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+Project Gutenberg's The Birth of Yugoslavia, Volume 1, by Henry Baerlein
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Birth of Yugoslavia, Volume 1
+
+Author: Henry Baerlein
+
+Release Date: August 26, 2007 [EBook #22414]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BIRTH OF YUGOSLAVIA, VOLUME 1 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jason Isbell, Irma Spehar and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
+
+Obvious printer's errors have been fixed. See the end of the project
+for the more detailed list.
+
+The formatting of the project has been reproduced as true to the
+original images as possible.
+
+THE LEGEND FOR NON-LATIN-1 CHARACTERS
+
+['c], ['C]   c with acute
+[vc], [vC]   c with caron
+[vs], [vS]   s with caron
+[vz], [vZ]   z with caron
+d[vz], D[vz] d and z with caron
+
+
+
+
+THE BIRTH OF
+YUGOSLAVIA
+
+BY
+
+HENRY BAERLEIN
+
+VOLUME I
+
+LONDON
+LEONARD PARSONS
+DEVONSHIRE STREET
+
+_First Published 1922_
+_[All Rights Reserved]_
+
+LEONARD PARSONS LTD.
+
+     Portions of this book which deal with Yugoslav-Albanian
+     affairs have appeared in the _Fortnightly Review_ and,
+     expanded from there, in a volume entitled _A Difficult
+     Frontier_.
+
+
+
+
+NAMES AND PRONUNCIATION
+
+
+The original Serbo-Croat names of the Dalmatian towns and islands have
+been commonly supplanted on the German-made maps by later Italian
+names. But as the older ones are those which are at present used in
+daily speech by the vast majority of the inhabitants, we shall not be
+accused of pedanticism or of political bias if we prefer them to the
+later versions. We therefore in this book do not speak of Fiume but of
+Rieka, not of Cattaro but of Kotor, and so forth. In other parts a
+greater laxity is permissible, since no false impression is conveyed
+by using the non-Slav version. Thus we have preferred the more
+habitual Belgrade to the more correct Beograd, and the Italian Scutari
+to the Albanian Shqodra. The Yugoslavs themselves are too deferential
+towards the foreign nomenclature of their towns. Thus if one of them
+is talking to you of Novi Sad he will almost invariably add, until it
+grows rather wearisome, the German and the Magyar forms: Neu Satz and
+Uj Videk.
+
+These names and those of persons have been generally spelt in
+accordance with Croat orthography--that is to say, with the Latin
+alphabet modified in order to reproduce all the sounds of the
+Serbo-Croatian language. This script, with its diacritic marks, was
+scientifically evolved at the beginning of the nineteenth century. The
+chief points about it that we have to remember are that c is
+pronounced as if written ts, ['c] as if written tch, [vc] is
+pronounced ch, [vs] is pronounced sh, and j is pronounced y. So the
+Montenegrin towns Cetinje, Podgorica and Nik[vs]i['c] are pronounced
+as if written Tsetinye, Podgoritsa and Nikshitch, while Pan[vc]evo is
+pronounced Panchevo. It will be seen that this matter is not very
+complicated. But we have not in every case employed the Croat script.
+We have not spoken in this book of Jugoslavia but of Yugoslavia, since
+that has come to be the more familiar form.
+
+The full list of Croat letters, in so far as they differ from the
+English alphabet, is as follows:
+
+         c, whose English value is ts.
+      ['c],   "     "      "       tch.
+      [vc],   "     "      "       ch, as in church.
+      [vs],   "     "      "       sh.
+      [vz],   "     "      "       s, as in measure.
+     d[vz],   "     "      "       j, as in James.
+gj (or dj),   "     "      "       j,   "   "
+         j,   "     "      "       y, as in you.
+        lj,   "     "      "       li, as in million.
+        nj,   "     "      "       ni, as in opinion.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+On a mild February afternoon I was waiting for the train at a wayside
+station in north-western Banat. So unimportant was that station that
+it was connected neither by telegraph nor telephone with any other
+station, and thus there was no means of knowing how long I would have
+to wait. The movements of the train in those parts could never, so I
+gathered, be foretold, and on that afternoon it was uncertain whether
+a strike had prevented it from leaving New-Arad, the starting-point.
