historiam Reformationis in Suecia</i>, ed. E. M. +Fant. Upsal., 1807. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>Contains documents on the Reformation in Sweden.</p> + +<p><i>Acta historiam Regis Christierni II. illustrantia</i>, ed. P. A. Adde. +Upsal., 1833. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>Contains a letter from Christiern II. to his queen, dated 1518, +on the day of the battle of Brännkyrka; also a document of 1520 +resigning Stockholm Castle to Christiern; also a letter from Gustavus +Vasa, 1522; and a letter from Norby to Christiern, 1523.</p> + +<p><i>Acta Tomiciana.</i> Posnaniae, 1852-1860. 9 vols. 4<sup>o</sup>. vol. ix. +2a ed. 1876. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>A celebrated collection of documents in the Royal Archives of +Poland.</p> + +<p><i>Aktstykker.</i> See <b><a href="#Odense">Odense</a></b>.</p> + +<p><i>Alla riksdagars och mötens besluth</i>, ed. A. A. von Stiernman. +Stockh., 1728-1743. 4 vols. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>A collection of documents issued by diets and conventions from +1521 to 1727.</p> + +<p><i>Bidrag till Skandinaviens historia ur utländska arkiver</i>, ed. C. G. +Styffe. Stockh., 1859-1884. 5 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>A collection of foreign documents, chiefly from the Private Archives +of Denmark, relating to the history of Skandinavia, running +to 1520.</p> + +<p><i>Breve og Aktstykker til Oplysning af Christiern den Andens og</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> +<i>Frederik den Førstes Historie</i>, ed. C. F. Allen, Kjøbenhavn. +1854. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>Contains documents from 1519 to 1530 on the history of Christiern +II. and Fredrik I.</p> + +<p><b>Christiania. Samfund for det Norske Folks Sprog og Historie.</b> +<i>Samling til det Norske Folks Sprog og Historie.</i> Christiania, +1833-1839. 6 vols. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>Contains documents on the surrender of the district of Viken by +Sweden to Norway, 1523-1535; also documents on the rebellion +of Sunnanväder and Knut.</p> + +<p><i>Christiern II.'s arkiv, 1e serien. Handlingar rörande Severin Norby +och de under hans ledning stående krigsföretagen mot Sverge</i>, ed. N. J. +Ekdahl. Stockh., 1835-1842. 4 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>A collection of documents on Christiern II.'s expeditions against +Sweden.</p> + +<p><b>Copenhagen. Kongeligt Dansk Selskab for Faedrelandets +Historie og Sprog.</b> <i>Danske Magazin, 3e Raekke.</i> Kjøbenhavn, +1843-1860. 6 vols. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>This is the third series of the work mentioned under the preceding +title. It contains a few letters relating to Christiern II.'s relations +with Sten Sture in 1518.</p> + +<p><b><a name="Copenhagen" id="Copenhagen"></a>Copenhagen. Kongeligt Geheimearchiv.</b> <i>Aarsberetninger</i>, ed. +C. F. Wegener. Kjøbenhavn, 1852-1883. 7 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>A collection of documents in the Private Archives at Copenhagen.</p> + +<p><i>Corps universel diplomatique du droit des gens</i>, ed. J. Dumont. +Amst., 1726-1739. 13 vols. f<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>A collection of European treaties from the reign of Charlemagne.</p> + +<p><i>Danske Magazin.</i> See <b><a href="#Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a></b>.</p> + +<p><i>De la Gardiska archivet, eller handlingar ur Greft. De la Gardiska +bibliotheket på Löberöd</i>, ed. P. Wieselgren. Stockh. & Lund, 1831-1844. +20 vols. & bihang. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>A collection of documents on the history of Sweden, preserved in +the library of the De la Gardie family.</p> + +<p><i>Den Swenska Mercurius.</i> 4e årgång. Stockh., 1758. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>Contains a few letters from Gustavus Vasa.</p> + +<p><i>Diplomatarium Dalecarlicum.</i> <i>Urkunde rörande landskapet Dalarne</i>, +ed. C. G. Kröningssvärd & J. Lidén. Stockh., 1842-1853. +3 vols. & Supplement, 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>Contains documents relating to Dalarne from 1248 to 1560.</p> + +<p><i>Handlingar.</i> See <b><a href="#Stockholm">Stockholm</a></b>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Handlingar til uplysning af Svenska historien</i>, ed. E. M. Fant. +Upsal., 1789-1802. 4 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><i>Handlingar till upplysning af Finlands häfder</i>, ed. A. I. Arvidsson. +Stockh., 1846-1858. 10 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><i>Handlingar till upplysning i Finlands Kyrko-historia</i>, ed. W. G. +Lagus. Ny följd. Åbo, 1836-1839. 4 vols. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><i>Handlingar ur. v. Brinkman'ska archivet på Trolle-Ljungby</i>, ed. G. +Andersson. Örebro, 1859-1865. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><i>Historiska handlingar.</i> See <b><a href="#Stockholm">Stockholm</a></b>.</p> + +<p><i>Historiska märkwerdigheter til uplysning af Swenska häfder</i>, ed. S. +Lönbom. Stockh., 1768. 4 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><i>Historiska samlingar</i>, ed. C. Adlersparre. Stockh., 1793-1822. +5 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><i>Konglige och furstlige förlijkningar, föreningar, försäkringar, dagtingan, +förbund, förskrijffningar, legdebref, etc.</i>, ed. J. Hadorph. +Stockh., 1676. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>A valuable collection of Swedish public documents running to +1523.</p> + +<p><i>Konung Gustaf den Förstes registratur.</i> See <b><a href="#Stockholm">Stockholm</a></b>.</p> + +<p><b>Linköping.</b> <i>Bibliotheks handlingar</i>, ed. J. A. Lindblom. Linköp., +1793-1795. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>Contains a number of letters of Bishop Brask, badly edited, +however.</p> + +<p><i>Monumenta diplomatica Suecana</i>, ed. J. H. Schröder. Upsal., +1822. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>Contains documents from 1441 to 1502.</p> + +<p><i>Monumenta politico-Ecclesiastica ex archiuo Palmskiöldiano</i>, ed. O. +Celsius. Upsal., 1753. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><i>Nya Källor till Finlands Medeltidshistoria.</i> 1a Samlingen, ed. E. +Grönblad. Köpenhamn, 1857. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>Contains documents on the history of Finland from 1335 to +1524.</p> + +<p><b><a name="Odense" id="Odense"></a>Odense. Fyens Stifts Literaere Selskab.</b> <i>Aktstykker til Nordens +Historie i Grevefeidens Tid</i>, ed. C. Paludan-Müller. Odense, +1850-1853. 2 vols. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>A very valuable collection of documents on the history of Denmark, +Norway, and Sweden, 1533-1536.</p> + +<p><i>Samling utaf kongl. bref, stadgar och förordningar etc. angående +Sweriges Riges commerce, politie och oeconomie</i>, ed. A. A. von Stiernman. +Stockh., 1747-1775. 6 vols. 4<sup>o</sup>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span></p> + +<p>A valuable collection of Swedish public documents running from +1523 to 1746.</p> + +<p><i>Scriptores rerum Danicarum medii aeui</i>, ed. J. Langebek. Hafniae, +1772-1878. 9 vols. f<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><i>Scriptores rerum Suecicarum medii aeui</i>, ed. E. M. Fant. Upsal., +1818-1828. 2 vols. f<sup>o</sup>. vol. iii., ed. C. Annerstedt. Upsal., 1871-1876. +f<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><i>Skrifter och handlingar til uplysning i Swenska Kyrko och Reformations +historien</i>, ed. U. von Troil. Upsal., 1790-1791. 5 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>A very valuable collection of documents on Church matters.</p> + +<p><i>Småländska archivet</i>, ed. C. G. Södergren. Vexiö, 1853-1874. 3 +vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>A collection of documents relating to the history of Småland.</p> + +<p><b><a name="Stockholm" id="Stockholm"></a>Stockholm. Kongliga Biblioteket.</b> <i>Tidningar om lärda saker.</i> +År 1767, ed. C. C. Gjörwell. Stockh., 1767. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>Contains a few letters from Gustavus Vasa.</p> + +<p><b>Stockholm. Kongliga Riks-Archivet.</b> <i>Handlingar rörande +Sverges inre förhållanden under Konung Gustaf I.</i>, ed. P. E. Thyselius. +Stockh., 1841-1845. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>These documents are in the Royal Archives at Stockholm.</p> + +<p><b>Stockholm. Kongliga Riks-Archivet.</b> <i>Handlingar rörande +Sveriges historia. 1a serien, Konung Gustaf den Förstes registratur</i>, +ed. V. G. Granlund. Stockh., 1861-1887. 10 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>A most valuable collection of documents in the Royal Archives +at Stockholm. Published thus far only from the year 1521 through +1535.</p> + +<p><b>Stockholm. Kongliga Samfundet för Utgivande af Handskrifter +rörande Skandinaviens Historia.</b> <i>Handlingar rörande +Skandinaviens historia.</i> Stockh., 1816-1865. 41 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>A most valuable collection of documents from various sources on +the history of Sweden.</p> + +<p><b>Stockholm. Kongliga Samfundet för Utgivande af Handskrifter +rörande Skandinaviens Historia.</b> <i>Historiska handlingar.</i> +Stockh., 1861-1879. 11 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>A most valuable collection of documents from various sources +on the history of Sweden.</p> + +<p><b>Stockholm. Kongliga Samfundet för Utgivande af Handskrifter +rörande Skandinaviens Historia.</b> <i>Samling af instructioner +rörande den civila förvaltningen i Sverige och Finnland</i>, ed. C. +G. Styffe. Stockh., 1856. 8<sup>o</sup>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Stockholm. Kongliga Vetenskaps-Academien.</b> <i>Praesidii +tal om det förste lycklige tidehvarf för Sveriges allmänna hushållning, +under Gustaf d. I.'s regering, af N. Bielke, Apr. 27, 1776.</i> Stockh., +1776. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>Contains a number of documents from the time of Gustavus Vasa.</p> + +<p><i>Supplement till Bishop Brasks brefväxling 1527-1528</i>, ed. J. H. +Schröder. Upsal., 1854. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>Contains a few letters between Bishop Brask and Gustavus Vasa. +Is supplementary to Brask's letters as published in <b>Linköping</b> and +in <i>Handl. rör. Sver. hist.</i>, vols. xiii.-xviii.</p> + +<p><i>Svenska riksdagsakter jämte andra handlingar söm höra til statsförfattningens +historia under tidehvarfvet 1521-1718.</i> Ie delen, ed. Emil +Hildebrand & Oskar Alin. Stockh., 1887-1888. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><i>Sverges traktater med främmande magter</i>, ed. O. S. Rydberg. +Stockh., 1877-1887. 