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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Birth of Yugoslavia, Volume 1 + +Author: Henry Baerlein + +Release Date: August 26, 2007 [EBook #22414] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BIRTH OF YUGOSLAVIA, VOLUME 1 *** + + + + +Produced by Jason Isbell, Irma Spehar and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<h1>THE BIRTH OF<br /> +YUGOSLAVIA</h1> + +<p class="center" style="margin-top: 4em; font-weight: bold; font-size: 80%; text-indent: 0em">BY</p> + +<p class="center" style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 110%; text-indent: 0em">HENRY BAERLEIN</p> + +<p class="center" style="font-weight: bold; font-size: 80%; margin-top: 8em; text-indent: 0em">VOLUME I</p> + +<p class="publisher"><span style="letter-spacing: 0.25ex">LONDON<br /> +LEONARD PARSONS</span><br /> +<small>DEVONSHIRE STREET</small> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>First Published 1922</i><br /> +[<i>All Rights Reserved</i>]<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap" style="font-size: 80%">Leonard Parsons Ltd.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p class="intro"><span class="smcap">Portions</span> of this book which deal with Yugoslav-Albanian +affairs have appeared in the <i>Fortnightly +Review</i> and, expanded from there, in a volume +entitled <i>A Difficult Frontier</i>.</p> + + + +<h2><a name="NAMES_AND_PRONUNCIATION" id="NAMES_AND_PRONUNCIATION"></a>NAMES AND PRONUNCIATION<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></h2> + + +<p>The original Serbo-Croat names of the Dalmatian +towns and islands have been commonly supplanted on +the German-made maps by later Italian names. But +as the older ones are those which are at present used in +daily speech by the vast majority of the inhabitants, we +shall not be accused of pedanticism or of political bias +if we prefer them to the later versions. We therefore +in this book do not speak of Fiume but of Rieka, not of +Cattaro but of Kotor, and so forth. In other parts a +greater laxity is permissible, since no false impression is +conveyed by using the non-Slav version. Thus we have +preferred the more habitual Belgrade to the more correct +Beograd, and the Italian Scutari to the Albanian Shqodra. +The Yugoslavs themselves are too deferential towards +the foreign nomenclature of their towns. Thus if one of +them is talking to you of Novi Sad he will almost invariably +add, until it grows rather wearisome, the German +and the Magyar forms: Neu Satz and Uj Videk.</p> + +<p>These names and those of persons have been generally +spelt in accordance with Croat orthography—that is to +say, with the Latin alphabet modified in order to reproduce +all the sounds of the Serbo-Croatian language. +This script, with its diacritic marks, was scientifically +evolved at the beginning of the nineteenth century. The +chief points about it that we have to remember are that +c is pronounced as if written ts, ć as if written tch, č is +pronounced ch, š is pronounced sh, and j is pronounced +y. So the Montenegrin towns Cetinje, Podgorica and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +Nikšić are pronounced as if written Tsetinye, Podgoritsa +and Nikshitch, while Pančevo is pronounced Panchevo. +It will be seen that this matter is not very complicated. +But we have not in every case employed the Croat script. +We have not spoken in this book of Jugoslavia but of +Yugoslavia, since that has come to be the more familiar +form.</p> + +<p>The full list of Croat letters, in so far as they differ +from the English alphabet, is as follows:</p> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table class="pronounciation" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="table of pronounciation"> +<tr><td class="letter">c,</td><td class="repeat">whose</td><td class="repeat">English</td><td class="repeat">value is</td><td align='left'>ts.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="letter">ć,</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td align='left'>tch.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="letter">č,</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td align='left'>ch, as in church.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="letter">š,</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td align='left'>sh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="letter">ž,</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td align='left'>s, as in measure.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="letter">dž,</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td align='left'>j, as in James.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="letter">gj (or dj),</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td align='left'>j, " "</td></tr> +<tr><td class="letter">j,</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td align='left'>y, as in you.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="letter">lj,</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td align='left'>li, as in million.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="letter">nj,</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td class="repeat">"</td><td align='left'>ni, as in opinion.</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></h2> + + +<p>On a mild February afternoon I was waiting for the +train at a wayside station in north-western Banat. So +unimportant was that station that it was connected neither +by telegraph nor telephone with any other station, and +thus there was no means of knowing how long I would +have to wait. The movements of the train in those parts +could never, so I gathered, be foretold, and on that afternoon +it was uncertain whether a strike had prevented +it from leaving New-Arad, the starting-point. Occasionally +the rather elegant stationmaster, and occasionally +the porter with the round, disarming face, raised their +voices in prophecy, but they were increasingly unable—so +far, at least, as I was concerned—to modify the feelings +of dullness that were caused by the circumstances and by +the dreary nature of the surroundings: a plain with +several uninteresting little lakes upon it. There was time +enough for meditation—I was wondering if I would ever +understand the people of the Balkans. One hour and +then another slipped away, and the lakes began to be +illuminated by the setting sun. A handful of prospective +travellers and their friends were also waiting, and as +one of them produced a violin we all began to dance the +Serbian Kolo, which is performed by an indefinite number +of people who have to be hand-in-hand, irrespective of +sex, forming in this way a straight line or a circle or a +serpent-like series of curves. They go through certain +simple evolutions, into which more or less energy and +sprightliness are introduced. The stationmaster looked +on approvingly and then decided to join us, and after +a little time he was followed by the porter. Our violinist +was in excellent form, so that we continued dancing until +some of us were as crimson as the sun, and presently, +while I was resting, what with the beauty of the scene<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +and the exhilaration of the dance, I found myself thinking +that, after all, I might within a reasonable time understand +these people. Then a new arrival, a middle-aged, +benevolent-looking woman with a basket on her arm, came +past me.</p> + +<p>"Dobro veče," said I. ["Good-evening."]</p> + +<p>"Živio," said she. ["May you live long."]</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, I hope in this book to give a description +of how the Yugoslavs, brothers and neighbours and +tragically separated from one another for so many +centuries, made various efforts to unite, at least in some +degree. But for about fifteen centuries the greater +number of Yugoslavs were unable to liberate themselves +from their alien rulers; not until the end of the Great +War were these dominations overthrown, and the kindred +peoples, the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, put at last before +the realization of their dreams—the dreams, that is to +say, of some of their poets and statesmen and bishops +and philologists, as well as of certain foreigners. But +listen to this, by the censorious literateur who contributes +the "Musings without Method" to <i>Maga</i>: "We +do not envy the ingenious gentlemen," says he, "who +invented the two new States Czecho-Slovakia and Jugo-Slavia. +Their composite names prove their composite +characters. That they will last long beneath the fanciful +masks which have been put upon them we do not believe." +Even so might some uninstructed person in Yugoslavia +or South Slavia proceed to wash his hands of that ingenious +man who invented <i>Maga's</i> home, North Britain. +I see that our friend in the following number of <i>Maga</i> +(March 1920) says that foreign affairs are "a province +far beyond his powers or understanding." But he is +talking of Mr. Lloyd George.</p> + +<p>Our account of mediæval times will be brief, only so +much in fact as is needed for a comprehension of the +present. In approaching our own day, the story will +become more and more detailed. If it be objected that +the details, in so far as they detract from the conduct of +Yugoslavia's neighbours, might with advantage have been +painted with the hazy, quiet colours that you give to the +excursions and alarms of long ago, one may reply that this +book is intended to depict the world in which the Yugoslavs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +have, after all these centuries, joined one another +and the frame of mind which consequently glows in +them.</p> + +<p>One cannot on this earth expect that a new State, +however belated and however inevitable, will be formed +without a considerable amount of friction, both external +and internal. Perhaps, owing to the number of not over-friendly +States with which they are encompassed, the +Yugoslavs will manage to waive some of their internal +differences, and to show that they are capable, despite +the confident assertions of some of their neighbours and +the croakings of some of themselves, of establishing a +State that will weather for many a year the storms which +even the League of Nations may not be competent to +banish from South-Eastern Europe. A certain number +of people, who seem to expect us to take them seriously, +assert that an English writer is disqualified from passing +adverse comment on Italy's imperialistic aims because +the British Empire has received, as a result of the War, +some Turkish provinces and German colonies. It is +said that, in view of these notorious facts, the Italian +Nationalists and their friends cannot bear to be criticized +by the pens of British authors and journalists. The +fallacy in logic known as the <i>argumentum ad hominem</i> +becomes a pale thing in comparison with this new <i>argumentum +ad terram</i>. If a passionless historian of the +Eskimos had given his attention to the Adriatic, I believe +he would have come to my conclusions. But then it +might be said of him that as for half the year his land is +swathed in darkness, it would be unseemly for him to +discuss a country which is basking in the sun.</p> + +<p>Another consummation—though this will to-day find, +especially in Serbia, a great many opponents, whose +attitude, following the deplorable events of the Great +War, can cause us no surprise—is the adhesion, after +certain years, of Bulgaria to the Yugoslav State. I +wrote these words a few months ago; they are already +out of date. The general opinion in Serbia is voiced by +a Serbian war-widow, who, writing in <i>Politika</i>, one of +the newspapers of Belgrade, replied to Stamboulüsky, the +Bulgarian peasant Premier, who was always uncompromisingly +opposed to the fratricidal war with Serbia.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +He had been saying that the Serbs and other Yugoslavs +prefer to postpone the reconciliation until "the grass +grows over the graves of their women and children whom +our officials destroyed"; and this war-widow answered +that it was not necessary for the grass to grow, but that +they should condemn the culprits by a regular court, as +prescribed in the treaty. "Fulfil the undertaking you +have assumed, for only so shall we know that you will +fulfil other undertakings in the future." If it had not +been for the Great Powers, especially Russia and Austria, +the union of Serbia and Bulgaria might have occurred +long ago. Wise persons, such as Prince Michael of +Serbia and the British travellers, Miss Irby (Bosnia's +lifelong benefactress) and her relative, Miss Muir Mackenzie, +had this aim in view during the sixties of last +century. So had a number of other excellent folk, who +recognized that the two people were naturally drawn to +one another. "The hatred between the two people is +a fact which is as saddening in the thought for the future +as in the record of the past, but it is a fact to ignore which +is simply a mark of incompetence. The two nations +are antipathetic ..." says Mr. A. H. E. Taylor in his +<i>The Future of the Southern Slavs</i>, a painstaking if rather +clumsy book (London, 1917), in which we are shown +that the writer is well acquainted with general history. +But in the opinion of an erudite Serb, to whom I showed +this passage, Mr. Taylor knows nothing of Serb and +Bulgar under the Turks. There is no single document nor +anything else that speaks of hatred between them. On +the contrary, they were always on friendly terms. The +antagonisms of the Middle Ages, as Mr. Taylor surely +knows, were the work of rulers who paid no attention to +the national will; there was at that time no national +consciousness, and just as a Serbian would wage war +with a Bulgarian prince, so would he do battle with a +Croat or with another Serbian ruler. Mr. Taylor talks +of "the almost constant state of warfare between Serbs +and Bulgars...," but he does not mention that there +were many cases during the late war in which the men +showed friendliness to one another. He may argue that +if a soldier calls out "Brother" to his foe and subsequently +slays him there is not much to be said for his friendliness,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +but surely that is to draw no distinction between what +is the soldier's pleasure and his business. "Nothing," +observes Mr. Taylor very truly, "nothing in the Balkan +Peninsula is so desirable as the laying aside of the feud." +He may take it that this feud has been aroused and maintained +among the <i>intelligentsia</i> and for political reasons, +with Macedonia in the forefront. I think he would not +be so severe on those who are "ignorant apparently +that the mutual animosity has its roots deep down in the +history and historical consciousness of Serb and Bulgar" +if he remembered that the Bulgars wanted Michael for +their prince, and if he had been present at the siege of +Adrianople, where the Serbian and Bulgarian soldiers, +in their eagerness to fraternize, took to speaking their +respective languages incorrectly, the Serb dropping his +cases and the Bulgar his article, in the hope that they +would thus make themselves more easily understood. +It seems to me not only more advisable but more rational +to ponder upon such incidents than upon the idle controversies +as to which army was the most deserving; +and I do not think it is evidence of any widespread +Bulgarian animosity because a certain official decided to +charge the Serbian Government a fee for conveying back +to Serbia the corpses of their soldiers.</p> + +<p>With regard to the two languages, the differences +between them will matter no more than does the difference +between Serbo-Croatian and Slovene. The Serb-Croat-Slovene +State has been astonishingly little incommoded +by the fact that the Slovene language is quite distinct, +the two tongues being only in a moderate degree mutually +intelligible. The Slovenes have never been exposed to +the influence either of Byzantium or of the Turks, so +that their language is free from the orientalisms which +abound in the southern dialects. But it is curious to +note<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> that many of the Slovene archaisms of form and +structure, such as the persistence of the "v" for "u" +and the final -l of the past participle, which have disappeared +from Serbo-Croat, have been preserved in the +dialects of Macedonia. The Bulgarian language, the +south-eastern Serbian dialects, as well as Roumanian +and Albanian, have certain grammatical peculiarities,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +through being influenced by the language of the Romanized +Thraco-Illyrian peoples with whom they merged. Even +Montenegro was to some degree influenced by this process, +having lost one or two cases, such as the locative. In +Serbia one uses seven cases, the Montenegrin generally +contents himself with about five, and in some dialects +they are all discarded.... The amount of Turanian, +Petcheneg and other undesirable blood in the Bulgars +does not—let the two or three eccentric Bulgars say what +they will—prevent them being far more Yugoslav than +anything else. Professor Cvijić, the famous Rector of +Belgrade University, has made personal examinations +in Bulgaria, and is of the opinion that a great part of that +people, for instance, at Trnovo in the middle of Bulgaria, +is physically and spiritually very near to the Serbs. The +Mongol influence, he thinks, is so scattered that it is very +difficult to see.</p> + +<p>Unhappily, however, in the last thirty or forty years +an enormous amount of hatred has been piled up between +Serb and Bulgar; things have happened which we as +outsiders can more easily forget than those and the +orphans of those who have suffered. Atrocities have +taken place; international commissions have recorded +some of them and non-Balkan writers have produced +a library of lurid and, almost always, strictly one-sided +books about them. I suggest that these gentlemen would +have been better employed in translating the passages +wherein Homer depicts precisely the same atrocities. +Whatever may seem good to Balkan controversialists, +let us of the West rather try, for their sake and for ours, +to bring these two people together. We have good +foundations on which to build; every Bulgar will tell +you that he is full of admiration of the Serbian army, +and the Serbs will speak in a similar strain of the Bulgars. +Also the Serbs will tell you that, no matter what else +they may be able to do, they are, as compared with +the Bulgars, quite incompetent in the diffusion of propaganda; +while the Bulgars will explain to you that in +propaganda the Serbs are immensely their superiors. +(Balkan propaganda does not confine itself to using, +with violence, the sword and the pen. In its higher +flights it will, in a disputed district, bury ancient-looking<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +stones with suitable inscriptions. It will go beyond the +simple changes in the termination of the surnames of +those who come under its dominion; the name upon a +tombstone will be made to end, according to circumstances, +in "off" or "vitch," sometimes in the Roumanian +"esco" or the Greek "opoulos." If this is known to the +departed, one would like to learn how it affects them. +A great deal of energy has been brought to bear in the +production of official books which place on record the +repugnant details of all the crimes that have ever been +imagined by men or ghouls, which crimes, so say the +books of nation A, have been <ins class="correction" +title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'commited'">committed</ins> by the incredible +monsters of nation B. At times, from motives of economy, +the same photographs have been used by both nations—an +idea which in 1920 was adopted in Hungary, where an +artist conceived a poster showing a child with uplifted +finger saying to its mother in solemn warning: "Mother, +remember me; vote for a Social Democrat." This +poster was forbidden by the censor, and, a few days +afterwards, appeared on all street corners as that of the +Christian Socialist party. People of the Balkans found +that Western Europeans were impressed by figures, so +that they issued lists of schools whose pupils were more +numerous than the total population of the villages in +which they were situated. Frequently a village would be +stated, on the sworn testimony of its most respected +inmates, to be exclusively filled with persons say of +nation A. Not for a moment would it be admitted that +the population might perhaps be mixed. And very +possibly, on going to investigate, the Western European +would discover that the village was entirely uninhabited +and had been so for many years.... We must also +have some understanding of the old Balkan humour if +we are not to resent, for example, that story which they +tell of a Bulgarian Minister who happened to be sojourning +last year in Yugoslavia at a time when a great memorial +service was being held for ninety-nine priests whom the +Bulgars had assassinated during their occupation of +Serbia in the European War. This Minister cherishes +the hope that his country and Yugoslavia will bury the +hatchet. "How unfortunate," said he, "are these +recriminations. I shall have pleasure in sending them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +ninety-nine priests, whom they can kill, and then we can +be good friends.")</p> + +<p>Thus we have two points of mutual esteem. The vast +majority of people in Belgrade and Sofia are not chauvinist; +let them close their ears to the wild professors who, +in their spare time, busy themselves with writing books +and discoursing on politics, a task for which they are +imperfectly fitted. One must naturally make allowances +for these small countries which have been so sparsely +furnished hitherto with men of education that the +Government considered it must mobilize them all. Thus +the professors found themselves enlisted in the service +of the State. Unluckily—to give examples would be +painful—it too often happened that the poor professor +damaged irretrievably his reputation and held up the +State to ribald laughter. Those who belong to an old, +cultured nation are not always cognizant of the petty +atmosphere, to say nothing of the petty salaries, which +is to-day the common lot of Balkan professors. (A really +eminent man, who, for twenty years has been a professor, +not merely a teacher, at Belgrade University +receives a very much smaller salary than that which the +deputies have voted for themselves.) Occasionally these +professors must be moved by feelings similar to those +that were entertained by the Serbs of 1808, who, having +thrown off the Turkish yoke which they were resolved +never to bear again, "earnestly expressed, and more +than once," according to Count Romanzoff,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> "their own +will which induced them to beg the Emperor Alexander +to admit them to the number of his subjects." A +resolute old man, a Balkan savant of my acquaintance—he +told me he was a savant—said one day that before +all else he was a patriot, meaning by this that if in the +course of his researches he came across a fact which to +his mind was injurious for the past, present or future of +his native land he would unhesitatingly sweep that fact<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +into oblivion, and he seemed to be amazed that I should +doubt the morality of such a procedure. Bristling with +scorn, he refused to give me a definition of the word +"patriotism," and I am sure that, if he knows his Thoreau, +he does not for a moment believe that he is amongst +those who "love the soil which makes their graves, but +have no sympathy with the spirit which may still animate +their clay. Patriotism is a maggot in their heads." +May the people of Serbia and Bulgaria rather listen to +such men as Nicholai Velimirović, Bishop of Žiča,<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> who—to +speak only of his sermons and lectures in our language—lives +in the memory of so many in Great Britain and +the United States on account of his wonderful eloquence, +his sincerity, his profound patriotism, and the calm +heights from which he surveys the future. For those +who think with him, the Serbs, in uniting with the Croats, +have already surmounted a more serious obstacle. They +believe that for three reasons their union with the Bulgars +is a more natural one: they practise the same religion, +they use the same Cyrillic alphabet and their civilization, +springing from Byzantium, has been identical. The two +people are bound to each other by the great Serbian, +Saint Sava, who strove to join them and who died at +Trnovo in Bulgaria. Vladislav, the Serbian prince, +asked for his body; Assen begged that the Bulgars +might be allowed to keep it, but, when the Serbs insisted, +a most remarkable procession set out from Trnovo, +bearing to his homeland the remains of him whom the +Bulgars called "our Saint." ... If, then, the two +people will for a few years demand that the misguided +professors shall confine themselves to their original +functions—and, likewise, those students who sit at the +professors' feet—one may hope that in a few years the +miserable past will be buried and all the Yugoslavs +united in one State. The time has vanished when Serbia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +and Bulgaria stood, as it were in a ring, face to face with +one another, paying far more attention to the disputes of +the moment than to those great unifying forces which +we have mentioned. But now Serbia is a part of Yugoslavia, +which has to deal with a greater Italy, a greater +Roumania and others. And the question as to whether +a certain town or district is to be Serbian or Bulgarian +sinks into the background.</p> + +<p>Fortunately, in the Balkans—where one is nothing +if not personal—you can express yourself concerning +another gentleman with a degree of liberty that in Western +Europe would be thought unpardonable. And so, if the +Serbs and the Bulgars will in the main follow the tracks +of their far-sighted leaders, they need not quite suppress +their criticism of each other. No great animosity is +aroused by such a statement as was made to me with +regard to a dispossessed Macedonian prelate, who had +told me that he had appealed to the Archbishop of Canterbury +in the hope that he would assist him to return to +his diocese. I asked a member of another Balkan +nationality whether he knew this ancient cleric of the +extremely venerable aspect, and whether he knew what +kind of political and religious propaganda had brought +about his downfall. "I know all about that old ruffian," +he replied. "He stole over fifty pigs and one hundred +sheep, and about twenty-five cows and 200 lb. of fat." +Anyhow, if his lordship had heard that these accusations +had been repeated in many places, he would have been +far less indignant than if they had been printed in some +unread newspaper or obscure pamphlet.</p> + +<p>Now if the local writers cease from indulging their +national partisanship—and God knows they have no +lack of material—then perhaps the time will come when +foreign publicists and politicians, who keep one eye upon +the Balkans, will be able to speak well about the particular +country which they affect without speaking ill about the +neighbouring countries, concerning which, it is possible, +they know less. Of course, there are a number of real +Balkan experts in various countries, judicious writers +who will be gratefully mentioned in this book. And +there are people, such as Mr. Harold E. Goad, the vehement +pro-Italian writer, who are quite amusing. This gentleman<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +said in the <i>Fortnightly Review</i> (May 1922) that once +he used to hold romantic views of Balkan politics, but +now has ascertained that they are "usually plotted, +move by move, in the coffee-shops of petty capitals. +Intrigue, bribery and calumny, personal jealousy and +racial prejudice are the ordinary means with which the +game is played." How different from the rest of Europe, +where intrigue, etc., are conspicuously absent; and the +explanation seems to be that wine and beer are unlike +coffee, which it may be quite impossible to drink without +remembering the poison which so many furtive fingers +have dropped into it. And it would be rank ingratitude +if I omitted the Italian Admiral Millo, though he was +injudicious. After he had been at his post for four +months, with the resounding title of Governor of Dalmatia +and of the Dalmatian Islands and of the islands of +Curzola, he told me that he had found it most fascinating +to motor through Dalmatia's rocky hinterland, where the +natives had the dignified air of ancient Roman senators +and even greeted you in Latin. This was rather a +startling statement. "Oh yes," said the Admiral, with +his aristocratic, bearded face wearing an expression of +even keener intelligence than usual, "I can assure you," +quoth he, "that the peasants say 'Ave.' I heard them +quite distinctly." It was perhaps inconsiderate of those +worthy Croats not to shout with greater clearness the +word "Zdravo!" ["Good luck!"] in order to prevent the +Admiral from riding off with a confused hearing of the +second syllable. A certain excellent dispatch of his—of +which more anon—makes him a writer on the Balkans. +I know not whether he addressed to his Government a +dispatch on the above discovery, thus intensifying the +Italian resolve to cling to Dalmatia. In that case his +knowledge was unfortunate, but otherwise it is surely +as delightful as, up here among the tree-clad mountains, +are the glow-worms that go darting through the night.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p> + +<p style="font-size: 80%"><span class="smcap">Blagoveštenje Monastery,</span><br /> +<span class="smcap" style="padding-left: 8ex">Central Serbia.</span></p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Cf. <i>The Near East</i>, October 6, 1921.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> <i>Observations of Count Romanzoff</i>,—Petrograd, March 16, 1808,—Concerning +the negotiations for the division of Turkey, as to which he treated +with the French Ambassador; being Document No. 263 of the Excerpts +from the Paris Archives relating to the History of the first Serbian Insurrection. +Collected (Belgrade, 1904) by the learned statesman and +charming man, Dr. Michael Gavrilović, now the Minister of the Kingdom +of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes at the Court of St. James.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> This, the most ancient diocese in Serbia, takes its name from the +monastery of Žiča, near Kraljevo, which was built by St. Sava between +1222 and 1228. He made it his archiepiscopal residence, and here the +Serbian sovereigns were crowned. It is now partly in a ruined condition, +the encircling wall having almost entirely vanished. For each coronation +a new entrance was made through this structure and was afterwards +walled up. Bishop Nicholai has now been transferred to the more difficult +diocese of Ochrida and is, at the same time, Bishop of the Serbs in America.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="CONTENTS_OF_VOLUME_I" id="CONTENTS_OF_VOLUME_I"></a>CONTENTS OF VOLUME I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></h2> + + +<div class="center"> +<table class="toc" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td colspan="3" align='right'><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" align="left"><a href="#PREFACE">Preface</a></td><td class="pageno"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" align="left"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">Introduction: The Tragedy of a Frontier</a></td><td class="pageno"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="chapno"><a href="#I">I.</a></td><td align='left'><a href="#I">Glory and Disaster (Earliest Days to the Battle of Kossovo)</a></td><td class="pageno"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="chapno"><a href="#II">II.</a></td><td align='left'><a href="#II">Fighting the Darkness (Battle of Kossovo to the Appearance of Kara George)</a></td><td class="pageno"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="chapno"><a href="#III">III.</a></td><td align='left'><a href="#III">Building the Foundations: Napoleon and Strossmayer</a></td><td class="pageno"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="chapno"><a href="#IV">IV.</a></td><td align='left'><a href="#IV">The Shifting Sands of Macedonia (1876-1914)</a></td><td class="pageno"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="chapno"><a href="#V">V.</a></td><td align='left'><a href="#V">The European War (1914-1918)</a></td><td class="pageno"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'><a href="#INDEX_OF_VOLUME_I">Index</a></td><td class="pageno"><a href="#Page_301">301</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr /> + +<h1><a name="THE_BIRTH_OF_YUGOSLAVIA" id="THE_BIRTH_OF_YUGOSLAVIA"></a>THE BIRTH OF YUGOSLAVIA<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></h1> + + +<h2><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION</h2> + +<h3>THE TRAGEDY OF A FRONTIER</h3> + +<p>Kiepert, the famous geographer, was able, as the +result of his diligent researches and explorations, to correct +many errors in former ethnological maps; but in the map +of the Balkan Peninsula, which he published in 1870, the +country between Kustendil, Trn and Vranja is represented +by a white space. And if the people who dwell +in these wild, narrow valleys had been overlooked as +thoroughly by subsequent Congresses and Frontier Commissions +they would have been most grateful. They +only asked—this well-built, stubborn race—that one +should leave them to their own devices in their homes +among the mountains where the lilac grows. They +asked that one should leave them with their ancient +superstitions, such as that of St. Petka, who inhabited +a cavern high above the present road from Trn, while St. +Therapon, so they say, lived by himself upon a neighbouring +rock. Inside the cavern now the water drips +continuously and is collected in large bowls; these are +St. Petka's tears, which are particularly beneficial, say +the natives, for afflicted eyes. But though this region +is so poor that, towards the end of the Turkish régime +and during the war of Bulgarian liberation and also in +the winter of 1879-80, the people were compelled, through +lack of flour, to use a sort of "white earth," <i>bela zemja</i>, +yet this land was coveted, and now the maps no longer +show an empty space but a variety of names and a +frontier line. From the nomenclature we perceive that +the region was visited of old by people who were not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +Slavs—such were those who gave to a mountain the name +of Ruj, to a village the name of Erul, and to a river the +name of Jerma, which has been explained as being derived +from the Lydian Hermos, the river of St. Therapon's +birthplace. The names of Latin colouring may either be +memorials of the Romanized Thracians or else may refer +to the mediæval Catholics, whether Saxon miners or +travelling merchants. But there does not seem in the +veins of the present population to be much trace of these +other settlers or wayfarers; at any rate, the Slavs do not +differ appreciably among themselves, and the drawing of +a frontier line has been a peculiar hardship.</p> + +<p>One of the greatest misfortunes of the nineteenth +century was the creation of separate Serbian and Bulgarian +kingdoms, wherein there was so small an ethnological +difference between these two branches of the Yugoslavs; +and in those districts where a frontier runs one sees +especially how criminal it was to make this separation. +Balkan philologists to-day will tell you—and even those +who are in other respects the most rabid Serbs or Bulgars—that +there is really no such thing as a Serbian and a +Bulgarian language, but only groups of Yugoslav dialects. +And yet it pleased the Great Powers to prevent the union +of the two Balkan brothers. In that region with which +we are dealing the Berlin Congress attempted to draw, +with very inadequate maps, a frontier line along the +watershed; and the Commissioners who were sent to +mark out this line, observing that many of the indicated +points did not coincide with the watershed, thought it +would be preferable to trace the frontier along the saddle, +between the tributaries of the Morava on one side and +of the Struma and the river of Trn on the other. As the +region was, however, not uninhabited the farmers were +frequently cut off, as at Topli Dol and Preseka, from the +meadows and the forests which they had regarded always +as their own. Bismarck, speaking with indifference of +"the fragments of nations that inhabit the Balkan +Peninsula," could see in the national yearning of the +Yugoslavs only a yearning for lawlessness and tumult. +So he laboured at his plan of dominating Europe with the +mighty structure of the German, Austro-Hungarian and +Russian conservative empires; and if he built it over<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +a stream of democracy, with results that are to-day +apparent, who knows whether the statesmen of our day +are not somewhere constructing a house which to our +descendants will appear equally ridiculous? And anyhow, +as we shall see, he was far from being the only offender +at the Berlin Congress. If that particular strip of frontier +had been drawn in the most unimpeachable fashion it +would still have been iniquitous.</p> + +<p>One may object that even if the people were divided +by rough-and-ready methods, that was no reason why +they should oppose each other, and indeed a number of +frontier incidents which occurred between the time of +the Congress and 1885 were not regarded, either by Serbs +or by Bulgars, as being serious obstacles to a union. But +Russia and Austria, revelling in the intrigues, continued +to pull the two States now this way and now that, and all +too frequently against each other. It can thus not be a +matter of surprise if the rather inexperienced statesmen +of those little countries fell into line with the two Great +Powers and spent a good deal of their energies in assailing +each other. So blind, alas! were these statesmen that +all the tears of St. Petka would not have cured them, +and now the two kindred people, so progressive in many +ways, are—to speak of each people as a whole—further +apart than when their shaggy forefathers came over the +Carpathians. It has been the fate of the Yugoslavs—Slovenes, +Croats, Serbs and Bulgars—to live for centuries +beside each other and be kept always, by foreign masters, +isolated from each other. At rare intervals, as we shall +see in following their history, a person has arisen who has +tried, with altruistic or with selfish motives, to make some +sort of union of the Yugoslavs. And now we will go +back to the time when Slavs first wandered westward to +the Balkans.</p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="I" id="I"></a>I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></h2> + +<h3>GLORY AND DISASTER</h3> + +<p class="subtitle"><span class="smcap">Arrival of the Southern Slavs</span>—<span class="smcap">Their unfortunate democratic +ways</span>—<span class="smcap">Two early States</span>—<span class="smcap">Ecclesiastical rocks</span>—<span class="smcap">The Slavs +and their neighbours</span>—<span class="smcap">Simeon the Bulgar</span>—<span class="smcap">What are the +Bulgars?</span>—<span class="smcap">Stephen Nemania</span>—<span class="smcap">The Slovenes are submerged</span>—<span class="smcap">The +fate of the Croats</span>—<span class="smcap">The glory of Dubrovnik</span>—<span class="smcap">A +gallant republic</span>—<span class="smcap">The glorious Dušan</span>—<span class="smcap">Evil days and the +people's hero</span>—<span class="smcap">The "Good Christians" of Bosnia</span>—<span class="smcap">Kossovo</span>—<span class="smcap">Gathering +Darkness.</span></p> + + +<p class="section">ARRIVAL OF THE SOUTHERN SLAVS</p> + +<p>The Slavs who in the fifth, sixth and seventh centuries +came down from the Carpathian Mountains were known, +until the ninth century, as Slovenes (Sloventzi);<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> and if, +as is natural, the Serbs and Croats wish to preserve their +time-honoured names, they will perhaps agree to call +their whole country by the still more ancient name of +Slovenia, instead of the merely geographical and not +wholly popular term Yugoslavia. Considering that this +name (Slovenija) found favour in the eyes of their great +Emperor Stephen Dušan, one would imagine that the +Serbs might adopt it in preference to the cumbrous "Kingdom +of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes," with its unlovely +abbreviation into three letters of the alphabet. The +Croats would be glad of this solution, and thus the Yugoslavs +would, unlike their relatives the Russians, the Poles +and the Czechs, have the satisfaction of living in a country +called Slovenia, the land of the Slavs.... But, although +this would be a happy solution, it seems much more +probable that eventually the name Yugoslavia will be +adopted. Everyone is agreed that one inclusive word,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +answering to Britain and British, is necessary. "Evo +naših!" ["Here are our men!"] were the words used by +the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes as their troops marched +past them in Paris during the Allied celebration of July +1919. The Serbian Colonel of the Heiduk Velko regiment, +which was stationed at Split in 1920, and of which +the other officers were chiefly Croats, the men Moslem +and Catholic, used in his public addresses to speak of +"Our kingdom." There are various objections to the +word Yugoslavia; in the first place, it was introduced by +the Austrians, who did not wish to call their subjects +Serbs and Croats; in the second place, the term is a literal +translation from the German and is against the laws of +the Serbo-Croatian language. Another, and more important +objection, is that the Bulgars, though Yugoslavs, +are not included in Yugoslavia; and perhaps the name +will be officially adopted when the Bulgars join the other +Southern Slavs.</p> + + +<p class="section">THEIR UNFORTUNATE DEMOCRATIC WAYS</p> + +<p>These Southern Slavs did not display the same genius +for organization as the Germanic peoples or the Magyars +at the period of their respective migrations. In communities +of brethren (or <i>bratsva</i>, from the word <i>brat</i>, a brother) +they had not raised up a king; but as a compensation +they possessed a lofty moral code, a religion inspired by +the worship of nature and by the principle of the +immortality of the soul. Occupying themselves with +agriculture and the rearing of cattle, it was not until +they came into contact, that is to say hostile contact, +with their more organized neighbours that they were +compelled to join together under the authority of a prince, +a <i>knez</i>. The bad result of this profoundly democratic +spirit was that the Slavs, not knowing how to keep united, +fell under the yoke of other nations. From the interesting +series of documents, Latin, Arabic, Byzantine and others, +which have been collected in <i>Monimenta Sclavenica</i> by +Miroslav Premrou, notary public at Caporetto, and +published in 1919 at Ljubljana (Laibach), we can see +that the Slovenes occupied a much greater extent of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +territory than do their descendants of our day—"ab +ortu Vistulæ ... per immensa spatia..." (cf. <i>Jordanis +de orig. Goth.</i> c. 5)—to beyond the Tagliamento, and from +the Piave (cf. Ibrahim Ibn-Jakub<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>) to the Adriatic, the +Ægean and the Black Sea.</p> + +<p>One of the earliest of the above-named Slovene princes +was Samo, a Slovene by adoption, who struggled in +Pannonia against the Avars in the first half of the seventh +century; it happened also in the year 626 that other +Slovenes, as well as the Avars, attacked Constantinople. +Both of them withdrew, the former being defeated at sea +and the latter failing under the city walls. The Avars, +having thus shown that they were vulnerable, had to bear +an attack on a grand scale made upon them by the +Slovenes, this attack being more shrewdly organized +than any other transaction in which the Slovenes had as +yet engaged. And they still appeared to be reluctant +to form even a loosely knit State; they roamed about the +Balkans and the adjacent countries to the north-west, +seeking for lands that were adapted to their patriarchal +organization. Not until the ninth century did they set +up what might be called Governments on the Adriatic +littoral, where they had no hostility to fear from the last +remaining Romans, who were refugees in certain towns +and islands.</p> + + +<p class="section">TWO EARLY STATES</p> + +<p>The two most important of these Slav States were, +firstly, that one, the predecessor of our modern Croatia, +which extended from the mouth of the Raša (Arša) in +Istria to the mouth of the Cetina in central Dalmatia, +and, secondly, to the south-east a principality, afterwards +called Raška, in what is now western Serbia. In a little +time the Slavs began to have relations with the towns +of the Dalmatian coast and with the islands which were +nominally under the sway of Byzantium, but in consequence +of their remoteness and their exposed position had +succeeded in becoming almost independent republics.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p> + +<p class="section">ECCLESIASTICAL ROCKS</p> + +<p>Now Christianity had been definitely introduced into +Dalmatia in the fourth century, but it was not until +several centuries later that it made any headway with the +Slavs, of whom the Croats, in the ninth century, were +baptized by Frank missionaries. The arrival of the Slavs, +by the bye, had been sometimes looked upon with scanty +favour by the Popes: in July of the year 600 we find +Gregory <small>I.</small> saying in a letter to the Bishop of Salona that +he was much disturbed at the news he had just received +"de Sclavorum gente, quæ vobis valde imminet, affligor +vehementer et conturbor." Similarly, the Council of +Split branded the Slav missionaries as heretics and the +Slav alphabet as the invention of the devil.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> ... While +the Croats were falling<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> under the dominion of the Franks, +the holy brothers St. Cyril and St. Methodus, who had +been born at Salonica in 863, were carrying the first Slav +book from Constantinople to Moravia, whither they +travelled at the invitation of the Prince of Moravia, +Rastislav, St. Cyril going as an apostle and theologian, +St. Methodus as a statesman and organizer. This famous +book was a translation from the Greek, but it was written +in Palæo-Slav characters, the Glagolitic that were to +become so venerated that when the French kings were +crowned at Reims their oath was sworn upon a Glagolitic +copy of the Gospels;<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> and the spirit of that earliest book +was also Slav: it expresses the political and cultural +resistance of Prince Rastislav against the State of the +Franks, that is, against the German nationality, of whom +it was feared that with the Cross in front of them they +would trample down for ever the political liberties of +the young Slav peoples. German theologians were +giving a more and more dogmatic character to Western +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>Christianity, whereas the Christianity of the East was +at that time more liberal; it gathered to itself the +Slavs of Raška and of the neighbouring regions, such as +southern Dalmatia, while the influence which it exerted +was so powerful that when the Croats, after vacillating +between the two Churches, finally joined that of Rome, +they took with them the old Slav liturgy that is used by +them in many places on the mainland and the islands +down to this day. Thus their Church became a national +institution, and that in spite of all the long-continued +efforts of the Vatican, as also of the Venetian Republic. +The Roman Catholic hierarchy, by the way, is endeavouring +to have this liturgy made lawful in the whole of Yugoslavia; +the only opponent I met was a Jesuit at Zagreb +who foresaw that the priests, being no longer obliged to +learn Latin, might indeed omit to do so. Pope Pius <small>X.</small> was +likewise an opponent of the Slav liturgy, because a Polish +priest told him that it would lead to Pan-Slavism and +hence to schism; but it is thought—among others by +the patriotic Prince-Bishop Jeglić of Ljubljana—that the +late Pope would have given his consent, had it not been +for Austria, which recoiled from what would have probably +strengthened the Slav element. One of the cherished +policies of Austria was to utilize in every possible way the +religious differences between the Southern Slavs.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE SLAVS AND THEIR NEIGHBOURS</p> + +<p>But the two States formed beside the Adriatic and +in Raška were not only separated from early days by their +religion; they had quite different neighbours to deal +with. In 887 the Croats imposed their will on the Venetians, +against whom they had been for some time waging +war—and not merely a defensive war—the Venetians +having attacked the country in order to despoil it of timber +and of people, whom they liked to sell in the markets +of the Levant. In 887, however, after the defeat and +death of their doge, Pietro Candiano, the Venetians were +forced to pay—and paid without interruption down to the +year 1000—an annual tribute to the Croats, who in return +permitted them to sail freely on the Adriatic. Beside +that sea the Croats founded new towns, such as Šibenik<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +(of which the Italian name is Sebenico), and carried on an +amicable intercourse with the autonomous Byzantine +towns: Iader, the picturesque modern capital which +they came to call Zadar and the Venetians Zara; +Tragurium, the delightful spot which is their Trogir and +the Venetian Traù, and so forth. These friendly relations +existed both before 882 and subsequently, when the towns +agreed to pay the Croats an annual tribute, in return for +which the local provosts were confirmed in office by the +rulers of Croatia. We have plentiful evidence from the +ruins of royal castles and of the many churches built by +the Slavs in this period, as well as from the discoveries of +arms and ornaments, that the people had attained to a +condition of prosperity. At the beginning of the tenth +century, so we are told by the learned emperor and +historian Constantine Porphyrogenetos, the Croatian +Prince Tomislav could raise 100,000 infantry and 60,000 +cavalry; he had likewise eighty large vessels, each with a +crew of forty men, at his disposal, and a hundred smaller +ships with ten to twenty men in each of them.</p> + +<p>As for the State of Raška, protected on the south and +west by formidable mountains, and in the very centre +of the Serbian tribes, it is there that the lore and customs +of the people have survived in their purest form. Raška +was the land in which the love of liberty was always kept +alive and from there the expeditions used to sally forth +whose aim, frustrated many times, it was to found +a powerful Serbian State. The chieftain, Tshaslav +Kronimirović, did, as a matter of fact, succeed in uniting +his State with two others, one being in Bosnia and the +other in Zeta, which is now Montenegrin. He even added +three other provinces on the Adriatic coast; but after +his death the State was dissolved and in the course of the +conflicts which followed, the State of Zeta assumed the +leadership. It had been necessary for these Serbian +rulers of Raška and Zeta to resist the frequent assaults +not only of the Byzantines but of the Bulgars.</p> + + +<p class="section">SIMEON THE BULGAR</p> + +<p>"Frequent assaults" is probably a correct description +of what the Serb of that period had to endure at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +hands of this particular opponent, the Bulgar. Having +swarmed across the Peninsula, the Bulgar was now in the +act of consolidating a great kingdom, for this was the +magnificent epoch of the Bulgarian Tzar Simeon, whose +word ran far and wide from the Adriatic. The Bulgarian +map<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> which exhibits the Tzardom at the death of Simeon +is painted in the same brown colour from opposite Corfu +right across to the Black Sea and up as far as the mouths +of the Danube, which signifies that in those parts (including, +of course, Macedonia) the word of Simeon was supreme. +But the Serbian provinces of Raška, Zeta, Bosnia and +some adjoining lands are painted brown and white, being +hatched with white diagonal lines; and this indicates very +candidly that in the north-west Simeon was not omnipotent. +We are indeed told in the letterpress that "on +the other hand Simeon meanwhile took the opportunity +to settle accounts with the Serbians because of their +perfidious policy, and he subjected them in the year 924"; +but doubtless this was a kind of subjection which in 925 +would have to be repeated, and this would account for +one of Simeon's faithful chroniclers having made that +allusion to perfidious policy. Of the Tzar himself we +are given an attractive picture: unlike his father, Boris, +who patronized Slav literature for the reason that it +made his State less permeable to Byzantine influence, +Simeon had no political object in his encouragement of +native literature.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> He was himself a man of letters, +having studied at Constantinople. He was acquainted +with Aristotle and Demosthenes, he discussed theology +with the most eminent doctors of the Church, and of +positive science—or of what was then regarded as such—he +possessed everything which had survived the great +shipwreck of ancient thought. Not only did he found +monasteries and schools, but he gathered writers round +him; and, in order to stimulate them, he himself wrote +original books and translations, thus ennobling, we are +told, the literary vocation in the eyes of his rude and +warlike race. He would probably have smiled if he had +known that one of his writers had attributed to him the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>subjection of the Serbs; but what one would like to +learn is whether Macedonia, even then a kaleidoscope +of races, was more or less completely under the shadow +and the brilliance of his sword, more or less completely +subjugated. Four centuries later the Serbs were to have +a Macedonian empire which, like Simeon's, dissolved on +the death of its founder. To these old empires the Serb +and the Bulgar of our day are looking back, and it would +be interesting to know if harassed Macedonia was calmly +content to be first Bulgarian and then Serbian, or whether +it was a calm of that Eastern kind which means that a +ruler's assaults upon the people are infrequent.</p> + + +<p class="section">WHAT ARE THE BULGARS?</p> + +<p>And now, as the matter is in dispute, it is necessary +to examine the origin of the Bulgarian people. A band +of Turanian or Bulgarian warriors, probably not over +10,000 in number and led by one Asperouch or Isperich, +had crossed the Danube in the year 679, had subdued the +Slav tribes in those parts—for the newcomers reaped the +advantage of being a well-disciplined people—and by the +end of the eighth century had settled down in their tents +of felt along the banks of the Danube. Then, after +another hundred years, in the district bounded by Varna, +Rustchuk and the Balkans, one may say that the original +Turanians, a branch of the Huns, had been absorbed by +the Slavs. "The forefathers of the Bulgars," says the +great Slavist, Dr. Constantine Jireček of Prague, in his +<i>History of the Bulgars</i>, "are not the handful of Bulgars who +conquered in 679 a part of Mœsia along the Danube, but +the Slavs who much earlier had settled in Mœsia, as well +as in Thrace, Macedonia, Epirus and almost the whole +Peninsula." With regard to the retention of the name +there is an analogy in France, where the Gauls came under +the subjection of German Franks, who ultimately disappeared, +but left their name to the country. So, too, +the Greeks in Turkey who call themselves Romei, the +name of their former rulers, and their language Romeica, +though they are not Romans and do not speak Latin. +To such an extent have the original Bulgars been absorbed +by the Yugoslavs that even the most ancient known form<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +of the Bulgarian language, dating from the ninth century, +retains hardly any relics of the original Bulgarian tongue; +and this tongue has in our time, with the exception of a +word or two, been entirely lost: there is a celebrated old +MS. in Moscow<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> which orientalists and historians have +pondered over and which has now been explained by the +Finnish professor Mikola and the Bulgarian professor +Zlatarski to be a chronology of Bulgarian pagan princes, +of whom the first are rather fabulous. Here and there, +amid the old Slav, are strange words which are supposed +to signify Turanian chronology, cycles of lunar years. +And in a village between Šumen and Prjeslav there was +found an inscription of the Bulgarian prince Omortag +(?802-830), where in the Greek language, for the Bulgars +had at that period no writing of their own, he says that +he built something; and amid the Greek there is the word +<ins class="correction" +title="Transcriber's note: Transliterated as 'sigor-alem'">σιγορ-αλεμ</ins>, which occurs also in the above-mentioned +document and is regarded as Turanian.... What we do +know about this race is by no means so discreditable; +it is true that they are reputed to have had no great +esteem for the aged, and, according to a Chinese chronicle +of the year 545, "the characters of their writing are like +those of the barbarians." They held it to be glorious +to die in battle, shameful to die of sickness. For the +violation of a married woman, as well as for the hatching +of plots and rebellion, the penalty was death, and if you +seduced a girl you were compelled to pay a fine and also +to marry her. Their sense of discipline, which served +them so well in their contact with other people, was +remarkably applied to their social life; thus a stepson was +under an obligation to marry his father's widow, a nephew +the widow of his uncle, and a younger brother the widow +of an elder. It may be that the two much-quoted +writers who claim that the modern Bulgars are of this +race were moved more by their admiration of such customs +than by scientific scrutiny. One of them, Christoff, who +assumed the name of Tartaro-Bulgar to show that he +believed in his theories, is usually thought nowadays to +have been more of a poet than a devotee of erudition; +if he had been still more of a poet, approaching, say, +Pencho Slaveikoff, we would take less objection to his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +waywardness. The other champion of that ancestry is +Theodore Paneff, who showed himself a brilliant and +courageous officer during the war of 1912-1913. The +fact that he was himself of Armenian origin—he changed +his name—would, of course, not invalidate his Bulgarian +studies; but even as he spoke Bulgarian with a Russian +accent, so is he looked upon as writing like certain +Russians; and his other literary work, such as that on +the psychology of crowds, is held to be of more value. +At all events in 1916 when a number of Bulgarian deputies +made a joyous progress to the capitals of their allies, +under the leadership of the Vice-President of the +Sobranje, Dr. Momchiloff, renowned at the time as a +Germanophil, they were welcomed with great pomp +at Buda-Pest and declared in ceremonial orations to +be brothers of the Turanian Magyars; but Momchiloff +deprecated this idea. "We are brothers," he said, "of +the Russians, and see what we have done to them!" +It was also during the War that Dr. Georgov, Professor +of Philosophy and Rector of Sofia University, wrote a +dissertation in a Buda-Pest newspaper,<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> which demonstrated +very clearly to the Hungarians that the Bulgars +are Slavs; the Professor points out that the Turanians +had so rapidly been absorbed that Prince Omortag +bestowed Slav names upon his sons, and this complete +mingling of the radically different peoples was assisted, +says the Professor, by the fact that those Bulgarian hordes +in the days before they crossed the Danube were already +partly mixed with Slavs, since they had been wandering +for decades to the north of the Danube, around Bessarabia, +in which country the Slavs were members of the same +Slovene race as those whom they were afterwards to +meet. So thoroughly were the original Bulgars submerged +in the Slavs that when their sons set out from +the district between Varna, Rustchuk and the Balkans, +proceeding west and south, they met with no resistance +from the unorganized Slavs of Mœsia and Thrace, owing +to the circumstance that these latter did not feel that the +new arrivals were strangers. In fact, says the Professor, +there are in the present Bulgarian people far fewer and +far fainter traces of the original Bulgars than there are +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>of the old Thracians, as also of the Greeks and of the +different people who in the course of the great migrations +probably left here and there some stragglers. Sir Charles +Eliot says of the Bulgars that "though not originally +Slavs they have been completely Slavized, and all the +ties arising from language, religion and politics connect +them with the Slavs and not with Turkey or even Hungary." +Professor Cvijić, by the way, who in 1920 received +the Patron's Medal of the Royal Geographical Society +for his researches into Balkan ethnology, regards the +author of <i>Turkey in Europe</i> as a greater authority in +this field than himself.... It is not easy, away from +Montenegro and a few remote valleys, to find communities +on the Balkan mainland that are altogether free from +alien blood; Turks have come and gone, Crusaders of all +nationalities have passed this way, with their hangers-on, +here was the road from Europe to Asia, and here amid +the ruin of empires lay much that was worth gathering. +No doubt the Serbs, whose land was not so much a +thoroughfare, have in their veins some Illyrian and other, +but on the whole much less non-Slav blood than the +Bulgars; still, when we consider some subsequent invasions +of Bulgaria, we must ascertain how far they +spread. For example, the Kumani who arrived in the +thirteenth century were, according to Leon Cahun,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> +Turks of the Kiptchak nation, speaking a pure Turkish +dialect; they—that is to say, the Gagaous who are supposed +to be their descendants—are now Christians, they +speak modern Turkish and inhabit the shores of the Black +Sea and the region of Adrianople; they have kept much +to themselves and are recognizable by their dark faces, +large teeth and hirsute appearance. There are people +who assert that all Bulgars have a physical divergence +from other Yugoslavs, but, except if they happened to +come across one of these Gagaous or some such person, +it appears more likely that they saw what they went +out to see. Naturally, if not very logically, those who +regard the Bulgars in a hostile fashion have often +brandished the arguments of Messrs. Tartaro-Bulgar +and Paneff; if they will be so good as to accept what I +honestly believe is the truth with regard to this people,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +they may have the pleasure of denouncing the Bulgar +even more, seeing that his Yugoslav blood gives him less +excuse for being what he has been. We shall have +occasion, later on, to discuss his primitive as well as +his more refined vices, endeavouring to ascertain how +far they are not shared by his neighbours and whether +he has any virtues peculiar to himself.</p> + + +<p class="section">STEPHEN NEMANIA</p> + +<p>After this long excursion into troubled waters we will +go back to the Serbian States of Raška and Zeta. In the +year 1168 the former of these was under the rule of +Stephen Nemania (1168-1196), who bore the title of +"Grand Župan," which means chief of a province. He +was on friendly terms with the "Ban," or governor, of +Bosnia, and with his assistance he added Zeta to his +possessions. It was in his beneficial reign that the +Bogomile heresy was propagated in Serbia—later on to +spread through Bosnia and thence, under the name of +Albigensian heresy, to France. Nemania summoned an +assembly to decide on a plan of action; they resolved +that this heresy should be exterminated by force of arms, +seeing that most of the population belonged to the +Orthodox religion. But Nemania was tolerant towards +the Catholic Church, which had a considerable following +in the Serbian provinces of the Adriatic coast, and this +attitude became him well, for although he was the son of +Orthodox parents he was born in a western part of the +country where there was no Orthodox priest, so that he +was baptized according to the Catholic rite and only +joined the Orthodox Church at a considerably later date. +A suggestive incident occurred in the year 1189, when +Frederick Barbarossa, on his way to Constantinople and +Jerusalem, was met at Niš by the Grand Župan, who +presented him with corn, wine, oxen and various other +commodities, placed the Serbs under his protection, and +concluded with him and with the Bulgars a military +convention for the taking of Constantinople. When at +last Nemania was tired of fighting and administration +he withdrew to the splendid monastery of Studenica,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +which he had built, and afterwards to the promontory +of Mt. Athos, where his younger son, who called himself +Sava and was to become the great St. Sava, had from his +seventeenth year embraced the monastic life.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE SLOVENES ARE SUBMERGED</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the Slavs of Croatia and those farther to +the north and west, with whom was kept alive the old +name of Slovene, had been at grips with various neighbours. +It has been said of the Slovenes that, shepherds +and peasants for the most part, they have practically +no national history, seeing that when the realm of Samo, +who was himself a Frank, came to an end, they were subjected +to the Lombards, to the Bavarians and finally to +Charlemagne and his successors. Unlike the Serbs and +the Croats, they had no warlike aristocracy; in fact, +the only two Slovene magnates who displayed any +national zeal were two Counts of Celje (Cilli) of whom the +first rose to be Ban of Croatia and the second, Count +Ulrich, the last of his race, was in 1486 assassinated by +Hungarians in Belgrade, thus causing his domains to +fall to the Habsburgs.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> But if the little, scattered Slovene +people had to bend before the storm, if they withdrew +from their outposts in the two Austrias, in northern +Styria, in Tirol, in the plains of Frioul and in Venetia, +they settled down, thirteen centuries ago, in a region +which they still inhabit. This is bounded to the north +approximately by the line extending from Villach—Celovec +(Klagenfurt)—Spielfeld—Radgona (Radkersburg)—and +the mouth of the river Mur, although there are +noteworthy fragments at each end: about 65,000 on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +hills to the west of the Isonzo (of whom 40,000 have +been since 1866 under Italy), and about 120,000, partly +Catholics and partly Protestants, who live on the other +bank of the Mur. Anyone who wished to follow the +fortunes of the Slovenes through the Middle Ages would +have chiefly to consult the chronicles of the Holy Roman +Empire; he would find them in their old home at Gorica, +but with a German Count placed over them, he would +find them being gradually supplanted by the Germans +in such towns as Maribor (Marburg) and Radgona, being +thrust out to the villages and the countryside; nowhere +except in the province of Carniola would he find a homogeneous +Slovene population. It is an interesting fact<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> +that in the fifteenth century theirs was the "domestic +language" of the Habsburgs, even as in our time the +Suabian-Viennese; but until the era of Napoleon they +took practically no part in the world's affairs, and the +part which they were wont to take was to fight other +people's battles: for example, when the Venetians, +in the midst of all their hectic merriment, were making +the last stand, it was largely to the Schiavoni, that is +Slovene, regiments that they entrusted their defence. +We are told that there was no question of the loyalty +and the fighting qualities of the Schiavoni and of their +sturdy fellow-Slavs, the Morlaks of Dalmatia. It was +not possible for the authorities to provide ships enough +to bring over sufficient resources to maintain all those +who were eager to fight.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> In spite of all the centuries +of political suppression the little Slovene people, which +to-day only numbers 1,300,000, retained its identity +with even more success than a certain frog in Ljubljana, +their capital; for that wonderful creature, though preserving +its shape in the middle of a black-and-white marble +table at the Museum, has allowed itself to become black-and-white +marble. We shall see how Napoleon awoke +the Slovenes, how Metternich put them to sleep again, +how they roused themselves in 1848 and what a rôle +they have played in the most recent history.</p> + +<p class="section">THE FATE OF THE CROATS</p> + +<p>The Croats were to be much more prominent in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +Middle Ages. They did not, it is true, always manage +to hold their heads above water; but they can now look +back with more gratification than regret on the interminable +conflicts which they had to sustain against the +Hungarians on the one hand, the Venetians on the other. +The Hungarian monarch, anxious to have an outlet on +the Adriatic, attempted to cajole the Croats into electing +him as their king, on the score of his being the brother +of the wife of a late Croatian ruler. He secured by force +what his pleadings had not gained him, and subsequently +the link between Croatia and Hungary was more than +once broken and reunited within the space of a few +years; at last it was arranged that there was to be a +purely personal union under the vigorous King Kolomon, +and so it continued, with varying interference on the +part of the Hungarians, until the dynasty of Arpad +became extinct in 1301. The functionary who represented +the central power in Croatia—there being for part of +this period a similar official for Slavonia, the adjoining +province—had the title of Ban. He was at the head of +the Croatian army, he pronounced sentences in the name +of the king and had other functions, so that the office +came to be regarded with profound respect by the Croats, +and many of its holders tried to deserve this sentiment.... +Among the duties assumed by King Kolomon was that +of recovering from the Venetians those coastal towns +and islands which had fallen to them, owing to the chaos +in Croatia. For more than two hundred years—that is, +until the middle of the fourteenth century—this warfare +between the Hungaro-Croatian kings and Venice raged +without interruption; apparently the Dalmatian towns +and islands were most unwilling to come under the sway +of Venice. We read everywhere of how they themselves +put up a strenuous resistance. At Zadar, the capital, +where Pope Alexander <small>III.</small> had in the year 1177 been +welcomed by the people with rejoicings and Croatian +songs, a chain was drawn across the harbour in 1202, +for the people hoped in this way to keep out the Venetians, +who, with a number of Frenchmen, were starting out on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +the famous Fourth Crusade—that enterprise which ended, +on the outward journey, underneath the walls of Constantinople. +The Venetians forced their way into Zadar, +plundered and devastated it; and in order to mollify +the Pope, who was indignant at Crusaders having behaved +in this fashion against a Christian town, they subscribed +towards the building of the cathedral, but retained possession +of the place—this time for over a hundred and +fifty years. Yet the holding of Zadar did not imply +that of other Dalmatian towns: during this period when +Venice clung to the chief place there were a good many +changes in the not-distant town of Šibenik, which was +now under the Hungarians, now under Paul Subič, +Prince of Bribir, now under the Ban Mladen <span class="smcap">ii.</span>, now +an autonomous town under Venice.</p> + + +<p class="section">A GALLANT REPUBLIC</p> + +<p>The most renowned, as it is the most beautiful, of +Dalmatian towns, Dubrovnik (Ragusa), was always more +preoccupied with commerce and letters than with warfare. +It managed to maintain itself in glory for a very long +time, thanks to the astuteness of the citizens, who were +ever willing to give handsome tribute to a potential foe. +On occasion the Ragusans could be nobly firm, refusing +to deliver a political refugee to the Turks, and so forth. +In such tempestuous times the little State was forced to +trim its sails; there was the gibe that they were prepared +to pay lip service to anyone, and that the letters S.B. on +the flag (for Sanctus Blasius, their patron saint) indicated +the seven flags, <i>sette bandiere</i>, which they were ready to +fly. But the Republic of Dubrovnik—a truly oligarchic +republic, until the great earthquake of 1667 made it +necessary to raise a few other families into the governing +class—the republic can say, with truth, that when darkness +was over the other Yugoslavs it kept a lamp alight. +As yet the Serbian State was rising in prosperity and +Dubrovnik made a treaty of commerce with Stephen +(1196-1224), who had succeeded his father Nemania. +During this reign St. Sava, the king's brother, came +back to Serbia and organized the national Church, founding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +also numerous monasteries and churches, as well as +schools. Of the successors of Stephen we may mention +Uroš, whose widow, a French princess, Helen of Anjou, +is venerated in Serbia for her good deeds and has been +canonized. King Milutine (1281-1321) made Serbia the +most united and the leading State in Eastern Europe; +under Dušan, who has been called the Serbian Charlemagne, +success followed success, and under his sceptre +he gathered most of the Serbian people, as well as many +Greeks and Albanians. He had the idea—and it was not +beyond his strength—to group together all the Serbian +provinces.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE GLORIOUS DUŠAN</p> + +<p>It is facile for people of the twentieth century, and +particularly so for non-Slavs, to say that this Serbian +Empire of Dušan, Lord of the Serbs and Bulgars and +Greeks, whom the Venetian Senate addressed as "Græcorum +Imperator semper Augustus," resembled the earlier Bulgarian +Empire of Simeon, who called himself Emperor +of the Bulgars and the Vlachs, Despot of the Greeks, in +that we would consider neither of them to be an empire; +and that therefore, in celebrating their glories, with +pointed reference to their Macedonian glories, the Serbs +and the Bulgars are living in a fool's paradise. No +doubt a great many persons dwelt in this Macedonia of +Simeon and Dušan without being aware of the fact, for +those who called themselves Bulgars or Serbs appear to +have been chiefly the warriors, the nobles and the priests; +a large part of the people were—as they are to-day—indifferent +to such niceties. But there is latent in the +Slav mind a longing for the absolute, which, except it +be in some way corrected, inclines towards a moral +anarchy, a social nihilism and indifference as to the +destinies of the State. Looking merely at the consequence, +it does not greatly seem to matter how +this attitude is brought about.... One must admit +that these two realms occupied in their world most +prominent positions—positions to which they would not +have attained if Simeon and Dušan had not been altogether +exceptional men, for on their death there was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +not anybody great enough to keep the great men of the +State together. We have spoken of Simeon's peaceful +labours—we might cultivate more than we do the literature +of that age if it were less dedicated to religious +topics, which anyhow at that time gave little scope for +originality—his consummate ability as a soldier and +statesman is revealed in the existence of his empire; we +find in the Code of Dušan, before such a thing flourished +in England, the institution of trial by jury, while Hermann +Wendel<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> has pointed out that the peasants were protected +from rapacious landowners much more effectively +than in the Germany of that age.... We need not try +to establish whether the simple Macedonian desired to +be under Simeon or Dušan; but even if these two +monarchs had, each of them, as far as was then possible, +complete control of the country, one would scarcely urge +that after all these centuries this is any reason why +Macedonia should fall to Bulgaria or to Serbia. We shall +have to see whether by subsequent merits or activities +either of them has acquired the right to absorb these +outlying Slavs who, be it noted, if in our day they are +questioned as to their nationality, will often reply—and +even to an enthusiastic, armed person from one of the +interested States—the worried Macedonian Slavs, of whom +a quarter or maybe a third do really not know what they +are, will reply that they are members of the Orthodox +Church.</p> + +<p>Dušan perceived that an alliance with Venice would +serve his ends; he did not cease trying to persuade the +Venetians that such an arrangement was also in their +interest. After having sent an army to Croatia, in the +hope of liberating that people from the Hungarians, he +conquered Albania, and in 1340 asked to be admitted +as a citizen of the Most Serene Republic. In 1345 he +informed the Senate that it was his intention to be +crowned in <i>imperio Constantinopolitaneo</i>, and at the same +time suggested an alliance <i>pro acquisitione imperii Constantinopolitani</i>. +But Venice, while reiterating her protestations +of friendship, declined his offers; for she could +not bring herself to join her fortunes to those of an ally +who might become a rival.</p> + +<p class="section">EVIL DAYS AND THE PEOPLE'S HERO</p> + +<p>On the death of Dušan his dominions fell apart, so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +that the conquering Turk, who now appeared, was only +met with isolated resistance. At a battle on the river +Maritza in 1371 the Christians were utterly routed and, +among other chieftains, King Vukašin was slain. His +territories had included Prizren in the north, Skoplje, +where Dušan had been crowned, Ochrida and Prilep. +It was Prilep, amid the bare mountains, which passed +into the hands of Marko, the king's son, Marko Kraljević, +and thereabouts are the remains of his churches and +monasteries. But for the Serbs and the Bulgars Marko +is associated with deeds of valour; he has become the +protagonist of a grand cycle of heroic songs, wherein his +wondrous exploits are recalled. Although he was, by +force of circumstances, a Turkish vassal, and, fighting +under them, he perished in Roumania in 1394, so that +historically he may not have played a very helpful part, +yet it is to him that numerous victories over the Turk +are ascribed. He is said to have been engaged in combat +against the three-headed Arab, to have waged solitary +and triumphant warfare against battalions of Turks, to +have passed swiftly on his faithful charger Šarac from +one end of the country to another, to have defended the +Cross against the Crescent, to have succoured the poor +and the weak, to have conversed with the long-haired +fairies, the "samovilas," of the forest lakes, who gave +him their protection, and he is said to have assisted +girls to marry by abolishing the Turkish restrictions. +They say that he is still alive, and when he reappears, +gloriously seated on Šarac, then will the people be free, +at last, and united.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> Through the long centuries of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +Turkish oppression he—who personifies many of the +traits in the national character, with Christian and with +pagan attributes—he, in these legends, many of which +have a high poetic value, was able to keep alive the hope +of deliverance. From one end of the Balkans to the +other, from Varna to Triest, the popular hero is Marko +Kraljević. He is as much the personage of Bulgarian +as of Serbian folk-songs, and this is well, seeing that he +was a Serbian prince while many of his adoring subjects +were Bulgars—the noble Albanian chronicler, Musachi, +for instance, calls his father Re di Bulgaria. As Marko +is dear to them in song the Bulgars have come to +think that he was a Bulgar; thereupon the Serbs point +out that he was the son of Vukašin, that Marko is an +admittedly Serbian name, and that Kralj (King) and +Kraljević are titles so unknown in Bulgaria that when the +Sofia newspapers alluded to Louis Philippe, Ferdinand's +grandfather, they spoke of him—him of all people—as +Tzar Louis Philippe. Thereupon the Bulgars retort that, +anyhow, Marko was cruel and perfidious and a braggart +and a drunkard and a fighter against Christians, and a +fighter remarkable for cowardice. But if we are going +to look at the private character of all the world's national +heroes, we shall be the losers more than they. Let +Marko, who joins the Serb and the Bulgar in song, find +them engaged, when he comes back, in drinking together +and not in making him the subject of antiquarian and +acrimonious debate.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE "GOOD CHRISTIANS" OF BOSNIA</p> + +<p>While Serbia was listening to the Turkish cavalry, +the Ban of Bosnia, Tvertko, raised that province to its +greatest eminence. Being a collateral heir of the old +house of Nemania, and having wide Serbian lands under +his rule, he had himself proclaimed king on the tomb of +St. Sava in 1377. He called his banat "the kingdom of +Serbia," and allied himself to Prince Lazar, the most +powerful of the Serbian rulers who were still independent. +In Bosnia at this time the Bogomile heresy, after winning +the people of Herzegovina, that wild and mournful +province, attracted not only the peasants but the bans.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +Just as Dušan and other Balkan princes had made of an +autocephalous Church the surest foundation of their +States, so did the Bans of Bosnia, beginning with Kulin +at the close of the twelfth century, see in the Bogomile +movement a national Church that would render their +subjects more intractable to outside influences, to religious +suggestions emanating from Rome, and to political +ambitions that came from Hungary. The people, for +their part, flocked to the ranks of the "good Christians," +as the sect was called, on account of the Bogomile humility, +the democratic organization of a Church that was in such +contrast with the formalism of Byzantine ceremonial, +and also on account of some pagan superstitions that +were mingled with this Christianity and made to these +simple, recently converted Christians a most potent +appeal. It was in vain that the Popes preached a +crusade against the Bogomiles, in vain that the Kings of +Hungary descended on their heretical vassals; for the +ban, in one way or another, would divert that wrath—sometimes, +if no other choice presented itself, he became +the temporary instrument of this wrath while standing +at the people's back. From all the world, so say contemporary +records, there was a constant stream of heretics +to Bosnia, where now the Bogomiles were found in the +most exalted positions. Ceaselessly the Popes persecuted +them, and when at last in Sigismund of Hungary +an ardent extirpator visited the land there came about a +terrible result, which has made Bosnia so different from +other Serbian territories.</p> + + +<p class="section">KOSSOVO</p> + +<p>Tvertko did his utmost to make of Bosnia the kernel +of another great Slav State. The death of Lewis of +Hungary freed him from his most redoubtable adversary; +Dalmatia, Croatia and other lands were joining him—but +then in 1389 came Kossovo, the fatal field of blackbirds, +where a disloyal coalition of Serbian, Croatian, +Albanian and Bulgarian chieftains went down in irretrievable +disaster. Milos Obilić, who is now one of +Serbia's popular heroes, had been suspected of lukewarmness; +he answered his accusers by gaining access to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +Sultan's camp and slaying the Sultan. Not only did +the Turks put him to death, but they decapitated their +prisoner, Prince Lazar, and all the other chiefs.</p> + +<p>The Slavs along the Adriatic were now also on the +eve of dire misfortune: protracted wars of succession, +in consequence of the death in 1382 of Lewis of Hungary, +had ravaged that country and Croatia, so that +in their enfeebled condition they could give no assistance +to the towns and islands of Dalmatia which for so long +had been struggling to elude the grip of Venice. But +even so—and with many places handing themselves over +voluntarily, in disgust at the almost incredible treason +of their elected monarch, Ladislas of Naples, who, after +long bargaining, sold his rights to Venice for a hundred +thousand ducats, and with many places, in dread of the +Turks, placing themselves under the protection of Venice—even +so the Venetians had a great deal of trouble in +occupying Dalmatia, and a hundred years elapsed before +they had the whole of it. As for the two ports, Triest +and Rieka (Fiume), they had passed through various +episcopal or aristocratic hands. Triest had been in a +position to set her face against falling to Venice, of whom +she had had, from the tenth to the twelfth centuries, an +adequate experience. Both Triest and Rieka were now +to pass into the power of the Habsburgs.</p> + + +<p class="section">GATHERING DARKNESS</p> + +<p>For a few years after Kossovo the Serbs resisted; +but their efforts, now at Belgrade, which was made the +capital and fortified by Stephen the chivalrous son of +Prince Lazar, now at Smederevo on the Danube, were +spasmodic. Bands of Turks and also of Magyars were +terrorizing the country; and the sagacious old despot +George Branković was the last to offer opposition to the +Turk at Smederevo. Meanwhile in Bosnia, the Bogomiles, +driven to despair by persecution, had been calling +to the Turk. Constantinople fell in 1453, Serbia laid +down her arms in 1459, while in 1463 Muhammed <span class="smcap">ii.</span> +appeared before Jajce, Bosnia's capital, where one can +still see the skeleton of Stephen Tomažević, the last +king, who was executed by the Sultan's order. And now<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +in this land of heresy, which had become so hostile to +the established Churches, hundreds of those who professed +the Bogomile faith went over eagerly to Islam; +they hoped that in this way they would triumph at the +expense of their late persecutors. Those who had worldly +possessions were the first to embrace Islam, in order to +safeguard them. Those who had neither wealth nor +much accumulated hatred remained Christians. One +would expect that people who had adopted a religion +under these impulses would be even more uncompromising +than the usual convert, and indeed, as a general rule, +the ex-Christian begs and aghas displayed until recent +times not only a more than Turkish observance of +the outward forms of Islam but a tyranny over the +wretched raias, their slaves, that was much more than +Turkish.</p> + +<p>Fortune had turned her back upon the Southern +Slavs. In the north the Slovenes were imprisoned in the +Holy Roman Empire, while the Croats—save for the time +when they were under Tvertko—had a succession of alien +rulers, such as the aforementioned Ladislas, whom they +naturally disliked.</p> + +<p>After Kossovo some of the Serbian nobles had fled +to Hungary, to Bosnia and to Montenegro. It was among +the almost inaccessible, bleak rocks of Montenegro that +a few thousand Serbs managed to retain their liberty. +Various Serbian tribes or clans thus found a refuge, and +owing to their isolation from each other they preserved +their differences. They have, in fact, preserved them, as +well as the tribal organization, down to the present day. +And then there was Dubrovnik, the stalwart little +republic. Now that she stood alone she needed all her +acumen. Yet if she paid necessary tribute to the powerful, +she would not give up helping the fallen. From this +Catholic town in 1390, the following message was sent +to the Serbian Prince Vuk Branković: "If—and God +forbid that it should be so—Gospodin Vuk should not +succeed in saving Serbia, and should be driven thence +either by the Magyars or the Turks or anyone else, we +will receive the Gospodin Vuk and the Gospodja Mara +his wife, together with their children and their treasure, +in all good faith in our city; and if Gospodin Vuk desire<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +to build a church of his own faith here for his use, he shall +be at liberty to do so."<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p> + +<p>Darkness lay over the world of the Southern Slav—under +the Turk there was no history. Generation followed +generation, but the day of Kossovo does not seem to the +Serbs as though it were a distant day. Do not we who +go about our business in the brilliance of the morning +sometimes linger to recall the frightful setting of the sun? +And every year the Serbian people sing the Mass for the +repose of them who died at Kossovo.... When, after +more than five hundred years, the Serbian soldiers in the +Balkan War came back to this historic plain one saw them +halting, without being ordered to do so, crossing themselves +and presenting arms.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> From the word <i>sloviti</i>, to speak—meaning those who can speak to +and comprehend one another.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Premrou quotes from the account of this ambassador's journey in +the year 965, which was published at Petrograd in 1898.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Cf. <i>Serbia</i>, by L. F. Waring. London, 1917.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> The sources of the ancient history of Croatia have been collected by +F. Rački in his <i>Documenta historiæ Croaticæ periodum antiquam illustrantia</i>, +Zagreb, 1877. Cf. also his well-known and excellent essays in <i>Rad. +jugoslav. Akad.</i>; the <i>Poviest Hrvata de Vjekoslav Klaič</i>, Zagreb, 1899-1911, +and a short but very good account by F. Sišić in <i>Pregled povijesti +hrv. naroda</i>, Zagreb, 1916. I am indebted for these references to Dr. +Yovan Radonić, who is regarded as among the first of Croat historians.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> This book, dating from 1395, is in the town library of Reims.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> "The Bulgarians, in their historical, ethnographical and political +frontiers." Text in four languages. Berlin, 1917.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> <i>La Macedoine</i>, by Simeon Radeff. Sofia, 1918.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> <i>Obzor Chronografov</i>, published by Professor Popov in 1863.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> <i>Pester Lloyd</i>, June 21, 1917.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> <i>Introduction à l'Histoire de l'Asie.</i> Paris, 1896.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> In a monograph on the 600th anniversary of the Church of St. Mary +at Celje (Celje, 1910) there is reproduced a contemporary narrative of +the funeral of Count Ulrich. After describing how the widow, the noble +lady Catharine, had with dire wailing gone round the altar and offered +sacrifice, being followed by all the congregation, it proceeds: "Da diss +geschehen gieng wieder herfür ein geharnischter Mann, der Namb zu +sich Schilt, Helmb, Wappen, legte sich auf die Erden, vnd striche gar +lauth, ganz erbärmlich vnd gar Cläglich mit heller stimbe drei mahl +nacheinander Graffen zu Cilli, vnd Nimmehr zerreiss die Panier, Zerbrach +die Wappen da war Allererst ein Clagen, dass es nicht einen Menschen, +sondern ein harten stain hete Erbarmen Mögen."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Cf. A lecture delivered by Sir Arthur Evans before the Royal Geographical +Society, January 10, 1916.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Cf. <i>La Fine della Serenissima</i>, by Ricciotti Bratti. Milan, 1919.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> <i>Südosteuropäische Fragen</i>, by Hermann Wendel. Berlin, 1918.