+Occasionally the rather elegant stationmaster, and occasionally the
+porter with the round, disarming face, raised their voices in
+prophecy, but they were increasingly unable--so far, at least, as I
+was concerned--to modify the feelings of dullness that were caused by
+the circumstances and by the dreary nature of the surroundings: a
+plain with several uninteresting little lakes upon it. There was time
+enough for meditation--I was wondering if I would ever understand the
+people of the Balkans. One hour and then another slipped away, and the
+lakes began to be illuminated by the setting sun. A handful of
+prospective travellers and their friends were also waiting, and as one
+of them produced a violin we all began to dance the Serbian Kolo,
+which is performed by an indefinite number of people who have to be
+hand-in-hand, irrespective of sex, forming in this way a straight line
+or a circle or a serpent-like series of curves. They go through
+certain simple evolutions, into which more or less energy and
+sprightliness are introduced. The stationmaster looked on approvingly
+and then decided to join us, and after a little time he was followed
+by the porter. Our violinist was in excellent form, so that we
+continued dancing until some of us were as crimson as the sun, and
+presently, while I was resting, what with the beauty of the scene and
+the exhilaration of the dance, I found myself thinking that, after
+all, I might within a reasonable time understand these people. Then a
+new arrival, a middle-aged, benevolent-looking woman with a basket on
+her arm, came past me.
+
+"Dobro ve[vc]e," said I. ["Good-evening."]
+
+"[vZ]ivio," said she. ["May you live long."]
+
+Nevertheless, I hope in this book to give a description of how the
+Yugoslavs, brothers and neighbours and tragically separated from one
+another for so many centuries, made various efforts to unite, at least
+in some degree. But for about fifteen centuries the greater number of
+Yugoslavs were unable to liberate themselves from their alien rulers;
+not until the end of the Great War were these dominations overthrown,
+and the kindred peoples, the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, put at last
+before the realization of their dreams--the dreams, that is to say, of
+some of their poets and statesmen and bishops and philologists, as
+well as of certain foreigners. But listen to this, by the censorious
+literateur who contributes the "Musings without Method" to _Maga_: "We
+do not envy the ingenious gentlemen," says he, "who invented the two
+new States Czecho-Slovakia and Jugo-Slavia. Their composite names
+prove their composite characters. That they will last long beneath the
+fanciful masks which have been put upon them we do not believe." Even
+so might some uninstructed person in Yugoslavia or South Slavia
+proceed to wash his hands of that ingenious man who invented _Maga's_
+home, North Britain. I see that our friend in the following number of
+_Maga_ (March 1920) says that foreign affairs are "a province far
+beyond his powers or understanding." But he is talking of Mr. Lloyd
+George.
+
+Our account of mediaeval times will be brief, only so much in fact as
+is needed for a comprehension of the present. In approaching our own
+day, the story will become more and more detailed. If it be objected
+that the details, in so far as they detract from the conduct of
+Yugoslavia's neighbours, might with advantage have been painted with
+the hazy, quiet colours that you give to the excursions and alarms of
+long ago, one may reply that this book is intended to depict the world
+in which the Yugoslavs have, after all these centuries, joined one
+another and the frame of mind which consequently glows in them.
+
+One cannot on this earth expect that a new State, however belated and
+however inevitable, will be formed without a considerable amount of
+friction, both external and internal. Perhaps, owing to the number of
+not over-friendly States with which they are encompassed, the
+Yugoslavs will manage to waive some of their internal differences, and
+to show that they are capable, despite the confident assertions of
+some of their neighbours and the croakings of some of themselves, of
+establishing a State that will weather for many a year the storms
+which even the League of Nations may not be competent to banish from
+South-Eastern Europe. A certain number of people, who seem to expect
+us to take them seriously, assert that an English writer is
+disqualified from passing adverse comment on Italy's imperialistic
+aims because the British Empire has received, as a result of the War,
+some Turkish provinces and German colonies. It is said that, in view
+of these notorious facts, the Italian Nationalists and their friends
+cannot bear to be criticized by the pens of British authors and
+journalists. The fallacy in logic known as the _argumentum ad hominem_
+becomes a pale thing in comparison with this new _argumentum ad
+terram_. If a passionless historian of the Eskimos had given his
+attention to the Adriatic, I believe he would have come to my
+conclusions. But then it might be said of him that as for half the
+year his land is swathed in darkness, it would be unseemly for him to
+discuss a country which is basking in the sun.