3 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Theiner</b>, Augustin. <i>Schweden und seine Stellung zum heiligen +Stuhl under Johann III., Sigismund III. und Karl IX.</i> Augsburg, +1838-1839. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>Contains a few documents of the time of Gustavus Vasa relating +to Church matters.</p> + +<p><b>Vestergötlands Forminnesförening.</b> <i>Tidskrift</i>, ed. C. J. Ljungström. +Lund, 1869-1877. 3 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Östergötlands Forminnesförening.</b> <i>Tidskrift.</i> Linköp., 1875. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + + +<h3>II. AIDS.</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>[In this list are included the chief works bearing on Gustavus Vasa, and +written during or since the year 1600.]</p></div> + +<p><b>Allen</b>, Carl Ferdinand. <i>De tre nordiske Rigers Historie under +Hans, Christiern den Anden, Frederik den Første, Gustav Vasa, +Grevefeiden.</i> Kjøbenhavn, 1864-1872. 5 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Anjou</b>, Lars Anton. <i>Swenska Kyrkoreformationens historia.</i> Upsal., +1850-1851. 3 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>. [Eng. trans., N. Y., 1859. 8<sup>o</sup>.]</p> + +<p><b>Archenholtz</b>, Johann Wilhelm von. <i>Geschichte Gustav Wasa's, +König's von Schweden.</i> Tubing., 1801. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>. [French trans., +Paris, 1803. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.]<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Baazius</b>, Johannes. <i>Inuentarium Ecclesiae Sueo-Gothorum, continens +integram historiam Ecclesiae Suecicae libb. viii. descriptam.</i> +Lincopiae, 1642. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><i>Berättelse om oroligheterna i södra Swerige, til följe af Nils Dackes +upror, med flera märkelige händelser, som sig under K. Gustaf d. I.'s +regering tildragit. Utgifwen efter et gammalt manuscript.</i> Stockh., +1781, 16<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><i>Biographiskt lexicon öfver namnkunnige Svenska män.</i> Upsal. & +Örebro, 1835-1857. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>. & nya serien, Örebro & Stockh., +1857-1883. 9 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Celsius</b>, Olof. <i>Konung Gustaf den Förstes historia.</i> 3e uplag., +Lund, 1792. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p>[<b>Chapman</b>, Rev.] <i>The history of Gustavus Vasa, king of Sweden. +With extracts from his correspondence.</i> Lond., 1852. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><i>Expeditio Danica aduersus Holmiam anno 1518.</i> [In <i>Scriptores +rerum Suecicarum</i>, vol. iii. sect. 1, pp. 29-32.]</p> + +<p>From MS. of latter part of seventeenth century. Author and +source unknown.</p> + +<p><b>Flaux</b>, Armand de. <i>La Suède au XVI<sup>e</sup>. siècle. Histoire de la +Suède pendant la vie et sous la règne de Gustave I<sup>er</sup>.</i> Paris, 1861. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Forssell</b>, Hans. <i>Sveriges inre historia från Gustaf den Förste, +med särskildt afseende på förvaltning och ekonomi.</i> Stockh., 1869-1875. +2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Fryxell</b>, Anders. <i>Berättelser ur svenska historien.</i> Stockh., 1823-1848. +10 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>. [Eng. trans., Lond., 1844. 2 vols. 12<sup>o</sup>.]</p> + +<p><b>Geijer</b>, Erik Gustaf. <i>Svenska folkets historia.</i> Örebro, 1832-1836. +3 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>. [Eng. trans., Lond., 1845. 8<sup>o</sup>.]</p> + +<p><b>Gieseler</b>, Johann Carl Ludwig. <i>Lehrebuch der Kirchengeschichte.</i> +Bonn, 1824-1853. 3 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>. [Eng. trans., N. Y., 1857-1880. 5 +vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.]</p> + +<p><b>Girs</b>, Aegidius. <i>Konung Gustaff's den I. och Erich's den XIV. +chrönikor.</i> Stockh., 1670. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Grubb</b>, Christopher Lorenz. <i>Breuiarium Gustauianum: thet är, +ett kort uthtogh aff K. Gustaffz den Förstes historia.</i> Linköp., 1671. +4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Hallenberg</b>, Jonas. <i>Historisk afhandling on mynt och warors +wärde i Swerige, under Konung Gustaf I.'s regering.</i> Stockh., 1798. +8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Hallman</b>, Johan Gustaf. <i>The Twenne bröder och Neriksboer, +som then Evangeliska läran införde uti Norlanden, then äldre Mest.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> +<i>Oluff Petri Phase, första Evangeliska Kyrkioherde öfwer Stockholms +stad, then yngre Mest. Lars Petri hin gamle, första Evangeliska Erkiebiskop +uti Upsala.</i> Stockh., 1726. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Hvitfeld</b>, Arild. <i>Danmarks Riges Krønike tilligemed Bispekrøniken.</i> +Kiøbenhaffn, 1595-1604. 10 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Johansson</b>, Johan. <i>Om Noraskog. Äldre och nyare anteckningar.</i> +Stockh., 1875-1882. 2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Kempenskiöld</b>, Samuel. <i>Historiae serenissimi et potentissimi +principis ac domini, Domini Gustaui Primi, Suecorum, Gothorum, +Wandalorumque regis, libri V.</i> Strengnesiae, 1648. 12<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Kempius</b>, Samuel. <i>Historiae potentissimi et Christianissimi principis +ac domini Gustaui I.</i> Strengnesiae, 1629. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Loccenius</b>, Johan. <i>Antiquitatum Sueo-Gothicarum, cum huius +aeui moribus, institutis ac ritibus indigenis pro re nata comparatarum +libri tres.</i> 2a ed., Holmiae, 1654. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Loccenius</b>, Johan. <i>Rerum Suecicarum historia a Rege Berone tertio +usque ad Ericum decimum quartum deducta.</i> Holmiae, 1654. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Messenius</b>, Johan. <i>Chronicon episcoporum per Sueciam Gothiam +et Finlandiam. Cuilibet successiue dioccesi, ab anno DCCCXXXV. +ad praesentem usque MDCXI. praesidentium uitam complectens.</i> +Stockh., 1611. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Messenius</b>, Johan. <i>Scondia illustrata, seu chronologia de rebus +Scondiae, hoc est, Sueciae, Daniae, Noruegiae, atque una Islandiae, +Gronlandiaeque, tam Ecclesiasticis quam politicis; a mundo cataclysmo, +usque annum Christi MDCXII.</i> Stockholmiae, 1700-1705. 15 +vols. f<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Meurs</b>, Jan de. <i>Historia Danica usque ad annum 1523.</i> [In his +<i>Opera omnia</i>, Florentiae, 1741-1763, 12 vols. f<sup>o</sup>., vol. ix. pp. 1-992.]</p> + +<p><i>Nouvelle biographie générale.</i> Paris, 1862-1870. 46 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>. vol. +xxii. pp. 863-872. <i>Gustave I<sup>er</sup> Wasa</i>, par A. de Lacaze.</p> + +<p><b>Paludan-Müller</b>, C. <i>Grevens Feide.</i> Kjøbenhavn, 1853-1854. +2 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><i>Relatio historica de duobus Gustauis regibus Sueciae, auo et nepote, +Augustanae confessionis, Augustis defensoribus. Das ist: historische +Relation, von Zweyen Königen in Schweden, Gustavo dem Ersten, und +Gustavo dem Andern.</i> Stralsund, 1632. 4<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Reuterdahl</b>, Henrik. <i>Swenska Kyrkans historia.</i> Lund, 1838-1866. +4 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Rhyzelius</b>, Anders Olofsson. <i>Episcoposcopia Suiogothica.</i> Linköp., +1752. 2 vols. 4<sup>o</sup>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Römer</b>, Rudolf Cornelius Heinrich. <i>Specimen historico-theologicum, +de Gustauo I., rerum sacrarum in Suecia, saec. XVI. instauratore.</i> +Traj. ad Rhen., 1840. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Scott</b>, Sarah [Henry Augustus Raymond]. <i>The history of Gustavus +Ericson, king of Sweden. With an introductory history of Sweden, +from the middle of the twelfth century.</i> Lond., 1761. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Strinnholm</b>, Anders Magnus. <i>Svenska folkets historia under +konungarne af Wasa-ätten.</i> Stockh., 1819-1823. 3 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Svedelius</b>, Vilhelm Erik. <i>Om Konung Gustaf den Förste och +hans tidehvarf särdeles de tvenne förste s.k. Dalkarlsupproren.</i> +Stockh., 1861. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><i>Sveriges historia från äldsta tid till våra dagar.</i> Stockh., 1877-1881. +6 vols. 8<sup>o</sup>. Vol. ii. by Hans Hildebrand, and vol. iii. by +Oskar Alin.</p> + +<p><b>Tegel</b>, Erik. <i>Then stoormechtighe, höghborne furstes och Christelighe +herres, der Gustaffs, fordom Sweriges, Göthes, och Wendes konungs +etc. historia.</i> Stockh., 1622. 6<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Tengström</b>, Johan Jacob. <i>Några blad ur Finnlands häfder för +K. Gustaf I.'s regeringstid.</i> [In <i>Suomi</i>, vol. xiii. pp. 101-287. +Helsingfors, 1854. 8<sup>o</sup>.]</p> + +<p><b>Typotius</b>, Jacobus. <i>Relatio historica de regno Sueciae et bellis +ciuilibus atque externis.</i> Francof., 1605. 16<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Vertot</b>, René Aubert de. <i>Histoire des révolutions de Suède.</i> +Paris, 1695. 2 vols. 12<sup>o</sup>. [Eng. trans., Glasg., 1761. 8<sup>o</sup>.]</p> + +<p><b>Vingqvist</b>, Olof. <i>Om svenska representationen i äldre tider, till och +med riksdagen år 1617.</i> Stockh., 1863. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Weidling</b>, Julius. <i>Schwedische Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation.</i> +Gotha, 1882. 8<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Willebrandt</b>, Johann Peter. <i>Hansische Chronick.</i> Lübeck, 1748. +f<sup>o</sup>.</p> + +<p><b>Örnhjelm</b>, Claudius. <i>Relation om bispars, kanikers, praebendaters +och closters jordegods.</i> [In <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xxi. pp. +218-279.]</p> + +<p>From a MS. written by command of the king of Sweden in 1691.</p> + +<p><b>Örnhjelm</b>, Claudius, and others. <i>Relation, med bijlagde documenter, +om biskops-canonie-prebende-sampt kyrckie och kloster-gods, +och deras reduction.</i> [In <i>Handl. rör. Skand. hist.</i>, vol. xxi. pp. 280-357, +and vol. xxii. pp. 313-418.]</p> + +<p>From a MS. written by command of the king of Sweden in 1691.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX.</h2> + + + +<ul><li>Adrian VI., appoints Johannes Magni his legate, <a href="#Page_126">126-127</a>;<ul> +<li>death of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li> +<li>orders Gustavus to restore Trolle, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Albert of Mecklenburg, king of Sweden, <a href="#Page_12">12-13</a>.