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> His equipment, as M. Charles Loiseau (in <i>Le Balkan Slave et la Crise +Autrichienne</i>, Paris, 1898) remarks very truly, "n'est pas banal." One +of his historians relates that he was furnished with a sword, a lance, +javelins and arrows trimmed with falcons' feathers, sometimes also with +a sabre and a small axe. He was garbed in a cloak of wolf's skin, using +the same skin for his cap, round which was wound a dark piece of cloth. +On his saddle was a scarf of silk. The reins of his horse were gilded, and +he carried in his right hand a javelin of iron, gold and silver, weighing +150 lb. (?), and this he balanced on the left side with a large skin of wine. +On his back was a magnificent cloak, and behind him there was a folded +tent.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> <i>Monumenta Serbica</i>, edited by F. Miklosić.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="II" id="II"></a>II<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span></h2> + +<h3>FIGHTING THE DARKNESS</h3> + +<p class="subtitle"><span class="smcap">The Venetians in Dalmatia—Methods of the Turk—The Slavs +who migrated—The consolation of those who remained—Good +living in Hungary—The Protestant influence—Dubrovnik, +refuge of the arts—How she smoothed her way—Her +commercial enterprise—Her northern kinsmen and the +military frontiers—The oppressive overlords of the Yugoslavs—The +great migration under the Patriarch—Activities +of the Southern Slavs under the Habsburgs—The position +of their Church—Serbs assist the Bulgarian Renascence—The +German colonists in the Banat—The Southern Slav +colonists and their religion—Bunjevci, Šokci and Krašovani.</span></p> + + +<p class="section">THE VENETIANS IN DALMATIA</p> + +<p>One might argue that the Slav of Dalmatia had no +gratitude, because when Serbia and Bosnia were utterly +under the Turk, when the Slovenes of Carniola, Carinthia +and Southern Styria suffered between 1463 and 1528 no +less than ten Turkish invasions, when in the middle of +that fifteenth century the crescent floated over all Croatia +and only the fortified towns of the seacoast and the +islands remained in the Christian hands of Venice, whom +a fair number of these towns and islands had called in to +protect them, surely one might argue that it was not +seemly if the local population, Croats and Serbs, detested +the Venetians. And on hearing that not long ago an +orator in the Italian Parliament exclaimed, "I cani +croati!"—a description that was greeted with a whirlwind +of applause—you possibly might argue that the +Speaker should have reprimanded him because ingratitude +is not a quality associated with dogs.</p> + +<p>As we gaze at the splendid structures, the palaces, +the forts, the magnificent cathedral of Šibenik that was +begun in 1443, the loggia of Trogir and Hvar, the loggia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +of Zadar—"a perfect example," we are told, "of a public +court of justice of the Venetian period"—the towers +on the old town-walls of Korčula, as we gaze at all those +elegant and useful and robust and picturesque buildings +which bear the sign of the Lion of St. Mark, do not the +complaints of the disgruntled population of that period +tax our patience?</p> + +<p>We may waive the fact that the Šibenik cathedral +was left unfinished for centuries, being only completed +by public subscription under the Austrians; we may +overlook the fact that the Lion of St. Mark was sometimes +placed on a building not erected by the Venetians. This +we can see at the Frankopan Castle on Krk, and elsewhere. +But it would be unjust if we held Venice up to +blame on account of some exuberant citizens. There are +many other buildings in Dalmatia which undoubtedly +were built by the Venetians: palaces and forts and walls +and loggia which are perfect examples of a Venetian +court of justice.</p> + +<p>Some one may ask why the Venetians built no churches +that were half as beautiful as those—say, St. Grisógono +at Zadar, the cathedrals of Zadar and Trogir, and so forth—which +were constructed under the Croatian kings. +Well, the possession of such churches would have been a +source of pride to the Dalmatians (and have kept awake +the national spirit more than did the forts and loggia), +and the Venetians wanted to preserve the people from the +sin of pride. There was also a feeling that the Dalmatian +forests were a source of pride to the people. So the +Venetians removed them. They were able to make use +of the wood for their numerous vessels, for the foundations +of their palaces, and as an article of export to Egypt +and Syria.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> + +<p>Then some one else may ask about the schools. One +must confess that the Venetians built no schools. But, +nay dear sir, contemplate the curious carving round the +windows of that palace, and then there is that perfect +example of a Venetian court of justice. Was it not unreasonable +for some of the Dalmatians to be discontented +it they and their countrymen were allowed no schools, +seeing that one did not need a school in order to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +eligible for the army or commercial navy, which were the +professions open to the natives of Dalmatia? With +regard to those natives who really wanted to have a +University diploma—well, the University of Padua was +prepared to grant one without an examination; the +"overseas subjects" could become doctors of medicine +or of law on the simple production of a certificate from +two doctors or two lawyers of their country, stating that +the candidate was a capable person. Thereupon he was +allowed to practise—in Dalmatia. And Venice herself +was disposed to grant privileges, such as an exemption +from all taxes, to those noblemen and burgesses and +highly placed clergy who were well disposed to her. But +as for schools, she could not ignore an anonymous work +of the end of the sixteenth century, which was attributed +to Fra Paolo Sarpi, the learned councillor of the Republic; +he warned them in this book that "if you wish the Dalmatians +to remain faithful to you, then keep them in +ignorance," and again: "In proportion as Dalmatia +is poor and a wilderness, so will her neighbours be less +anxious to seize her."</p> + +<p>With regard to roads—how could Venice be expected +to build roads? They might have been of service to +the population of the interior, but they would have +caused a certain number of those people to devote themselves +to trade, and thus would have prevented them +from guarding the land against the Turk, which was the +unquestioned duty of a man who lived in the interior.</p> + +<p>When the Venetians retired from Dalmatia in 1797, +after holding it for three to four hundred years, the +country as a country was not flourishing. The total of +exports and imports was such as would now satisfy a +single large trader. But, of course, the land possessed +those buildings with the Lion of St. Mark upon them—which +were possibly put up with the idea of enhancing +the prestige of the Republic—and it possessed the loggia.</p> + +<p>In 1797 when the Austrians arrived they found in the +prisons of Zadar that, out of two hundred convicts, fifty +were beyond human punishment, and of these one had +been dead for five years. The system was that the +Government allotted to the prisoners for their subsistence +a sum that was so inadequate that they were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +obliged to borrow from the warders; and when the +prisoner had served his sentence and was unable to repay +the warder, this functionary kept him under lock and +key. There in the same dungeon lay the untried and +the convicts and the insane, for whom there was no +separate habitation. It was impossible, said those who +set them free, to describe the horrors of filth, the bare +ground not being even covered with straw, the windows +being permanently closed with blocks of wood, so that +the poor inmates could never get a glimpse of the loggia, +that perfect example of a Venetian court of justice. The +hospital at Split was a damp cellar, and outside it was +a ditch of stinking water. The foundling home, which +was called <i>Pietà</i>, was a room so horrible that, out of +six hundred and three new-born children who had been +there in ten years, <i>not one had gone out alive</i>.</p> + +<p>But were not these abuses general at that epoch? +And can we demand that the Venetians of that time shall +answer the reproaches which it pleases us to make? +And what answer did they give to the reproaches of their +subjects, illustrious Dalmatians, such as Tommaseo +and Pietro Alessandro Paravia, who, although belonging +to the Italophil party, passed the sternest judgment on +the authorities? What excuse could there be in 1797, +seeing that, the wars having concluded at the beginning +of the eighteenth century, Venice was free to undertake +a humanitarian and civilizing work? Venice was by +no means in a disarming state of decrepitude. On her +own lands she had brought her stock-raising, her agriculture +and her industries to such a pitch of development +that she had the experience, as well as the initiative and +the means, to do something for the Dalmatians who, +and especially in the interior, knew no other trade than +that of arms. Terrible was the desolation of those days; +over large areas there was no drinking-water; the land +was merely used to pasture the herds of almost wild +cattle; instead of the superb forests were hundreds of +miles of naked rock; and nowhere had the Venetian +families, to whom the Government had given great +holdings, come to settle down among their peasants. +Nothing at all had been done in the way of canalization +or of drainage, so that the land was devastated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +with malarial fever. In 1797 only 256,000 inhabitants +remained; a hundred years later the number had doubled. +It had much more than doubled if we take into account +those who emigrated from a land which could no longer +support the population of the early Middle Ages.</p> + +<p>In 1797 the Venetian democrats begged Napoleon +not to take Dalmatia from them, since the harbours +and the population were indispensable to them. They +made no allusion to the sentiments of affection which +united these provinces to the Mother Country.</p> + +<p>But are we unfair to the Venetians? Are we omitting +the salient fact that, even if they were not model administrators, +they at all events kept out the Turk, who would +possibly have been more nefarious than themselves?... +When troops were needed to fight the Turk these were +for the most part provided, in the several long campaigns, +by the Croats and Serbs of Dalmatia.</p> + +<p>And what has been the fruit of all this? Let us take +an Italian writer's observations on the people of the +interior, the Morlaks.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> In his book <i>I Morlacchi</i> (Rome, +1890), Signor Francesco Majnoni D'Intignano says that +they are "endowed with courage and, like all courageous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +people, with frankness. They say what they think and +their sentiments are openly displayed. Thus, for example, +they do not attempt to conceal their antipathy against +the Italians. They are no longer mindful of the benefits +which they received in the past nor of the fact that the +Venetians freed them from the Turkish yoke; and this +is so not only because of the lapse of years, but because +under the Venetian rule they did not feel themselves +independent; they saw in the Italian merely that astuteness +which knows how to profit from other people's toil, +and which has no thought of making any payment. In +the Italian they have no faith, and so their 'Lazmansko +Viro' (Italian fidelity) is equivalent to the Romans' +expression 'Greek fidelity.' But all this does not prevent +them, when they have occasion to offer hospitality to an +Italian, from offering it with every courtesy."</p> + +<p>It is hardly worth while inquiring whether the +Venetians or the Turks wrought more evil against their +Yugoslav subjects. But though the modern Italian +claim to Dalmatia and the islands may appear to us—in +so far as it is based on historical grounds—to have +small weight, nevertheless we must not allow it to make us +insensible to the Venetian's good qualities. It may not +nowadays be reckoned as meritorious that, after her own +interests had been safeguarded, she did not interfere with +the privileges of the small class of nobles, the "magnifica +communità nobile," but at any rate it could be said of +her that she left intact the local privileges. One must +also bear in mind that the majority of her subjects in +those parts had, through one cause or another, a prejudice +against innovations which could only be broken down +very gradually.</p> + +<p>Nor were the Turks altogether vicious. Those who +came first into the Yugoslav lands were under a severe +discipline, and, preserving the austere habits of a warlike +race, they were not guilty—generally speaking—of +excesses. As the first comers were not very numerous, +they contented themselves with occupying the strategic +points; and as the Yugoslavs were accustomed to the +life of a State not being very prolonged, they were cheered +by the thought that their subjugation to the Turk would +fairly soon come to an end.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="section">METHODS OF THE TURK</p> + +<p>After the Turk had made himself master of Bosnia +and Herzegovina he enrolled among his janissaries 30,000 +of the young men, and in other parts of Yugoslavia showed +himself inclined at first to permit the people to follow +their own traditions, their religion,<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> their language and +their customs, so long as he was maintained in luxury and +so long as a sufficient supply of young men was forthcoming. +The abominable acts of cruelty, by which he is +now remembered in the Balkans, appear to have started +at a later period, when he had himself degenerated, when +his lawless soldiery provoked the people, when the people +rose and he suppressed them in a manner that would +make them hesitate to rise again. But from the first he +saw to it that there should be recruits; many a young +Slav taken early from his home was transformed at +Constantinople into a redoubtable janissary who fought +against Europeans; these troops, who were not allowed +to marry, gave an absolute obedience. They were perhaps +the finest infantry in the world—for two hundred years +they formed the strongest prop of the Turkish Empire. +Paulus Jovius, the historian, says that in 1531 nearly +the whole corps of janissaries spoke Slav. Other young +men were received into the Government offices—the +Porte, until the end of the seventeenth century, used the +Serbian language for its international transactions; its +treaties with the Holy Roman Empire, for example, were +all made out in Serbian and Greek. Finally there were +not wanting Southern Slavs who rose to high distinction +in the Sultan's service, such as Mehemet Sokolović, who, +after being thrice pasha of Bosnia, was elevated to the +post of grand vizier; Achmet Pasha Herzegović (son of +the last chief of Herzegovina), whose conversion was +followed by an appointment as Bey of Anatolia; he became +brother-in-law of Sultan Bajazet <span class="smcap">ii.</span> and likewise +grand vizier. There was Sinan Pasha, a Bosnian, who +constructed in Čajnica, his native place, the handsome +mosque that still exists, and there was the renowned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +Osman Pasvantoölu Pasha, also of Bosnian origin, who +appeared in 1794 outside the historic fortress called Baba +Vida (Grandmother Vida), of the dusty, old rambling +town of Vidin on the Danube. Having won his way +into the fortress he was elected governor, and a year later +he became Pasha. His independence was remarkable +even at a period when Mahmud Bushatli Pasha flourished +at Scutari and Ali Pasha at Jannina, so that Lamartine +described Turkey in Europe as "une confédération +d'anarchies." Pasvantoölu coined his own money, and, +amongst other exploits, placed on the outside of a mosque +his own monogram instead of the Caliph's emblem. +Therefore the outraged Sultan sent against him three +armies in succession, and each of them went back from +Vidin vanquished. The pasha was a brave and energetic +man of iron will, a great soldier and an expert architect. +He built famous places of worship, whose gilded +arabesques, whose fountains in the silent courts may +bring us to meditate on one who died in 1807, three years +after the first insurrection of his fellow-Yugoslav, Kara +George. In Pasvantoölu's great library at Vidin there +are one hundred and twelve books on scientific and literary +matters. The Pasha was venerated and was regarded +almost with dread for having managed to assemble so +many volumes dealing with other than spiritual affairs.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE SLAVS WHO MIGRATED</p> + +<p>But, apart from the Bogomiles, the number of those who +of their own free will went over to the Turks was scanty. Far +more numerous were those who abandoned their country +and crossed the Danube to Hungary, to Transylvania, to +Wallachia, to Bessarabia, thus returning with weary hearts +to some of the places which, a thousand years before, had +seen their shaggy ancestors come trooping westward. What +they heard in the Banat, the part of southern Hungary +they came to first, must have induced a large proportion +of them to remain, for they were told by those who had +migrated after Kossovo, in the days of old George Branković +and of Stephen the son of Dušan, that this was a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +good land and that the masters of it, the Hungarians, +were much more easy to live under than the Turks. +Not that it was necessary to live under them, because +one could settle in the lands or in the towns which had +been given by some arrangement to Stephen and to +George Branković. These were lands so wide that all +the Slav wanderers could make a home on them; they +extended to the river Maroš and even beyond it. If they +settled in one of those districts it would be under one of +their own leaders and judges, not those of the Hungarians. +There did not seem to be many Hungarians, and perhaps +that was why they wanted other people in the country, +especially now that the Turk was not far off. If anyone +decided to live under the Hungarians, that also was much +better than under the Turks; in this country of fine +horses you were not prevented from going on horseback. +Then it was much easier to speak to the Hungarians, +because a great many words in their language, particularly +the words which had to do with agriculture, seemed to be +Slav. So alluring, in fact, was the state of things in the +Banat, as these people painted it, that many of the immigrants, +in their relief and happiness, wanted to hear no +more. They scarcely listened while they were being told +about the Slav settlers, in pretty large numbers, who had +been there longer still, people who said that they had +lived there always, even before the building of the Slav +monasteries, and some of these were three or four hundred +years old, as could be proved by rescripts of the Popes. +Likewise those who had always lived there reported that +some of their own race had been great men—one had +been the Palatine of Hungary in the days when King +Stephen <span class="smcap">ii.</span> was a child, another was the Palatine Belouch, +brother to Queen Helen; and were not the monasteries +there to remind one of the leaders, the voivodas, who +liked to raise such temples so that prayers could be said +for the repose of their souls?</p> + +<p>It was known that a people which professed the same +religion as themselves—"a people of shepherds," as +King Andrew <small>II.</small> called them in a decree dated 1222, the +time of their first appearance in Hungary—it was known +that these Roumanians from Wallachia were just advancing +from Caras-Severin, the most easterly of the three<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +counties of the Banat, into Temes, which is the central +one. But even if they came farther west it did not +seem to matter; one had a kindly feeling for them, since +there was a good deal of Slav in their language, and if +they were averse from building monasteries, that was their +own affair. They had, it was interesting to learn, invited +a Serb, the same man who had erected Krushedol +monastery in Syrmia, to build one at least as imposing +for them at a place called Argesu, to the north of +Bucharest.</p> + +<p>Thus one cannot be surprised that hundreds and +thousands of Serbs and Bulgars quitted their native +lands—they were not known to the Turks as Serbs +and Bulgars, but merely as raia of the province of +Rumili—and crossed the Danube, the Serbs going +chiefly to their own countryfolk in Banat and the lands +to the west of it, while the Bulgars went partly to the +Banat, where their descendants have won fame as +market-gardeners, but chiefly to Roumania, settling in +villages round Bucharest.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE CONSOLATION OF THOSE WHO REMAINED</p> + +<p>Those who preferred to take arms against the Turk +had the choice either of leaving their country and entering +the service of one which was at war with Turkey or else +abiding in their own land, gathering in bodies of fifty to a +hundred men, massacring as many Turks as possible, protecting +and avenging their own people, sometimes being +killed themselves, otherwise returning to the mountains +every spring. The "heiduks," as they were called, had +the people's unbounded devotion. Their achievements, +perhaps a little touched with romance, were celebrated +in the people's songs, and as it may be of interest to +know what kind of song this people made in the period +of uttermost depression, I give overleaf a couple that +are concerned with heiduks; they are translations from +a book of mine, <i>The Shade of the Balkans</i>, which is out +of print.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p> + +<p class="center">I.</p> + +<div class="poem"> + +<div class="column_left"><div class="stanza" style="margin-top: 0em"> +<span class="i0">Go now and tell them,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Tell your companions<br /></span> +<span class="i0">That, O Heiduk,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">I have cut off your hands.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Cut away, cut away,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">For I did curse them<br /></span> +<span class="i0">When, O Buljuk Pasha,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">They trembled on the gun.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza" style="margin-bottom: 0em"> +<span class="i0">Go now and tell them,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Tell your companions<br /></span> +<span class="i0">That, O heiduk,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">I have pricked out your eyes.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<div class="column_right"> +<div class="stanza" style="margin-top: 0em"> +<span class="i0">Prick away, prick away,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">For I did curse them<br /></span> +<span class="i0">When, O Buljuk Pasha,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">They failed along the gun.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Go now and tell them,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Tell your companions<br /></span> +<span class="i0">That, O heiduk,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">I have hacked off your head.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza" style="margin-bottom: 0em"> +<span class="i0">Hack away, hack away,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">For I did curse it<br /></span> +<span class="i0">When, O Buljuk Pasha,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">It compassed not your end.<br /></span> +</div></div></div> + +<div class="clear"> </div> + +<p class="center">II.</p> + +<div class="poem" style="margin-left: 30%"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">O Mechmed,<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> my beloved son,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Have you come wounded back to me?<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Where is your pipe and your heiduk garb?<br /></span> +<span class="i1">—Ask me not, ask me not.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Ask me rather where are my comrades.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">With six hundred I went to the mountains—<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Six of them live and brought me hither,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Brought me though themselves were wounded.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">A little time and I must die,—<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Call everyone of those I love,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">For I would take my leave of them.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">When all were come young Mechmed said:<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Mother, how long will you mourn for me?<br /></span> +<span class="i2">—Till I step down to you in darkness.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Father, how long will you mourn for me?<br /></span> +<span class="i2">—Till the raven's wing is white<br /></span> +<span class="i2">And I see grapes on the willow-tree.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Sisters, how long will you mourn for me?<br /></span> +<span class="i2">—Till we have babes to sing asleep.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">How long will you mourn, my beloved?<br /></span> +<span class="i2">—Till I go down among the flowers<br /></span> +<span class="i2">And bring a nosegay back for him.<br /></span> +</div></div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p> +<p>The Turk had thrown aside any toleration he started +with. The Patriarchate of Peć, which they had for a +time left intact, was now abolished and was not again +permitted until 1557, when its re-establishment was due +to the efforts of Mehemet Sokolović, the grand vizier +from Bosnia, who raised to the Patriarchate his brother +the monk Macarius. Every school in Serbia and Bulgaria +was closed, so that no teaching could be given anywhere +save in the monasteries; it is said to be a fact—I have it +from Dr. Zmejanović, lately Bishop of Veršac—that +when Kara George, the beloved and illiterate heiduk, +made his first insurrection, there were, in addition to +the monks, precisely eight individuals in Serbia—their +names are recorded—who could read and write. Thus +the absence of printing-presses was not greatly felt: in +Bulgaria there was now no press at all, in Serbia a few +prayer-books were roughly printed in the monasteries; +but in the sixteenth century the monks, for the +copying of these books, had reverted to the use of +pen and ink.</p> + +<p>There had been in the bygone days, in the empires +of Simeon and Dušan, for example, a privileged class, +commonly called an aristocracy, which as elsewhere had +arisen from the people having been obliged to submit +themselves to military discipline.... And it was in +those dreary days when all the raia felt themselves as +brothers<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> that the Serb and Bulgar planted that democracy +which flourishes among them now. They saw what +dangers threatened in the towns. Vuk Karajič, the reformer +of the Serbian language, tells of certain merchants +there who, by assuming Turkish apparel and customs, +came to be no longer counted as Serbs. And more +numerous by far were the townsfolk, nobles and merchants +and others, who went to live among the countryfolk +and intermarried with them, and produced a people +which is better described not as a democracy, but as an +aristocracy.</p> + +<p class="section">GOOD LIVING IN HUNGARY</p> + +<p>And always we hear that those in the Banat and those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +in the still more fertile province of Bačka, to the west of +it, or those who had gone even farther west, into the wine-growing +hills of Baranja, had no reason to regret their +enterprise. King Matthew Corvinus of Hungary writes +to the Pope on the 12th of January 1483, informing him +that 200,000 Serbs have come into the Banat and Bačka +since 1479. He adds that he is favourably disposed +towards them, as they are a fighting race of the first +order, so that he can trust them to defend those provinces +against the Turk.... Not only, therefore, did he bestow +upon them exceptional privileges, but in 1471 he appointed +Vuk, the grandson of George Branković, to be Serbian +despot of southern Hungary. This newly organized +dominion on the left bank of the Danube and the Save +was much more important than those of Transylvania +or of Szekeliek, which were held by Hungarian magnates +and which, in the event of war, had to furnish, each of +them, four hundred horsemen, whereas the Serbian +despot undertook to furnish a thousand.</p> + +<p>The earliest Serbian settlement in Baranja appears +to have consisted of natives of the Morava valley who +came in 1508 to a district near Ciklos. The king made +over the castle of Ciklos to their leader, Stephen Stiljanović, +called the Just, and when the Turks broke into Baranja +they murdered him. History<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> relates that some years +after this on the 14th of August the pasha, a man of +Serbian origin, commanded that the corpse be exhumed; +whereupon a ring on the dead man's finger proved that +he was related to the pasha. According to the Turkish +rules of that period it was illegal to celebrate the Mass +except at night, and in the open air. Now every year +on the night of the 14th of August a Mass is sung, with +the congregation holding torches and candles, out on the +side of a hill. Afterwards they dance, and so forth.</p> + +<p>However, it was the Banat to which the Serbs chiefly +rallied, and after the fall of the fortress of Belgrade in +1521 they came in such multitudes that large portions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +of it had an exclusively Serbian character. And they +were given the sole charge of defending it, while the +Hungarians retired to the north. But Hungary herself +went down at the terrific battle of Mohács—10,000 Serbs +under their voivoda, Paul, fought in the Hungarian +ranks—and after the fall of Buda-Pest the political +organization of the Serbs, with a despot as their ruler, +came to an end, being replaced by a religious organization, +at the head of which was the restored Patriarchate of +Peć. The diocese which the Patriarchs from their not +very accessible monastery were supposed to administrate +included all the Serbs between Monastir and Buda-Pest, +and from the Adriatic to the Struma River. It was +at this time that in the other Yugoslav lands, to the +west and north, there came a breath of wind from the +Reformation.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE PROTESTANT INFLUENCE</p> + +<p>When the German reformers tried, by way of the +Yugoslavs, to reach Rome, they found a printing-press +at Urach, from which, between 1561 and 1564, a number +of books in Glagolitic characters (and in Cyrillic, a special +form thereof) were issued. The most cultivated of the +Glagolitic clergy in Istria and the Croatian littoral, such +as Antony Dalmatin, Primus Trubar the Slovene and +George Jurišić, were enthusiastic in seconding the press +and in seeking, as writers, to disseminate Protestantism +in the Slav world. One of their most notable fellow-workers +was Matthew Vlacić (Mathias Flacius Illyricus), +professor at the Universities of Wittenberg, Jena, Strassbourg +and Antwerp, a veritable encyclopædist of the +Reformation, and, with Luther and Melanchthon, one +of its leaders. A very distinguished man, who had +already, about 1550, joined the Protestant Church, was +Peter Paul Vergerius; before 1550 he had twice been +Papal Nuncio in Germany, a bishop in Croatia and afterwards +in Istria. The rank and file of the Glagolitic +clergy received these books with joy, for the Roman +hierarchy, which had small liking for this truly national +Church, would have been glad to see it perish in ignorance, +with no books and no culture. By the way, the lower<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +clergy remained what they had been—a national clergy. +They availed themselves of these Glagolitic books from +the Protestant press, but for that reason were not going +to become Protestants. Theological subtleties were repugnant +to them, and before and after the Council of +Trent they married and lived a family life.</p> + + +<p class="section">DUBROVNIK, REFUGE OF THE ARTS</p> + +<p>The intellectual life of the Yugoslavs would, but for +Dubrovnik, have died out altogether. And even at +Dubrovnik, of which the Southern Slav thinks always +with pride and gratitude, there was a movement to turn +away from the Slav world. This was certainly one of +the periods, which reappear not seldom in the story of +Dubrovnik, when it seemed that miracles of wisdom +would be wanted for the steering of the ship of State. +Venice and the Turkish Empire were as two tremendous +waves that rose on either side. By a very clever show of +yielding, the little Republic had for a time disarmed the +Turks, and, later on, when the Venetians declared that +all the commercial treaties existing between the Dalmatian +towns and Turkey were void, it was necessary for +Dubrovnik also to accommodate herself to this enactment +and to restrict her trade to Spain and the African coast. +It would under these circumstances be most imprudent, +so urged some of the citizens of Dubrovnik, if they were +officiously to advertise their relationship to the hapless +Slavs, who were enslaved to the Republic's mighty +neighbours. And in 1472 the Senate had directed that +within its walls no speeches should henceforth be made in +Slav. But as the Senate consisted of forty-five nobles, +and these were obliged to be over forty years of age, one +may say that they did not represent what was most virile +in the State; at all events, this isolated tribute to expediency +may for a time have been observed in that assemblage, +in the world of letters it was disregarded. And this is +the more wonderful when we remember that Dubrovnik +had from Italy a language that was already formed, she +had Italian models and printers and even their literary +taste. But Šiško Menčetic and Džore Držić—both of +them nobles, by the way—started at once to write verses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> +in Slav; not very sublime verses, as they were principally +love-songs of the school that imitated Petrarch, but it +is pleasing to recall that they were written in spite of +the thunders of Elias Crijević, a contemporary renegade. +Under the name of Elias di Cerva this gentleman travelled +to Rome, where he made himself a disciple of Pomponius +Lætus and once more modified his good Slav name into +Ælius Lampridius Cerva, and received at the Quirinal +Academy the crown of Latin poetry. Having thus +qualified himself to be a schoolmaster, he went back to +Dubrovnik and settled down to that profession. He was +likewise very active as a publicist on the "barbaric" +Slav language, which, as he was never tired of screaming, +was a menace both to Latin and Italian. One is apt to +call those persons reasonable, among other things, whose +opinions coincide with one's own; but is there anybody +willing to assert that because the Slav culture of that +epoch was, like many another culture, inferior to the +Italian; because the Italian towns were in the rays of +artistic glory, whereas the Slav world was not; because +on that account the Slavs were wise enough to profit from +the Italian masters; is there anyone who, because some +of the Slavs were and are unwise enough to be more Italian +than the Italians, will assert that the Slav has no right +to develop a national art, a national State?</p> + +<p>It is superfluous to make a catalogue of those Ragusan +writers who were more or less successful in purging their +Slav language of Italianisms. Luckily they had at their +doors the language of Herzegovina, which is unanimously +considered by philologists to be the purest of the Serbo-Croat +dialects. The most considerable of these writers +was Gundulić, although he never could forget that his +productions must be pious, and, beyond all other aims, +present a moral. It was in Poland that he saw the +liberator of the Southern Slavs, and what he sings in +Osman, his chief work, is the overthrow of Sultan +Osman <small>ii.</small> by Vladislav, heir to the Polish throne. As +this poem of the seventeenth century, this flowering of +the Slav spirit, might be looked upon as assailing "the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +integrity of the Turkish Empire," it was only allowed to +circulate in MS. until 1830. According to Dr. Murko,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> +Professor of Slav Language and Literature at the University +of Leipzig, this work surpasses Tasso's <i>Jerusalem Delivered</i>; +but it is commonly thought that there is more +literary merit in Gundulić's <i>Dubravka</i>, a lovely, patriotic +pastoral. The worthy Franciscan Kačić,<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> who followed +him with a work—<i>Familiar Conversations on the Slovene +Nation</i>—would perhaps be regarded by us as more remarkable +for his originality; but this patriotic production, +in verse and in prose, didactic, chronological, allegorical +and epic, has made him immortal. Beginning with +Teuta, the first king of the Slovene nation, who flourished, +says the author, about the year 3732 <small>B.C.</small>, he proceeds +imperturbably and sometimes in moving numbers to +relate the lives and virtues of all the other Slovene kings, +be they Bosnian, Croat, Serbian, Bulgarian; it may well +be that the secret of his vogue is, in the words of the critic +Lucianović, that "he was less a minstrel of the past than +of the future." On the fruitful island of Hvar (Lesina) +there arose an exquisite lyric poet, Lucić, whose romantic +drama <i>Robinja</i> (The Female Slave) is said to have great +importance in the history of the modern theatre; but +the most famous of Hvar's poets was Hektorović (1487-1572). +"This nobleman with his democratic ideas," +says the Russian savant Petrovski in speaking of his +<i>Ribanje</i> (Fishing), "is the intimate friend of his fisher-folk, +the singers of national songs, and with his remarkable +realism he was three centuries before his time." When we +finally note that at Zadar in the sixteenth century there +was written <i>Planine</i> (The Mountains), in which Zoranić +gave us the most patriotic work of mediæval Yugoslav +literature, we may say at least that the Dalmatian Yugoslavs +did not abandon hope.</p> + +<p>By the way, these remarks on the Slav literature of +Dalmatia may be thought otiose, for the national aspirations +would not have been less fervent if they had been +expressed in Italian. One is reminded by the well-known +Italian writer, Giuseppe Prezzolini,<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> that until last century +the ruling classes of Piedmont spoke French; Alfieri and +Cavour had to "learn Italian," but who would on this +account pretend that Piedmont is a French province? +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>There is really nothing strange in the fact that the Pan-Slavist +newspaper <i>L'Avenire</i>, published at Dubrovnik from +August 1848 until March 1849 by Dr. Casnačić, was written +in Italian, or that those Irish who desire to be free from +their hated oppressor have not completely given up the +use of his language.</p> + + +<p class="section">HOW SHE SMOOTHED HER WAY</p> + +<p>We have alluded to the caution of Dubrovnik, and one +must confess that in her story are such parlous situations, +out of which there was apparently no rescue, that in +reading of them one is more and more astonished at her +customary enterprise. How did she succeed, for instance, +in contributing thirteen vessels to the fleet which Charles <small>V.</small> +sent against Tunis in 1535 without disturbing in the +slightest her good relations with the Sultan? All that +she asked for was peace, and so she paid a large sum to +the Sultan every year, as also to the pirates of Barbary, +so that she could continue to navigate freely; in the +fifteenth century she had three hundred ships that were +seen in all parts of the Mediterranean and even in England. +She had been wont to pay five hundred ducats a year to +the Kings of Hungary, and now and then, when it was +opportune, she sent this tribute to the Austrian Archdukes, +the rightful heirs of Hungary. To the captain of the Gulf +of Venice she dispatched every year a piece of plate, to +the King of the Two Sicilies she presented a dozen falcons, +with a very respectful letter, and the Pope, who was not +forgotten, overlooked her annual tribute to the Turk and +proclaimed her to be the outer defences of Christianity. +(Let it not be forgotten that in 1451, four centuries before +Wilberforce's anti-slavery campaign, the Republic by a +vote of 75 out of a total of 78 forbade its citizens to traffic +in slaves, and declared all slaves found on its territory to +be free. "Such traffic," it said, "is base and contrary to +all humanity ... namely, that the human form, made +after the image and similitude of our Creator, should be +turned to mercenary profit and sold as if it were brute +beast.")</p> + +<p>But of all the markets of the merchants of Dubrovnik, +those which from the days of old they most frequented,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +were the markets of the Balkans. To Bulgaria and Serbia, +Albania and Bosnia, they brought the products of the +West and of their own factories: the cloth and metal +goods, the silver and gold ornaments, the weapons, axes, +harness, glass, soap, perfumes, southern fruits, fish oil +and herbs; and most of all they valued their monopoly +of salt, a most remunerative privilege. As they could +not obtain sufficient of it in their own immediate territory, +the Senate made a regulation that each vessel which came +back after a voyage of four years must bring a cargo of +salt. This was Dubrovnik's chief source of revenue until +the end of her independence in 1808, and efforts that were +made by others to break down this monopoly led to bitter +conflicts. With regard to the goods which they carried +home with them from the Balkans, these comprised cattle +and cheese, dried fish from the Lake of Scutari, hides +of the wolf and fox and stag, wax, honey, wool and rough +wood-wares, and unworked metals. Some of the Balkan +mines, such as the silver mines of Novo Brdo in Serbia, +they worked themselves, even as the Saxons whom we +find thus engaged in various parts of these lands. Under +the Turkish domination it must have been with joy that +the caravans from Dubrovnik were welcomed, bringing +news of the one Southern Slav State which remained +free and prosperous. A good many of these wandering +merchants took Serbian or Bulgarian wives.</p> + + +<p class="section">HER COMMERCIAL ENTERPRISE</p> + +<p>If the men from Dubrovnik were able to bring happy +tidings of their own Republic, such as the report, perhaps +a little exaggerated, that the wealth of those who lived +in the street of merchants, which runs parallel to the +stately thoroughfare, the Stradone, amounted to a hundred +million ducats, they were able to give very little news of +the more distant Southern Slavs. The Serbs had not +forgotten that brothers of theirs were living in the north-west. +If in the days of the Turkish oppression they had +been inclined to be oblivious of the Croats, yet they could +not but remember that Dušan's sister had married the +Croatian prince, Mladen <small>III.</small> There is no incident connected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +with Dušan that is not treasured in the memory of +the Serbs.</p> + + +<p class="section">HER NORTHERN KINSMEN AND THE MILITARY FRONTIERS</p> + +<p>For a long time the Habsburgs had been planning to +employ the Croats, who were excellent troops, as a bulwark +against the Turks. And although Ferdinand of +Habsburg, on being elected to the throne of Croatia on +the 1st of January 1527, had sworn to respect the ancient +rights and traditions of the realm, his heirs favoured more +and more a policy of centralization; and in 1578, taking +advantage of a serious agrarian conflict between nobles and +peasants in Croatia, the Habsburgs instituted the Military +Frontiers, the famous Vojna Krajina, one for Croatia +proper, with Karlovac as capital, the other for the adjacent +Slavonia, with the capital at Varazdin. Croatia's +autonomy was ignored.</p> + +<p>This method of guarding the frontiers had been +employed by the Romans, who made over lands to non-commissioned +officers and men on condition that their +male descendants rendered military service. Those men +who had no children received no lands. Alexander +Severus, who introduced this arrangement, used to say +that a man would fight better if at the same time he were +defending his own hearth. Under Diocletian the "miles +castellani" or "limitanei," as they were termed, had +slaves and cattle allotted to them, so that the land's +development should not be hindered through lack of labour +or on account of the owners losing the physical capacity for +work.</p> + +<p>The Habsburgs were assisted in their scheme by various +causes, one of which was the poverty of the soil in certain +parts of Croatia, so that it came as a relief to many of the +struggling inhabitants that for the future they would be +provided for. The greatest misery was also prevalent at +this time in consequence of the plague which desolated +parts of Croatia and Istria. The distress was particularly +acute in Istria, where between the years 1300 and 1600 +the plague was rampant on thirty-nine occasions, the +town of Triest being visited in ten different years between +1502 and 1558; and in the year 1600 the port of Pola was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +reduced to four hundred inhabitants. Venice attempted +to colonize the desert places with Italian farmers, but +having failed on account of malaria and the lack of water, +she called in a more vigorous element, the Slav from +Dalmatia and Bosnia. Meanwhile the towns, in which +were the descendants of those who had come from Italy +in the days of the Roman Empire, fell more profoundly into +decay. Those western towns looked on the Slav with disdain, +they would not mingle with the rural population; +but as these were much more active and were often strengthened +by fresh immigrants, one thought that they would +gradually swamp the more effete men of the towns. And, +on the other hand, the townsmen weakened their position +by continually breaking, on account of economic disputes, +the ties between themselves and Venice. And as example of +their frequent attitude towards Venice, we may take the +words which the deputies of Triest used in 1518 in the +presence of the Emperor Maximilian: "We would all +of us prefer to die," they said, "rather than to fall under +the domination of Venice." Such language may, of course +have been a compliment; and yet it does not seem unlikely +that the people of Triest had some knowledge of +the ruin and death that were overtaking all the Dalmatian +towns with the one exception of Dubrovnik, which was +independent.</p> + +<p>Allusion has been made to the Slavs who came from +Bosnia; one may ask how it was that the Turks allowed +them to depart. On such an extensive frontier it would +not be difficult for people to escape; that they did so is +made evident by all the solemn treaty clauses which +declared that they should be forthwith delivered to their +rightful owners. The Turks were quite as ready to bind +themselves in this fashion. There is, for example, the +treaty which settles what travelling expenses the Venetians +are to pay to the emissary of the Pasha of Travnik on his +way to Zadar, how much velvet, how many loaves of +sugar and how many pots of theriac must be provided for +each member of his entourage; and in the same treaty +it is laid down that the Turks are to give up all those who +have deserted to them, yea even if they have become +Muhammedans. But the Turkish authorities never heard +of any such <ins class="correction" +title="Transcriber's note: inserted a missing period after 'people'">people.</ins> And the Slavs were passing to and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +fro from one Yugoslav land to another, always thinking +that in the new land life must be more tolerable.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE OPPRESSIVE OVERLORDS OF THE YUGOSLAVS</p> + +<p>Now and then we hear of insurrections; thus the Serbs +of the Banat revolted in 1594, allied themselves to Prince +Batthory of Transylvania and offered him the Serbian +crown. With an army of Serbs and Hungarians the +Prince appeared on the Danube with the intention of +aiding the Bulgars. He won a splendid victory over the +Turk, but in gaining it he had exhausted himself, and the +Turk took his usual revenge. In Croatia the absolutist +policy of Leopold <small>I.</small> exasperated the people to such an +extent that they forgot their quarrels with the Magyars +in order to be able to defend their rights against the +attacks of Vienna. The Hungarian-Croatian magnates, +amongst whom were the Croats Peter Zrinsky, the Ban, +and Christopher Frankopan, conspired to overthrow the +Habsburgs. When the plot was discovered the conspirators +were executed in 1671 at Wiener Neustadt. +In the spring of 1919, when the bones of these two patriots +were brought back to Croatia and buried after a series +of imposing and most moving ceremonies, Austria +was in such a state of hunger that she waived her good +taste and received what she had exacted for the bones, +namely, five hundred trucks of meat and potatoes. +After the battle of Vienna in 1683 both Serbs and Bulgars +rose, for it seemed to many hopeful people that the Turk +was on the point of dissolution. There was an outbreak in +the Bulgarian mountain village of Čiprovtsi, but this was +suffocated with such ferocity that for more than a hundred +years the Bulgar would not make another effort. The +spirit of the Slav appeared to have gone out of him. Wars +that were disastrous to Turkey brought the Russians to +the Danube and the Austrians to within twelve leagues of +Sofia, but the Bulgar stayed at home with his black +memories. A better fortune attended the Serbs who +flocked to the standard of George Branković, a descendant +of the old despots, in the Banat. With the goodwill of +Leopold <small>I.</small> they fought by the side of his own troops, +and after these latter were withdrawn, in consequence of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +the new campaign against Louis <small>XIV.</small>, the Serbs continued +to wage war with the Turks, and so successfully that +Leopold became anxious lest Branković should found an +independent Serbian State. He therefore caused him and +the leaders of his army to be captured. Branković was +brought, a prisoner, to Vienna. He survived in captivity +at Eger for twenty-two years.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p> + + +<p class="section">THE GREAT MIGRATION UNDER THE PATRIARCH</p> + +<p>In the year 1690 there happened the vast exodus of +30,000 Serbian families who migrated across the Danube +and the Save under the leadership of the Patriarch of +Peć, Arsenius Čarnoević. An oleograph of a picture +illustrating this event is found in almost every Serbian +house, be it private house or Government building. +These refugees settled in Syrmia, Slavonia, the Banat +and Bačka, and received from the Emperor certain rights, +such as that of electing their voivoda (duke), of owning +land, and so forth; their privileges were not always +respected, but the Serbian immigrants remained faithful +to Austria.... The land of Peć, from which the +Patriarch fled, with the neighbouring Djakovica and +Prizren, became Muhammedan Albanian territories.</p> + +<p>[Mr. Brailsford<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> in 1903 found that in these parts the +Albanian was overwhelmingly predominant, and that he +refused to tolerate the claims of the Serbian minority. +Saying that his race, descended from the Illyrians, was +the most ancient in the Peninsula, he objected to this +particular region being called Old Serbia simply because +it was once upon a time conquered by Dušan. In 1903 +the Serbs of the district of Prizren and Peć numbered +5000 householders against 20,000 to 25,000 Albanians. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>As for the towns: "In Prizren," said an Albanian, "there +are two European families, while the soil of Djakovica +is still clean."<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> The life which these people led was one +of misery—tribute in some form or other had to be given +to an Albanian bravo, who made himself that family's +protector, and, in spite of that, the holding of any property, +house or land or chattels, seems to have depended +on Albanian caprice, and the physical state of the Serbs +was wretched, through lack of nourishment and disease. +Various efforts had been made to render the land more +endurable for those who were not Muhammedan Albanians; +for example, a Christian <i>gendarmerie</i> was introduced, +but as they were not allowed to carry arms they spent +their useless days in the police stations. They filled +the Albanians with scorn, and made them shout more +vociferously their cry of "Albania for the Albanian +tribes!" Under these conditions it says much for the +stamina of the Serbs that they persisted in their old faith; +a certain number—Mr. Brailsford came across some of +them in the district of Gora, near Prizren—have been +converted to Islam, but in secret observe their old religion.]</p> + +<p>A Serbian historian, Mr. Tomić of the Belgrade +National Library, has now discovered that these uncompromising +Muhammedan Albanians are not—as previous +Serbian and other historians have written—descended +from Albanians who flowed into the country because of +its evacuation by the Patriarch Arsenius and his flock. +When the Austrian armies penetrated to this region in +the winter of 1689-1690, the Imperialists were on good<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +terms both with the Serbian Orthodox people whom +they found there and with the Albanian Catholics; but +after the death of Piccolomini on the 8th of December +(which was followed by that of the Catholic Archbishop), +his successor, the Duke of Holstein, alienated the people, +and when they would not obey his commands he set fire +to their villages, this alienating them completely. The +fortune of war then turned against the Austrians, who +were compelled to retreat, and the Serbian Patriarch, +with his treasury and a number of priests and monks, +fled with them. They hoped that this exodus was to be +of a temporary character, but in 1690 the Imperialists +had to continue their retreat, taking with them across +the Save and the Danube not only the Serbs who had, like +Arsenius, sought refuge in Serbia, but a far more numerous +body whose domicile had always been Serbia itself. +What tells against the theory of the 30,000 families from +Peć and Old Serbia is the fact that the Turkish troops +followed so closely on the heels of the Austrians that the +Patriarch and his clergy had great trouble in escaping +themselves, and in addition to the Turk there was the +difficulty of those mountain roads in the middle of winter. +Thus it seems likely that most of the Serbian population +of what is called Old Serbia remained there. The previous +historians, who say that such a vast number followed +the Patriarch and his priests, have based themselves, it +appears, on the notes and chronicles of those priests. +And the people, deprived of the guidance of their priests—who +were then the spiritual and lay and military leaders—found +it difficult to stand out against conversion. Half a +century before this a great many Catholic and Orthodox +Serbs of those parts had embraced Islam, in order to +escape the financial and military burdens which were +laid on Christian men; the women and girls would continue +to profess Christianity. This phenomenon is described +by many travellers, such as Gregory Massarechi, a Catholic +missionary for Prizren and the neighbourhood, who says +in his report of 1651 that in the village of Suha Reka +on the left bank of the White Drin there used to be one +hundred and fifty Christian houses, but that he only +found thirty-six or thirty-seven Christian women, the +men having all gone over to Islam. People were wont to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +come secretly to him for confession and to communicate; +he tells how these converted men would marry Christian +women, but would leave them Christian all their lives, +and only on his deathbed would a man ask his wife to be +converted also.</p> + +<p>The Prophet had also found his way into many households +of Montenegro, where the clans, with neither civil +nor military government, had been compelled, for their +protection, to live in a patriarchal fashion: the people—that +is, the chiefs of the clans—elected a bishop and +gathered round him as the champion of their religion +against Islam. Until the time of Danilo (1697-1737) +there had been fourteen bishops. During his reign the +problem of Turkish penetration was taken in hand. +It was intolerable that Montenegrin families should stand +well with the Sultan because one of their members had +gone over to Islam. The small, untidy village of Virpazar, +by the Lake of Scutari, has got a certain fame, because +the chosen men who were to purge the country of this +evil started out from there on Christmas Eve in 1703. +Those who participated in the "Montenegrin Vespers" +were not likely to forget the incidents of that impressive +ceremony. The Bishop celebrated Mass, and from the +consecrated tapers in his hand the people lit their own. +Every man was armed. They knelt—their tapers hardly +trembling—and they kissed the sacred image which the +Bishop held. Then he blessed their weapons and they +sallied forth, running round the lake and climbing up +the rough, long road to Cetinje. Every house was visited +in which there was a Moslem, and the choice was given of +repudiation or of death. With such missionaries and with +subjects such as these to work upon, you could not hope +that the negotiations would be quite pacific. Many of +the Moslem, young and old, were slaughtered, and when +Mass was sung on Christmas morning in the rugged, little +monastery of Cetinje, many of the chosen men assembled, +weary but content, and gave whole-hearted thanks to +God that Montenegro had been liberated from the +scourge.</p> + +<p>As for those who came under the influence of Islam in +Old Serbia, they were left after 1737 even more to their +own resources, as the zone which united them to the main<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +body of Serbs was depleted by another great exodus, +under Patriarch Arsenius <small>IV.</small>, Šakabenta. But, although +these men of Serbian origin preserve sometimes this or +that peculiarly Serbian custom, yet, as Mr. Tomić says:<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> +"Living together with the Muhammedan Albanians, they +have assumed the Albanian type and become the most +savage foes of the Orthodox religion and of the people +from which they are sprung. The popular saying," he +adds, "is right which asserts that: 'A Christian become +a Turk is worse than a real Turk.'" Of course, in order +to make it appear that he was a real Albanian, there was +always a tendency for an Albanized Serb to be preternaturally +oppressive. And up to a short time ago it was +very cold comfort for the Serbs to learn that many of +these people are of Serbian ancestry. But, as we shall see +further on, the old, mediæval friendship between the +Serbian and Albanian rulers is extending to the people, +and this—provided that a sinister external pressure can +be warded off—will bear good fruit.</p> + +<p>On behalf of the afore-mentioned 30,000 families the +Patriarch negotiated with the Habsburgs and obtained +very far-reaching rights, which permitted the Serbian +people to form in Hungary a <i>corpus separatum</i>. A point +which to Serbian eyes had extreme importance was the +institution of a National Congress, to sit at Karlovci on +the Danube in Syrmia, and, amongst other functions, to +designate the Patriarch, whose seat was to be (and remains +to this day) Karlovci, where a friendly white village on +the rising ground, which anyhow would make it famous +for the red wine and plum brandy, has received in its +midst the marble palace of the Patriarch, a gorgeous +church and various magnificent red and white buildings +which look like so many Government offices but are, in +fact, devoted to Church affairs, the training of theological +students and so forth. Their Patriarchate at Karlovci +appeared to the Serbs as the rock of their nationality +outside Serbia. The Constitution granted to them did not +make them precisely a State within a State, but at least +it set up a political-religious unity—for the privileges +included those of having a chief, the voivoda, and of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> +having a certain territory with autonomous internal +organization and exemption from all taxes. Here the +Serbs, forming a separate and distinct group, with their +own religion, calendar and alphabet, and with their own +aspirations, would be able to stretch out their hands—prudently, +of course—to their scattered brothers. So +the Serbs began to whisper to the Croats of the ancient +days; the Croats heard them gladly, but they could not +stop another voice from whispering as well. They had +lived for so long with another religion, another civilization, +their eyes had been turned in other directions, their +hearts been filled with other hopes. And now it was as +if the modern voice was being interrupted by the ancient +voice. The Croats were inclined to ask the interrupter +to be silent, but they found they could not live without +him.</p> + + +<p class="section">ACTIVITIES OF THE SOUTHERN SLAVS UNDER THE HABSBURGS</p> + +<p>In the Banat and elsewhere under Habsburg rule the +Serbs were filling their accustomed part and fighting, +now against the Turk and now against Rakoczi's insurrection, +during which, between 1703 and 1711, they are +said to have lost about a hundred thousand men. Prince +Eugene of Savoy, in whose campaigns they took a large +share, described them as "his best scouts, his lightest +cavalry, his most trusted garrisons." And they are +rewarded—Joseph <span class="smcap">i.</span>, making use of very chosen phrases, +insists on the merits of the Serbs and confirms their +privileges. And until the Treaty of Pojarevac these +privileges are maintained immune. This treaty came +at the conclusion of the 1716-1718 war against the Turks; +it put the Banat in the hands of Austria, who made it +a Crown-land, with military government and autonomous +administration. From this time onward the country, +which had had an exclusively Serbian colouring, begins +to receive an influx of strangers. The German governing +class introduce Germans from the Rhine, from Saxony, +from Würtemberg, Bavaria, Upper and Lower Austria +and Tirol. Not only are these colonists settled in some +of the most fertile parts, but Vienna also makes enormous +grants of land in the Banat to lofty military personages<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> +and to families of the aristocracy, and these in their turn +assist the immigration of Germans.</p> + +<p>But before the Habsburgs could continue in their +efforts to assimilate, by one process or another, the +Southern Slavs in the Empire, it was necessary to induce +them to accept the Pragmatic Sanction, for Charles <small>VI.</small>, +the reigning Emperor, had lost his only son and wished to +secure the succession to Maria Theresa. It is interesting +to see that Croatia negotiated independently of Hungary, +that she recognized the Pragmatic Sanction in 1713, +whereas the Magyars did not do so until 1733. Consequently, +if the Emperor had died between these two dates +Croatia would have been separated completely from +Hungary. Maria Theresa would have become Queen of +Croatia, but the Magyars would not have been obliged +to place themselves under her. The Croats on this +occasion declared that the crown of Croatia was to pass +to that member of the House of Habsburg who should +reign not only in Austria but also in the other hereditary +Austrian lands, for the Croats wanted publicly to show +that any separation from the Slovenes of Carniola, +Carinthia and Styria would be far less endurable for them +than separation from Hungary. "It is neither by force +nor yet the spirit of slavery," they said, "that we have +been put under the domination of Hungary; we have +submitted ourselves voluntarily, and not to the royalty +but to the king of the Hungarians."</p> + +<p>The Serb and Croat element in the Austrian army was +at this time greater than the sum of all the others, and, +owing to the privileges which their services acquired for +them, they came to be regarded with extreme suspicion +by the Magyars. It was under Magyar influence that +Maria Theresa abolished the Croatian council, confided +its functions to the Hungarian Government, and, on the +same occasion, in 1779, proclaimed the town of Rieka +(Fiume), with its surroundings, to be "<i>separatum sacræ +regni Hungariæ coronæ adnexum corpus</i>." Rieka, like +Triest, had been a free town under the Habsburgs, the +reason being that they were the chief arteries of trade, +so that a greater freedom was desirable. Like Triest, +Rieka does not appear up to this date to have shown any +hankering for Venice, and Maria Theresa's diploma which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +renews the freedom is hardly evidence, as some people +have asserted, that the town was throbbing with Italian +sympathies.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE POSITION OF THEIR CHURCH</p> + +<p>More and more Germans were being brought into the +Banat, and to make room for some between Temešvar +and Arad the Roumanians, who had settled there, were +transferred, in 1765, to the western county of Torontal. +About half a century before this the Roumanian Bishop of +Transylvania, with most of his clergy, passed from the +Orthodox to the Greek Catholic Church; those of his +flock who did not follow him attached themselves to the +Serbian Church, and after a considerable time were given +by Joseph <small>II.</small> in 1786 a Roumanian bishopric, at Sibiu. +This bishopric was placed under the administration of +the Serbian Patriarch at Karlovci "<i>in dogmaticis et pure +spiritualibus</i>," which seems to show that the other privileges +of the Serbian Church did not extend to the Roumanians. +The Serbs had, from the beginning of the thirteenth +century, been founding monasteries, and, although about +twenty were secularized or affiliated to others by Maria +Theresa, yet there remained eleven in the Banat and +one, Hodosh, to the north of the Maroš; and as the +Roumanians had no monasteries at all they were received +as guests in some of these. And so things continued for +about a hundred years.</p> + + +<p class="section">SERBS ASSIST THE BULGARIAN RENASCENCE</p> + +<p>While the Serbs were flourishing, ecclesiastically, in +the Banat, the Bulgars had been painfully keeping alive, +until 1767, their lonely Patriarchate at Ochrida. Time +and again the Greek Patriarch at Constantinople had tried +to suppress it, at first on account of cupidity and afterwards, +say the Bulgars, for fear lest it should help to +arouse the Bulgarian national spirit; but that spirit had +fallen to such a depth that the second edition of a comparative +lexicon of the Slav languages, which was issued, +at the behest of the Empress Catharine in 1791, makes +no mention of Bulgarian, and in 1814 the Slavist Dobrovsky<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> +regarded Bulgarian as a form of Serbian. And +yet, say the Bulgars, the national spirit survived so +wonderfully by those far waters of Macedonia that even +when the Greek language was introduced into the offices +and the Church administration, and when Greeks had +usurped the throne of St. Clement, they still found it +possible to stand out for the independence of their Church, +which handed on the memories of the Bulgarian past. +We must be allowed to be sceptical—the town of Ochrida +in the fifteenth, sixteenth and seventeenth centuries is +said by contemporary writers to be now in Serbian, now +in Bulgarian, now in Macedonian territory. And the +very observant Patriarch Brkić of the eighteenth century +tells us, in a calm, passionless description of the diocese, +which he wrote in exile—he was the last Patriarch of +Peć—that the inhabitants of a place called Rekalije, in +the district of Djakovica, are not Albanians but Serbs and +Bulgars who had been, a short time before, converted to +Islam. It seems probable that the sharp divisions of +Serb, Bulgar, and so on, did not then exist, and that the +Greek Patriarch at Constantinople did himself not know +what variety of reprehensible Slav it was that lived in +those parts.... The last Patriarch of Ochrida, whose +name was likewise Arsenius, spent the remainder of his +life in exile at Mt. Athos, and there, in another monastery, +was a pale, sickly monk, poring over crabbed MSS. This +Païssu, a Bulgar, had entered, like his elder brother, the +great Serbian monastery of Hilendar. We know from him +that while the various Orthodox monks of Mt. Athos—Greeks, +Bulgars, Russians, Serbs and Vlachs—were frequently +at loggerheads, yet the others even more frequently +combined to fall upon the Bulgars and to upbraid them +because their history had not been glorious and because +they had an insufficient number of saints. The Bulgar was +nothing but a servant of the Greek; Bulgarian was no +doubt written in a monastery here and there, but as for +the spoken language, were not the townsfolk often ashamed +of it? Did they not prefer to talk Greek? "I was filled +with sadness," says Païssu, "on account of my race." +There happened to be at Hilendar the monk Obradović, +who was less enthusiastic about Glagolitic than about +the songs sung by the peasant. With the fundamental<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +thought of working for the whole people, including the +women, he clung to the idea of a literature in the popular, +rather than in the old Church language. He was to set +out, in pursuit of Western science, to France and Italy +and England—he spent six months in London. The +whole people was dear to him; he looked beyond their +differences of religion, their other differences, and saw +the brotherhood, in race and speech, of all the Southern +Slav countries. He was to become one of the great inspirers +of modern Serbia and her first Minister of Education.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> +He urged young Païssu to travel among his +countrymen in search of manuscripts and legends. If only +he could find the buried splendour of his people and call +it into life again. And before he died—he suffered from +continual headaches and an internal malady—he had +finished, in 1762, his book, <i>Slav-Bulgarian History of the +Bulgarian People and Rulers and Saints</i>. This naif, imperfect +book, more lyric than scientific, but sincere and +impassioned, has played a part in reminding the Bulgars +of their story; it is the fountain-head of the Bulgarian +Renascence.</p> + +<p>In Serbia the gallant Captain Kotča also tried to +begin for his country a Renascence. Russia and Austria +declared war against the Turks in 1787. The Serbian +volunteers, who included Kara George, crossed the +Danube and fought with great courage. Yet the Austrians +were beaten and Kotča was captured, by treachery, in the +Banat; he was brought back to Serbia and impaled +with sixty of his comrades. But in the treaty of 1791 +the Turks undertook to give autonomy to the Serbs +of the Pashalik of Belgrade, and to keep from their lands +in future the janissaries who had wrought so much +mischief.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE GERMAN COLONISTS IN THE BANAT</p> + +<p>Further down the Danube, though, there would be a +janissary watching a frontiersman, a Graničar, on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> +opposite bank, waiting to kill him—both of them Serbs, +both standing on Serbian land.... The military frontier +regiments were not only organized to defend, in a long +line, Croatia, Slavonia, Bačka and the Banat from Turkish +inroads, they had also to fight for the Habsburgs wherever +a war was toward. Two centuries ago, at the time when +the Serbian regiments were in a privileged position—the +entire regiment, officers and men, consisting of Serbs, +and their own arms being on the flag—it was their destiny +to go to France, Italy and Spain, as afterwards to the +battle of Leipzig and to Schleswig-Holstein. They +may have grumbled a good deal on the way to all these +battles, but once the fighting had begun they grumbled +no more, thus resembling in two respects the French +soldier. And this practice of going abroad on behalf of +the Empire was continued till the frontier regiments, +about fifty years ago, were broken up. Thus Joseph +Eberle and George Huber were killed during the Italian +campaign of 1848-1849. These men were German +colonists, whose introduction had been so much encouraged +in the eighteenth century. But, in order to +separate Protestant Hungary from the Turks, so that the +two should not unite against the Catholic Habsburgs, +it was laid down by Prince Eugene that all the German +colonists had to be Catholics. Some Protestants managed +to settle in Lescovac, where they held secret services +during the night; but in 1726 this was reported to the +Prefect of Bela Crkva, whereupon he sent word that if +they would not be converted they would each receive +twenty-five strokes with a birch.... Of course, those +who lived on the frontier lands were subject to the same +conditions as their neighbours. German frontier regiments +existed side by side with Serbian regiments, and +the life of all those people can be studied in a book<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> +written by the German frontier village of Franzfeld and +published in 1893, a few months after Franzfeld had +celebrated its centenary. There would, no doubt, be +variations enough in the domestic arrangements of Franzfeld +and those of Zrepaja, the neighbouring Serbian +village, some miles away; but, as the inhabitants of +Franzfeld have now been gathered into Yugoslavia, it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +not without interest if we see what sort of a life they have +led. The tale of how these Lutherans from Würtemberg +laid out and constructed and painted their village, +with all the tremendously broad, tremendously straight +roads running parallel and at right angles to each other, +with the church—whose decorations are a few stars on the +ceiling—the pastor's house and the lawyer's and the town +hall and other important houses standing round a square +of mulberry trees in the middle of the place—the tale of +all this is told in as deliciously matter-of-fact a manner +as <i>Robinson Crusoe</i>. The picturesque, as in that book, +startles us now and then, with a vivid scene—until 1848, +we are told, at the arrival of a staff-officer or of a general, +every bell in the place had to be set ringing and gunpowder +had to be fired off. One finds oneself revelling +in the minuteness of the descriptions, one follows happily +or sadly the fortunes of Ruppenthal and Kopp and Morgenstern. +Everything is true, for the compilers of the +book have felt, like Defoe, that "this supplying a story +by invention is certainly a most scandalous crime." We +are given all the names of those who at the beginning +occupied the ninety-nine houses—the hundredth being +used as an inn—with their place of origin, the numbers of +their male and female dependants, and by what means +they had hitherto earned their bread. Many houses have +been added since that time. Among all the Germans, +house No. 79 was occupied by George Siráky, a Hungarian +who had been a peasant. Ten years afterwards another +list is made and Siráky still disposes of the same twenty-four +"yoke"<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> of plough-land, ten of meadow and one +of garden, which he had originally been given, whereas +some of the others had increased or diminished their +holdings. Then we lose sight of him, and his name does +not become one of those which reappears in succeeding +generations. Of course, the colony was established on a +military basis; an officer, usually a lieutenant, with one +or more non-commissioned officers, was stationed there,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +as the representative of a commandant who presided +over several villages. The resident officer was supposed +to maintain law and order, to see to it that the people +sowed their land at the right season, and to inform the commandant +of any delinquency, for the lieutenant was not +allowed to punish anyone. As one or more of the able-bodied +men belonging to a house might be absent for a +long time on military service or in captivity, or else +through sickness or wounds be unfit to work, and through +lack of means the householder not be in a position to hire +day-labourers, in that case his fellow-villagers, one after +another, were obliged to assist him without payment. +In order that all possible respect should be attached to the +chief man and woman of a house—the house-father and +house-mother—these were not liable to punishment for +small offences, and if a considerable offence made it +necessary to punish them, then they were first of all +deposed from their position. Various public posts were +filled by the house-fathers or other men, and for refusing +to accept such a post a man was commonly arrested; +but this punishment, as well as that of so many strokes +with a cane (which seems to have been the most usual +penalty), was abolished by 1850. The military frontier +system came to an end in 1872, at which time the communal +life, which had been found to be very irksome, was +also gradually done away with. Franzfeld is now a +prosperous and peaceful place; their horses are well +known, they breed excellent cattle and pigs and sheep, +and they say of themselves that out of one Franzfeld +man you can make a couple of Jews and there will still +remain a Franzfeld man. They tell how once or twice a +Hungarian Jew has opened a shop in the village, selling +his goods very cheaply for two or three months, at a lower +price, in fact, than he paid for them, and then putting +up the prices; but as soon as he does that he is boycotted. +The aliens who have settled in Franzfeld—Hungarians, +Slovaks and Roumanians—have come as servants, have +married Franzfeld girls and are looked upon as Germans. +The same German dialect is spoken as in Würtemberg; +troops from that country marched through Franzfeld +during the War. But Serbian, the villagers told me, is +the international language of at any rate western Banat,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +in spite of the Magyars who, as in other parts, made for the +last few years of their domination extreme efforts on behalf +of their unlovely language. They supplied Franzfeld +with schoolmasters and mistresses who could speak no +German and no Serbian, so that it was very difficult for +both sides. And the authorities told the pastor that the +chief truths of religion, they considered, should be taught +in Hungarian. But the pastor did not agree with them +and they let the matter drop. Franzfeld has seen wild +days, particularly in 1848, and her one monument records +a calamity of two of her sons who vanished down a well +which they were sinking. Of itself the land is not very +fertile, but the people have been so successful that they +have founded a colony, Franzjosephsfeld, in Bosnia—they +multiplied too greatly for their own soil to support +them. They speak, many of them, five languages, and +they will not be the least worthy of Yugoslav subjects. +[Their interests are much more agricultural than political.] +With regard to their multiplication, by the way, it is +related in this centenary book, among much curious +information, that when another Franzfelder comes into the +world it is usual to present certain largesse to the midwife, +namely, one gulden (this was written in Austrian times), +a loaf of bread, a little jar of lard and a few kilograms +of white flour. In the old military period this personage +was also, like the doctor and the schoolmaster, "on the +strength." The last of those who bore the rank of Company-Midwife +was Gertrude Metz; she was pensioned +after thirty-eight years, and continued for a few years in +private practice.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE SOUTHERN SLAV COLONISTS AND THEIR RELIGION</p> + +<p>The Magyars, being themselves of at least two religions, +did not interfere in the religious matters of those +whom they called "the nationalities" save to ask, with +more or less firmness—it made a difference if they were +dealing with Protestant Slovaks or with Protestant +Germans—that the language of the ruling race should be +employed. This comparative toleration was, of course, +tempered by exceptions. Thus in the very Catholic +city of Pečuj in Baranja the treatment applied to other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> +religions depended on the individual bishop. Bishop +Nesselrode, for instance, chased them all away, and until +1790 they were seldom permitted within fourteen kilometres +of the town.</p> + +<p>The Austrians in the eighteenth century constrained +a good many Southern Slavs to enter the Church of Rome. +Austria has always been rich in faithful sons of the Church. +Some years ago, for example, I happened in various +parts of Dalmatia and Herzegovina to be from time to +time the travelling companion of an elderly Viennese. +He told me how he had lately impressed upon the mother +of his illegitimate son that the boy must receive a thoroughly +Catholic education, and in every place this +gentleman made his patronage of an hotel dependent on +the proprietor's religion, which he frequently knew before +we got there. I saw him last at Mostar in distress, because +the only good hotel was administered by an Israelite +of whose religion he disapproved, and the weather, as it +often is at Mostar, was so oppressingly hot that I suppose +he had not energy enough to try to convert him....</p> + + +<p class="section">BUNJEVCI, ŠOKCI AND KRAŠOVANI</p> + +<p>Perhaps Austria would not have displayed such fervour +in creating Bunjevci, Šokci and Krašovani if she had +known that these Roman Catholic Slavs would remain, +on the whole, very good Slavs. The Bunjevci, who live +for the most part in Bačka and Baranja, came originally +from the Buna district of Herzegovina. The total population +of the town of Subotica is 90,000, and 73,000 of these +are Bunjevci, whose peculiarity is that the old father stays +in the town house, while his sons, with their wives and +children, drive out on Monday morning over that rather +featureless landscape to the farm, which may be at a +considerable distance, and there they remain till the end +of the week. They are a quiet, industrious people who +have lived withdrawn, as it were, from the world since +the twenty-five or thirty families escaped from the Turks; +and as they brought with them only that number of +surnames it is now customary to add a distinguishing +name. Thus the Vojnić family has divided into branches, +such as Vojnić-Heiduk, Vojnić-Kortmić, Vojnić-Purča.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> +The Bunjevci seem, although Catholics, to incline less to +the Croats than to the Serbs, some of whose customs—those, +for instance, of Christmas—they share. But in +merry-making they are a great deal more subdued, save +that, in drinking to some one's health, you are expected +to empty three glasses. In the intervals of a Bunjevci +dance at Subotica men would promenade the room arm-in-arm +with men and girls with girls. The faces of all +of them express entire goodness of heart and absence of +guile; many of the girls, who looked like early portraits +of Queen Victoria, were arrayed in the local costume, +which permits great variety of colour so long as the lady +wears, I am told, about fifteen petticoats. These worthy +people used to have nothing but their Church, and are +now extremely religious. The man who has most influence +over them is Blaško Rajić, a priest and deputy, +who was not always able to prevent a Hungarian Archbishop +from sending a priest to his church, where he held +services in Magyar. During one night, at all events, this +church caused the Magyars much annoyance. It was +at the beginning of the Great War—they had accused +Rajić of making signals from the tower, which is very +high; and in order to prove their accusation they sent +a large body of soldiers, who surrounded the church, on a +boisterous winter's night. Sure enough, the signals were +seen to be flashing up there. The church was locked and +a blast of the bugles had no effect—save that a few +Bunjevci looked out of their windows—for the flashes did +not cease. Then the captain commanded his men to +give a mighty shout: "Put out those lights! Put out +those lights!" But not the least notice was taken. +There was nothing to do but to wait until Rajić, or whoever +it was, should finish his nefarious business and come +down. About an hour later, though, the wind became so +piercing that a non-commissioned officer suggested that +the captain should send for the big drum; the noise of +that, said he, would surely reach that devil in the tower. +But the big drum, when it came, had no success. The +noise it made, reinforced by those of the bugles and the +men's shouting, was such that some Bunjevci dressed +themselves and ventured out into the cold, to see what +really all the turmoil was about. To one of them the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> +freezing captain yelled that he knew perfectly the criminal +had heard them, and that he went on with his accursed +flashes since he recognized that this would be the last +base act that he would ever do on earth. For the remainder +of that night the captain and his men, not with +the hope that they would be obeyed but merely to warm +themselves a little, kept on shouting now and then, +"Put out those lights!" And in the dawn the non-commissioned +officer discovered that the signals had been +moonlight on some broken glass that was being shaken +by the wind.... One sees in the very well-arranged +archives of the town of Sombor that the Bunjevci were +accustomed, like the Germans, to ally themselves with the +Magyars and thus give them a majority. Only in the last +ten years at Subotica (and not at all at Sombor) did they +ask for their rights; they had seemed conscious of the +religious difference between themselves and the Serbs, +unconscious that they were of the same race and language. +The Magyars attempted to show in Paris that the Bunjevci +are not Slavs, but the remains of the Kumani (who +died out in those parts about five to six hundred years +ago and were not Magyars). In the census of twenty years +ago the Bunjevci were called Serbo-Croats, in accordance +with a monograph, "Sabotca Varosh Története," +in which Professor Ivanji, a Magyar, said they were simply +Catholic Serbs. In the census of 1910 the Bunjevci +are put under the heading "Égyebek," which means +"miscellaneous."</p> + +<p>This census juggling by the Magyars was one of their +milder methods of administration. The term Serbo-Croat +came to be avoided, and, so that foreigners should +be misled, the Yugoslavs in Baranja were classified as +Serbs, Croats, Illyrians, Šokci, Bunjevci, Dalmatians +and so forth. The Šokci, who were also converted in the +eighteenth century to the Roman Catholic Church, are +mostly found to-day in Baranja. The name by which +they are known is derived from the Serbo-Croatian word +<i>šaka</i>, the palm of the hand, and refers to the fact that the +Catholics cross themselves with the open hand, whereas +the Orthodox join the tips of the thumb and first two +fingers. The Šokci are considered a weaker people than +the Bunjevci; the mothers—they say it is love—are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> +often so weak that they allow their children to do anything +they like at home, and would not think of remonstrating +with them if they wear their caps in church. +Among the Šokci none is of a higher than the peasant +class, for which reason their priests have usually been +Magyars. He who ministers to the village of Szalánta, +however, is a Croatian poet. The mayor of that village—I +believe a typical specimen of the Šokci—was a ragged, +humorous-looking person with a very bushy moustache. +He was in remarkable contrast with the young Magyar +schoolmaster, whose remuneration is largely in kind. +This gentleman looked as if he would be well content if +the parents of his children sent him not eggs, butter and +chickens, but armfuls of flowers. A month before the +Hungarian revolution in 1918 an order had come from +Buda-Pest to the effect that the lowest class in a school +was to receive instruction solely in its own language, but +the Hungarian Republic ordered that no history was to +be taught, since it praises kings.</p> + +<p>As for the Krašovani, who inhabit five villages of the +mining district of Resica in Caras-Severin, the eastern +county of the Banat, they also were converted by Maria +Theresa, in whose time they fled from Montenegro, +Macedonia and the Bulgarian frontier. Gradually they +have come to reckon themselves as Croats, owing to their +priests who come from Croatia. They are all big men with +luxuriant moustaches.</p> + +<p>There is a district in southern Russia, near the Black +Sea, which is called New Serbia. It is the fertile country +that was chosen by 150,000 Southern Slavs when they +preferred, in 1768, to go into exile rather than change +their religion, like the Bunjevci, the Šokci and the +Krašovani. They preserve some traces of their origin, +but can no longer be considered Yugoslavs.</p> + +<p>In speaking of these converts and their descendants +we have alluded to the Buda-Pest policy of enforcing the +Magyar language. This movement may be studied from +the close of the eighteenth century in Croatia, where +Latin had hitherto been the official language. In 1790 +the Croats were again delivered by Leopold <small>II.</small> to the +Magyars, who were bent upon executing their designs.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Cf. <i>La Question Yougo-Slav</i>, by Vouk Primorac. Paris, 1918.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> When the Slav first arrived in these territories the Romans everywhere +yielded to them, and while the more prosperous Romans settled +on the coast, the others retired to the mountains. One of the sea-towns, +by the way, to which the Romans fled was Split, where they could live +in the ruins of Diocletian's enormous, decadent palace; and from extant +lists of the mayors of that town we see that until the tenth century they +all had Latin names, from then till the twelfth century we find partly +Latin and partly Slav names, and during the thirteenth and fourteenth +centuries their names were nearly always Slav. Those Romans—of +course not implying by that word that their forbears had come from +Rome or even from Italy—those refugees who took to the mountains +mingled with the Slavs and were also joined by wandering shepherds from +Wallachia, owing to whom all this variegated population came to be called +Black Vlachs, Mauro-Vlachs and in English Morlaks. The epithet +"black" was attached to the Vlachs, so Jirećek thinks (cf. <i>Bulletino di +Archeologia Dalmata</i>, Split, 1879), on account of the hordes of Black +Tartars who until the beginning of the fourteenth century infested the +plains of Moldavia. Gradually in this hinterland population the Roman +and the Vlach died out, but the latter's name was retained. It had lost +its ethnic meaning and among the Ragusan poets of the sixteenth and +seventeenth centuries the word was used to signify a shepherd. The +Venetians employed the word Morlacchi as a term of mockery, because +it indicated people of the mountains, backward people. And this derogatory +connotation has clung to it, so that to-day the Morlaks, who after +all are Croats and Serbs, do not like to be called by that name.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> The Serbian Archbishopric of Peć, which Dušan at his coronation +had raised to the Patriarchate, was for the time being left intact.