+
+Another consummation--though this will to-day find, especially in
+Serbia, a great many opponents, whose attitude, following the
+deplorable events of the Great War, can cause us no surprise--is the
+adhesion, after certain years, of Bulgaria to the Yugoslav State. I
+wrote these words a few months ago; they are already out of date. The
+general opinion in Serbia is voiced by a Serbian war-widow, who,
+writing in _Politika_, one of the newspapers of Belgrade, replied to
+Stambouluesky, the Bulgarian peasant Premier, who was always
+uncompromisingly opposed to the fratricidal war with Serbia. He had
+been saying that the Serbs and other Yugoslavs prefer to postpone the
+reconciliation until "the grass grows over the graves of their women
+and children whom our officials destroyed"; and this war-widow
+answered that it was not necessary for the grass to grow, but that
+they should condemn the culprits by a regular court, as prescribed in
+the treaty. "Fulfil the undertaking you have assumed, for only so
+shall we know that you will fulfil other undertakings in the future."
+If it had not been for the Great Powers, especially Russia and
+Austria, the union of Serbia and Bulgaria might have occurred long
+ago. Wise persons, such as Prince Michael of Serbia and the British
+travellers, Miss Irby (Bosnia's lifelong benefactress) and her
+relative, Miss Muir Mackenzie, had this aim in view during the sixties
+of last century. So had a number of other excellent folk, who
+recognized that the two people were naturally drawn to one another.
+"The hatred between the two people is a fact which is as saddening in
+the thought for the future as in the record of the past, but it is a
+fact to ignore which is simply a mark of incompetence. The two nations
+are antipathetic ..." says Mr. A. H. E. Taylor in his _The Future of
+the Southern Slavs_, a painstaking if rather clumsy book (London,
+1917), in which we are shown that the writer is well acquainted with
+general history. But in the opinion of an erudite Serb, to whom I
+showed this passage, Mr. Taylor knows nothing of Serb and Bulgar under
+the Turks. There is no single document nor anything else that speaks
+of hatred between them. On the contrary, they were always on friendly
+terms. The antagonisms of the Middle Ages, as Mr. Taylor surely knows,
+were the work of rulers who paid no attention to the national will;
+there was at that time no national consciousness, and just as a
+Serbian would wage war with a Bulgarian prince, so would he do battle
+with a Croat or with another Serbian ruler. Mr. Taylor talks of "the
+almost constant state of warfare between Serbs and Bulgars...," but he
+does not mention that there were many cases during the late war in
+which the men showed friendliness to one another. He may argue that if
+a soldier calls out "Brother" to his foe and subsequently slays him
+there is not much to be said for his friendliness, but surely that is
+to draw no distinction between what is the soldier's pleasure and his
+business. "Nothing," observes Mr. Taylor very truly, "nothing in the
+Balkan Peninsula is so desirable as the laying aside of the feud." He
+may take it that this feud has been aroused and maintained among the
+_intelligentsia_ and for political reasons, with Macedonia in the
+forefront. I think he would not be so severe on those who are
+"ignorant apparently that the mutual animosity has its roots deep down
+in the history and historical consciousness of Serb and Bulgar" if he
+remembered that the Bulgars wanted Michael for their prince, and if he
+had been present at the siege of Adrianople, where the Serbian and
+Bulgarian soldiers, in their eagerness to fraternize, took to speaking
+their respective languages incorrectly, the Serb dropping his cases
+and the Bulgar his article, in the hope that they would thus make
+themselves more easily understood. It seems to me not only more
+advisable but more rational to ponder upon such incidents than upon
+the idle controversies as to which army was the most deserving; and I
+do not think it is evidence of any widespread Bulgarian animosity
+because a certain official decided to charge the Serbian Government a
+fee for conveying back to Serbia the corpses of their soldiers.