</li> + +<li>Amsterdam, Magni is sent to, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> + +<li>Anabaptists, fanaticism of, <a href="#Page_165">165-167</a>.</li> + +<li>Andreæ (Laurentius), his friendship for Petri, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;<ul> +<li>writes concerning Luther, <a href="#Page_160">160-161</a>;</li> +<li>is made archdeacon of Upsala, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus writes to, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li> +<li>sends translation of New Testament, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li> +<li>addresses Diet of Vesterås, <a href="#Page_248">248-249</a>;</li> +<li>is chosen to approach the king, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Andreæ (Nils) is made prior of Vesterås, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> + +<li>Apostles, authority of, <a href="#Page_233">233-236</a>.</li> + +<li>Arboga, Cabinet meeting at, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;<ul> +<li>Gustavus quarrels with monks of, <a href="#Page_241">241-242</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Arcimboldo, is sent as ambassador by Christiern to Sture, <a href="#Page_48">48-50</a>;<ul> +<li>reappoints Ulfsson to the archbishopric, <a href="#Page_56">56-57</a>;</li> +<li>his withdrawal from Sweden, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Aristocracy, origin of, <a href="#Page_6">6-9</a>.</li> + +<li>Armigers, origin of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> + +<li>Assemblies (county), <a href="#Page_4">4-5</a> and <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> + +<li>Assemblies (provincial), <a href="#Page_4">4-5</a> and <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li>Baner (Sigrid), grandmother of Gustavus Vasa, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li> + +<li>Bible, translation of, <a href="#Page_221">221-223</a>;<ul> +<li>authority of, <a href="#Page_233">233-236</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Birgitta, grandmother of Gustavus Vasa, <a href="#Page_3">3</a> and <a href="#Footnote_3_3">note 2</a>.</li> + +<li>Bjelke, influence of family of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + +<li>Bleking, is invaded by Norby, <a href="#Page_178">178</a> and <a href="#Page_183">183-184</a>;<ul> +<li>is granted to Norby, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li> +<li>hostilities of Norby in, <a href="#Page_193">193-194</a>;</li> +<li>Norby is driven from, <a href="#Page_197">197-200</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Bonde, influence of family of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + +<li>Brabant, privileges granted to, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> + +<li>Brask (Hans), places note under his seal, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;<ul> +<li>joins the Swedish cause, <a href="#Page_103">103-104;</a></li> +<li>avoids the Diet of Strengnäs, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li> +<li>is called upon to aid the crown, <a href="#Page_129">129-130</a>;</li> +<li>informs the pope that Church property is being confiscated, <a href="#Page_133">133-134</a>;</li> +<li>is called upon to furnish aid for expedition against Gotland, <a href="#Page_140">140-141</a> and <a href="#Page_142">142-143</a>;</li> +<li>denounces Fredrik to Gustavus, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> +<li>is oppressed by Gustavus, <a href="#Page_149">149-150</a>;</li> +<li>charges Petri with heresy, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li> +<li>writes to Magni concerning heresy, <a href="#Page_157">157-158</a>;</li> +<li>writes concerning Luther, <a href="#Page_161">161-163</a>;</li> +<li>his love for the Church, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li> +<li>protests against the marriage of Petri, <a href="#Page_169">169-171</a> and <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li> +<li>suspects Fredrik, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> +<li>writes about Christina, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li> +<li>writes about Norby, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> +<li>writes about Sunnanväder, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li> +<li>writes about the tax, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> +<li>writes about the treaty with Holland, <a href="#Page_210">210-211</a>;</li> +<li>writes about Dalarne, <a href="#Page_213">213-214</a>;</li> +<li>opposes translation of the Bible, <a href="#Page_222">222-223</a>;</li> +<li>his dispute with Gustavus about a monastery, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> +<li>is oppressed by Gustavus, <a href="#Page_229">229-231</a>;</li> +<li>incurs wrath of Gustavus, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> +<li>protests against disputation, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li> +<li>his action at Diet of Vesterås, <a href="#Page_246">246-250</a>;</li> +<li>fall of, <a href="#Page_262">262-266</a>;</li> +<li>his character, <a href="#Page_266">266-267</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span>Brännkyrka, battle at, <a href="#Page_51">51-52</a>.</li> + +<li>Bremen, congress to be held in, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> + +<li>Brun (Søren), capture of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li>Cabinet, its origin and constitution, <a href="#Page_9">9-11</a>;<ul> +<li>its encroachments, <a href="#Page_11">11-25</a>;</li> +<li>slaughter of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus admits foreigners into, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> +<li>usurps authority in Diet of Vesterås, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li> +<li>its composition under Gustavus, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li> +<li>is humbled by Gustavus, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Cecilia, mother of Gustavus Vasa, <a href="#Page_3">3-4</a>.</li> + +<li>Charles V. receives Christiern into Burgundian League, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;<ul> +<li>Norby enlists under, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li> +<li>signs treaty with Sweden, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Charles XII., his influence in Sweden, <a href="#Page_220">220-221</a>.</li> + +<li>Christianity, introduction of, into Sweden, <a href="#Page_5">5-6</a>.</li> + +<li>Christiern I., king of Denmark, <a href="#Page_16">16-17</a>.</li> + +<li>Christiern II., king of Denmark, his character, <a href="#Page_33">33-34</a>;<ul> +<li>his early life, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> +<li>his passion for Dyveke, <a href="#Page_34">34-35</a>;</li> +<li>his interview with Gustaf Trolle, <a href="#Page_37">37-38</a>;</li> +<li>attacks Sweden, <a href="#Page_44">44-45</a>;</li> +<li>is defeated by Sture, <a href="#Page_45">45-46</a>;</li> +<li>seeks to form truce with Sture, <a href="#Page_48">48-50</a>;</li> +<li>his expedition against Sweden, <a href="#Page_50">50-51</a>;</li> +<li>is defeated at Brännkyrka, <a href="#Page_51">51-52</a>;</li> +<li>treachery of, <a href="#Page_53">53-54</a>;</li> +<li>renews his efforts to recover Sweden, <a href="#Page_57">57-58</a>;</li> +<li>appeals to the pope, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li> +<li>sails with his fleet to Sweden, <a href="#Page_71">71-72</a>;</li> +<li>lays siege to Stockholm, <a href="#Page_76">76-77</a>;</li> +<li>enters Stockholm in triumph, <a href="#Page_77">77-78</a>;</li> +<li>is crowned, <a href="#Page_78">78-80</a>;</li> +<li>slaughters the Swedish magnates, <a href="#Page_81">81-83</a>;</li> +<li>opposition to, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> +<li>is deposed, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li> +<li>his failures, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> +<li>is charged with murdering Swedish bishops, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> +<li>opposition of Fredrik and Gustavus to, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li> +<li>Norby's alliance with, <a href="#Page_175">175</a> and <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li> +<li>his efforts to recover Sweden, <a href="#Page_190">190-193</a> and <a href="#Page_198">198-199</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Christina. <i>See</i> <a href="#Gyllenstjerna_Christina">Gyllenstjerna (Christina)</a>.</li> + +<li>Christina, wife of King Hans, defends the castle of Stockholm, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + +<li>Christopher of Bavaria, is elected king of Sweden, <a href="#Page_15">15-16</a>.</li> + +<li>Church, early encroachments of, <a href="#Page_5">5-6</a>;<ul> +<li>sides with Denmark against Sweden, <a href="#Page_17">17-25</a>;</li> +<li>riches of, <a href="#Page_122">122-124</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus oppresses, <a href="#Page_149">149-150</a>;</li> +<li>is taxed to pay Lubeck, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus opposes her on grounds of faith, <a href="#Page_221">221-245</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus deprives her of her power, <a href="#Page_254">254-262</a>;</li> +<li>humiliation of, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Clement VII., pope, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + +<li>Coinage, debasement of, <a href="#Page_107">107-108</a>;<ul> +<li>alterations in, <a href="#Page_122">122</a> and <a href="#Footnote_76_76">note</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Copenhagen, youth of Christiern II. in, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;<ul> +<li>Norby proceeds to, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li> +<li>Norby is asked to proceed to, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li></ul></li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li>Dalarne, rebellion in, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;<ul> +<li>Sten Sture gains support in, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li> +<li>Svante Sture is supported by, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li> +<li>description of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus seeks to rouse the people of, <a href="#Page_85">85-87</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus is recalled by the people of, <a href="#Page_88">88-89</a>;</li> +<li>becomes the centre of the Revolution, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li> +<li>hardihood of people of, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus recruits forces in, <a href="#i107">107</a>;</li> +<li>grievances of, <a href="#Page_153">153-154</a>;</li> +<li>conspiracy in, <a href="#Page_176">176-177</a>;</li> +<li>efforts of Gustavus to stay discontent in, <a href="#Page_181">181-183</a>;</li> +<li>dissension in, <a href="#Page_213">213-215</a>;</li> +<li>impostor goes to, <a href="#Page_218">218-219</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus writes to, <a href="#Page_227">227-228</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus tries to appease, <a href="#Page_242">242-246</a>;</li> +<li>Andreæ condemns rebellion in, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li> +<li>Diet of Vesterås discusses rebellion in, <a href="#Page_254">254-256</a>;</li> +<li>Brask is charged with conspiracy in, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Dalelf, description of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;<ul> +<li>Danish camp at, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Dantzic, Christina seeks aid from, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;<ul> +<li>privileges granted by Sweden to, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> and <a href="#Page_209">209-212</a>;</li> +<li>Christina's son returns from, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Denmark, struggle between Sweden and, <a href="#Page_13">13-25</a>, and <a href="#Page_35">35-117</a>;<ul> +<li>"klippings" repudiated in, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Dyveke becomes mistress of Christiern II., <a href="#Page_34">34-35</a>.