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> This is a Pomak song. The Pomaks are the descendants of those +who in the seventeenth century (perhaps also earlier) were forcibly +converted to Islam. Their folk-songs, customs and language are Bulgarian. +They speak the purest Bulgarian, save that the men count +with Turkish numerals. (The women, who can count up to 100, use the +Bulgarian language.) The Pomaks live for the most part in the Rhodope +Mountains and in the Lovac district of northern Bulgaria. They are +endowed, as a rule, with meagre intelligence, so that the educational +endeavours of the Bulgarian Government had perforce to be abandoned, +since very few of these reluctant pupils ever left the lowest class. The +most exalted situation they aspire to is to serve as clerks to Muhammedan +priests. Nevertheless, they despise the Turks and call their language +the language of pigs.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> To-day in Serbia when the King addresses his people, when the +deputies address the Parliament, the mayor his fellow-citizens, the priest +his parishioners, the officer his men—all of them begin with the words +"Moja bratčo!" ["My brothers!"]</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Cf. <i>Baranja multja es jelenje</i>, 2 vols., by Francis Varady. Pecuj, +1898.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> <i>Die südslavischen Literaturen.</i> Leipzig, 1908.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Cf. <i>Le Balkan Slave</i>, by Charles Loiseau. Paris, 1898.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> <i>La Dalmazia.</i> Florence, 1915.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> There is in the museum at Eger in Czecho-Slovakia a small painting +of Branković dated 1711. It depicts him standing pensively outside a +tent, clad in a red and yellow Turkish costume and with a beard that +reaches to his knees. On the other hand, it seems to be established that +he was an ordinary inmate of the prison, whose site is now occupied by +the Café Astoria; and one's faith in the accuracy of the Eger Museum +is rather dimmed by the exhibition of a number of pictures, each of them +purporting to give the authentic details of the assassination at Eger of +the great Wallenstein, and every picture is quite different from the +others.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> <i>Macedonia.</i> London, 1906.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> This was far too sweeping a statement. Only thirty or forty Orthodox +at Prizren—teachers, merchants and others—used to dress in European +raiment (with a fez), but from of old the Serbs had a teachers' institute +and a seminary—the young men educated there frequently went to +Montenegro. And in view of what happened a few years later, Miss +Edith Durham must regret that in her book <i>High Albania</i> (London, +1909) she did not confine herself to recording of the men of Prizren that +"of one thing the population is determined: that is, that never again +shall the land be Serb"; but she adds, on her own account, that in this +picturesque town and its neighbourhood the Serbs are engaged in a forlorn +hope and that their claims are no better than those of the English on +Normandy. Yet if, in her opinion, the Serbs have been rewarded beyond +their deserts, she must acknowledge that they are not wholly undeserving—in +the days of her cherished Albanians it was necessary for a Catholic +inhabitant to furnish himself with a loaded revolver before guiding her +through the streets of Djakovica.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Cf. <i>Les Albanais en Vieille-Serbie et dans le Sandjak de Novi-Bazar</i>. +Paris, 1913.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> He worked for a long time at the monastery of Hopovo, among the +Syrmian hills, and there his collection of books, in the two rooms just +as he left them, was naturally treasured. Half of them were stolen in +the course of this last war by the Austrians.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> <i>Geschichte der Franzfelder Gemeinde.</i> Pančevo, 1893.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> This was originally as much land as a yoke of oxen could plough in +a day. Until the introduction of the French metrical system this measurement +was used in Austria. It still survives there, a "joch" or yoke +being equivalent to 5754·6 square metres, or about 1·4 English acres. The +Hungarian joch is three-quarters the size of this.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="III" id="III"></a>III<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span></h2> + +<h3>BUILDING THE FOUNDATIONS: NAPOLEON +AND STROSSMAYER</h3> + +<p class="subtitle"><span class="smcap">Slavs weep for the fall of Venice—They hear the voice of their +brothers—Measures to keep them apart—By encouraging +the Italianized party—And the Orthodox Church—And by +fatherly legislation—In Serbia the people are fighting for +freedom—The Montenegrin authorities are otherwise engaged—Napoleon +favours the Southern Slavs—Russia and +Britain oppose him on the Adriatic—Illyria, Napoleon's great +work for the Southern Slavs—Napoleon's schemes are +roughly interrupted—The Montenegrin Bishop incites +against him—Disaster for Napoleon and the Southern Slavs—Austria's +repressive policy—The work of Vuk Karažić—The +methods of Serbia's Miloš—The Slav soul of Croatia—The +Magyars and Croatia's port—The Sultan reigns in Bosnia—A +sorry period for the Southern Slavs—Some who turn +from politics grow prosperous—But the Croats strive for +political liberties—The Austrians, the Magyars and the +Croats—The Croats, struggling for freedom, incidentally +help Austria—How Montenegro reformed herself—The +Prince-Bishop gives a lead to the Southern Slavs—Austria +pours out a German flood—The Croat peasants and their +clergy—What the Czechs are doing to-day—Strossmayer—The +Turk in Montenegro and Macedonia—The cheerless +state of Serbia—the Slav voice in Macedonia—The Macedonian +Slavs are undivided—Dawn of Italian unity—How +Cavour would have treated the Slavs—Italian <i>v.</i> Slav: +Tommaseo's advice—Austria leans on Germans and Italianists—The +Southern Slav hopes are centred on Cetinje—For they +know neither Nicholas of Montenegro nor Michael of Serbia—If +Michael had lived!—The strange career of Rakovski—The +Yugoslav name—Russia and Austria sow discord in the +Balkans—The Macedonian Slavs under their Greek clergy—The +affair of Kukuš—The Exarchate is established—1867: +Austria delivers the Slavs to the Magyars—The "Krpitsa"—Rieka's +history, as two people see it—And the Slovenes are +coerced.</span></p> + + +<p class="section">SLAVS WEEP FOR THE FALL OF VENICE</p> + +<p>Early in 1797 the weak French garrisons which had +been left in certain towns of Italy were massacred by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +Venetians, who displayed no mercy either to the wounded +soldiers or the women who were with the troops. Napoleon +would come back no more, thought the Venetians. But +he heard of what had happened as he was engaged upon +the clauses of the Treaty of Leoben. No sooner had that +courier brought him the dispatches than the Venetian +envoys were ushered into his presence. They had been +entrusted by the Senate with the task of following the +armies and congratulating Napoleon or the Archduke, +according to which of them had won the last battle. +These envoys may have taken a despondent view of what +would be the fate of the Serene Republic; but when, +a short time afterwards, the perfumed and dishevelled +citizens, stamping on the masks of last night's ball, were +weeping pitiably in their palaces, the Slovenes and the +Morlaks, who had fought for them so well, were weeping +in the streets. Sadly and solemnly at Zadar—<i>la tanto +disputata</i>—the flag of Venice was lowered; at other +parts of the Dalmatian coast the nobles scarcely had to +say a word before the peasants had snatched arms to +fight the French and their <i>égalité</i>. The Venetians had, +after all, been there a long time, even if they had not +risen to the heights of Dubrovnik, which, as we learn +from a traveller in 1805, kept no secret police and no +gendarmes, and where a capital sentence pronounced at +the time was the first in twenty-five years. (The city +went into mourning on account of this, and an executioner +had to be imported from Turkey.) Such a moral height +had not been reached by the Venetians; but they had +been in Dalmatia, as people loved to repeat, for a long +time, and they had been easy-going in the collection of +taxes, they had supported the bishops and the holy +Church, they had made the peasants feel that each one of +them was helping to support Venice, the grand and ancient, +and so the faithful people mourned when she was falling.</p> + + +<p class="section">THEY HEAR THE VOICE OF THEIR BROTHERS</p> + +<p>Yet they were not wholly deaf to the call of their own +race. When the Austrians sent a general, the "Hungarian +party," working against the civil government of Count +Raymond von Thurn, managed to have the post given<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> +to General Rukavina, a Croat from the Military Frontier. +An eye-witness has left us an account of Rukavina's +reception at Trogir. The general mounted a chair, and +asked the people in the Slav language whether they +would swear the oath of fidelity to His Majesty the +Emperor and King, Francis <small>II.</small>, and his descendants and +legal successors. "Otchemo!" ["That is what we +want!"] was the unanimous reply. After the swearing +of the oath, the general suddenly began a vigorous speech: +"Moi dragi Dalmatinci" [<ins class="correction" +title="Transcriber's note: inserted a missing opening quote in front of 'My'">"My</ins> dear Dalmatians"], said +he.... And afterwards, when two companies of Croat +infantry were disembarked, the people collected round +them were astonished to hear them speaking the same +language as themselves and to learn that many of them +had the same names as the Dalmatians.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p> + +<p>Incidents of this character were, for more reasons than +one, most galling to von Thurn. In July the archbishop +and municipality of Split petitioned that they might +belong to Hungary. One presumes that these officials +were moved less by the sympathetic ways of one Hungarian +than by the knowledge that Croatia was under the +Hungarian crown. Very powerless, indeed, like themselves, +Croatia might be—at that moment reduced to the +rank of a Hungarian county, with her Ban no longer able +to convoke the Diet—nevertheless, a Croatia still existed. +Then Count Raymond took hold of the matter; he sent +reports on Rukavina to the Viennese authorities, and he +and they seem to have cared little whether these reports +contradicted one another. He exhibited his adversary +as a man of unbounded violence, as a man of the most +pusillanimous nature; General Rukavina was despicable, +said these documents, he was an absolute nonentity; but +no, shrieked von Thurn on the next day, this man Rukavina +was imbued as no other with the abominable spirit +of Machiavelli. To bring about the fall of the Hungarian +party in Dalmatia, Count Raymond's police set themselves +the task of laying by the heels such Hungarian agents as +Count Miaslas Zanović, one of the four sons of Count +Anthony, who for being implicated in a more than usually +flagrant scandal had been expelled from Venice. And his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +sons lived agitated lives, although it is untrue that the +second one, Stephen, before dying in prison in Amsterdam, +had governed Montenegro and is known to history as +Stephen the Little. [That mysterious person was a +contemporary, who appearing in Montenegro when the +land was in a state of barbarism and destitution, gave it +out that he was the Russian Tzar Peter <small>III.</small>, who had been +strangled to death in 1762. The Montenegrins accepted +him; and from 1768 to 1773 he showed himself a most +competent and zealous ruler, carrying out so many reforms +that he was clearly not Peter <small>III.</small> It has not as yet been +ascertained from where he came, but judging from his +accent he was either a Dalmatian Serb or a native of +the Military Confines. He was very taciturn; only one +Montenegrin, a priest called Marković, is believed to have +been privy to his secret. Marković had visited Russia +ten years previously and had celebrated Mass in the +presence of the Tzar. It was the priest who assured the +mountaineers that Stephen really was the Tzar. During +his reign he repulsed the Turks and organized the public +security, so that a lost purse—the people said—could +easily be recovered. The Republic of Venice tried on +several occasions to poison this excellent ruler; he was +ultimately killed by a barber who came up to Cetinje at +the bidding of the Pasha of Scutari, and, being appointed +court barber, cut Stephen's throat.] As for the Zanović, +the elder brother, Count Premislas, was for a long time in +a Finnish prison, on account of his conduct in gaming-houses; +the two younger brothers, Hannibal and Miaslas, +were in Budva in southern Dalmatia in 1797, distributing +Venetian proclamations, after which they rearranged +their minds and became Hungarian agents.</p> + + +<p class="section">MEASURES TO KEEP THEM APART</p> + +<p>The more active of the pair was Miaslas, and by +confounding his machinations and those of other Hungarian +adherents von Thurn overthrew the Hungaro-Croatian +party. Thenceforward his greatest care was +diligently to suppress those aspirations of the people of +Dalmatia for a union with their brothers. He had to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +build the house with the materials that he found on the +spot; the most obvious corner-stone was that numerically +small body of nobles and merchants who had for so long +associated with Venetian officials that they hated to confess +that they were Slavs.</p> + + +<p class="section">BY ENCOURAGING THE ITALIANIZED PARTY</p> + +<p>A minute number of this small body consisted of real +Italians, people who very exceptionally had settled in +Dalmatia; but among these rare families there was not +any single one of that extensive class in Venice which had +been presented by their Government with vast domains, +with farms and forests in Dalmatia. Well, the Count of +Thurn observed that this small body of Italianized Slavs +would probably not help him very much, for the Italian +culture and the education which they were so proud of +were—it is not unjust to say—nearly always superficial +and not such as to compensate for this party's lack of +numbers. But yet, for what they were worth, he supported +them. No doubt the project which the Archduke +Charles evolved in 1880, to transplant German-Austrians +to Dalmatia, would have been preferred by von Thurn. +"These colonists," explained the Archduke, "by their +culture and laboriousness, by their devotion to the House +of Habsburg would give to the Dalmatians a most valuable +example and would soon persuade them thoroughly to +merge themselves among the mass of peoples faithful to +the Emperor." But this plan could not be carried through, +because the people of Dalmatia would have risen in revolt; +moreover, the most fertile regions had been so neglected +that too many of them were now marshes or through +other causes uninhabitable. Thus von Thurn assisted +the Italianized party; they would, at any rate, unlike +the other Serbo-Croats of Dalmatia, not strive for union +with anybody else. Before the French Revolution no +one in Italy dreamed that it would be possible to bring +about Italian unity, and the patriots of 1848 longed only +for the liberation of their Peninsula; they spoke of Triest +as "the port of the future Slavia" or as "a neutral zone, +a transitional region between Slavia and Italy."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="section">AND THE ORTHODOX CHURCH</p> + +<p>It may be that when von Thurn also gratified a +reasonable ambition of the Orthodox Church he was moved +by the idea that the Roman Catholic Church of the Croats +might thus to some extent be counteracted; he may, on +the other hand, have been impelled by altruistic motives +when he authorized the establishment of an Orthodox +bishopric. Under Venice the Church had not been recognized; +and after having several times almost succeeded +in obtaining their bishop, a <i>modus vivendi</i> was at +last reached in 1797, with the consent of the Senate and +perhaps of Rome. Under this arrangement the Orthodox +were free to profess their religion, but the Senate officially +ignored their separation from the Roman Church; their +priests had to obtain their rights from the Catholic bishops +and allow the Catholic priests to cull certain of their +legitimate revenues. And this, although the Orthodox +formed one-half of the dioceses of Scardona and Šibenik, +and two-thirds of that of Bocche di Cattaro. They were +not more backward than the rest of the population. Von +Thurn—who, they thought, knew nothing of the circumstances—was +informed by them that the see of Dalmatia +was vacant and that they had elected the Archmandrite +Simeon Ivcović, a man universally esteemed for his prudence +and wisdom. They begged von Thurn to confirm +this election, and he did so.</p> + + +<p class="section">AND BY FATHERLY LEGISLATION</p> + +<p>But von Thurn seems to have relied largely on the +gratitude which this neglected province would feel for the +introduction of Austrian improvements. The happy-go-lucky +Venetian methods were no longer to disfigure the +country. Those people were logical indeed who did not +care for a government which did not care for them. No +such reproach should be levelled against the Austrian +Government, if he could avoid it; for in Dalmatia it +would now be by the side of its new subjects from their +getting up in the morning until they lay them down at +night. Henceforward there would be a set of reasonable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> +rules for everything, and if anyone remarked that this +was too much in the spirit of the late Joseph <span class="smcap">ii.</span> who made +the Kingdom of Prussia his model—what more excellent +model could one imagine? Those people who had +hitherto been troubled in their minds because they did not +know how many flower-pots they might instal outside +their windows, to those people it would be a boon to have a +new list of detailed and complete regulations as to every +aspect of this matter. People who had until now been +nervous lest they would be punished if they started +lotteries at Zadar, all these people would be glad to know +that lotteries were legal if each person who manipulated +one paid for the upkeep of a hundred lanterns in the +streets. People had been bastinadoed in the past, not +knowing if they would be smitten hard or gently; but the +Austrian Government was far too civilized to leave such +matters in the hands of chance. With regard to those +who persisted in public smoking, von Thurn probably +borrowed the rules which Baron Codelli, the mayor of +Ljubljana, was elaborating at this time. "In the streets +of the town and the suburbs," says the Baron, "smoking +has become of late a general practice. The pleasure of +smoking tobacco, which its partisans can sufficiently +enjoy in their abodes, by the river and in the fields, makes +them forget what is seemly, and, moreover, they disregard +the peril that may arise from conflagrations, especially +when their pipes are not shut. Several fires, due to this +pipe-smoking, which is contrary to the police regulations, +have not sufficed to lead the culprits back to the respect +and precaution which they should preserve for the goods +and property of their fellow-citizens. To satisfy the +general well-being and to satisfy the police with regard to +fires, it is forbidden to smoke tobacco, and especially cigars, +in the streets and squares of this town and the suburbs, +with the penalty of losing the pipe if a police-agent catches +anyone with it in his mouth, and in the case of a repeated +offence the penalty will be more serious."</p> + + +<p class="section">IN SERBIA THE PEOPLE ARE FIGHTING FOR FREEDOM</p> + +<p>This system of tutelage may have had its irksome +moments; the Turkish rule in Serbia was such that any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> +people with blood in their veins were bound to rebel. +Sooner or later a race like the Serbs, who lived always +with the songs of their old heroes and who gloried in +their heiduks, were sure to dash themselves against this +alien master. Kara George had seen that the Serbs in +the Banat were prosperous, while in Serbia they were +obliged to stand and watch the janissaries come back to +the pashalik of Belgrade, though the Turks had sworn +this should not be. Then the match was set to the fire—in +January 1804 the Da-Hi, the chiefs of the janissaries, +after having slain Mustapha Pasha, the enlightened +Turkish Governor, who was known affectionately as +"the mother of the Serbs," cut off the heads of a number +of Serbian leaders; seventy-two of them on pikes were +made into an awful avenue of trees. But even as the +snowstorms beat against these Serbian heads, so Kara +George and his companions from Šumadija, the heart of +Serbia, flung themselves against the janissaries and +vanquished them. This was what the Serbs had started +out to do, and so for the moment Constantinople had +been content to look on. However, when the Sultan +was told that his unruly vassals had seized the whole of +Šumadija and the departments of Valjevo and Pojarevac, +he sent against them the Pasha of Bosnia, who demanded +that they should lay down their arms. But now the +Serbs had seen what some day they might struggle to—the +liberation of their country. They had climbed a +few steps up the stony path, they would not let themselves +be lured back to the plain. Let Austria or some other +one of the Great Powers guarantee their rights. The +Pasha would not hear of it, and so these few undaunted +men resolved to fight the Turkish Empire. An army +came at once to stamp them out, and at Ivancovac they +scattered it. From now they would fight on alone.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> +Their leader was the sort of man they wanted, a brave +heiduk who was never weary, who had taken up one day +a large rock and had flung it down a precipice, and who +would do the same, they fancied, to a follower of his, if +he saw fit.... The Serbs were left to fight alone, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> +the Great Powers took an interest in their future. We +find in a report from the French Ambassador in Petrograd +to his Minister of Foreign Affairs (No. 261 in the "Excerpts +from the Paris Archives relating to the history of the +first Serbian Insurrection," collected [Belgrade, 1904] by +Dr. Michael Gavrilović, now the Minister in London) +that the treaty of alliance stipulated for Russia to have +Moldavia, Bessarabia, Vallachia and Bulgaria; France +to have Albania, part of Bosnia, Morea and Candia; +Austria to have Croatia and part of Bosnia; while Serbia +was to be independent and given to a prince of the House +of Austria or to any other foreign prince who married a +Russian Grand Duchess. According to another scheme +which the Ambassador forwarded, Austria was to have +Serbia in complete possession as an Austrian province, +and Croatia to belong to Austria or France, as Napoleon +might decide.... Serbia had to fight alone, and unluckily +her ranks were anything but closed. The lack of +education brought about some childish jealousies, such as +that of Mladen Milanović, who was ordered by Kara +George to go to the relief of the Heiduk Veliko at Negotin, +where 18,000 Turks were besieging him. "He may help +himself!" quoth Mladen. "<i>His</i> praise is sung to him +at his table by ten singers, <i>mine</i> is not. Let him hold +out by himself, the <i>hero</i>." Veliko sent word to say that +at the New Year (when Kara George and his chieftains +were wont to meet in consultation) he would inquire as +to how the country was being governed. But before +then he was dead—shot by the Turks, who recognized +him while he was going the rounds; and after five days +his troops, in despair, made their escape across a morass +and scattered.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE MONTENEGRIN AUTHORITIES ARE OTHERWISE +ENGAGED</p> + +<p>There was no use in looking to the Montenegrin +mountains, for that rallying-point of all the Serbs was +in the midst of very delicate business. One year before +the rising of Kara George, in 1803, the Montenegrin +warriors had profited from the fact that they were fighting +nobody and they had made a few reforms in their own<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> +country. The Bishop, Peter <small>I.</small>, convoked an assembly +at which the tribal chiefs approved of a Code and of the +imposition of a tax, for State requirements. It was also +decided to have a court of justice, the members of which +should be elected by the people. Thus it will be seen +that the patriarchal system still prevailed, and though +the Bishop was regarded by the outside world—by the +Turk whom with varying fortunes he was perpetually +fighting, and by the Russian Tzar, whom he had visited +at intervals from the time when Peter the Great called on +the Montenegrins in 1711 to work with him in rescuing, +if it was God's will, those Orthodox Christians who were +oppressed by the yoke of the heathen—though the Bishop +was regarded both by friend and foe as the sovereign of +Montenegro, yet it was only round him that the tribal +chiefs gathered as being the guardian of their religion, +while the people, represented by their tribal chiefs, +remained the real sovereign. If Kara George had risen +one year earlier they would have flown immediately to +help him—as, indeed, they did help him at a later period—they +would have postponed, without a moment's hesitation, +the establishing of Code and tax and court of justice. +But in 1804 they found themselves in a most awkward +situation. Since the death of the Tzar Paul the Russians +had appeared to be indifferent to Montenegro, and for +three years the annual subsidy of a thousand sequins +had not been paid. This omission was made use of by +the French Consul at Dubrovnik, who with the aid of a +Dubrovnik priest, one Dolci, set himself to wean the +Montenegrins from their Russian friendship. Fonton, +Russia's Consul at Dubrovnik, demanded the sequestration +and the scrutiny of Dolci's papers; the demand was +rejected, and when force was tried Dolci leaped at the +examiner's throat. It was proved that he was in the pay +of France and the Montenegrins were obliged to disavow +him. This exasperated the Bishop, who threatened to +cut off Dolci's ears, but relented and only gave him a +hundred blows with a stick and ordered him to be imprisoned +in a monastery. The second half of Dolci's +punishment was thought by many at the time to be +unwise, as he might talk. And they were gladdened when +they heard, soon afterwards, of his decease, though<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +whether they were right in praising their bishop for this +consummation we do not know. At all events, the hapless +Dolci had not lived in vain, for Russia now resumed her +good relations with the mountaineers, and she inaugurated +them by paying the three thousand sequins.</p> + +<p>The Treaty of Pressburg in 1805 allotted Dalmatia to +Napoleon. A few months afterwards his armies landed +on the coast. Although the high command and certain +regiments were French, a large part of the force consisted +of Italians, Germans, Spaniards and Dutchmen. The +scheme Napoleon entertained was to secure for himself the +gates of the Balkans and Albania, incidentally to take +the Ionian Islands in the rear, with the great purpose of +securing the roads to Constantinople; thence to India.</p> + + +<p class="section">NAPOLEON FAVOURS THE SOUTHERN SLAVS</p> + +<p>The provinces of Dalmatia and Istria were placed +under the government of Milan, in their towns were +hoisted the Italian colours; but if to Napoleon these +lands were chiefly stepping-stones to India, he did not +long stay in ignorance regarding their inhabitants. His +representative, Vincenzo Dandolo, was a Venetian who, on +account of his democratic principles, had been expelled in +1799 and had sought refuge in France. We will therefore +not repeat the epithets he uses when he writes about the +late Venetian overseas régime. But Napoleon had no +cause to be prejudiced in favour of the Yugoslavs. His +origin was Italian. His daughter reigned in Italy. And +if he had disapproved of Dandolo starting at Zadar in +1806 an official newspaper—the <i>Regio dalmato: Kraljski +dalmatin</i>, written partly in Italian, partly in Serbo-Croat—he +would very soon have stopped the paper and Dandolo's +career. But, on the contrary, this paper (the first +one to be written at all in Serbo-Croat) was followed by +the planning of secondary schools at Zadar, Šibenik, +Trogir, Split, Makarska and the island of Hvar, twenty-nine +elementary schools for boys and fourteen for girls, +two academies at Zadar and Split, four seminaries for the +education of priests and eight industrial schools. And +in these the Serbo-Croatian language was to be largely +employed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span></p> + +<p>Kara George had no leisure in which to learn to read +and write. Another Turkish army, formed in Bosnia, +had to be encountered near Šabac in 1806. It was routed, +and on this occasion the Serbian cavalry was led with +great distinction by a priest, Luka Lazarević. Yet another +Turkish army suffered the same fate.</p> + + +<p class="section">RUSSIA AND BRITAIN OPPOSE HIM ON THE ADRIATIC</p> + +<p>It was not to be thought that France would be left +tranquil on the Adriatic. Russia did not incommode +her very greatly. After Kotor (Cattaro) had been +delivered to the Muscovites by an Italian, the Marquis +Ghislieri (who had concealed until that moment his +antagonism to the French for having been removed by +them from his Bologna home), the Russians made themselves +obnoxious to a small extent upon the islands. +They summoned the people of Hvar to recognize the Tzar +as their overlord, and when the people declined to do so, +the Russians bombarded them. For Dubrovnik this +conflict between Russia and France was embarrassing; +she wrote to Sankovski, the Russian Commissary, that if +he exceeded his powers she would have recourse to the +Tzar, "her beloved protector." But when in the summer +of that year, 1806, she was besieged for twenty days, the +French were in occupation of the town, while the Russians +with their Montenegrin friends were trying to dislodge +them. It is said that before the garrison was relieved, by +the arrival of another French force, there had been so +much damage done to the Republic's ancient walls and +palaces and other buildings that the loss, to mention only +the pecuniary loss, amounted to eighteen million francs. +After the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807 the British undertook, +and more effectively, those operations in the Adriatic which +the Russians now abandoned. They tried to burn at +Triest the Russian vessels which had been ceded to France, +and for a few years they had command of the Adriatic, +keeping sometimes as many as twenty-two ships in those +waters, while the French are said to have had at no time +more than seven frigates.</p> + +<p>The old Republic was dissolved; but many other questions +weighed upon Napoleon. It was the Austrian Emperor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +and not he whom many people in Dalmatia held to +be their lawful monarch, for the Habsburg was the heir of +the Croatian Kings. And so while England had the sea in +her possession, Austria had the salt-lands of the isle of +Pago, and the populace on the Quarnero Islands took the +rudders off the boats which were to carry food to Zadar. +The Austrians advanced on Split, with ordinary troops and +volunteers. At Hvar the people kept Napoleon's birthday +with apparent enthusiasm; on the next day they revolted +and hoisted the Austrian flag. Then the peasants seized +the town and for three days indulged in pillage, burning +amongst other things the valuable libraries of those who +favoured France.</p> + + +<p class="section">ILLYRIA, NAPOLEON'S GREAT WORK FOR THE +SOUTHERN SLAVS</p> + +<p>With the Treaty of Schoenbrunn Napoleon secured +possession of Carniola, the Austrian part of Istria, Croatia, +the military frontiers from the Save to the sea, and also +certain districts of Carinthia, Styria and Tirol. Now at +last the Adriatic littoral, with large tracts of the interior, +was united under one hand. We may note that Eugène +Beauharnais in vain entreated that the frontier for the +Slovenes should, on account of strategic necessities, be +drawn to the east of the Isonzo, but Napoleon did not +hesitate to make that river the boundary between the +two countries, as it was between the two races. Mazzini +in 1860 shared this opinion, which he had also maintained +in 1831, in his book <i>The Rights of Man</i>, that Slavs and +Italians should be divided by this river. And in 1860 +Cavour expressed himself to the same effect in a letter to +Laurent Valerio.</p> + +<p>"Mes braves Croates," says Napoleon in his Memoirs; +and for what he did in this Illyria, the forerunner of our +Yugoslavia, they must be always thankful. Never had +these people had such able administrators, such sympathetic +governors. They governed it too much as if it +were a part of France, but they were doing their utmost +to understand the people and their customs. General +Marmont acquired an excellent knowledge of the Serbo-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>Croat +language; he intended to introduce the national +tongue into all the public offices. But this naturally could +not be carried through without an intervening period, +and unluckily Marmont so far excelled his compatriots +as a linguist, that when the newspaper <i>Télégraphe officiel +des Provinces Illyriennes</i> appeared at Ljubljana, the +capital (under the brilliant editorship of Charles Nodier, +who came out from France for that purpose), and it was +announced that there would be French, German, Italian +and Slav articles, the latter do not appear to have been +published. Illyria was under the influence of its neighbours, +Italian, German and Hungarian, with regard to the +spoken and still more with regard to the written language. +A fundamental necessity was that the country should +have one common language. Under French influence +Joachim Stulli brought out his <i>Vocabulario italiano-illyrico-latino</i> +in 1810, and at Triest in 1812 Starčević published +his new Illyrian grammar. There was visible in +these works an aspiration that some day the Yugoslavs +would be united in one country and with various dialects, +and the proviso that for public affairs and for schools and +literature the so-called "Što" dialect, the most widely +spread and the most perfect, should be given preference. +If Napoleon had not fallen, his Illyria would no doubt have +gradually attracted to herself the other Yugoslav provinces +that still were under the Austrian, Hungarian or Turk; +and in this way one of the great thorns would have been +taken out of Europe's side. There was an official, Marcel +de Serres, on Napoleon's staff, who was exclusively concerned +with Yugoslav affairs; and it is probable that with +a closer knowledge of the people there would have been less +insistence on the radical reforms which were sometimes ill-adapted +to the country and were often hated vehemently +by the persons whom they shook out of their age-long +comatose condition. Napoleon would have modified the +methods of recruiting had he known how much resentment +his conscription was arousing. Venice had obtained +most faithful soldiers; this was one of the few trades that +she permitted, but she had never said they were obliged +to serve. Napoleon's system caused great numbers of +desertions, while the men who stayed had little discipline +and looked for opportunities to join the enemy. Perhaps<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> +in time the nobles would have been resigned to losing, if +not all, at any rate a portion of their privileges; and the +Catholic clergy would have moderated their strong views +against the gaoler of Pius <small>VII.</small>, the champion of liberal and +emancipated France, the master of Dandolo, who wanted to +reduce the number of bishoprics, oblige candidates for the +priesthood to learn certain lay subjects and regulate the +funds in the possession of the Orders, with the purpose of +assisting the indigent clergy and benevolent institutions—much +would have been forgiven by the clergy to the man +who brought about national union.</p> + + +<p class="section">NAPOLEON'S SCHEMES ARE ROUGHLY INTERRUPTED</p> + +<p>The transactions of the British at Vis (Lissa) were +such as to make the people of Illyria very discontented +with Napoleon, not so much on account of his mischance +at sea, as of the disagreeable effects thereof upon themselves. +The British blockade had ruined the local merchant +service, while the consequent state of a province which +had necessarily to be revictualled by sea was compared +with the flourishing fortunes of Vis. Before the British +definitely occupied that island with its glorious harbour—2½ +kilometres in length by 1 kilometre in breadth—they +had to secure themselves by two naval engagements. +In October 1810 the French-Italian attack was nearly +successful, and in the following March came the great +fight when Dubourdieu pitted himself against Commodore +Hoste. Not counting a few smaller ships, the French +had four frigates, each armed with 44 guns, and two +corvettes of 32 guns. The British had the <i>Amphion</i> and +the <i>Cerberus</i>, each armed with 60 guns, the <i>Active</i> with +44 and the <i>Volage</i> with 22. The Italians having slow +ships, arrived late, but fought very well. What lost +Dubourdieu his chances was the separation of his squadron, +which allowed the British to engage them one after +another. Dubourdieu on the <i>Favorite</i>, his captain and +two lieutenants were killed; the captain of the <i>Flore</i> +lost an arm; the captain of the <i>Bellona</i> had both legs +amputated, and died on the next day; Pasqualijo, captain +of the <i>Corona</i>, wished to surrender his sword to Hoste,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> +but as he had fought so nobly Hoste refused to take it. +Pasqualijo was removed to Malta, and after a few months +set at liberty. On the British side the losses were also +severe. Most of the crew of the <i>Amphion</i> were either +killed or wounded, Hoste being among the latter. Of +254 on board the <i>Cerberus</i> only 26 were untouched. It is +said that the French and Italians had about 200 killed +and 500 wounded. Dubourdieu's fault was merely an +excess of intrepidity; the French have called a cruiser +after him. Their opinion at the time, according to their +historians,<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> was that the British were superior in officers +and men and ships—constant cruising on the Adriatic +had brought them near perfection. Among the incidents +recorded is that of one of the <i>Amphion's</i> cadets who was +doing police work at the fort; in despair at being out of +the battle he swam to his ship. A fusillade from the +<i>Favorite</i> put some shot in his leg. On reaching the +<i>Amphion</i> he was bandaged and went to his post. His +name was Farell or Farewell.... After this the British +made themselves at home upon that mountainous, rich +isle of palm-trees and vineyards that were praised of old +by Agatharchides. Sir G. D. Robertson, the Governor, +had two companies of the 35th Regiment, besides Swiss, +Corsican and Calabrian contingents. There was great +prosperity. Sometimes a hundred corsairs would be in +the harbour, waiting for a favourable wind. On their +return they would have splendid cargoes, and the goods +which cost so little were sold at absurd prices. Rent was +high, there were not shops enough for the tailors, carpenters, +goldsmiths, pastry-cooks who landed there, +chiefly from Italy; the people therefore pulled old boats +on to the shore and lived in them. There one could buy +the best Turkish tobacco, and cigars were advertised as +"the finest cigars for gentlemen and ladies." Italian +and Dalmatian smugglers flocked to Vis in search of +goods, and even French officers could sometimes not +resist wearing the cool garments from the East Indies. +In two years the population increased from four to eleven +thousand.</p> + +<p>Illyria's enemies on land were also aided by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> +British. In 1813, when the Austrians, under General +Tomassich, penetrated into the Illyrian provinces, the +Croat inhabitants threw in their lot with them. They +and the British surrounded Zadar, which fell after a +siege of six weeks. At Dubrovnik—whose merchantmen +she had mostly captured or sunk—England assisted the +population, nobles and commoners, in a revolt against the +French. One object of the citizens was to restore the +Republic, but in a democratic form.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE MONTENEGRIN BISHOP INCITES AGAINST HIM</p> + +<p>However, in the first days of 1814 the Austrians +arrived and the French, in their reduced condition, could +hold out no longer. 1813 had been a fatal year for +Napoleon. The Montenegrin Bishop had addressed a +stirring appeal to the Bocchesi and others in September. +"Slavs!" he wrote. "Glorious and illustrious population +of the Bocche di Cattaro, of Dubrovnik and Dalmatia! +Behold the moment to seize arms against the +destroyer of Europe, the universal foe who has attacked +your religion, ruined your churches.... He has put +his taxes on the blood of your veins and even on the +corpses of your parents! What injustices has he not +committed?... Behold the hour of vengeance.... +Croatia is delivered, and Carniola, Triest, Istria, Rieka +and Zengg. What else do you wait for, O valiant Slavs +of Dalmatia, of Dubrovnik and of Kotor? By land the +army of the Emperor of Austria, by sea that of the King +of England enter Dalmatia. They have taken Zadar +and have arrived at Makarska." ... [The Austrians, +as a matter of fact, entered Dalmatia a month after this +proclamation was issued. The Bishop has allowed the +prophet in him to prevail over the chronicler.] "I am +there," he continues, "with my Montenegrins, ready to +go where peril has to be faced. The glory of the traitor +Bonaparte has remained at Moscow and Smolensk: no +longer need we tremble before the Tyrant....</p> + +<p>"Given at our Headquarters at Budva, 12/24 +September 1813. <span class="right"><span class="smcap">Peter</span>, Bishop."</span></p> + + +<p class="section">DISASTER FOR NAPOLEON AND THE SOUTHERN SLAVS<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p> + +<p>1813 was a fatal year for Napoleon and for this first +attempt to build a Yugoslavia. It was a fatal year for +the first effort to construct again a Serbian State. Burning +with the hope of liberation, no less than four Serbian +armies had assembled and advanced victoriously against +the Turk. One of the most outstanding episodes was the +heroic death of Stephen Sindjelinić at Tšegar, near to +Niš. As he was in a hopeless case, no reinforcements +having come, he told his men that they must die, but as +the Turks outnumbered them so more of these must +perish than of Christians. He waited till the Turks +pressed closely round him and then fired the magazine. +In vengeance for this deed the Turks piled up a pyramid +of Serbian soldiers' heads; they called it Tchele-Koula +(Tower of Skulls), and for many years it was at Niš a +veritable Turkish monument. King Milan built a wall +around it; afterwards it was removed. And so the +Serbs continued their long fight. It seemed to some of +them that the authority of Kara George had grown +excessive. They convoked a national assembly, which +decided to set up a Ministry of six and a tribunal. Kara +George was—in agreement with his Ministers—to nominate +the prefects of the various departments. While the +Serbs were settling these internal matters, Russia made +her peace in 1812 with Turkey. As for Serbia, it was +arranged that the new fortresses would be demolished +and the towns be occupied by Turkish garrisons. Thus +all that Serbia had won, and at the cost of so much blood, +would now be stolen from her. Once again did Kara +George and his companions take the field, but this time +they were overpowered. Many fled to Hungary, among +them Kara George, and were imprisoned. Others stayed +in Serbia, and of these a great many were slaughtered by +the Turks. They say that sixty were impaled on each +side of the road which enters Belgrade, among <ins class="correction" +title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'the'">them</ins> priests +and monks, whose bodies were consumed by dogs.</p> + +<p>But Illyria and Serbia lived as inspirations.</p> + +<p style="margin-top: 2em">Nearly thirty years after the Austrians came back to +Illyria they, at the request of the Sultan, forbade the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> +use of that name, except as one of their Emperor's string +of titles. Turkish susceptibilities were not ruffled if he +chose to call himself King of Illyria. Was he not also +King of Jerusalem? There had been anxiety at Constantinople +as to the effect which the name of Napoleon's +province was producing on the Slavs of Bosnia. Considering +the Austrian policy, this was not a glittering +diplomatic triumph for the Turks. Had they approached +the Austrians much earlier it is improbable that they +would have been met with any very strenuous refusal. +In their own phrase, a phrase that was used by Osman +Pasha when he heard of the violent disputes between +the Russians and Roumanians as to which of them had +been the first to batter the defences down and take by +storm the mighty Plevna—"Any pig," said he, "can +walk in at an open door."</p> + + +<p class="section">AUSTRIA'S REPRESSIVE POLICY</p> + +<p>Another item of Austria's policy which it would not +have been difficult to foretell was her refusal to countenance +the union of Dalmatia and Croatia. Von Thurn's +idea of favouring the harmless Italianized party was +thought very admirable and was now once more put into +action. This party was very much concerned to keep its +head above water; the rising tide of nationalism and +equality and of other pernicious French notions made as +much appeal to them as they did to Metternich. What +he stood out against, they also hated; for the national +spirit, fostered by the union of the two Slav provinces, +would swamp them. If Dalmatia, on the other hand, +remained autonomous they would be much more likely +to survive. So they became autonomists.</p> + +<p>A fair number of those who for economical or social +reasons gave themselves out as belonging to this little +autonomous party were unable to speak Italian, being +less cultivated than many of those who continued to be +patriotic Serbo-Croats. But as Italian now became the +language of the schools and offices, of the law-courts and +of public life generally, these autonomous persons hastened +to learn it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="section">THE WORK OF VUK KARAŽIĆ</p> + +<p>But now we hear the steps of other Southern Slavs +whose mission is to call the people to their own language +and to make the language worthy of the people. With +the encumbrances that in the centuries had so disfigured +it, the archaisms and the pseudo-classicisms, it would never +come to pass that one great Serbian nation would be +formed. And that is what Vuk Karažić, throughout his +life, was aiming at. While Miloš Obrenović in Serbia +took up the arms which Kara George had dropped, and +used some others of his own, Vuk Karažić was tramping +with his wooden leg round Serbia and Montenegro, Macedonia +and Bulgaria, Syrmia and the Banat. He longs to +find out where his country lies and, having found his +people, to use their own language as the spoken and the +written language of the nation. For this purpose he had +to reform the Cyrillic alphabet, as it contained, like +Russian and Bulgarian, letters that are not pronounced; +and the Serbian produced by him is a purely phonetic +language. He had, of course, his enemies, particularly +in the clergy, who were the most important class. What +he was doing with the Palæo-Slav displeased them hugely. +Here was he trying to substitute what they called "a +language of ox-herds" for that one which had not alone +a venerable tradition but was the hall-mark of their +superiority. A certain Dr. Hajić wrote a monograph in +which he demonstrated most emphatically that it was +the enviable happiness of the Serbian people to have no +grammar. It was hinted by some other opponents of +Vuk that he might well be an Austrian agent, who, in +order to disturb the people, was now raising questions of a +most contentious nature, which had previously not been +thought of. But when the great philologist died in 1861 +in Vienna he had long been recognized as one of the +most ardent patriots. His three volumes of national +songs excited the enthusiasm of Jacob Grimm, who rushed +off to learn this new language, and with essays and letters +to reveal it to Goethe. Translators, commentators, +expounders and editors flocked from all sides, and Vuk +was regarded as Serbia incarnate.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="section">THE METHODS OF SERBIA'S MILOŠ</p> + +<p>One naturally judges a country of which one is ignorant +by the little which one knows about the private life of its +ruler. And it was fortunate for Serbia's reputation that +Prince Miloš had a Vuk to throw a shadow over him. Kara +George had been a hero, Miloš called himself a statesman. +Anyhow, he walked in crooked paths, although the +murders that he was accused of are now said to be not +proven—with the exception of Archbishop Nikčić, one +of his critics, and another prominent man whom he requested +the Pasha to have strangled. Kara George—one +finds in many books—was done away with when he +came back to renew the fight against the Turks; most +people say that Miloš, his arch-rival, had him murdered +in his sleep. All that one knows for certain is that the +assassin was a man in the employ of one of Miloš's prefects. +As for Miloš sending the head to the Sultan, it is pointed +out that as the Sultan's vassal he could not do otherwise. +But the stories of his wife, the strong-minded Princess +Liubica, are acknowledged to be true—how she would cry +out to the warriors, if they seemed to waver, that they were +but women, and how this induced them to attack again; +how she would cook her husband's meals and wait on +him; how when she discovered that any other lady had +found favour in the Prince's sight she slew her, and retired +into the mountains until her husband was appeased or +had discovered a new lady. The court etiquette of that +period was under the baneful influence of Turkey. Miloš +used to live in Turkish houses—some of them are extant +to this day—he gave audience as a Turkish pasha, seated +amid cushions on the floor, his room was hung with captured +Turkish flags, and on his head he wore a turban. +It was often rumoured that when he had gained sufficient +money he would not continue to forbid the working of the +Serbian salt-mines, lest the profits of his own mines in +Roumania should diminish; and it is not creditable that +he should have made his subjects pay their contributions +to the Turkish Tribute in the currency of Austria, while +he would forward it in Turkish currency—of course less +valuable—and keep the difference. He also tried to +monopolize the swine trade, the most lucrative in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> +country; he seized whatever he coveted—lands, mills +and houses—and even burned down a part of Belgrade +in order to build a new Custom-House, whose takings would +flow into his pocket. "Am I not the chief," he said, +"the Gospodar, and shall I not do what I like with my +own?" But he was a real Prince. After the Peace of +Adrianople in 1829 an edict was issued by the Sultan, +which recognized Serbia as an independent principality, +with Miloš as hereditary prince. He organized a standing +army and built roads and schools and churches. He +abolished, in 1833, the old Turkish system of land-tenure +and introduced that peasant proprietorship which causes +the Serbs, down to this day, to go into battle in defence +of their own lands. In 1836 he offered the bishopric +of Šabac to the famous Bulgarian monk, Neophyte Rilski, +who wrote the first Bulgarian grammar and translated +the New Testament, of which the first edition was burned +by the Greek Church at Constantinople, while the second +edition sold to the then enormous extent of 30,000 copies. +The modest monk, who was born in 1793 and died in +1881, preferred the life of a student and teacher;<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> he +therefore declined an offer which was so creditable to him +who made it.... Yet in spite of Miloš's great services +to his country he had his detractors. It was one of +them, perhaps, who painted the portrait that one usually +sees of him—an incongruous portrait, because the uniform +is most correct—he is holding in his hand the Serbian +military headgear, not a turban—but the face, with its +serpent-like moustaches, high cheek-bones and black eyes, +looks more like that of a Tartar than anything else. Those +who did not care for Miloš said that it was barbarism not +to let the laws be put in writing; but to this he never +would <ins class="correction" +title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'consent,'">consent.</ins> In 1835 he announced in the official +Gazette (<i>Novine Srpski</i>) that he was the "only master";<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> +he set about gaining for his country the interest of +foreign Powers. England, which in 1837 sent Colonel +Hodges as her agent to Belgrade, was for having Serbia +placed under the protection of the Great Powers. Constitutional +England was backing Miloš and his despotism, +while, on the other hand, Russia and Turkey came out, +to their own surprise, as champions of a constitution. +They demanded that the power of Miloš should be limited +by something which they euphemistically called "an +organic regulation." Finally, there was imposed on him +a Senate consisting of members appointed for life, but +when this body asked him to account for the manner +in which he had spent the public funds the Prince found +that he could not allow himself to be so hampered and, +in 1839, he abdicated. ("If," he once said, "if Charles +<small>X.</small> of France had understood how to govern as I myself +did in Serbia, he would never have lost his throne.") +Vutčić, his arch-enemy, flung a stone after him into the +Save. "You will not return," he cried, "until a stone +can float on these waters!" "I shall die as Serbia's +ruler!" shouted Miloš. (And when he ultimately did +come back Vutčić was cast into prison, where he died +mysteriously—Miloš refusing the Turks permission to +examine the body.)</p> + + +<p class="section">THE SLAV SOUL OF CROATIA</p> + +<p>His democracy, in spite of his agrarian reforms, was +very far from that of Vuk, and far from that of a young +noble of Croatia, Ljudevit Gaj, who one evening in the +drawing-room of Count Drašković—the same Count +Drašković who wrote in German, for such was the spirit +of the time, his Exhortation to Croatian Maidens that +they should be truly Croatian—well, in this gentleman's +house at Zagreb Ljudevit Gaj recites some verses he has +written for a dowager. They are in Slav. The audience +is inclined to be amused. Of course they know something +of the language because, like Anastasius Grün in the +Slovene country, they talk it to the servants. But +among themselves in Croatia the upper classes prefer to +use Latin. There is no doubt, as Count Louis Voinović, a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> +Yugoslav poet, has said, that this pursuit of Latin brought +into the Slav world much that is indispensable in modern +thought. It created among them an atmosphere of social +courtesy, which, according to Saint Francis of Assisi, is the +sister of Charity. It has humanized the Slav world and +furnished it thus with formidable weapons. But, on the +other hand, it cast a veil over the differences between the +nations and caused people to be blind to their own national +genius. The Croat nobility, with few exceptions, were +at this time so much in harmony with the Magyar magnates, +so anxious to prevent their peasants from hearing +the Marseillaise, that they would, if need be, learn the +Magyar language. But to use Slav in a drawing-room! +This was a new idea. They smiled good-naturedly; but +Gaj, with some other young men, some priests and some +savants, founded a literary brotherhood that was to become +famous under the name of "Danica." Famous also +is an image he conceived. "The Southern Slavs," said +he, in his programme of 1836, "are as a triangular lyre +whose extremities are at Scutari, Villach and Varna." He +said there was a time when the strings of this lyre resounded +with harmonious sounds, but that the winds in +their fury have torn them. Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, +Croatia, Slavonia, Montenegro, Herzegovina, Serbia, +Bulgaria and Southern Hungary are these broken strings, +which it is necessary to repair. Let the people in these +lands, he said, forget their religious differences and remember +that they are the children of one mother. Let +them write the same language. Gaj thus aimed at bringing +Vuk's reforms to bear upon the Latin characters with +which the Serbo-Croat language is written in Croatia. +Before his party was victorious it had to vanquish most +determined opposition. Pamphlet was hurled against +pamphlet, grammar against grammar, Gaj and his men +had to overcome not only those who were the guardians of +tradition, but all those who thought it natural and proper +that in syntax there should be some difference between +the Croat and the Serb. Yet now the philologists are +out and the poets; their business takes them between the +legs of the Great Powers, where they sometimes come to +grief, but they are striking all those fetters from their +nation. Peter Preradović is born in the Military Frontier<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> +and he dies an Austrian General. At the beginning of his +distinguished career he could speak nothing but German, +and it was in emotional German poetry that he first +expressed himself. But afterwards, carried away by the +new winds that were cleansing the Croat language and +sweeping from it the reproach of being a mere jargon for +the servants, he became in his "Putnik" (The Traveller) +and "Braca" (The Brothers) the greatest poet of the +Croats. It is noteworthy that when this Austrian +General writes a drama he takes for his hero the old +legendary hero of the Serbs, Marko Kraljević. The Ban +of Croatia, Ivan Mazuranić, is a Latin poet in his youth; +but when this high official too comes under the stirring +influence of Gaj he dedicates himself to his own people and +composes in "The Death of Smail Aga"<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> a poem that +among Serbian-speaking people has become so much the +property of all that the poet has been lost in the shadow of +his own work. Peasants who sing fragments of it as they +toil in the fields, and the minstrel, the guslar, who chants it +for them of an evening, believe that it is, like their folk-songs, +the anonymous production of the Serbian people.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE MAGYARS AND CROATIA'S PORT</p> + +<p>With the General and the Ban there is the Bishop, +Joseph George Strossmayer, one of the greatest men of the +nineteenth century. But before he became Bishop of +Djakovo he saw the Government suppress those aspirations +which he laboured for throughout his life. The Austrian +Government had presented Gaj, in recognition of his +literary work, with a diamond ring; but when they saw +that his Illyrian programme persisted in aiming at the +union of Croatia and Dalmatia, then at last they vetoed +his Illyrianism and the word Illyria. His friends thereupon +called themselves the "National party," which was +in the Croatian Diet more numerous than the "Magyarones,"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> +who—many of them unprogressive landlords—stood +for the most absolute union with Hungary. The +National party demanded that Rieka, which was still +"separatum sacræ regni Hungariæ adnexum corpus," +should be united with the rest of Croatia; but the +Magyars would naturally not let their one small port be +taken from them. Those among the Magyars who consented +to discuss the matter with the Croats said that +if indeed they had purloined one Croat port (for they +confessed that 350 kilometres separate Rieka from the +nearest place in Hungary), yet the Croatians could afford +to treat them with generosity, since they possessed at least +two other ports, Bakar and Zengg, that were every bit +as good. It was quite true that till Rieka was connected +by the railway to the valleys of the Save, the Drave and +the Danube, she had no advantage over Zengg and +Bakar. None of these are natural ports: at Rieka there +is no protecting island, Zengg and Bakar are available for +small ships only, and behind all three there is a barrier +of mountains. All of them, moreover, suffer from the +visitations of the bora, which blows from the north +sometimes for weeks on end. Having pointed out their +own necessities and all these limitations, the Magyars +stayed at Rieka. But they cast about them for some +means by which the inconvenient Croats could be countered, +and of course the simplest plan was to protect, as +Austria was doing in Dalmatia, that small party of the +Slavs on whom the presence of a few Italians at Rieka +and their knowledge of this language and perhaps their +education at some school in Italy had made such a profound +impression that they wished no longer to be looked +upon as Slavs—and some of them quite honestly thought +that they were not Slavs. Of such was the Autonomist +party, whose sole purpose was to flourish at Rieka in +alliance with Hungarians and to keep Rieka a free Hungarian +town. Perhaps the Magyars had no choice of +methods, but it does not look magnanimous to plant +yourself in some one else's house and then proceed to make +conspiracies with a disgruntled child. They succoured +the Autonomists in every way. For instance, the Croats +had, as elsewhere on the coast, been so unjustly kept from +having schools. The two or three schools in existence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> +were for those who turned their back on national ambitions +and cultivated modern Italian, even as the nobles up at +Zagreb had cultivated Latin. Now in 1838 the Croats +of Rieka, who—it is needless to say—were much the more +numerous part of the population, thought that Gaj's +wonderful educational movement, which was spreading +far and wide, should not find Rieka unresponsive. So +they asked that the Croatian language should be taught, +as well as the Italian, in the local schools. "This was the +first attempt," says Mr. Edoardo Susmel,<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> who is, I gather, +a schoolmaster or an ex-schoolmaster at Rieka. "But +the people of Rieka," he says, "always with admirable +tenacity resisted the brute force with which the Croats +wanted to impose on the Italian city the rights of him who +is strongest. The city arose as one man against this first +attack and the schools remained Italian."</p> + +<p>The conflict in the Croatian Diet between the National +party and that of the Magyarones grew in violence. The +latter, egged on from Buda-Pest, demanded in the most +peremptory fashion that the Croat deputies should henceforward +speak in Magyar instead of Latin. It was in the +same year, 1843, that one of the deputies, Ivan Kukulejević, +made the first speech in Croatian. Szemere, a +Magyar, cried out furiously that Croatia was a land which +had been conquered by force of arms, and the Hungarian +Parliament went so far as to pass a law which made the +teaching of Magyar obligatory in Croatian schools and for +the Croatian delegates in the Hungarian Diet. The Croats +replied by petitioning the Emperor to separate their country +completely from Hungary. Ferdinand <small>V.</small> wavered between +the two sides; in 1843 he annulled the decisions of the +Hungarian Parliament, and in 1844 he laid it down that +in six years the Croats would have to adopt Magyar as +their official language. It seemed as if the questions +between Magyar and Croat could be settled by no +other method than by war.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE SULTAN REIGNS IN BOSNIA</p> + +<p>There was not in the other Southern Slav lands much +consolation for the National party. In Bosnia the French<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> +Revolution and the Serbian wars of independence had an +unfortunate effect, for in 1831 the Muhammedan Serbs +of that province, under the leadership of Hussein Bey, +the captain of Gradačac, began a holy war against the +"giaour Sultan," because Mahmud thought it timely to +promulgate a few reforms. Hussein assumed the title +of "The Dragon of Bosnia"; and if it had not been for +several other Moslem potentates who were not only +inimical to the Sultan but to the Dragon and to each +other, it would have taken the Sultan's army more than +five years to assert itself. In 1839 the Sultan's representative +at Gulhane had orders to reform the administration, +and this time the chief of the indignant begs was +Ali Pasha Rizvanbegović, a powerful personage in Herzegovina. +The revolt was, after a good deal of bloodshed, +suppressed by Omar Pasha, who was determined to break +once and for all the arrogance of the Bosnian aristocracy. +Hundreds of begs were executed, drowned in the Bosna +or taken in chains to Constantinople. But all these +transactions did nothing to improve the lot of the raia. +They had been roundly told in 1832 by His Apostolic +Majesty that any one of those Christians "who persist in +venturing to raise the banner of revolt" would be sent +back from the Imperial and Royal frontier. After all +there was a courtesy which monarchs must maintain +towards each other.</p> + + +<p class="section">A SORRY PERIOD FOR THE SOUTHERN SLAVS</p> + +<p>When the Croat National party looked at Serbia +they saw a people torn in two by rival dynasties: Michael, +the son of Miloš, had after a few years followed his father +into exile, as he also could not grow accustomed to ruling +with a Constitution. After him came Alexander, son +of the assassinated Kara George. He was a cold, indifferent, +slothful prince, and constantly the banished +house of Obrenović was plotting to turn out this scion +of the house of Kara George. But after sixteen years +his people turned him out.... In the Banat the Serbs +were going backward. For example, they were at the +summit of their strength in Arad in the eighteenth century, +and since then they had been unable to resist the German<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> +wave. Time was when Arad had a Serbian princess, the +wife of blinded Bela; and they were much esteemed when +from 1703-1711 the Serbian cavalry and infantry had +fought so strenuously for Austria against the rebels. +Afterwards the Austrians believed they could get on +without the Serbs; they started to destroy their privileges +and to persuade them to give up their Church—it was in +consequence of this that many of the Serbs in Arad went +to Russia. A certain Colonel Peter Szejadinac objected +to the Austrian policy and came to Arad for the purpose +of procuring some alleviation for the Serbs, but he was +broken on the wheel. In Temešvar the Serbs had also +basked in glory. Until 1818 they had owned all but +seventeen houses of the inner town; they had their own +magistrature. Until 1860 they remained the wealthiest +community, but here also there was an influx of Germans +against which they could not stand.</p> + + +<p class="section">SOME WHO TURN FROM POLITICS GROW PROSPEROUS</p> + +<p>However, owing to this endless struggle which the +Serbs of Hungary were waging, they developed their +activity and energy. The land was rich, particularly +Bačka, and that province held the town of Novi Sad, +which was not only prosperous but the home of learning. +When Serbia was not in a position to devote herself to +intellectual or to literary life, she was assisted always +by the Serbs of Novi Sad. And thus in other parts +of southern Hungary the Serb, by his continual efforts +against other people, such as the industrious German, +made to flower those aptitudes within himself which +under Turkish domination had perforce been lying dormant.... +It is no unusual thing in the Banat to find +a Serbian farmer who is five or six times a millionaire in +francs. And if, like a hearty one whom I found having +lunch without a collar, they have no children, then they +are even more anxious to build schools and churches and +to support anything Serbian. This gentleman, who lived +in his native place, had presented it with a very fine school, +and then had gone there himself, to learn how to read and +write.... The Serbs of southern Hungary took a most +active part in the events of 1848. When they saw that a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> +conflict with the Magyars was inevitable, owing to the +new Hungarian Constitution which created an enormous +and free Hungary, but only free for the Magyars—a State +founded on a mixture of democratic and feudal principles, +reserving always the chief places for the magnates, lay +and ecclesiastic, while rejecting the idea of universal +suffrage—then the Serbs of southern Hungary assembled +at Karlovci at the beginning of May and conferred upon +Archbishop Rajacsich the title of Patriarch, at the same +time electing Colonel Stephen Čuplikac the voivoda or +chief of the Serbian Voivodina, which was to comprise +Syrmia, Baranja, Bačka and a part of the Banat.</p> + + +<p class="section">BUT THE CROATS STRIVE FOR POLITICAL LIBERTIES</p> + +<p>The Croats, whose last traces of independence had +been wiped out by the Magyars, rallied round Colonel +Joseph Jellačić. In the resounding and statesmanlike +phrases of his proclamation on March 11, Jellačić had +declared that a grand purpose was before them. "It is +to attain," said he, "the renascence of our people! Alone +I can do nothing, if among the sons of one same mother +there is not peace and understanding and fraternity."</p> + +<p>"We are," exclaimed Gaj at a sitting of the Diet—"we +are one nation! There are no more Serbs nor Croats!" +One has been too apt to consider that the Croats armed +themselves merely in defence of their own wrongs; their +leaders anyhow looked far beyond.</p> + +<p>Two days after Jellačić had uttered these words the +court of Vienna, aghast at the tempest that was blowing +from everywhere, from Prague and Galicia and Hungary, +from Lombardy and Venetia, and from their own easy-going +capital, had destituted Metternich. On the next +morning the Emperor made it known that he would grant +his peoples all the liberties they wanted. He had not +had time to ascertain whether this would gratify the +Magyars. But as one of the Croatian liberties was the +nomination of Jellačić as their Ban, the Emperor appointed +him; Jellačić joined hands with the National party and +proceeded to break all the chains that bound Croatia +to Hungary. By his circular of April 19 he instructed +the Croats to respect no other authority but his. Slavonia,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +Dalmatia, the Military Frontiers and Rieka were, according +to his plan, to be reunited to Croatia.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE AUSTRIANS, THE MAGYARS AND THE CROATS</p> + +<p>The Emperor's plans were far less definite. Between +Croat and Magyar he was unable to make up his mind. +What he wanted most of all was recruits for his Italian +armies, seeing that Radetzky had been forced back by +the insurgents, and Venice, under the presidency of Daniel +Manin, had separated herself from Austria. When the +Hungarians declared themselves willing to help with their +army in putting a stop to the national movement in Italy, +then the grateful Ferdinand bestowed on them a mandate +to put a similar stop to the "Croat separatism"; he also +suspended the Ban and declared him a traitor to the +Fatherland. This did not unduly depress Jellačić, for +in the month of June he was solemnly installed by the +Patriarch Rajacsich in the cathedral of Zagreb. On this +occasion the Mass was sung in old Slavonic by the Bishop +of Zengg, and on leaving the cathedral another service +was held in the Orthodox Church. "We desire by this +solemn manifestation," said the Croats, "to make it clear +to all the world that the brothers who belong to the +Catholic and to the Orthodox religions have one heart and +one soul."</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the citizens of Vienna had revolted, and the +Court, although the Magyars offered their hospitality, +considered it prudent to take shelter at Innsbruck. It +was to that town that the Croats sent in June a deputation +which explained to the Emperor that Croatia had for +centuries and under various dynasties been an autonomous +country, and that the Magyars had not only, by their new +laws, abolished this state of things but had also abolished +the link that joined them to his empire, for they would +henceforward have a personage, the Palatine, at Buda-Pest +wielding executive power at such times as the Emperor +was absent. The Croats showed the Emperor that +he could thus not rule both at Vienna and Buda-Pest +except if he could be in both places simultaneously; +and Ferdinand acknowledged that this was correct and +that the Magyars had their foibles, but that they were on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +the point of sending him recruits. "We hoped," said +the Croats, "that in a new world of liberty the Magyars +would recognize the other races as their equals. We have +been disillusioned, as you will be. And in July when +Ferdinand announced, on the advice of Radetzky, that +he would continue the operations in the Italian provinces +until the bitter end, it became necessary for him to +have these recruits. "We are prepared," said Kossuth, +"to send a Hungarian army to Italy—in principle." +But while they were debating whether this would not +expose them to the Croats, they were called upon to +put down a revolt in the Banat, where the Roumanian +population was quiescent and the Serbs had risen to +assert the rights of the non-Magyar peoples. There the +Serbs advanced victoriously, as did the Austrian troops +in Italy. This caused the Emperor to assume another +tone when he addressed the Magyars. Let them send a +deputation to Vienna, where the Croats would be represented +also; and together they would come to an arrangement +regulating their relations to each other. The +Hungarians were obstinate, chose Kossuth to be their +dictator and thus began the revolution.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE CROATS, STRUGGLING FOR FREEDOM, INCIDENTALLY +HELP AUSTRIA</p> + +<p>Jellačić, on September 11, crossed the Drave with +forty thousand Croats, annexed the territory between the +Drave and the Mur, and advanced without opposition up +to Lake Balaton. His commissary, General Joseph +Brinjevac, occupied Rieka. They were confident that +History would not misjudge them. "We demand," said +Jellačić, in his declaration of war, "we demand equality +of rights for all the peoples and for all the nationalities +who live under the Hungarian crown." Before he left +Zagreb he transformed the feudal Croatian Diet into +an elective assembly. This new Parliament cancelled +the institution of serfdom and proclaimed that one of their +objects was to have the Habsburg monarchy a federation, +on the model of Switzerland. One would suppose that it +was clear to everyone that Jellačić was not fighting for +the Habsburgs but for the subjected nationalities, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> +that if the vacillating Austrians who had outlawed him +on account of his nationalist views later on joined him in +his attacks on the Magyars, this does not show that he +was fighting Austria's battles. "The banner which the +Croats have unfurled," said Cavour in a great parliamentary +speech a month later, "is a Slav banner, and in +no way, as some people suppose, the banner of reaction +and of despotism.... His [Jellačić's] chief, if not his +only, aim was the redemption of the Slav nationality." +This page would doubtless be more dignified if, after the +dead lion, it did not refer to Mr. Edoardo Susmel; but +since the autumn of 1918 a large number of people at +Rieka have pinned their faith to Susmel rather than +Cavour—his book was handed to me in a most impressive +manner by the mayor. Let us see, therefore, what he +says of 1848. "When the Croats," says he, "on account +of national reasons"—so far we are with him—"and on +account of their loyalty to Austria, on account of the +desire of Jellačić and by order of the Emperor attacked +Hungary, which was at that time fighting for freedom, +they also threw themselves upon Rieka.... For the +first and solitary time Rieka fell into the hands of the +Croats. It was, wrote the contemporary Giacich, an +enemy invasion." Mr. Susmel sails merrily ahead, for +he knows that Truth is mighty and that it is said to +prevail; but in order to convince the most captious he +calls on Mr. Giacich to testify. I know nothing about +Mr. Giacich except that he was a contemporary—and yet +it seems that one ought not to wish that Mr. Susmel +had rather put his faith in Cavour, who was also a contemporary, +since that gentleman was far less capable and +never could have proved that when a Croat army comes +into a Croat town it is engaged upon an enemy invasion.</p> + +<p>The Magyars were not to be repressed so easily, and +Ferdinand made promise after promise to the Croats +and the Serbs if they would help to overcome this people. +From Serbia itself came many volunteers to aid their +brothers who were trying to throw off the Magyar yoke; +they came with the connivance of Prince Alexander, in +fact, he sent one of his generals to lead them. And a +great many hasty Kossuth enthusiasts in Western Europe, +knowing only that the Magyars, a chivalrous nation,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> +had been in arms against the despotic Habsburgs, and +that the Serbs and Croats had a considerable share in +subduing them, could not find invective virulent enough +for this abominable brood of hell, whose one desire it was +to be a tyrant's executioners. They were denounced +as having not the least conception of independence; +for a people of a disposition so abandoned there was not +the faintest hope of any future; and the day would +come when these outrageous little nations would be +wiped away. Had not the noble Kossuth spoken like a +prophet when he asked disdainfully where was Croatia, for +he could not find it on the map?</p> + +<p>In December the new Emperor, Francis Joseph, began +to rule his variegated realm with justice. He confirmed +the Serbian Patriarch and Voivoda, who had been chosen +in the previous May, and he bestowed upon the Serbs +of Syrmia and Bačka and the Banat a territory of their +own, with their own organization and jurisdiction. Even +a less extensive Serbian authority, namely, the Banat town +of Velika Kikinda, with its ten dependent villages, raised +its own taxes, had its own police and had the power of +life and death. There was, indeed, a cloud which came +across the Serbians' happiness when Čuplikac, the Voivoda, +died suddenly. He was at Pančevo when he received +from the Emperor the gracious edict and a box of cigars. +No sooner had he mounted his horse, lit one of the cigars +and uttered the word "Brother," than he fell down dead. +As for the Croats, the Emperor made Jellačić governor +of Dalmatia, which signified the union of that province +to Croatia.</p> + + +<p class="section">HOW MONTENEGRO REFORMED HERSELF</p> + +<p>There was a poet on the throne of Montenegro, the +greatest of Yugoslav poets, who now that the civil governor +(to whom had been entrusted certain duties which it had +been thought a bishop should not exercise)—now that this +official was expelled, reigned over Montenegro as the first +and last real Prince-Bishop. He was a magnificent person, +even for a Montenegrin, since his height was no less than +6 feet 8 inches; and in his determination to establish +order in the principality he had let nothing intervene.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> +As Russia, after a longish interval, resumed her subsidies +and paid Peter <small>II.</small> an annual allowance of nine thousand +ducats, together with arms, ammunition and wheat, the +Prince-Bishop was relieved of the necessity of taxing his +people. This made it easier for him to build up a strong +central power that would not be dependent on the tribal +chiefs, though it is doubtful if a despotism was more +suitable for Montenegro's economic circumstances than +the patriarchal form of government. Peter surrounded +himself with a senate of twelve members, whose salaries +he paid, a bodyguard of a few dozen and a police force of +several hundred. These men, who lived to execute his +wishes, were the instruments by which he set about +improving Montenegro. The vendetta was to give way +to the law court; there was something to be said, though, +for the people who withstood this innovation, since the +court's decision was the will of Peter. But no arguments +protected anyone who clung to the old-fashioned ways +of the vendetta or of brigandage or theft from being +placed before a file of the Prince-Bishop's men. Tales are +still recited in the primitive, bleak homes of Montenegro +touching the great number of his subjects whom the poet +put to death. But that was not the only penalty, for of +the two European institutions with which he had embellished +his capital one was a prison. The other was a +printing-press, in which he had a childish joy. Once +when he was entertaining King Augustus of Saxony he +composed a poem for him while they were at supper; +it was printed in the night; the happy author, next +morning, not a little proud of this achievement, gave a +copy to the King. He issued an official paper from this +printing-press; its name was <i>Grlica</i>, which means "The +Turtle-Dove."</p> + + +<p class="section">THE PRINCE-BISHOP GIVES A LEAD TO THE SOUTHERN +SLAVS</p> + +<p>Now Peter thought the moment had arrived for +Jellačić to found at last an independent Yugoslav +dominion. On December 20, 1848, he wrote to him: +"An inscrutable destiny has placed you, O illustrious +Ban, at the head of the Southern Slavs. You have pre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>served +their throne, their destiny for the Habsburgs.... +A grand mission is yours; from it may arise a new formation +of Europe. Its accomplishment would absolve +the Slavs from the shame of having been the miserable +slaves or the paid creatures of others. As for me, I am +free, at the head, it is true, of a handful of men, despite +the double malediction of tyranny and espionage." [Here +he is referring to his neighbours, Austria and Turkey.] +"But what does that matter when I look round me at +millions of brothers who are in alien bondage? Occupy +Dalmatia immediately and let us join each other. That +which one does not conquer with <i>heroic right</i> is worth +nothing. I am ready to come to your help with my +Montenegrins." To these overtures Jellačić gave an +evasive reply. It may be that he did not deem the +moment opportune, it may be that, as some have said, +he came under the atavistic influence of the military +traditions of the Croats, whose long years of fighting for +the Habsburgs had made them as devoted to that House +as the Dalmatians had been for so long to Venice. The +Habsburgs had exploited them, but the Croats felt that +they were bound by all the blood which they had shed +and by the military glory they had won in Austria's +service. Had not Tomasić and Milutinović been the +Generals—both Croats—who were sent to change +Napoleon's Dalmatia into a province of the Habsburgs? +And the list is endless. Jellačić was very probably +deceived by Francis Joseph, who kept dangling before +his eyes a vision of a "Greater Croatia." But, by an +irony of history, this hope of union of the Southern Slavs +was for the time flung very much into the background by +the action of the Tzar, who rescued Austria when in 1849 +she was again at variance with the Magyars. Kossuth +had been furious at the Constitution promulgated in the +spring of that year, which not only made obsolete most +of Hungary's privileges, but introduced the principle of +equality among the various nationalities. The Hungarians +had been too much accustomed to the classing of +races as first-class people and second-class people. When +they had been reduced—the Russian methods being +drastic—and when their thirteen Generals had been +executed at Arad, Francis Joseph thanked the Croats<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> +"for their ceaseless energy and for their numerous sacrifices +in the interests of the State." But Jellačić did not +move, and the Prince-Bishop wrote to Count Pozza, a +friend of his at Dubrovnik. "I had hoped for an instant, +my dear Count," he wrote, "but I am now convinced +that Yugoslavism is, for the time being, merely an idle +word. The Yugoslavs are unconscious of their own +strength and sell themselves unconditionally to the +strongest. It is a subject of profound grief for those who +love them and for sensitive souls." Peter <small>II.</small> did not long +survive. He may have wondered sometimes why the +Croats did not call for him instead of Jellačić, since his +methods of administration had been so successful in the +principality. He may have meditated sometimes on the +Russians, wondering how one nation could be both so +highly meritorious and so bloodthirsty. He died, aged +thirty-nine, a disappointed man. (His <i>Turtle-Dove</i> expired +some time before.) And he was buried, as he +wished, upon a lonely peak of Lovčen, that vast mountain +over Kotor which, until the deed of his great-nephew's +son, his namesake, was impregnable. Peter <small>II.</small> had always +been a man apart—it was his opinion that his Church +was being choked with formalism and with ceremonial, +and though he was a Bishop he went to church infrequently. +The poet in him was much more attracted +to the Bogomile sect, which taught that God had two +sons, of whom the elder was Satan and the younger +Christ; and when the world was created, the elder, seeing +how lovely it was, separated himself from his Father in +order to rule the world; and afterwards God sent the +younger son to punish him.... Peter had far greater +merits as a poet than as a ruler. In fact, Pushkin is perhaps +the only Slav poet who surpasses him, and his philosophy +is more original than that of Tolstoi. There came to +Montenegro one Ivanović, a Russian missionary, whom +Peter appointed to be President of the Senate. Peter +used to live chiefly in Venice, Rome or Naples, only coming +to Montenegro as a guest, and it was during his residence +in Naples that Ivanović introduced a number of reforms. +According to the general opinion, Peter was the greatest +Yugoslav that ever lived; as a ruler he was neither good +nor bad.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="section">AUSTRIA POURS OUT A GERMAN FLOOD</p> + +<p>Now that the Austrians had escaped from all their +perils, and Napoleon's <i>coup d'état</i> had removed the danger +of another revolution in France, they took in hand the +burying of the recent Constitution which had given so +much umbrage to the Magyars and to the Croats no vast +pleasure. In its place, in 1851, the policy of Bach, an +absolutist and a German policy, was introduced. The +Croats and the Serbs of southern Hungary were treated +differently, the latter being given not the territory they +had claimed but one much more extensive, so that they +themselves were in a great minority.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> The Croats found +themselves, of course, no longer joined to the Dalmatians. +Everywhere a flood of Germans, the "huzzars of Bach," +was loosened on the population; German was erected to +be the official language. But the Slovenes took advantage +even of the German atmosphere. Their national consciousness, +which Napoleon had awakened after centuries, +was now aroused. They took small interest, as yet, +in politics, but strove to make material progress, principally +in agriculture, partly too in commerce, such as in +the exploitation of their splendid forests. Like the Slavs +of Istria, they had no educated class—except the clergy—which +was strong enough and was sufficiently well +organized to lead them. Consequently it was difficult to +make much headway in the towns against the Germans +here and the Italians there. But they were not discouraged; +by means of organizations, political and economic, +they fought this denationalizing effect of the towns. +That they succeeded in arresting the tendency—for +example at Gorica and Triest—is even more laudable +in view of the serious educational handicap which for +years they had to face, and which the Austrians continued +to inflict upon them until 1914. The provincial administration +of Carinthia, for instance, was in 1914 maintaining +three Slovene schools and six hundred and twelve +German schools, although the Slovenes formed one-third +of the population. What the Austrians said was that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> +German was a world-language and that it was a fad to +want to learn Slovene. Perhaps the Slovenes told them +that Welsh is not a world-language. Anyhow, being not +only a patriotic but a very practical race, they built their +own schools in the villages, with the result that they have +to-day a far smaller proportion of illiterates—17-1/2 per +cent.—than either the Croats or the Serbs. It was well +that they were patriotic and practical; they would +otherwise have reaped a bitter harvest. The Slavs of +Istria, Croatia and Dalmatia were in contact with no +German territories and were for that reason left in the +cold shades. The Slovenes, having Germans near them +and among them, had to have a share in what the Germans +were enjoying and they reaped sagaciously. One must +admit that it was practical on Austria's part to favour +the Italian language in Dalmatia, for it was from there +that she supplied herself with functionaries for the provinces +of Lombardy and Venice.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE CROAT PEASANTS AND THEIR CLERGY</p> + +<p>The Croat peasants were in a much worse condition +than the Slovenes, and the nobles who might have assisted +them in building schools had recently been ruined by the +Austrian agrarian policy, for when in 1853 the Austrians +put into execution what the Diet of Croatia had resolved +to do in 1848 and freed the peasants from their serfdom, +the indemnity they gave the landlords was in Austrian +State papers, which the landlords had to take at the +face value, though this was far above what they were +worth. The owners of the so-called <i>latifundia</i>, mostly +German or Hungarian noblemen, lost very little; for +their wide domains were cultivated mostly by hired +labour, not by peasants settled on the land. But these +big landlords were not eager to build schools for peasants. +It is said these should have been provided by the Church. +The Croatian clergy in the villages would stand in a +much better light if they had, irrespective of the higher +clergy, made more vigorous attempts to bring down the +illiteracy figures which to-day are said to be, for Croatia +and Slavonia, 65 per cent. The higher clergy worked, +with very few exceptions, hand in hand with Austria's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> +Government, which Government was, after the Concordat +of 1855, the close ally of Rome. If it was the Government's +desire to build no schools, the higher clergy for +the most part acquiesced. It surely is a function of a +Government to occupy itself with education and to turn +away from the great landlords who are frightened that +a peasantry more educated will be troublesome. But +those who have to bear a good part of the criticism are +the village clergy; it is human not to criticize them half +so much for what they left undone as for some aspects +of their private life. The usual old stories circulate to the +effect that they refuse to exercise their office till the +peasant who is asking them to baptize or to marry or to +bury some one brings a suitable amount of produce, eggs +or fowls or something else, in lieu of money; but what is a +more serious matter is the question of women. Three-and-twenty +priests in the diocese of Zagreb passed a +resolution a year or two ago that they were in favour of +a married clergy. A Yugoslav bishop told me that most, +if not all, of these gentlemen had anticipated the Papal +consent; but that in his diocese only 3 per cent. of the +clergy lived in sin [hostile critics say he should have +added the word "openly"], whereas in two other Yugoslav +dioceses, which he named, such clergy might amount +to 50 per cent. An examination of this question, which +exists in other countries, would be unprofitable, were it +not that in Croatia, with a Roman Catholic and Orthodox +population living very often side by side, the circumstances +are peculiar. The people do not take up any narrow +attitude towards the Church of which they are not members: +a Roman Catholic will go to an Orthodox and an +Orthodox to a Roman Catholic church if they have none +of their own. They intermarry; and since their sacred +days, such as Christmas, are not celebrated at the same +time the non-celebrating congregation cease to work, out +of sympathy. Even with the alteration of the Orthodox +calendar there will be days which one community will +keep as workless days, so that it may go visiting the +others and congratulating them. But this bland behaviour +of the people is unfortunately not maintained when +they discuss their priests. And in the Lika, where the +population leads a rough, laborious life, they are not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +satisfied to have an academical discussion. They hold +that if a man is celibate he is not manly, and scenes have +taken place which Hogarth might refuse to draw.