+
+With regard to the two languages, the differences between them will
+matter no more than does the difference between Serbo-Croatian and
+Slovene. The Serb-Croat-Slovene State has been astonishingly little
+incommoded by the fact that the Slovene language is quite distinct,
+the two tongues being only in a moderate degree mutually intelligible.
+The Slovenes have never been exposed to the influence either of
+Byzantium or of the Turks, so that their language is free from the
+orientalisms which abound in the southern dialects. But it is curious
+to note[1] that many of the Slovene archaisms of form and structure,
+such as the persistence of the "v" for "u" and the final -l of the
+past participle, which have disappeared from Serbo-Croat, have been
+preserved in the dialects of Macedonia. The Bulgarian language, the
+south-eastern Serbian dialects, as well as Roumanian and Albanian,
+have certain grammatical peculiarities, through being influenced by
+the language of the Romanized Thraco-Illyrian peoples with whom they
+merged. Even Montenegro was to some degree influenced by this process,
+having lost one or two cases, such as the locative. In Serbia one uses
+seven cases, the Montenegrin generally contents himself with about
+five, and in some dialects they are all discarded.... The amount of
+Turanian, Petcheneg and other undesirable blood in the Bulgars does
+not--let the two or three eccentric Bulgars say what they
+will--prevent them being far more Yugoslav than anything else.
+Professor Cviji['c], the famous Rector of Belgrade University, has
+made personal examinations in Bulgaria, and is of the opinion that a
+great part of that people, for instance, at Trnovo in the middle of
+Bulgaria, is physically and spiritually very near to the Serbs. The
+Mongol influence, he thinks, is so scattered that it is very difficult
+to see.
+
+Unhappily, however, in the last thirty or forty years an enormous
+amount of hatred has been piled up between Serb and Bulgar; things
+have happened which we as outsiders can more easily forget than those
+and the orphans of those who have suffered. Atrocities have taken
+place; international commissions have recorded some of them and
+non-Balkan writers have produced a library of lurid and, almost
+always, strictly one-sided books about them. I suggest that these
+gentlemen would have been better employed in translating the passages
+wherein Homer depicts precisely the same atrocities. Whatever may seem
+good to Balkan controversialists, let us of the West rather try, for
+their sake and for ours, to bring these two people together. We have
+good foundations on which to build; every Bulgar will tell you that he
+is full of admiration of the Serbian army, and the Serbs will speak in
+a similar strain of the Bulgars. Also the Serbs will tell you that, no
+matter what else they may be able to do, they are, as compared with
+the Bulgars, quite incompetent in the diffusion of propaganda; while
+the Bulgars will explain to you that in propaganda the Serbs are
+immensely their superiors. (Balkan propaganda does not confine itself
+to using, with violence, the sword and the pen. In its higher flights
+it will, in a disputed district, bury ancient-looking stones with
+suitable inscriptions. It will go beyond the simple changes in the
+termination of the surnames of those who come under its dominion; the
+name upon a tombstone will be made to end, according to circumstances,
+in "off" or "vitch," sometimes in the Roumanian "esco" or the Greek
+"opoulos." If this is known to the departed, one would like to learn
+how it affects them. A great deal of energy has been brought to bear
+in the production of official books which place on record the
+repugnant details of all the crimes that have ever been imagined by
+men or ghouls, which crimes, so say the books of nation A, have been
+committed by the incredible monsters of nation B. At times, from
+motives of economy, the same photographs have been used by both
+nations--an idea which in 1920 was adopted in Hungary, where an artist
+conceived a poster showing a child with uplifted finger saying to its
+mother in solemn warning: "Mother, remember me; vote for a Social
+Democrat." This poster was forbidden by the censor, and, a few days
+afterwards, appeared on all street corners as that of the Christian
+Socialist party. People of the Balkans found that Western Europeans
+were impressed by figures, so that they issued lists of schools whose
+pupils were more numerous than the total population of the villages in
+which they were situated. Frequently a village would be stated, on the
+sworn testimony of its most respected inmates, to be exclusively
+filled with persons say of nation A. Not for a moment would it be
+admitted that the population might perhaps be mixed. And very
+possibly, on going to investigate, the Western European would discover
+that the village was entirely uninhabited and had been so for many
+years.... We must also have some understanding of the old Balkan
+humour if we are not to resent, for example, that story which they
+tell of a Bulgarian Minister who happened to be sojourning last year
+in Yugoslavia at a time when a great memorial service was being held
+for ninety-nine priests whom the Bulgars had assassinated during their
+occupation of Serbia in the European War. This Minister cherishes the
+hope that his country and Yugoslavia will bury the hatchet. "How
+unfortunate," said he, "are these recriminations. I shall have
+pleasure in sending them ninety-nine priests, whom they can kill, and
+then we can be good friends.")