</li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li>East Friesland, privileges granted to, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> + +<li>Engelbrektsson (Engelbrekt), rebellion under, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> + +<li>Erik of Pomerania, is chosen king of Sweden, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;<ul> +<li>his career, <a href="#Page_14">14-15</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span>Eriksson, takes part in storming of Vesterås, <a href="#Page_96">96-98</a>;<ul> +<li>of Upsala, <a href="#Page_98">98-99</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Eriksson (Nils), is placed in command of Kalmar, <a href="#Page_174">174-175</a>.</li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li>Falun, Gustavus plunders, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> + +<li>Fathers, dispute concerning authority of, <a href="#Page_233">233-236</a>.</li> + +<li>Finland, Gustavus sends force to, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;<ul> +<li>Norby goes to rescue of, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li> +<li>Swedish possessions in, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> +<li>is subdued by Gustavus, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li> +<li>Norby asks for land in, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li> +<li>Norby is said to be about to attack, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus writes to, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li> +<li>her part in the treaty with Russia, <a href="#Page_207">207-208</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>France, her hatred of Christiern, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> + +<li>Francisco of Potentia, is said to have been made bishop of Skara, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + +<li>Fredrik, duke of Schleswig-Holstein, his opposition to Christiern, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;<ul> +<li>is chosen king of Denmark, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li> +<li>resigns his claim to Sweden, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> +<li>delays matter of Gotland, <a href="#Page_139">139-140</a>;</li> +<li>requests postponement of congress, <a href="#Page_144">144-145</a>;</li> +<li>is said to be in league with Norby, <a href="#Page_146">146-147</a>;</li> +<li>takes part in congress at Malmö, <a href="#Page_147">147-148</a>;</li> +<li>his relations with Norby, <a href="#Page_174">174-175</a>;</li> +<li>is deceived by Norby, <a href="#Page_177">177-178</a>;</li> +<li>his treachery toward Gustavus, <a href="#Page_178">178-179</a>;</li> +<li>makes war on Norby, <a href="#Page_184">184-185</a>;</li> +<li>grants Bleking to Norby, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li> +<li>his show of friendship to Gustavus, <a href="#Page_190">190-196</a>;</li> +<li>defeats Norby, <a href="#Page_199">199-200</a>;</li> +<li>his action concerning Knut and Sunnanväder, <a href="#Page_200">200-202</a>;</li> +<li>negotiates with Gustavus, <a href="#Page_215">215-217</a>.</li></ul></li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li>Gad (Hemming), supporter of Sten Sture, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;<ul> +<li>reconciles Svante Sture to Sten Sture, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> +<li>is elected bishop of Linköping, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> +<li>his election is not ratified, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> +<li>besieges Stockholm, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> +<li>his character, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> +<li>is captured by Christiern, <a href="#Page_53">53-54</a>;</li> +<li>allies himself with Christiern, <a href="#Page_75">75-76</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Galle (Peder), professor in University of Upsala, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;<ul> +<li>holds disputation with Petri, <a href="#Page_168">168-169</a>;</li> +<li>Brask writes to, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li> +<li>holds another disputation with Petri, <a href="#Page_232">232-236</a>;</li> +<li>wrangles at Diet of Vesterås, <a href="#Page_252">252-253</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Germany, her share in the Reformation, <a href="#Page_119">119-120</a>.</li> + +<li>Ghent, Magni goes to, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> + +<li>Gotland, Swedish Cabinet demands, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;<ul> +<li>Gustavus plans expedition against, <a href="#Page_138">138-141</a>;</li> +<li>opening of war against, <a href="#Page_145">145-146</a>;</li> +<li>decision of congress at Malmö concerning, <a href="#Page_147">147-148</a>;</li> +<li>folly of expedition against, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> +<li>Norby offers to surrender, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li> +<li>retains ammunition of Gustavus in, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> +<li>is said to have been handed over to the Danes, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus demands, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li> +<li>Brask goes to, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Gregory, authority of, <a href="#Page_234">234-235</a>.</li> + +<li>Gripsholm, Gustavus seizes monastery of, <a href="#Page_226">226-228</a> and <a href="#Page_244">244-245</a>;<ul> +<li>Diet of Vesterås discusses seizure of, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Guilds, in Stockholm, <a href="#Page_30">30-31</a>.</li> + +<li>Gustavus. <i>See</i> <a href="#Vasa_Gustavus">Vasa (Gustavus)</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Gyllenstjerna_Christina" id="Gyllenstjerna_Christina"></a>Gyllenstjerna (Christina), marries Sten Sture the Younger, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;<ul> +<li>her character, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> +<li>her bravery, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li> +<li>refuses to parley with the Danes, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> and <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> +<li>battles with the Danes, <a href="#Page_68">68-69</a>;</li> +<li>surrenders Stockholm, <a href="#Page_76">76-77</a>;</li> +<li>is summoned before Christiern, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</li> +<li>is imprisoned in Denmark, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> +<li>her projected alliance with Norby, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li> +<li>is suspected of conspiracy against Gustavus, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li> +<li>is said to have been imprisoned by Gustavus, <a href="#Page_181">181</a> and <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li> +<li>impersonation of her boy, <a href="#Page_218">218-219</a>.</li></ul></li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li>Hans, king of Denmark, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<ul> +<li>his hostility to Sten Sture, <a href="#Page_18">18-21</a>;</li> +<li>is recognized as king, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> +<li>is forced to flee, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> +<li>death of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> +<li>his words about Gustavus Vasa, <a href="#Page_25">25-26</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Hanse Towns, send aid to Christina, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;<ul> +<li>are said to have sent stores to Christiern, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</li> +<li>privileges granted to, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> and <a href="#Page_209">209-212</a>;</li> +<li>importance of Gotland to, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li> +<li>their share in the congress at Malmö, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Haraldsson (Magnus), is elected bishop of Skara, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span>Helgeandsholm, island near Stockholm, <a href="#Page_29">29-30</a>.