</p> + + +<p class="section">WHAT THE CZECHS ARE DOING TO-DAY</p> + +<p>The twenty-three priests of the Zagreb diocese who +were in favour of a married clergy and of several other +reforms could not stand up against their ecclesiastical +superiors. The movement has made no open progress and +their leader has been constrained to abandon Holy Orders +and become a timber merchant. Nevertheless the idea +of a national Church has not vanished; a good deal +depends for other countries on the degree of success +which attends the newly established national Church in +Czecho-Slovakia. It already possesses over half a million +adherents out of a population of 13 millions. We may +be going to witness the rise of a series of national Churches, +a consummation which—a Roman Catholic might observe—will +very likely be no more successful in bringing nearer +the brotherhood of man than the wide-flung Catholic +Church. The enthusiastic nationalism of such new +Churches may, in fact, help to postpone that happy +state of things. In any case, and whatever be the results, +we shall do well not to ignore the beginnings of what may +be a mighty Reformation.</p> + +<p>Ever since 1848 the Czech clergy have been anxious +to obtain reforms, not so much in dogma as in discipline. +They assert that it is more in accordance with the democratic +spirit of the age if a priest is selected not by some +magnate but by his prospective parishioners; they desire +to have their mother-tongue employed for the liturgy—in +this respect they are in advance of most Catholic +countries—and they wish to allow their priests to marry +or not to marry, as each man prefers. This, one need +hardly say, is the point which, almost to the exclusion +of all others, is taken up by the hostile compatriots of +the new believers. "It is nothing more nor less than +this," said a portly Benedictine abbot to me one day in +Prague, "there are priests who live in concubinage and +they actually want to have it legalized!" But in +Czecho-Slovakia, with her vivid memories of the Hussites<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> +in the fifteenth century—magnificent new monuments to +John Huss decorate the principal towns—in Czecho-Slovakia +the old régime has not the same power as in +Croatia. At first the new Church was sneered at, being +called a Churchlet, then they called it a sect, and now +they say it may persist for fifty years. While its critics +occupy themselves so largely with the topic of clerical +celibacy, the founders of the Church themselves are +much more interested in other questions. They do not +greatly concern themselves with their priests' apparel, +holding that this need not trouble them more than a +little, since they are striving for something more weighty—the +freedom of conscience. In this, as they say, they are +carrying on the doctrines of Huss, which were so bloodily +repressed by the dominant party. Under Charles <small>IV.</small> the +Roman Catholic Church possessed about one-third of all +the land in Bohemia, while in Prague alone there were +some three thousand priests. And if the doctrines of +Huss had not sunk deeply into the minds of the Bohemians +this new Church would have found her task very much +more difficult. The first three bishops were ordained +last year by the Serbian Bishop of Niš. It was at one +time thought that the Orthodox religion would be +adopted, but this was found to be impossible, and after +a year of negotiations it was settled that the Serbian +Church should be regarded as a sister Church.</p> + +<p>The significance of Czecho-Slovakia's new Church is +to be found in the national idea. So much is it a thing +of the people and not of the priests that several schoolmasters +have had to be ordained, the clergy being otherwise +too scanty. In June 1919 a delegation from 3000 +dissatisfied priests went to Rome. The Pope rejected +what he called their foolish novelties. In January 1920 +a secret meeting of 200 priests was held in Prague and +144 of them declared themselves for a new national +Church. But few of them possessed the necessary +resolution, such as was displayed by Dr. Farsky, a very +intelligent and earnest young man who was Professor of +Religion in the University and has now been appointed +the Head of this new Church, as Bishop of Prague and +Patriarch. His opponent, the Roman Catholic Archbishop +of Prague, has the reputation of being one of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> +cleverest of Czech politicians, and it will be interesting +to see how the position develops. Since the War the +Roman Catholic Church has lost 25 per cent. of its +members—during the War it was, in the opinion of many, +though perhaps it had no option, very much the servant +of the Habsburgs. And one imagines that the Archbishop +is handicapped by the demands of his party that +the State should unquestionably continue to pay the +yearly interests of the large number of monasteries that +were dissolved more than a century ago by Joseph <small>II.</small> +"All England's troubles," said the Coadjutor-Archbishop +to me, "emanate from the fact that she nowadays pays +nothing to the Church for those monasteries that were +suppressed by Henry <small>VIII.</small>" It is doubtful whether +the Czechs, exulting in their regained liberty, will for +the most part take the side of Rome when the matter +has been fully ventilated and discussed. "We are not +monarchist at all," said the Abbot Zavoral, "we are +true to the Republic, we are democratic. And discussion +is democratic, but," said he, "it should not be unlimited."</p> + + +<p class="section">STROSSMAYER</p> + +<p>To such a degree did the Austrian Government neglect +its duties that, ten years ago, Croatia and Slavonia were +short of at least one thousand school buildings and twelve +hundred teachers. Bishop Strossmayer, coming from a +family<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> which had settled at the sprawling town of Osiek, +in Slavonia, did what he could. His Yugoslav Academy +at Zagreb, the Zagreb University and the Society for +studying the history of the Yugoslavs are but a few of +the national institutions to which he devoted the princely +revenues of Djakovo. From there this most remarkable +man worked for the intellectual advancement of all the +Southern Slavs; he subsidized the brothers Miladinoff +who made the first collection of Bulgarian folk-songs +(and who, on account of this forbidden subject, were both<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +subsequently strangled at Constantinople); he paid for +the education of young students no matter from what +Yugoslav country they came; when Rački, the well-known +Croat historian, was persecuted by the Government +and living in misery, Strossmayer begged him to come +to Djakovo, and Rački was his closest friend for many +years; he built a large gallery at Zagreb and filled it with +pictures, sacred and profane, and was as ready to assist +a young artist in Istria as in Macedonia. It may be that +he caused a circular to be read in the Croatian churches +which referred to the Orthodox as "lost sheep," but he +never used a method other than by prayer and the example +of his life to cause them to forsake their fold; to him the +forcible conversions by the Turks were as abhorrent as a +system that was used in Bačka, where a whole village +near Sombor was ennobled—but not those who afterwards +came to live there—for having joined the Roman Church. +He was himself no blind follower of the Vatican; and when +he went with a very princely retinue—in part the weakness +of his humble origin—to Rome in order to explain why +he was unable to subscribe to the dogma of Papal Infallibility, +he ravished his audience with a marvellous +Latin oration, for he spoke many modern languages but +was most thoroughly at home in Latin. Often in conversation +he passed from one language to another, in +search of what would best express his meaning, and +frequently he would have recourse to Latin. He became +reconciled to the dogma and it was due to the hostility +of Magyar potentates that he remained for more than +fifty years the Bishop of Djakovo, was not promoted to +Zagreb nor made a cardinal. His fervent and statesmanlike +views can be seen in his correspondence<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> with Gladstone. +His head, like Gladstone's, caused one not to +notice that the rest of the body was unimpressive; they +had the same brilliance of eye. This man who worked +continuously for the Southern Slavs could not be always +a <i>persona grata</i> to Francis Joseph. Two remarks of the +Emperor's are handed down, but that one may be a +legend which, with the preface that Strossmayer was the +only man to whom the Emperor was ever rude, says that +Francis Joseph accounted for some proceedings of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> +bishop, as head of the National party in Croatia, by +telling him that he must have been drunk—and, overtaken +by remorse, making him an "Excellency" on the +following day. Yet that story is certainly true which +recounts how in 1881 the Emperor at Belovar said to him +that he would sooner be an unimportant German Duke +than Emperor of all the Slavs.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE TURK IN MONTENEGRO AND MACEDONIA</p> + +<p>The Emperor of a great many Southern Slavs, the +Sultan, had in his time been satisfied if he could squeeze +out of the Montenegrins so much tribute as would every +year pay for his slippers. He could send an army now +and then to devastate Cetinje and destroy the monastery +where the people's bishop lived, but in those mountains +a large army ran the risk of being ambushed and a +very large one would be starved. Besides, now that the +European scientists and travellers were beginning to go +up to Montenegro and were, among the few sights of +Cetinje, always shown the shrivelled head of Kara Mahmud +Pasha, who in 1796 had been defeated, it was not +advisable, the Sultan thought, that any other Turkish +head of prominence should have this fate.... In Macedonia +it was very different; the population might have +once been warlike, but had so successfully been governed +that some German travellers of the sixteenth century, +Hans Ternschwamm and Ritter Gerlach, had described +them as a "conquered, down-trodden, imprisoned people" +who did not dare to lift up their heads, a people who +"without intermission must toil for the Turks." And if +three hundred years of this life had not completely tamed +them, the Sultan had every confidence that the Greek +Patriarch would tell the Powers what they knew already, +namely, that the Macedonian Christians only had to pay a +tenth and sometimes only an eleventh part of certain +crops and that in return they were protected by the +Spahi from the ills which every humbler man is heir to, +and that the Powers, who politically said they must respect +the Sultan, must now morally respect him also. But in +1850 the Turkish Government made a change; in place +of the old Spahi there was installed a landlord who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> +retained the name of Spahi but who had none of his +predecessor's careless benevolence. The property had +been hired out to him for life and his one object was to get +from it as much as possible. He made demands not only +for a tenth but for a fifth and even a third part, and not +only of the maize and wheat but of every product of the +soil. Cattle, bees, vegetables, fruit—of all of these he +had to have his share; the peasant often cut his fruit +trees down as he could not afford to pay the various taxes +that were put on them. In the old days the Spahi had an +arrangement with a whole village, and a system so impersonal +was much less onerous than when demands were +made from every household individually. The new sort +of Spahi was not only an evil product of the time, but as +the progress of industry in other countries was supplying +the Turkish market with many new commodities, so in +order to acquire these articles for himself he exacted more +and more tribute from the helpless peasants. Progress +in Macedonia was not merely retarded—lands which had +been under cultivation were abandoned, and the peasant, +having been despoiled of everything, perhaps having +borrowed money at 9 or 10 per cent., was no longer able +to get his living from the land on which so many generations +of his ancestors had laboured. It was no longer +possible for him to get the mess of maize and miserable +bread, the strips of repulsive-looking flesh that were his +luxury, the medicine for his underfed children who were +moaning on the naked earth of his cabin, and at the +same time to make the necessary contributions to the +landlord or the landlord's agent, whom the villagers had +to furnish with a riding horse, with gun and ammunition, +with furs and with clothing appropriate to his position, +with special gifts whenever he or they were marrying, +and with all the pretty girls on whom his eye had rested. +Therefore the <i>čifčija</i> would lose the last shadow of +freedom, he would become a serf. His sowing and his +reaping would now be for another, and as it did not profit +him at all to make the land more fruitful, he was content +with any prehistoric implement, with little wooden ploughs +and with a total absence of manure. And yet this pitiable +serf would often be in a position less deplorable than that +of one who had a little freedom left and who was called a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> +free man, for the Turk would treat him no worse than the +mule whose continual existence he desires. It does not +seem surprising if these Christians wanted to be liberated +from the Turk and did not greatly mind what uniform +their rescuers would wear.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE CHEERLESS STATE OF SERBIA</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the Serbs of Hungary were saying that +the state of things in Serbia was desperate. It seemed so +to a number of young men who found the coldness of +Prince Alexander and his anxiety to please the Austrians +both very much out of harmony with the new Liberal +ideas of Western Europe. They would have been horrified +to see the plight of Macedonia, which after the Crimean +War became, if possible, still worse, for during it the +Porte took up the first loan; others followed, and in a +surprisingly short time the Turk stood face to face with +bankruptcy, so that in his dealings with the peasant he +became still more extortionate. To be sure the Liberal +young men who were publishing the <i>Omladinac</i> and +all those Southern Slavs who listened to the voices which +in Italy and Germany were craving union and freedom, +all of them saw in their dreams the freedom of the +Southern Slav, but Serbia and Montenegro were the only +portions of his patrimony which had any kind of independence +and the Serbia of Alexander was in a distressing +state. The Prince had managed to stay neutral during +the Crimean War, in spite of the solicitations very vehemently +put by Austria and Russia and the Porte; this +neutral attitude secured for Serbia at the peace the benefit +of having all her rights henceforward guaranteed collectively +by the Great Powers. Yet Alexander was so +anxious not to rouse the animosity of Austria that he +declined to summon the national assembly, the Skupština, +in which the people's rising aspirations could be heard. +And, although the family community, the "zadruga," +was giving way to a more modern way of life—much to +the misgiving of those persons who believed that strength +lay rather in the union of thirty or forty people, under the +authority of the head of the house, than in a more dispersed +society which would encourage individual initiative—yet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +Serbia was still a semi-Turkish and a quite +despotic country, with all the civil service largely filled +by Serbs from Hungary and many of the higher offices +in the possession of the relatives of the Princess, for +Alexander's wife, a lady from the neighbourhood of +Valjevo, was as celebrated for her cleverness as for her +beauty. It is regrettable that she did not prefer to take +in hand the women's legal status, which is still too much +like that of minors. When the princely pair had been +expelled in 1858 and Miloš, to his infinite delight, called +back from Bucharest, his place of exile, there was yet a +great deal for the Omladina enthusiasts to do. Miloš +at the age of seventy-eight was senile; he would sit for +hours outside his old, white Turkish house at Čačak, +while the passers-by knelt down to kiss his hand; in +church he would become oblivious to his surroundings +and would garrulously talk in a loud voice to friends +around him.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE SLAV VOICE IN MACEDONIA</p> + +<p>Assuredly the Omladina Society had some knowledge of +affairs in Macedonia, for Dimitri Miladinoff, the elder of +the two brothers, had been at Karlovci, where he was +offered the professorship of Greek at the Serbian school. +Miladinoff had been born at Struga in Macedonia and +educated at Jannina, where he noticed that a number of +the names of forests, rivers, villages and ruins sounded +odd in Greek—they seemed to have much more resemblance +to the language spoken by the Slavs who lived beyond +his home, the Bulgars. This awoke a flame in him. At +Ochrida, where he was presently appointed as a teacher +in the school, he gave his lessons in the customary Greek, +nor did he undervalue the advantages the Macedonian +Slavs could draw, particularly at the stage they were in, +from the study of Greek literature and from the contemplation +of the patriotic virtues of old Greece. But at +the same time he began to give his pupils a Bulgarian +translation of what they were learning; and one day +in 1845 while he was in the middle of a lesson, taught +in that strange manner, on Thucydides, the Russian +archæologist Grigorović appeared and in amazement<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> +cried, "But we are brothers!" It was to him a marvel +that these people's mother-tongue was Slav. Miladinoff +had a project to retain the Greek at college and to introduce +Bulgarian in the elementary schools, but when in +1848 he spoke of this at Ochrida the notables had grown +so hellenized that they considered an allusion to their +Slav origin as most offensive. Far from giving up his +plan, Miladinoff began a pilgrimage through Macedonia, +pretending that his object was to gather funds for the +construction at Constantinople of a Bulgar church. +Everywhere he taught as he had done at Ochrida, and the +elucidation, for example, of Demosthenes enabled him to +plant his patriotic seeds. It was in the course of his +travels that he (and afterwards his younger brother +Constantine) collected the folk-songs that were published +by the generosity of Strossmayer. He stayed for a time +at Sarajevo and at Karlovci, where he was filled with +emulation by the progress which the Serbs had made. +On his return in 1857 to Macedonia the people of the town +of Kukuš—near the future boundaries of Bulgaria, +Serbia and Greece—invited him to be headmaster at their +school. He was overjoyed that this town had the courage +to have the Bulgarian language taught, and we have his +reply. The Phanariote Greeks, he says, "will hurl +their anathema against us! The Bulgarian script is +contrary to God! It will not be the first time that they +have proclaimed this! But those days are past! +Already the rays of dawn...." This letter is written +in Greek. "Oh, how I am ashamed," he says, "to +express my sentiments in the Greek language!" But the +literary form of Bulgarian is, as yet, undeveloped. One +year after his arrival at Kukuš the population removed +the Greek books from their cathedral and listened to the +singing of the Mass in Slav by a Bulgarian monk from +Mt. Athos. When he began to recite the Credo in the +ordinary Bulgarian tongue, the congregation fell on their +knees and burst into tears.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE MACEDONIAN SLAVS ARE UNDIVIDED</p> + +<p>Another Macedonian traveller was the highly distinguished +Frenchman, Ami Boué. His great book<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> +<i>La Turquie d'Europe</i>, in four volumes of more than 500 +pages each, appeared in Paris in 1840, and is a veritable +encyclopædia with which no other publication of the same +kind can be compared, either for the largeness of his +scheme, the versatility of his interests or the profound +knowledge of his subject. Well, he found that many +Slavs of Macedonia, whom he calls Bulgars, had their +hopes centred in Miloš, who was then the reigning Serbian +Prince. The difference in their eyes between the two +people was that the Serbs had gained their independence. +It was not as great an independence as the Macedonians +fancied, for in addition to the vexatious remains of Turkish +suzerainty there was the Greek ecclesiastical rule. During +the reigns of Kara George and Miloš the Greeks insisted on +having their language used for the liturgy in all the +Serbian towns, especially in Belgrade; after that period +Greek and Slav were used for half the service each, and +this practice was continued until 1858. Nevertheless for +the unhappy Macedonians Serbia was a land of radiant +liberty. And whether it was going to be a Serb or Bulgar +who would rescue them—<i>qu'importe</i>? Ami Boué noted, +as have many others, that the Macedonian Slav in his +physical characteristics, in his language, in his outlook, in +his native habits and in the expression of his sentiments +is intermediate between the Serbs and Bulgars. And he +says that as between the Serbs and Bulgars he does not +recognize a greater difference than there is between the +Istrians, the Dalmatians and the Croats, which is to say +that there is none.</p> + +<p>This point of view was quite familiar to the readers of +the <i>Omladinac</i>. Svetozar Marković, a leader of both +Radicals and Socialists in Serbia, was for a federated +Balkan republic. Ljuben Karaveloff wrote articles in +Serbian, whose object was to show that, in the liberation +of the Southern Slavs, Serbia must take the lead. Rakovski, +the most active of Bulgarian Radicals, maintained +that, in default of union between the Southern Slavs, a +selfish interference of the Great Powers in the Balkans and +unceasing wars among the natives would be unavoidable. +The ideas of Bogdanov regarding the Bulgarian and +Serbian languages were current. "It is not a tower of +Babel," says he, "but a temple of God. When we are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> +united there will be no curse yelled in a hundred voices +but a harmonious prayer." And in another passage +he declares that "there is less difference, for example, +between Serbian and Bulgarian than between certain +Italian dialects."</p> + + +<p class="section">DAWN OF ITALIAN UNITY</p> + +<p>While they were speaking Italy had acted. It is more +true to say that some Italians had acted. The defence of +Venice and the five days at Milan are glorious episodes, but +those volunteers who flocked to Garibaldi, notably from +Piedmont, and of whose exploits we can never hear enough—in +what proportion were they to the inhabitants of the +Peninsula? The people as a whole exhibited indifference, +which causes Garibaldi to complain most bitterly. And if +it had not been for the genius of Cavour and his collaborators, +for the diplomatic support of England, the alliance +with Prussia and, above all, for the French army, the +redemption of the country would have been delayed. No +doubt the Church had an enormous influence upon the +people, no doubt in the surviving mediæval States—the +duchies and republics—whose government belonged to +the privileged classes, there was little to awaken popular +interest; no doubt great masses of the people were +untouched by education and the spread of new ideas—if +freedom is a new idea; no doubt the peasants in various +parts of the country were in as deplorable a plight as the +peasants of to-day, which has had as one effect the inexpansive +manner, as Italian officers have testified, with +which the redeemed peasants of the Trentino and elsewhere +often welcomed their redeemers. And the Italian peasants +of 1859 may be pardoned for imagining that this world +never would be made so good as to include their own +salvation. One can find sufficient excuses for what occurred +in Italy. Will not the Italians excuse, rather than +praise, the very, very small number of Yugoslavs who +have stood out against Yugoslavia? When Italy had +been united did no Italians choose rather to go into +exile?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="section">HOW CAVOUR WOULD HAVE TREATED THE SLAVS</p> + +<p>Some Italians were so intoxicated with the success of +Garibaldi's troops and the French army that they began +to see dangerous visions. Once again, on December 28, +1860, they were warned by the great founder of their +country. "Let us avoid," wrote Cavour,<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> "every +expression which could permit one to suppose that the +King's government aspires not merely to the possession +of Venice, but also to that of Triest, with Istria and +Dalmatia. I know well that in the towns of the littoral +the population is fundamentally Italian by race and sentiments, +but that the rest of the country belongs exclusively +to the Slavs.... Every word which touches +this question, however lightly it be uttered, would become +a dangerous weapon in the hands of our enemies. They +would know very well how to use them in order to raise up +England against us, for that Power would also not look +with favour on the Adriatic Sea becoming, as in the days +of Venice, an Italian Sea." Cavour's opinion as to the +towns was presumably based on such researches as were +made in 1842 by Kandler. The city of Triest contained in +that year 53,000 persons "who speak Italian" and +21,000 "who speak Slav"; but as Italian, an international +language, was used by the numerous German, Armenian, +Greek, Turkish and Levantine colonies, and was spoken +in public by all the Slavs, the 53,000 would lose a considerable +proportion who were not fundamentally Italian by +race or sentiments. It may safely be stated, on the +other hand, that none of the Italians and an infinitely +small number of the exotic population would speak Slav, +so that one may say that Triest contained 21,000 Slovenes. +One need not attach overmuch importance to the fact +that the town in 1866, among other manifestations of +loyalty occasioned by the defeat of the Italian navy near +Vis (Lissa), created the Austrian Admiral Tegetthoff an +honorary citizen. Even if the 53,000 had all been +Italians, Triest might have thought it expedient to act +in this way.... Cavour may have accepted in very good +faith the similar figures for the little ports of western +Istria; in them there was no such miscellaneous population,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> +but a large number of those who spoke Italian did so +because it was only at this period that the Bishop, Dr. +George Dobrila, the great regenerator of the Istrian Yugoslavs, +began to rouse his countrymen and to induce them +not to discard their own language. "Wachen sie die +Slaven" ("Awaken the Slavs"), said Francis Joseph +before the war against Italy in 1866 when he was anxious +for the southern provinces; and although the Emperor +used various means to put the Slavs to sleep again, it may +be noted that in 1861 Cavour would learn that in the Diet +there were two Slavs against twenty-eight Italians, in the +Parliament no single Slav; whereas if he had lived another +fifty years he would have seen the same country returning +nineteen Slav deputies to the Diet against twenty-five +Italians, and three to the Parliament at Vienna against +three Italians....</p> + + +<p class="section">ITALIAN <i>v.</i> SLAV: TOMMASEO'S ADVICE</p> + +<p>As for Dalmatia, where also the Italian-speaking +population was not fundamentally Italian by race or +sentiments, we may turn to the renowned Nicolo Tommaseo, +whose authority the Italians do not dispute. "We +must not abolish the Italian language," he said—and this +was in the year 1861—"for it would be a dream of fools +to wish or hope to be able to abolish it immediately in +public life without causing offence and confusion and injury +even for those who speak Illyrian; this would be a +tyranny the more abominable as it would be powerless ... because +the Illyrian tongue, as is the case more or less with +all the Slav languages, spoken by nations which up to the +present have not entirely participated in the abstractions +of science and in the refinements of European art, is not +as yet equipped with all that reserve of terms and locutions +which is demanded in a highly developed social life, +<i>although that language possess in itself all the elements</i>." +This capacity which he recognized in the Slav languages +and which came subsequently to the surface in Russian +and Czech literature, would, he said, in two generations +cause the Slav to be employed as the official language of +Dalmatia. He stipulated for two generations "because,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> +in the first place, it is necessary that this language should +be learned regularly in the schools from the lowest to the +highest class, without for that reason ever banishing +Italian; and secondly, it is requisite that men should +become skilful in the use of this language and should +render it adequate for the needs of social life."</p> + + +<p class="section">AUSTRIA LEANS ON GERMANS AND ITALIANISTS</p> + +<p>For a moment after her Italian misfortunes Austria +assumed a kindly mien towards her Slavs. In the manifesto +of July 15, 1859, which made public the treaty of +peace, the Emperor promised "immediate modifications +in the laws and in the administration." Bach, the German +reactionary, was succeeded by <ins class="correction" +title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'Goluchovski'">Goluchowski</ins>, and in April +1861 Ivan Mazuranić became the Croat Chancellor at +Vienna, with educational, legal and religious affairs included +in the sphere of his office. The incorporation with +Dalmatia was not granted then, but was promised. A +letter was, however, sent to Mamula, the governor of +Dalmatia, ordering him to create a majority hostile to the +Emperor's letter of December 5, 1860, in which he had +invited the two provinces to send their delegate to a +conference at which the union would be discussed. The +shrill protests of the German party were successful; for +the next few years the Slavs were being pushed into their +pit and then helped half-way out again. Schmerling, the +German, would evolve an electoral system by which the +Parliament must always have a German majority; +Francis Deak, the Hungarian, would make excellent +proposals that too often suffered shipwreck through no +fault of his, he would manage to pass liberal legislation +which remained in after years upon the statute book and +was exhibited by Magyars to appreciative foreigners. +The general tendency of those years after the Italian +disaster was unfavourable to the Slav. In southern +Hungary the Serbian duchy was dissolved, despite their +protests, after an existence of eleven years. But as +Francis Joseph was no longer able to bestow caresses on +the recreant Italians he transferred his love to the Dalmatian +autonomists, who now began to call themselves the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> +Italian party. It is probable that he smiled on these +2½ per cent. of the province, not only because of his family +traditions, his leaning towards Italian art and the hope +against hope that he would once more some day rule in +Italy, where he had his numerous well-wishers among the +clergy and the rural population—it is possible that he was +gracious to the autonomist Dalmatian party because they +were a brake upon the national sentiments. Until 1866 +the whole administration was conducted in the language +of the 2½ per cent. In that year the Ministers of Justice +and of the Interior decided to ask officials who thenceforward +entered the Dalmatian service to have some sort +of knowledge of the Illyrian language. In 1869 these +Ministers permitted the Dalmatian communities to correspond +in their own language with the tribunals and the +administrative authorities; while in 1887 the administrative +authorities and the tribunals were ordered to reply +in Serbo-Croat to the local bodies who used that language. +The autonomist party may not appeal to us and apparently +it did not appeal to Nicolo Tommaseo. From wherever +he is he must be looking on with interest at a controversy +between two Italian writers who both published books on +Dalmatia in 1915 and who bear witness—Mr. Cippico to +the truth that Tommaseo was an autonomist and Mr. +Prezzolini to the truth that he was not. "The theory of +Tommaseo," says Mr. Cippico, "desires an autonomous +Dalmatia between the mountains and the sea." "Go +to!" says Mr. Prezzolini. "Have the kindness to read +what the man writes. Here is a passage: 'Whatever +one may say about it, it will not be Croatia, a poor country, +lacking in civilization, <i>but the opulent Slav provinces subject +to Turkey</i> and morally less in subjection than Croatia, +which, when they and Dalmatia are united, will make +her wealthy and the mother of civilization and wealth. +Destiny therefore lays it down that Dalmatia in the days +to come shall be the friend and not the subject of Italy.' +Tommaseo showed in 1848 what he thought of such a +subjection. 'In 1848,' he writes, 'I could have raised +the whole of Dalmatia with the help of an Italian colonel +who with his men had offered to dislodge the German +governor of Zadar, but I refused; I refused, because I +foresaw.' And just as he was opposed to the union with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> +Italy, so likewise was he opposed to autonomy. You +spoke of mountains and the sea. Permit me to direct your +attention to some lines of his:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i4">'Nè più tre il monte e il mar, povero lembo<br /></span> +<span class="i5">Di terra e poche iznude isole sparte,<br /></span> +<span class="i5">O Patria mia, sarai; ma la rinata<br /></span> +<span class="i5">Serbia (guerniera mano e mite spirto)<br /></span> +<span class="i5">E quanti campi, all' italo sorriso<br /></span> +<span class="i5">Nati, impaluda l'ottoman letargo,<br /></span> +<span class="i5">Teco una vita ed un voler faranno....'<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>This one would translate as follows: 'Thou shalt no +longer be, O my country, a poor stretch of land between the +mountains and the sea, with some bare scattered islands; +but Serbia reborn, that is now sicklied o'er with Turkish +lethargy, shall make one life and one desire with thee and +with all these fields that sprung into being under an +Italian smile.' If you really think that this proves that +Tommaseo contemplated a harmonious coexistence in +Dalmatia of the two countries, Serbia and Italy, then I +beg you to read the passage once again." This Mr. +Antonio Cippico, by the way, is a native of Dalmatia with +most Italian sympathies; another Cippico from Dalmatia, +a cousin of his, has for years been a well-known littérateur +in Belgrade, and according to him the great majority of +the Cippico family are of his way of thinking.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE SOUTHERN SLAV HOPES ARE CENTRED ON CETINJE</p> + +<p>While Tommaseo foresaw this union, his contemporaries +of the Omladina strove for another one. Prince +Michael Obrenović had, in 1860, again succeeded his +father, and as it was not known if he had undergone a +change in exile, the young patriots of the Omladina +did not look upon him as the saviour of the Serbian people. +There was again a poet on the throne of Montenegro, a +youth of whom they heard romantic things. Not only +had Prince Nicholas borne arms against the Turk, but he +had sung in moving verse the glory of the Serbian heritage, +the triumphant union of the Serbs that was to be. Since +1860 he had guided Montenegro's destinies—his uncle, +the first purely temporal ruler, Danilo, having been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> +assassinated in the Bocche di Cattaro after a reign of warfare +against the Turk, and his own subjects, who resented +the deposition of the tribal chiefs, the imposition of +terrific taxes, based on the number of cattle they possessed, +and occasional seduction of their wives. The +Omladina knew that Michael had been visiting the +West, that he had frequented the masters of science and +politics in London, Paris and Berlin; but he would probably +forget their precepts and in any case he was much +duller than the splendid youth whom they affectionately +called Nikita.... Some historians have wondered why +this young man did not alienate the affection of his people +by the slaughter of the Kadić clan, whereof a member had +assassinated Prince Danilo. But it was the Senate which +punished the murderer by exiling him, with seven families +of his kindred, to Turkey. Danilo had been aware of his +intention, while the man was waiting—in obedience to +Austria's orders—at Kotor. And the Prince, acting on a +local custom, sent word that if Kadić did not return to +Montenegro he would bestow Mrs. Kadić on some one else. +After two weeks she became the wife of a neighbour. +The story that Kadić was avenging her seduction is an +Austrian invention, for Danilo seems never to have met her.</p> + +<p>One day in 1862 the Turks, who still were in the +Belgrade fortress, started, for some foolish reason, to +bombard the town. Prince Michael in the subsequent +negotiations showed that he had qualities one could not +but respect. Still he was unsuccessful (until 1867) in +obtaining the removal of the Turkish garrisons—Great +Britain, fearing Russian influence, and Austria, hostile +to the total independence of the Serbs, supported Turkey. +And Michael governed with so firm a hand that there +were many who believed that the material improvement +he was introducing, schools of agriculture, schools of +forestry and what not, could be just as well inaugurated +by the far more sympathetic Prince Nikita. And when +in 1866 Michael and Nikita made a grand convention +for the union of the Serbs in Serbia and in Montenegro, +and Nikita undertook to step aside, if necessary, so that +all the independent Serbs might be united under Michael's +sceptre, then indeed the Omladina talked of him with +rapture. And Nikita made allusions to this "grand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> +refusal" all his life and with a face of honest pride. He +never mentioned anything about clause 3, which was not +published. By that clause Nikita was to be Prince +Michael's heir, in case he had no son. There was not +much likelihood that he would have one, for the Hungarian +wife from whom he was divorced<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> had given him no +children, and the girl with whom he was overpoweringly +in love was a cousin, whom the Church, because of their +relationship, prevented him from marrying. It was with +this girl that the Prince was always said to have been +walking in the park near Belgrade on June 10, 1868, +when he was mysteriously murdered.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> After Michael's +death the Skupština, not acting in accordance with the +secret clause, placed on the throne a grandson (?) of a +brother of Prince Miloš, who was a minor and the nearest +in the order of succession. By this time the <i>Omladina</i> +had perceived that in the character of their romantic +prince lay certain lamentable traits. The friendship, +which he had inherited, with Russia he continued, and +the Russian Court rewarded him in no half-hearted +fashion. When the Italians proposed in 1866 that he +and they should share the Bocche di Cattaro, he said +the moment was not opportune; the Austrians for this +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>bestowed on him a pension which they paid until the +outbreak of the World War. One could understand, of +course, that Nikita did not wish to rouse the enmity of +Austria; it must have hurt him to refrain from going to +the Bocche, where the population was most Slav and +had endured a great deal for the cause, but other men +were hurt by his acceptance of the pension.</p> + + +<p class="section">FOR THEY KNOW NEITHER NICHOLAS OF MONTENEGRO +NOR MICHAEL OF SERBIA</p> + +<p>Michael in those few years had displayed such qualities +that he might have united with his country Bosnia-Herzegovina, +Bulgaria and Macedonia. His statesmanship, +which made such a result seem very possible, may +have induced some jealous partisans of the rival Karageorgević +dynasty to murder him; the same reasons +would have been sufficient for Austria. And Austria +had given her formal consent to a diplomatic plan for the +solution of the Bosnian question, whereby Michael was +to administer the two distracted provinces as the Sultan's +mandatory. The decapitation of the begs by Omar +Pasha had by no means marked the dawn of a new era +for the peasant. From 1856 till 1859 the country was +in a condition of such anarchy, with pashas tyrannizing +here and there, with villages obliged to take as their +protector some marauding ruffian who had settled in +their midst, with young men taking to the hills, that finally +a conference was summoned, at Austria's instigation, in +Constantinople, and of this the upshot was that the +abuses practised hitherto by the great landlords were all +sanctioned if they would inaugurate no new ones. The +Franciscan monks, beloved by the people, had kept alive +the people's hope that something would be done for them; +they could not stop the people from attempting to obtain +it by ill-organized revolts. From time to time there +would be a concerted movement; thus Luka Vukalović +in 1862 fired his own Herzegovina and also the Bocche +di Cattaro, weapons and volunteers came from Montenegro, +and Vukalović was recognized by Turkey as the +military and civil head of an autonomous Herzegovina. +But he was subsequently forced to fly to Serbia, while<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> +the Turks had such success against the Montenegrins +that the Great Powers had to intervene. And that was +one of the most fruitful of the insurrections. When the +news was spread that Michael would arrive there were +great popular rejoicings. Christians and Muhammedans +were busy, till the time of his assassination, preparing +for his solemn entry.</p> + + +<p class="section">IF MICHAEL HAD LIVED!</p> + +<p>Many of the Bulgars were as eager to associate themselves +with Michael. In 1862, when Belgrade was bombarded +by the Turks, Rakovski got together a Bulgarian +legion which would fight in Serbia against the common +foe; in 1867 the Bulgarian Revolutionary Committee +at Bucharest, where these leaders of the people had sought +sanctuary, proposed the union of Bulgaria and Serbia +under Michael. "Between the Serbs and the Bulgars," +says the first article, "there shall be established a +fraternal union calling itself the Yugoslav Kingdom." +If this idea had been put forward by any one but Rakovski +one might consider it a mere fantastic notion, but the +Bulgars who elected this extraordinary man to be their +chief were, as is the habit of the Bulgars, nothing if not +practical.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE STRANGE CAREER OF RAKOVSKI</p> + +<p>Rakovski was born at the picturesque little town of +Kotel in the eastern Balkans, and was educated at Constantinople, +but his ebullient temperament did not allow +him to pursue his studies to the end. He turned up at +Braila in 1841 and, being hardly twenty years of age, was +dreaming of a revolution of the Orient. With a group of +insurgents he tried to cross the Danube and to rouse the +Bulgars. A Roumanian patrol opens fire, on each side +there are several killed and wounded. He is captured +and condemned to death, but having a Greek passport +he is rescued by the Greek Consul and put on board a +boat which lands him at Marseilles. For eighteen months +he lives in France—it is not known where—and is imbued +with democratic doctrine. Passing through Constantinople<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> +in 1843 he accepts a post as schoolmaster at Trnovo, +but is immediately at loggerheads with the Greek bishop +and departs. Returning to his birthplace he is irritated +by the pride and harshness of the upper class, and he +attempts to make the people rise against them. They +charge him with being a disturber of the peace. "He +has travelled through Europe," says their complaint to +the Government, "and now in this town he bestrides a +horse, brandishes his sword and overwhelms the Turks +with insults, both their race and their religion." In +consequence Rakovski and his father are arrested and +dispatched to Constantinople, where they both of them +remain in prison until 1847. After being liberated, he +forms a secret society which is to take advantage of the +approaching Russo-Turkish conflict. Its members are +to have themselves enrolled among the Turks, with the +double object of protecting the Bulgarian population from +excesses on the part of the soldiery and also, at the propitious +moment, to stir them up and so assist the Russians. +He himself is appointed to the Turkish staff at Shumen, +as first dragoman. His plot being discovered, he is +arrested and sent to Constantinople; on the way he escapes, +but he proceeds to Constantinople and organizes there +a company of heiduks. Turkey's entrance into the +European concert fills him with pessimism. The Bulgars +at Constantinople believe that the civilizing influence of +the West will not be in vain. He foresees a more evil +despotism masked by the pseudo-liberal manœuvres of +the Powers, and henceforward he joins those Bulgars +who agitate from Roumania or from Serbia. He goes to +the Banat, where he is not only made most welcome but +is enabled to publish <i>The Bulgarian News</i>, which is political, +and a literary supplement, <i>The Swan of the Danube</i>. +The Turks are uneasy; they ask the Austrians to suppress +these papers. The Austrians comply and expel the +editor. He is persecuted by the Porte in Moldavia and +flies to Russia, where he devotes himself seriously to a +long poem in honour of the heiduks. The first part of +this very long work, the <i>Gorski Patnik</i>, had appeared at +Novi Sad. It brought him considerable fame—he was +compared with Virgil—but modern readers find this +poem tedious. He likewise wrote a dissertation which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> +established, by comparative philology, that the Bulgars +are the most direct descendants of the Aryans, that their +language is the nearest to Sanskrit, and that the other +European languages, including Greek and Latin, are +derived from it. Rakovski next appears in Belgrade, +where he leads a life of splendour; he had carriages and +wonderful horses, he was arrayed in a princely kind of +uniform and was surrounded by a kind of guard. The +source of his revenues, which always seemed to fluctuate, +was never fathomed; but they may at this period have +accrued from his literary labours, which—although the +present generation smile—produced among the Bulgars +a vast, patriotic pride. At Belgrade the visionary +historian and whimsical philologist becomes a most +sagacious politician. He is the first Bulgarian publicist +to talk of a free press, and he refuses, unlike many others, +to seek help from Russia only. "We must help ourselves," +he cries. "As we are Orthodox, Russia will desire to keep +us under the authority of the Greek Church; as we are +Slavs, she will try to make the Western Powers suspicious +of us." When there was a wave of emigration to Russia +he frantically tried to stop it. "For you it will be +suicide," he exclaimed, "for your children assassination +and for Bulgaria ruin!" He painted Russia in appalling +colours, and the would-be emigrants repented. His personal +affairs oppressed him for a time in 1862, when he +left Belgrade to the imprecations of his creditors. The +Serbian statesmen, while appreciating his exalted patriotism, +would have sooner had amongst them a more typical +and stable Bulgar. Yet they declined the Porte's request +for extradition. At the beginning of 1863 Rakovski is +in Athens, magnificent once more and now accompanied +by an aide-de-camp, a Montenegrin captain, whom he +introduces as related to Nikita. He is forming an alliance +of the Balkan States, which, according to his calculations, +will exterminate the Turk in Europe. He promises +himself to furnish 20,000 volunteers—to start with. In +the previous year when he had planned to liberate Bulgaria +with 12,000 volunteers, of whom a hundred were to +be cavalry and another hundred gunners, he could gather +only 500. And now again he is disillusioned and leaves +Athens.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span></p> + +<p>It was during his stay there that he met the well-known +Balkan travellers, Miss Irby and Miss Muir +Mackenzie. They had been up and down the Peninsula +in 1862 and 1863, making very exhaustive inquiries that +were the basis of their book.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> In 1917 Professor Ivan +Shishmanoff discovered two letters of Miss Muir Mackenzie's +in Sofia and published them in <i>Sbornik</i>. The +first is dated May 12, and is in German. "Since we +have been here we have made the acquaintance of Mr. +Rakovski," she writes. "He has been so kind as to teach +me Serbian, during Miss Irby's illness. We like him very +much, and I know of no one among the Slavs with whose +opinion we so entirely agree; because he does not think +as a Serbian or yet a Montenegrin or a Croat or a Bulgar, +but as a Slav.... I can't tell you how much I fear that +their internal divisions will make impossible the realization +of a Yugoslav country. One can't hope for much +from the Greeks; they have exorbitant ambitions and +neither private nor public integrity. Those are bad faults +to find in an ally. And they speak openly of a Byzantine +Empire! And reckon that all the Southern Slavs, Serbs +as well as Bulgars, belong to them.... I hope that +England will some day assure herself that there are other +Christians in the East besides the Greeks."</p> + + +<p class="section">THE YUGOSLAV NAME</p> + +<p>Miss Muir Mackenzie's other letter, of June 23, is +addressed to Rakovski from Bolsover Castle, Chesterfield. +It is written in French. "We attach great importance," +she says, "to the name Yugoslav. By means of crying +that word in the ears of the Greeks one will succeed in +making them understand that the Bulgars are Slavs. +By means of crying it in the ears of the European diplomats +one will succeed by making them comprehend that +one cannot ignore a people of ten or twelve million souls. +By means of crying 'We are Yugoslavs,' the Yugoslavs +themselves will succeed in forgetting their little distinctions +of environment and race, and in conducting themselves<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> +as a nation worthy of the name. Let us therefore +cry that word—we will make people speak of it sooner or +later."</p> + +<p>In June 1863 Rakovski was at Cetinje, but as he was +requesting subsidies he did not find a very sympathetic +audience in Nikita. Thence he passed to Bucharest, +where he issued—for ten numbers—a Bulgaro-Roumanian +newspaper; the Bulgars in Bucharest had grown too +prosperous to be interested either in his journalistic or +his military schemes, and he found the Bulgarian colonies +in Russia equally obtuse. He was attacked by consumption +while he was at work upon the <i>Provisional Law for +the National Bands in the Forests</i>—a sort of written constitution +for the heiduks, and in the intervals of his last +sufferings he wrote a history of the heiduks from the days +of the Turkish conquest. He died on October 20, 1867.</p> + +<p>The statesmen who then governed the Great Powers +may have deprecated Rakovski as much as he deprecated +them. It must have been exasperating for those solid +persons subsequently to acknowledge—if they did so—that +this unbalanced agitator weighed them very well. +But the Balkan countries were too weak; they had to +suffer being thrown aside, pushed here and there, and +trampled on; for when the Great Powers came down to +the Balkans they could really not pay much attention to +the little peoples of the country and at the same time +keep their eyes upon each other. Afterwards the Balkan +countries found that it was better for them when the +Great Powers fought each other there than when they +came to friendly understandings. It was profitable +and diverting for Albania when the Austrians and the +Italians glowered at each other in that silent land: it +was terrible in 1878 for Bosnia and Herzegovina when the +Great Powers were on such good terms with one another +that they allowed one of themselves to make off with +those two waifs of whom he was not even the wicked +uncle.</p> + +<p>Russia had been taking a keen interest in the Balkans +after Austria's disaster in 1859 at Sadowa. It was then +that Prince Gortchakoff and his colleagues in the Ministry +were inspired by the doctrines of Katkoff, who in his +<i>Moscow Gazette</i> exercised much authority over public<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> +opinion and even over the Tzar. Panslavism, according +to Debidour,<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> which a short time ago had been shivering +in the background, lifted its head proudly and spoke of +the new era which holy Russia was about to inaugurate, +of the sacred mission that was incumbent on the Tzar. +And the sanctity was greater in that it was not to be +defined by merely mediæval but by modern language; +the Tzar must not alone protect all those who practised +his religion, he must be a patron saint who patronizes.</p> + + +<p class="section">RUSSIA AND AUSTRIA SOW DISCORD IN THE BALKANS</p> + +<p>To this end committees, in Moscow and in Petrograd, +deliberated; newspapers and pamphlets spread their +views; agile agents propagated them throughout the +Balkans, calling on the Bulgars and the Bosniaks to rise, +promising aggrandizements to Serbia and Montenegro, +spurring on the fiery Cretans to make their revolt of 1866. +All promised well. There was to be a Balkan federation +formed at the expense of Austria and the Porte: Serbia +would receive the Voivodina and Bosnia, Montenegro +would acquire Herzegovina, the Croats would at least +annex Dalmatia, and the Slovenes and the Bulgars would +come naturally into this united Yugoslavia, under +Michael's sceptre. He was at the time not only in most +cordial relations with the Bulgars, but in 1867 he began +<i>pourparlers</i> to ally himself with Greece, and he made +overtures to the new sovereign of Roumania, Charles of +Hohenzollern. And after this plan also had been nullified +by Michael's death, the Russians still continued with their +task, but now they had to deal with a convalescent +Austria. It came to pass that the Bulgars found themselves +in Russia's sphere, the Serbs in that of Austria. +The little countries were thus violently pulled apart, +and naturally each of them began to stretch their hands +out to the neighbouring Slavs who were in servitude, but +yet they managed to keep hand in hand with one another. +The young men, such as Karaveloff and Tzankoff, whom +Prince Michael sent to Western Europe to be educated, +the young Bulgarian priests who had studied in that +branch of the Belgrade seminary which Prince Michael<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> +opened for them, and all the Serbs and Bulgars who considered +their two countries knew that, for political and +economic reasons, they must not be kept apart. But +there was always a Great Power to frustrate these designs. +Yet even after they had been flung at each other in the +fratricidal days of 1885, even after their attempt in 1905 +to found a Customs union had been vetoed, even after +some of their so-called <i>intelligentsia</i> had done what injury +they could by harping on the limitations from which +they naturally, like the older peoples, are not exempt—nevertheless, +as it was seen in 1912, when the demonstrations +of delight in Belgrade and in Sofia were touching, +they are only too glad to fulfil their destiny. Since +1912 that misguided <i>intelligentsia</i> has been given a +large store of fresh ammunition. They will go on firing +and firing, while the people, including the real <i>intelligentsia</i>, +will be better engaged.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE MACEDONIAN SLAVS UNDER THEIR GREEK CLERGY</p> + +<p>The name of Tzankoff brings to mind a strange +ecclesiastical movement. The reader may remember +how the little Macedonian town of Kukuš carried from its +church the books in Greek and how it welcomed the +Bulgarian monk who sang the Mass in Slav. The bishops +and the clergy of the Greek Church had not made themselves +beloved in Macedonia, where the population was +indisputably much more Slav. Greek villages were very +scarce to the north of Lake Castoria; but after the +suppression of the two Slav Patriarchates in the eighteenth +century the only Christians who lead a dignified existence +were the Greek clergy. Among the Slav upper class +there was a good deal of Hellenization; to be a Greek +was of much social value. But the people generally +stayed intact, because the schools so thoughtfully provided +by the Greeks were solely for the boys. The +language spoken in the home would therefore still be +Slav. And it is not likely that the people would have +cherished their Greek clergy, even if they had been +archangels, when once the national awakening had begun. +But what we hear about this clergy is too seldom of a +pleasing character. The children of the Macedonian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> +peasants might go into ecstasies on seeing one of these +episcopal processions, with the bishop's glorious white +horse and harness such as they had never dreamed of, +with his footmen round about him and with all those other +priests, the old ones and the young ones and the monks, +and then the bishop's doctor and some other men in +spectacles, and then the bishop's cook and a few more +monks. But the Macedonian villagers who had to entertain +all this rapacious brood and pay terrific fees for everything—250 +piastres for a liturgy, 500 for a whole service, +500 for marriages among relatives up to the seventh +degree, large contributions under the name of charity, +and so forth—these had only rancour for the Church. +Perhaps the saintliest among the Greeks declined to go to +Macedonia. One hears of them so little and of people +like Meletios so much. This savage person was appointed +in 1859 to be Bishop of Ochrida, although the reputation +he had left there—having previously been the coadjutor—was +atrocious. Protests and entreaties were sent to +Constantinople, but from 1860 until 1869 he stayed at +Ochrida and carried on an implacable duel with his flock. +He was frequently received with hisses, sometimes he was +struck by stones, sometimes he was flung out of a church. +But he was not the man to be intimidated—a large man, +with broad shoulders, an arrogant expression and a +bristling beard; they say he had the appearance of a +janissary in clerical garb. He took into his service an +Albanian bandit, through whom he terrorized the diocese. +At one time he had the young wife of a man who was +away in Roumania brought into his harem. The husband +returned, asked for his wife and succeeded in obtaining +her, but after two months he was assassinated, and the +widow thought she might as well allow the bishop to +console her. The outcry was enormous; no one doubted +that it was Meletios who had given orders for the crime. +A deputation of thirty went to lay this case and numerous +other transgressions before the Patriarch at Constantinople. +He would only receive five delegates, who read +their document in a plenary sitting of the Holy Synod. +After they had recited the afore-mentioned episode, one +of the bishops who was present lost patience and, "Is it +really worth our while to listen to such tales?" he asked.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> +"If Christ spoke to the Samaritan woman, why should +not a simple bishop hold converse with a woman also?" +"At last the moment has come!" said the delegates. +They departed, and at the door they shook the dust +from their feet. The Patriarch himself ran after them. +"Come back, my children!" he cried. But they were +deaf to his voice.</p> + +<p>About forty years after the reign of Meletios there +was still a Greek bishop at Ochrida, but—this was in +1912, after the first Balkan War—the town had also a +Bulgarian and also a Serbian bishop. The Greek ecclesiastic +did not profess to administer a very large flock—it +consisted of about twelve families—but he explained +that his presence was made necessary by the ancient +Greek culture. He was there to watch over it. The +local church of St. Clement and the monasteries of SS. +Zaim and Naoum are dedicated to disciples of Cyril and +Methodus, the two brothers who introduced Christianity +to these parts. They may well have recruited their +disciples among the Slavs, whose language they had +learned before they set out. But whether the old stones +which the Greek bishop was guarding in 1912 are Greek +or Slav, he was better employed than most of his predecessors.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE AFFAIR OF KUKUŠ</p> + +<p>One of the first Macedonian villages to take an independent +attitude had been Kukuš. When it heard that +some French priests were operating at Salonica, and that +if it were converted to Catholicism it would be given a +national clergy and the protection of France, the temptation +was so great that it succumbed. One of the Bulgarian +democrats at Constantinople, Dragan Tzankoff, +identified himself with this idea, not through religious +motives but in order that the Porte should no longer +fear that the independence of the Catholic Bulgarian +nation would be a gain for Russia. This may sound +rather far-fetched; he may have also used Catholicism +merely as a threat by which to induce the Russians to +assist in procuring the Exarchate. Tzankoff and various +other people went to Rome, where Pius <span class="smcap">ix.</span> blessed their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> +enterprise and consecrated one of them, the archimandrite +Sokolski, as Bishop of the Bulgarian Uniate Church. +Sokolski was a worthy, patriotic man, but not endowed +with mental attributes such as this post demanded; they +had, however, been unable to find anybody better qualified. +He soon decamped to Russia, for he was down-hearted +when the Church did not attract a greater number of +disciples. His defection was a grave blow to the cause, +chiefly on account of the laughter it excited. Bulgarian +Catholicism had, however, a fair number of adherents at +Constantinople and at Kukuš.... There was at the +same time another movement, more discreetly undertaken, +by American missionaries to convert the Bulgars to the +Protestant religion. These Americans, drawn by the +magic name of Greece, had come to Europe to assist that +people in their fight for freedom. They had built them +schools, had printed educational books in Greek, and had +contributed in every way towards the people's moral +progress; and no sooner was the country liberated than +they were expelled. The Bulgars did not treat them in so +cavalier a fashion, but neither did they adopt Protestantism +as the State religion. Sir Henry Bulwer, the British +Ambassador, recommended them rather to persevere +with Catholicism; it seemed to him that this religion, +with its authoritative organization, would be more +adapted to removing the Bulgars from the influence of +Russia. The Russian Ambassador, the disdainful Prince +Lobanoff-Rostovski, was very much bored by all this +trouble that the Bulgars were giving; the Greeks were +furious. One day a Catholic Bulgar died in the French +hospital at Pera, and a body of Greeks, accompanied by +clergy, wished to have the corpse handed over to them +for burial according to the Orthodox Greek rite. When +they were refused admission they attempted to enter +by force, raising loud cries and threatening to sack the +whole place. In the end they were dispersed by a detachment +of French sailors....</p> + + +<p class="section">THE EXARCHATE IS ESTABLISHED</p> + +<p>These religious disputes between Greek and Bulgar +were agreeable to the Porte, which encouraged the Bulgars<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> +to persevere with the Catholic plan. Russia continued +to be very embarrassed, not wishing to make a permanent +enemy either of the Greek Church or of the Bulgarian +people. Finally the Bulgarian efforts to secure a national +Church met with reward. The Turkish authorities—Fuad +Pasha, the Grand Vizier, being an enlightened +man—did not persist in the impracticable plan that this +Church should be in communion with Rome. One of +the consequences of the establishment of their autocephalous +Church was that many of the Bulgarian +Catholics at Constantinople and Kukuš abandoned that +religion. The Vatican complained—and not unreasonably—that +it had been fooled. The Russians are generally +given much credit for this Bulgarian success, but although +they participated in the negotiations—and their Ambassador, +the resourceful Count Ignatieff,<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> would make +it seem that they were gratified with the result—their +situation was so delicate that they preferred to play for +safety. When the news was brought to Serbia it gave +rise to great rejoicings, for the Exarchate was the charter +of liberty for the Macedonian Slavs. No one dreamed +at this time that, on account of Macedonia, Serbs and +Bulgars would be some day flying at each other's throat.</p> + + +<p class="section">1867: AUSTRIA DELIVERS THE SLAVS TO THE MAGYARS</p> + +<p>The Southern Slavs had recently been shown that if +they waited in the hope that others would assist them to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> +improve their fortunes they would have to have a monumental +patience. When Austria, after her defeat at +the hand of the Prussians, was flung out of the German +federation, she availed herself of the services of a German, +Count Frederick Beust, to put her house in order. His +negotiations with Hungary produced the compromise, +the <i>Ausgleich</i>, of 1867. This Constitution, which made +them independent of each other as regards internal +matters, bade their Slavs prepare themselves to lose all +shreds of independence. The Serbs of the Banat and +Bačka, as well as the Roumanians of Transylvania and +the Slovaks, were delivered to the Magyars without any +guarantee that their language or their nationality would +be respected. "Look!" said the Magyars in after years, +when travellers came to see what they had done, "we +have a language law, evolved by Deak, which lays down +that everybody in the law courts has the right to use +his mother-tongue." The traveller had been wondering +what unusual people lived in Hungary, for he had seen +a peasant choose precisely that time when a train was +due to come and quarrel about something with the booking +clerk. How was the traveller to learn that the non-Magyar +peasant wished to buy a ticket for his native +village, whose name had just been Magyarized, and that +the clerk refused to sell a ticket except the peasant used +a name he did not know? And when the peasant had +walked home he might see in the village register that +he who had been Saba was now Shebek and that his +friend Ziva, who could speak no word of Magyar, was +now Vitaljos; and that the children of poor Vitaljos, +in order that they should not suffer from their father's +handicap, were not confining their education to ordinary +subjects, but were learning the Magyar language for +seventeen hours every week. Well, how was your +traveller to know that if a person used his own tongue +in the law courts, which was very probably the tongue +of everyone who lived there save a handful of officials, +one of these officials who was accidentally in court would +say he was acquainted with that person's language? +The judge would take his word for it and he would start +interpreting. When the Hungarians came to deal with +the Croats they were careful to give them, for the world's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> +eye, a great deal of autonomy. Strossmayer, assisted +by the historian Rački, had in April 1866 led a deputation +to Buda-Pest when it was clear that extreme +divergencies existed between the Croats and the Magyars. +Among other Croatian demands was one that Rieka +should no longer be the scene of Magyar intrigues. As +yet the town's importance was not great: in 1869 she +had only 17,884 inhabitants and the total of her exports +and imports did not exceed 150,000 tons. But everybody +knew that by the building of a direct line to Croatia +and to the valleys of the Save, the Drave and the Danube +there would come an era of prosperity. The Magyars +had allied themselves with the Autonomist party, showing +them what great advantages the town would reap if it +were joined to Hungary. Would not Hungary, for +instance, be able to manipulate the railway freights? +There had been constant bickerings between the Croats +and the Autonomist party, so that Strossmayer's deputation +asked that the Magyars should refrain from giving +to the latter their financial and moral support. But the +Magyars had no such intention. "One should try to +convince everyone," said Rački, "that in national +politics the Magyars and ourselves stand at the Antipodes. +We see in the Slav and Yugoslav solidarity the most +powerful guarantee for our national future, whereas +the Magyars see in it the tomb of their nationality. We +consider the liberation of the East as a condition of a +happier future, while the Magyars regard it as the beginning +of their absolute ruin or at least as the end of +their aspirations for the sole dominion. The idea of a +Yugoslav State, arising in Croatia or in Bosnia or Serbia, +would always find in Hungary a most determined foe." +It was thus improbable that any satisfactory arrangement +would be made, particularly as the Austrians, oblivious +to all that Jellačić had done for them, were quite prepared +to give their erstwhile enemies, the Magyars, a free +hand. And what the Magyars did was to confer upon +Croatia this autonomy for educational and legal and +religious matters, while they reserved financial, railway, +fiscal and commercial questions, military legislation and +the laws relating to the roads and rivers in which both +were interested—all these subjects they reserved for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> +Parliament at Buda-Pest, in which, of course, the Croats +formed an impotent minority. Francis Joseph on May 1, +1867, sent a message to Zagreb in which he stated that +"the pourparlers with the Kingdom of Hungary, which +to him was always dear and faithful, had led to the +desired results." He trusted that the Croats would be +represented at his coronation at Buda-Pest. Strossmayer +was ordered to bring this about; he went instead to the +Paris Exhibition. He and the National party prepared +themselves for a severe struggle. But now Baron Levin +Rauch, of infamous memory, was nominated as Ban. +He at once altered the electoral laws, so that the National +party came back with only fourteen deputies. If any +one in Western Europe thought about the Croats it was +with the traditional aversion for the way in which they +had behaved to the most noble Kossuth. This was years +before the time when Dr. Seton-Watson, as it may interest +him to hear, defeated the Magyarophil candidate at an +election in the town of Ogulin. The bright idea occurred +to somebody to whisper it abroad that Dr. Seton-Watson +would arrive that day in order to make notes of the +election for the British Press. With Rauch's obedient +majority a compromise, the <i>Nagodba</i>, was arranged with +Hungary. The terms of this, subordinating Croatia +economically and financially to Buda-Pest, are what one +would expect; the chief novelty concerns Rieka, as to +which port no agreement had been reached.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE "KRPITSA"</p> + +<p>On the Croat text of the <i>Nagodba</i>, which had received +the Emperor's sanction on November 8, a piece of paper, +the famous "Krpitsa," was glued; and on this paper +were the words Rieka knew of old—<i>Corpus separatum +sacræ coronæ Hungaricæ</i>. They had been put forward +by the Hungarian delegates and approved by the Emperor +on November 17. This rather melodramatic affair would +have been thought worthy of at any rate a few lines by +most of us if we had written a whole book, nay two books, +about Rieka. But our friend Mr. Edoardo Susmel +glides, as gracefully as possible, over it. In his <i>Fiume +Italiana</i> he is as <i>peu communicatif</i> as a carp. His other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> +book,<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> written in French, simply and beautifully says +of this law of 1868 that it is "a precious heritage transmitted +from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in which +period there was condensed"—or shall we say made +palpable?—"the spirit which is jealous of the municipal +liberties." "Down to this day," says he, "Rieka is in +complete possession of her charter. Rieka has to-day +still got her great charter. This constitutional charter ..." +and so on and so on. But these modern coryphées +of Rieka and Dalmatia are so forgetful.</p> + + +<p class="section">RIEKA'S HISTORY, AS TWO PEOPLE SEE IT</p> + +<p>Mr. Susmel begins by saying that the origins of the +Italianity of Rieka lose themselves in the story of Rome. +He knows—none better—that the Romans came to these +parts. They disappeared—but of course one can't put +in every detail. Anyhow, they left an arch, a lot of +coins, some vases, etc.; and a few of these are depicted +in Mr. Susmel's book. What a relief it must have been +to innumerable people as they turned his pages and +discovered that he had forgotten to include the illustrations +of our Roman Wall, of the Pont du Gard and of the +glorious aqueduct that traverses Segovia! From the +time of the "Krpitsa" onwards a regular colonization +began. Italians were urged to come from their own +country—but if Mr. Hilaire Belloc, who studied the +question on the spot, is accurate in his diagnosis that +Fiume is Italian "with that intensity of feeling bred by +alien rule and the sudden victorious liberation therefrom" +(<i>Land and Water</i>, May 29, 1919), it certainly does +seem a little strange that the Italians should think in this +way of the Magyars who invited them and were so good +to them. They were told, no doubt, by the Magyars +that the Croats would not hurt them, that the city council +would always be Italian, that if the saucy Croats asked +for schools—as indeed their numbers entitled them to do—well, +they would receive no reply. ("Show me a single +Croat school!" cried the Italian mayor triumphantly +to me in 1919.) The Magyars spent vast sums on the +harbour, making the other little harbours of Croatia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> +obsolete, and they were not going to lose their grip of the +town for want of proper legislation. They were surprised +that more "regnicoli" (Italians from Italy) did not +respond; but the renegades made up for them. +"Passionate and justified," said Mr. Hilaire Belloc in +1919,<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> is Italian feeling with respect to Fiume. But +this writer, who says he travelled to the Adriatic with a +view to ascertaining the real facts, did not altogether +waste his time, since one of his two adjectives is quite +correct. With regard to the renegades no questions were +ever asked, if only one helped to keep Rieka from the +Croats, if, for example, on a voting paper for the Croatian +Diet one put the word "nessuno" (no one). Mr. Susmel, +I see, says that the Diet's continued invitation to the +town that it should send its deputies to Zagreb was a +display of "incredible obstinacy."</p> + + +<p class="section">AND THE SLOVENES ARE COERCED</p> + +<p>The <i>Ausgleich</i> was of ill-omen to the Slav subjects +of Hungary. It was not much more auspicious for the +<ins class="correction" +title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'Solvenes'">Slovenes</ins>, Istrians and Dalmatians. The Slavs seem to +have been the Habsburgs' nightmare. Why the million +and a quarter of Slovenes—people who do not approach +the Basques, for instance, in pugnacity—should be the +butt of everlasting coercion and repression may seem +inexplicable. When the German-Austrians of Triest, +even after the Italians in Italy had begun to claim the +town, allied themselves with the Triest Italians "to +fight," as they declared, "the common enemy," it can +surely not have been these quiet Slovenes who had won +for themselves by great industry a place in the town +which is situated in their province. The "common +enemy" to whom the German-Austrians referred must +have been Russia. And so the Southern Slavs of the +Balkans and of the Adriatic owed part of the bad treatment +they received not to their own vices but to the +organizing virtues which their larger brother was supposed +to have.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> <i>Memorie per la storia degli arvenimenti che seguirono in Dalmazia la +caduta della Republica veneta</i>, by G. Cattalinich, 1841.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> This is perpetuated by the initial letters of the saying "Samo sloga +Srbina spasava" ("Only in the union of Serbs is salvation"), which are +placed round the cross in Serbia's coat of arms.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Cf. <i>La Dalmatie de 1797-1815</i>, by the Abbé Paul Pisani. Paris, +1893.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> His fame as a teacher was such that several towns entreated him +to settle in their midst. In 1845 the inhabitants of Stara Zagora sent +him this curious letter: "When Philip, King of Macedonia, invited +Aristotle to be the tutor of his son, he wrote to him: 'I am happy, in the +first place, because God has given me a son, and, secondly, because this +son was born in your time....' And we also, we thank God, firstly, +because it has been granted to us to found a school, and, secondly, because +we know that under your direction it will be a real school. That is why +we supplicate and pray that you will come to us and be our teacher."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Smail Aga, Vice-Governor of Herzegovina, had earned for himself +the greatest detestation of the Montenegrins, whom he harried, and of +his own unhappy subjects. In August 1840 he was attacked by a small +band of heroes, men of Montenegro and of Herzegovina. He and a large +number of his men were killed. A translation of this celebrated poem +was made by Mr. J. W. Wiles at Salonika, and printed there, under difficult +circumstances, entirely by Serbian refugees.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Cf. <i>Fiume Italiana</i>. Rome, 1919.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> According to the census of 1857 the figures were: Serbs, 452,500; +Roumanians, 414,900; Germans, 394,100; Magyars, 256,100; Jews, +12,500; Gipsies, 600.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Their German origin had become so completely obliterated that +they no longer spoke anything but Croat. It is curious in this connection +to note that Kossuth, the champion of Magyarism, was of Slav blood; +that Rieger, the Czech leader, was of German blood; and that Conscience, +chief of the Flemish movement, had a French father.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Cf. Seton-Watson's <i>The Southern Slav Question</i>. London, 1911.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Cf. <i>Letters of Count Cavour</i>, edited by Gl. Chiala, vol. iv. pp. 139-140.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> This lady, the Princess Julia, subsequently married the Duke of +Aremberg. She died in February 1919 in Vienna at the age of eighty-eight. +In the early sixties she came on a mission to England to enlist +sympathy for Serbia's final struggle for independence. Much to her +annoyance she found that it was necessary to ask through the Turkish +Embassy for an audience with Queen Victoria. However, the Ambassador +was a very affable person, who completely mollified the Princess. It +was to her that Palmerston made one of his famous puns. Her dress +caught in a door and he stepped forward with the words: "Princesse, +la Porte est sur votre chemin pour vous empêcher d'avancer."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> As a matter of fact he was walking with a girl called Catharine, +also a relative, a lame girl more remarkable for wit and wisdom than for +physical beauty. She and Michael are celebrated in one of Serbia's +most famous songs. There has been a great deal of speculation as to +his assassins, some maintaining that they were Austrian agents, others +holding that it was the work of the rival Karageorgevič dynasty. A +certain Radovanovič who settled down in Karlovci—he was there at any +rate till 1895—was most probably an Austrian instrument in this affair; +he in his turn making use of Austrian police for the actual deed. He +was wont to say that he knew who were the murderers; but since he was +looked upon as a mere tool, his fellow-Serbs of Karlovci did not molest +him. Yet he never frequented a Serbian café. He was a travelled, +pretty well-educated man; with the Austrian officials he was on very +friendly terms, and the source of his money was never discovered.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> <i>The Turks, the Greeks and the Slavons: Travels in the Slavonic +Provinces of Turkey-in-Europe.</i> London, 1867. The second edition of +this book appeared with a preface by Gladstone.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Cf. his <i>Histoire diplomatique de l'Europe</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> The promulgation was a surprise to him; it was also a defeat, as +he had aimed at a direct understanding between Greeks and Bulgars +and not at a solution which left the Porte as arbitrator between these +two Christian races. However, he would not acknowledge that he had +been beaten. "He thought it more intelligent to recognize the <i>fait +accompli</i> and not to let his dissatisfaction be visible," says Prince George +Troubetzkoi, the distinguished diplomat who explored the archives of +the Russian Embassy at Constantinople. In reply to his telegram +announcing the promulgation of the firman, Gortchakoff, the Prime +Minister, cabled that "an adjustment of this awkward question and one +that would not break the links between the Bulgarian community and +the Œcumenical Patriarchate would be a great alleviation, whereof the +credit would be mostly yours." The Russians repudiated the Exarchate +publicly and they are not now, as are the Serbs, in communion with the +Bulgars. For example, when the Bulgarian bishops in Macedonia, after +the troubles following the first Balkan War, went to Russia in order to +state their case, they were taken to a monastery and not allowed to +participate in the religious offices.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> <i>Le droit italique de Fiume.</i> Bologna, 1919.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> In <i>Land and Water</i>, June 5, 1919.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>IV<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span></h2> + +<h3>THE SHIFTING SANDS OF MACEDONIA</h3> + +<p class="subtitle"><span class="smcap">What are the Macedonian Slavs?—The rift caused by religion—Versatility +of these Macedonian Slavs—How foreigners +have stirred up trouble—Austrian, Russian and Turkish +manœuvres—The deplorable Milan—Nikita the comedian—The +great Strossmayer—Religious disputes between Serbs +and Roumanians—The burden of the Obrenović—A happy +advent—Austro-Hungarian wrath—Their Montenegrin +friend—Austria gives hostages to history—The dreams of +an old realist—Very high politics—The riddle of <ins class="correction" +title="Transcriber's note: inserted a missing —">Sarajevo—The</ins> +miserable Macedonians—Ferocities of education—The +storm is past.</span></p> + + +<p>A wealthy gentleman of Belgrade, one George +Weiffert, who brews admirable beer, is said some years +ago to have sworn an oath that if his wished-for ice, that +was strangely lacking, should appear by Saint Sava's Day +(January 27, New Style) he would adopt this old archbishop +as the patron saint of his family. Another Teuton, +of Hebraic origin, whom I met at Zaječa, had placed himself +and his house under the protection of the Archangel +Michael, whose festival is on November 21. The Roumanians +of eastern Serbia seem, all of them, to have +assumed this custom which the Serbs call the "slava," +and those inhabitants, say of Pirot, who did not consider +themselves Serbs at the time of their annexation would +gradually fall into line with their neighbours and select a +saint, if only because the annual "slava" celebration is a +day of tremendous hospitality, when the peasant is glad +to squander his savings in the entertainment even of +persons unknown to him. And those who are in the habit +of attending "slavas" naturally feel that they must have a +"slava" of their own. It may also have happened in +Macedonia that a traveller has been told by the very +adaptable peasants how Saint Nicholas or Saint Alimpija +is their house saint, a commitment which the holy one has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> +but lately had thrust upon him. One would therefore do +well to look for some other test, and not to follow those +people who roundly assert that the man who honours the +"slava," and no other man, is a veritable Serb.</p> + + +<p class="section">WHAT ARE THE MACEDONIAN SLAVS?</p> + +<p>If, for example, one wishes to decide whether a given +Macedonian Slav is a Serb or a Bulgar—many thousands +have been called and have, quite happily, called themselves +both—we must use a more scientific method. +Some investigators, such as Vateff, have made measurements +that are not without value; others, such as Djerić +and Shishmanoff, have published good monographs on the +Serbian and Bulgarian name. We have had some learned +dissertations on the language of Macedonia, as to whether +the Slav dialects approach more nearly the Serbian or the +Bulgarian literary language. But this question remains +unanswered, owing to the imperfect manner in which the +grammatical and syntaxical peculiarities of the Macedonian +dialects have, as yet, been examined. Some people +have argued that as the Bulgarian peculiarity of the +postponed article is also found in Macedonia it follows +that the province really is Bulgarian. But as the postponed +article is found in a wide zone, which extends from +the Albanian shores to those of the Black Sea, this +argument loses in strength, for how can Roumania be +called Bulgarian? Very possibly before the Slavs +arrived that zone was inhabited by another people who +left this characteristic behind them, though they left no +documents. It is a logical hypothesis. And Barbulescu, +the Professor of Slav Philology in the University of Jassy, +said in 1912 that "the Serbs have just as many reasons +for asserting that the Macedonian is a Serbian language as +the Bulgars have to deny it." As it was in the Middle +Ages, so it is now; the mediæval language used to oscillate +between the two, and it is sometimes impossible to +tell whether an old Macedonian Slav document is Bulgarian +or Serbian.... When we come to the ethnologists +we find they have only written books which deal with +certain parts of Macedonia. They have confessed that, +generally speaking, it is impossible to say whether a man<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> +is a Serb, a Bulgar or a Serbo-Bulgar. These Macedonians +were for centuries at such a distance from the other Slavs +and were so thoroughly neglected that they lost their +national consciousness, an attribute which many thousands +of them, in the days of the vast, loose empires of +Dušan and Simeon, never possessed. Sir Charles Eliot, +in his excellent book <i>Turkey in Europe</i> (London, 1900), +says that it is not easy to distinguish Serb and Bulgar +beyond the boundaries of their respective countries. He +divides the Macedonian Slavs into pure Slavs, Slavized +Bulgars and pure Slavs influenced by Slavized Bulgars: +"all three categories," he says, "have been subjected to +a strong and often continuous Greek influence, to say +nothing of the Turks and the inconspicuous Vlachs," so +that in his opinion it is rash to make sharp divisions among +a people who have thus acted and reacted on one another. +A large proportion of the Macedonians<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> have no knowledge<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> +of the race to which their ancestors belonged; and +one is brought to the conclusion that it is much wiser not +to use for Macedonia the two words, Serb and Bulgar, +but to say that these Slavs became either Exarchists +(in which case they were commonly called Bulgars) or +Patriarchists (who were called Serbs). Basil Kanchov, a +Macedonian, who is the most accurate in giving the +numbers of the Slav population of the old provinces of +Turkey, divides them not into races but religions. It is, +of course, a mistake to think that on the institution of +the Exarchate it merely received the allegiance of those +Macedonians whose origin was more or less Bulgarian. +Thousands of Slavs who were, or believed themselves to +be, of Serbian blood passed over to the schism with the +sole object of obtaining for their Church a Slav liturgy. +There was little reason for them to hesitate, since at that +time the names of Serb and Bulgar implied no national +differentiation, but were used to designate the brothers of +two different provinces. We find then that the Macedonian +Slavs, vaguely Serbs and vaguely Bulgars, passed +pretty indiscriminately, and of course without the least +apprehension of the future, into the Exarchist Church, or +else remained under the Greek Patriarch. Exarchists +and Patriarchists were found in the same family: thus +at Tetovo the priest Missa Martinoff was an Exarchist and +president of the Bulgarian community, while his brother +Momir Martinović was a Patriarchist, and president of +the Serbian community in the same town. Stavro, a +well-known watchmaker at Skoplje, was a Patriarchist, +whereas a brother of his, also at Skoplje, was an Exarchist +priest. Ivko, a farmer at the village of Poboujie +and his eight nearest relatives were Exarchists, his other +relatives and all the rest of the village were Patriarchists. +Many similar examples could be given.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE RIFT CAUSED BY RELIGION</p> + +<p>One may observe by the sequence of events in one of +the Macedonian towns, what was the dire effect of this +dividing of the Slavs into two religious bodies. Ghevgeli, +a town which before the War had about 6000 inhabitants,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> +will provide a fair illustration. In the middle of the +nineteenth century the church service was in Greek and +there was no school, but the Slavs were indifferent—and +learning was regarded as a rather praiseworthy accomplishment +for the priest. Now and then some one would travel +to where the Serbian or the Bulgarian language could be +heard in church and on his return to Ghevgeli be discontented +with the Greek. This feeling was fanned by +certain agitators from outside; and ultimately a Slav +service was introduced, being celebrated in the same +church as the Greek service and by the same priest. As +he was unable to read a Slav language, the words were +written for him with Greek letters. One should mention, +by the way, that no Greeks were to be found at Ghevgeli—only +Slavs with a few Turks and five or six Jews. A +Slav school was also opened about 1860, with a teacher +whose salary was paid by the parents; he used Slav +church books and taught arithmetic and folk-songs. +The Greek bishop started a school, but with no great +success, and although it went on until 1913 it was patronized +by fewer and fewer children.