+
+Thus we have two points of mutual esteem. The vast majority of people
+in Belgrade and Sofia are not chauvinist; let them close their ears to
+the wild professors who, in their spare time, busy themselves with
+writing books and discoursing on politics, a task for which they are
+imperfectly fitted. One must naturally make allowances for these small
+countries which have been so sparsely furnished hitherto with men of
+education that the Government considered it must mobilize them all.
+Thus the professors found themselves enlisted in the service of the
+State. Unluckily--to give examples would be painful--it too often
+happened that the poor professor damaged irretrievably his reputation
+and held up the State to ribald laughter. Those who belong to an old,
+cultured nation are not always cognizant of the petty atmosphere, to
+say nothing of the petty salaries, which is to-day the common lot of
+Balkan professors. (A really eminent man, who, for twenty years has
+been a professor, not merely a teacher, at Belgrade University
+receives a very much smaller salary than that which the deputies have
+voted for themselves.) Occasionally these professors must be moved by
+feelings similar to those that were entertained by the Serbs of 1808,
+who, having thrown off the Turkish yoke which they were resolved never
+to bear again, "earnestly expressed, and more than once," according to
+Count Romanzoff,[2] "their own will which induced them to beg the
+Emperor Alexander to admit them to the number of his subjects." A
+resolute old man, a Balkan savant of my acquaintance--he told me he
+was a savant--said one day that before all else he was a patriot,
+meaning by this that if in the course of his researches he came across
+a fact which to his mind was injurious for the past, present or future
+of his native land he would unhesitatingly sweep that fact into
+oblivion, and he seemed to be amazed that I should doubt the morality
+of such a procedure. Bristling with scorn, he refused to give me a
+definition of the word "patriotism," and I am sure that, if he knows
+his Thoreau, he does not for a moment believe that he is amongst those
+who "love the soil which makes their graves, but have no sympathy with
+the spirit which may still animate their clay. Patriotism is a maggot
+in their heads." May the people of Serbia and Bulgaria rather listen
+to such men as Nicholai Velimirovi['c], Bishop of [vZ]i[vc]a,[3]
+who--to speak only of his sermons and lectures in our language--lives
+in the memory of so many in Great Britain and the United States on
+account of his wonderful eloquence, his sincerity, his profound
+patriotism, and the calm heights from which he surveys the future. For
+those who think with him, the Serbs, in uniting with the Croats, have
+already surmounted a more serious obstacle. They believe that for
+three reasons their union with the Bulgars is a more natural one: they
+practise the same religion, they use the same Cyrillic alphabet and
+their civilization, springing from Byzantium, has been identical. The
+two people are bound to each other by the great Serbian, Saint Sava,
+who strove to join them and who died at Trnovo in Bulgaria. Vladislav,
+the Serbian prince, asked for his body; Assen begged that the Bulgars
+might be allowed to keep it, but, when the Serbs insisted, a most
+remarkable procession set out from Trnovo, bearing to his homeland the
+remains of him whom the Bulgars called "our Saint." ... If, then, the
+two people will for a few years demand that the misguided professors
+shall confine themselves to their original functions--and, likewise,
+those students who sit at the professors' feet--one may hope that in a
+few years the miserable past will be buried and all the Yugoslavs
+united in one State. The time has vanished when Serbia and Bulgaria
+stood, as it were in a ring, face to face with one another, paying far
+more attention to the disputes of the moment than to those great
+unifying forces which we have mentioned. But now Serbia is a part of
+Yugoslavia, which has to deal with a greater Italy, a greater Roumania
+and others. And the question as to whether a certain town or district
+is to be Serbian or Bulgarian sinks into the background.