</li> + +<li>Holland, Christiern II. raises force in, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;<ul> +<li>Sweden forms treaty with, <a href="#Page_209">209-212</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Hoya (Johan von), infatuation of Gustavus for, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;<ul> +<li>honors conferred on, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li> +<li>is sent as ambassador to Russia, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li></ul></li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li>Italy, her feeling toward the Church, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li>Johansson (Erik), father of Gustavus Vasa, his early history, <a href="#Page_3">3-4</a>;<ul> +<li>hostility to King Hans, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> +<li>is member of Cabinet, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> +<li>is commandant of Kastelholm Castle, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Jonsson (Bo), chancellor of the Swedish Cabinet, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li>Kalmar, landing of Gustavus at, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;<ul> +<li>Christiern proceeds against, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> +<li>rejects Gustavus, <a href="#Page_73">73-74</a>;</li> +<li>is besieged by Vestgöte, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li> +<li>fall of, <a href="#Page_112">112-113</a>;</li> +<li>Mehlen sails to, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> +<li>liberality of Gustavus to, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li> +<li>Christina's son arrives at, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</li> +<li>Mehlen is deposed from command of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus writes to people of, <a href="#Page_175">175-176</a>;</li> +<li>Christina's boy is kept in, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li> +<li>resists Gustavus, <a href="#Page_179">179-180</a>;</li> +<li>treachery of Mehlen at, <a href="#Page_186">186-187</a>;</li> +<li>siege of, <a href="#Page_187">187-188</a>;</li> +<li>fall of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li> +<li>wreck at, <a href="#Page_194">194-195</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus sends fleet to, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>"Kalmar Recess," its nature, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;<ul> +<li>violation of its terms, <a href="#Page_19">19</a> and <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Kalmar Union, its formation, <a href="#Page_13">13-14</a>.</li> + +<li>Kalö, the place of imprisonment of Gustavus, <a href="#Page_54">54-55</a>;<ul> +<li>escape of Gustavus from, <a href="#Page_59">59-60</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Karlsson (Magnus), grandfather of Gustavus Vasa, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> + +<li>"Klippings," their character, <a href="#Page_107">107-108</a>;<ul> +<li>are forbidden by Danish commandant of Stockholm, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Footnote_76_76">note</a>;</li> +<li>are refused by the soldiers of Gustavus, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus apologizes for, <a href="#Page_132">132-133</a>;</li> +<li>are repudiated in Sweden, <a href="#Page_143">143-144</a> and <a href="#Footnote_93_93">note</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus writes to Dalarne about, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus is denounced for, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Knights, origin of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> + +<li>Knipperdolling, fanaticism of, <a href="#Page_165">165-167</a>.</li> + +<li>Knut, is deposed from deanery of Vesterås, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;<ul> +<li>joins conspiracy against Gustavus, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li> +<li>is given comfort in Norway, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus demands surrender of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> +<li>execution of, <a href="#Page_200">200-203</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Knutsson (Karl), regent of Sweden, <a href="#Page_15">15-16</a>.</li> + +<li>Kristersson (Johan), grandfather of Gustavus Vasa, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> + +<li>Krumpen (Otto), is placed in command of Danish forces, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;<ul> +<li>makes treaty with the Swedes, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> +<li>his ineffectual effort to subdue Christina, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> +<li>defeats the Swedes at Upsala, <a href="#Page_69">69-71</a>;</li> +<li>holds conference with Christiern, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li> +<li>is knighted by Christiern, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Köping, battle at, <a href="#Page_95">95-96</a>.</li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li>Lapland, Swedish depredations in, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> + +<li>Leo X., appoints Arcimboldo to sell indulgences, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;<ul> +<li>appoints tribunal to investigate affairs in Sweden, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li> +<li>excommunicates Sture, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li> +<li>is approached by Johannes Magni, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Lindholm, description of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li> + +<li>Linköping, Gad is elected bishop of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;<ul> +<li>palace of bishop of, is besieged, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li> +<li>tax to be paid by bishop of, <a href="#Page_205">205-206</a>;</li> +<li>is said to be at heart of conspiracy in Dalarne, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Louvain, University of, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> + +<li>Lubeck, flight of Gustavus to, <a href="#Page_60">60-61</a>;<ul> +<li>her hatred of Christiern, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> +<li>sends fleet to Gustavus, <a href="#Page_109">109-110</a>;</li> +<li>privileges granted by Sweden to, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> and <a href="#Page_209">209-212</a>;</li> +<li>debt of Sweden to, <a href="#Page_121">121</a> and notes <a href="#Footnote_74_74">1</a> and <a href="#Footnote_75_75">2</a>;</li> +<li>demands payment of her loan to Sweden, <a href="#Page_128">128-130</a>;</li> +<li>is asked to send delegates to congress at Malmö, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li> +<li>congress of Hanse Towns to be held at, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> +<li>captures Visby, <a href="#Page_184">184-185</a>;</li> +<li>her position in the Swedish Revolution, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li> +<li>is said to have fortified Gotland, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> +<li>her negotiations with Gustavus, <a href="#Page_203">203-206</a>;</li> +<li>tries to secure payment of debt, <a href="#Page_213">213-215</a>;</li> +<li>her feeling toward the Reformation, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span>Lund, archbishop of, investigates affairs in Sweden, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;<ul> +<li>accompanies Christiern II. in expedition against Sweden, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Luther (Martin), causes dread in Sweden, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;<ul> +<li>Petri becomes pupil of, <a href="#Page_155">155-156</a>;</li> +<li>feelings of Gustavus toward, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li> +<li>Andreæ writes concerning, <a href="#Page_160">160-161</a>;</li> +<li>Brask writes concerning, <a href="#Page_161">161-163</a>;</li> +<li>danger of his teaching, <a href="#Page_165">165-168</a>;</li> +<li>his translation of the Bible, <a href="#Page_221">221-223</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus says he has not adopted teaching of, <a href="#Page_236">236-238</a> and <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li> +<li>his reforms are embodied in Swedish law, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li> +<li>clergy refuse to accept teaching of, <a href="#Page_247">247-248</a>.</li></ul></li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li>Magni (Johannes), early life of, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;<ul> +<li>is appointed legate by Adrian VI., <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li> +<li>is elected archbishop of Sweden, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li> +<li>is ordered to Rome to obtain confirmation, <a href="#Page_134">134-135</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus writes about the pope to, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> +<li>his efforts to repress heresy, <a href="#Page_156">156-158</a>;</li> +<li>his share in the translation of the Bible, <a href="#Page_222">222-223</a>;</li> +<li>banishment of, <a href="#Page_239">239-240</a>;</li> +<li>comparison between Brask and, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Magni (Olaus), is sent to Rome by Gustavus, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;<ul> +<li>is sent to Amsterdam by Gustavus, <a href="#Page_211">211-212</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Magni (Petrus), is elected bishop of Vesterås, <a href="#Page_134">134</a> and <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li>Malmö, congress at, <a href="#Page_147">147-148</a>;<ul> +<li>Gustavus is deceived at, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Margaret, becomes regent of Sweden, <a href="#Page_13">13</a> and <a href="#Footnote_4_4">note</a>.</li> + +<li>Margaret, regent of the Netherlands, forms treaty with Sweden, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> + +<li>Margareta, is betrothed to Hoya, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;<ul> +<li>is wronged by Fredrik, <a href="#Page_215">215-216</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Mariefred, monastery of, is threatened, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> + +<li>Maximilian, his share in the Reformation, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li>Mehlen (Berent von), swears fealty to Gustavus, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;<ul> +<li>is given command of expedition against Gotland, <a href="#Page_145">145-146</a>;</li> +<li>withdraws from Gotland, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> +<li>infatuation of Gustavus for, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> +<li>fall of, <a href="#Page_173">173-176</a>;</li> +<li>treachery of, <a href="#Page_179">179-180</a>;</li> +<li>his flight, <a href="#Page_186">186-187</a>;</li> +<li>Lubeck defends, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Melchior, fanaticism of, <a href="#Page_165">165-167</a>.</li> + +<li>Middle Ages, nature of, <a href="#Page_118">118-119</a>.</li> + +<li>Mora, Gustavus at, <a href="#Page_87">87-89</a>;<ul> +<li>Gustavus writes to people of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Moscow, Swedish envoys are sent to, <a href="#Page_207">207-208</a>.