</p> + +<p>The Slav service in the church became after a time +Exarchist; as a sequel to which, to the dissatisfaction of +many of the people, it was called "Bulgarian." The +objectors had been to Serbia and sympathized with that +country, and at Ghevgeli they were supported by about half +the population. But the Bulgars were then more favourably +viewed by the Turkish authorities.... A Bulgarian +school was likewise opened a few years before the Serbian, +which began in 1882. By this time the Slavs, largely +owing to external pressure, were not content to have two +separate schools; they were the keenest rivals, and the +proprietor of the Serbian school, Risto Naumović, was +killed for no other reason in 1883. His successor, one +Bečirović, who is still alive, was threatened that he would +be shot within twenty-four hours, but his valiant young +son—who was then a pupil at the school—found the +komitadji chieftain who had uttered this threat and slew +him. So both the schools continued, together with a +Turkish, a Greek, a Roumanian and a Catholic school. +The Catholic friars were supported by Austria and France; +the Roumanian establishment, which was visited by not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> +more than twenty children from the neighbourhood, was +maintained by Roumania—the teacher being a native +of Bucharest. In fact, there was a good deal of propaganda +which between the Serbs and the Bulgars became +violent.</p> + +<p>What can be said for the Exarchists?... Some +years ago the Albanians in the region of Monastir were +asking to be inscribed on the books of the American +Church, for they thought in that way to obtain the +benefits of American citizenship. They made no pretence +of having been impressed by other doctrines. A +Church was in their eyes a sort of naturalization bureau. +And when the Exarchists were rejoicing in their new-found +strength and perceiving that this Church of theirs might +be a corner-stone of a Great Bulgaria, they were so +completely carried away that they bestowed an all-too-scant +attention on the methods which they brought to +bear. These methods of the enthusiastic Exarchists +were altogether deplorable and succeeded in alienating +not only the Patriarchist Slavs whom they freely murdered, +but even in many cases the very Exarchists, who +came to dislike the komitadji bands, whom they were +required to shelter and to feed and to assist with a subscription +to their funds. "Still more," says a Bulgarian +proverb—"still more than if you have a boat on the sea +or a Roumanian wife, are you certain to sleep ill if you +have a property in Macedonia." As year after year went +by and the komitadji men appeared to be doing very little +beyond terrorizing the country, those who supported +them began to frown. No guerilla leader presented a +balance-sheet, and it was generally known that the famous +Boris Sarafoff allowed himself, each year, a few months in +Paris. This, he said, was due to him after his arduous +time in the Macedonian mountains. More and more +displeased were the Exarchist peasants—the Macedonian +Slav is a very thrifty soul—and in the Great War one had +the spectacle of men who called themselves Bulgars and +concealed their sons, lest they be taken into the Bulgarian +army. "If it pleases the Bulgars," they said, "let them +come and liberate us."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="section">VERSATILITY OF THESE MACEDONIAN SLAVS</p> + +<p>If the Exarchist leaders had gone about their business +with more prudence—but how could one expect political +sagacity among a people which had not only been for +centuries under the shadow of the Horses' Tails, but which +at the time when the Turk appeared was no whit his +superior in civilization? Very possibly the Balkan +Slavs would in those five hundred years have turned in +disgust from Vlad the Impaler and other exponents of +Byzantine culture, if it had not been for the Turk, who +ignored his raia's potential moral progress and did not +think of regulating his natural cruelty. If the Exarchist +leaders had been born different, then Macedonia might +easily have become—as now, one hopes, it will at last +become—a Yugoslav bond of union, instead of an apple +of discord. "I used to be a Bulgar and now I am a Serb,"<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> +said a man with whom I was walking one day in Monastir, +"and so long as I have work," he said, "I shall be perfectly +contented." How many Macedonians ought to +echo his words! At Resan I stayed at the house of an old +gentleman called Lapchević and in Sofia I had previously +met his brother, whose name was Lapchev and who was +Minister of War. Until 1868 there was at Resan only a +Greek school, so that the elder brother's education left +him merely a Macedonian Slav, who could have become +with equal facility a Serb or a Bulgar; the younger brother +had the advantage of a Bulgarian school, but the disadvantage +of having his Slav nationality narrowed down +into that of Bulgaria. These two brothers should set an +example, renounce the name of Serb and Bulgar, and call +themselves simply Yugoslav. At Resan the Serbian +authorities are certainly trying to smooth away these +wretched divisions. No longer, as in 1890, does the little +town support half a dozen schoolmasters who are nothing +if not Serb or Bulgarian. Now the Serbs of Resan have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> +retained not only the priests who were in office during the +Bulgarian occupation, but the male and female Bulgarian +teachers. In the winter of 1869 Ljuben Karaveloff +started his paper, the <i>Svoboda</i>, which was in opposition +to those Bulgars who dreamed of their country being +freed by Russia and placed under a Russian protectorate. +Karaveloff's hopes were centred on an independent revolutionary +movement, and the Bulgars, he urged, could best +achieve their political, as distinct from their ecclesiastical, +freedom by associating themselves with the other Balkan +peoples and especially with the Serbs. "What is required," +he said, "of the Balkan Christians is union and +union and union."</p> + + +<p class="section">HOW FOREIGNERS HAVE STIRRED UP TROUBLE</p> + +<p>If you stand, soon after daybreak, looking at the +white façade of Sofia's enormous, Russian-built cathedral, +you will perceive that whether accidentally or by some +architectural <i>tour de force</i>, the upper part is a majestic face, +the face of some old god, benevolent and quite implacable. +The Bulgars never would deny that Russia liberated them +and showered on them every kind of gift. But woe be it +to them if in return they did not forward Russia's purposes. +Hundreds of young Bulgars were received in Russia and +gratuitously educated; the Church books which the Bulgars +used, their ecclesiastical vestments and sacred utensils +had usually come to them as gifts from Russia; both +before and after the political emancipation Russia's +literature was most assiduously studied. And a pious +care was taken of the places around Plevna that were +memorable for a feat of Russian arms; the people down +to this day speak about "The Holy Places." All was +well until the death of Alexander <small>II.</small> No, all was not +well—for the Russians had, in their design to make the +Bulgars their devoted Balkan agents, given them by the +Treaty of San Stefano a vast territory which in gratitude +they were expected to administer for Russia's greater +glory. Yes, it may be said, but Russia was using the +best available maps, and these indicated that Macedonia +was Bulgarian.... Perhaps we have already shown +sufficiently that the Macedonian Slavs are devoid of an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> +innate national sense, but that they have Bulgar or Serb +sentiments which are, for the most part, imported, thrust +upon them or created by the propagandists. Very rapidly +the Macedonian Slavs transform themselves into Serbs or +Bulgars; according to circumstances they will or will +not be faithful to the nationality which they have chosen. +And in their wavering they have thousands of precedents—towards +1400, for example, a Slav chieftain called Bogoja +attacked the town of Arta, and in order to gain an easier +victory announced, the chroniclers tell us, that he was of +Serb, Albanian, Bulgar and Greek descent. One must +therefore be a little dubious of maps which ascribe the +Macedonian Slavs to any particular nationality. Much +more than the rival maps, it was Kiepert's that was used by +the Russians and others for determining the Bulgaria of +San Stefano. "It is the best map that we know of," said +Bismarck, and Kiepert's ethnographical statements were +completely adopted by British scientists and diplomats at +the time of the Berlin Congress. No doubt a well-equipped +foreigner could obtain more exact ethnographical results +in Macedonia than equally gifted Serb or Bulgar observers. +But not one of the travellers whose observations Kiepert +used for his map was acquainted with the Serb or the +Bulgar language, nor had any one of them travelled for +purposes of research; hence it is not surprising that none +of them perceived that the Macedonian Slavs have no +sense of nationality and that "Bulgar" is not used there +as a national term. In former as well as in recent times +the Macedonian Slavs have readily abandoned one name +for the other, the temporary predominance of either +depending solely on the conquests, political circumstances +and various events, internal and external, which give +rise to certain sentiments and instincts among this people, +easily transforming them into Serb or Bulgar aspirations. +It seems clear that Serbia's existence as an independent +State for a good many decades before Bulgaria was freed +would render the name of Serb more disagreeable to the +Turk; it is therefore not astonishing that in Macedonia +under the Turks one discarded the Serb name in favour of +the Bulgar. Without dwelling upon the more or less +valuable remarks which were made by priests and monks +and Turkish geographers and French explorers and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> +German doctors from the sixteenth to the eighteenth +centuries and from which we can at least deduce that the +Slav inhabitants of southern Macedonia were not fanatically +constant to the Bulgar name, it would appear that +in the nineteenth century the earlier deliverance of Serbia +and, above all, the foundation of the Exarchate caused the +Bulgar name to become the more popular. The Serbs +were looked upon by Turkey as a revolutionary element, +while the Bulgars aimed at an independent Slav Church +within the limits of the Turkish boundaries. It is unnecessary +to add that after Bulgaria's deliverance and +her annexation of Eastern Roumelia, and especially +after the rebellious movements in Macedonia, which had +the moral if not the official encouragement of the Principality, +there was less eagerness on the part of the Slavs to +let their Turkish masters think that they were Bulgars. +But in the period preceding the publication of Kiepert's +map the Bulgar name was the more fashionable with +Macedonian peasants. And by giving practical effect to +this map in the Treaty of San Stefano the Russians did a +huge disservice to the Bulgars. In the first place, they +aroused in this young people such an exhilaration that +the subsequent annulling of the Treaty at the hands of the +Great Powers would naturally leave a rankling disappointment. +Also the relations between Serbs and Bulgars +were not rendered easier by the chief Slav nation coming +down so heavily upon the Bulgar side in what necessitated +a most delicate and scientific handling. Three Russian +ethnographical maps on Macedonia were issued by the +Petrograd <i>Slavyansko Obštčestvo</i>, which worked for Pan-Slavism +and assisted Slav students. These maps—one +of them is described by Kntchev, the chauvinistic Bulgar, +as "giving the Bulgars somewhat more territory than they +in reality occupy"—were lamentably superficial. While +remaining unnoticed in the rest of Europe they exercised +an unfortunate influence on the Balkan educated classes, +who believed that, according to tradition, the potent +"elder brother" would be anxious to decide righteously +the disputes between the small Balkan nations. These +maps were, no doubt wrongly, looked upon as the plans of +Russian policy, and on this account the Bulgars became +still more unapproachable for an understanding or for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> +united work; it appeared to the Macedonian <i>intelligentsia</i>, +whose hope was to see their country set free, that Bulgaria +was the land which fortune and the Russians favoured. +Except the foundation of the Bulgarian Exarchate in +Macedonia and the creation of Bulgaria at San Stefano, +perhaps nothing contributed so much to the estrangement +of the Balkan nations as these maps; for it was long before +one could be persuaded that this Slav society had produced +the maps through ignorance and false information, so that, +as Professor Cvijić remarks,<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> "the educated classes in +Serbia were as culpable for the pernicious effects of these +maps as were the Russian authors themselves." And +Serbs and Bulgars had good reason to complain of the +manner in which Russia treated them.</p> + + +<p class="section">AUSTRIAN, RUSSIAN AND TURKISH MANŒUVRES</p> + +<p>While Bulgaria came from the San Stefano peace +dazzled with jewels that she was not to clasp, the Serbs +continued walking in the shadows which had, from the +time of Michael's death, been gradually falling round +them. No practical result was obtained from a letter +which the Serbian Government ordered their representative +to read to the Greek Patriarch, pointing out +that only such parishes should be held as unquestionably +Bulgarian which had formerly been subject to the Patriarchate +of Trnovo, even as those of the Peć Patriarchate +were undoubtedly Serbian, while those of Ochrida were +disputable, since that region had belonged in turn to +both of them. Small advantage accrued to the Serbs +from their fidelity to the Greek Patriarch: in Macedonia +they came to be regarded by many Slavs as foes to the +new national Church, while the only desire of the Greeks +was to use them for their own purposes. "There are no +Serbs in this parish," wrote a Bishop when the Patriarch +commanded him to permit the Serbian priests now and +then to celebrate a Slav service, "there are no Serbs but +merely Greeks" (in which official terminology the Serbs +were included) "and hellenized Vlachs." ... The Serbs +about this time were most unfortunate in warfare. Prince +Milan tried to secure, without coming to blows, from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> +Sultan what he expected that his victorious armies would +give him, namely, the administration of Bosnia-Herzegovina. +After the failure of the 1874 crops the peasants +of Herzegovina and then of Bosnia were driven to desperation +by the demands of the tax-gatherers. Miss Irby's +eloquent description<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> tells us of the terrible state of these +provinces during the years that preceded the outbreak. +Taxes of one-eighth were demanded by the Governor, +one-third or one-half by the Beg, taxes for exemption +from military service, taxes for pigs, cattle and everything +"you have or have not." One informant said, "I have +seen men driven into pigsties and shut up there in cold +and hunger till they paid; hung from the rafters with +their heads downwards in the smoke, until they disclosed +where their little stores were hidden. I have known them +hung from trees and water poured down them in the +freezing cold; I have known them chained barefoot +and forced to run behind the Beg's carriage...." The +provinces revolted and vengeance was wrecked upon +them. More than a third of the population fled the +country. Sir Arthur Evans<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> describes the refugees as a +"squalid, half-naked swarm of women and children and +old men, with faces literally eaten away with hunger and +disease.... After seeing every moral mutilation," he +goes on to say, "that centuries of tyranny could inflict +... who can go away without a feeling of despair for +the present generation of refugee Bosnia?" The people +of Montenegro and Serbia were profoundly stirred by +the miseries of their brothers. But Milan vacillated, and +when finally he took up arms it was without success, +and five weeks after the peace signature Russia began the +Turkish War, one of whose necessary antecedents was the +recognition by Russia that the Austrians were not to be +hampered in Bosnia-Herzegovina. (After the Treaty of +Berlin had placed the two provinces under Austria's +administration it is said that Andrássy, on his return +from Berlin, remarked to Francis Joseph that the door +of the Balkans was now open to His Majesty. But the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>Russian delegate, Prince Gortchakoff, had prophesied to +Andrássy that Bosnia-Herzegovina would prove the +Empire's grave.) One effect produced by this incursion +of the Austrian eagles was a serious divergence between +the Croats and the Serbs. By historic and by ethnic +rights the provinces, so the Serbs argued, should be theirs +when once the Turk had ceased to rule. The Croats, +laying special emphasis on the religious question, were for +justifying Austria's occupation. The Catholic Slav clergy, +unlike the Orthodox, ranged themselves with the great +Catholic Power; while Croat politicians of the school of +Starčević invoked other historic and ethnic sanctions in +their endeavour to found, under the name of "Great +Croatia," a State uniting all the Yugoslav lands of the +Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Thus the Serbs and their +Croatian brothers were acutely in conflict. Never, said +the Serbs, would that "Trialism" come to pass, for the +Magyars would veto the formation of a Yugoslav State +within the Empire, having a population roughly equal in +numbers to its own. We Yugoslavs have nothing to +hope for, said the Serbs, except from ourselves, and, being +divided, we are ruining our common interests.... From +yet another quarter was a storm-wind blowing on the +Serbs. The Russian volunteers and officers had taken +back with them highly unfavourable impressions as to the +capabilities of the Serbian army, which they accompanied +in the luckless campaign of 1876; also, in the opinion of the +Pan-Slavists the Serbs had been contaminated by European +civilization, whereas the Bulgars seemed, in the words of +Professor Miliukoff,<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> to be the sons of an untouched, virgin +soil, free from politics and ready to work, with all possible +zeal for the "inner truth" of Pan-Slavism, while begging +its protector to concern herself with the "outer truth." +The Bulgars were, for these reasons, to have the preference +in the allotment of the spoils of the Turkish War; and, +owing to the conflicting demands of Russia and Prince +Milan, Serbia did not declare war against Turkey until +several days after the fall of Plevna, so that she could not +hope that the Russians would show any special tenderness +towards her national aspirations. It is difficult to see +what Serbia could have hoped to gain from the elder<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> +brother, if she had been less dilatory; she gained from +this intervention no vast gratitude from the younger +brother. Men may still be found in Bulgarian frontier +villages who were prominent there during the Serbian +army's régime. Some of the officers seem to have told +the people that they ought no longer to call themselves +Bulgars, since they were Serbs; but the propaganda was +very mild. Serbian schools were opened here and there, +but if no pupils wished to attend them, the schoolmasters +had a holiday; and the occupying troops limited themselves +to collecting signatures on addresses of loyalty to +Prince Milan. No one, probably, thought that the addresses +and petitions were very serious—no one, that is to +say, except a Dalmatian publicist called Spiridon Gopčević, +who printed a large number of them in his handsome, +illustrated book, <i>Makedonien und Alt-Serbien</i> (Vienna, +1889). With regard to Gopčević as a savant—he says +that all the Macedonian Slavs are Serbs—and there are +equally uncompromising Bulgarian authors—the celebrated +Slavist Jagić says that he is sorry for the good +paper which was used for Gopčević's book. Another of +his wonderful discoveries was that the Macedonian Slavs +are Croats. And one of his severest judges is a Croat, +S. Jurinić. He gives, as if they were most valuable, these +fatuous lists of signatures and informs us that some +Bulgarian priests and agitators tried to prevent them +being collected. A Turkish official did, it is true, show in +too Oriental a fashion that he disapproved of these collectors—on +July 16, 1878, he quartered one Cvetković-Božinče +on the road between Skoplje and Kumanovo for +having obtained 5000 signatures; and after quartering +him, the Turk nailed the four parts of his body, each with +a quarter of the petition tied to it, on to four posts at +a place where four roads met. But many of the more +reasonable Bulgars appear to have recognized that these +activities of some Serbian officers and others need certainly +not embroil the two people; while some other manifestations +of joy, such as when they pulled out the beard of the +priest of Pirot, and after nightfall, in celebration of this +triumph, illuminated the town, those and similar transactions +were treated as the folly of exuberant subalterns; +and Tako Peyeff of Trn, the spokesman of the little,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> +far-away town and its representative at San Stefano, +told me that although he refused to sign petitions, yet he +said that if Prince Milan should visit Trn it was the duty +of all men to salute him. Up to this time, then, there +was no veritable friction—there was only the cloud gathering +over Macedonia; and even when the Berlin Congress +of 1879 adjudged certain towns to Serbia, as a recompense +for the abandonment of any claims on Bosnia, this was +rightly taken by most Bulgars as being far less the fault +of Serbia than of Austria and the other Powers. It is +strange, in fact, that this difficult passage in Serbia's +history was marked by greater animus between Serb and +Croat than between Serb and Bulgar—and the Serbs were +standing in Bulgaria. Milan had not yet made his ill-omened +remark that the road to Sarajevo went <i>via</i> Sofia.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE DEPLORABLE MILAN</p> + +<p>One of the direst misfortunes that ever came upon +Serbia was Milan, her fickle, headstrong, extravagant +ruler. He was, perhaps, no Serb at all; it had been +given out, when he came as a child from Roumania, that +he was the grandson of the younger brother of Miloš, +but this statement was not universally accepted—he +lived under the suspicion of being an illegitimate son of +the Roumanian Prince—and at his first appearance +before the Skupština a certain Ranko Tajsić, a deputy, +refused to rise. "I want that man's birth certificate!" +he shouted. It is not surprising that Milan did his best +to make, from that time onwards, Ranko's life a burden. +If the Prince had been a more satisfactory monarch, his +origin would have mattered little. Many of his attributes +seem to his detractors to be peculiarly Roumanian, +although it is true that extravagance is not unknown in +Serbia, and this was the foible which his subjects, even +when they learned the colossal amount of his debts, +were most willing to overlook. It was only after his +death that the secret treaty of alliance between himself +and his paymasters, the Austro-Hungarian Government, +became known; but the people, and especially the +educated classes, were in opposition to his politics, and +the conflict between him and the Radical party degenerated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> +into a revolt that was suppressed by the sword. The +leaders of the party fled from Serbia: Pašić, who was +for so many years to be Prime Minister, settled in +Bulgaria where he practised his profession of railway +engineer.... As a benignant-looking patriarch Nicholas +Pašić was for a long time the solitary Serb with whom +the well-informed public of the rest of Europe was +familiar. And of course upon his countrymen, whose +fortunes he directed through years of shadow and sunshine, +his hold was tremendous. "May God bless our +dear old brother Nikky," says the peasant as he tastes +his morning glass of rakia. There is no brilliance but a +profound knowledge of human nature in this humorous +old Balkan gentleman. It is not by brilliant oratory +that he sways the Skupština, for he merely thinks aloud; +slowly and haltingly, while he caresses his beautiful +white beard, the words come out in a very bass voice—it +is a grave and confidential talk, although a merry +gleam occasionally dances in his eyes. With such homeliness +does he talk that he pays no strict regard to the +complications of Serbian grammar—when he appointed +a very able young official of the Ministry of Education +to a diplomatic post some hostile critics in the Press +asserted that he did so on account of his enormous admiration +for a man who had produced eight books on grammar. +As a specimen of Pašić's parliamentary methods we +may quote from a speech that he made in answer to one +by the aforementioned Tajsić, who was an illiterate but +most eloquent peasant. For three hours Tajsić had +railed against the secret fund, the 30 million dinars that +were every year at the disposal of the Foreign Office. +At last when Pašić gets up and very courteously smiles +at the would-be reformer: "Well, well," says he, "as +to what our friend has told us—the—how should I say?—well, +it is not altogether wrong—in a way, the—what was +his name?—when you examine the matter from all +sides, there is—I forget the word—in a way, these non-public +matters, you know—how should I say?—it is +best—how should I say?——" "Are you satisfied with +His Excellency's answer?" says Nikolić, the Speaker. +And Tajsić puts it to himself that after all he is only a +peasant and Pašić is an Excellency and he must know<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> +better what one should do. This habit of stroking his +beard used to be adopted by the Prime Minister when his +personal finances were under discussion. Doubtless there +were many who scented something scandalous in the fact +that he possessed half the shares in the Bor copper mines, +which had risen from 500 to 80,000 dinars apiece. He +had bought them, as anybody else might have done. +"Ah well," he was wont to say in that ultra-deep voice, +"you see my wife brought them me." And a large +contribution to his wealth was made by a farmer near +Kragujevac; he persuaded Pašić to buy from him for +1000 piastres—a few pounds—a meadow on which to put +his horses, and subsequently on that meadow there was +found an excellent spring of mineral water. Once for a +change another political leader, whose Christian name +was also Nicholas, thought he would pull the beard of +Pašić, and he did so very vehemently just outside Kolarac, +which is a large restaurant in Belgrade. The Prime +Minister was being followed by a couple of detectives, +but he signed to them that they were not to interfere. +"My darling old Nikky," said he, as he beamed at his +assailant and grasped him tightly round the throat, +"you and I are party leaders, so please don't let us +quarrel. It creates an unfortunate impression, my +friend." And it was some weeks before this man recovered, +for Pašić was then about sixty years of age and +still in the flower of his strength. But to return to the +disastrous reign of Milan.</p> + + +<p class="section">NIKITA THE COMEDIAN</p> + +<p>The discontented Serbs could now no longer, as in +days gone by, look hopefully towards Cetinje. Rumours +and something more than rumours were circulating as to +Nikita's character. For many years that very shrewd +person was going to gull the Western world which, meeting +him on the Riviera, was enchanted by his picturesque +costume. But if Queen Victoria and Mr. Gladstone +had gone to ask the Montenegrins they would have found +that he was hated, and not only in the Brda and the parts +bordering on Herzegovina but even in old Montenegro. +His adherents were chiefly to be found among the Njeguši,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> +his own clan, and in the family of his wife. Certain +English devotees of Nikita have actually been to Cetinje, +have, as they proudly tell us, been embraced by him and +have enormously admired his alfresco audiences when he +settled all manner of problems to the perfect satisfaction +of these tourists. Some of them, with a decoration or so +and with memories of dinners and shoots, have written +books that are a song of praise; and if Nikita's subjects +tell these gentlemen and others, including members of +the British Parliament, who have not been to Cetinje—but +who know just as much as the travelled ones about +Montenegro—if they tell them that Nikita is a ruffian, +the answer will <ins class="correction" +title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'probable'">probably</ins> be that he who says such things +must have a grievance, and that those foreigners who have +criticized him, Miss Edith Durham, Baron d'Estournelles +de Constant and Mr. Nevinson, are altogether mistaken. +I do not propose to make a long and dreary catalogue of +his iniquities, but only to mention a few items.... It +was in Montenegro a matter of common knowledge that +the wheat which Russia sent in large quantities for his +famine-threatened people was not given but was sold +to them by Nikita, the proceeds being shared by himself +and four or five privileged families, the Petrović, Vukotić, +Martinović and Jabučani. A member of one of these +families became so affluent that he built himself a house, +and a gentleman who still survives, Tomo Oraovac by +name, wrote on this in the year 1878 a rather humorous +poem which he called "The Red House." Oraovac was +at the time an official, the intendant of the Montenegrin +army at Kotor, and he naturally had to resign his post. +The Tzar sent a certain General Ritter to examine the +charges and, as one result, a Russian decoration was +conferred upon Oraovac; according to etiquette it was +transmitted through Nikita, and that personage gave it +to a friend of his, a Turk at Podgorica. Nikita is apt +to disarm one by the quaintness of his ways. Later on, +Oraovac, who was one of Montenegro's earliest schoolmasters, +organized the <i>intelligentsia</i> for the purpose of +obtaining a Constitution. Nikita was not yet ready to +grant such a thing, and his representative who attended +one of Oraovac's meetings at Podgorica inflicted upon him +two grave wounds. The reformer was then expelled<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>—the +powerful intervention of one of Nikita's cousins +saved his life—his mother and both his brothers, <i>more +Montenegrino</i>, were likewise expelled and his house was +bestowed upon a certain Kruša, who lived in it for forty +years. One must add, with respect to the Russian wheat, +that Nikita did not sell it for cash—the wars of that +period had left the land in such distress that no cash was +available. And so the wheat was delivered in exchange +for bonds that would some day become payable. When +the wars of the seventies were over, an edict was issued, +and from end to end of the country, so goes the story, +men had to sell their sheep and cattle and horses, their +sticks of furniture, their land itself, to meet their obligations. +Meanwhile the Austrian frontiers had been closed. +No selling was possible outside the land, and selling within +it was only permitted to certain specified persons, agents +of the Prince, and at fixed prices. The profits were +enormous; the country was ruined, and from that time +date the great emigrations to America, as was pointed +out by Mr. Leiper the Serb-speaking Scot in his admirable +contributions to the <i>Morning Post</i>.... Nikita loved to +bestow things upon himself. A famous hero, Novak +Voujošević, killed seventeen Turks in one day, and when +he went, in consequence of an invitation, to Petrograd, +the Tzar presented him with a sword on which were the +Russian crown and the Montenegrin crown in diamonds. +When the old warrior came back to Cetinje, Nikita said +that such a weapon could not possibly be worn by a +simple man; he therefore abstracted the diamonds and +gave it him with false ones in their place. Nikita could +not endure criticism, but those persons, including myself, +who have charged him with inhuman treatment in the +case of Vladimir Tomić, an intelligent young judge, were +acting on faulty information. The tale was that Tomić, +after being incarcerated, was soused with petrol and so +badly burned that he lost his reason. As a matter of +fact, this neurasthenic young man—whose imprisonment +was due to his having wantonly insulted the whole Royal +Family—poured the petrol on himself. Eventually, +when Radović came into office, he was released and, a +few years later, he died in his native village.... The +Montenegrin records are crowded with the names of those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> +whom Nikita drove into exile for no other reason than +that they had gone abroad for an education and would +no longer be disposed to regard his methods as quite up +to date. With the exception of the few favoured families +Nikita was all against anyone acquiring riches; he deliberately +put obstacles in the way of plum cultivation, +and in such a state of poverty did he keep the Montenegrins +that the Baron d'Estournelles de Constant, whose +official connection with Montenegro dates back to 1878, +addressed to Nikita an open letter with reference to the +decreasing population, as to which the statistics had +been destroyed. On account of the rigorous taxation +a great many of the people were forced to migrate to +America, from where they sent almost everything they +earned to their unhappy relatives; these were compelled +to pay up to 100 per cent. interest on the loans which +they had been obliged to negotiate, so that they could +not meet the taxes. And there would have been some +consolation had those taxes been productive; but by +far the larger part of them, as of the loans raised in +Vienna (with the Boden Credit and the Länder Bank) +and at Constantinople were devoted to the Court and +its favourites, for rewards, journeys, decorations—every +thing in fact, save the needs of the people. It suited +Nikita very well to keep his people in dire poverty and +ignorance. Such has been the poverty of the Montenegrins +that it was no uncommon sight to see them +cultivating so minute a <i>polje</i> that the wheat which it +produced would give no more than half a loaf. And +meanwhile they were not allowed to exploit the wealth +of the forests. Figs, olives, grapes and plums could all +have been cultivated with profit, and in the lower regions +oranges and lemons and tobacco. But there was the +deliberate policy to keep the population from enriching +themselves. Occasionally their native wit gained for +them a surreptitious triumph. Thus it happened that +a poor peasant's son went up into the higher lands to tend +the flocks of one who was more prosperous. By some +means the boy discovered that the mountain torrent of +his new abode dived underneath the rocks and subsequently +reappeared and was the stream which ran past +his old home. He turned this knowledge to effect by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> +killing a lamb and throwing it into the water. His +parents, down below, retrieved the lamb. Various other +animals went the same journey, until the farmer ascertained +what the boy was doing; and then the day arrived +when the poor peasant, watching by the stream, saw the +body of his son being carried down towards him.</p> + +<p>Very few schools were opened; for example the +Vasojević, who are the most numerous tribe not only of +Montenegro but of all the Serbian lands, had to content +themselves with one school, built in 1882. In 1869 there +was established a seminary with three classes, that was +afterwards converted into a high-school of four classes; but +both of these were frequently closed, the true reason being +that the Russian subsidies given for the school were +spent on the various needs of Nikita's Court. (By the +way, at one time when Montenegro had this one high-school +and one hospital the three sons of Nikita were in +possession of ten palaces.) In 1869 the Russian Empress +caused a girls' college to be opened at Cetinje. It was +one of the best institutions in the whole Peninsula; +many Serb and Yugoslav girls, in addition to the Montenegrins, +gathered at Cetinje. This college was the centre +from which education and modern ideas spread out to +the remotest corners of Montenegro; in 1913 it was +obliged to close—the Court had long been looking at it +with a very jaundiced eye.... Russia, Serbia, Italy, +France and even Turkey offered free education to a +certain number of young Montenegrins. But only the +sons of the favoured families were able to get passports +to go abroad; there was scarcely anything Nikita feared +as much as education.... And if one asks why no +patriot could be found to kill this prince one is given two +reasons, the first being that his semi-secret treaty with +the Austrians provided that they should come into +Montenegro if he were killed, and secondly, because of the +old-time custom of vicarious punishment. In 1856, for +instance, Nikita's father attacked the Počara Kuči, +burned their houses, and is reputed to have slain more +than 550 children, women and old men, including the +septuagenarian grandfather of Tomo Oraovac, on the +ground that these people had set up a kind of republic, +independent both of Montenegro and of the Sultan and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> +declined to pay the former any taxes. These measures +were taken against them in the summer when most of the +men were with their herds in the mountains. Three +children survived. The Great Powers protested, consuls +were sent and ultimately the Počara Kuči, who had +always helped the Montenegrins against the Turks, +consented to pay taxes. It was for these reasons that +Nikita was never assassinated.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE GREAT STROSSMAYER</p> + +<p>While the Serbs of Serbia and Montenegro no longer +placed any trust in their princes, they had good cause +to give more and more of their confidence to Strossmayer, +who remained for more than half a century at Djakovo +and never, on account of Magyar opposition, became a +prince of the Church. He saw that the Starčević policy +with respect to Bosnia was a retrograde step, since it was +causing the Serbs of that province, who until the occupation +had been on good terms with the Catholic minority +and the Serbs of Croatia—about 40 per cent. of the +population—to stand very much aloof from the Croats. +This state of things was naturally very pleasing to +the Magyar imperialist Ban, Count Khuen-Héderváry, +whereas Strossmayer's Yugoslav idea would have, owing +to the intermingling of the two religions, a particularly +favourable ground in Bosnia. It may be that Leo <small>XIII.</small>'s +conception of drawing back the Slavs to Rome will remain +a dream, but his and Strossmayer's policy of an alliance +would have been a blessing to the Yugoslavs, and primarily +in such provinces as Bosnia and Croatia. Negotiations +were begun in 1882, between Strossmayer and the Serbian +Government, with a view to establishing a Concordat. +Serbia's Roman Catholic subjects—who, by the way, +were not very numerous—would be placed under a +patriotic priest depending not on Austria-Hungary but +directly on Rome. And thus the fence between them and +their Orthodox kindred would be gradually broken down. +It would be foolish to assert that Strossmayer and his +fellow-workers were able to make all the Yugoslavs +dismiss their religious differences and remember their +national affinities. Orthodox and Catholic Slav have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> +for so long been divided that their approach to one another +must often be slow and is liable to be interrupted by the +manœuvres of third parties. The Austrians were pretty +successful, just before and during the Great War, in +setting the Catholic and Orthodox Bosniak at each other's +throat, and this antagonism will endure for a while in +remote districts, such as in a certain village of the Sandjak +where one found, in the summer of 1919, that the Catholic +chief official and his wife were compelled to dismiss their +Orthodox maid, since the villagers would not allow her to +continue to serve in a Catholic house. But Strossmayer's +statesmanship went a long way towards breaking down +these barriers. "I have had to set my face against your +mission," said von Khevenhüller, the Austro-Hungarian +Minister, to Father Tondini when this Italian Barnabite, +in whom Strossmayer had every confidence, came to +Belgrade. "It is one of our principles, inherited from +Schwarzenberg and Metternich," said the Minister, "that +we should exercise a sort of control over the Serbian +Catholics by having them under the jurisdiction of an +Austrian Bishop." When Strossmayer visited Belgrade, +for the purpose of conducting confirmations, he was +driven at once, amid the booming of cannon, to the royal +palace. And if the negotiations were allowed to drag +it was obviously not due to any Orthodox fanaticism. +Talking of fanaticism, one had instances in Bosnia and in +Slavonia, not long ago, of Catholic priests who discarded +Strossmayer and endeavoured to get their flock to use +a different pronunciation from that of the Orthodox. +It was because he strove to bring them together that the +great bishop was so heartily disliked in Vienna and Pest. +It had been decided in 1883 that, unless he made his +political submission, he was to be interned at the Trappist +monastery of Banjaluka. But if he were no longer in a +position to spend the great resources of the bishopric—to +say nothing of the removal of his personal influence—the +Cause would have suffered enormously. Therefore +he listened to the prayers of his friends and submitted. +"Be glad," said he to Radić, the Croat patriot—"be glad +that you are not a priest." His successful efforts to +bring about the moral and intellectual awakening of the +Yugoslavs were most unpopular in those two capitals.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> +But on the wide Slavonian lands and far beyond them +one would find the sturdy farmers imitating his new +methods—his own estate was so large that he paid 35,000 +florins a year in taxes. The tall, thin prelate might be +walking with you in his garden, telling you with simple +eloquence—and in Latin, for choice—how much he +regretted that Doellinger had not submitted, as did his +adored Dupanloup, to the dogma of Papal Infallibility, +when one of those painted carts would rattle round the +corner and in two minutes this father of his people would +be deep in a technical discussion with the peasant as to +which of the episcopal stallions or bulls he should borrow +for the improvement of his stock. When Strossmayer +consecrated the cathedral which he had built at Djakovo +he exclaimed that in the hour of his departure from this +world his last prayer would be for the union of his people. +"Almighty everlasting God," he cried, "have mercy +upon my brave people and unite them!" As a very old +man, verging on the nineties, with brilliant eyes peering +out from under a great forehead and physically so fragile +that in walking from one room to another he had to put +his arm round my neck, he was still in every direction +working to this end. Six months earlier, in June 1903, +Khuen-Héderváry had been recalled and, after his twenty +years of oppression, the young men of Croatia, Catholic +and Orthodox, in harmony with the Slovenes, were forming +the Serbo-Croat Coalition. This was a great step +in the direction of the Yugoslavia which Strossmayer did +not live to see.</p> + + +<p class="section">RELIGIOUS DISPUTES BETWEEN SERBS AND ROUMANIANS</p> + +<p>Between Serbs and Roumanians of the Banat an +ecclesiastical dispute was on the horizon. The Roumanian +Orthodox body had suffered a severe loss through the +Uniate Church, which captured many of the old Orthodox +places of worship. Thus the famous little church of +Huniadora, whose frescoes have been so glowingly +described by Mr. Walter Crane, fell into their hands. +This occurred in many cases at the wish of a small part +of the congregation—and this part might consist of +gipsies—whereupon the majority would be obliged to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> +build themselves another church. The Greek Catholic +Uniate Church was apt to lose its national Roumanian +colouring and admit the Magyar language, which was +occasionally resented by the faithful. Thus, as the Bishop +of Caransebes (now the Metropolitan of Roumania) told +me, there came into a church at Tergul, near Moros-Varshahel, +a woman with a basket of eggs. When she +perceived that she could not understand the language +that was being used she put down her basket and uttered +a loud curse, "May thunder and lightning strike this +church!" she cried. And after the service had begun in +a church near Grosswardein the wife of a clergyman pulled +the priest's beard, while other ladies tore off his robes. +Nevertheless this Uniate Church continued to exist and +it was natural that the Orthodox Roumanians should +seek in some way to compensate themselves for their +losses. They had, as we have mentioned above,<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> been +given hospitality by the Serbian Church and given the +use of a monastery for the education of their priests. +They now suggested that it would be well if the Serbs +handed over to them a number of the Banat monasteries, +and when the Serbs declined they started a great lawsuit +at Buda-Pest. Professor Iorga, the historian, told +me that he thought his countrymen were justified in that +these monasteries were originally neither Serbian nor +Roumanian, but Roman Catholic, being erected, in pursuance +of their propaganda, by the French dynasty which +the Hungarians had over them in the fourteenth century. +Their nomenclature, said the Professor, is neither Serb +nor Roumanian, they had no privileges from Serb or +Roumanian princes and he believed that they only passed +to the Serbs after having been abandoned by the Catholics. +A line on p. 145, vol. i., of the <i>Monumenta Vaticana Hungariæ</i> +(Buda-Pest, 1887):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Item Stephanus Sacerdos de Beesd solvit I fertonem"</p></div> + +<p style="text-indent: 0em">appeared to lend colour to this view, for the name Beesd +might have been slavized into Besdin and this might be +the record of a payment made, between 1332 and 1337, +to the Pope. It is only fair to say that the learned +Magyar Jesuit who presides over the episcopal library at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> +Gjula Fehérvár (Alba Julia in Roumanian) did no more +than say that these surmises were possible. He was, as +a matter of fact, much more interested in the political +situation and in another book, the oldest printed Bible in +Roumanian (of 1582 and in Slav characters) which, as he +pointed out with half a sigh, was published by one Magyar +through the liberality of another. The charming Bishop +of Caransebes, as he sat with me one Sunday morning in +his rose garden, did not receive Professor Iorga's idea with +approbation. The Professor, he thought, was too fond of +originality and he himself preferred to claim some of the +monasteries on equitable instead of on historical grounds. +They were founded after all, he said, for the people +of the Banat and of those a majority were now Roumanian. +(But in Caras-Severin, the chief stronghold of his countrymen, +there are no ancient monasteries with the exception +of some ruins. The Roumanians are not ostentatiously +religious; they do not take kindly to the building of +churches and in their portion of the Banat one usually +finds churches of wood, some of these being 150 years old.) +But another librarian, this time a German at Veršac, +poured cold water on Professor Iorga. Only one Roman +Catholic religious house, he said, was founded by that +French dynasty in the Banat and this was at Egres, near +the Maroš, where the wife of Louis of Anjou built a church +which remained Catholic and is now in ruins. The +monastery of Besdin was founded in 1539 and a Serb-Slav +psaltery which is kept there has, on p. 270, the following +words: "In the name of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost. +So that all people shall know when a beginning was made +to build the monastery of Besdin. It was begun in the +year 7058 from the creation of the world, that is 1539 from +the Birth of Christ ... Joseph Milutinović, archimandrate, +built it, and his monks and the Christians helped him. +Written by me: Leontic Bogojević, administrator and +monk." <ins class="correction" +title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'Bessd'">Beesd</ins> and Besdin, said the librarian, are from +the same root, signifying that which has no bottom, an +abyss, and the marshes in the Banat are numerous. The +Beesd of the above citation is, said the librarian, a place +between the rivers Temes and Berzava; Catholics were +there in the fourteenth century, but the founders were +Slavs. The burly archimandrate of Besdin, whose constitution<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> +had withstood twenty-seven years of marshes +and mosquitoes, was extremely scornful of his adversaries' +pretensions. "They wanted to prove that they built it! +Not one stone, not a single stone! Then they argued that +something was due to them as they had paid a part of the +church taxes. We had invited them!" ... Most of +the Serbs acknowledge that their monasteries in the +Voivodina, as elsewhere, are not under present conditions +as meritorious as in the Middle Ages when the people from +twenty or thirty villages would meet there and listen to +the blind guslar-player. Sometimes one of their few +monks is a man of erudition, such as the well-known +Bishop Nicholai Velimirović or Ruvarac the great historian, +who in thirty years freed his monastery from debt and +left large sums for charities. On the other hand we have +the archimandrate Radić, who ruled several monasteries +in succession; he never drove with less than four horses +in his carriage and he drove so recklessly that between +eight and sixteen horses were rendered worthless every +year. The Radical party desired, after paying fixed +salaries to the archimandrates and monks, to give two-thirds +of the rest to clerical funds and one-third to schools. +But the Austro-Hungarian Government had an understanding +with the clerical party and prevented the public +from exercising any control over these funds. The twenty-seven +monasteries in the Voivodina, Syrmia and Croatia +could have supported three Universities, so richly endowed +are they with lands; the Roumanians did in fact +with some of the revenues of their one monastery of +Hodosh maintain the Arad seminary. There is no knowing +what other monasteries the Roumanians would have +secured if the Great War had not intervened, for the +Pest judges knew every morning which of the two litigant +countries their own country happened to prefer.</p> + +<p>What the Serbs of the Banat had, in the political world, +to contend against may be illustrated by some incidents +of the career of Dr. Svetozar Miletić, who after having +been a deputy for twenty-five years was charged with high +treason for having sent volunteers into Serbia at the time +of the Serbo-Turkish War; even if this was true it can +scarcely be said to have constituted high treason against +Hungary. The witnesses against him were two forgers,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> +released <i>ad hoc</i> from prison, his own witnesses were hundreds. +He was condemned to six years' imprisonment, at +the expiration of which he was in such a state that he had +to be transferred to an asylum, where he died. The +pitiful dodges of the dominating Magyar minority are by +this time well enough known; it was their argument that +certain villages, say ten miles from a town, had to give +their votes in that town, while intervening villages of +other nationalities were obliged to present themselves at a +booth twenty miles in another direction, because if such +methods had not been employed then the more ancient +and more reputable Magyar culture would have been +entirely swamped by the wicked non-Magyars. Thus +the three million Slovaks in Hungary were represented +at Buda-Pest by three deputies.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> "Hungary," says the +delicious Aubrey Herbert, M.P., in the <i>Oxford Hungarian +Review</i> (June 1922), "Hungary was situated amongst reactionary +neighbours, and any loosening of her hold upon +the non-Magyar population threatened her very existence. +The path of spectacular liberalism was closed to her...." +The ballot was supposed to be secret in the towns, where +the Magyars could hope to exercise an appropriate control; +but even in the towns they thought it more advisable to +take no risks. Some of the dead were permitted to vote; +but only if they were faithful Magyar dead. And in +Dr. Miletić's constituency no arrangements were made to +ferry the living—on the large lake of Mutniatsa the boats +were hidden and the voters were compelled to swim +across.</p> + + +<p style="padding-top: 2em">Although a great many of his subjects charged +Prince Milan with preferring his own and the dynasty's +interests to those of the State, they should have taken into +account that the Berlin Congress had left their country +in a more than difficult economic and political situation. +Not only were Serbia and Montenegro kept apart, but in +the intervening territory, the Sandjak of Novi Bazar, +permission was given to Austria-Hungary, of which she +soon availed herself, to establish garrisons. Serbia was +now almost encircled by the Austrians and there remained +only two inconvenient routes for the exportation of her<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> +products to other countries: down the Danube, with the +very high tariffs imposed by the Berlin Congress, or by the +line to Salonica, which was in the hands of Austrian +capitalists and ran through Turkish territory. Therefore +Serbia's independence, political and economic, existed at +Austria's pleasure; and this must be remembered in +extenuation of the secret Treaty<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> (June 23, 1881) whereby +the Serbs bound themselves for ten years to abstain from +any propaganda or other activity against the Habsburgs +and to make no political treaties with other Powers without +the knowledge and consent of Vienna. Nor were any +foreign troops or volunteers to be allowed into Serbian +territory. In return for this the Emperor undertook to +recognize Prince Milan as King whensoever he might be +pleased to assume that dignity (as he did on March 6, +1882), to protect his dynasty from the Karageorgević and +to favour his acquisition of as much as possible of the +valley of the Vardar. The grateful Prince affirmed this +Treaty (on October 24, 1881) by a still more emphatic +declaration by which he appears to have constituted +himself a vassal of the Emperor. This infuriated the +young politicians whose radical ideas, mostly imbibed at +Paris and Geneva, were not balanced by the moral and +social discipline which is the fruit of an advanced civilization. +As a result Serbia was given over to chaos.... +When Prince Alexander of Battenberg aquiesced in his +Bulgars annexing eastern Roumelia it was said that he +was violating the Berlin Treaty, but it is now known<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> +that, in spite of the 1879 Treaty, this union had been +foreseen and approved by Germany, Russia and Austria-Hungary +in 1881. Nevertheless Austria, which hoped to +embroil and enfeeble the two Slav States, urged Milan to +declare war against the Bulgars, and this he did the more +willingly as he fancied that it would divert from him the +enmity of so many of his subjects; but this war was such +an unpopular enterprise that the King did not dare to +mobilize fully, and with his available forces indifferently +equipped and badly led, the upshot was that the Bulgars +were victorious. While Austria had thus been the Serb's +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>evil genius, Russia, by withdrawing all her officers from +Bulgaria, again acted in a manner which seemed scarcely +to allow her and others, in 1915, to denounce the Bulgars +for their ingratitude. (The Russians, as a subsequent +Russian Minister at Sofia relates,<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> so completely mishandled +the situation in the early days of Bulgaria's +freedom that they had only themselves to blame for the +invitation to Ferdinand of Coburg which was made with +the express purpose of thwarting Russian aggression.)</p> + + +<p class="section">THE BURDEN OF THE OBRENOVIĆ</p> + +<p>The fratricidal Serbo-Bulgarian conflict of 1885 has +been well commemorated by a monument at Vidin: a +soldier of the victorious Bulgarian army is depicted, +prostrate in sorrow.... Milan, after an effort to rule +with a new liberal constitution, abdicated and delivered +his country to a Regency. These statesmen, who were +aware of the secret convention with Austria, obstructed +the development of the country and had recourse to a +<i>coup d'état</i> in order to prevent a Radical election. Alexander, +the ill-fated son of Milan, by another <i>coup d'état</i> +proclaimed himself of age, summoned a Radical Cabinet +and restored to the people their political liberties. But +the enthusiasm caused by these proceedings was not often +to be roused again by Alexander. The midnight <i>coups +d'état</i>, which rapidly succeeded one another, were a form +of government congenial to this gloomy, silent, friendless +youth who blinked at the world through his spectacles +and was incapable of seeing anything except the narrowness +and the intrigues that were a part of his surroundings. +More and more he showed himself a despot; he persecuted +and imprisoned hundreds of Radicals, who were the +overwhelming majority of the population. Espionage +was rampant, the finances were in a state of chaos and +Serbia's prestige was at such an ebb that, what with the +disasters of 1885 and the reign of Alexander, the Macedonian +Slavs were naturally more inclined to proclaim +themselves Bulgars. Alexander annulled the constitution, +imposed that of 1888, annulled this one also, superseded +all the judges of appeal as well as all the councillors<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> +of state, married his mistress (an engineer's widow) and +plotted, it was said, to nominate as heir to the throne +his brother-in-law, a worthless young lieutenant. Meanwhile +this officer and his brother were exasperating the +people of Belgrade by commanding the orchestras in +cafés to play the national anthem at their entrance, and +occasionally, while they drank, firing their revolvers into +the air. It was something more than personal exasperation +which brought about Alexander's death. Those who +participated in the murder were both partisans and +opponents of the dynasty. Likewise the Austro-Hungarian +Government was aware of the plan: Count Goluchowski +promised the conspirators that Austria would +not resort to armed interference, although two army +corps were held in readiness to march into Serbia. Of +course it would have suited Austria much better if the +king, who seemed to be emancipating himself from the +veiled tutelage accepted by his father, had been dethroned +and kept by the Ballplatz as a restraint on the political +waywardness of any successor. Some of those who +entered the palace on the night of June 10, 1903, may +have had their intentions changed by the panic which +was caused owing to the lateness of the hour and the +groping along unlighted passages—the electricity was out +of order—but amid the band of executioners there may +very well have been some who recognized that, for Serbia's +future peace and welfare, it was infinitely preferable that +he should not live. From practically the whole nation +there came, when they heard of his death, a sigh of relief; +he was killed by the detestation of his subjects. Yet +there might have been, in the people's state of nerves, +an outbreak against the actual murderers and this might +have inaugurated a reign of terror if Pašić had not walked +up and down in front of the palace, wearing a bowler hat +and buttonholing everyone he saw. "Most unfortunate, +most unfortunate," he said; "they were both drunk, and +so they killed each other." Meanwhile, machine guns +were being mounted at appropriate spots, but they were +not required. And Austria published to the world a +few abominable incidents that accompanied the deed and +followed it; these were almost wholly untrue, yet they +served to make not only Western Europe but even the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> +Sultan hold up their hands in horror. Abdul Hamid +raised those hands that were dripping with the blood +of hundreds of thousands of Armenians, and in exalted +phrases, says Mr. Laffan,<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> lectured the Serbs on the undesirability +of assassination.</p> + +<p>A younger man than King Peter Karageorgević, who +now succeeded, might have been appalled by the difficulties +of the situation. Murder and the rearing of pigs +were universally regarded as the purposes for which God +had created the Serbs, and years were to elapse before the +little country could persuade the world that it was not +inhabited by beings who approached the lower animals—and +then the world perceived that it was, to a great +extent, inhabited by heroes. When King Peter ascended +the throne the Royal Families of Europe congratulated +each other that they were not related to him, and they +sympathized with Nikita of Montenegro for having this +personage as a son-in-law. The indebtedness of Serbia—she +owed 450,000,000 francs, a sum which swallowed +a quarter of the annual budget—the corruption of the +public services, the lack of industrial development, the +rudimentary state of agriculture and whatsoever else of +evil which the Obrenović had done or left undone—everything +was the fault of King Peter. A great many people +were positive that Alexander had been slain by his myrmidons; +for this foul deed he had been always plotting, +from the time when he fought as a lieutenant in the +French army of 1870-1871 (when he was wounded and +decorated), during the Bosnian insurrection of 1876 (when +he served the national cause) and while he was translating +Mill's <i>Treatise on Liberty</i>. These liberal activities +were held as the absolute proofs of the hypocrisy of +Europe's outlaw. In a few years "old Uncle Pete," as +his people affectionately came to call him, was revered +by the men not only of friendly countries but even by +those who were in arms against him.</p> + + +<p class="section">A HAPPY ADVENT</p> + +<p>He started by placing the government in the hands +of the Radical party and by showing that his own position<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> +would be strictly that of a constitutional monarch. +Numerous reforms were undertaken with respect to the +finances, the exploitation of the country's resources and +the reorganizing of the army, which had been debilitated +by intrigue and corruption. So many tasks had simultaneously +to be accomplished that the greatest Serbophil +may have despaired, since the national qualities do not, +as yet, include much power of organization. Is it not +astonishing, therefore, that in a few years so much was +done?—the army, for example, becoming so closely identified +with the people that high Obrenović officers felt that it was +unpatriotic to perpetuate these dynastic divisions, and +gradually they resolved to offer their swords to the State. +More than one General whose abilities in the Great War +gained him a high British decoration had once been +conspicuous for his enmity to the Karageorgević. With +regard to Serbia's international standing we have the +fact that in 1899-1900 it was impossible to arrange a loan +of 40 millions at Vienna even though the entire railway +system was offered as a guarantee; in a few years various +loans, with relatively easy terms, were contracted for +amounts of 90, 110 and 150 millions. One saw the peasant, +who a short time before had sold his harvest while it was +still green (zeleno) to the local usurer (hence called the +"Zelenac"), now demanding every day by telegram <i>via</i> +Belgrade or Smederevo the market prices at Antwerp. +In 1895 Serbia had sunk to such depths that a Dalmatian +leader said openly to a German journalist that the Yugoslav +idea could only be realized by Bulgaria; in 1910 +the "Narodna Odbrana" (or Organization for National +Defence), that was not, as the Austrians alleged, a nursery +for murderers but a patriotic body—it no doubt reminded +the people of their brothers in Macedonia, the Voivodina +and Bosnia, but at the same time urged them to cultivate +the land more rationally, to visit the doctor rather than +some old woman, to dress, sleep and eat in accordance +with hygiene, and to take steps against illiteracy—in +1910 the efforts of the "Narodna Odbrana" had had +such success that an inquiry, in which the French participated, +found that out of a hundred recruits from a +backward region 61 per cent. could read and write, 99 +per cent. had some knowledge of the battle of Kossovo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> +and the reign of Dušan, while 82 per cent. could enumerate +the provinces inhabited by their unredeemed brothers. +The rise of Serbia was due to the happy direction that was +now given to the virile spirit of the people; standing back +to back in their own land, they were soon able to arouse +the despondent hearts of their countrymen who languished +under various tyrannies outside the national frontiers.</p> + +<p>Those who in Old Serbia acknowledged their Serbian +nationality were the constant victims of Albanian intolerance. +One massacre followed another—that people +which, according to some of its present champions, is +mild and noble and misunderstood, with a particular +aptitude for silver-work and embroidery—Miss Edith +Durham asks that this poor nation should not be robbed +of its country, its one ewe-lamb, which they love intensely +and which, to everyone's admiration, they defend +with great heroism; one cannot expect her, the Secretary +of the Anglo-Albanian Committee, to refer to the numerous +lambs, etc., which the Albanians, armed with machine +guns, carried off in 1919 from a Serbian monastery near +Tetovo; and in 1903 the Albanians, waiving their mildness, +appear to have been more conspicuous in attacking +others than in defending themselves. The monks of the +old Serbian patriarchate of Peć were obliged to have +Moslem and Albanian attendants, and it does not strike +one as heroic when the monks themselves were murdered, +so that the great monastery of Dečani had perforce to be +served by Russian monks from Mt. Athos. Far distant, +indeed, was the day when those Albanians, who called +themselves, after a river, the Fani, went to the assistance +of Dušan. They had been brought to a temporary +standstill by the swollen waters of the Drin—"but," +exclaimed one of their chieftains, "for a hero every day +is good." They crossed the river and Dušan gave them +the name of Mirditi, by which they are still known, "mir +dit" signifying in their language "good day." Not +only were the Serbs compelled to don Albanian raiment—the +Orthodox priest who ministers to Djakovica had, +in 1903, to put aside his Serbian head-dress on leaving +his quarter of the town; when making an official visit +his head-dress was Greek and always in the surrounding +country it was Albanian. Mr. Brailsford found, in June<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> +1903, that the Serb peasants were tenants at will, exposed +to every caprice of their Albanian conquerors; both at +Peć, he says, and at Djakovica there was no law and no +court of justice. In 1903 at Mürzsteg, near Vienna, +Francis Joseph and the Tzar concluded their Macedonian +reform scheme, this rather futile arrangement paying, +as one might suppose, not much deference to the Serbs. +In Bosnia also and in southern Hungary the Serbs were +in a humiliating position.</p> + +<p>But the Serbs in the little kingdom strove manfully +to put their own house in order and to encourage their +brethren. What is known as the "Pig War" was waged, +with astonishing success, against the Austrian Empire; +by sending her live-stock and meat overland to Salonica, her +cereals down the Danube, Serbia managed to break down +the barriers behind which the Austrians had intended to +control her economic life. The measures adopted by +Stojanović, the Minister of Commerce, were confirmed by +the Skupština and enthusiastically supported by the +whole people, regardless of the accompanying privations +or of any bribes held out by the Austrians. Thus when +the Austrians reduced the fares on their well-equipped +Save and Danube vessels, these were still boycotted in +favour of the Serbian boats. One morning at Šabac a +civil servant had embarked on the Austrian ship, while +everybody else was crowding on to the much smaller, +slower and less cleanly Serbian rival. The civil servant +was being vigorously hissed, when he shouted across to his +compatriots that as he was an official he had a free pass +and he thought it a good plan to make the Austrians +consume, simply for him, a certain amount of coal.... +The young men of the <i>intelligentsia</i> were not idle. +Žerjav for the Slovenes, Krisman for the Croats, Yovanović +and Nešić for the Serbs, were eagerly at work to bring +about the union of the Southern Slavs. They had some +sympathizers in Bulgaria, but that country was too much +oppressed by Ferdinand and the Germanic influence. +Both Žerjav and Krisman were destined to become +Ministers in the South Slav Parliament, which of course +does not yet include Bulgaria. Nešić, who was the +diplomat of the Serbian movement, became Consul at +Priština, took part in the Balkan War, for instance at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> +siege of Scutari, as an artillery officer, and after some +years found himself inside the town as Yugoslav Envoy. +He is now Minister at Tirana, a delicate post which could +not be in better hands. Ljuba Yovanović was the +idealist whose work was to arouse his fellow-countrymen +by articles and poems. In the war against Bulgaria he +was wounded and in hospital contracted cholera. On the +day of his death he wrote to a brother of Nešić, now one of +Belgrade's leading lawyers; he was utterly grieved, he +said, that brother-Slavs should have shed each other's +blood, but he was certain that the day of union would +come.</p> + + +<p class="section">AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN WRATH</p> + +<p>The first external result of Serbia's efforts was seen in +1905, when forty young intellectuals of Croatia, Dalmatia +and Istria met at Rieka and, while accepting the union of +Croatia with Hungary, called on the Serbian political +parties to join them. Twenty-six Serbian deputies met +at Zadar, endorsed this policy and formed with the Croats +the Serbo-Croat Coalition, to which the Slovenes also subscribed. +Francis Kossuth, the Magyar Opposition leader, +welcomed with eloquent phrases the idea of an alliance +between his party and the new Coalition; but when he +came into power he forsook this attitude and exhibited +the ordinary Magyar ruthlessness—he himself introducing +a bill to make the Magyar language obligatory on Croatia's +railways, and if a prospective Croat passenger did not +know what name the Magyars had given to his old home +and could not ask for a ticket in the Magyar language, +he was told to stop where he was until he had acquired +the necessary knowledge. In general, the Magyars had +no reason to be dissatisfied with the sort of knowledge that +the world had of them. In 1907, when a funeral pall was +spread over the liberties of the Croats, Serbs, Slovaks and +Roumanians in Hungary, Mr. Roosevelt, who was making +his famous tour, gave many bouquets to "immortal +Hungary," the "virtuous," the "chivalrous." The +Serbo-Croats tried, by every possible method, to hold out +against Buda-Pest. A Ban—Baron Rauch—was appointed +with the special purpose of breaking the Coalition;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> +and when the Serbo-Croats obtained fifty-seven +seats out of eighty-eight, although one-half of the electorate +consisted of employees dependent on the Government, an +order was issued proroguing the new Diet.</p> + +<p>In fact the Austro-Hungarian authorities had resolved +to suppress any Yugoslav union. To the Dalmatians, +who were in need of schools, roads and railways, they +said, "Show us first that you are patriotic subjects of the +House of Habsburg." Necessities, as Hermann Bahr +has pointed out<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> were thus turned into rewards, which +were to be the fruit of years of toil....</p> + + +<p class="section">THEIR MONTENEGRIN FRIEND</p> + +<p>The association of the Montenegrin Royal Family +and the Habsburgs, which was to culminate in the barefaced +treachery of Lovčen, may be said to have begun in +the year 1906, when the two heirs, Francis Ferdinand +and Danilo, met at Dubrovnik. A statement was issued, +after a few days, which declared that Russia was far away +and that Montenegro required the support of a Power +whose help would be effective. If it had not been for the +disasters of the Russo-Japanese War, Nikita would have +found it much more difficult to direct his country in this +manner. The Black Mountain had always thought of +Russia as all-powerful; her defeat, when they could +bring themselves to realize it, was to them as if the foundations +of the world were rocking; in their dazed condition +they agreed that it was well to have recourse to Austria. +(When the Russian Minister at Cetinje protested, some +explanation was given.) The financial details of the Dubrovnik +agreement are unknown, but from what one does +know of Danilo it is fairly safe if we assume that the +whole benefit did not accrue to the Montenegrin Government. +Danilo may in other respects have been an incapable +young man—the advice of his unmarried sister, +Xenia, was always preferred to his; in fact, her father +had such confidence in this masterful woman with the +pallid face and large, black eyes—the "femme fatale," as +her enemies have called her—that he never gave an +audience but she was present, either openly or behind a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> +screen. Danilo's incapacity, however, seems to have +stopped short, as we shall see, at the procuring of cash.</p> + +<p>In that same year, 1906, Montenegro's first Skupština +assembled. Many people wondered why the autocrat +bestowed a Constitution and a Skupština upon his +subjects. They for their part—at least the great majority +whose knowledge of the world was gained by looking at +it from their mountain fastnesses—could never for a +moment doubt but that the Montenegrins were the +grandest and the noblest of the Serbs. Hour after hour of +peace they spent, disdaining to do any work more arduous +than smoking cigarettes and drinking rakia, and talking, +talking ... they would relate to one another what +their ancestors had done by way of cutting Turkish +noses, and unweariedly they would announce how their +own blood was undiluted and heroic. If Greater Serbia +was to be created it was surely they who—but Nikita, their +keen-witted ruler, was not so certain. The Karageorgevič +were no longer being treated by Europe as outlaws; by +his constitutional methods King Peter had not only effected +vast and needed improvements in his country, but +was gradually winning for himself and it, if not a general +esteem, at all events the first approach to that condition +which for so long had been lacking. And Nikita was +uneasy. He must also have a Constitution in his country +and a Skupština. Very well he knew that with the inexperience +of his people, with their furious local rivalries +and with his power of veto, he would not be greatly +hampered by this Skupština. It would be a semblance of +modernity.</p> + +<p>Nikita had no intention of allowing himself to be put +in the shade by the Prime Minister. Whether it was +Tomanović, a kindly man of straw, or General Martinović, +an upright soldier, or anybody else—their function was +to execute the royal orders. The differences which separate +one political party from another in a Balkan State, +and separate them very often into frantically hostile +camps, are wont to be minute as to their principles, for it +is largely a question as to whether you are a devotee of +this or of that statesman. Two of the three parties which +existed in Montenegro down to the Great War were both +grouped round the Crown Prince Danilo, and apparently<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> +the sole difference between them was that no member of +the Miuškević Cabinet had been in prison. To a western +European it would be surprising that the kindred Radović +party should also be on terms of close friendship with +Danilo, seeing that it consisted of Nikita's dissatisfied +relatives (one of these was Radović's powerful father-in-law) +who disliked the new statute which limited the +Royal Family to Nikita and his children. Danilo protected +this party for personal reasons. As for the third +political party, that of General Martinović, its principal +plank was its opposition to the other two parties. Mita +Martinović himself was not much of a politician; he was +a sturdy friend of Russia. Of his rivals, Lazar Miuškević, +a bearded, rather stout, medium-sized man, has a pious +opinion of his own abilities, and is, or was, very proud +of his friendship with Danilo. He need not be taken +seriously, for he has no knowledge of administration, no +political courage and no popular support. [During the +Great War he was for a time the Premier, and after the +War, when the other five ex-Premiers ranged themselves +against Nikita, he stayed in Switzerland, where he tried for +many months to make up his mind.] Andrija Radović, a +middle-aged man, whose tall, athletic form is crowned with +the head of a grave poet, was erstwhile a favourite of +Nikita's. Being related to the Royal Family, Nikita +called him his fourth son, and when, after the fatuous +bomb conspiracy (of which more anon), Radović was lured +back from Paris and sentenced to four years' imprisonment, +it was not because he was in any way guilty, but on +the ground that he knew what was going to happen and +should have handed on the information. The real reason +was that any party which was even to a mild extent in +favour of reforms did not meet with the approval of the +Gospodar. In his opinion it was necessary to reduce +Radović to obedience; and Nikita used to try, without +success, to force the innocent prisoner to beg for pardon. +Since he declined to do so, he remained incarcerated with a +large cannon-ball chained to his left leg. While he was in +prison he corresponded with Danilo, and on being liberated +was received by Nikita—they wept in each other's +arms.</p> + +<p>Nikita fancied he was just the man to govern a progressive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> +modern State. When he had the famous old warrior +Pero publicly flogged by a criminal for having refused to +degrade himself by flogging that same criminal, Nikita +might plead that he was acting in the interests of discipline. +When he confined his critics in the old Turkish +fortress on the small, malarial island of Grimojuri, with +the water oozing into the cells, he might plead that this +was precisely the same curriculum as fell to the lot, at +San Juan de Ulloa, of those who incurred the displeasure of +Porfirio Diaz, the Mexican President—and Diaz had been +almost worshipped (till his fall) by many Europeans. +When Nikita drove one afternoon with friends of his to +Nikšić and approvingly looked on while they destroyed the +building and the whole machinery of Montenegro's weekly +newspaper, which had departed from the paths of adulation—well, +I see that his apologist, a certain Mr. A. +Devine,<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> says that "in 1908 political passions resulted in +the extinction of the organ of the political Opposition, +<i>Narodna Misao</i> ("The National Idea")."</p> + +<p>In 1908 there fell the blow of Bosnia-Herzegovina's +annexation to the Empire, thus placing definitely under +foreign sway the central portion and ethnically among +the purest of that Serbian people which was already +divided into seven different administrations or States. +Russia was still enfeebled by the Japanese War, and +although she and Great Britain protested against the +annexation, Count Aerenthal was able to gather this +booty. It would, however, be an exaggeration to say +that Russia—apart from the ultra-patriotic Press—was +violently excited. As M. Nekludoff, the able diplomat, +explains,<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> his country was annoyed not so much at the +Bosnian annexation as because there was for it no <i>quid +pro quo</i>, no free passage through the Dardanelles. Poor +Serbia was advised by the Great Powers to accept the +<i>fait accompli</i>. She constrained herself to do so, but both +she and certain folk in Austria were under no illusions +as to the inevitable—a month after the annexation a +Viennese newspaper announced that a conflict with +Serbia and Montenegro could not be avoided. "The +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>longer we postpone it," said the paper, "so much the +more will it cost us."</p> + +<p>One gets very weary of hearing the phrase "Divide +et impera," which always occurs at least several times in +the course of an exposition of Austrian policy. But we +are bound to say that this principle governed her behaviour +when she stage-managed in 1908 the Zagreb high-treason +trial,<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> which was to drive a wedge between Serbs and +Croats, in 1909 the Friedjung case, as also the Cetinje +bomb affair which was to, and did in fact, alienate Nikita +from his son-in-law, the Serbian King.</p> + + +<p class="section">AUSTRIA GIVES HOSTAGES TO HISTORY</p> + +<p>The Zagreb trial was conducted by a man who gave +a good impersonation of Mr. Justice Shallow. "There is +nothing to laugh at!" he cried, when a Serb doctor +was asked whether he did not refuse to wear cravats +because of the resemblance of that word to Croat. The +whole farce resulted, not as one might have expected, +in the collapse of the prosecution but in thirty-one convictions, +varying in length from five to twelve years. +The Croats, however, had thwarted Austria's schemes. +They remained true to the Serbs, acted as their counsel +without payment and helped to support the families of +the poorer prisoners. At the Friedjung trial this professor, +an eminent historian, produced a series of photographs +of documents which were subsequently shown to +have been fabricated at the Austro-Hungarian legation +in Belgrade; he wished to prove that a political club in +that town was guilty of a most extensive plot involving +the Yugoslav territories of the House of Habsburg. +Among those whom these proceedings and those at +Zagreb brought into European prominence were the +Pribičević brothers, a very zealous family of Croatian +Serbs, that is to say Croats belonging to the Orthodox +Church. [The chief of these four brothers was Svetozar, +a statesman whose Serbo-Croat Coalition party was, +with the advent of Yugoslavia in 1918, to form the nucleus +of the Democratic party. He then became for many<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> +months the all-powerful Minister of the Interior, a man +with the appearance of a bull-dog in whose veins is +electricity. The vehemence of his methods of centralization +is supported and opposed by his countrymen with an +almost equal vehemence.] ... But to return to the +events of 1908 and 1909—the result of these two trials +was lamentable from the Austrian point of view. More +success attended her efforts in Cetinje, for Nikita was +intensely roused against his son-in-law, and the European +reputation of Serbia was again dragged down to the level +of the day which saw the murder of Alexander and his +Queen. An individual called Nastić whom, according to +Professor Friedjung, one could only touch with a pair of +tongs, accused the Serbian Royal Family of attempting to +blow up their picturesque relative, under whose roof, by +the way, Princess Helen of Serbia, his grand-daughter, +happened to be staying. The bombs were carried in an +ordinary portmanteau to Kotor, where they were discovered. +Those who believed that Nikita, the arch-intriguer, +was using this method for discrediting the +Karageorgević dynasty, can point to the fact that he +never wanted a public trial, and it seems probable that +Nikita—who was aware that a group of his young, discontented +subjects was planning against him a demonstration, +but nothing more than that, even though there are +in the Balkans a certain number of people who incline +to the throwing of a bomb when their British equivalents +would write to the <i>Times</i>—it seems probable that Nikita +may not only have stolen their thunder but have put +the lightning in their pockets and have then indignantly +revealed it. But the whole affair is wrapped in darkness +and awaits the exploring of Austria's archives. The +probability is that Aerenthal was at his work to demonstrate +that Belgrade was a nest of vipers, so that Europe +would not hearken to their protest when the time came +for the House of Habsburg to smother them.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> ... This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> +same Austrian police-spy Nastić had procured for Nikita +a certain "revolutionary statue" which that personage +made over to the Imperial authorities, for use against the +Serbs at the Zagreb treason trial. This atrocious deed +against his brother Serbs destroyed for ever the last +shreds of Nikita's reputation.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE DREAMS OF AN OLD REALIST</p> + +<p>Nevertheless he dreamed that from the mighty castle +which looks down on Prizren he would rule the Southern +Slavs; his eyes were ever turned towards the famous +legendary land of Old Serbia. One essential was that +he should be a king, and in 1910 with the consent of the +Powers he assumed this title. The spider-webs of which +he was so fond began to join Cetinje and Sofia, Cetinje +and the mountains of Albania, while the master-weaver +mitigated in his usual fashion the monotony of life in his +poor capital. The Petrović have such a way with them +that—if you do not happen to be one of their subjects—you +are in danger of being disarmed. Thus when they +were basking in the goodwill of Austria and when Nikita +himself, in the spring of 1911, had been splendidly received +at Vienna, so that on his return to Cetinje he was welcomed +by the whole diplomatic body, save for the Russian +Minister, Count Giers, and General Potapoff, the Russian +military attaché, who were exhibiting their Government's +disapproval, this appeared to Nikita a favourable moment +for—as the Persians would say—blackening the face of +the Austrian representative.</p> + +<p>It was said by many of his discontented subjects +that the King of Montenegro's great solicitude for his +own personal affairs caused him frequently to be quite +dull in recognizing other people's merit. But that day +when he received the Austrian Minister he was so very +much delighted with him that he there and then gave him +promotion from the second to the first class of the Order of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> +Danilo. He had some months before conferred upon this +gentleman the second class, with diamonds of paste, and +when the Austrian now told the King of his appreciation +of the honour being so profound that he had ventured to +replace the other diamonds with real ones—"I am +enchanted," said the King, "to see that we have such a +real friend in you, and I propose to grant you," said the +King, as he produced another star composed of imitation +diamonds, "to grant you this, the most exalted class. +Your Excellency has deserved right well of our beloved +Montenegro. Give me back now that inferior decoration, +and to-morrow, with due ceremony at eleven o'clock to-morrow," +said the King with his paternal smile, "we will +bestow on you what you deserve so richly, and it gives +me every satisfaction, I assure you," said His Majesty.</p> + +<p>The Malissori of Albania were also listening to the old +man's blandishments. If they would revolt against the +Turks—they were exasperated at the time against the +Young Turk rule—then their families would be sheltered +in Montenegro and their land, after it had been liberated, +would be given independence. With the potent help +of Ferdinand of Bulgaria the Turk was to be overthrown. +But nothing came of all these plans; the Malissori were +abandoned to the mercy of Constantinople.</p> + +<p>However, in 1912 that which had been thought impossible +was brought about: Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece +and Montenegro were allied against the Turk. "Onamo, +onamo!..."</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i4">"Yonder, yonder!—Let me see Prizren,<br /></span> +<span class="i4">For it is mine—I shall come to my home...."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p style="text-indent: 0em">but Nikita, who had written these famous words and +who had taught them to his people for a generation, had +no cavalry—in the Montenegrin mountains they would +have been of no avail—and thus, while his warriors were +still some hours from Prizren, they had the mortification +of hearing that the Serbs had entered it. With passionate +desire they turned to Scutari. Nikita told them of the +old Slav princes who were buried there—and to the simple-minded +Montenegrins that seemed a good enough reason +why 20,000 of them, the flower of the army, should lay +down their own lives on the dreary hills that barred them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> +from the town. It was hardly necessary for Nikita to +allude to the wealth that would be theirs if they could +gain possession of this outlet to the Adriatic. There in +the plain at the end of the lake was the glittering white +town, and if they could have seen themselves as clearly +and their own inadequate resources, they would have +refrained from the attempt. The minarets of Scutari, +raised like so many warning fingers, failed to warn them. +Their equipment was such that munitions and other +supplies were frequently carried up to the lines by women—on +the Bardonjolt no less than eighty of these were +killed and wounded in one day. When the Serbs in October +pushed through Albania to the Adriatic they offered to +assist in the taking of Scutari, but Nikita shook his head. +And it was not until some time after this that he accepted +the co-operation of three batteries of Krupp guns, which +had been meanwhile taken from the Turks at Kumanovo. +But the Montenegrin army was not only handicapped +by its lack of resources; the Crown Prince, who commanded +a division, actually instigated a revolt among +his own men. He had promised the Austrian Minister, +Baron Giesl von Gieslingen, that the Montenegrin army +would not enter Scutari, and the Government could only +put a stop to Danilo's intrigues by invoking the aid of +General Potapoff. The Turks were not wasting their +time; they employed Austrian engineers to strengthen +the fortifications, and thus the task had become far more +difficult when finally the Montenegrin Court party availed +itself of Serbian reinforcements. In more ways than one +they were badly needed by the brave but ill-disciplined +soldiers. "It is wonderful," they said to Major Temperley,<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> +"their troops do not fire until an officer gives the word." +Primitive men and a venal commander—according to Dr. +Sekula Drljevič, who was Minister of Finance and Justice, +Prince Danilo is alleged to have remembered, just before +his country's entrance into the War, that money could be +made on the Vienna Bourse by judicious selling and, after +the declaration of war, by purchasing. The professional +financier who on this occasion, thanks to his knowledge +of the Montenegrin royal plans, is alleged to have realized, +with his friends, the sum of 140 million francs, was no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> +less a person than Baron Rosenberg, whose subsequent +operations in Paris at the beginning of the Great War +and in Switzerland during the War received the close +attention of the French authorities.