</li> + +<li>Mälar, pours its waters into the Baltic, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;<ul> +<li>Gustavus takes up hiding-place on shore of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li></ul></li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li>Natt och Dag, influence of family of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + +<li>Netherlands, form treaty with Sweden, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> + +<li>Nilsson (Kristiern), great-grandfather of Gustavus Vasa, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> + +<li>Norby, is defeated by Vestgöte, <a href="#Page_101">101-102</a>;<ul> +<li>relieves Stockholm, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li> +<li>relieves Åbo, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li> +<li>infests shores of Baltic, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> +<li>attempts to relieve Stockholm, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li> +<li>sails for Denmark, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li> +<li>makes depredations from Gotland, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li> +<li>is charged with checking imports, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</li> +<li>Fredrik is thought to be in league with, <a href="#Page_145">145-148</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus tries to delude, <a href="#Page_171">171-172</a>;</li> +<li>his projected alliance with Christina, <a href="#Page_172">172-173</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus denounces, <a href="#Page_174">174-175</a>;</li> +<li>deceives Fredrik, <a href="#Page_177">177-178</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus is said to be in league with, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li> +<li>Dalarne conspires with, <a href="#Page_182">182-183</a>;</li> +<li>invades Bleking, <a href="#Page_183">183-184</a>;</li> +<li>is granted fiefs in Bleking, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</li> +<li>negotiations between Fredrik and Gustavus concerning, <a href="#Page_191">191-193</a>;</li> +<li>his negotiations with Gustavus, <a href="#Page_193">193-195</a>;</li> +<li>fall of, <a href="#Page_197">197-200</a>;</li> +<li>his complaint to the grand duke of Russia, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>North America, Revolution in, <a href="#Page_273">273-275</a>.</li> + +<li>Norway, Gustavus flees to, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;<ul> +<li>Knut and Sunnanväder flee to, <a href="#Page_177">177-178</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus writes to Cabinet of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> +<li>pretended son of Sture in, <a href="#Page_218">218-219</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Nyköping, surrender of Castle of, <a href="#Page_40">40-41</a>.</li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li>Olsson, takes part in storming of Vesterås, <a href="#Page_96">96-98</a>;<ul> +<li>of Upsala, <a href="#Page_98">98-99</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Oxenstjerna, influence of family of, <a href="#Page_15">15-16</a>.</li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span>Petri (Laurentius), early life of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;<ul> +<li>wrangles at Diet of Vesterås, <a href="#Page_252">252-253</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Petri (Olaus), his early life and character, <a href="#Page_154">154-156</a>;<ul> +<li>is charged with heresy, <a href="#Page_156">156-157</a>;</li> +<li>is appointed city clerk in Stockholm, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li> +<li>holds disputation with Galle, <a href="#Page_168">168-169</a>;</li> +<li>his marriage, <a href="#Page_169">169-171</a> and <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li> +<li>holds another disputation with Galle, <a href="#Page_232">232-236</a>;</li> +<li>is chosen to approach the king at Vesterås, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li> +<li>comparison between Brask and, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Poland, Magni is sent on embassy to, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> + +<li>Popes, usurpation of, <a href="#Page_234">234-235</a>;<ul> +<li>Gustavus fears, <a href="#Page_238">238-239</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Prussia, Fredrik's daughter sails for, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li>Reformation, general character of, <a href="#Page_119">119-120</a>;<ul> +<li>spread of, <a href="#Page_154">154-156</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Rensel, enlists in the Swedish army, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> + +<li>Revolution, nature of, <a href="#Page_90">90-91</a>;<ul> +<li>evils of Swedish, <a href="#Page_220">220-221</a>;</li> +<li>comparison of Swedish Revolution with others, <a href="#Page_272">272-275</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Riddarholm, island near Stockholm, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li>Rome, establishes archbishopric of Upsala, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;<ul> +<li>Gad is sent as ambassador to, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> +<li>her share in the Reformation, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> +<li>opposition of Gustavus to, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li> +<li>Magni plans return to, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li> +<li>Brask champions, <a href="#Page_247">247</a> and <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> +<li>necessity that kings be sanctioned by, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus fears, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> +<li>Swedish church becomes independent of, <a href="#Page_270">270-271</a> and <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Runn (Lake), Gustavus at, <a href="#Page_85">85-86</a>.</li> + +<li>Russia, is at war with Sweden, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<ul> +<li>is again at war with Sweden, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> +<li>forms treaty with Sweden, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li> +<li>Norby flees to, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus ratifies treaty with <a href="#Page_207">207-209</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Rydboholm, home of Gustavus Vasa, <a href="#Page_3">3-4</a>.</li> + +<li>Rättvik, Gustavus at, <a href="#Page_86">86-87</a>;<ul> +<li>skirmish of Danish horsemen at, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li></ul></li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li>Scriptures, translation of, <a href="#Page_221">221-223</a> and <a href="#Page_231">231-232</a>;<ul> +<li>authority of, <a href="#Page_233">233-236</a>;</li> +<li>are to be taught in schools, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Sigbrit, her influence over Christiern II., <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li>Siljan (Lake), Gustavus at, <a href="#Page_86">86-87</a>.</li> + +<li>Skara, election of bishop of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a> and <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;<ul> +<li>Francisco of Potentia is said to have been made bishop of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> +<li>tax to be paid by bishop of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> +<li>part of Bible to be translated by Chapter of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus oppresses bishop of, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> +<li>bishop of Vesterås consecrates bishop of, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Slagheck (Didrik), is placed at head of affairs in Sweden, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;<ul> +<li>concentrates his forces at Vesterås, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li> +<li>is removed from office, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li> +<li>is beheaded, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Sledorn (Henrik), professor in University of Upsala, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + +<li>Småland, Gustavus seeks to incite the people of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + +<li>Sommar (Magnus), is elected bishop of Strengnäs, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + +<li>Stegeborg, is besieged by Vestgöte, <a href="#Page_101">101-102</a>;<ul> +<li>Gustavus inspects camp at, <a href="#Page_102">102-103</a>;</li> +<li>fall of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> +<li>is granted to Hoya, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Stegeholm, revolt in, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + +<li>Sten. <i>See</i> <a href="#Sture_Sten">Sture (Sten)</a>.</li> + +<li>Sten Sture the Younger. <i>See</i> <a href="#Sture_Sten_the_Younger">Sture (Sten) the Younger</a>.</li> + +<li>Stockholm, siege of castle at, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<ul> +<li>description of, <a href="#Page_28">28-31</a>;</li> +<li>is held by Christina, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> +<li>Christiern arrives at, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li> +<li>siege of, <a href="#Page_75">75-76</a>;</li> +<li>Christiern's triumphal entry into, <a href="#Page_77">77-78</a>;</li> +<li>festival in, <a href="#Page_78">78-80</a>;</li> +<li>carnage in, <a href="#Page_81">81-83</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus fails to capture, <a href="#Page_100">100-101</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus again lays siege to, <a href="#Page_105">105-106</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus raises siege of, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus again lays siege to, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus continues siege of, <a href="#Page_110">110-111</a>;</li> +<li>is captured by Gustavus, <a href="#Page_115">115-116</a>;</li> +<li>desolation of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Strengnäs, depredations at, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;<ul> +<li>Diet of, <a href="#Page_113">113-115</a>;</li> +<li>election of bishop of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a> and <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li> +<li>influence of Petri and Andreæ in, <a href="#Page_155">155-156</a>;</li> +<li>Magni writes concerning clergy of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li> +<li>tax to be paid by bishop of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> +<li>part of Bible to be translated by Chapter of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li> +<li>address at Vesterås by bishop of, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus oppresses bishop of, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</li> +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span>bishop of Vesterås consecrates bishop of, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li><a name="Sture_Sten" id="Sture_Sten"></a>Sture (Sten), is chosen regent of Sweden, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;<ul> +<li>is opposed by the Cabinet, <a href="#Page_17">17-19</a>;</li> +<li>by King Hans of Denmark, <a href="#Page_20">20-21</a>;</li> +<li>fall of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> +<li>is re-elected regent, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> +<li>death of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> +<li>Gripsholm Monastery is founded by, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li><a name="Sture_Sten_the_Younger" id="Sture_Sten_the_Younger"></a>Sture (Sten) the Younger, his war with Erik Trolle, <a href="#Page_24">24-25</a>;<ul> +<li>is elected regent, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> +<li>recommends Gustaf Trolle for the archbishopric, <a href="#Page_36">36-37</a>;</li> +<li>discord between Trolle and, <a href="#Page_38">38-44</a>;</li> +<li>his peace negotiations with Christiern, <a href="#Page_48">48-50</a>;</li> +<li>battles with the Danes, <a href="#Page_51">51-52</a>;</li> +<li>is duped by Christiern, <a href="#Page_53">53-54</a>;</li> +<li>writes to Christiern, <a href="#Page_57">57-58</a>;</li> +<li>is excommunicated, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li> +<li>is wounded, <a href="#Page_63">63-64</a>;</li> +<li>his death, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li> +<li>his character, <a href="#Page_65">65-66</a>;</li> +<li>his body is exhumed, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</li> +<li>pretended son of, <a href="#Page_218">218-219</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li><a name="Sture_Svante" id="Sture_Svante"></a>Sture (Svante), his hostility to Sten Sture, <a href="#Page_18">18-19</a>;<ul> +<li>is reconciled to Sten Sture, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> +<li>besieges Castle of Örebro, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li> +<li>is elected regent, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li> +<li>is deposed, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li> +<li>death of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Stäket, siege of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;<ul> +<li>dispute concerning, <a href="#Page_38">38-39</a>;</li> +<li>Trolle fortifies, <a href="#Page_40">40-42</a>;</li> +<li>siege of, <a href="#Page_43">43-44</a>;</li> +<li>fall of, <a href="#Page_47">47-48</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Sunnanväder (Peder), is deposed from bishopric of Vesterås, <a href="#Page_137">137-138</a>;<ul> +<li>conspiracy of, <a href="#Page_153">153-154</a> and <a href="#Page_176">176-177</a>;</li> +<li>is given comfort in Norway, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus demands surrender of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> +<li>execution of, <a href="#Page_200">200-203</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus denounces, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Svante. <i>See</i> <a href="#Sture_Svante">Sture (Svante)</a>.</li> + +<li>Svensson (Erik), is elected bishop of Åbo, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + +<li>Sweden, early constitution of, <a href="#Page_4">4-5</a>;<ul> +<li>introduction of Christianity into, <a href="#Page_5">5-6</a>;</li> +<li>Reformation in, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li> +<li>is ruined by warfare, <a href="#Page_220">220-221</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Söderköping, printing-press of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + +<li>Södermalm, cliffs of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;<ul> +<li>Christiern pitches his camp at, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li></ul></li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li>Taxation, exemption of knights and armigers from, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;<ul> +<li>is provided for by Diet of Strengnäs, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> and <a href="#Page_128">128-129</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus apologizes for, <a href="#Page_131">131-133</a>;</li> +<li>people's opposition to, <a href="#Page_141">141-142</a>;</li> +<li>is provided for by Cabinet, <a href="#Page_205">205-206</a>;</li> +<li>trouble in Dalarne about, <a href="#Page_213">213-215</a> and <a href="#Page_242">242-244</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Tetzel, his sale of indulgences, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li>Tiveden, battle at, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + +<li>Tott, influence of family of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + +<li>Trolle (Erik), his hostility to Sten Sture, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;<ul> +<li>endeavors to be appointed regent, <a href="#Page_24">24-25</a>;</li> +<li>plans to have his son appointed archbishop, <a href="#Page_36">36-37</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Trolle (Gustaf), his character, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;<ul> +<li>is appointed archbishop of Sweden. <a href="#Page_36">36-37</a>;</li> +<li>hostility to Sten Sture, <a href="#Page_38">38-45</a>;</li> +<li>appears before a diet in Stockholm, <a href="#Page_46">46-47</a>;</li> +<li>is taken prisoner by Sture, <a href="#Page_47">47-48</a>;</li> +<li>resigns his archbishopric, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> +<li>becomes reconciled to Sture, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li> +<li>advocates declaration of allegiance to Christiern, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> +<li>holds conference with Christiern, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li> +<li>denounces the Swedish magnates, <a href="#Page_81">81-82</a>;</li> +<li>endeavors to check the power of Gustavus, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</li> +<li>captures Upsala, <a href="#Page_99">99-100</a>;</li> +<li>retires to Denmark, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> +<li>Swedish Cabinet writes to the pope about, <a href="#Page_127">127-128</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus writes to Rome about, <a href="#Page_135">135-136</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus writes to Dalarne about, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li> +<li>is placed in command of Christiern's fleet, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus is said to favor, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Trondhem, archbishop of, protects fugitives, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;<ul> +<li>returns Knut and Sunnanväder, <a href="#Page_201">201-202</a>;</li> +<li>relations between pretended son of Sture and, <a href="#Page_218">218-219</a>;</li> +<li>translation of Bible is sent to, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li> +<li>Magni communicates with, <a href="#Page_239">239-240</a>.</li></ul></li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li>Ulfsson (Jacob), archbishop of Sweden, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;<ul> +<li>founds University of Upsala, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li> +<li>resigns the archbishopric, <a href="#Page_36">36-37</a>;</li> +<li>is reappointed archbishop, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> +<li>attends coronation of Christiern, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> +<li>his advice to Gustavus, <a href="#Page_83">83-84</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Upsala, siege of archbishop's palace, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;<ul> +<li>election of Sten Sture at, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> +<li>University of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li> +<li>battle at, <a href="#Page_69">69-71</a>;</li> +<li>is captured by Gustavus, <a href="#Page_98">98-99</a>;</li> +<li>is recaptured by Trolle <a href="#Page_99">99-100</a>;</li> +<li>election <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span>of archbishop of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li> +<li>heresy breaks out in, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li> +<li>disputation held in, <a href="#Page_168">168-169</a>;</li> +<li>tax to be paid by archbishop of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus is crowned in Cathedral of, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li></ul></li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li>Vadstena, expedition against Gotland is determined at diet in, <a href="#Page_139">139-140</a>.</li> + +<li>Vasa, family of, <a href="#Page_2">2-3</a>;<ul> +<li>influence of family of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li><a name="Vasa_Gustavus" id="Vasa_Gustavus"></a>Vasa (Gustavus), his birth, <a href="#Page_1">1-2</a>;<ul> +<li>his coat-of-arms, <a href="#Page_2">2-3</a>;</li> +<li>his ancestry, <a href="#Page_2">2-3</a>;</li> +<li>his meeting with King Hans, <a href="#Page_25">25-26</a>;</li> +<li>his boyhood, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> +<li>his education at Upsala, <a href="#Page_26">26-27</a>;</li> +<li>is received at court, <a href="#Page_31">31-32</a> and <a href="#Footnote_15_15">note</a>;</li> +<li>takes part in the battle of Brännkyrka, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> +<li>is captured by Christiern, <a href="#Page_53">53-54</a>;</li> +<li>is imprisoned in Denmark, <a href="#Page_54">54-55</a>;</li> +<li>escapes from Kalö Castle, <a href="#Page_59">59-60</a>;</li> +<li>appears in Lubeck, <a href="#Page_60">60-61</a>;</li> +<li>lands at Kalmar, <a href="#Page_61">61-62</a>;</li> +<li>his purpose, <a href="#Page_72">72-73</a>;</li> +<li>seeks to incite the people of Småland, <a href="#Page_74">74-75</a>;</li> +<li>solicits advice from Ulfsson, <a href="#Page_83">83-84</a>;</li> +<li>flees to Dalarne, <a href="#Page_84">84-85</a>;</li> +<li>seeks to rouse the Dalesmen, <a href="#Page_85">85-87</a>;</li> +<li>flees to Norway, <a href="#Page_87">87-88</a>;</li> +<li>is recalled, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> +<li>is chosen leader, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li> +<li>recruits his army, <a href="#Page_92">92-93</a>;</li> +<li>trains his soldiers, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>:</li> +<li>captures Vesterås, <a href="#Page_96">96-98</a>;</li> +<li>captures Upsala, <a href="#Page_98">98-99</a>;</li> +<li>evacuates Upsala, <a href="#Page_99">99-100</a>;</li> +<li>his unsuccessful effort to take Stockholm, <a href="#Page_100">100-101</a>;</li> +<li>superintends the manœuvres of his army, <a href="#Page_102">102-103</a>;</li> +<li>wins