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> These financial +methods of Danilo's did less material harm, at any rate +to his own people than the system he employed as a +motorist; it was necessary that he should obtain the +latest models, and it suited him that the Government, +not haggling over the price, should take over his discarded +vehicles. Similar hostages to gossip were given +by Mirko, his younger brother; one remembers the smiles +of the diplomatic corps at Cetinje when this young man +dispatched, at the cost of the Government, a telegram +of about 500 words to Austria, concerning a horse which +he wanted to buy. Mirko, who died during the Great +War in an Austrian sanatorium, was not one of those +rugged and valiant Montenegrin mountaineers whom +Gladstone and Tennyson celebrated; once when his +father ordered him to come back from Paris, where he +was copiously spending his country's substance on an +actress with whom he had decamped, leaving his wife +and several young children at Naples, he dutifully returned +and settled down in his palace, a large, comfortable house +outside Podgorica. Since it was less amusing than in +Paris he remained in bed for most of the twenty-four +hours; he would often spend an hour before dinner in +superintending the removal of pictures from one wall to +another, and having dined he would immerse himself in +State affairs, which took the form of speculating as to +when he and his heirs—Danilo being childless—would be +called to rule over the great Serbian kingdom of Serbia +combined with Montenegro. As to the fate of the Karageorgević +dynasty, this was wont to vary from night to +night, in proportion to the amount of wine that Mirko +had drunk.</p> + +<p>These events occurred in 1913, and in the same year +the Montenegrins entered Scutari. It was not brought +about by force of arms, but by some arrangement with +Essad Pasha, the illiterate and clever Albanian who +succeeded to the command of the town after Hussein +Riza Bey, the Turkish leader, had been assassinated on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> +the threshold of Essad's house, where he had been dining, +by a couple of the Pasha's men, disguised as women. +Scutari was not to stay for long in Montenegrin hands; +an International Force arrived, under Admiral Sir Cecil +Burney, and took it over. One need scarcely add that +the national sentiment of the Albanians moved the Powers +at this juncture as little as it moved the Albanians.</p> + + +<p class="section">VERY HIGH POLITICS</p> + +<p>We have seen that Prince Danilo, before flinging +himself against the infidel Turk, is alleged to have +transacted a little business on the Bourse—a former +Montenegrin Minister of Finance says that he may well +have netted between 25 and 30 million crowns—and +his royal father, though his methods often had a tinge +of mediævalism, was not the man to rush, like some +old knight, in succour of distress. When Serbia was +attacked in 1914 he refrained from flying to her side. +Montenegro "stood up spontaneously to defend the +Serbian cause: she fought and she fell," says Mr. Devine. +There is not the least doubt but that the vast majority +of Montenegrins would have acted in this fashion. To +some degree they had deteriorated under the example +of Nikita—"A fish stinks from its head," says a Turkish +proverb; but when their brother Serbs were in deadly +peril all else was forgotten. And they were bewildered +and suspicious when the Skupština was summoned, seeing +that the Constitution laid it down that the declaring of +war was a royal prerogative. As practically every man +was thirsting for battle—after all they were Serbs and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> +incapable of committing high treason against their +brethren—they marvelled at the King's delay. But to +the politicians his manœuvre explained itself; they +recognized that Nikita had some secret arrangement<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> +with the Austrians and that he wanted to tell Francis +Joseph that the War had been forced upon him. From +that moment he was playing a double rôle; a Serbian +officer was chief of the Montenegrin staff. "They have +placed my army under Serbian command," he told the +Austrians. "So faithful was I," he said to the Entente, +"that I even took a Serbian commander."</p> + +<p>In view of the persistent pro-Nikita propaganda +which subsequently reared its foolish head in Great Britain, +it is as well to note what were the sentiments of the +Montenegrins towards their own country and their brother +Serbs, and on the other hand how they regarded Nikita. +Alone among the Allies the Montenegrin soldier received +no decorations either in the Balkan wars or in the Great +War, and yet he had formerly been so proud of such +recognition that it had often been carved upon his tombstone, +and when for one decoration there were two claimants +a duel was frequently arranged in order to decide which +was to be the recipient. But Nikita's régime of corruption +and intrigue caused these marks of distinction to be conferred +more and more upon police-agents and such like, +so that in the Balkan War, when the heroes could no +longer be counted, when more than five standard-bearers +fell one after another in carrying the same standard and +when it was proposed to decorate <i>en bloc</i> the Kuči brigade, +the soldiers refused to accept what had been so profaned.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE RIDDLE OF SARAJEVO</p> + +<p>On June 28, 1914, the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, +heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was murdered at +Sarajevo.</p> + +<p>In the course of July 1914 the Austro-Hungarian +Government (wherein far more influence was exerted by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> +Count Tisza, the wealthy and incorruptible, the vastly +ambitious Magyar Prime Minister, than by the Foreign +Minister, Count Berchtold, the courteous, somewhat +frivolous man of the world who was doomed to execute +reluctantly the orders of Berlin and be swept away by the +resulting storm, while the brave and brutal Tisza, fighting +for the glory of the Habsburgs and the greater glory of the +Magyars, rode upon the storm for years)—the Austro-Hungarian +Government in July 1914 dispatched to +Sarajevo a commissioner for the purpose of investigating +whether the Serbian authorities had anything to do +with the Archduke's assassination. This official, Baron +von Weisner, a very distinguished Professor of Political +Economy who was a German Bohemian<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> with staunch +German sympathies, reported in the same month that he +was convinced that no accusation whatever could be +levelled against Belgrade. (As a matter of fact the +Serbian police, who had information that a plot was being +hatched in Bosnia, gave warning to the Austrian authorities; +but no notice was taken of this, not even when a +similar warning was uttered on June 21 by the Serbian +Minister at Vienna, nor were any special precautions +laid down for the Archduke's safety. It was all rather +mysterious.) "Byzantium, the everlasting and unconquerable +Byzantium," says an Austrian publicist,<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> +"had won another victory.... The Habsburg Empire," +says he, "only wished to defend herself against those +invisible and irrepressible intrigues." And after denouncing +the Serbs for throwing a spark into the powder +barrel on June 28, 1914, he accounts for their conduct by +writing that "it is the tradition of nomad blood to tear +down ancient, noble palaces, replacing them by nomad +huts." What we know is that General Potiorek, the +Governor of Bosnia, who had urged Francis Ferdinand +and his wife to continue their programme after the failure +of the first attempt at assassination before lunch, was +never invited to explain anything—unfortunately for +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>Austria he was placed in command of the "punitive +expedition" into Serbia. Other incidents on which a +light may some day be thrown were the very unceremonious +funeral arrangements for the murdered couple (though +this may very likely have been due to the High Chamberlain's +personal hatred of the Archduke), and the fact that +an Imperial Commission was sent to Konopiště, the +Archduke's Bohemian estate, to seize his papers. It +was there that he had lately been confabulating with the +German Emperor; and Count Berchtold had visited the +place on the day after the Kaiser's departure to try to +ascertain what had occurred.... It was also at Konopiště +that Francis Ferdinand, who was threatened with +hereditary madness, had shot a gamekeeper dead. Knowing +that the Archduke was as good a shot as he was +insignificant in horsemanship, this had excited great +attention in the highest circles, coming as it did after other +scenes of violence.... In contrast with all these semi-mysteries +it is clear that Serbia had nothing whatever to +gain by the Archduke's disappearance, and although +Austria had time and again endeavoured to pick a quarrel +with her she had managed to avoid a situation which, +after the two recent wars, would be perilous in the extreme. +The Serbian Press, which enjoyed a complete freedom, +was naturally violent in tone when it observed that the +Austro-Hungarian Government was doing little to control +the demonstrations hostile to Serbia. Houses of prominent +Serbs were looted and gutted at Sarajevo, while +similar scenes took place—with the connivance of the +authorities—in other large towns of the Monarchy. But +the Belgrade populace, uninflamed by their Press, conducted +themselves with great moderation. The stories +circulated in Austria-Hungary of several Magyar journalists +having been murdered were absolutely false. +Just as false were the rumours of a demonstration against +the Austrian Minister at the funeral of M. Hartwig, his +Russian colleague, although Serbian public opinion ascribed +the sudden death of this powerful friend of theirs +to a cup of poisoned coffee at the Austrian Legation. +Hartwig has been criticized for his encouragement of +Serbia's idea of expansion and for having fostered anti-Austrian +propaganda—of course it was a very wicked thing,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> +from the Austrian point of view, to think of the day +when the Serbs might be joined to their unredeemed +brethren; and as for the blessed word "propaganda," +which covers everything from the mildest expression of +opinion to assassination, there has been no responsible +Austrian so reckless as to accuse the Serbs or M. Hartwig +of having had recourse to methods that approached in +wrong-doing their own notorious (and unsuccessful) +forgeries.</p> + +<p>Let us address three questions to those who carried on +a calumnious campaign against Serbia:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="list">(a) Why was the Sarajevo trial conducted behind a +closed door? If the crime was instigated and +perpetrated by Serbia, the Habsburg Monarchy, +which at the time of the trial had already +declared war on Serbia, had every interest in +establishing with all publicity the guilt and the +complicity of Serbian circles.</p> + +<p class="list">(b) Why were the evidence of the witnesses and the +declarations of the authors of the assassination +not published? It was only in 1918 that the +Austrian Government, with the help of a professor +of Berlin University, published a few facts +taken from the proceedings of the trial. Although +in this book<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> a great deal of material +importance has been omitted—for example, the +declarations of the witnesses as well as the last +declarations of the accused, nevertheless that +which we have before us constitutes one of the +most terrible accusations against the Habsburg +Monarchy. The young accused persons were +not afraid to state, even behind closed doors +in a barrack-room, some bitter truths concerning +Austria-Hungary. One can have some idea of +what they would have said in a public trial from +the results of the famous trials of Zagreb and of +Friedjung. All the accused persons, as well as +their accomplices, declared that the decision to +kill the Archduke was an act of their own personal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> +will and that nobody incited or ordered them to +make the attempt, least of all any authority of +the Kingdom of Serbia. The crime was the +personal act of Bosnian patriots who believed +that they were serving their oppressed people. +"In Bosnia," said the Minister Burian—"in +Bosnia, there is no policy, there is only administration."</p> + +<p class="list">(c) Why did the Sarajevo police and Austro-Hungarian +official circles conduct themselves so strangely +with respect to the bomb-thrower Čabrinović, a +notorious anarchist and son of a Sarajevo police +spy, who had on a former occasion been expelled +by the police from Sarajevo? Later on, after +the Belgrade police had been obliged, owing +to the intervention of the Austrian Consulate, +to allow him to stay in Belgrade, he returned +to Sarajevo and was quite unmolested by the +police, whose precautions a few years previously, +at the time of the visit of Francis Joseph, had +gone so far as to expel, as suspected persons, +two members of the Bosnian Parliament.</p></div> + +<p>The sole charge that could be laid, not against Serbia +but against a Serbian subject, concerned the relations of +the subordinate officer Tankosić with the authors of the +crime. It was asserted that he knew of the plan and that +he helped the assassins to procure money and weapons. +The accused definitely said that he exercised no influence +on their decision, which had been taken before conversation +with him. But even supposing that he was an accomplice, +it is evident that the whole Serbian nation and especially +the Serbian Government is not identical with an +officer who, on account of other troubles with the Ministry +of War, had already been removed from the active service +list.<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> When the Austrian ultimatum was transmitted +to the Serbian Government, Tankosić was immediately +arrested, so that his guilt and complicity might be enquired +into and established. Serbia could not do more +than that. But the whole Serbian people, in Serbia and +out of Serbia, was declared guilty of the crime, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> +immediate steps were taken to carry out the sentence. +The unprecedented atrocities committed by the Austro-Hungarian +army in Serbia were to be the expiation of an +imaginary crime, and such proceedings, which recall the +times of Attila, are shielded by the illustrious name of +the aforementioned Professor Kohler, whose reputation it +was to be the most democratic of German jurists. All his +previous theories on crime, causality and responsibility +became void; we see him adopt the monstrous theory +according to which every act of private persons is the +responsibility of the whole nation.</p> + +<p>It remained for Nikita, a man of Serbian blood, a +man whose verses had been laden with love for the Serbian +nation, it remained for this shameless Prince to charge +his brothers with the crime. So implacable was the +old man's hatred of Serbia that when President Wilson +arrived in Europe he immediately wrote<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> to him, in his +indifferent French, for fear, he said, lest the intrigues +conducted by the Serbs or their accomplices should precede +him in capturing the President's sympathies. "In +spite of their perfidy," said he, "I was the first to lend +them a hand by being the first to declare war against +Austria, although I was certain that the provocation +originated on their side by the Sarajevo murders and their +Black Hand.... Horrible thought that this country +refuses to realize the crime it has committed, for which it +is responsible to mankind no less than William!"</p> + +<p>At last, on January 5, 1917, the <i>Neue Freie Presse</i> +acknowledged that Austria provoked the war with the +intention of crushing Serbia. It is a formal and categorical +confession. And it obliges us to consider seriously the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> +thesis put forward by Jules Chopin in <i>Le Complot de +Sarajevo</i> (Paris, 1918), according to which the plot was +hatched at Konopiště between the German Kaiser and +the man to whom the plot proved fatal. Monsieur +Chopin, after a minute examination of the facts and of +grave presumptions, believes that Serbia was to be held up +to the world as having provoked the war that was to +consolidate the Monarchy and satisfy the Archduke's +paternal ambitions. The army manœuvres were to be +in Bosnia, the Archduke was to make his ceremonial +entry into Sarajevo on Vidov dan, the day when the +Serbs solemnly celebrate the battle of Kossovo, and +Čabrinović, son of the Sarajevo <ins class="correction" +title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'policy-spy'">police-spy</ins>, was to be +assisted through the Chinese Wall which then encircled +Bosnia. But what did not enter into the royal calculations +was the possibility that other Southern Slavs, +acting on their own initiative, might strike a real blow.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE MISERABLE MACEDONIANS</p> + +<p>This period of Yugoslav history (from 1876 until the +European War) was at the beginning much concerned +with Macedonia. And so it was towards the end. Very +wretched was the lot of the Macedonian Slavs—occasionally +the Exarchists and occasionally the Patriarchists +were in the ascendant, but while in religious matters the +Greeks clung by all possible means to their ancient, +privileged position, so the Turks maintained in secular +affairs the sorry plight of their Slav raia. The Macedonian +Slavs, when the rest of Europe began to listen to +their cries, were not the most sympathetic of mortals—the +more enterprising of them had abandoned the country, +while the moral sense of those who stayed was grievously +affected by the course of conduct which the presence of +the Turk compelled. Europe was touched by the anguish +of these Christians and did not inquire too closely as to +the proportion of the virtues, often called the Christian +virtues, which they cultivated. And it was undoubtedly +a fact that their treatment left a great deal to be desired. +The peasant was obliged to pay direct imposts in cash. +There were taxes on landed property, on cattle, on sheep +and on fruit-trees, tithes on every species of harvest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> +and a poll-tax to which only Christians were liable, +amounting to ten shillings per annum for every male. +To complete the exactions with a touch of irony, there +was also an education-tax and a heavy road-tax for the +upkeep of the indescribable highways. These taxes +were not collected by Government officials, but were +farmed out to the highest bidder, and so flagrant were +the abuses of this system that it was not unusual for the +villagers to cut down their fruit-trees in order to avoid +the tax upon them, for the tax-farmer, against whom an +appeal would be worse than useless, was wont to appear +with gendarmes and estimate, according to his fancy, +the amount of any crop.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> Another tax very frequently +imposed upon the helpless peasant was the tribute to +some Albanian chief, who in return undertook to protect +the village. And if the village was outside the Albanian +sphere of influence it was usually obliged to have its own +resident brigands, who might or might not be Albanians. +Generally speaking, those villages were the least to be +envied which were on the borders of Albanian territory: +cattle were lifted, crops of corn or hay were carried off +before they could be garnered, young men and old men +were kidnapped and held to ransom; sometimes, says +Mr. Brailsford, they were fettered and driven to the fields +at sunrise with the cattle and were forced to work there +until evening. Most of the villages in Macedonia were +owned by a Turkish bey to whom the peasant was obliged +to give a clear half of the harvest, besides a certain amount +of labour on the bey's private farm and in his mill, as +well as hewing wood for him and transporting his produce +to the market without payment. It is not surprising +that the Macedonian Slavs, whose labour brought them +such inadequate reward, sank into very slothful habits. +Thus at Monastir in 1914-1915, when the population had +the choice of taking flour from the Serbian Government +or else the British Consul's bread, which came from India, +most of them—to save themselves trouble—preferred the +bread, though with the Serbian flour they could have +baked themselves just twice as much.... When Europe +took up the Macedonian problem towards the close of +1902 there had been a considerable revolt, followed by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> +an outburst of official ferocity and the flight of some +thousands of peasants. The Sultan, in the hope of +forestalling any Russian interference, promised various +reforms. But Russia and Austria proceeded to discuss +what each of them would do in Macedonia, and one resolve +was that they also, being the two "interested" Powers, +would institute a scheme of reform. The Western Powers +for a time abdicated their responsibilities and left the +miserable Macedonians to the supervision of the two +countries which, as they themselves said, were the least +disinterested. Now and then the other Powers made a +suggestion, as when Lord Lansdowne, who was in favour +of autonomy, made in January 1905 a number of proposals +which would have assisted the solution of the +problem. But Austria and Russia would only accept a part +of his programme. Their own programme, drawn up at +Mürzsteg in September 1903, was plainly of a transitional +nature. It announced to the different Balkan peoples +that the end of their serfdom was approaching, and thus +it accentuated their latent rivalries and hostilities. Greek, +Serbian and Bulgarian bands ravaged the country.</p> + +<p>"The Serbo-Bulgarian conflict," said Dr. Milovanović, +a Serbian Minister of Justice, "has its origin exclusively +in the chauvinistic circles of both countries. Macedonia +is the battlefield." He said, very rightly, that the population +of Macedonia was equally near to Serb and to Bulgar; +but unhappily, in his efforts to establish a <i>modus vivendi</i>, +he proposed that Macedonia should be divided between +the two countries. Surely it is far better that it should +become the common possession of Serb and Bulgar, the +link joining them to one another. After Dr. Milovanović +came the Balkan wars, of which the second utterly +destroyed for many a long day his hopes of an understanding, +since the experiences of the invaded Bulgars +were generally very different from those recorded by the +careful schoolmaster, Stavri Popoff, in his monograph, +<i>The Self-Defence of the Village of Ciprovci against the +Serbo-Roumanian Invasion of 1913</i> (Berkovica, 1915). +This isolated village in the mountains was defended by +thirty old reservists, who possessed 100 guns and 15,000 +cartridges. So pleased is their historian with the manner +in which they held their own—the rocks which surround<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> +Ciprovci are so many natural fortresses—that he tells us +not only the names of the thirty warriors but those of the +other inhabitants who carried milk and bread to the +outposts. On July 14, a Sunday, there was an exciting +battle, in the course of which the Bulgars suffered no +human casualties, but lost to the Serbs 900 sheep and +a score of cattle, and this, says Popoff, "made the women +weep very much." As soon as possible a telegram was +sent to the War Office at Sofia, asking for reinforcements, +after which "their spirits rose to such a height that they +felt they could resist anything." On July 26 the Serbs +were again repulsed, but once more a number of sheep +and cattle were carried off. In conclusion the author +thanks "all those who morally and materially have helped +and will help the cause," including the mayors of the +neighbourhood.</p> + +<p>If the second Balkan War had not left memories +more bitter than at Ciprovci then the reconciling labours +of those who follow Dr. Milovanović would be less difficult. +In our own day Mr. Leland Buxton, working also for +this union which eventually must come, suggests in his +<i>Black Sheep of the Balkans</i><a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> that Macedonia should be +made autonomous. But this would do no more than +perpetuate the wearisome and fierce intrigues of which +exponents can be always found in Balkan countries. +Macedonia must become the common possession; and +what could be more desirable than that one of these +countries should administer the province in such a way +as to attract the other country? Marshal Mišić was +of opinion that the officials whom the Serbs, after the +Balkan War, placed in Macedonia were too often not +the kind of men whom wisdom would have chosen; but +there was as yet a general eagerness to avoid being sent +to those unalluring parts. The officials left behind them +such unhappy recollections that the Serbian army, advancing +through Macedonia in 1918, was received, as +a rule, with something less than delight. Fortunately +the Yugoslav Government was able, after these events, to +induce a far superior class of officials to serve in Macedonia, +though I believe the scale of remuneration is no higher +than in the old kingdom. Men are selected who, in addition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> +to other qualities, speak the Turkish or Albanian of the +district. "You can count on our moral and material +support, on all that we now give to Turkey," said Mr. +Balfour in 1903 to M. Svetislav Simić, the Serbian Minister +of Foreign Affairs, who came as special envoy to London +"if," said Mr. Balfour, "you can come to an understanding +with the Bulgars on the one side and the Croats +on the other." In many Macedonian places one finds +that priests and schoolmasters—I have said this before +but it will bear repetition—who officiated under the +Bulgars have been confirmed in their posts. How very +different is this from the policy of a few years ago when, +for example, at Kriva (or Egri) Palanka there was considerable +propaganda with respect to the school. While +Macedonia was part of the Sultan's dominions there was, +on the whole, more willingness of Serbs and Bulgars to +provide a school than of the local population to frequent it.</p> + + +<p class="section">FEROCITIES OF EDUCATION</p> + +<p>A report of February 1901 says that in Rankovci +three pupils came to the teacher's house; in April of the +same year the attendance has been reduced to one pupil, +who after coming regularly for a month decided to keep +away. In 1906 the peasants of that locality prevented +a school from being opened. At Kriva Palanka until +the Balkan War the teachers came from Kustendil—but +how far they were patronized I do not know. The three +teachers from Serbia who appeared in 1909 seem to have +spent their time in promenading the village. Not until +after the Balkan War did pupils resort to them. In 1916 +the same school taught Bulgarian. In 1918 the Serbian +language was resumed. These changes were unfortunate +for the child and still more so for the teachers, who were +continually being chased away or hanged. And now at +last one finds the Serbs so much in advance of what they +and the Bulgars used to practise. Their ex-Bulgarian +schoolmasters are mostly of Macedonian origin, so that +it is not difficult for these gentlemen to give their instruction +in the kindred Serbian language, using, of course, the +local dialect. And we can look back with a smile to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> +not very distant days when a zealous Serbian schoolmaster +in Macedonia was wont, instead of prayers, to make the +children repeat after him three times, every morning and +every afternoon, "Ja sam pravo Serbin" ("I am a true +Serb"). Likewise the Bulgar was so certain of the +superiority of his religion that he deprived the Pomaks +of their Moslem names, giving them for Abdulla such a +name as Anastasius. The Pomak, unable to remember +his new name, was handed a sheet of paper with a record +of the matter; but very few of these people can read.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE STORM IS PAST</p> + +<p>Gone for ever are the days of the Turkish censor +when Danov, who sold at Veles and Salonica the schoolbooks +which at first he wrote himself, was obliged to leave +the name of Pushkin out of an anthology because of its +resemblance to pushka, a gun. And, with their more +civilized methods towards each other, we may be sure +that the days have gone when a Serb at Kumanovo could +compel Moslem children, before uttering the above-mentioned +slogan, to cross themselves; while no Serbian +bishop will find himself confronted with such a problem +as that which in 1913 nonplussed the Bishop of Skoplje—certain +Moslems had been, against their will, converted +by the Bulgars to Christianity and they now requested +the Bishop to undo what had been done. These days of +religious intolerance are as distant as those mediæval +ones in Bohemia when Roman Catholic nobles, many of +them foreigners, succeeded after the Battle of the White +Mountain to the estates of the decapitated Protestants +and conducted themselves after the fashion of one Huerta, +an ennobled tailor of Spanish origin, who drove the peasants +of his district to Mass with the help of savage dogs.... +In view of the strides which have been made in so short +a time we shall have in Macedonia an example for the +other Yugoslav lands. No longer then will anyone complain +like that old couple at Niš who, on the arrival of +the Bulgarian army in the winter of 1915-1916, announced +that they were Bulgars. "But what can you do with +our daughter?" they asked, "for she says resolutely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> +that she is a Serb, since she has been to the Serbian school." +Both the Serbian and the Bulgarian people have, in the +last twenty or thirty years, been through the severest +school. Now, after an appropriate interval—some +authorities say five and some say a hundred years—they +will be fellow-citizens in Yugoslavia. The last serious +conflict between them, which we will consider in the next +chapter, has been waged.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Of the three millions, which is estimated to have been the population +of Macedonia at the time of the Great War, almost two millions were +Slav, and it is to these only that we refer in using the term "Macedonians" +in this chapter. Among the other inhabitants of the variegated province +are Greeks and Turks and Circassians, Albanians (Tosks and Ghegs), +Jews whose ancestors came from Spain, gipsies and Kutzo-Vlachs. A +French observer said some years ago that Macedonia was a school of +brigandage and ethnology. He said it was the prey of the Albanians +and the professors—that is, of unconscionable savages and of laborious +agents of all kinds of foreign propaganda. Even the Kutzo-Vlachs, +which in Greek signifies "Limping Roumanians," made their propaganda, +or had it made for them. Gustav Weigand, a German professor who +devoted himself very thoroughly to this people, used to wish us to believe +that the Aromunes, as the Roumanians of the kingdom call their Macedonian +relatives—another name to which they answer is Tsintsares—are +free from all Greek blood. But this is not the case; they have +become very hellenized, although it is true that there are some who +call themselves Greek and who, besides having no such mixture in +their veins, cannot speak a word of the Greek language. According +to circumstances—and very much like the Serbo-Bulgarian Macedonians—this +people, who number less than 100,000, have been accustomed +to proclaim themselves now Greek and now Roumanian. They are a +good example of the bad effects of propaganda, and this, added to the +Turkish domination and the perpetual exodus of those who could manage +to escape, has left in Macedonia a population that is generally more +unsympathetic than any other in the Balkans. One may wonder, by +the way, why the Roumanians should have put themselves to so much +trouble with respect to these more or less hellenized kinsmen of theirs, +not merely giving them direct support, but subsidizing Weigand's institution +at Leipzig. A great reason was that King Charles, the friend of the +German and Austro-Hungarian Empires, aimed at diverting the eyes of +his statesmen from the unredeemed Roumanians in Transylvania.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> But Macedonia is not the only part of Yugoslavia where a man's +nationality varies. One Rejuka, for example, came to Veršac in the +Banat. He was a Czech, but as at that period (1850-1860) everything +German predominated, he preferred to be a German and sent his son to +German schools. Then the boy learned Magyar at college and, long before +he was appointed mayor, had become a Magyar. Thus we have three +nationalities in two generations.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> <i>Remarks on the Ethnography of the Macedonian Slavs.</i> London, 1906.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Quoted in Miss Waring's excellent little book <i>Serbia</i>. London, 1917.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> This famous archæologist and publicist has been a leading authority +on the eastern side of the Adriatic for more than forty years. We refer +on p. 184, Vol. II., to what befell him in 1918-1919.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> <i>Russkoje Bogatstvo</i>, 1899.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Cf. p. 79.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> <i>Détruisez l'Autriche-Hongrie</i>, by Dr. Edvard Beneš. Paris, 1916.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Cf. "Secret Treaties," in the <i>Times</i>, March 17, 1920.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Cf. <i>Die politischen Geheimvertrage Osterreich-Ungarns, 1879-1914</i>, +by Dr. Alfred Pribram. Vienna and Leipzig, 1920.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Cf. <i>Diplomatic Reminiscences</i>, by M. Nekludoff. London, 1920.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> Cf. <i>The Guardians of the Gate</i>. Oxford, 1918.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Cf. <i>Dalmatinische Reise</i>. Berlin, 1909.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Cf. <i>Montenegro in History, Politics and War</i>, by A. Devine. London, +1918.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Cf. <i>Diplomatic Reminiscences</i>. London, 1920.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> A very detailed and interesting account is contained in Dr. Seton-Watson's +<i>The Southern Slav Question</i>. London, 1911.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> "That Austria, as some have stated, should have planned the <i>coup</i>," +says Miss Durham (in her <i>Twenty Years of Balkan Tangle</i>) "is very +improbable." This lady tells us that the plot was a very genuine +one, "as I learnt beyond all doubt from my own observations," etc. +And, needless to say, she denounces the Serbs, who in her eyes are a very +criminal people. It is a pity that Miss Durham did not confine herself +to the excellent relief work she was doing the Balkans. Her description +of the travels this involved is interesting. But even her account of relief +work is biased by a prejudice in favour of the Albanians and against +the Slavs, for when she has occasion to speak of the famous Miss Irby, +whose thirty years of untiring benevolence were spent among the Serbs +of Bosnia and not among the Albanians, it is without a word of commendation.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Cf. <i>History of Serbia</i>, by H. W. V. Temperley. London, 1917.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Cf. <i>Le Monténégro Inconnu</i>, by Louis Bresse. Paris, 1920.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> An illuminating document was found, after the Great War, in the +Austrian archives. It is a lengthy report sent from Cetinje on November +1, 1911, by Baron Giesl, the Austrian Minister, to Count Aerenthal, the +minister of Foreign Affairs. Giesl puts down very vividly a conversation +he has had with Nikita, who suggested that the Minister should go forthwith +to Vienna with the purpose of preparing for a secret treaty. "I +will do all that Austria desires," the King is reported to have said; "for +instance, I will place under her protection the kingdom of Montenegro.... +For years I have aimed at this and, in spite of all that has happened [the +annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina], I was preparing my people for this +and putting Austria in a sympathetic light." The King promised that his +army (whose numbers, says Giesl, he multiplied by two in this conversation) +should act in perfect harmony with Austria's troops—they would, +if need arose, assist each other. Baron Giesl appears to have irritated +Nikita by his lack of enthusiasm for the scheme. "With Austria-Hungary, +the King had said, "I must be frank and honest." But the Minister +characterized his efforts as the throwing of dust in Austria's eyes.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> The average German-Bohemian was, in July 1914, anxious that +Austria should go to war. These people calculated that if Austria proved +successful it would be advantageous to themselves, while if she were +defeated they would merge themselves in the German Empire.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> L. von Südland's <i>Die Südslavische Frage und der Weltkrieg</i>. Vienna, +1918.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> <i>The Trial of the Authors of the Sarajevo Crime.</i> Presented according +to the documents by Professor Pharos, with an Introduction by Professor +Dr. Joseph Kohler. Berlin, 1918.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Cf. the admirably clear account in Dr. Lazar Marković's <i>Serbia and +Europe, 1914-1920</i>. London, 1921.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Cf. <i>Ex-King Nicholas of Montenegro and his Court</i> (Collection of +eighteen original documents in facsimile). Sarajevo, 1919. "This +collection of documents," says the <i>Times</i> (April 15, 1920), "goes far to +dethrone the last of the Petrovich dynasty from his once picturesque +position in the sympathies of Western admirers. Criticism directed against +him during the Balkan wars fell on deaf ears; and the censorship to a +great extent prevented the man in the street from realizing during the late +War that an Allied Monarch was suspected of 'not playing the game.'" +Mr. Ronald M'Neill, M.P., who loved to dance in front of Nicholas, informs +us (in the <i>Nineteenth Century and After</i>, for January 1921) that "so far +as the present writer has been able, after diligent endeavour, to discover, +there never was any evidence whatever for the Serbian legend that King +Nicholas was at any time during the War untrue to the Allied cause."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Cf. <i>Macedonia</i>, by H. N. Brailsford. London, 1906.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> London, 1920.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="V" id="V"></a>V<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span></h2> + +<h3>THE EUROPEAN WAR</h3> + +<p class="subtitle"><span class="smcap">How the Austrians waged war</span>—<span class="smcap">The Serbian Princes</span>—<span class="smcap">The tactics +of the Montenegrin King</span>—<span class="smcap">The Magyars and their prisoners</span>—<span class="smcap">The +Southern Slavs in Austria-Hungary</span>—<span class="smcap">How the War +raged in the winter of 1914-1915</span>—<span class="smcap">The Treaty of London, +April 1915</span>—<span class="smcap">How Bulgaria came into the War</span>—<span class="smcap">Attempt to +buy off the Serbs</span>—<span class="smcap">Greek transactions</span>—<span class="smcap">Flight of the Serbs</span>—<span class="smcap">The +faithful Croats</span>—<span class="smcap">How the Serbs came to their Patriarch's +town</span>—<span class="smcap">The shadow over Montenegro</span>—<span class="smcap">The broken +Serbs at Corfu</span>—<span class="smcap">The Southern Slavs in the United States</span>—<span class="smcap">Cash +and the Montenegrin Royal family</span>—<span class="smcap">-The burden of +Austria's Southern Slav troops</span>—<span class="smcap">The faithful Italians</span>—<span class="smcap">Southern +Slavs in the Austrian navy</span>—<span class="smcap">Advance of the Allies +in Macedonia</span>—<span class="smcap">How the Magyars treated their Serbian subjects</span>—<span class="smcap">The +Southern Slavs pay part of their debt to the +Habsburg Monarchy</span>: (<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">in Syrmia</span>; (<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap">in Slovenia</span>.</p> + + +<p class="section">HOW THE AUSTRIANS WAGED WAR</p> + +<p>"Machen Sie Ordnung!" ["Put matters in order"] +was the phrase used by Austrian officers in Serbia when +they wished a non-commissioned officer to see that such +and such Serbian civilians should be hanged or shot. +Occasionally an accident occurred, as when a priest near +Višegrad came to an officer with the request that his +plum trees should be spared, since he had nothing else. +This officer intended to be kind and, not knowing or forgetting +the sense in which those three words were being +used, he said to a sergeant, "Machen Sie Ordnung!" and +the next morning a prominent citizen of Split, Count +Pavlović, whose post in the Austro-Hungarian army was +that of a provost-marshal, saw the priest, his wife and +his three little boys hanging from the plum trees. It +was and is the fashion to assert that the Austrian army +was incomparably less brutal than the Prussian, so that +some readers will be disinclined to believe a conversation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> +which Count Pavlović, particularly as he is a Yugoslav, +once had at Donja Tusla in Bosnia with a certain Captain +Waldstein, who between 9 a.m. and 1 p.m. had sentenced +nineteen people to be hanged. These people, by the +way, were all over twenty years of age, so that each case +had to be tried; persons under that age could, as we +have seen, also be hanged, but not as the result of a trial. +Pavlović approached the captain—his rank, to be accurate, +was captain-auditor—and asked him how he had lunched +after such a morning's work. "I felt," was the reply, +"as if I had drunk nineteen glasses of beer." An Austrian +army surgeon, Dr. Wallisch, who during the occupation +travelled professionally in Serbia and wrote a good deal +about it in Viennese papers and Austrian papers in Belgrade, +said that "everywhere in this Balkan and patriarchal +environment you see educational mansions and +spacious barracks.<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> Does not this, better than anything +else, show the criminal, premeditated hostility of the +Serbs against our Monarchy? They have the longing +to learn, which devours the ambitious, and likewise the +wish to realise by force of arms this fantastic ideal of an +over-excited national sentiment." Yes indeed, this was +the ideal of King Peter, in accordance with the device of +the poet, Aksentie Teodosijević: "Towards liberty, in +the first place through learning and culture, then with +arms." Very few people would be inclined to believe +that the invading Austrians could be so petty as to burn +all the schoolbooks they came across, and still fewer +would credit the fact that Yugoslav patients with gold-filled +teeth ran any special risk in Austrian army hospitals. +Ivo Stanišić of the Bocche di Cattaro had fought with the +Montenegrins and, in consequence of Nikita's capitulation, +had fallen into the Austrians' hands. He was +warned by his friends not to go into hospital, where his +twelve gold teeth, which he had acquired in the United +States, might prove his undoing. He did, as a matter +of fact, die there, and the overdose of morphia—witnessed +by the well-known architect, Matejorski of Prague—may +have been accidental, and the Austrians who took his +teeth out may have thought it foolish to leave so much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> +gold in a corpse. Another Bocchesi who underwent the +same treatment was one Risto Liješević. Perhaps the +Austrians do not deny these incidents, and considering the +trouble which they gave themselves to have a long series +of open-air brutalities officially photographed and made +the subject of picture postcards, one presumes that the +dental operations were omitted on account of the bother +of indoor photography. The postcards, of which I have +a large collection, place on record the procedure used in +the wholesale hanging and shooting of Bosnian and +Serbian civilians, young and old, men and women. More +trouble was taken over the photographs, which are +sometimes minute and sometimes artistic in depicting a +row of gallows on an eminence with gloomy clouds behind +them, than was taken with the manufacture of these +gallows, for in many cases they were no more than a seven-foot +stake, to the top of which the victim's throat was +firmly fastened, holding his or her feet a short distance +from the ground. We have in the London Press and in +the House of Lords a number of reactionary persons who +do not cease regretting the disappearance of Austria-Hungary. +The new States, such as Yugoslavia and +Czecho-Slovakia, they argue, are very unsatisfactory, if +only for the reason that they substitute a lower civilization +for a higher. Austrian culture, in their opinion, is +so different from that of the new States that you cannot +compare them. And when they talk of the Habsburg +dynasty it is after the fashion of old Francis Joseph who, +in 1891, when the four hundredth anniversary of the great +Czech teacher Comenius was being officially celebrated +in all the schools of Prussia, commanded that nothing of +the sort was to be done in the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, +because his attention had been drawn by Archbishop +Schwarzenberg of Prague to a Latin letter in which the +great man uttered some sharp words concerning the +dynasty. One is prepared to overlook a great many +things which happened in the stress of war, but the postcards +which portray fashionably dressed women and girls +strolling between the gallows as if at a garden party and +merely using their parasols against the sun, do not appear +to leave any attributes for a civilization lower than that +which they exhibit. The Bosniaks and Serbs who were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> +thus done away with were frequently even less to blame +than those ignorant peasants who, being told by their +priests that Peter was their King, shouted "Long live +King Peter!" as the Austrian troops marched through +their villages, and were forthwith hanged for high treason. +"Whenever," says Euripides, "I see the wicked fall +into adversity I declare that the gods do exist." At +Trnovo twenty-eight were executed, including two women +and at Palé, near Sarajevo, twenty-six, the Austrians +killing all the old folk and the children who remained +when the Montenegrin and Serbian armies retreated. +Those who were not murdered on the spot had a period +of imprisonment during which they were fed on white +bread; but all that they were asked, prior to their execution, +was their name, their father's name and their domicile. +Thousands were interned—at Doboj between twenty and +thirty died every day of illness or of famine. The fate +of the abandoned children in Bosnia was such that when +Dr. Bilinski, the Governor (afterwards Minister of Finance +in Poland) was told of it he had the decency to weep. +His informant was Madame Ćuk of Zagreb, so well known +to British travellers; this lady was at the head of an +organization which removed as many children as possible +from Bosnia to other parts of the Dual Monarchy. The +diet of grass, cow's dung and a kind of bread, chiefly +composed of clay and wood-shavings and the bark of +trees, gave to nearly all the children a protruding stomach; +they were so weak that they would fall out of the luggage-racks +of the railway carriages, and with 500-600 children +in three waggons it was necessary to deposit some of +them in the racks. At a place called Sunia it was the +ladies' custom to have cauldrons of maize and water, +as well as bacon, waiting for the travellers, but very +often this food brought on a colic, so unaccustomed were +the children to fats.<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> If the Austrians intended to put +their Bosnian house in order by finishing off the population—"Machen +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>Sie Ordnung"—they made considerable +progress. They had hoped, before the War began, to +send a punitive expedition into Serbia that would finish +off that insolent, small country. Delirious was the +enthusiasm of the Viennese at the declaration of War. +Fate was giving them the whitest of bread before their +execution.</p> + +<p>The Austrian statesmen did not embark on the War +without taking certain precautions. Count Berchtold, +on July 28, submitted for the old Emperor's signature the +war declaration, which explicitly stated that the Government +was forced to protect its rights and interests by +recourse to arms, the more so as the Serbian troops had +already attacked the Imperial and Royal soldiers at +Temes-Kubin on the Danube. After the Emperor had +signed the declaration of war in this form, Count Berchtold +struck out the reference to a fight at Temes-Kubin, +and sent a letter to Francis Joseph explaining that he +had taken it on himself to eliminate this sentence as the +reports had not been confirmed. "It is clear," said the +<ins class="correction" +title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'Arbeiter Zeitung'"><i>Arbeiter-Zeitung</i></ins>,<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> commenting on the Austrian Red-book +which revealed this affair, "it is clear that the fight at +Temes-Kubin never occurred, but was simply invented +by Count Berchtold. That arch-scoundrel not only +deceived the people, but also the Emperor. The destiny +of the world depended upon whether an eighty-four-year-old +man permitted himself to be deceived. For such a +crime Berchtold must certainly be sent to prison, or, more +justly, to the gallows."</p> + +<p>If the punitive expedition into Serbia had been less +disastrous, it would perhaps have been accompanied with +less barbarity—though the Austrian army was handicapped, +owing to the large number of aristocratic, and +presumably more gentle, officers who found themselves +unable to leave the War Office and similar institutions in +Vienna. Yet the Austrians seem to have determined how +to act before they came. A special branch of the army +occupied itself with the stealing, packing and dispatching +of cameras, engravings, ladies' garments, etc. etc.—numerous +lists were accidentally left behind in Belgrade, +and every sheet at the top left-hand corner was stamped<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> +with the words "Sammlungs-Offizier" (<i>i.e.</i> Collection-officer). +I do not know what knowledge and what skill +are necessary before this rubber stamp is conferred upon +a man. Did the Imperial and Royal authorities regard +him as a non-combatant? The "Sammlungs-Offizier" +might resent such a classification if in private life he had +been a courageous burglar. And the Imperial and Royal +army, according to certain "Instructions for the conduct +of troops" which were found on a wounded officer of the +9th Army Corps, had resolved—irrespective of success +or failure in the War—to massacre the Serbs without +compunction: "Any person encountered in the open, +and especially in a forest, must be regarded as a member +of a 'band' that has concealed its weapons somewhere, +which weapons we have not the time to look for. These +people are to be executed if they appear even slightly +suspicious"; and another paragraph says that "I will +not allow persons armed, but wearing no uniform, whether +encountered singly or in groups, to be taken prisoners. +They must be executed without exception." The +Austrians knew very well that the Serbs had not received +their new uniforms, and that at least one-third of their +army was obliged to take the field in ordinary peasant's +dress.<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> The fact that the Austrian invasion of north-western +Serbia came to such an ignominious end before +September is no reason why so large a number of women, +children and old men were, as is very well authenticated, +cut to pieces, burned alive, despoiled of their eyes, their +noses, disembowelled, and so forth. One expects a certain +amount of licence from the baser elements of an +invading army; but in Serbia—perhaps because this was +a punitive expedition—it seems to have been the Imperial +and Royal officers who egged on their men.... I have +tried, from the Austrian records, to ascertain whether +any comparable outrages can be laid at the door of the +Serbs. And there is one incident which utterly disgraces +some of their Montenegrin brothers: the men of Foča +in Herzegovina joined the Montenegrin army when it +penetrated to the neighbourhood of Sarajevo. When it +was thrown back the Foča comrades—Yugoslavs, of course, +and guilty of high treason against Austria—accompanied<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> +them to Montenegro; and later on some Montenegrin +officers denounced the people of Foča to the Austrians, +with the result that fourteen of them were hanged.</p> + +<p>On August 24, 1914, after twelve terrible days, the +Austrians were dislodged from Šabac and flung across to +the northern bank of the Save. More useful to the Serbs +than their 6000 prisoners were the 50 cannons and over +30,000 rifles, for the Serbian troops had entered the +War with such scanty equipment that many of the regiments +with an effective strength of over 4000 men possessed +only 2500 rifles. The armed soldiers went into action, +while the unarmed waited in reserve, springing forward +as their comrades fell, and taking up the weapons of the +fallen to continue the fight. Here occurred an incident +of which the hero was a boy. He had run away to the +army and, to his vast delight, been made a standard-bearer. +When an officer perceived that he was continuously +exposing himself he told him to hide. "No +one will see you," said the officer. "But," answered the +boy, "the flag will see." And he was killed. Many of +the dead or wounded Austrians were Southern Slavs who +had not been able to surrender to their brothers; they +were often found with all their cartridges intact, and with +their rifles made incapable of shooting.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE SERBIAN PRINCES</p> + +<p>One of the first results of this victory was the invasion, +by Serb and Montenegrin troops, of Bosnia. They succeeded +in penetrating to within a few miles of Sarajevo, +and there they were held up not only by the encircling +forts but by the scarcity of their ammunition, for the +Russian supplies had not yet come through. "Your +Royal Highness," said a corporal one day to Prince +George, the impetuous young man who had resigned his +position as heir to the throne and was at this moment far +more congenially occupied as the chief of an irregular +band in the mountains, "we have no more ammunition," +said the corporal. "Each man has a knife?" asked +George. The corporal nodded. "Then let us go on." +The Prince has a great wound across his breast, from one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> +side to the other. He is very much the descendant of +Kara George; he dislikes making a secret of his opinions. +King Peter, who was present at the inauguration of the +Belgrade synagogue, always refrained from entering the +Roman Catholic Church, since it was included in the +buildings of the Austrian Legation. His elder son was +not averse, when relations were strained, from taking an +enthusiastic part in anti-Austrian demonstrations, so that +the Austrians were delighted to spread a report that this +ebullient youth had killed his orderly and must be set +aside from the succession. The truth was that George +happened to catch this orderly reading a private letter of +his; in a sudden fit of rage he struck him a blow, even as +Kara George would have done—unluckily the man rolled +down some steps and from the resulting injuries he died. +A good many Austrian and German writers have said +that George is mad; he is certainly less fitted to govern +Yugoslavia than is Alexander, his brother. One remembers +George, so dark and lean and hawk-eyed, traversing the +broad Danube at Belgrade in a most original fashion; as +the blocks of ice swept along he made his horse leap from +one of them to another. And one thinks of that more +patient prince, Alexander, poring for hours over papers +of State, gazing up a little wearily through his glasses, +wondering for month after month whether the crisis +between Government and Opposition in Yugoslavia will +ever be solved. George will seek relaxation in driving a +motor-car as if the Serbian roads were a racing track; +Alexander's relaxation is to hear a new musical play, +then to go home and repeat the whole score by heart on +his piano.</p> + +<p>All through the War Alexander, the Prince Regent—for +King Peter felt himself, on account of his age and his +rheumatism, unequal to anything save the personal encouragement +of his soldiers in the trenches<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a>—throughout +the War Alexander was with his army. In his eloquent +proclamations one sees the student; on the battlefield<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> +he conquered his shyness. And now he is a truly democratic +King, at whose table very often is some non-commissioned +officer or private whose acquaintance he has +made in the War. He asked the man to come and see +him one day in Belgrade, so that the royal adjutants are +always busy with this stream of warriors. The men are +well aware that their own peasant costume, with the +sandals, is admissible at Court—even at a ball you see +some fine old peasant, who is perhaps a deputy (and who +does not, like a certain Polish Minister of recent years, +remove his white collar before entering the Chamber). +You can see him in his thick brown homespun with black +braiding, breeches very baggy at the seat and closely +fitting round the legs; as he comes in he knocks the snow +from off his sandals, and strides, perfectly at ease, across +the Turkish carpets. With such a man the King loves +greatly to go hunting; last winter in the Rudnik region +the inhabitants were being plagued by wolves, so the King +went down there with some officers and peasants. Though +he is so short-sighted that he constantly wears glasses—if +you met him casually you would suppose that this keen-faced +young officer was probably a writer of military books—though +he is short-sighted he is one of the best shots in +Europe. On the Slovenian mountains he has brought +down many chamois and, before he succeeded, at a summer +resort in Serbia he was always first at target practice. +Nor is he less skilled at cards, particularly bridge. He +gathers round him the best players in the town. Such +are his relaxations after the long round of audiences and +hours of other work. During the day he will have very +likely undertaken to pay the expenses from his own pocket +of another Serbian student, at home or abroad. So many +of them are his pensioners. And it may be said without +flattery that in the pursuit of knowledge he affords them +an example. His subjects number about 14 millions, +but when in conversation I happened to allude to a remote +border village, his subsequent remarks made me +wonder whether he had just been reading an article +about the chequered history of that little place. He is, +in fact, like his late grandfather of Montenegro, the father +of his people. But they have different ideas about the +duties of a father; and while Nikita's laugh was pretty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> +grim, the deep whole-hearted laugh of Alexander takes +you into the sincere recesses of the man.</p> + +<p>During the Bosnian offensive there was launched an +expedition over the Save into the goodly land of Syrmia, +one of those Yugoslav provinces of which the Austro-Hungarian +Empire was to be stripped. This expedition +had a varying success, for the assault that was attempted +in the neighbourhood of Mitrovica was not skilfully +conducted; and the Serbian army, for the first time in +the War, was worsted. Then troops in Bosnia, just before +the grand attack on Sarajevo, were thrown into confusion +by an order from the Montenegrin King who, without +vouching any reason, called his army back. The Serbian +troops had no other course than to retreat as well; and +their enemies delivered, all the rest of September and +throughout October, a tremendous thrust against the +army that was shielding Valjevo. The Serbs, who were +lamentably short of arms, munition, clothing and every +sort of hospital equipment, did not care to think of the +approach of winter. They hurled themselves against the +Austrian swarms—and up to this period they had lost, +in dead and seriously wounded, more than 130,000 men.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE TACTICS OF THE MONTENEGRIN KING</p> + +<p>The co-operation between Serbs and Montenegrins for +the Bosnian campaign was the occasion of some of Nikita's +usual devious diplomacy. He summoned, as we have seen, +a superfluous Skupština, whose resolutions would enable +him to go to Francis Joseph, his secret ally, with a tale of +<i>force majeure</i>. And he telegraphed to his grandson, the +Serbian Prince-Regent: "My Montenegrins and myself +are already on the frontiers, ready to die in the defence +of our national independence." While his ill-equipped +warriors pushed on to Budva, arrived before Kotor, +seized Foča, Rogatica and other towns, pressing on until +they stood before the forts of Sarajevo, the disreputable +Royal Family, jealous as ever of Belgrade, were plunging +deeper and always deeper into treachery. The Serbian +officers, General Janković and Colonel (now General) +Pešić, who, mainly at the instance of Russia, had been sent +to reorganize the Montenegrin army, saw themselves<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> +hampered at every turn by the Court clique at Cetinje. +Janković, finding that orders were given without his knowledge, +returned to Niš; and later on, after the fall of +Lovčen, Nikita tried to foist upon Pešić the odium of a +surrender which his own machinations had brought about.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE MAGYARS AND THEIR PRISONERS</p> + +<p>As one might have expected, the withdrawal from +Bosnia was followed by a repetition of the reign of terror +in that beautiful land of woods and villages, where the +Imperial and Royal authorities had been engaged for years +in showing foreign journalists exactly what they wanted +them to see. There had been some doubt as to whether +Bosnia-Herzegovina came under the crown of Austria or +that of Hungary. The Magyars had been gradually +getting the upper hand in the administration, and now, in +the autumn of 1914, it was they who undertook to deal +with those subjected Bosniaks. Again we are furnished +with evidence galore, not this time by picture postcards +but by the cemeteries at Arad, the Hungarian (now +it is a Roumanian) town on the Maroš. It was in the casemates +of the Arad fortress, many of which had not been +opened from the days of Maria Theresa, that thousands +of poor Bosniak civilians were interned. In one of the +cemeteries I counted 2103 black wooden crosses, in another +between 600 and 700, in another about a thousand. These +dead witnesses are more eloquent than the living. "On +October 31, 1915," says an inscription on a cross in the +largest cemetery, "there died, aged 95, Milija Arzić." +She may have been a fearful danger to the Magyar State. +Cross No. 716 says merely "Deaf and Dumb," so does +No. 774. Jovan Krunić, No. 706, was 1½ year old. +There are children even younger. The Magyars seem to +have applied to Bosnia that label which the monkish +mediæval map-makers applied to the remoter peoples: +"Here dwell very evil men." If, however, the commandant, +Lieut.-Colonel Hegedüs—a magyarized version of +the German <i>held</i>, which means "hero"—and his subordinates, +Sergeants Rosner and Herzfeld, would claim +that they did their best, they have some excuse in the fact +that although the 10,000 interned people began to arrive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> +in July, the first two doctors—who were also captives—did +not appear until January 1915. In the absence of +medical advice the sergeants may have thought it was an +excellent plan, in November, to drive the prisoners into +the Maroš for a bath and then to walk them up and down +the bank until their clothes were dry; Hegedüs may have +thought it was most sanitary to have dogs to eat the +corpses' entrails and sometimes the whole corpse. Dr. +Stephen Pop, a Roumanian lawyer in Arad (afterwards a +Minister at Bucharest), displayed his humanity by drawing +up a terrible indictment of the conditions. "You should +be glad," said Tisza, the reactionary Premier, to him, +"very glad that you can breathe the free air of Hungary." +The casemates were provided with less than three centimetres +of straw, which was not removed for months. +Spotted fever, pneumonia and enteritis were the chief +epidemics: those who were guilty of some offence, such +as receiving a newspaper, would be put among the +spotted fever cases. Sometimes the dead were left for +two or three days with the living. Such was the state of the +bastions and their underground passages that the Magyar +soldiers came as rarely as they could manage. It was, said +Hegedüs, a provisional arrangement to have about a +thousand people in one of these passages or lunettes, with +no lavatory. But it was not only the <ins class="correction" +title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'nonagenaraians'">nonagenarians</ins>—several +of whom were at Arad—that found their life was a +very provisional affair. You could be killed in different +ways: the dying were occasionally wrapped in a sheet +and rocked against a wall. When they groaned the +soldiers laughed, and said that this was "Cheering King +Peter." In fact the Magyars behaved with rare generosity +to their prisoners, we are told in the <i>Oxford Hungarian +Review</i> (June 1922), by Mr. Aubrey Herbert, M.P., a +gentleman who persists in writing of that which he does +not know. A woman called Lenka (or Helen) Mihailović, +who had kept the canteen in the fortress during fifteen +years, was expelled in January 1916 for having helped to +clothe some naked children. People used to give Rosner, +the sergeant, a tip in order to be allowed to visit the canteen. +Their ordinary food was the reverse of appetizing. +Constantine, the son of Ilja Jovanović, a boy who used to +be employed at the fortress (and who had not been permitted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> +by the Magyars to learn his own language), saw the +children being fed, very often, on salt fish—no matter +whether they were ill or not—and sometimes on the intestines +of horses. The Serbian grave-diggers used to +cook themselves a dish of grass, salt and water. They were +too weak to work, and they had work enough: on +February 1, 1915, for instance, twenty-nine people were +buried. A certain captain (afterwards Major) Lachmann, +an Austrian officer, arrived in Arad and heard the apprehensions +that an epidemic might spread from the fortress. +This had, in fact, been debated by the town council; and +Lachmann was eventually responsible for a commission +of inquiry. But Hegedüs, although he was degraded and +condemned to prison, made a successful appeal, for his +father-in-law was a field-marshal, one Pacor.</p> + +<p>A few improvements were made in the casemates +towards the end of 1917, as a Spanish commission was +expected. But it never came. Some of the long galleries +have, since the Armistice, been furnished with +windows and electric light; but about four months after +the Armistice I found them full of dead flies and heavy +with an abominable stench. Amid the débris were many +lamps, such as one uses in a mine. There was a proclamation, +dated 1918, which tried to lure deserters back; it +promised that no punishment would be inflicted on them +if they should return, but that robbery or murder would +meet with capital punishment, either by shooting or by +strangling. The floor was littered with all kinds of paper, +with scraps of furniture, a few chains and some prison +books, which dated back for years. These gave details +of all the punishments and were written in a very ornamental +script, as though the clerks had taken a pleasure +in their work. The Arad fortress had been partly used as +a prison for a long time; but Misko Tatar, a Magyar, who +stayed there sixteen years for having murdered his +fiancée, his mother and his sister, as well as one Kocian, +who remained for more than eighteen years—he had +murdered the proprietor of a canteen, his wife and child in +the Bocche—and Rujitatzka, a Croat, who together with +another man had been accused of theft, had killed their +escort and thrown his body into the Danube—none of +these culprits could remember having heard of such<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> +punishments as the Bosniak civilians had to bear. The +iron ring from which people used to be suspended for a +couple of hours could still be seen on a large tree. If the +relatives or friends could pay a fine this penalty was discontinued. +Another method was to fasten a man's right +wrist to his left ankle and the left wrist to the right ankle. +He would then be left for a week; every night a blanket +was thrown over him. But there is something very +strange in the composition of the Magyars. When the +revolution broke out and the prisoners, after all the years +of horror, were gaining their freedom, an acquaintance +of mine, a certain Gavrić, whose job for three and a half +years had been the comparatively pleasant one of cleaning +boots, was on the point of leaving the prison. There he +was met by the director's daughter. "And you an +intelligent person!" she said. "Are you not ashamed +of yourself?" The Hungarian newspapers wrote that +Hegedüs was dead, which may or may not have been true; +and in another paper, <i>The Hungarian Nation</i>, printed in +English, in February 1920, the Rev. Dr. Nally said: +"May we not still cling to the hope that chivalrous England +will give a helping hand to the nation whose weakness +is that she is too chivalrous?" One Englishman—whom +the reader may or may not consider worth quoting—is +with the Magyars. "No country," says Lord Newton,<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> +"treated their prisoners of war so well as the Hungarian, +and I know it, because looking after prisoners of war was +my job." "My husband," says Lady Newton,<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> "had +interested himself in their cause"—of "this delightful +race," she terms them in the previous sentence—"and had +been able to do their country some slight service, and for +this they simply could not sufficiently show their gratitude +towards ourselves. From the prince to the peasant +the Hungarian is a <i>grand seigneur</i>, with all the instincts of a +great gentleman and the manners of a king." May I +mention that at the same time, I believe, as Lord and Lady +Newton were being entertained, a poor Slovak was being +differently treated. Having left his home in Hungary to +serve in the Czecho-Slovak army, and having settled +in Czecho-Slovakia, after the War he got word that his +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>mother was dying. He thereupon applied for and received +a Hungarian visa, and on entering that territory he was +arrested! A long time afterwards the Czecho-Slovak +Legation at Buda-Pest was vainly trying to have him +liberated.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE SOUTHERN SLAVS IN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY</p> + +<p>From the beginning of the War the Imperial and Royal +authorities had been exasperated by the Southern Slavs +within the Empire. A few extracts from the archives +which, after the end of the War, were found at Zagreb, +will be of interest:</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em">(A)</p> + +<p style="text-indent: 0em">[<i>In Serbo-Croat:</i>] <span class="smcap">Telegram from the Commander of +the Balkan Army, received in Zagreb</span>, 3/10/1914</p> + +<p style="font-size: 80%; margin-left: 7em; text-indent: -7em"> +[<i>In German:</i>] <span class="smcap">His Excellency the Ban Baron<br /> +Skerlecz, Zgb</span>. [<span class="smcap">Zagreb</span>].<br /> +<span style="padding-left: 8em">sss. <span class="smcap">Tuzla</span>, 387, 146, 2/10/05.</span> +</p> + +<p>Res. No. 817/ok. Investigation by Lieut.-Field-Marshal +Szurmay has demonstrated that our soldiers +have been shot at from houses in Bežanija to the west +of Semlin and that enemy troops have been given shelter. +In accordance with the request of Lieut.-Field-Marshal +Szurmay I urgently request that all male inhabitants +over fifteen years of age shall be evacuated from this +place and from all others in which similar incidents have +occurred, that measures be taken without delay in the +interior of Croatia, and a stern examination be carried +out in association with the Zagreb military command as +also with the Army group command of Petrovaradin, +acting in conjunction with the Government Commissary +Hideghethy. Guilty persons are to be handed over to +the military court for legal treatment.</p> + +<p>Identical copies to the Ban of Croatia, Slavonia and +Government Commissary Baron Tallian and, for his information, +to Lieut.-Field-Marshal Szurmay as well as +to the Army group command of Petrovaradin.</p> + +<p style="padding-left: 70%"> +<span class="smcap">Potiorek</span>, Field-Marshal.<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span></p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em">(B)</p> + +<p style="font-size: 80%; margin-left: 4em; text-indent: -4em"> +<span class="smcap">Imperial and Royal Army</span>—<span class="smcap">Director of <br />Supplies and Transport</span>.</p> + +<p style="font-size: 80%; margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em">K. No. 114.<br /> +<span class="smcap">To the Royal Government Commissary</span><br /> +<span style="padding-left: 2em"><span class="smcap">Brcko</span>, on the 12th September 1914.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap" style="padding-left: 16em">Vukovar</span>. +</p> + +<p>I have the honour to inform you that during these last +days the railway near Mitrovica has been damaged by +the artillery of the Serbian army, which would be almost +incredible without signals made by the local population, +and moreover that between Ruma and Indjija—that is +to say in a part occupied by our troops—the permanent +way has been injured, which in all probability was done +by the people of that district.</p> + +<p>These events and anyhow the general atmosphere in +Syrmia make it necessary to take the most energetic +steps, as indicated in the orders of the Imperial and Royal +Prime Minister No. 6538/1914 and of the No. 913 of 1914.</p> + +<hr /> + +<p style="font-size: 80%; margin-left: 4em; text-indent: -4em"><span class="smcap">Imperial and Royal 5th Army</span>—<span class="smcap">Director of<br /> +Supplies and Transport</span>.</p> +<p style="font-size: 80%; margin-left: 4em; text-indent: -4em">K. No. 114.<br /> +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em">(C)</p> + +<p style="font-size: 80%; margin-left: 4em; text-indent: -4em"> +<span class="smcap">Imperial and Royal Military Command in Zagreb</span>.</p> + +<p style="font-size: 80%; margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em"><span class="smcap">Press Bureau</span>, No. 2590.<br /> +<span class="smcap">To the Higher Command of the Army.<br /> +<span style="padding-left: 3.2em">Higher Command of the Balkan Front.</span><br /> +<span style="padding-left: 3.2em">Royal Military Press Bureau.</span></span><br /> +<span class="smcap" style="padding-left: 16em">Zagreb</span>, <i>November</i> 2, 1914.<br /> +<span style="padding-left: 6em"><i>/Ceteris exmissis./</i></span><br /> +</p> + +<p>"Thousands of loyal officers and men have fallen +victims to the treachery that has penetrated so deeply +into the Fatherland and is directed against our enthusiastic, +brave and heroically fighting army. It is evident +from all the reports of the wounded that no one has been +afraid of the enemy troops, but rather of treachery which +comes upon them from the front, the left, the right, the +rear, from trees and from houses." ...</p> + +<p>"Through treachery the foe was and is still made<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> +acquainted with every movement of troops, the enemy +artillery is helped in every way through signals, so that +it can direct upon us a fire that falls like lightning. Light +signals, smoke signals, positions of church tower clocks, +herds of cows, flocks of geese, imitations of the noises of +animals, yellow and black flags, etc. etc., have indicated +the strength and movements of troops." ...</p> + +<p style="padding-left: 70%"> +<span class="smcap">Scheure</span>, Lieut.-Field-Marshal.<br /> +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em">(D)</p> + +<p style="font-size: 80%; text-indent: 0em"> +<span class="smcap">Imperial and Royal Military Command in Zagreb</span>.</p> + +<p style="font-size: 80%; margin-left: 4em; text-indent: -4em"> +<span class="smcap">Press Bureau</span>, No. 3050.<br /> +<i>The Spreading of Disquieting News</i><br /> +<span style="padding-left: 1.6em"><i>among the Population.</i></span></p> + +<p style="font-size: 80%; margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em"> +<span class="smcap">To His Excellency the Imperial and<br /> +Royal Secret Councillor Dr. Ivan<br /> +Baron Skerlecz</span>, Ban of the Kingdom of<br /> +Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia.<br /> +<span style="padding-left: 16em"><span class="smcap">Zagreb</span>, <i>November</i> 26, 1914.</span> +</p> + +<p>[This document, signed by Lieut.-Field-Marshal +Scheure, draws attention to a secret society in Zagreb +which from the beginning of the War is said to have been +circulating false reports, not only with reference to "the +most incredible news of our troops being defeated," but +also as to the attitude of neutral States and of our own +tried and excellent commanders, who are said to "have +practised treachery, followed by suicide." The Ban's +attention is directed to the introduction of hostile newspapers, +and he is asked to have the foreign consuls in +Zagreb discreetly watched. He is also told that in +Zagreb the bank officials are said to have discouraged +the citizens from investing in war loans.]</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em">(E)</p> + +<p style="font-size: 80%; text-indent: 0em"> +<span class="smcap">Imperial and Royal Military Command in Zagreb</span>.</p> +<p style="font-size: 80%; text-indent: 0em"><span class="smcap">Press Bureau</span>, No. 3297. +</p> + +<p>[Another note to the Ban, dated December 10, 1914, +on the same subject. It is recommended that the persons +chiefly responsible for these false reports be apprehended +and interned, either on the charge of espionage or on +account of having agitated. The Government is asked<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> +by the military command to have all such reports +assembled, together with an appeal to loyal citizens, +in an article which every newspaper should print twice, +in successive numbers. At the same time all the newspapers +should be told to print inspiring articles, and an +article of this kind should be sent in for approval by the +Government and the military command. The signature +at the bottom of this note is undecipherable.]</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em">(F)</p> + +<p style="font-size: 80%; text-indent: 0em"> +<span class="smcap">Imperial and Royal Military Command in Zagreb</span>.</p> + +<p style="font-size: 80%; margin-left: 16em; text-indent: -16em"> +<span class="smcap">Press Bureau</span>, No. 841.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Zagreb</span>, <i>February</i> 1915.<br /> +</p> + +<p>[This is a long and conscientious exposé by the military +commandant of Zagreb of the political situation there +and in Croatia generally. He mentions that when in +June 1913 several men deserted from the 4th company +of the 53rd Infantry Battalion, which belonged to the +8th Mountain Brigade, it was not thought to have any +special significance. "When," says the writer, "I +happened to express my astonishment that Croats should +desert to Serbia, I received the following answer: 'The +Croats are loyal, but the Emperor does not care for us; +the Magyars do not understand us and we also do not +wish to become Magyars. Therefore the Croats turn to +the Serbs, who at least understand their language.' +At that time," he continues, "I did not understand +these words, but now that I have become more acquainted +with this country, I see that they reveal everything. +Alas, so many Croats have adopted this popular logic and +seem to incline to the Serbs."</p> + +<p>He explains that harmonious relations did not exist +between the military command and the local government, +since the former acted without taking into account the +political position of any individual, while the latter acted +in the reverse fashion.]</p> + + +<p class="section">HOW THE WAR RAGED IN THE WINTER OF 1914-1915</p> + +<p>In the winter of 1914 the Serbian army had been +obliged to withdraw, leaving Valjevo to the Austrians.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> +The retrograde movement had to continue; Belgrade was +abandoned at the end of November, and the people +from those northern and western parts of the country +could not resign themselves to waiting for the enemy, +after the manner in which he had behaved. Terror-stricken +fugitives began to block the roads and to impede +the movements of the army. Everywhere was panic. +It is remarkable that the Serbian Government at Niš +chose this time (November 24) for making to the National +Skupština the first Declaration<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> that they proposed to +carry on the War until "we have delivered and united +all our brothers who are not yet free, Serbs, Croats and +Slovenes." (Later on when old King Peter after many +trials managed to reach Durazzo he was given a few hours' +notice in which to leave that place; he was also thrust +out of Brindisi by the Italians because he declined to +repudiate this Declaration.) "Machen Sie Ordnung" +would soon be heard. Even the army, unaccustomed to +defeat, was losing its self-possession. Putnik, the revered +old strategist, declared that he could do no more. No +longer in his over-heated room, struggling with asthma, +could the famous marshal evolve a plan. And then it +happened that General Mišić, placed in command of the +first army, determined, after studying the situation, to +risk everything on a last throw. Mišić was a quiet, methodical +little man, whose optimism was always based on knowledge—in +the intervals between Serbia's former campaigns +he had won distinction as Professor of Strategy. He +now caused 1400 young students, the flower of the nation, +to be appointed non-commissioned officers; he likewise +produced a most brilliant scheme of operations, so that +the whole army was fired with enthusiasm, and so irresistibly +did they attack that by December 13 not a single +armed Austrian remained in the country. Ernest +Haeckel, the great professor, had said at Jena that the +native superiority of the German nation conferred on +them the right to occupy the Balkans, Asia Minor, Syria +and Mesopotamia, excluding from these parts the weaker +and inferior peoples who were living there. On December +15 King Peter made a triumphal entry into Belgrade—a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> +Hungarian flag which had floated from the Palace was +employed as a carpet on the steps of the cathedral when +the King proceeded thither with his generals to give +thanks for the miraculous success of Serbia's army. +Once more the famous little town, the "white town" that +is throned so splendidly above the plain where two wide +rivers meet, was in possession of the Serbs. Against this +rampart many human waves have broken—Attila and +his Huns encamped on the plain, the Ostrogoths appeared, +Justinian built the city walls, then came the Avars and +Charlemagne and the Franks, the Bulgars, the Byzantines, +the Magyars. The white town, Beli Grad or Beograd, +which we call Belgrade—Wizzenburch was the old +German name—has a glorious past and surely a magnificent +future.</p> + +<p>When the Serbs came back to Belgrade in December +1914, the total of Austrian prisoners was more numerous +than the Serbian combatants. But 35,000 of these +prisoners, together with 250,000 Serbs of all ages and +106 Serbian and Allied doctors, were now to succumb to +the plague of typhus, which the Austrian troops had +carried from Galicia. Hospitals were hurried out from +France and Great Britain; heroic work was done by +women and by men; doctors operated day and night—in +the hospitals the patients were so closely packed that +it was impossible to step between them.</p> + +<p>"In Skoplje," says Colonel Morrison, who in civil +life is senior surgeon to the Queen's Hospital, Birmingham—"in +Skoplje a British unit was installed in a large factory +accommodating over 1000 medical and surgical patients. +Besides their inherent unsuitability the premises were +detestably insanitary and the floor space overcrowded +to its utmost capacity. On the ground floor I saw 250 +men lying on sacks of straw packed closely together, +covered only by their ragged uniform under a blanket. +Gangrenous limbs and septic compound fractures were +common, the stench being overpowering; yet every +window was closely shut." He tells how seven out of +the members of the British staff went down with typhus. +At Užice he found over 700 patients crammed into rooms +containing about 500 beds; many were lying on the +bare floor; others were on sacks of straw; others on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> +raised wooden platforms in series of six men side by +side. Often one would see an elderly warrior, who had +been wounded a week or two previously, being jolted +along in an ox-cart with several civilians who were suffering +from typhus—all trying to find a hospital that could +take them in. And meanwhile it was necessary to reorganize +the army: all the men between the ages of +seventeen and fifty-five were called to the colours, including +those whom the doctors had declared to be totally +unfit for military service.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE TREATY OF LONDON, APRIL 1915</p> + +<p>On April 26, 1915, the negotiations were concluded +between France, Great Britain, Russia and Italy; the +Treaty of London was signed and the Italians had become +our Allies. By this Treaty we and France and Russia +undertook to give them, if we were victorious, a very +large increase of territory—over which, by the way, we +none of us had any right of disposal.</p> + +<p>["For Serbia and for Montenegro this is a war of +defence and of liberation and not of conquest," said the +Yugoslav Committee in London (May 1915)—which +Committee, by the way, made its first headquarters in +Rome, and only transferred itself to London and Paris +in view of the frankly hostile attitude of Sonnino and his +colleagues. It consisted of the prominent Croats and +Slovenes who had managed to escape across the Austrian +frontier. "Serbia and Montenegro," said the Committee, +"fight to liberate our people from a foreign yoke +and to unite them in one sole, free nation.... To perpetuate +the separation of these territories in leaving them +under the Austro-Hungarian domination or another +foreign domination, would be in flagrant violation of our +ethnographic, geographic and economic unity; our +people would, without any doubt, oppose to it an energetic +and justified resistance."] At other times during the +nineteenth century the Great Powers made amongst +themselves and without consulting the Small Powers +certain arrangements which affected the latter, although, +as Professor Westlake observes,<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> all the States, so far as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> +their sovereignty is concerned, stand equal before the +law. But these arbitrary arrangements had always been +made in the interest and for the security and well-being +of the weaker State, as, for example, when the Congress of +Berlin decided on the independence of Roumania and +Serbia, in accordance with the will of the people. This +beneficent action on the part of the Great Powers infringed +none of the principles of international law, whereas the +Treaty of London took away from the smaller Power +nearly everything of value it possessed and stripped it of +the possibility of future greatness; the spoil was presented +by the Great Powers to one of themselves. We may +concede, as Mr. C. A. H. Bartlett of the New York and +United States Federal Bar points out in his closely +reasoned monograph<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a>—we may concede that belligerents +can by way of anticipation allot enemy land among +themselves, yet such a compact cannot properly be +exercised by them so as to work injustice to another ally +who was not a party to the division of territory. From +the first it was well understood that the Treaty of London +could only be imposed in direct defiance of the wishes of +the populations most immediately concerned, so that +the Italian Cabinet insisted that the whole transaction +should be kept from the knowledge of the Serbian Government. +As an illustration of the domineering and extortionate +nature of Italy's demands (to which the Entente +submitted) one may mention that part of the proposed +boundary was traced over the high seas beyond the three-mile +limit, which of course was a proposition entirely at +variance with international law. We should not forget, +says the <i>Spectator</i>,<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> the whole Italian record of idealism +and liberal thought. And Mr. G. M. Trevelyan, an +Italian exponent,<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> remarks that the terms of the Treaty +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>of London were unknown to the people who paraded the +streets of Rome impatient for their country to enter the +War, and threatening with death the Minister Giolitti +who had hitherto succeeded in keeping them out of it. +The grandiose bargain which the Government had made +was unknown to them; but surely Mr. Trevelyan is paying +meagre tribute to their idealism and liberal thought +when he implies they would have been elated by a knowledge +of the details of the Treaty. Ought not, rather, a +people imbued with the afore-mentioned virtues to have +threatened with death a Minister who should attempt +to carry through so scandalous an instrument? "The +broad reason why the Italians joined our side," says Mr. +Trevelyan, "was because they were a Western, a Latin +and a Liberal civilization." Mr. Bartlett, who ponders +his words with legal precision, thinks that "Italy was +not inspired by any very noble principles of right and +justice when the War began, nor until long after it had +swept over the greater portion of Europe ... nor was +she spontaneously moved by any sentiment of human +justice. She was cool, calculating and business-like. +She weighed carefully in the balance the advantages and +disadvantages she might derive from the pending struggle; +she saw on which side the profit might lie, and with that +commercial prudence for which her people are renowned +she set her own price on the value of her aid to the +Entente." But if the long hesitation was nothing more +than governmental prudence, and if the nation as a whole +was out of sympathy with such ideas, how came it that, +after the plunge was taken, no less than 300 deputies +left their cards on Signor Giolitti? The country was, +through various causes, swept into the War; and in +considering whether this was in harmony with or in +opposition to the desires of the majority I think one +should pay at least as much attention to the deputies +who acted as to the crowd who shouted.... The country +was swept into the War, and a Bologna newspaper (<i>Resto +del Carlino</i>, March 21, 1915) has published a telegram +from Sonnino to the Italian Ambassadors in Paris, London +and Petrograd, which announced that Italy was joining +in the World War for the purpose of destroying the +strategical advantage enjoyed by Austria in the Adriatic.