Brask to his side, <a href="#Page_103">103-104</a>;</li> +<li>accepts title of Commander of Swedish Army, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li> +<li>prepares ambuscade for Danes, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> +<li>sends force to Finland, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> +<li>lays siege to Stockholm, <a href="#Page_105">105-106</a>;</li> +<li>issues "klippings," <a href="#Page_107">107-108</a>;</li> +<li>sends to Lubeck for a fleet, <a href="#Page_109">109-110</a>;</li> +<li>continues siege of Stockholm, <a href="#Page_110">110-111</a>;</li> +<li>recruits his forces, <a href="#Page_111">111-112</a>;</li> +<li>calls diet at Strengnäs, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li> +<li>is elected king, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li> +<li>enters Stockholm in triumph, <a href="#Page_115">115-116</a>;</li> +<li>his successes, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</li> +<li>charges Christiern with murdering Swedish bishops, <a href="#Page_125">125-126</a>;</li> +<li>summons Johannes Magni, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li> +<li>is called upon to pay the debt to Lubeck, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li> +<li>calls upon Brask to aid the crown, <a href="#Page_129">129-130</a>;</li> +<li>strives to improve condition of Stockholm, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> +<li>endeavors to soothe the people, <a href="#Page_131">131-133</a>;</li> +<li>writes to the pope for confirmation of the bishops, <a href="#Page_133">133-134</a>;</li> +<li>writes to Rome about Trolle, <a href="#Page_135">135-136</a>;</li> +<li>writes to Rome again and to Magni, <a href="#Page_136">136-137</a>;</li> +<li>deposes bishop and dean of Vesterås, <a href="#Page_137">137-138</a>;</li> +<li>subdues Finland, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li> +<li>plans expedition against Gotland, <a href="#Page_138">138-140</a>;</li> +<li>appeals to Brask for aid, <a href="#Page_140">140-141</a>;</li> +<li>lays the odium of the new tax on Brask, <a href="#Page_141">141-143</a>;</li> +<li>communicates with Fredrik concerning Gotland, <a href="#Page_144">144-145</a>;</li> +<li>begins war with Gotland, <a href="#Page_145">145-146</a>;</li> +<li>takes part in the congress at Malmö, <a href="#Page_147">147-148</a>;</li> +<li>oppresses Brask, <a href="#Page_149">149-150</a>;</li> +<li>holds Cabinet meeting to improve trade, <a href="#Page_150">150-153</a>;</li> +<li>his feelings toward Luther, <a href="#Page_157">157-159</a>;</li> +<li>writes concerning Luther, <a href="#Page_162">162-163</a>;</li> +<li>his purpose in opposing the Church, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li> +<li>his treatment of the Anabaptists, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li> +<li>holds a disputation, <a href="#Page_168">168-169</a>;</li> +<li>discusses the marriage of Petri, <a href="#Page_170">170-171</a>;</li> +<li>deposes Mehlen, <a href="#Page_173">173-176</a>;</li> +<li>tries to quell insurrection in Dalarne, <a href="#Page_176">176-177</a>;</li> +<li>his distrust of Fredrik, <a href="#Page_178">178-179</a>;</li> +<li>his distrust of Christina, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li> +<li>is opposed in Kalmar, <a href="#Page_179">179-180</a>;</li> +<li>summons diet to stay discontent, <a href="#Page_180">180-183</a>;</li> +<li>fights Norby, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</li> +<li>is displeased with Fredrik, <a href="#Page_185">185-186</a>;</li> +<li>captures Kalmar, <a href="#Page_186">186-189</a>;</li> +<li>his negotiations with Fredrik, <a href="#Page_190">190-193</a>;</li> +<li>his communications with Norby, <a href="#Page_194">194-195</a>;</li> +<li>his communications concerning Knut and Sunnanväder, <a href="#Page_195">195-197</a>;</li> +<li>his movements against Norby, <a href="#Page_197">197-199</a>;</li> +<li>executes Knut and Sunnanväder, <a href="#Page_200">200-203</a>;</li> +<li>negotiates about debt to Lubeck, <a href="#Page_203">203-206</a>;</li> +<li>forms treaty with Russia, <a href="#Page_207">207-209</a>;</li> +<li>with Holland, <a href="#Page_209">209-212</a>;</li> +<li>negotiates with the Dalesmen, <a href="#Page_213">213-215</a>;</li> +<li>with Fredrik, <a href="#Page_215">215-217</a>;</li> +<li>with the archbishop of Trondhem, <a href="#Page_218">218-219</a>;</li> +<li>orders Bible to be translated, <a href="#Page_222">222-223</a>;</li> +<li>oppresses the monasteries, <a href="#Page_224">224-226</a>;</li> +<li>seizes Gripsholm, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> +<li>oppresses Brask, <a href="#Page_229">229-231</a>;</li> +<li>denies charge of favoring Luther, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li> +<li>calls a disputation, <a href="#Page_232">232-234</a>;</li> +<li>seeks to soothe the Dalesmen, <a href="#Page_236">236-238</a>;</li> +<li>oppresses <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span>Magni, <a href="#Page_238">238-240</a>;</li> +<li>oppresses Åbo and Arboga, <a href="#Page_240">240-242</a>;</li> +<li>communicates with the Dalesmen, <a href="#Page_242">242-246</a>;</li> +<li>humiliates the Church at Vesterås, <a href="#Page_246">246-247</a>;</li> +<li>opens the diet, <a href="#Page_248">248-249</a>;</li> +<li>resigns the crown, <a href="#Page_250">250-251</a>;</li> +<li>watches his enemies, <a href="#Page_251">251-252</a>;</li> +<li>is begged to withdraw his resignation, <a href="#Page_253">253-254</a>;</li> +<li>his demands are granted by the diet, <a href="#Page_254">254-261</a>;</li> +<li>sends out announcement to the people, <a href="#Page_261">261-262</a>;</li> +<li>oppresses Brask, <a href="#Page_262">262-266</a>;</li> +<li>delays confirmation of the bishops, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> +<li>sends out invitations to coronation, <a href="#Page_269">269-270</a>;</li> +<li>consents to confirmation of the bishops, <a href="#Page_270">270-271</a>;</li> +<li>is crowned, <a href="#Page_271">271-272</a>;</li> +<li>considerations on his career, <a href="#Page_272">272-275</a>;</li> +<li>bibliography of, <a href="#Page_283">283-284</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Vend Cities, alliance with Sweden, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;<ul> +<li>privileges granted by Sweden to, <a href="#Page_209">209-211</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Vesterås, siege of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;<ul> +<li>fall of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li> +<li>Danish forces are concentrated at, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus captures, <a href="#Page_96">96-98</a>;</li> +<li>castle is reinforced by Danes, <a href="#Page_104">104-105</a>;</li> +<li>castle surrenders, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li> +<li>election of new bishop of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a> and <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> +<li>fair at, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus deposes bishop and dean of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li> +<li>tax to be paid by bishop of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> +<li>trouble with the Dominican monks of, <a href="#Page_225">225-226</a>;</li> +<li>closing of mint at, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> +<li>Diet of, <a href="#Page_246">246-262</a>;</li> +<li>consecrates the other bishops, <a href="#Page_270">270-271</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>"Vesterås Ordinantia," terms of, <a href="#Page_258">258-260</a>.</li> + +<li>"Vesterås Recess," terms of, <a href="#Page_257">257-258</a>.</li> + +<li>Vestgöte (Arvid), lays siege to Stegeborg, <a href="#Page_101">101-102</a>;<ul> +<li>captures Stegeborg, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> +<li>besieges Kalmar, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li> +<li>captures Kalmar, <a href="#Page_112">112-113</a>;</li> +<li>his depredations in Öland, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Vexiö, tax to be paid by bishop of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;<ul> +<li>receives authority from Rome, <a href="#Page_270">270-271</a>.</li></ul></li> + +<li>Viken, dispute between Fredrik and Gustavus about, <a href="#Page_216">216-217</a>.</li> + +<li>Visby, leader of the Hanseatic League, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;<ul> +<li>siege of, <a href="#Page_146">146-147</a>;</li> +<li>Mehlen's conduct in siege of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li> +<li>is captured by Lubeck, <a href="#Page_184">184-185</a>;</li> +<li>ammunition of Gustavus kept in, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li></ul></li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li>Washington (George), comparison between Gustavus and, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> + +<li>West Friesland, privileges granted to, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> + +<li>Wittenberg, Petri studies at, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li>Zealand, privileges granted to, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li>Åbo, is besieged by Gustavus, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;<ul> +<li>forces of Gustavus are routed at, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li> +<li>death of bishop of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> +<li>election of bishop of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</li> +<li>tax to be paid by bishop of, <a href="#Page_205">205-206</a>;</li> +<li>Gustavus quarrels with Chapter of, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li> +<li>is not represented at Diet of Vesterås, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li> +<li>bishop of Vesterås consecrates bishop of, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li></ul></li> +</ul> + + + +<ul><li>Öland, depredations of Vestgöte in, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> + +<li>Örebro, siege of castle at, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<p class="head2">University Press, Cambridge: John Wilson & Son.</p> + + +<div class="trans1"><p class="zerop"><b>Transcriber's Note:</b><br />Minor typographical errors +have been corrected without note. +Original spellings have been retained.</p> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Swedish Revolution Under Gustavus +Vasa, by Paul Barron Watson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SWEDISH REVOLUTION *** + +***** This file should be named 22458-h.htm or 22458-h.zip ***** +This and all 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