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> +But at the same time the Southern Slavs must be prevented +from gaining a similar position, and so the coast +must be neutralized from Kotor to the river Vojuša. +Sonnino expressly gives Rieka to the Croats. It is not +only this which lends great interest to the document, +but the fact that Italy's entrance into the War was determined +five weeks before the signing of the Treaty of +London and two months before she actually declared war.</p> + + +<p class="section">HOW BULGARIA CAME INTO THE WAR</p> + +<p>In the course of the year 1915 Ferdinand of Bulgaria, +with his henchman Radoslavoff, was arranging to come +into the War. Public opinion in that country was smarting +under the drastic Treaty of Bucharest, which had been +imposed by the victors of the second Balkan War. It +was Roumania which had inflicted the shrewdest wound by +taking the whole of the Dobrudja as a recompense for a +military promenade, during which she lost a few men who +deserted, and a few officers who were shot in the back. +The Dobrudja is a land whose people cause it to resemble +a mosaic—Greeks, Turks, Roumanians, Tartars, Bulgars, +Armenians and gipsies are to be found—but the southern +parts are undoubtedly Bulgarian. After the great outcry +which the Bulgars had raised over the surrender of one +town, Silistra, it can be imagined that the loss of the +whole land came as an unendurable sentence. Quite +apart from Bulgaria's Macedonian aspirations, it was felt +in Belgrade that Ferdinand, by pointing to the Dobrudja, +would be able to drive his kingdom into an alliance with +the Central Powers, an alliance whose aim, as far as he +was concerned, was to leave him Tzar of the Balkans. +The photograph which he circulated of himself, seated in +a splendid chair upon a promontory by the Black Sea, +wearing the appropriate archaic robes, and with a look +of profound meditation on his otherwise Machiavellian +features, was exactly what he thought a Balkan Tzar +should be.</p> + +<p>The Serbs were in favour of delivering an attack upon +the Bulgars before they had mobilized and concentrated +their troops. This would not have warded off the Teutonic +invasion, but the Serbs would have been able to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> +maintain contact with Salonica, thus facilitating the +evacuation of their army. And who knows whether this +diversion would not have induced the Greeks and the +Roumanians to change their attitude? However, the +proposal was vetoed by Serbia's great Allies, who thought +that their diplomacy might work upon the Bulgars. +Many worthy people said that it would be quite inconceivable +for the Bulgarian army to oppose the Russian, +seeing that this would be terrible ingratitude. But they +forgot that if the Russians had been, not for purely +altruistic motives, the kind patrons of the Bulgars, they +had recently—when the Tzar Nicholas and the Tzarina +came to the Constanza fêtes—made open cause with +Bulgaria's opponents. They were also forgetting, rather +inexcusably, that the Bulgars were averse to the idea of +the Russians securing Constantinople. On the other +hand, the old pro-Russian sentiments of the people still +survived: the Russian Legation at Sofia received numerous +applications to serve in the army; large contributions +were made to the Russian Red Cross, and public +prayers were offered for the success of the Russian arms. +But the Muscovite Minister at Sofia was a man unfitted +for the post, and Ferdinand's task was made easier. The +Allied diplomats could argue, later on, that they failed by +a narrow margin, since Radoslavoff only succeeded in +gaining a majority by means of the help of the Turkish +deputies; but if the Sobranje had been hostile to Ferdinand +and Radoslavoff they would simply have dissolved +it. As a pattern of morals Dr. Radoslavoff is not worth +quotation—the offences for which during a previous +Premiership he was convicted were rather flagrant—but his +views on international politics are quite instructive. On +November 14, 1912, he wrote to his friend Mavrodieff, +the prefect of Sofia, a letter which was afterwards reproduced +in facsimile. "It is clear," he said, "that Russian +diplomacy is disloyal. It wants Constantinople.... +But it is not only Russia which envies Bulgaria; the same +thing is true for Austria-Hungary and Germany. The +Balkan Union has surprised them, and they will seek a new +basis in their future politics...." But then the second +Balkan War and the Treaty of Bucharest enabled Ferdinand +to commit his country to an alliance which various<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> +of his statesmen and generals vehemently deprecated. +"If the Germans should win," telegraphed Tocheff, the +Minister at Vienna, in August 1915, "that would be still +more dangerous for Bulgaria."</p> + +<p>Ferdinand was sure that the Austro-Germans would +succeed in conquering the Serbs. On October 6, after a +treacherous artillery preparation, the two armies began +to cross at various points the Danube, the Save and the +Drin. Their losses in the hand-to-hand engagements +may have reminded them of a phrase in the official explanation +that was issued, after the rout of the previous +December, by the Viennese authorities: "The retirement +of our forces after their victorious offensive in Serbia has +given birth to divers rumours for the most part entirely +without foundation.... It was inevitable that we should +have important losses in men and material." So it was on +this occasion—at Belgrade, for example, thousands were +killed as they struggled to the shore—in a broad street +leading down to the harbour a brigade of Skoplje recruits +plunged through the Austrians with their knives. But +in the end, on October 10—and in spite of heroic work on +the part of some French and British naval detachments—Belgrade +fell. On October 12 the Bulgars attacked. +"The European War is drawing to its close," said Ferdinand's +proclamation. "The victorious armies of the +Central Powers are in Serbia and are rapidly advancing." +They advanced less rapidly than they had planned, thanks +to the wonderful exploits of the Serbian army, which was +heavily encumbered by the growing stream of fugitives. +The Austro-Germans failed to encircle the Serbian troops—slowly +and keeping in touch with those who were on the +Bulgarian frontier, the Serbs retired to the south and +west.</p> + + +<p class="section">ATTEMPT TO BUY OFF THE SERBS</p> + +<p>The Government and the diplomatic corps had been +for some time at Niš, the second largest town, whose +Turkish character is disappearing. But the population +in the direst Turkish times were less exposed to epidemics +than the thousands of unwilling residents who thronged +the little, painted houses and the wide, cobbled streets in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> +1915. It was at Niš that the negotiations were conducted +with Bulgaria, and in July an aged gentleman from Budapest +came with the offer of a separate peace. This +gentleman, a stockbroker of Slav origin, was imbued with +patriotic motives, for he was assured that Germany would +win the War. It was an undertaking in those days for a +man in his seventy-sixth year to travel, by way of +Roumania and Bulgaria, to Niš; but as he had connections +in Serbia he was resolved to see them, and he +travelled at his own expense, although the German Consul-General +at Buda-Pest, acting apparently for the Deutsche +Bank, had spoken of 18 million crowns for distribution +among the politicians at Niš and five millions for the old +stockbroker himself. His suggestion was that Serbia +should make certain small modifications in the Bucharest +Treaty in favour of the Bulgars, that Albania should be +hers up to and including Durazzo, that she should be +joined to Montenegro, and that her debts to the Entente +should be shouldered by Germany, which would likewise +give a considerable loan, and requested merely the permission +to send German troops down the Danube. "My +dear boy," said a Minister, an old friend of his, "go back +at once, or they'll lock you up in a mad-house." And when +the poor old gentleman got back he found himself compelled +to start a lawsuit against the Germans, since they +were unwilling to pay his costs. The Consul-General at +Pest disowned all knowledge of him, but the broker called +in the police as witnesses; for they had summoned him, +on more than one occasion, to explain why he was so much +in the Consul's company. The German Government said +also that he was a perfect stranger to them; but finally +they settled with him for a sum which is believed to have +been 35,000 crowns.</p> + + +<p class="section">GREEK TRANSACTIONS</p> + +<p>One reason why the Entente had dissuaded the Serbs +from attacking Bulgaria was to prevent the <i>casus fœderis</i> +with Greece being jeopardized. This treaty between +Greece and Serbia would become operative by a Bulgarian +aggression—and the fox-faced M. Gounaris when he was +Prime Minister of Greece in August 1915 assured the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> +Allied Powers that Greece would never tolerate a Bulgarian +attack upon Serbia. It was largely on the strength +of this assurance that, when, a little later, the attitude of +Bulgaria grew menacing and the Serbian General Staff +suggested marching upon Sofia and nipping the Bulgarian +mobilization in the bud, the then Russian Foreign +Minister, M. Sazonov, supported in this by Sir Edward +Grey, warned Serbia not to take the initiative. Serbia +yielded to the demands of her great Allies, only to see +herself abandoned by the Greeks. King Constantine and +probably the greater part of his people were anxious to +remain outside the war. And to free himself from the +embarrassing Treaty with Serbia he declared that it would +only have applied if Serbia had been attacked by the +Bulgars. [We may say that it was doubtful whether the +<i>casus fœderis</i> arose when Serbia was attacked by Austria; +but it clearly and indubitably did arise when she was +attacked by Bulgaria. When Venizelos spoke of the +obligations of Greece towards Serbia, a certain Mr. Paxton +Hibben, an American admirer of Constantine, said in his +book, <i>Constantine I. and the Greek People</i> (New York, 1920), +that Venizelos was making an appeal to the sentimentality +of his countrymen!] So Constantine proclaimed +that Greece was neutral—"Our gallant Serbian allies," he +declared some five years later, when he returned from +exile, "Our gallant Serbian allies"; and the Athenian +mob—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i8">August Athena! where,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Where are thy men of might, thy grand in soul?<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Gone.<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> ...<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p style="text-indent: 0em">—the Athenian mob cheered itself hoarse. One word +from Constantine and they would have wrecked the +Serbian Legation and the French and the British for the +terrible bad taste of not exposing their flags. But Constantine, +clutching his German Field-Marshal's baton (or +perhaps it was the native baton given to the royal leader +who in the Balkan War wiped out some of the ignominy +with which the previous Turkish War had covered him), +at any rate Constantine restrained himself. Why the +devil couldn't these Serbs understand that they were his +gallant allies! Let them wipe out the unhappy past.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> +Had they never heard of that magnificent French actress +who, being asked about the paternity of her son, replied +that she really did not know? "Alas!" she said, "I am +so shortsighted." Well, it was true that in 1915 he had +been neutral and unable to tolerate the presence of Serbian +soldiers on his territory; if they found themselves obliged +to leave their country and retreated by way of Greece he +gave orders to have them disarmed. This was the attitude +imposed upon a neutral. And thousands and thousands +of them had unfortunately died in consequence while +passing over the Albanian mountains. "Our alliance +with Serbia," quoth the King while opening the Chamber +in 1921—"our alliance with Serbia now drawn closer as +the result of so many sacrifices and heroic struggles...." +The son of the eagle, as his people call him, stopped a +moment, but could hear no laughter. As for his policy in +1915, he had been perhaps a neutral lacking in benevolence. +If he and his Ministers did not actually refuse to receive +the non-combatant young Serbs they very certainly did not +go out of their way to offer any shelter to these erstwhile +little allies in distress, when the alternative to Greece was +wild Albania. Twenty thousand Serbian children lost +their lives upon those bleak and trackless mountains.<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> +It was most unfortunate. And in the Cathedral of Athens, +in the gorgeous presence of the clergy and the more responsible +sections of the population, the King chuckled +to himself as he was acclaimed with cries of "Christos +aneste!" (Christ is risen!). After all, those 20,000 +Serbian boys would not have lived for ever. These +excellent Athenians were resolved that bygones should be +bygones. It was perfectly true that British soldiers and +French, entrapped and shot down by his command, were +buried away yonder in Piræus cemetery. He felt like +having a good laugh, but if you are a King you must be +dignified....</p> + + +<p class="section">FLIGHT OF THE SERBS</p> + +<p>Niš fell on November 4, 1915, King Peter's plate, +according to the subsequent avowals of one Brust, a non-commissioned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> +officer, being distributed among the 145th +Prussian Regiment, the Colonel annexing ten pieces and +several privates receiving spoons and knives—and now +the Serbs had to leave their country. On the other side +of the Albanian mountains they might hope to find a land +of exile. It is said that several of the Ministers contemplated +suicide—the Minister of War had so far lost his +head that, after reaching Salonica by way of Monastir, +he refused to join his colleagues at Scutari—but the venerable +Pašić did not lose his jovial humour. He may have +laughed in order to encourage those who were despairing. +On the other hand, he may have known that Serbia would +rise, and rise to greater heights. He made no secret of +the satisfaction which he felt when the Bulgars attacked, +for this, he said, would settle once for all the Macedonian +question. Whether the attitude of the Southern Slavs in +Austria-Hungary appealed to him in equal measure is a +little doubtful. It was hard for him, at his time of life, +to envisage anything more than a Greater Serbia.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE FAITHFUL CROATS</p> + +<p>But the Croats, as is shown by other documents from +the Zagreb archives, were faithful to their race. The +extracts, by the way, reply to those foolish Italians who +persisted for years in shouting that the Croats had been +the fiercest foes of the Entente. That they were the foes +of Italy is not surprising, for the provisions of the wretched +Treaty of London, concluded behind the back of the +British Parliament and without even the Cabinet being +consulted, were by this time public property, and it was +seen that the Italians had succeeded in persuading the +Entente to promise them the reversion of a great slice of +Yugoslav territory, very large portions of which were as +completely Yugoslav as the island of Scedro (Torcola), +whose population consists of one Slav woman called Yakaš, +over eighty years of age. Save for their sentiments +towards the Italians, it is clear that a large number of +Croats were very warmly and very actively on the side of +the Entente. I am sure that the unfortunate Italians of +the Trentino who, like them, were enrolled in the Imperial +and Royal army were as eager to desert, and no doubt if<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> +they had been more numerous we should have had an +Italian contingent fighting with the Russians, in association +with the Czecho-Slovak and the Yugoslav brigades.</p> + + +<p class="center" style="text-indent: 1em">(G)</p> + + +<div class='center' style="font-size: 80%"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Imperial and Royal Military Command in<br /> Zagreb.</span></td> +<td><i>Sealed.</i><br/> +<span class="smcap">Chief of Staff.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Int. Dep.<span style="padding-left: 4em">Army G.H.Q.</span><br/> +Commander on the S.E. Front.<br /> +F.P.O. 11.<br /> +5 op. by H.Q.F. <span style="padding-left: 4em"> P.O. 305.</span><br /> +5 A.E.C. <span style="padding-left: 6.5em">F.P.O. 81.</span></span><br /> +Evid. O. Vienna.</td> +<td>1<br/> <br/>2<br />3<br />4<br />5</td> +<td style="width: 12em; text-align: left; padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -1em">To be dispatched in +two envelopes, K.N. +to be written on the + one inside and N. +alone without K. on +the outer; seal!<br /> +<span style="padding-left: 2em"><span class="smcap">Zagreb</span>, <i>July</i> 10, 1915.</span></td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>In spite of the ten months' war with Serbia, in spite of +the notable executions of native citizens for assisting the +enemy at the time of his incursion into Syrmia and +Bosnia, there has latterly been an alarming increase in the +number of cases of grossest insult to the person of H.M. +the Emperor and King; outbreaks of deeply felt, only +forcibly controlled hatred against everything friendly +to the dynasty and the Monarchy, curses upon the exalted +wearer of the Crown, glorification of King Peter and the +Serb realm, expressed by men and women alike, are of +daily occurrence....</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em">(H)</p> + +<p>In this document we return to the subject of desertions:</p> + +<p style="font-size: 80%; text-indent: 0em"> +<span class="smcap">Royal Hungarian 42nd Infantry of the Line</span>.<br /> +Op. No. 1312/6.<br /> +<span class="smcap"><span style="padding-left: 1.6em">To the Imperial and Royal Corps</span><br /> +<span style="padding-left: 4em">Command in Sadagora</span></span>.<br /> +<span style="padding-left: 16em"><span class="smcap">Czernawka</span>, <i>August</i> 12, 1915.</span> +</p> + +<p>In the period from the 8/8 to the 9/8 two men of the +10th company have deserted (of whom one is probably +wandering somewhere behind the front, as he is mentally +deficient, having even gone away without a cap and being +a Roman Catholic); likewise four men of the 12th company +and all the men recently enrolled from the village +of Dolnji Lapac, of the Greek Orthodox religion, have +apparently deserted to the foe.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></p> + +<p>The impressions which I had of these men—impressions +based on a personal intercourse of several hours while they +were being marched to the recruiting depot—was unfavourable. +And this I immediately made known in writing to +the regimental command, with a brief note on this point +on the 6/8 to the 11th Corps command. Unhappily my +impressions were correct; there are scoundrels in these +ranks. I have for the present instituted a most thorough +and severe examination, wherein I am already myself +participating; for I am inflexibly determined, at the very +smallest sign of a recurrence, to apply to these traitors the +military judicial procedure and, if necessary, to have the +men decimated, as I was unfortunately compelled to do +with the Bosnian-Herzegovinian line regiment No. 4 last +winter, which method had the most excellent results. +That regiment has thenceforward been blameless.... I +am so very well informed as to conditions in the south +that I cannot be deceived, and I know that, in spite of all—including +some misguided—measures, there are still a +number of traitors, some of them occupying a high social +position, moving about freely in Croatia-Slavonia instead +of being strangled.</p> + +<p>So that steps may be taken against the families of +guilty persons, I enclose a list of the men who have +deserted from the middle of June, this year. I beg that +I may be supported to the uttermost, without the slightest +wavering, and in a short time—so my experience tells me—we +shall be in a most satisfactory position.</p> + +<p style="padding-left: 60%"> +<span class="smcap">Liposcak</span>, Lieut.-Field-Marshal.<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p> + +<p style="font-size: 80%; text-indent: 0em"> +<span class="smcap">Imperial and Royal Corps Command,</span><br /> +<span style="padding-left: 3em"><span class="smcap">Sadagora</span>, 12/8, 1915. 9 p.m.</span><br /> +No. 2446, with three enclosures. +</p> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 1em">(I)</p> + +<p>We then get an elaborate and indignant dissertation, +dated November 1915 and signed by Lieut.-Colonel +Olleschick. It is a study of the way in which the secret<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> +police was hampered and its patriotic activities watered +down; the Colonel also exposes the manner in which +antipatriotic, or shall we say anti-Habsburg, citizens +of Croatia-Slavonia are protected:</p> + +<p style="font-size: 80%; text-indent: 0em"> +<span class="smcap">Imperial and Royal Military Command in Zagreb</span>.<br /> +<span style="padding-left: 6em"><i>Chief of the General Staff.</i></span><br /> +<span style="padding-left: 2em">K. No. 1681.</span></p> + +<p>The Colonel expresses his unbounded approval of +Maravić, the chief of this branch of the police, and of von +Klobučarić, a police captain. The former, who is dead, +was for many years at the head of the police at Zemlin, +opposite Belgrade, and has left behind a reputation for +fairness. The whereabouts of von Klobučarić are unknown, +and it would be prudent if this ex-Austrian officer, +ex-dentist's assistant and ex-policeman were to ensure their +remaining so. The Ban is accused of having frustrated +various designs of this couple. He is further accused +of having placed at the head of the Koprivnica internment +camp—where 6000 "politically untrustworthy" Serbs +were assembled—the mayor, Kamenar, who himself had +been dismissed for his political untrustworthiness; and +when the military protested, they received no answer, +while the mayor—so the wrathful writer hears—has been +removed from his post at the internment camp and restored +to his former office and dignity. The colonel asks +how it is that in Croatia the crimes of "Majestätsbeleidigung" +and high treason are seldom punished with more +than three or four months' incarceration, while in other +parts of the Empire they are visited with death or at least +a sentence of several years. (The answer is that in Croatia +the Government was obliged, on account of the language, +to employ Croatian judges.) He mentions that Professor +Arshinov, alleged to have come to Zagreb in order to carry +on an anti-Habsburg and pro-Serbian propaganda, is +indeed under arrest, but is being far too well treated at the +hospital, where he receives his Serbian associates and even +has convivial evenings with them. In fact the whole +country, so the writer asserts, is saturated with Serbian +sympathies and agitators. He says that in some villages +every functionary, from the highest to the lowest, is a +Serb; the <i>gendarmerie</i>, the tax-gatherers and the foresters<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span> +are frequently Serbs and he regards it as noteworthy that +the hotels, inns and cafés are almost exclusively in Serbian +hands; "and it is only too well known,"—so he rather +strangely says—"that these are the places where suspicious +characters are wont to hatch their secret plans +under the influence of alcohol." He complains at length +of the anti-Austrian activities of the Serbo-Croatian +Coalition, and this proves that the party was not, as its +critics have said, too subservient to the Habsburgs.</p> + + +<p class="section">HOW THE SERBS CAME TO THEIR PATRIARCH'S TOWN</p> + +<p>At the end of November the Serbian army, with the +Government and thousands of refugees, arrived at the +ancient towns of Prizren and Peć. It was at the rambling +old patriarchal town of Peć that the Serbian soldiers +had to do a thing which even their marvellous optimism +could not endure—most of the field guns had now to be +destroyed, after a few years of crowded and victorious +life. An American correspondent, Mr. Fortier Jones, +tells us<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> how a gunner asked to be photographed beside +his beloved weapon, and how, when he wanted to leave +his address, he suddenly realized that with the loss of this +gun he would be a mere homeless wanderer. It was not +surprising that these steel-built stoics, than whom all +French and British witnesses agree there are no better +fighters in the world, should have broken down at this +ordeal. As for the chauffeurs, they were busy polishing +their cars and cleaning their engines—presumably through +force of habit—prior to the breaking up of all these +touring-cars and lorries. Some were saturated with +petrol and set on fire, others were exploded with hand +grenades, but the most imaginative method was to drive +the car up to that place, two or three miles from Peć, +where the road to Andrievica turned into a horse-trail +on the side of the precipice. Here the chauffeur would +jump out, after having let in the clutch and pushed down +the accelerator—and the car would leap into space, +three or four hundred feet over a mountain torrent. +From this point the <i>via dolorosa</i> stretched away precariously, +at first a winding path of ice and then a track<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> +across the snowdrifts of the barren uplands. The Serbian +Government had offered to construct this very necessary +road to Andrievica; the engineer, one Smodlaka, undertook +to build it in three months, but Nikita's Minister +replied that the Austrian prisoners, whom it was proposed +to use, were mostly in the grip of spotted fever. This +was not the case, and one of the results of there being no +road was that nearly all the supplies from Russia for +the Montenegrins were abandoned at Peć. Cold, starvation +and exposure took a fearful toll among the straggling +wanderers—between 1000 and 1500 were cut off and +murdered by savage Albanians (whose considerate treatment +of the Serbs is highly praised by their champion, Miss +Edith Durham. Reviewing in the <i>Daily Herald</i> a book of +Serbian tales that have precious little to do with Albania, she +goes out of her way to laud, in those days of the terrible retreat, +the kindliness of her protégés.) As we have mentioned, +of the 36,000 boys who accompanied the army in order +to escape the Austrians, only some 16,000 reached the +Adriatic, where it was said that there was nothing human +left of them except their eyes. They had lived on roots +and bark of trees, they drank the water into which decomposed +corpses had been thrown. Of the 50,000 +Austrian prisoners—many of them Yugoslavs—about +44,000 died in the course of their eight weeks' retreat; +none of them were heard to complain or seen committing +any brutal act. Very many Englishwomen were included +in this long procession; old King Peter walked a good +deal of the way, the Archbishop of Belgrade brought the +relics of Stephen the First-Crowned and was followed by +priests with lighted tapers, and Marshal Putnik, whom +exposure would have killed, was carried all the way +inside a primitive sedan-chair.... "Whence do you +come and what are you?" asked a Serbian woman<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> of +the wounded and dying. "We are," they replied in +prose that reminds one of Mestrović, "we are the smouldering +torches with which our country is kept warm. In +the heart of one's native land there is neither truth nor +justice—we love our native land; this love is a barrier +against human love; the heart of one's native land is +great and selfish and it throbs—in this heart is the faith<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> +of all our hearts, we love our native land. We watch over +it and we defend it and we love, though the lettering +upon our tomb be enveloped in ivy. Formidable is its +victory, and we will march along, not asking whether +anybody will return. We love our native land and even +when the blood is thickening inside our throats and we +are carrying our entrails in our hands." Though they +were Serbs they had forgotten how to sing; it was some +time later that the words, now famous, of "Tamo daleko" +burst from the inspired lips of a simple soldier and were +taken up by his companions: "There, far away, far +away by the Morava, there is my village, there is my +love...."</p> + +<p>"They came exhausted into Scutari, one by one or in +small groups," says Monsieur Boppe, the French Minister,<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> +"some of them on horseback, some on foot; here and +there one saw a trace of military order, but most of them +had no weapons. They looked as if they could not +march another mile, these moving skeletons, so painfully +they crawled along, so haggard, so emaciated, with +a colour so cadaverous and eyes so dull. This mournful +band of brothers struggled into Scutari for days, beneath +the rain and through the mud. No bitterness came from +the lips of those who had undergone every privation; +as if impelled by destiny, they passed along in silence; +from time to time, indeed, one heard them say 'hleba' +(bread)—that was the only word they had the strength +to pronounce. For several days the majority of them +had had nothing to eat, and in the cantonments where +they were lodged outside the town their Government +could only provide a meagre ration." A hundredweight +of maize cost 300 francs in gold.... But what of the +women who had remained in Belgrade? Miss Annie +Christić, whose unflagging work for her people is so well +known in this country, has told us how the Austro-Hungarians +started paying out relief money to the families +of State officials. They advertised their generosity on +a large scale, but the amounts were very small, and many +women were too proud to accept this dole from the enemy. +They preferred to do any kind of work offered by the +municipality of Belgrade. Thus one saw women in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> +furs or smart clothes—the remnants of former days—trundling +wheelbarrows of stone for road repairs, or +carrying heavy loads. Delicately nurtured girls could +be seen working at the slaughterhouse among the entrails +and offal for twelve hours on end. The wife of a professor +scrubbed office floors for many months before her husband +at the front could send her any money. Street-sweeping +was a common occupation for women of all classes.</p> + +<p>"We rescued the gallant Serbian army," said the +Italians, in the course of a long and rhetorical placard +which in 1919 they pasted up throughout Rieka and the +Adriatic lands they occupied, and which was not more +convincing than the caravan of Dalmatian mayors whom, +after the War, they very proudly exhibited in Paris, a +suave official from the Embassy acting as the showman. +(The Italian authorities had taken in hand the election +of these mayors—save Signor Ziliotto of Zadar, who was +elected by his fellow-townsmen.) ... When the wretched +Serbs who found themselves staggering through central +Albania—among them large numbers of boys so young +that they would not have been called up until 1919—when +they hoped to reach the Adriatic at Valona, they were +told that this route was barred to them. Having eluded +the Austrians, the Germans and the Bulgars, they were +left by the Italians to die of starvation and fatigue. It +may well have seemed to them, as to Bedros Tourian, +the Armenian poet, that "All the world is but God's +mockery." When King Peter, worn out by the journey +and his ailments, reached Valona by way of Durazzo, he +was ordered by the commandant of that place to depart +with his suite—which consisted of four persons—within +twenty-four hours.... In the middle of December a +French relief mission arrived on the Albanian coast, +General de Mondésir reached Scutari and a large British +mission under General Taylor landed at Durazzo. These +did what was possible to save the remnants of the Serbian +army. But, after a short time, a fresh series of obstacles +arose. The King of Montenegro, very loyal to the +Austrians, facilitated their advance across his country. +Thus it was impracticable for the Serbs to concentrate +and to embark from those few wooden huts which are +called, in Italian, San Giovanni di Medua. Between the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> +bare cliffs and the sea the miserable men and boys and +women were compelled to plod towards the south. One +hundred and fifty thousand survivors were eventually +carried by the Allies to Corfu.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE SHADOW OVER MONTENEGRO</p> + +<p>These had been busy days for Nikita and his sons. A +royal order was issued to the Montenegrin military and +police authorities, commanding them to prevent the +population from giving or selling any provisions to the +Serbian army. "Ne bogami, svetoga mi Vassilija ne!" +["Goodness gracious, no! And by St. Basil, no!"] was +the phrase which greeted the Serbs;<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> and when they +remonstrated with the Montenegrins for demanding eleven +Serbian dinars in silver for ten Montenegrin perpers—the +exchange was at par, but the people were acting +under orders—"If I had ten sons I would give them to +King Peter," was the usual reply, "but money is money." +Yet the Austrians were not as grateful as they might +have been. Nikita was intending, after the annihilation +of the Serbs, to conclude a separate peace with Austria +and to rule, as an Austrian satrap, over an enlarged +territory. But they ignored his aspirations; they did +not take into account that he had been so kind to them +at Lovčen and elsewhere. They swarmed over his country—this +time he was not play-acting when he showed his +indignation—and the deceived deceiver was forced to fly. +On January 10, Lovčen had fallen. A characteristic +telegram:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Kuča mi gori,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Kuči mi trebaju—<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p style="text-indent: 0em">["My house is burning, I want the Kuči"] was sent by +Nikita to his best fighting men, the Kuči, whom he had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> +left in reserve at Danilovgrad. When General Gajnić +received this he marched all night with his brigade and +reached Cetinje in the morning. Nikita met them and +announced that, after all, he did not require them. He +would conquer without them. And Lovčen fell.</p> + +<p>That Adriatic Gibraltar, which rises gaunt and sheer +to some 6000 feet, was entrusted by Nikita to his youngest +son, Prince Peter, a young man of marvellous vanity. +He used to deny, after the surrender of Lovčen, that he +had consorted at Budva with Lieut.-Colonel Hupka, the +former military attaché at Cetinje, whom the Austrians +brought specially from the Italian front for this purpose. +The well-known patriot, Dr. Machiedo of Zadar, who +happened to be confined during the summer of 1915 by +the Austrians in the fortress of Goražda, which lies above +Kotor, read in the telephone book certain messages from +Prince Peter, asking for an interview with Hupka—these +messages were carried by a patrol to the lines and thence +telephoned to Goražda. When the Prince at last acknowledged +that he had been meeting Hupka—which +he naturally had done at his father's command—he stated +that it was with the object of preventing the bombardment +of open towns by Austrian aeroplanes. Between +him and Hupka the arrangements were made; many of +the Austrians exchanged their military boots for the +Serbian national sandals, so that they could more easily +scale the rocks; and Peter sent verbal orders to his two +outlying brigadiers that they must not resist. General +Pejanović demanded, however, that this should be put +in writing, and the document is extant. Thirteen Austrians +lie buried in a little graveyard on the slopes of Lovčen, +mostly men who missed their footing; and this was the +price that Austria paid for the tremendous mountain +that she had coveted for years; she had been willing, +more than once, to let the Montenegrins, in exchange for +it, have Scutari. The great picture of "The Storming of +Lovčen," which Gabriel Jurkić, the Sarajevo artist, was +commissioned by the Austrians to paint, was never +painted; and when Nikita motored out from Cetinje to +meet the men who were retiring from Lovčen he had the +hardihood to rebuke them as traitors. "It is not we who +are traitors," shouted a colonel, "it is you and your sons!"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> +"Oh! that I must hear such words!" groaned the King, +"I want to die!" But he did not die; on the contrary, +he went to Paris. His eldest son had announced, early +in the campaign, that he was unwell, and he had gone to +France by way of Athens. There he was very accurately +told by Constantine in which month Mackensen and the +Bulgars would descend upon Serbia. When the Prince +arrived at Nice he mentioned this to his friend, Jovo +Popović, the former Montenegrin Minister at Constantinople, +and to Radović. They advised him to inform the +Entente, in order to rehabilitate himself. But when he +telegraphed to his father the reply was "Be quiet." +Prince Danilo has never denied the allegations that while +he was at Nice, Signor Carminatti, the Montenegrin Consul-General +in Milan, conducted negotiations on his behalf at +Lugano with a certain Herr Bernsdorf of the Deutsche +Bank, with a view to a separate peace by Montenegro. The +amount of the financial consideration is not known. And +the business-like Prince, realizing that it would be impossible +for him to return to his native land, secured himself against +the future by selling, through a couple of confidential +agents, his real estate to the Austrians. He likewise disposed +of a good deal of forest which is alleged to have belonged +not to him but to the State, and when his father heard of +the resulting sum of a hundred million francs he was exceedingly +annoyed that this robbery and trafficking with +the enemy during the War had only replenished Danilo's +and not his own exchequer. When his political opponents +heard of these transactions he denied, over and over again, +that they had taken place; but we have his autograph +letter on the subject to Danilo. Before the King left +Montenegro he found another opportunity for a grandiose +attitude. He appeared at Podgorica where he made an +eloquent speech, exhorting his people to march on the +morrow against the hated Austrian and assuring them +that their old King would fire the first shot, whereas he +decamped in the night for Scutari, which is in the +opposite direction. He and the Queen, Prince Peter and +Miuškević, the Premier, fled the country; while Prince +Mirko, the remainder of the Cabinet, the National Assembly +and—above all—the army had instructions to remain +behind. How much easier it would have been for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> +his army than for the Serbs to reach Corfu. But this +terrible old man delivered 50,000 of the best Yugoslav +soldiers to the enemy. On January 21 he sailed away. +I do not know if anybody sang the National Anthem—"Onamo! +Onamo!" ["Yonder! Yonder!"]—which in +his youth Nikita had himself composed. And a few +years later when the gallant Montenegrins could again +lift up their voices and sing "Onamo!" how many of +them thought of him who was skulking and of course +intriguing yonder in France.</p> + +<p>We have alluded to the treatment which in their +distress the Serbs received from their Italian Allies; +but in Albania the Italian army did render a certain +amount of assistance—every day at eleven o'clock the +Austrian aeroplanes would reach Durazzo, and the Italian +soldiers, sentries and all, would rush helter-skelter from +the plentiful food to which they were just sitting down. +The Serbs, many of them, after their privations, looking +like grey ghosts, were always in the neighbourhood of +the Italian barracks and very glad they were to see those +aeroplanes which permitted them to enter in and enjoy +a bounteous meal. When the senior Italian officer +complained to his Serbian colleague, "Surely," said +the latter, "you have a sentry at the door. He can +prevent anyone from going in." At some distance inland +a Serbian major, a friend of mine, was resting on the side +of the road; he had eaten nothing for four days. A +spick-and-span Italian lieutenant of <i>gendarmerie</i> paused +in front of him and was clearly interested. The major +wondered whether he would have some food about him. +But the lieutenant did not even offer him a cigarette. +"Pardon me," he said with a friendly smile, "but will +you allow me to take a photograph?" Large numbers +of mules were brought over by the Italians and apparently +it gave them pleasure to cut their throats. The officers +purchased many Serbian horses—their owners were too +destitute to bargain. But in fairness it must be said that +some Italian ships worked with the French and British +vessels in conveying the Serbs, soldiers and civilians, +from the coast of Albania.</p> + +<p>As for the Montenegrin King, he had attempted, +before his departure, to put the whole blame on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> +shoulders of Colonel Pešić. He sent—in order to make +more certain the success of the Austrian army—a telegraphic +command<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> to the Voivoda Djuro Petrović, the +chief of the Herzegovinian detachment, in which he +required him to destroy his cannons and machine guns +and then (although the enemy was exerting no pressure +upon him) to withdraw towards Nikšić. This order was +issued in the name of Colonel Pešić, the signature being +forged. In fact Nikita thought his Serbian Chief of Staff +was quite a useful personage. But there exists a letter +in which the Colonel wrote that, in order to avoid capitulation, +a supreme effort would be necessary at certain +positions which he indicated and anyhow the army should +be withdrawn to Scutari and the defence of the town +organized. Scutari, by the way, was the scene of another +of Nikita's exploits: he caused the Bank of Montenegro +to send money to the Austrian Consul there, the cash +being delivered by Martinović, the Montenegrin Consul. +It was used to incite the Albanians to take military +action against the Serbs between Prizren and Djakovica. +When this affair was exposed all the Montenegrins knew +by what traitors they were governed. The fall of Montenegro +had been brought about more swiftly by the Austrian +submarines which in the Gulf of San Giovanni di Medua +torpedoed practically every ship that carried food or +munitions, while other boats were not molested. An +investigation showed that the shipping news had been +telegraphed to Prince Peter, and he in his turn handed +it on to the Austrians. The Prince's egregious parent +wanted to be in a position to say that, owing to the lack +of food and munitions, he had been compelled to surrender. +One of his final acts was to summon the Skupština, as +he did not wish to be saddled with the responsibility of +making peace. At a secret sitting on December 11, +1915,—when the retreating Serbs were in San Giovanni, +Scutari and Podgorica,—the Government declared that +they had no resources, that the Entente could not assist +them and that they would wage war for so long as they +had the means—in other words, that the war would cease. +It was continued, however, by those Montenegrin troops<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> +between Kolašin and Bielo Polje, who—even after the +fall of Lovćen on January 10, and the flowing of the +Austrian army towards Scutari—were ordered to make a +counter-offensive, during which they had over 1500 dead +and wounded. The reason for this was that Nikita wished +to prevent his army from escaping to Scutari; he was +afraid lest, if they escaped with the Serbs, they would +dethrone him forthwith. Afterwards he gave an explanation +that he had ordered the Chief of Staff, Yanko Vukotić, +to rescue the army, which order he alleged he had wirelessed +from Brindisi. Vukotić, together with Prince Mirko +and the Ministers who stayed behind, declared in the +<i>Pester Lloyd</i> that Nikita was lying. They added that +he could have sent no wireless from Brindisi, because +there was at that time no receiving station in Montenegro, +the French one at Podgorica having been destroyed at +the order of the British Minister, Count de Salis, the doyen +of the diplomatic corps. The King, by the way, had +endeavoured for some time to rid himself of the diplomats, +who were inconvenient witnesses of what was in progress. +On December 31 a telegram was sent by the Ministers of +France, Great Britain, Italy and Russia, in which they +said that "Apparently our presence is displeasing to the +King and he is trying to disengage himself from us. He +has begged us on several occasions to depart and last +night he insisted, with the asseveration that in forty-eight +hours it would be too late. We suspect that His Majesty is +playing a very ambiguous game...." And on January 9 +the French Minister telegraphed, among other things, +that "My Russian and English colleagues are of opinion +that the King is merely performing a comedy with us +and that this comedy will end in a tragedy for the belligerents." +Nikita, on his arrival in France, proposed to +settle down at Lyons, but the French authorities did not +care for him to be so close to Switzerland, which was one +of his intriguing centres. So they placed at his disposal +a château near Bordeaux and it was not until he had +made repeated requests that they permitted him to come +to Neuilly, a suburb of Paris. He replaced Miuškević +as Premier by Radović, the former victim of the Bomb +Trial, hoping by this move towards the Left to silence his +critics. But in August 1916 Radović presented a memorandum<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> +in favour of the formal union between Montenegro +and Serbia, under King Peter's son and King +Nicholas' grandson, Prince Alexander. The Montenegrin +monarch was enraged at this and, after Radović had +resigned, one after another all the Montenegrins of any +standing withdrew from Nikita, who was openly working +against the Serbs. He and the Princess Xenia conducted +all the Government business, though he distributed among +his tiny clique of adherents various empty titles. An +aged friend of his, Eugene Popović, a native of Triest and +a naturalized Italian, was made Premier, to give pleasure +to Italy; a more active person was the War Minister, +Hajduković, a former shipping contractor in Constantinople, +where a long time ago he had been one of those +young Montenegrins who, to the number of twenty, the +Sultan used to educate—a process which, in the case of +idle boys, was not very irksome. During the Great War +Hajduković was invited by the Allies to quit Salonica, +as they had certain suspicions against him. He had +also, on behalf of his King, urged the Montenegrin volunteers +who had managed to get to Salonica not to allow +themselves to be commanded by Serbian or French +officers, but to demand Montenegrin officers, of whom there +was no adequate supply. These men had ultimately +to be sent to Corsica and kept there till the end of the +War. What Hajduković performed at Salonica, another +royal agent, one Vuković, a bootmaker, attempted at +Marseilles, where he continually went on board the vessels +that were bringing Montenegrins and, to a smaller extent, +other Yugoslavs from the United States and South +America to the Salonica front. These travelled men were +less easily influenced than those who obeyed Hajduković; +but 300-400 did refuse to proceed. They were installed +in a factory at Orange, where the Montenegrin Government +fed them and paid them. Now and then they were +encouraged by being told that if they had gone to the +Front the Serbian officers would have flogged them.... +And so the little Court at Neuilly occupied the years +with many a congenial intrigue. Feelers were stretched +out to this country, where an English edition of Radović's +<i>Montenegrin Bulletin</i>, the pro-Yugoslav organ, was being +published by my friend Vassilje Burić to the furious<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> +indignation of the busybodies who supported the King +and of the Italian Embassy. From these two sources +and from Neuilly the Foreign Office was bombarded +with protests, begging it in the name of justice, etc., to +put a stop to this dire scandal. One day a charming +Foreign Office clerk, an acquaintance of mine, had Burić +to lunch at the Royal Automobile Club; in the course +of the meal he suggested that, as Burić was not looking +well, they two should have a little holiday in France. +Burić said he would be very glad to go with him, but he +thought it would be nice to stay in England. The charming +official held out for the Continent, and with such +obstinacy that Burić at last put his hand upon his arm +and invited him to promise that they would both of them +come back to England. Thereupon the host acknowledged +that a perfect flood of letters had been pouring on the +Foreign Office with respect to the <i>Montenegrin Bulletin</i>, +and they were weary of receiving them.... Sometimes +the Neuilly Court was plunged in gloom, as when old +Tomo Oraovac's little book appeared with seventy-five +awkward questions to Nikita. For three days the King +shut himself up in his room, trying to decide as to whether +he should issue an answer. He decided to do nothing. +Now and then a French review or newspaper referred to +him. "The official courtesies extended by the French +Government to Nicholas <span class="smcap">i.</span> and his family should not +deceive the public," said the eminent publicist Monsieur +Gauvain in the <i>Revue de Paris</i> (March 1917). M. Gauvain +showed that the Petrović dynasty constituted the sole +obstacle to a union of Montenegro with Serbia and the +rest of the Yugoslav lands. As Nikita drove past the +office of the <i>Revue de Paris</i> he may have been thinking, +rather wistfully, of that brave afternoon at Nikšić.<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> ... +Sometimes the old man was worried by his sons. Peter, +for example, who had been the spoilt child and who +had been given posts for which he was unfitted, now discovered +in himself, during the autumn of 1918, a great +desire to obtain a certain Madame Violette Brunet, the +legal wife of Monsieur Brunet, who was in Nikita's service. +The ardent lover, regardless of the ancient Montenegrin +custom which inflicted stoning on the guilty married<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> +woman, while the husband sometimes cut her nose off, +wrote to his parents, asking them to arrange the matter, +and when the ex-King raised objections, Peter blackmailed +him by threatening to divulge to the world at large +all the unsavoury details connected with Lovćen. "My +dear son," wrote Nikita in November 1918,<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> "You write +again asking me to send an emissary to represent myself +and your mother in suing for the hand of the woman of +your choice, failing this, you say you will make a scandal +whereby the honour of both of us and of the whole family +will suffer; to obviate this unpleasant possibility we may +see our way to agree to your wish, but under the following +conditions...."</p> + + +<p class="section">THE BROKEN SERBS AT CORFU</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the Serbs had, ever since the early days of +1916 when they began arriving in Corfu, been hard at +work upon their army. Thousands landed at Corfu in +such a state that only with continual care, with warmth +and nourishing food could they be rescued. But on the +little island of Vido where they were deposited the tents +were few, the beds were fewer, wood was lacking, so that +fires could not be made, and thousands died where they +sank down, amid the olive groves and orange trees. The +doctors nursed as many as they could in that one empty +building; but for very long about a hundred corpses +were each day piled in a little boat and taken out to sea. +Usually they had died of pure exhaustion. Out of the +16,000 boys who had scrambled along with the army as +far as Durazzo, about 2000 died on the sea and another +7000 on the Isle of Vido.</p> + +<p>At Corfu the Serbs, with the other Yugoslavs, had also +to set about securing the foundations of their State that +was to be. The Russians, at the time of the negotiations +which ended in the Treaty of London, had been looking +forward to an Orthodox State, a Greater Serbia, bounded +by the river Narenta. This, if it had been carried out, +would have jettisoned, and probably for ever, the Croats +and Slovenes. That was the incredibly stupid old Russian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> +policy of identifying Slav patriotism with the Orthodox +Church, a policy held up to ridicule by Strossmayer. It +was the Yugoslav Committee, working chiefly in London, +assisted by English friends, working there and at Corfu, +which caused the Serbs, the Croats and Slovenes to publish +on July 20, 1917, the historic Corfu Declaration, which +laid it down that the nation of the three names was resolved +to free itself from every foreign yoke and to become +a constitutional, democratic and Parliamentary Monarchy +under the Karageorgević dynasty. It is said that those +two excellent friends of the Southern Slavs, the brilliant +Mr. Wickham Steed and Dr. Seton-Watson, than whom no +publicist is more conscientious, had to face a determined +opposition on the part of M. Pašić before it was agreed +that the Roman Catholic religion should in the prospective +State have equal rights with the Orthodox. One would +be disposed to criticize the Serbian Premier on account +of a narrow policy dictated by his excessive wish for self-preservation—he +saw very well that these clauses of +equality might undermine the long reign of the Radicals—but +it must be acknowledged that if the Southern Slavs +had limited themselves to a Greater Serbia, in which the +Radical party had been supreme, they would not have +wasted so much of their energy, after the War, in domestic +political conflict. They would also, very probably, have +gained more favourable terms from the Entente; and the +union with the Croats and Slovenes might have been +effected later. But against this is the opinion of those +who argue that the separation would have become permanent. +However, if the union of the Southern Slavs +could not be postponed, we may believe that it would +have been wise to call the new country, for a couple of +years, Greater Serbia. No doubt the logical Italians would +have pointed out to the rest of the Entente that their +bugbears, the Croats and the Slovenes, were included in this +State; but the Allies as a whole would have been more +inclined to be indulgent towards a country whose name +they honoured than towards the same country whose +various new-fangled designations—Kingdom of the Serbs, +Croats and Slovenes; or Yugoslavia; or S.H.S.—they +found so puzzling. The Transylvanians who, one supposes, +will play the chief rôle in Greater Roumania have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> +as yet, much to the profit of all the Roumanians, permitted +the retention of that name. This course was not adopted +by the Southern Slavs, and Pašić giving way to Messrs. +Steed and Seton-Watson, appointed M. Yovanović to +London with the object of working on the lines of the +Declaration of Corfu.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE SOUTHERN SLAVS IN THE UNITED STATES</p> + +<p>The building of the new State and its army was also +being undertaken with great fervour in America, New +Zealand and Australia. North America contained about +100,000 Orthodox Serbs, 200,000 Catholic Slovenes and +400,000 Catholic Croats; South America had some +50,000 Yugoslavs, chiefly Catholic Dalmatians; while +the 8000-10,000 in Australasia were mostly of that origin. +Two kinds of Southern Slav newspapers were being +printed in North America, namely those which the Austrian +Ambassador supported, and those which were national. +The chief argument of the former species was the Treaty +of London, which, as the editors pointed out, gave up a +large part of Dalmatia to the Italians. Two of these +editors, by the way, were imprisoned for other reasons +by the authorities. They had constantly threatened the +terrible punishment that Austria would inflict on those +who had worked against the Fatherland—many of the +Southern Slavs, like the Roumanians, Czechs, Ruthenians +and Magyars, were employed in munition factories, and +the Austrian Embassy, in concert with the German, +hoped to see them on the land. After a time the Yugoslavs +took an office in Washington and attacked this +propaganda, their example being followed by the Czechs +and the Poles. When the United States entered the +War these Austrophil papers no longer wrote in favour +of Austria, but confined themselves to animadversions +against the Serbian leaders, suggesting likewise that +Croatia and Slovenia should be independent.... The +patriotic Yugoslav papers—three dailies in New York, +three in Chicago, and over twenty weekly organs—were +not subsidized by the Yugoslav Committee in London or +by the Government in Corfu; and some of the editors +did not display a very prosperous appearance. But the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> +poor Yugoslav workers contributed 20 million dollars +to the first three Liberty loans, and when the National +Council at Pittsburg in November 1916 united the +different charitable, gymnastic and political associations, +a call was made for volunteers. Between 25,000-30,000 +men joined the United States army, a good many joined +the Canadian contingents, and about 10,000 sailed for +Salonica. The Yugoslavs in South America were in +different circumstances: the Dalmatian temperament +being nearer to the Spanish they found it easier to make +their way; besides which, those who went to South America +were on the average more advanced than those who +preferred the North. In Chili, the Argentine and Bolivia +the Yugoslavs are often very prosperous merchants and +shipowners. They organized the Yugoslav National +Defence and found all the funds for the Yugoslav organization +in London. From New Zealand, where there is a +Yugoslav paper called <i>Zora</i> (the <i>Dawn</i>), about 300 volunteers +sailed to the Dardanelles, and others, when the +Salonica base was established, joined their compatriots in +that port.</p> + + +<p class="section">CASH AND THE MONTENEGRIN ROYAL FAMILY</p> + +<p>While the distant Yugoslavs were, in one way or +another, helping the cause, that family of criminals which +reigned in Montenegro did not shrink from malversation +of the funds of the Red Cross. A young Croat, Mr. +Miličević, who before the War became a naturalized Montenegrin +and in Neuilly served as Minister of Justice, has +related how the Government continually borrowed (and +did not repay) large sums of Red Cross money, and that if +new clothes came from England for the refugees they +would in Paris be replaced quite often for much older +ones. How did the people fare? After the country had +been occupied by the Austrians, most of the Allies consented +that it should be revictualled on the same lines +as Belgium. Even Austria offered no objections. One +State only and one man were hostile to the scheme, and +that man actually the King of Montenegro. "A poor +and starving people," he argued, "is the most subservient. +My interests will suffer if commodities are given to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> +Montenegrins. Let them wait. And when the moment +comes for my return, I will go back with large supplies +and be most popular." Even when his Ministers had +realized that there must be no more delay in asking for +the King of Spain's good offices—since the Italians (presumably +in concert with Nikita) fought against the plan—and +when the letter to the King of Spain was drafted it +produced another one from Nikita to his Ministers—written +by Nikita, but signed by his aide-de-camp. "The +King," he said, "considers that the letter to the King of +Spain should stand over, so long as one cannot be sure +that Italy will permit the transit of foodstuffs destined +for the people." He desired no mediation between himself +and the Italians. Perhaps the most audacious act +of spoliation was the sale of the State stores at Gallipoli, +just when the Allied offensive on the Salonica front was +leading to the collapse of the enemy. Instead of forwarding +the 25,000 greatcoats, the 20,000 kilos of leather, +and great quantities of material, medical and other stores, +to Montenegro and rendering first aid to the liberated +population, the managers of the Royal Treasury deemed +it wiser to transfer the value of all these stores into their +own pockets, disposing of more than 2-1/2 million francs worth +of goods to trusted figureheads for a few hundred thousand +Italian lire. Fortunately the French naval authorities +put a stop to this brigandage, and the honest guardians +of the people only succeeded in diverting a few hundreds +of thousands. You may suppose that there is no excuse +for conduct of this kind; but the Royal Family could +say, "Behold, the people do not want our gifts." The +Montenegrins, for example, who were interned at Karlstein +in Austria, where they were not overfed, sent a +telegram on November 27, 1916, to ask at whose initiative +the Red Cross parcels had been sent to them. This was +(in German) the prepaid reply: "Montenegrin Committee, +President, Professor Pugnet, supported by the Red +Cross. (Signed) <span class="smcap">The Bakery</span>." As Pugnet was Danilo's +professor, all the interned, except six or seven, declined +the parcels.<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> Among the half-dozen were some relatives<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span> +of Nikita, and some who explained that "We take +the traitor's bread, for otherwise we should die; and +after all it is the Entente which sends it. How unfortunate +for us that they regard Nikita as our King." After the +Armistice Nikita and his adherents complained bitterly +that the Podgorica Assembly which deposed him was +convened before these internees had come back from +Austria!</p> + +<p>Although the funds of the Montenegrin Red Cross +were, as we have seen, not devoted to the needs of many +of the Montenegrins, yet the Royal Family were very +energetic in collecting cash. They caused a letter to be +written to the French Red Cross, which had collected two +millions for the Serbs, and in the letter they asked for +a part of the two millions. A diplomatic answer was +received. "You are only working," it said, "for Montenegro, +whereas we are for all the Yugoslavs." This lack +of success in financial matters was a new experience for +the Royal House. When Russia sent the Montenegrin +officers their pay during the War, an arrangement was +made for it to come <i>via</i> Serbia in Serbian dinars. The +King of Montenegro kept the dinars and paid his officers +in paper money. Later on he sold such enormous quantities +of dinars on the Paris Bourse that the Serbian Minister, +Mr. Vesnić, had to protest. One remembers the haste +with which Nikita left his country—both his people and +his army he forgot, but not his gold. And for two years +in France he struggled to get into his own hands this +bullion which belonged to the State. Apparently he +did at last receive it when he was at Pau in 1918. He +was granted, for the expenses of his Court, a monthly +allowance of 100,000 francs by Great Britain, the same +by France, and 300,000 by Italy, which latter was not +registered in the books. It would be interesting to know +how much of this money was used for objects that Great +Britain and France would never have countenanced. +Virulent anti-Serbian newspapers were published in +Switzerland—the <i>Srpski List</i>, the <i>Naša Borba</i> and the +<i>Nova Srbija</i>. The tone of these papers was so pleasing +to the Austrians that they bought up large numbers and +distributed them throughout the Southern Slav lands +they were occupying. We are, therefore, not astonished<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> +that the British subsidy came to an end in the course of +1917; to be resumed, however, in 1918 and finally stopped +in June 1919, much to the indignation of Nikita and his +partisans, who pointed out that it had been decided in +Paris in the beginning of the War that the little nations +participating in it should be helped pecuniarily. France +stopped her payment four months after England and +said, in answer to a Montenegrin Note, that if Great +Britain resumed payment they would follow her example. +Pašić asked that the subsidies should be discontinued, +thus reducing "this little country to such a state of +despair," said Mr. Ronald M'Neill in the House of Commons +in November 1919, "and to strip it so naked before the +world that it will be compelled, having no other course +to take, to accept union with Serbia, as the only way out +of hopeless misery and bankruptcy." It is possible that +Mr. M'Neill is referring to some subsidy other than that +given to Nikita, but I have my doubts. In the same +speech he alluded to American Relief work in Montenegro, +saying that 70 per cent. of it was consumed by Serbian +troops and the rest sold to profiteers. He confused the +American Red Cross, which maintained four hospitals +and distributed vast quantities of clothing and food +among the inhabitants of Montenegro, and those American +supplies which the Yugoslav Government purchased, +mainly for the troops. But Mr. M'Neill, M.P., is very +angry with the Serbs for spreading, as he says, reports +discreditable to the King of Montenegro—if he knew a +little more I think that he would say a good deal less—and +Nikita must have deprecated the remark that no +facilities at all had been given by the Great Powers to +enable him and his Ministers to return to Montenegro. If +every Serbian soldier were to be withdrawn the country +would, with a tremendous majority, have been adverse to +the ex-King and his family. This was recognized by Danilo +when his father suggested that he should go out in the +autumn of 1918. On December 5 he replied from Cap +Martin saying that the appendicitis from which he had +suffered since the War prevented him even from going +into the garden. Mr. M'Neill and a few similar enthusiasts +are not weary of repeating that the Serbs and the Montenegrins +are quite distinct peoples. This, no doubt, is Mr.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> +M'Neill's opinion, and if he wishes to retain it he is welcome +to do so. But I should like to refer his audiences in the +House of Commons and elsewhere to the Patriarch Brkić +of Peć, who wrote in the eighteenth century concerning +some of the Turkish provinces. No one would pretend +that Brkić was profoundly versed in philology or in +ethnography, and I believe he studied the Slav languages +not any more than does Mr. M'Neill. He was a Montenegrin +whose education had been that of an ordinary +pupil in a monastery. He spoke the Southern dialect, +and in his eyes all those who had another accent were not +veritable Serbs. Even in our time there are many Montenegrins +whom it is quite difficult to convince that they are +not the only true Serbs.</p> + + +<p class="section">THE BURDEN OF AUSTRIA'S SOUTHERN SLAV TROOPS</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Austria's Yugoslav soldiers and sailors had +been continuing their patriotic work. On February 2, +1918, a telegram was sent to the Army High Command +at Baden (near Vienna). [This message is No. 974. It +concerns itself with the Austrian navy, in whose ranks +Sarkotić perceives agitation. The rest of the message +consists chiefly of the drastic remedies which the writer +would apply.]</p> + +<p>There follows a document, numbered 106,116, and +dated May 5, 1918, in which the disaffection of Slovene +troops is described. Not only have anti-dynastic ones +been raised, but a N.C.O. has torn off his two Austrian +decorations and has stamped on them, while troops have +worn their national colours in their caps, though this is +only authorized when they are marching to a battlefield.</p> + +<p>In a notice on the subject of Southern Slav and Italian +propaganda in Dalmatia, the military command at Mostar +denounces the Southern Slavs, officers and men:</p> + +<p style="font-size: 80%; text-indent: 0em"> +<span class="smcap">Imperial and Royal Army: Higher Command.</span><br /> +<span style="padding-left: 5em"><i>Chief of the General Staff.</i></span><br /> +Op. No. 109,942.<br /> +<span style="padding-left: 16em"><span class="smcap">Baden</span>, <i>August</i> 5, 1918.</span></p> + +<p>[After discussing various manifestations of disloyalty, +the writer says that he has observed how there is a kind +of link between the Slav officers, educated at the Academy,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span> +and their men. He finds that Spalato is particularly +given to these Southern Slav ideas, which he believes is +to be accounted for from the fact that Dr. Trumbić, "the +celebrated agitator," is mayor and deputy of that town.]</p> + + +<p style="padding-top: 1em">So much for the complaints with regard to Austria-Hungary's +Southern Slav soldiers. Two military courts +of justice sat at Zagreb through the War, the Imperial +and Royal Court, and that of the Royal Hungarian No. 6 +(Croatian-Slavonian) Honved Division. No statistics are +to hand with reference to the various courts in Syrmia, +and that one which earned such an evil reputation in the +fortress of Peterwardein. The judgments of the two +Zagreb courts, where Croat officers were able to make +their influence felt, did not appear to the authorities of +Vienna and Buda-Pest to be sufficiently drastic. No +death sentences were pronounced, although these had +been demanded; and on June 24, 1918, it was decided +that any further trials for high treason or for offences +against the military authorities should be held in Pressburg +(Bratislava) and not in Zagreb. The following +statistics, relating to the two Zagreb courts, were compiled +from the official books which the Austrians did not remove. +The figures shown opposite, which are certified by Captain +Stožir, Provost-Marshal, show the increasing determination +to risk everything rather than to fight for Austria.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table class="statistics" border="0" cellpadding="4" summary="The European War"> +<tr><td colspan="7" class="sb">IMPERIAL AND ROYAL COURT.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="sb">Year.</td><td class="sb"> Total Number of Persons tried.</td> +<td class="sb">Charged with Military Offences: Desertion, Self-inflicted Wounds, +Insubordination and Disregard of Calling-up Orders.</td> +<td class="sb">Offences against the State: High Treason, Espionage, +Insults against the Emperor, Offences against Public Order.</td> +<td class="sb">Number of Persons charged with Offences under Rubric 4.</td> +<td class="sb">Number of those convicted under Rubric 4.</td> +<td class="sb">Number of those who committed Offences under Rubric 4 +and were acquitted.</td></tr> +<tr><td>1914</td><td> 442</td><td> 233</td><td> 52</td><td> 53</td><td> 3</td><td> 11</td></tr> +<tr><td>1915</td><td> 2,730</td><td> 1,688</td><td> 66</td><td> 78</td><td> 3</td><td> 6</td></tr> +<tr><td>1916</td><td> 4,790</td><td> 2,737</td><td> 336</td><td> 375</td><td> 7</td><td> 7</td></tr> +<tr><td>1917</td><td> 11,275</td><td> 7,782</td><td> 397</td><td> 414</td><td> 2</td><td> 3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="sb">1918</td><td class="sb">25,095</td><td class="sb"> 19,838</td><td class="sb"> 559</td><td class="sb"> 568</td><td class="sb"> 1</td><td class="sb"> 4</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="7" class="sb">ROYAL HUNGARIAN AND HONVED DIVISION.</td></tr> +<tr><td>1914</td><td> 632</td><td> 154</td><td> 257</td><td> 730</td><td> 46</td><td> 116</td></tr> +<tr><td>1915</td><td> 3,000</td><td> 779</td><td> 1,471</td><td> 1,875</td><td> 48</td><td> 179</td></tr> +<tr><td>1916</td><td> 3,480</td><td> 926</td><td> 1,223</td><td> 1,261</td><td> 22</td><td> 89</td></tr> +<tr><td>1917</td><td> 6,101</td><td> 3,248</td><td> 727</td><td> 839</td><td> 17</td><td> 89</td></tr> +<tr><td class="sb">1918</td><td class="sb">13,425</td><td class="sb">8,039</td><td class="sb">1,007</td><td class="sb">1,018</td><td class="sb">—</td><td class="sb">—</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>It may be of interest to give some details of one of +the regiments whose composition was chiefly Slav. My +informant, Dr. Ivo Yelavić, served as telephone officer +on the staff of the 37th Dalmatian Regiment. At different +times—at the fall of Gorica, in December 1916 at Sanmarco, +and in June 1917 at Tolmein, three battalions +went over to the enemy; 170 officers (of whom 169 were +reserve officers) gave themselves up during the War. +Some of them were Serbs, most were Croats. With +respect to the fall of Gorica, this was not—despite the +clamour that they made about it—due to the Italians, but +to two officers, Tolja and Salvi, who took over with them all +the plans of the underground forts and maps made to the +scale of one step to a millimetre. Among the accomplishments +which the officers of this regiment taught their men +was how to surrender to the foe. Efforts were made to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span>bring about a different state of things: German and +Magyar regiments were placed behind it, with machine +guns; the regiment itself was filled up with Magyars. +On some occasions the 37th desisted from going over in +order not to bring persecution upon their homes. In 1914, +opposite the Montenegrins at Goražda, all the plans were +worked out, but at the last moment Dr. Count Gozze (of +Dubrovnik) said he had just thought of what would happen +to their families, and they refrained. After the battalion +had gone over in 1916 General Seidler told them he would +do his best to have the regiment dissolved and the men +divided among other regiments, but that not all the officers +would go. This was an ominous hint that he intended +to decimate them, after the fashion of Field-Marshal +Liposcak. A fortnight later, in the presence of Field-Marshal +Boroević, General Wurm and General Seidler, +they were highly praised; and when they, in company +with a Magyar regiment, took Hill No. 166, it was announced +that this had been achieved by the "fame-covered +regiment," which was done to throw dust in the +eyes of the Italians and the Entente. Various other +methods were used to escape service at the front. A Slav +doctor, whose hospital at Konjica could hold 400 patients, +used to have 4000-5000 on the books; those whom he was +unable to keep he gave convalescent leave. In this way +he saved a great many of the Dalmatian <i>intelligentsia</i>. He +and another Dalmatian doctor would send the men backwards +and forwards, now to one hospital, now to another. +One ordinary method for avoiding the front was to bribe +the company commander and the N.C.O. who made out +the lists. Yet sometimes there was no help for it. When, +for instance, in September 1914 they were at Banjaluka, +the enemy advanced to Palé, very near Sarajevo. My +informant has a vivid recollection of the way in which a +Viennese captain, the leader of the contingent, trembled. +In a Bosnian valley they met a woman with five small +children, one of whom was at her breast. The captain +told my acquaintance (who was then a N.C.O.) to stay +behind with some men and shoot her, but not to let him +hear anything. He said that the General at Sarajevo +had commanded that everything Serb that goes on two +legs must be cut down. Yelavić refused to carry out this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span> +order, whereupon the captain told Dr. Gozze, whom he +greatly disliked, that he must do it. Gozze stayed behind, +fired a few shots in the air and informed the captain that +everything was over.</p> + +<p>What the Austrian command really thought of the +37th Regiment, and of others, may be seen from a report +dated December 2, 1916, and signed by the Archduke +Frederick:</p> + +<p>"... Certain events that have occurred can be +explained only as the consequences of the weak attitude of +the authorities towards the traitorous propaganda. On +July 21, five soldiers of the 23rd Regiment deserted near +Pogger, and gave the Italian Command important information +regarding movements of troops and the course of the +fighting near Gorica. Quite recently a lieutenant, two +reserve officers, two N.C.O.'s and two soldiers deserted +from the 37th Regiment, as did three soldiers from the +23rd Regiment. Since April, 244 desertions have taken +place from the two regiments. Inquiry shows that these +desertions occur regularly and immediately after the return +of the soldiers from leave. Unless effective counter-measures +are adopted it will be impossible to utilize these +Dalmatian regiments."</p> + +<p>It was not always an easy operation to surrender, even +after one had reached the Italian lines. A friend of mine +went over with another officer and eight men. In the +first-line trenches they could see no one and felt uncertain +what to do. However, they proceeded, and from the +second-line trench their whispered calls were answered. +They were made to pass in single file, holding up their +hands, and with all the available weapons held in readiness +against them. My friend, at his request, was conducted +to the colonel, and the first thing that he did was to make +a formal complaint against the way in which this army, of +which he considered himself an ally, manned its front-line +trenches.</p> + +<p>The Yugoslavs who managed to escape to Russia +volunteered for service and, after being organized by +General Zivković at Odessa, formed the two Divisions +which, as is well known, did remarkable work in the +Dobrudja. One only has to hear what the Bulgars say +about them. In the battles round Constanza, during the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> +campaign of 1916, one of these Divisions was so frequently +engaged in the most arduous positions and had such +enormous losses that it was regarded as having been +wiped out. When the Roumanian troops retreated these +Yugoslavs found themselves encircled by the Bulgarian +and German armies; they hacked a way out with their +bayonets. The higher officers had come from Serbia, the +rest of them had previously been enrolled in Austria's +army. Thirty-two officers out of 500 were killed, while +300 were wounded; and of the 42,000 men 1939 were +killed and more than 8000 were wounded. Nevertheless +the <i>morale</i> remained excellent and there was no lack of +new volunteers. "Verily," as the Serbian proverb says, +"it does not snow to kill the beasts, but in order that they +may leave their traces."</p> + + +<p class="section">THE FAITHFUL ITALIANS</p> + +<p>Now let us see what Austria's Italian subjects achieved +in the War, basing ourselves less upon the post-war declarations +of some Istrian, Trentino and Dalmatian Italians +than upon the official Austrian reports that were sent +about these gentlemen to the Government during the +War. For example:</p> + +<p style="font-size: 80%; text-indent: 0em"> +<span class="smcap">Imperial and Royal Army: Supreme Command.</span><br /> + +Pr. z. 3903.<br /> + +<span style="padding-left: 3em"><i>Dalmatia: Treatment of the Croatian</i></span><br /> + <span style="padding-left: 6em"><i>and Italian Factors.</i></span><br /> + +<span class="smcap">To the Imperial and Royal Minister of<br /> +<span style="padding-left: 5em">the Interior, Vienna.</span></span><br /> + +<span style="padding-left: 16em"><span class="smcap">Knin</span>, <i>June</i> 25, 1915.</span><br /></p> + +<p class="center"> +<i>I permit myself to notify:</i> +</p> + +<p>[Herein the Statthalter, Graf Attems, praises his +Government for not having favoured one party more than +another at Zadar. He proceeds to testify to the admirable +conduct of Dr. Ziliotto, the well-known mayor (who subsequently +toiled with such zeal for Italy). He says +that under this gentleman Zadar was a very model of a +place, never allowing an occasion to pass by when it was +possible to show that, in grief and in gladness, the sentiments<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> +of the glorious House of Habsburg were its own. +Thus on the "all-highest" birthday of the Emperor did +the doctor and his townsfolk revel in loyalty, while at the +outbreak of the Great War they accompanied the departing +troops to the quay and provided patriotic music and +refreshments. <i>This worthy conduct was not in the least +modified</i>, says the Statthalter, <i>when Italy entered the War</i>.]</p> + +<p>Further on in this book there are similar good-conduct +testimonials from Split, where the chief Italian used to +wander down with an Austrian official to the harbour and +there witness the embarkation, in chains, of the Yugoslav +<i>intelligentsia</i> who were being taken as hostages. Hundreds +and hundreds of Yugoslavs were shot, hanged, imprisoned; +we know the numbers (not difficult to count) of the +Italians in Dalmatia who suffered in any way. We know +the equally minute numbers who escaped to Italy and +enrolled themselves in the Italian army. As for the +population of the Italian irredentist provinces, one may +read in the <i>Secolo</i> of August 11, 1916 how it became generally +known that "with the exception of Cervignano and +Monfalcone, our soldiers have been received, on the other +side of the old frontier, with demonstrations quite the +reverse of enthusiastic on the part of the agrarian population. +The surprise and disillusion of our troops were very +great, for they expected from our unredeemed brothers, +who all speak our language, a joyous reception." This +frigidity may, however, have been due to the influence of +Austrian priests and gendarmes. What are we to say, +though, when we come to the more enlightened classes? +The Italians in Austria were represented by twelve +deputies who were devoted to the Austrian Government +and hostile to Italy, and by six national-liberals and one +socialist who were animated with pro-Italian sentiments. +In electing such deputies, however, the peasants may not +have simply allowed the priests and the gendarmes to +command them; it is also possible that they were moved +by the fear that the Trentino would economically be +ruined if it were to become Italian and had to compete with +the agricultural products of the Kingdom. As a matter +of fact it was the Trentino <i>intelligentsia</i> which looked +forward to annexation, and not, as a class, the peasants. +And, during the War, Italian deputies of various parties<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> +overflowed with loyal Austrian sentiments; unlike the +Yugoslav deputies, who refused in a body to vote the +budget and the war credits, the Italian deputies never +even ventured on a national pronouncement. Pittoni, +chief of the Italian socialists at Triest, Faidutti (who was +born in Italy) and Bugatto, the chiefs of the Italian +Catholic party of Gradišca, uttered not a few words of hate +against the Madre Patria. The Italians praise always, +and with excellent reason, their three heroes: Battisti, +Rismondo and Sauro. But the Yugoslavs, in the course +of the late War, lost in the unredeemed provinces so many +hundreds of thousands who were hanged in Bosnia, who +were dragged away—centenarians and infants—to the +prison camps, were spat upon and stoned and treated in +the most barbaric fashion, that they look upon those +Yugoslavs who, like Battisti, fled from Austria and afterwards +were slain by Austrians, as rather to be envied, since +at any rate they struck a blow. But anyhow the names of +all these volunteers could not be celebrated, on account of +their great number. "There is nothing in fact," wired +Mr. Beaumont on December 31, 1919, from Milan for the +blameless readers of the <i>Daily Telegraph</i>, "there is nothing +that creates such terrible exasperation in Italy as the +persistent repetition of this patent falsehood that the +Yugoslavs—meaning thereby the Croats—fought for the +common cause."</p> + +<p>Poor Battisti—when his regiment was captured he +feigned to be dead. His men, however, told the Austrians +that it was he, and this they did because they said that he +and his Irredentist party were to blame for the War. +These facts are now fairly well known, thanks to the Czech +doctor who was on the spot and tried to save him by +assuring the Austrians that it was not Battisti. The +soldiers insisted, and in the end the Austrians executed +him.</p> + + +<p class="section">SOUTHERN SLAVS IN THE AUSTRIAN NAVY</p> + +<p>The several transactions or attempted transactions +which took place at various periods of the War between +the Yugoslav members of the Austro-Hungarian navy, +associated with other Yugoslavs, on the one hand and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span> +Italian authorities on the other, were frustrated time and +again by the astounding conduct of the Italians. Had +they made anything like a proper use of the invaluable +information that was showered upon them or if they had +requested the other Allied navies in the Mediterranean +to act on their behalf many Allied ships in the Mediterranean +would not have been torpedoed—since the submarine +activity centred at Kotor, one of the stations which +could have been seized—the Austrian front in Albania +must have collapsed and the entire war would have ended +sooner.</p> + +<p>In October 1917 the Austrian torpedo boat No. 11 was +seized by the Slav members of her crew and brought into +Ancona, but their offers of service were refused. The +ringleaders showed, by refusing to accept large sums of +money, that their purpose was purely patriotic. The +Italians, however, simply interned them.</p> + +<p>A much more serious affair was that of February 1, +1918, on which day it had been arranged that the Slav +sailors at Pola and Kotor should mutiny. At the former +place it did not succeed, at Kotor it was so far successful +that the mutineers, after imprisoning Admiral Njegovan +and many other officers whom they suspected of not being +in sympathy with them, took command of the ships and +left unanswered an ultimatum addressed to them by the +High Naval Command. There was a prospect of the +whole fleet shaking off the Austro-Hungarian authority. +The chief revolutionary leader was Ante Sesan, a Croat +ensign, twenty-six years of age, from near Dubrovnik and +the son of a well-known sea captain on the coast. "We +drew up," he says, "a proclamation representing our case +to the Yugoslavs, Czechs and Poles from the national +point of view, and to the Germans and Magyars from the +socialist point of view. The Germans threw in their lot +with us, but the Magyars went against us. From our ship +we continually sent wireless messages asking for help +from the Entente fleet, and at first from Italy which +was nearest and could help most quickly. The messages +were continually jammed by sailors at the Ercegnovo +station loyal to Austria-Hungary, but nevertheless it +was known in Italy that something was happening at +Kotor. We told the High Command at Bok Kotor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> +(Bocche di Cattaro) that we no longer recognized their +authority and asked that we might get into touch with +our deputies, whom alone we recognized. The High +Command consented. We wired for the following +deputies to come to us: Trešić (Yugoslav), Stanjek +(Czech), Karolyi (Magyar), Adler (German) and one +Polish deputy, but our wires did not, for the most part, +get through. Our object was to get help, but meanwhile +our situation became more and more desperate. We +knew that the Third Division was coming from Pola +against us, and also the army in Herzegovina. We were +prepared to take the battery of the Punta d'Ostro, the most +important battery and the key to Bok Kotor, which was +in the hands of sailors inimical to us. The news came +from Gaa that the Magyars there had got the upper hand. +We tried to bring them over to us, but in vain. They said, +'If you don't stop this, we shall join the Third Division +and take action against you.' The Magyars from other +boats sent the same message. The Council of Sailors then +debated what was to be done, and it was suggested that +Rasha (who was shot later) should go in a hydroplane to +Italy to give information on the situation and ask for help, +and that we in the meantime should lie low, and in the +event of help coming, again raise a revolt. Rasha objected +that he did not know Italian, and proposed that +I should go. The Third Division meanwhile was already +in the port Bok Kotor.</p> + +<p>"At half-past eight in the morning we flew away in +the hydroplane to Italy, I and two Poles. At ten we +reached Mattinato, and I explained at the Carabineers' +station why I had come and asked to be brought as soon +as possible before the Commander of the District. Later +I saw Captain Odo (of the Territorials) and told him all, and +asked him to put me into communication with Brindisi, +Taranto or Rome. He had us put under arrest. I was +interviewed by two flying officers two days later, but they +went off to Brindisi in my hydroplane without me.</p> + +<p>"On February 17 I was taken under armed escort +to Brindisi, where I was imprisoned in a cabin of the +man-of-war <i>Varese</i>.... I told the commander of the +ship that I was at his disposal with all my knowledge of +the Austrian fleet. I asked him to put questions, because<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> +I did not know how much he knew. It was all to no +purpose. On February 21 the Admiral in command at +Brindisi saw me. From what he said I understood that +nothing had been done about Bok Kotor and, what was +more, that not one hydroplane had been sent to investigate +the situation there. I learned that I was to go to +Rome. They clapped me into barracks.... I again +asked the Italians to allow me to speak to the Serbian +Minister, whom I considered the representative of the +Yugoslav people, but the request was refused on the plea +that it was a question of high politics. Meanwhile the +Polish representative Zamorski was allowed to visit +the Poles, but from February 3 to May 25 I was unable to +get into communication with any of our people."</p> + +<p>In May there was another outbreak at Kotor, but it +was overpowered, and many Yugoslav sailors were shot +or imprisoned. Sesan was also kept in his Italian prison, +though occasionally he was brought out, questioned and +then taken back again. Thus at Ferrara he informed +Captain Ciano about the whole organization of the +Austrian offensive and defensive forces, and especially +about Pola and Split. Sesan begged to be allowed to take +part in the action against the Austrian fleet, and, at Rome, +where he came before Captain Soldati, of the Bureau of +Information, he made the same request. With two motor +launches he undertook to organize communication between +Italy and the Slavs of Dalmatia, in this way to +follow events in Austria and help the revolutionary movement. +It would be possible to procure the secret wireless +codes which the Austrian and German submarines used—but +the Italians would do nothing, because they were +not willing to recognize that the Yugoslavs were fighting +against Austria.... Seeing that he would never move +the Italians to take serious action against the Austrian +fleet, Sesan asked to be sent to the Serbian army in +Macedonia, so that at Salonica he could get into touch +with the French and British fleet. In this also he failed, +for he was interned from June till December with Yugoslav +officers at Nocera Umbra. While there he was +visited by Bissolati, from whom he learned that the Chief +of the Admiralty was hostile to the Yugoslavs. And at +Nocera Umbra he remained until December 6, when he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span> +was liberated, owing to the efforts of Trumbić and other +members of the Yugoslav Committee.</p> + +<p>In the month of September a memorandum was drawn +up by Trumbić, in which he proposed to English and +American political and military circles the landing at +Šibenik of a force of 50,000 men. This would have been +assisted by the mutinous crews of the Austro-Hungarian +Fleet, whose preparations had been completed in July +(at this port 90 per cent. of the sailors of the fleet were +Yugoslavs, and among them there was a strong national +feeling; in fact, if their political leaders had not held them +back, they would have endeavoured in July to blow up +the naval fortifications and sail with the ships to Corfu). +The expeditionary army, once at Šibenik, could have +penetrated inland and, acting in consort with the many +Yugoslav deserters and the insurgent population of Dalmatia +and Bosnia, have accelerated the Austrian <i>débâcle</i>. +In this memorandum Trumbić asked that the combined +Anglo-American-French fleet should support the action, +but that the Italians, whom the Yugoslavs distrusted, +should take no part. He sneered at the cowardice of +the Italians who, with a huge army, did not dare to start +an offensive on a grand scale.</p> + +<p>[In well-informed circles in Italy this memorandum +was already known, but when it was read in the Italian +Chamber in the spring of 1919 it made a considerable +sensation.]</p> + +<p>On October 3, Messrs. Frederick Štepanek, Rudolph +Giunio, Valentine Zić (of Šibenik) and other authorized +Czecho-Slovak and Yugoslav emissaries went in a sailing-boat +from Vis to Italy, with a view to getting into connection +with Dr. Beneš (afterwards the Czecho-Slovak +Foreign Minister) and Dr. Trumbić, to inform them as to +the situation in the Monarchy and to obtain instructions +regarding the moment of the revolution in which their +soldiers and sailors were to participate. On arrival in +Rome on October 7, the delegates were interrogated by +Major Trojani of the Bureau of Information and on the +same day for three hours by the Inspector-General of +Public Safety. From then till October 20, they were +interned in the Macoa barracks at the Castro Pretoris, +and although they made repeated attempts to see a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span> +member of the Yugoslav Committee or Dr. Beneš, who was +in Rome, they were told that this "delicate" question +could only be solved by the Premier himself; and when +brought before him Dr. Beneš had departed. The delegates +had entreated that he and Trumbić should be +informed of their arrival, but in spite of various assurances +nothing whatever was done. It is suggested that the +fleet would have been in Slav hands two or three weeks +earlier, which would very probably have precipitated +events on the Western front, if the Italians had not acted +in this inexcusable fashion.</p> + + +<p class="section">ADVANCE OF THE ALLIES IN MACEDONIA</p> + +<p>The collapse of Austria-Hungary was being hastened +by the fine work of the Allies' Macedonian army. France +and Great Britain had provided for the re-equipment of +the Serbs. And of the variegated forces that were based +on Salonica none did more magnificently than this resurrected +army. A weather-beaten sergeant of the French +Infanterie Coloniale told me that he had never seen an +exploit such as that of Kaimatčalan, where the Serbs set +themselves the task of climbing to the summit, which +towers 8000 feet high, and from there dislodging the +Bulgarian artillery. Over and over again the Serbs +were thrown back, and with terrific losses, for the mountain-side +was strewn with rocks not large enough to +shelter more than a man or two. But as the Infanterie +Coloniale is habitually chosen for the roughest work, +so the Serbs asked for nothing better than to climb the +wall that shut them out from their own country. The +labyrinth of trenches on the mountain-top was taken +and retaken many times, until the Bulgars—inadequately +supported by their Allies—had to retreat; and this, +after further ferocious fighting, enabled the Serbs and +the French to liberate Monastir. The complicated story +of Greek manœuvres need not detain us, nor need we ask +whether Mr. Leland Buxton<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> is justified in saying that +the majority of that people were pro-German, "but were +subsequently compelled by the Allied blockade ... to +declare themselves supporters of Venizelos, on whose<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span> +behalf, indeed, the British Admiralty and War Office +had to carry on a sort of election campaign (by Eastern +European methods) until the numerous waverers wisely +decided that it was better to be a well-fed Venizelist than +a hungry Royalist." Sufficient that after months of +delaying, in the course of which the Russian troops had +to be turned into labour battalions, Marshal Mišić—whose +plan of campaign had fortunately been adopted—had the +satisfaction of seeing his own countrymen and their Allies +racing up at last through Macedonia and Serbia to the +Danube and beyond it.... What did they find? +Bridges hastily blown up, tunnels rendered impassable +by two locomotives laden with dynamite being made to +collide in the middle of them—but the Serbs went rushing +on. The supply columns could not keep pace with the +troops—during the first eight days of the offensive the +men of the 2nd Army received but two days' rations—they +continued their advance across the Vardar, though +but little bread and practically no other food was obtainable. +In three days they had covered sixty miles. There +was only time for them to greet the women and old men—and +even if they had then been told of the 130,000 horses, +the 6,000,000 sheep and goats, the 2,000,000 pigs, 1,300,000 +cattle and over 8,000,000 poultry which the enemy had +taken; if they had learned that the losses sustained by +Serbia—exclusive of her own expenses and of the war loans +from her Allies—amounted to some 10,000,000,000 frs. +on a pre-war valuation, what did all this matter in that +joyous time?</p> + + +<p class="section">HOW THE MAGYARS TREATED THEIR SERBIAN SUBJECTS</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the War the dominant Magyars +of the Banat had as little uncertainty about the result +as Count Julius Andrássy professed to have at a later +period. "Victory must come to our troops," he said, +"because they are better organized and more efficient, +and because they are, above all, filled with unexampled +enthusiasm, which makes heroes of them all." The +enthusiasm which, for instance, caused the mob at Velika +Kikinda to shout "Eljen a haboru!" ["Long live the +War!"] while they fired revolvers in at the windows of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span> +an unilluminated house because it was the house of a +Serb, a son-in-law of the well-known banker, Marko +Bogdan, without stopping to ascertain that he was at +the front fighting against Serbia, might be dismissed as a +folly on the part of the crowd if it were not so characteristic +of the whole Magyar administration. The "subject +nationalities" were to be enrolled in the Magyar host +and treated, at the same time, with contumely. At +Veršac Dr. Slavko Miletić,<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> son of the famous patriot, was +suspected not only of cherishing Serbian sympathies, +which was natural, but of committing a felony. The +authorities believed that in his medical capacity he was +exempting people from their military service, and not +for the advantage of the Serbian cause so much as for +that of his own pocket. Several detectives were therefore +put to bed in one or two of the wards of the military +hospital; and the upshot of it was that three other +doctors—all of them Magyars—who had given way to +these practices, committed suicide; the chief of the +hospital poisoned himself, one of the staff shot himself, +and the third culprit hanged himself in prison. Dr. +Miletić had previously been kept for three and a half months +under the shadow of a conviction for high treason: one +Bonchocat, a Roumanian who did not understand the +Serbian language, asserted that the doctor, at a meeting +held two weeks before the Archduke's assassination, must +have known that war was brewing, since—so said Bonchocat—he +had not confined himself to Serbian ecclesiastical +affairs, which was the object of the meeting, but had +uttered the remark that if the Austrians had bayonets +the Serbs had axes. Although Bonchocat was a man +condemned to nine years' penal servitude for murder, and +although the doctor only called on his own behalf two +witnesses who were not Serbs, but the head of the frontier +police and the head of the town police, he was nevertheless +kept in suspense for three and a half months. Afterwards, +owing to the lack of Magyar doctors, he was begged to be +the State doctor for the town. Similarly the Orthodox +priest, Radulović, of Pančevo, was transported to Arad<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span> +and interned there for no other reason than his nationality, +whereas his son, a first lieutenant of the Hungarian Honved, +was expected to be very loyal. When certain rumours +came to the son's ears—he was then serving on the Russian +front—he inquired, and was told that his father had +merely been warned. Presently he learned the truth, and +in consequence deserted to the Russians and became a +member of the Yugoslav brigade. Thus it will be seen +that the Magyar unwisdom was on a par with that which +they had shown in days of peace. Unfortunately for +their State the Magyar politicians were less honest than +the Magyar peasants, so that the de-nationalizing process +met with pretty firm resistance. What can be said for +the honesty of a legal decision which laid it down that as +two Serbian philanthropists, Barajevac and Sandulović, +at Pančevo had not specially mentioned that the funds +they had bequeathed for a school were to be for a Serbian +school—(this the benefactors had assumed as a matter +of course)—they must be used for a Magyar establishment? +Save for the officials there were practically no Magyars +in Pančevo. And when the War began the remainder +of the fund was invested by the Magyars in their War +Loan! It is curious, by the way, to see what methods +were employed to make the Loan successful. Fathers +were frequently told that if their subscription was adequate +their sons at the front would duly be granted leave. The +Slovak village of Kovačica in the Banat was compelled +to put three million crowns into War Loan, the Magyar +notary making a list of the amounts which every person +had to pay under penalty of being sent to the front; if +he was too old for this he was threatened with internment. +Kovačica, a few years before the War, had shown +the Magyar fitness for governing an alien people. The +population consisted of 5200 Lutheran Slovaks and 200 +miscellaneous persons—Jews, Magyars and Germans. +Nevertheless it was ordered that the church services must +be in the Magyar and not in the Slovak language. When +the parishioners objected, the police, with sticks and +guns, expelled them from the large, lofty church, and +83 of them were sentenced to various periods of imprisonment. +Serbian barristers defended them gratuitously, +but the judge had himself taken an active part in turning<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span> +the people out of the church; and presently the barristers +were told that they had themselves been convicted—Dr. +Dušan Bošcović for one year, on the ground that he had +had the napkins at a banquet decorated with the Serbian +colours; Dr. Branislav Stanojević for three years, because +his visits to Belgrade, where his parents and his brother +were living, stamped him, said the Magyar judge, as a +traitor. The total number of Magyars at Kovačica was +ten, and for a time they came to hear their language, +which had thus been compulsorily introduced. Handbills +were sent round to summon the Magyars from neighbouring +villages, but gradually this congregation grew +smaller and smaller. When two Magyars attended, +then the pastor gave them a sermon; if only one was +present he confined himself to prayers. The Magyars +had seen to it, by the way, that there should not be much +sympathy between the pastor and his bishop: of this +diocese about three-quarters were Slovaks and one-quarter +Germans and Magyars; but the Government vetoed the +choice of Dr. Czalva, who was disqualified for being friendly +to the Slovaks—his father and grandfather had both been +bishops of that same diocese—and a certain Dr. Raffay +was appointed, who spoke nothing but Magyar and some +words of German.... However, by taking in this way +a few examples of Magyar methods, one may be accused +of having chosen merely those which illustrate one's +theme. It would be hazardous to draw conclusions as +to Magyar officers in general because a certain Lieutenant +Chaby, who, during the War, found himself quartered on +a Serbian family of the name of Stejvović at Priboj in +the Sandjak, behaved differently from his predecessor, +an Austrian colonel. This Austrian had been well +satisfied, but the lieutenant's first night was so disturbed +that he fined his hosts sixty crowns for giving him a bug-ridden +bed. Nevertheless, if large numbers of Austrian +colonels and Magyar lieutenants had acted in a similar +fashion we should be justified in deducing that several +characteristics, be they good or bad, are possessed by the +average Magyar subaltern. And the catalogue of Magyar +limitations in the Banat, both prior to and during the +War, is so voluminous that one would have thought them +to be not worth discussing; if one restricts oneself to a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span> +few it is in order to avoid being tedious, and if they are +ineffective among the resolute pro-Magyars of this country, +then one must resign oneself to leaving these gentlemen +unconvinced. They will argue that stupidity is universal, +and that the Magyar authorities should not be called in +question for their treatment of the priest of Crvna Crkva, +a village with 1108 inhabitants—1048 Serbs, 34 Slovaks, +17 Germans and 9 Magyars. This intelligent man—he is +a noted player of a complicated card game—was indicted +for high treason, because on hearing that the Emperor +William was alleged to have undertaken to slaughter +every Serb, the priest remarked that the Emperor should +have added, "if God wills it." But near the village of +Zlatica there was, at the beginning of the War, one Adam +Rada, who was charged with making signals to the Serbs +across the Danube by means of lights, and this although +the situation of Rada's mill made such a thing impossible. +Before being executed he was led ceremoniously through +the village, his coffin being carried in the procession. +This coffin was so small that Rada's feet had to be cut +off. The grave was guarded by a soldier, who kept the +family away from it; Rada's servant was in the hands +of the police—after having been thrashed in order to +compel him to give hostile evidence, he was convicted +to six years' imprisonment. But the lack of evidence +does not appear to have weighed very strongly with the +Magyar judges. "It is quite true," said one of them in +1915 in the town of Bela Crkva, during the trial of a young +priest, Voyn Voynović, "that there are witnesses who say +he did not utter certain words in 1913, and no witnesses +who say that he did; but I am convinced that he uttered +them." The ferocity of the punishments may be seen +from the example of Alexa Petković of Pančevo, the father +of nine, who was condemned to hard labour for nine years +because his twelve-year-old son, during the War, is +alleged to have said to him: "Father, don't accept +German money; it won't have any value." At the same +place, in 1914, the Serbian peasants were brought in from +the village of Bortša; there was no proof that they were +traitors, but they had been denounced and they were +sentenced to be shot. With a military escort they were +promenaded through the town, each one of them having to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span> +hold a Hungarian flag. At the scene of execution the +Hungarian élite, together with their wives and daughters, +were assembled. And after the bodies had been thrown +on to a cart they were flogged, for some unknown reason, +by one Blajek, a detective, while the audience cried +"Eljen!" ["Hurrah!"]. But the War brought to an +end the bad old days of a tyrannous minority. It will be +shown, in a year or two, when a proper census is taken, +that the Magyars were always much more in a minority +than they ever admitted. Instead of nine millions out +of the eighteen millions—which was the pre-war population +of Hungary—it will be found that the Magyars themselves +numbered barely six millions, though in their efforts +to obtain recruits they charged only one crown and afterwards +nothing at all for a naturalization paper. The day +has gone by when a father could be interned for being a +Serb, while his son, an assistant notary, was reckoned a +Magyar—only Magyars being eligible for that office. The +day has gone when the Buda-Pest Government could +order its officials while taking a census to swell the Magyars' +numbers as much as possible: the officials at Subotica +confessed on oath, after the War, that they had received +orders to this effect. One of their practices was to put +down as "uncertain" those Serbian children who were +too young to speak. Even those who were most willing +to be absorbed into magyardom were often indigested: +one finds in the statistics cases of converted Jews who, +being asked to state their religion and nationality, replied +to the former question "Catholic" and to the latter +"Jew."</p> + + +<p class="section">THE SOUTHERN SLAVS PAY PART OF THEIR DEBT TO +THE HABSBURG MONARCHY</p> + +<p>If the practices of Buda-Pest had been less flagrant +one would write of Hungary's decomposition with a certain +sympathy. It is conceivable that in the British Empire +there are anti-British elements whose aims would commonly +be classed by the authorities as "mad ambitions," which +is what Count Apponyi called the separatist tendencies +of the Southern Slavs in Austria-Hungary. But—may the +platitude be pardoned!—there is all the difference between<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span> +the spirit in which the alien rule of the one government +was, and of the other is, administered. No doubt there +are portions of the British Empire in which a plebiscite +would have the same disintegrating result as it would +have had in most of the regions that have been lopped +from Hungary. We, with our Allies, declined to permit +a plebiscite in Hungary's late territories, since we believed +that the population had overwhelmingly displayed its +wishes at the end of the War; and an Englishman may +hope to escape the charge of hypocrisy if he does not +permit the withholding of a plebiscite from certain of his +fellow-subjects to prevent him from alluding with satisfaction +to those who have been liberated from the sway +of Buda-Pest.</p> + + +<p class="section">(<i>a</i>) IN SYRMIA</p> + +<p>Everywhere the dawn was breaking for the Habsburg's +Southern Slavs. At Vukovar in Syrmia—to take an +example—there was formed, as elsewhere, a National +Council. Under Baron Joseph Rajacsich, a grandson of +the Patriarch and—to all appearances—a brother of +Falstaff, the Council maintained order until the coming +of the Serbian army. An Austrian naval captain with a +floating arsenal, four steamers and twenty-two drifters, was +held up, as he proposed to sail towards Buda-Pest, by being +told of a battery at Dalja, higher up the Danube. However, +the Vukovar townsfolk, in view of a possible explosion, +begged that the prisoner, who had wept at being stopped, +should be sent on his way. The German harbour-master, +a lieutenant, assured the Baron that he would assist him +if he were allowed to keep his liberty. But he was tempted, +in the middle of a night, to assist two German captains who +were trying to get through, each with a string of drifters. +Rajacsich, whose armed force consisted of forty Serbian +ex-prisoners and fifty of his own workmen—he armed +them with what he found on the drifters—had no means +of stopping the German boats. But after telephoning in +vain to the ex-harbour-master, he fired a shot into one of +the boats, which fortunately found the kitchen, and made +such a terrible noise among the pots and pans that the +Germans considered it more prudent to remain. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> +Baron succeeded in sending back to Belgrade altogether +39 steamers and 217 loaded drifters, which contained +booty, even from the Ukraine, that was valued at about +a milliard crowns; ... but the Austro-Hungarians +managed to get away with a considerable amount of +plunder. The people of Buda-Pest were surprised, on +the morning of November 5, to find the <i>Sophie</i>, one of +the most luxurious passenger steamers on the Danube, +lying at their quay, with her decks groaning under such +a pile of packing-cases and parcels and furniture and all +kinds of objects heaped upon each other as almost to make +the boat unrecognizable. A lieutenant with a dozen +soldiers was sent to investigate, and the captain showed +him an order from the Minister of War, commanding +that the <i>Sophie</i> should take on board the Military Government +in Serbia and transport it to Vienna. But the +Buda-Pest authorities insisted on removing all the articles +whose ownership the passengers were unable to prove; +and it took a whole day to unload the enormous quantities +of flour, leather, clothing, poultry, sugar, fats, etc. +General Rhemen, the former military governor of Serbia, +related that on October 5 he received the order to begin +the military evacuation of Serbia. This was carried on +day by day, and on October 28 it was completed. "We +sent by the railway and by boats," said Colonel Kerchnaive +to the Hungarian journalists, "4000 carloads of +wheat, 10,000 fat oxen, 10,000 transport oxen, 10,000 +pigs, 4000 sheep, 15 carloads of wine, 400 carloads of +jam, enormous quantities of wood, of telephone material, +of arms, munitions and 16 million crowns in silver." +Such was the "military evacuation" of Serbia.... +And at the beginning of the same month, when the whole +Austro-Hungarian monarchy was in a state of collapse, +Baron Hussarek stood up in the Reichsrath and said +that "the task will arise for the Government carefully +to prepare and inaugurate the difficult but hopeful work +of reconstructing the monarchy on the basis of national +autonomy." The imperturbable Prime Minister announced +that "we shall have to go to work and set our house in +order." But you will say that the Baron was a futile +Mrs. Partington, an isolated antagonist of the inevitable, +and only mentioned here for the sake of dramatic effect.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span> +Not at all! So far from being laughed at everywhere +as an absurd reactionary he was held in the highest Buda-Pest +circles to be a perilous innovator. He actually spoke +about conciliating the Austro-Hungarian Slavs: not so +Count Tisza. "What is happening in Austria," exclaimed +the grim Calvinist a few months before, "are strange, +grotesque displays of the ridiculous symptoms of the +presumptuous mentality of people of no importance."</p> + + +<p class="section">(<i>b</i>) IN SLOVENIA</p> + +<p>One further example of Southern Slav activity may be +given, as it will show us what was happening among the +pious and industrious Slovenes. It would have been +unnatural if the Clerical party had longed for Austria's +downfall, and a large number of priests would still have +been Austrophil<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> if Dr. Jeglić, the eminent Prince-Bishop +of Ljubljana, had not summoned all the political parties +and caused them to adopt a patriotic Yugoslav attitude. +(His retirement was in consequence demanded; but the +Pope, who asked him for an explanation of the whole +movement, was quite satisfied. Nor would Vienna have +been able to take any serious steps against the Bishop, +seeing that most of the Slovenes were behind him.) But +the small Slovene people could, until November 1, 1918, +offer nothing more than a passive resistance to their +masters. They did not dare to speak Slovene in public. +"What is the easiest language in the world?" was being +asked in Maribor on the 1st of November. It was the +language which so many people had apparently learned +in a single night. The people were Slovenes, the officials<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span> +were Austrian—though one or two of the officials were +Slovenes and a minority of the people claimed to be +Austrians, this being more marked in the town of Maribor +(where the German-Austrians were as many as 35 per +cent.) than in the surrounding district (where 95 per cent. +are Yugoslav). Dr. Jeglić had prepared the forces that +were going to break their bonds on that fateful day. At +7 a.m. Dr. Srečko Lajnšić—one of the rare Slovene +officials—he had been denounced by two of his colleagues and +imprisoned at the beginning of the War, for having, as +they said, "laughed maliciously" at Great Britain +resolving to fight—Dr. Lajnšić and his friend General +Maister took over the administration in the name of the +Yugoslav State. General Maister had been till then a +Major, employed—as he was a political suspect—on dépôt +work. And when the eight or nine Austrian colonels +appeared on November 1 before Lajnšić, the genial official, +and Maister, they were informed by the latter that he was +a General—he looks like a swarthy Viking—and they +were asked to surrender their swords. As they did not +know how many men the General had behind him—as a +matter of fact he had nine—they acted on his suggestion; +one of them wept as he did so. At 11 a.m. Lajnšić deposed +all the chief civil officials in that part of Styria, and the +General persuaded the 47th Regiment to leave by train. +They were influenced by a notice in the papers which said +that 100,000 Frenchmen (invented by the General and +Lajnšić) had just arrived at Ljubljana. After this the +two companions carried on at Maribor; very little was +known of them for a month at Ljubljana, Zagreb or +Belgrade. But then they were confirmed in the posts +they had assumed and Maister became a regular General. +They were not intolerant; they expelled less than ten +people, although so many of the German-Austrians had +come, under the auspices of the Südmark Verein (a +colonization society) or the Deutsche Schulverein (an +educational body), to propagate Germanism. One of +these colonists, a doctor, who had lived a dozen years +in Maribor, could only say "Good morning" in Slovene; +and German women in the market-place (themselves +unable to speak proper German) used to insist on the +Slovene peasants speaking a language of which they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span> +knew scarcely a word. Lajnšić and Maister took no +steps against the Bishop of Maribor who, three months +after the Austrian collapse, celebrated a Mass in honour +of the ex-Emperor. This Bishop, the son of Slovene +peasants, had been educated near Vienna, had been a +confessor of the House of Habsburg, and he found it +difficult to regard himself as a Slovene. Gradually the +voice of his own people spoke in him and then, after very +long and honourable mental conflict, he developed into +an excellent Yugoslav. He and Maister are, both of them, +poets. Most of the General's pieces—which are all in +Slovene—treat of love and nature. But he wrote at +least one set of other verses, which the Austrians suppressed +during the War. This is the nearest translation +I can make of them:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Have pity, Christ, on Thy poor folk,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">For now the fields are desolate<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And misery and famine wait<br /></span> +<span class="i0">On all, the chimneys give no smoke—<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Our men have marched away from us.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Soon will the village bells have gone<br /></span> +<span class="i1">From their dark places up on high,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And we who watch will never tie<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Gay blossoms round them, and upon<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Their path no laughter will resound.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Beloved bells, when thunder rolled<br /></span> +<span class="i1">And lightning threatened us you swayed,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Our music-censers, and you prayed<br /></span> +<span class="i0">That God Almighty would behold<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The danger and be merciful.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">O bells that sang of love and joy,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">A foul destruction you will spread.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Once you moaned sweetly for the dead<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And now 'tis you that will destroy,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And on their course the bullets moan.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">But once again, O bells, we pray,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Let the tremendous music roll.<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Sing us the secrets of your soul,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And then your last song of dismay<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And wrath and sacrilegious death.<br /></span> +</div></div> +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> Cf. "Le Progrès politique et économique sous le Régne de Pierre <span class="smcap">i.</span>," +by A. Mousset, in <i>Yugoslavia</i>, December 15, 1921.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> In all, 7130 boys and girls were removed from Bosnia-Herzegovina. +And a year or two after the end of the war a good many of them were +still with their foster-parents in other parts of Yugoslavia. They preferred +to remain there, because of the lack of food in their own homes; the +parents of many—especially in Herzegovina—had been hanged, and +others had been for so long away from their parents that they had no keen +desire to return to them.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> Quoted in the <i>Times</i> of September 24, 1919.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Cf. <i>Serbia's Part in the War</i>, vol. i., by Crawfurd Price. London, 1918.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> He intervened, for example, near Lazarevac, where he observed, +with tears in his eyes, that one of the finest regiments, the 10th Šumadija, +was giving way to overwhelming numbers. He told them that he intended +to stay where he was, and he invited any soldier who wished to remain +with him to do so. Every man remained. "Très charmant," was the +comment of the colonel, an eye-witness, who told me of this incident.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Cf. <i>Manchester Guardian</i>, October 22, 1921.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> Cf. <i>Nineteenth Century and After</i>, January 1922.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Cf. <i>Dokumenti o postanku Kraljevine Srba, Hrvata i Slovenaca, 1914-1919</i>, +by Ferdo Šišić. Zagreb, 1920.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> Cf. <i>International Law</i>, Part I. p. 321.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> <i>Italy and the Yugoslavs: A Question of International Law.</i> Paris, 1919.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> July 17, 1920.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> I think that, in so far as concerns this article in the <i>New Europe</i> +(July 8, 1920), it is fairer to describe Mr. Trevelyan as an Italian exponent +rather than apologist. Although we cannot agree with various remarks +of his, he makes it clear that he is out of sympathy with the Italian +extremists. He deprecates also the views of those English publicists +who are altogether on the side of the Yugoslavs. "The truth, perhaps," +says he, "lies somewhere hid in the centre." And if that is not a very +happy observation, it is at any rate much more moderate than the average +views of those English writers whose spiritual home is in Italy.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> Byron, <i>Childe Harold</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> About 36,000 boys—partly recruits and partly boys of more tender +years—started over the mountains, and some 20,000 of them perished.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> This officer, aided by others, was charged with having organized +an attempt to overthrow the Yugoslav National Council soon after its +constitution in the autumn of 1918. The day of the counter-revolution +was to be November 25, according to the <i>Hrvatska</i> <ins class="correction" +title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'Rijeć'"><i>Riječ</i></ins> of November 23. +The General and others were arrested, but as he was able to prove his +innocence he was liberated.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> <i>With Serbia into Exile.</i> New York, 1916.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> Cf. <i>The Question</i>, by Isidora Sekulić.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, January 1, 1917.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> In contrast with this attitude that was adopted at Nikita's command +one must mention the transactions of a Podgorica merchant, M. Burič, +and his partners, who sold 150,000 kilos of grain to the retreating army at +cost price, that is, at one dinar per kilo when they could have obtained +five. Two million kilos of hay they sold at 8 paras per kilo instead of at 50 +or more. There were at this time only 20 tons of flour in all Montenegro. +Undoubtedly the refusal of Burič and his friends to profit from the distress +of their brother Serbs was much more typical of the Montenegrins than +the conduct which Nikita drew forth from the weak side of their +character.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> Cf. an article in the <i>Gazette de Lausanne</i>, November 29, 1917, by +Danilo Gatalo, a former Montenegrin Minister of War.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> Cf. p. 204.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> <i>Ex-King Nicholas and his Court</i> (Collection of eighteen original +documents in facsimile). Sarajevo, 1919.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> These almost incredible facts are vouched for by Dr. Sekula Drljević, +ex-Minister of Justice and Finance, who was one of the internees at +Karlstein.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> <i>The Black Sheep of the Balkans.</i> London, 1920.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> In 1919 this very popular physician became Minister of Public +Health in a Coalition Cabinet, and in 1920 he became Minister of Posts +and Telegraphs.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> A couple of months before the triumph of the Yugoslav idea one of +these priests, Dr. Alexius Ušeničnik, Professor of Theology, published at +Ljubljana a little book packed with ancient and modern quotations from +Latin and French, Italian and German sources. He called it <i>Um die +Yugoslavija; Eine Apologie</i>; and in the strongest terms he combated +the reproach that the Slovene bishop, the clergy and the people were +not loyal to the Habsburgs. Dr. Ušeničnik proved that the poor Slovenes +were suffering an almost intolerable subjection at the hands of the Germans, +but he persisted in demanding nothing more than freedom within the +Habsburg Monarchy. "The Monarchy," said our unhappy author, "is +in the midst of its development." And this priest, who was so deaf to +the grand Yugoslav idea, quoted with approval the words of Gustave +le Bon: "Ideas take a long time in possessing the people's soul."</p></div> + +</div> + +<p class="center" style="padding-top: 2em; font-weight: bold">END OF VOLUME I.</p> + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="INDEX_OF_VOLUME_I" id="INDEX_OF_VOLUME_I"></a>INDEX OF VOLUME I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span></h2> + +<p class="center">(<i>The Names of Books and Newspapers are in Italics.</i>)</p> + + +<ul> +<li>Aerenthal (Count) and the bombs, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> +<li>— — and Bosnia, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + +<li>Agram, <i>see</i> <a href="#Zagreb">Zagreb</a>.</li> + +<li>Albania, part of, offered to the Serbs, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Albanian_activities" id="Albanian_activities"></a>Albanian activities, <a href="#Page_72">72</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> +<li>— language, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + +<li>Alexander (King of Serbia), the lamentable, <a href="#Page_194">194</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>— (King of Yugoslavia), <a href="#Page_232">232</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>— (Pope), <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> +<li>— (Prince), the frigid, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Alphabet_Slav" id="Alphabet_Slav"></a>Alphabet, Slav, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li>Andrássy (Count Julius), his confidence, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> + +<li>Apponyi on mad ambitions, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li> + +<li>Arad and the Serbs, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>-<a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> +<li>— Executions at, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> +<li>— the Magyar slaughter-house, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li><i>Arbeiter-Zeitung</i> on Berchtold, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> + +<li>Austria and Macedonia, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> +<li>— — some atrocities, <a href="#Page_225">225</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>— — some intrigues (and <i>see</i> <a href="#Habsburgs_and_the_Croats">Habsburgs</a>), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li><i>Avenire</i>, a newspaper, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.<br /><br /></li> + +<li>Bach, his "huzzars," <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> + +<li>Bačka, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a> <i>et passim</i>.</li> + +<li>Bahr (H.), his <i>Dalmatinische Reise</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> + +<li>Banat, the frontier regiments, <a href="#Page_82">82</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>— German colonists, <a href="#Page_82">82</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>— Migrants to, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> +<li>— Revolt in, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> +<li>— Serbs and Roumanians, <a href="#Page_188">188</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Baranja, <a href="#Page_62">62</a> <i>et passim</i>.</li> + +<li>Barbulescu (Prof.) on Macedonian language, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> + +<li>Bartlett (C. A. H.) on Treaty of London, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> + +<li>Battisti, how he died, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + +<li>Beaumont, of the <i>Daily Telegraph</i>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + +<li>Bečirović, the Macedonian schoolmaster, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + +<li>Belgrade, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>-<a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li>Belloc (H.), his pronouncements, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> + +<li>Beneš (Dr. E.), his <ins class="correction" +title="Transcriber's note: original reads 'Detruisez'"><i>Détruisez</i></ins> <i>l'Autriche-Hongrie</i>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> +<li>— — in Italy, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>-<a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> + +<li>Berchtold (Count) and the Great War, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>-<a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> + +<li>Berlin Congress, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>-<a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li>Bilinski (Dr.), his tears, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> + +<li>Bismarck on the Balkans, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + +<li>Bissolati, the gallant Minister, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Blackwood's Magazine</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> + +<li>Bogomile heresy, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> + +<li>Bonchocat, a murderer's testimony, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li> + +<li>Boppe, the French Minister, on the Serbs, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Bosnia_and_the_Magyars" id="Bosnia_and_the_Magyars"></a>Bosnia and the Magyars, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> +<li>— and Michael, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> +<li>— and the Powers, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> +<li>— under the Turks, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> +<li>— <i>see</i> <a href="#Tvertko_the_Ban">Tvertko</a>.</li> + +<li>Boué (Ami), his <i>La Turquie d'Europe</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>-<a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> + +<li>Brailsford (H. N.), his <i>Macedonia</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> + +<li>Branković, the despot, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> +<li>— George (a descendant), <a href="#Page_71">71</a>-<a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> +<li>— Vuk, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li>Bratti (R.), his <i>La Fine della Serenissima</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + +<li>Bresse (L.), his <i>Le Monténégro Inconnu</i>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> + +<li>Brkić (Patriarch), his description, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span></li> + +<li><a name="Bulgarian_language" id="Bulgarian_language"></a>Bulgarian language, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>-<a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-<a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> +<li>— origins, <a href="#Page_33">33</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Bulgars, attitude to Serbia and Yugoslavia, <a href="#Page_11">11</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>-<a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> +<li>— enter the War, <a href="#Page_248">248</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li><i>Bulletin Hellénique</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li>Bulwer (Sir H.), his advice, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>Bunjevci, <a href="#Page_86">86</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Buric, the patriotic merchant, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> +<li>— (Vassilje), his brother, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>-<a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> + +<li>Buxton (Leland), his <i>Black Sheep of the Balkans</i>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> +<li>— — his unfortunate proposal, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.<br /><br /></li> + + +<li><a name="cabrinovic" id="cabrinovic"></a>Čabrinović and the Sarajevo crime, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> + +<li>Čačak and Miloš, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + +<li>Cahun (L.), his <i>Introduction à l'Histoire de l'Asie</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li>Čarnoević (Arsenius), the Patriarch, <a href="#Page_72">72</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Cattalinich, his <i>Memorie</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> + +<li>Cattaro, <i>see</i> <a href="#Kotor">Kotor</a>.</li> + +<li>Cavour, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Chiala (Gl.), his <i>Letters of Count Cavour</i>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> + +<li>Chopin (J.), his <i>Le Complot de Sarajevo</i>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> + +<li>Christić (Annie) on Serb women in the War, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li>Christoff, <i>see</i> <a href="#Tartaro-Bulgar">Tartaro-Bulgar</a>.</li> + +<li>Cippico (Antonio), his arguments, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li>Čiprovtsi, its outbreak, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li>Clergy in Croatia, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> +<li>— in Czecho-Slovakia, <a href="#Page_130">130</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Codelli (Baron), his rules, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + +<li>Constantine (King) and the Serbs, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>-<a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> + +<li>Corfu, Declaration of, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>-<a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> +<li>— Serbs at, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + +<li>Crijević (Elias), the renegade, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Croats_their_history" id="Croats_their_history"></a>Croats, their history, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>-<a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> +<li>— relations with Serbs, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>-<a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Čuk (Madame), her good work, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> + +<li>Čuplikac (Colonel), the voivoda, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> + +<li>Cvijić (Prof.), <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + +<li>Cyril (Saint), <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li>Czecho-Slovakia, disapproval of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> +<li>— its national Church, <a href="#Page_130">130</a> <i>et seq.</i><br /><br /></li> + + +<li><i>Daily Telegraph</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> + +<li>Dalmatia, its Christianity, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> +<li>— suggested settlers, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> +<li>— and Venice, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> +<li>— <i>see</i> <a href="#Morlaks_of_Dalmatia">Morlaks</a> and <a href="#Tommaseo_Nicolo">Tommaseo</a>.</li> + +<li>Dandolo (Vincenzo), <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + +<li>Danica, the brotherhood, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + +<li>Danilo (Crown Prince), the financier, <a href="#Page_201">201</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> +<li>— (Prince), his death, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>-<a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + +<li>Deak (Francis), his liberal methods, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> + +<li>Debidour, his <i>Histoire diplomatique</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + +<li>Democracy of Serbs, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> + +<li>Devil, <i>see</i> <a href="#Alphabet_Slav">Alphabet</a>.</li> + +<li>Devine (A.), the apologist, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> + +<li>D'Intignano (F. M.), his <i>I Morlacchi</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li>Djakovica, some years ago, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + +<li>Dobrila (Bishop George), <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> + +<li>Dolci, his fate, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + +<li>Drašković, his <i>Exhortation</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + +<li>Drljević (Dr. S.) on Danilo, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> +<li>— — on Montenegrin Red Cross, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li> + +<li>Dubourdieu, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>-<a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Dubrovnik" id="Dubrovnik"></a>Dubrovnik, her dissolution, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> +<li>— her glory, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>-<a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>— her moral height, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> +<li>— her poets, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>-<a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + +<li>Durham (Edith), her <i>High Albania</i>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> +<li>— — her partiality, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> +<li>— — in praise of Albanians, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> +<li>— — her <i>Twenty Years of Balkan Tangle</i>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + +<li>Dušan (Emperor), <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> +<li>— — his ambitions, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> +<li>— — his Code, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> +<li>— — his greatness, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> +<li>— — his sister, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Eliot (Sir Charles), his <i>Turkey in Europe</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + +<li>England in the Adriatic, <a href="#Page_104">104</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Essad Pasha, at Scutari, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span></li> + +<li>Evans (Sir Arthur), <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li>Exarchate, its beginning, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> +<li>— and the Serbs, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Ex-King Nicholas of Montenegro and his Court</i>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.<br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Fiume, <i>see</i> <a href="#Rieka">Rieka</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Francis_Ferdinand" id="Francis_Ferdinand"></a>Francis Ferdinand (Archduke), his murder, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>-<a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> +<li>— — — various mysteries, <a href="#Page_214">214</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Francis Joseph, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + +<li>Frankopan (Christopher), <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li>Frederick Barbarossa, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li>Friedjung (Prof.) and the forgeries, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>-<a href="#Page_206">206</a>.<br /><br /></li> + + +<li><a name="Gaj_Ljudevit_the_patriot" id="Gaj_Ljudevit_the_patriot"></a>Gaj (Ljudevit), the patriot, <a href="#Page_112">112</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + +<li>Gatalo (Danilo) exposes Nikita, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li>Gauvain exposes Nikita, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> + +<li>Gavrilović (Dr. Michael), <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Gazette de Lausanne</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li>George (Prince), his ways, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>-<a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + +<li>Georgov (Prof.), <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li>German colonists, <a href="#Page_82">82</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Germans favoured by Habsburgs, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> +<li>— appraised by Haeckel, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Geschichte der Franzfelder Gemeinde</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> + +<li>Ghevgeli, a typical Macedonian town, <a href="#Page_168">168</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Giacich on Rieka, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> + +<li>Giesl (Baron) and the Montenegrins, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>-<a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> + +<li>Gladstone and Montenegro, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> +<li>— his preface, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> +<li>— and Strossmayer, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + +<li>Glagolitic, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>-<a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li>Goad (H. E.), Comments on, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>-<a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + +<li>Gopčević, his bad book, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> + +<li>Gorica, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> + +<li>Gortchakoff, his inspirations, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> +<li>— his instructions, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> + +<li>Greek in Macedonian churches, <a href="#Page_155">155</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> +<li>— — schools, <a href="#Page_137">137</a> <i>et seq.</i> <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + +<li>Gregory (Pope), quoted, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li>Grimm (Jacob), his enthusiasm, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> + +<li>Grün (Anastasius), the Slovene, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + +<li>Gundulić, his works, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>-<a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /><br /></li> + + +<li><a name="Habsburgs_and_the_Croats" id="Habsburgs_and_the_Croats"></a>Habsburgs and the Croats (and <i>see</i> <a href="#Rieka">Rieka</a>), <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> +<li>— and the Magyars, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>— and Montenegro (and <i>see</i> <a href="#Lov269en">Lovčen</a>), <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-<a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>-<a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> +<li>— and the Pragmatic Sanction, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> +<li>— and the Serbian regiments, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> +<li>— and the Serbs, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> +<li>— and the Slovenes (and <i>see</i> <a href="#Triest">Triest</a>), <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + +<li>Hajduković, Nikita's Minister, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> + +<li>Hajić (Dr.), against grammar, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> + +<li>Hartwig, the Russian Minister, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>-<a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> + +<li>Hegedüs, the villain, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Heiduks, <a href="#Page_59">59</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Hektorović, the famous poet, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + +<li>Helen (Queen), <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + +<li>Herbert (Hon. Aubrey, M.P.), considers the Magyars, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> +<li>— — considers the Magyars' neighbours, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> + +<li>Herzegović (Achmet Pasha), <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li>Herzegovina, the dialect (and <i>see</i> <a href="#Bosnia_and_the_Magyars">Bosnia</a>), <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + +<li>Hibben (Paxton), on Venizelos, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> + +<li>Hodges (Colonel), <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + +<li>Homer, on atrocities, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + +<li>Hoste (Commodore), <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + +<li>Hupka (Lieut.-Colonel) and Lovčen, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> + +<li>Hussarek (Baron), his optimism, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>-<a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> + +<li>Hussein, the Dragon, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + +<li>Hvar, bombarded by Russians, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> +<li>— in the Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> +<li>— revolts against Napoleon, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Ignatieff (Count), and the Exarchate, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> + +<li>Iorga (Prof.), his suggestion, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> + +<li>Irby (Miss), benefactress and traveller, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> +<li>— — her <i>The Turks, the Greeks and the Slavons</i>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li>Isonzo, important river (and <i>see</i> <a href="#Mazzini_and_the_Isonzo">Mazzini</a>), <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> + +<li>Istria in distress, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> +<li>— its population, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>-<a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> + +<li>Italianized party, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> + +<li>Italians, their Austrian testimonials, <a href="#Page_282">282</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>— help the Serbs, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> +<li>— Surrendering to, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a> <i>et seq.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span></li> + +<li>Italians, their union, <a href="#Page_140">140</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>— against Yugoslavia, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Ivanović, the Russian, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Jeglić (Prince-Bishop), <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> + +<li>Jellačić (J. J.), his decline, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>-<a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> +<li>— — his expedition, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> +<li>— — Governor of Dalmatia, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> +<li>— — his proclamation, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + +<li>Jireček (Dr. C.), his <i>History of the Bulgars</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> +<li>— — on the Morlaks, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li>Jones (Fortier), his <i>With Serbia into Exile</i>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> + +<li>Jovius (Paulus), the historian, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li>Julia (Princess), and Palmerston, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Kačić, his long work, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + +<li>Kanchov (Basil) and the Macedonians, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + +<li>Kara George, his end, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> +<li>— — his first insurrection, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> +<li>— — his internal enemies, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Karaji263_Vuk_his_great_work" id="Karaji263_Vuk_his_great_work"></a>Karajić (Vuk), his great work, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + +<li>Karaveloff (Ljuba), his articles, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + +<li>Khuen-Héderváry (Count), <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> + +<li>Kiepert (H.), the geographer, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> + +<li>Klobučarić, the police-captain, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> + +<li>Kohler (Prof.), the jurist, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> + +<li>Kolomon (King), <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + +<li>Kossovo, the great battle, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Kossuth" id="Kossuth"></a>Kossuth, <a href="#Page_121">121</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> + +<li>Kotča (Captain), <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Kotor" id="Kotor"></a>Kotor, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Kovačica, Magyar excesses at, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>-<a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Krk" id="Krk"></a>Krk, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li>Kronimirović, the chieftain, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + +<li>"Krpitsa," <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + +<li>Kukuš, the strange movement, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.<br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Ladislas, the traitor, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + +<li>Laffan (Rev. R. G. D.), his <i>The Guardians of the Gate</i>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + +<li>Lajnšić (Dr. S.) and the rise of the Slovenes, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> + +<li>Lamartine, quoted, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li>Landowners in Croatia, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> +<li>— in Macedonia, <a href="#Page_134">134</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Language, Serbo-Croat (and <i>see</i> <a href="#Albanian_activities">Albanian</a> and <a href="#Bulgarian_language">Bulgar</a>), <a href="#Page_112">112</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Lansdowne (Lord) on Macedonia, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> + +<li>Lazar (Prince), <a href="#Page_45">45</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Lazarević (Lazar), the militant priest, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> + +<li>Leiper (R.) on Montenegro, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li>Liubica (Princess), the strong-minded, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + +<li>Loiseau (C.), his <i>Le Balkan Slave</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Lov269en" id="Lov269en"></a>Lovčen, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Lucić, the lyric poet, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Macedonia and the Allied advance, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> +<li>— examined, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>— in old times, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> +<li>— under the Turks, <a href="#Page_134">134</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Machiedo (Dr.), what he read, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> + +<li>Magyars, atrocities at Arad, <a href="#Page_235">235</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>— against Croats, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>-<a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> +<li>— measures in the War, <a href="#Page_290">290</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>— <i>see</i> <a href="#Kossuth">Kossuth</a> and <a href="#Rieka">Rieka</a>.</li> + +<li>Maister (General), patriot and poet, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Manchester Guardian</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> + +<li>Maravić, the good policeman, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> + +<li>Maribor, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + +<li>Marko Kraljević, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>-<a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> + +<li>Marković (Dr. Lazar), his <i>Serbia and Europe</i>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> + +<li>Marković (Svetozar), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> + +<li>Marmont (General), <a href="#Page_102">102</a>-<a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + +<li>Martinović (General), friend of Russia, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> + +<li>Massarechi (Gregory), a missionary, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> + +<li>Matthew Corvinus (King), <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li>Mazuranić, poet and ban, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Mazzini_and_the_Isonzo" id="Mazzini_and_the_Isonzo"></a>Mazzini and the Isonzo, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> + +<li>Meletios, the savage bishop, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + +<li>Methodus (Saint), <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li>Metternich, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span></li> + +<li>Michael (Prince) of Serbia, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> e<i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + +<li>Miklosić (F.), his <i>Monumenta Serbica</i>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + +<li>Miladinoff (Dimitri), <a href="#Page_132">132</a>-<a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>-<a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li>Milan (Prince, afterwards King), his abdication, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> +<li>— — — his aims, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>-<a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> +<li>— — — considered, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Miletić (Dr. Slavko) in the War, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li> + +<li>Miletić (Dr. Svetozar), against the Magyars, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>-<a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> + +<li>Millo (Admiral), <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + +<li>Miloš (Prince), <a href="#Page_110">110</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + +<li>Milovanović (Dr.) on Macedonia, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> + +<li>Milutine (King), <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + +<li>Mirko (Prince), the unregretted, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> + +<li>Mišić (Marshal), commander-in-chief, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> +<li>— — on officials in Macedonia, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> + +<li>Miuškević, the Premier, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> + +<li>M'Neill (Ronald, M.P.), champion of Nikita, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>-<a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> + +<li>Momchiloff (Dr.), his pronouncement, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Montenegrin Bulletin</i>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>-<a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> + +<li>Montenegrin Vespers, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + +<li>Montenegro, a disgrace, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>-<a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li> +<li>— her purity, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> +<li>— and the Turks, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> +<li>— <i>see</i> <a href="#Nicholas_of_Montenegro">Nicholas</a>, <a href="#Peter_I">Peter <small>I</small></a>. and <a href="#Peter_II">Peter <small>II</small></a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Morlaks_of_Dalmatia" id="Morlaks_of_Dalmatia"></a>Morlaks, of Dalmatia, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Morning Post</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li>Morrison (Colonel) and Serbia's wounded, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>-<a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> + +<li>Mousset (A.), his <i>Le Progrès politique, etc.</i>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> + +<li>Muhammedan ascendancy, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + +<li>Muir Mackenzie (Miss), <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-<a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> + +<li>Murko (Dr.), his <i>Die südslavischen Literaturen</i>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + +<li>Musachi, the chronicler, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Nally (Rev. Dr.) on the chivalrous Magyars, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> + +<li>Napoleon and Dalmatia, <a href="#Page_100">100</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>— his fleet in the Adriatic, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>-<a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> +<li>— his Illyria, <a href="#Page_102">102</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>— and the Slovenes, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> + +<li>Nationality, unstable in those parts, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> + +<li>Naumović (Risto), a Macedonian victim, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Near East</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> + +<li>Nekludoff, his <i>Diplomatic Reminiscences</i>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + +<li>Nemania (Stephen), <a href="#Page_37">37</a>-<a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li>Nešić (Ljuba), his varied activities, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Neue Freie Presse</i>, admits Austria's guilt, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> + +<li>Newton (Lord and Lady), on the Magyars, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Nicholas_of_Montenegro" id="Nicholas_of_Montenegro"></a>Nicholas of Montenegro, his early fame, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>-<a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> +<li>— — the secret clause, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> +<li>— — dealings with the Press, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> +<li>— — the cloven hoof, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>— — works against the Serbs, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>-<a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Nikita, <i>see</i> <a href="#Nicholas_of_Montenegro">Nicholas of Montenegro</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Nineteenth Century and After</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> + +<li>Nodier (Charles), the editor, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + +<li>Novi Bazar, and the Austrians, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> + +<li>Novi Sad, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.<br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Obilic, the hero, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> + +<li>Obradović, monk and Minister, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-<a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + +<li>Omladina, a society, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li><i>Omladinac</i>, their review, <a href="#Page_136">136</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Omortag, his inscription, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> +<li>— his sons, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li>Oraovac (Tomo), his grandfather, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> +<li>— — his <i>Red House</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>-<a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> +<li>— — his seventy-five questions, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.<br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Padua University, its diplomas, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li>Païssu, the monk, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-<a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + +<li>Paneff (Theodore), his ideas, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li>Paravia (P. A.), his judgment, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> + +<li>Pašić (Nicholas), his exile, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> +<li>— — his methods, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>-<a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li> + +<li>Pasvantoölu (Osman Pasha), <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li>Pavlović (Count) and Austrian atrocities, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>-<a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> + +<li>Peć, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>-<a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li>Pešić (General) and Nikita, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>-<a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span></li> + +<li><i>Pester Lloyd</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Peter_I" id="Peter_I"></a>Peter <small>I</small>., the energetic bishop, of Montenegro, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> + +<li>Peter <small>I</small>. (King) of Serbia and Yugoslavia, his accession, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> +<li>— — — his good work, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> +<li>— — — his old age, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>-<a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Peter_II" id="Peter_II"></a>Peter <small>II</small>., the great poet, of Montenegro, <a href="#Page_123">123</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Peter (Prince) of Lovčen, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> +<li>— — — the lover, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + +<li>Pharos (Prof.), his <i>The Trial of the Authors of the Sarajevo Crime</i>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> + +<li>Pisani (Abbé), his <i>La Dalmatia</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + +<li>Pius <small>X</small>. (Pope), and the liturgy, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> + +<li>Podgorica Skupština, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Politika</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + +<li>Pomaks, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> + +<li>Popoff (S.), his engaging monograph, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>-<a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> + +<li>Popov (Prof.), his <i>Obzor Chronografov</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li>Popović (Eugene), the aged Premier, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> + +<li>Porphyrogenetos (Constantine), <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Potiorek_General_in_Bosnia" id="Potiorek_General_in_Bosnia"></a>Potiorek (General) in Bosnia, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> +<li>— — in the War, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> + +<li>Pragmatic Sanction, and the Croats, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + +<li>Premrou (M.), his <i>Monimenta Sclavenica</i>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>-<a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + +<li>Preradović (Peter), poet and general, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>-<a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> + +<li>Prezzolini (G.), his arguments, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> +<li>— — his <i>La Dalmazia</i>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + +<li>Pribram (Dr.), on eastern Roumelia, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> + +<li>Pribičević (Svetozar), his zeal, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + +<li>Price (Crawfurd), his <i>Serbia's Part in the War</i>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> + +<li>Prizren, as it was, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + +<li>Propaganda, Albanian, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> +<li>— Austrian, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> +<li>— Bulgarian, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> +<li>— German, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li> +<li>— Italian, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> +<li>— Serbian, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> +<li>— Roumanian, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + +<li>Putnik (Marshal), his end, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.<br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Rački (F.), the historian, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li>Radeff (S.), his <i>La Macedoine</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li>Radić (S.) of Croatia, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> + +<li>Radonić (Dr. Y.), Croat historian, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li>Radoslavoff (Dr.) and the War, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> + +<li>Radovanović, and Michael's death, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> + +<li>Radović (Andrija), <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>-<a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> + +<li>Radulić and his son's nationality, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>-<a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> + +<li>Ragusa, <i>see</i> <a href="#Dubrovnik">Dubrovnik</a>.</li> + +<li>Rajacsich (Baron Joseph), <a href="#Page_296">296</a>-<a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> + +<li>Rajacsich (Patriarch), <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li>Rajić (Blaško), the priest, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> + +<li>Rakovski, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Raška, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li>Rauch (Baron), the drastic Ban, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>-<a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Resto del Carlino</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Revue de Paris</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Rieka" id="Rieka"></a>Rieka, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> +<li>— "corpus separatum," <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> +<li>— Magyar machinations, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li>Rilski (Neophyte), <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + +<li>Rizvanbegović (Ali Pasha), <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + +<li>Romanzoff (Count), quoted, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + +<li>Roumanians in Banat, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-<a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>— and the Serbian Church, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> + +<li>Rukavina (General), <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> + +<li>Russia, her activities in the Balkans, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>-<a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>— in the Adriatic, <a href="#Page_99">99</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>— and Macedonia, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> +<li>— and Montenegro, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.<br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Samo, an old Prince, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li>San Stefano, the unfortunate Treaty, <a href="#Page_172">172</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Sarajevo and the World War, <a href="#Page_213">213</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> +<li>— <i>see</i><a href="#cabrinovic">Čabrinović</a>,<a href="#Francis_Ferdinand"> Francis Ferdinand</a>, <a href="#Potiorek_General_in_Bosnia">Potiorek</a> and <a href="#Tankosi263_and_the_Sarajevo_crime">Tankosić</a>.</li> + +<li>Sarpi (Fra Paolo), his warning, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li>Sava (Saint), <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>-<a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> + +<li>Saxons in the Balkans, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + +<li>Sazonov, restrains Serbia, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> + +<li>Schools, Croats' vain demand for, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>-<a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> +<li>— in Macedonia, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>-<a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>-<a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> +<li>— in Montenegro, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> +<li>— and the Pomaks, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span></li> + +<li>Schools in Serbia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> +<li>— Serbo-Croat, under Napoleon, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> +<li>— Slovene, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + +<li>Scutari, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Secolo</i>, on reception of Italians in Austria, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> + +<li>Sekulić (Isidora), her <i>The Question</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> + +<li>Serbo-Croat Coalition, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>-<a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> +<li>— language (and <i>see</i> <a href="#Gaj_Ljudevit_the_patriot">Gaj</a> and <a href="#Karaji263_Vuk_his_great_work">Karajić</a>), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> + +<li>Sesan (Ante), his enterprise, <a href="#Page_285">285</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Seton-Watson (Dr. R. W.), <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> +<li>— — his <i>The Southern Slav Question</i>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Shade of the Balkans</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + +<li>Shishmanoff (Prof.), <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> + +<li>Šibenik, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>-<a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li>Simeon (Tzar), <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + +<li>Sinan Pasha, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li>Sindjelinić, the hero, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + +<li>Sišić (F.), a writer, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li> + +<li>Slava, a Serbian custom, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> + +<li>Slovenia, suggested name, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> + +<li>Slovenes free themselves, <a href="#Page_298">298</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>— their history, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>-<a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> +<li>— their language, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> + +<li>Šokci, of Baranja, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + +<li>Sokolović (Mehemet), <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li>Sokolski, who decamped, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li>Sonnino (Baron) and the Adriatic, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>-<a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Spectator</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> + +<li>Split, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li>Stability of Yugoslavia, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + +<li>Stamboulüsky, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + +<li>Starčević party, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> + +<li>Steed (H. Wickham) and Corfu Declaration, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> + +<li>Stephen the Little, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> + +<li>Stiljanović (Stephen), his corpse, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li>Stojanović, his measures against Austria, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> + +<li>Strossmayer, the great bishop, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> +<li>— his origin, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> +<li>— his work, <a href="#Page_132">132</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Stulli (J.), his <i>Vocabulario</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + +<li>Südland (L. von), his <i>Die Südslavische Frage</i>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + +<li>Susmel (Edoardo) of Rieka, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a> <i>et seq.</i><br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Tajsić (Ranko) answered by Pašić, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> +<li>— — his blunt demand, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Tankosi263_and_the_Sarajevo_crime" id="Tankosi263_and_the_Sarajevo_crime"></a>Tankosić and the Sarajevo crime, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Tartaro-Bulgar" id="Tartaro-Bulgar"></a>Tartaro-Bulgar, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li>Taylor (A. H. E.), his <i>The Future of the Southern Slavs</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>-<a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> + +<li>Temešvar and the Serbs, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> + +<li>Temperley (H. W. V.), his <i>History of Serbia</i>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + +<li>Teodosijević (A.), his device, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> + +<li>Thoreau, quoted, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + +<li>Thurn (Count Raymond von), <a href="#Page_91">91</a>-<a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + +<li><i>Times</i>, quoted, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> + +<li>Tisza (Count) and the Great War, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + +<li>Tolerance among Yugoslavs, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> + +<li>Tomassich (General), <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> + +<li>Tomić (Vladimir) and Nikita, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li>Tomić (Yovan), the librarian, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + +<li>Tomislav (Prince), <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Tommaseo_Nicolo" id="Tommaseo_Nicolo"></a>Tommaseo (Nicolo), <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Treaty of Berlin, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> +<li>— of London, <a href="#Page_245">245</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> +<li>— of Pressburg, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> +<li>— of San Stefano, <a href="#Page_172">172</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>— of Schoenbrunn, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> +<li>— of Tilsit, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> +<li>— between Milan and Austria, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> + +<li>Trevelyan (G. M.), <a href="#Page_246">246</a>-<a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Triest" id="Triest"></a>Triest, Slovene efforts at, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> +<li>— against Venice, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + +<li>Trogir, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li>Trumbić (Dr. Ante), <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> + +<li>Turks and Dubrovnik, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> +<li>— in Macedonia, <a href="#Page_134">134</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> +<li>— in Montenegro, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>-<a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> +<li>— against Serbs, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li>— in Yugoslavia, <a href="#Page_55">55</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Tvertko_the_Ban" id="Tvertko_the_Ban"></a>Tvertko, the Ban, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> + +<li>Tzankoff, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.<br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Ulrich (Count), his funeral, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li>Urach, its printing-press, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + +<li>Ušeničnik (Prof.), his deafness, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.<br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Varady (F.), his <i>Baranja multja es jelenje</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li>Veglia, <i>see</i> <a href="#Krk">Krk</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span></li> + +<li>Velimirović (Bishop), <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + +<li>Venetians and Dalmatia, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> +<li>— and Dušan, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> +<li>— their last stand, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> +<li>— their submission, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + +<li>Vis, after the battle, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> +<li>— and the British, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>-<a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + +<li>Vlacić (Matthew), <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + +<li>Voujošević (N.), the hero, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li> + +<li>Vukalović of Herzegovina, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> + +<li>Vukotić (Yanko), denounces Nikita, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.<br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Wallisch (Dr.) on Serbian schools, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> + +<li>Waring (Miss), her <i>Serbia</i>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + +<li>Weigand (Gustav) and the Aromunes, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> + +<li>Weisner (Baron), his report, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + +<li>Wendel (H.), his <i>Südosteuropäische Fragen</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + +<li>Westlake (Prof.), his <i>International Law</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> + +<li>Wiles (J. W.), the translator, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.<br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Xenia (Princess), the "femme fatale," <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-<a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.<br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Yovanović (Ljuba), the idealist, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> + +<li>Yugoslav Committee, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li> + +<li>Yugoslavia, the word, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-<a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li> + +<li>Yugoslavs in America, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>-<a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> +<li>— in Russia, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>-<a href="#Page_282">282</a>.<br /><br /></li> + + +<li><a name="Zadar" id="Zadar"></a>Zadar, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Zagreb" id="Zagreb"></a>Zagreb, Military Courts, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> +<li>— Trial, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>-<a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> +<li>— <i>see</i><a href="#Croats_their_history"> Croats</a>.</li> + +<li>Zara, <i>see</i> <a href="#Zadar">Zadar</a>.</li> + +<li>Zeta, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li>Ziliotto (Dr.) of Zadar, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> + +<li>Zmejanović (Bishop), <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li>Zoranić, of Zadar, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + +<li>Zrinsky (Peter), <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> +</ul> + + + +<p class="center" style="font-size: 80%; padding-top: 1em; font-weight: bold">PRINTED BY MORRISON AND GIBB LIMITED, EDINBURGH</p> + +<div class="note"> + +<h2 style="padding-top: 0em">TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES</h2> + +<p>Please hover your mouse over the words with a thin dotted red line +underneath them for seeing <ins class="correction" +title="like this">what the original reads</ins>, or a transliteration +of a Greek word.</p> + +<p>Obvious printer's errors have been fixed. See below for the more +detailed list.</p> + +<p>The formatting of the project has been reproduced as true to the +original images as possible.</p> + +<h3>Fixed issues</h3> + +<ul> +<li>p. <a href="#Page_15">015</a>—typo fixed, changed "commited" to "committed"</li> +<li>p. <a href="#Page_70">070</a>—inserted a missing period after "people"</li> +<li>p. <a href="#Page_92">092</a>—added a missing opening quote in front of "My dear Dalmatians"</li> +<li>p. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>—typo fixed, changed "the" to "them"</li> +<li>p. <a href="#Page_111">111</a>—typo fixed, changed a comma to a period after "would consent"</li> +<li>p. <a href="#Page_143">143</a>—typo fixed, changed "Goluchovski" to "Goluchowski"</li> +<li>p. <a href="#Page_164">164</a>—typo fixed, changed "Solvenes" to "Slovenes"</li> +<li>p. <a href="#Page_165">165</a>—inserted a missing — between "The riddle of Sarajevo" and "The miserable Macedonians"</li> +<li>p. <a href="#Page_182">182</a>—typo fixed, changed "probable" to "probably"</li> +<li>p. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>—typo fixed: changed "Bessd" to "Beesd"</li> +<li>p. <a href="#Page_218">218</a>—typo fixed: changed "policy-spy" to "police-spy"</li> +<li>p. <a href="#Page_229">229</a>—typo fixed: changed "Arbeiter Zeitung" to "Arbeiter-Zeitung"</li> +<li>p. <a href="#Page_236">236</a>—typo fixed: changed "nonagenaraians" to "nonagenarians"</li> +<li>p. <a href="#Page_301">301</a>—typo fixed: changed "Detruisez" to "Détruisez"</li> +<li>footnote <a href="#Footnote_94_94">94</a>—typo fixed: changed 'rijeć' to 'riječ'</li> +</ul> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Birth of Yugoslavia, Volume 1, by +Henry Baerlein + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BIRTH OF YUGOSLAVIA, VOLUME 1 *** + +***** This file should be named 22414-h.htm or 22414-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/2/4/1/22414/ + +Produced by Jason Isbell, Irma Spehar and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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