+
+Fortunately, in the Balkans--where one is nothing if not personal--you
+can express yourself concerning another gentleman with a degree of
+liberty that in Western Europe would be thought unpardonable. And so,
+if the Serbs and the Bulgars will in the main follow the tracks of
+their far-sighted leaders, they need not quite suppress their
+criticism of each other. No great animosity is aroused by such a
+statement as was made to me with regard to a dispossessed Macedonian
+prelate, who had told me that he had appealed to the Archbishop of
+Canterbury in the hope that he would assist him to return to his
+diocese. I asked a member of another Balkan nationality whether he
+knew this ancient cleric of the extremely venerable aspect, and
+whether he knew what kind of political and religious propaganda had
+brought about his downfall. "I know all about that old ruffian," he
+replied. "He stole over fifty pigs and one hundred sheep, and about
+twenty-five cows and 200 lb. of fat." Anyhow, if his lordship had
+heard that these accusations had been repeated in many places, he
+would have been far less indignant than if they had been printed in
+some unread newspaper or obscure pamphlet.
+
+Now if the local writers cease from indulging their national
+partisanship--and God knows they have no lack of material--then
+perhaps the time will come when foreign publicists and politicians,
+who keep one eye upon the Balkans, will be able to speak well about
+the particular country which they affect without speaking ill about
+the neighbouring countries, concerning which, it is possible, they
+know less. Of course, there are a number of real Balkan experts in
+various countries, judicious writers who will be gratefully mentioned
+in this book. And there are people, such as Mr. Harold E. Goad, the
+vehement pro-Italian writer, who are quite amusing. This gentleman
+said in the _Fortnightly Review_ (May 1922) that once he used to hold
+romantic views of Balkan politics, but now has ascertained that they
+are "usually plotted, move by move, in the coffee-shops of petty
+capitals. Intrigue, bribery and calumny, personal jealousy and racial
+prejudice are the ordinary means with which the game is played." How
+different from the rest of Europe, where intrigue, etc., are
+conspicuously absent; and the explanation seems to be that wine and
+beer are unlike coffee, which it may be quite impossible to drink
+without remembering the poison which so many furtive fingers have
+dropped into it. And it would be rank ingratitude if I omitted the
+Italian Admiral Millo, though he was injudicious. After he had been at
+his post for four months, with the resounding title of Governor of
+Dalmatia and of the Dalmatian Islands and of the islands of Curzola,
+he told me that he had found it most fascinating to motor through
+Dalmatia's rocky hinterland, where the natives had the dignified air
+of ancient Roman senators and even greeted you in Latin. This was
+rather a startling statement. "Oh yes," said the Admiral, with his
+aristocratic, bearded face wearing an expression of even keener
+intelligence than usual, "I can assure you," quoth he, "that the
+peasants say 'Ave.' I heard them quite distinctly." It was perhaps
+inconsiderate of those worthy Croats not to shout with greater
+clearness the word "Zdravo!" ["Good luck!"] in order to prevent the
+Admiral from riding off with a confused hearing of the second
+syllable. A certain excellent dispatch of his--of which more
+anon--makes him a writer on the Balkans. I know not whether he
+addressed to his Government a dispatch on the above discovery, thus
+intensifying the Italian resolve to cling to Dalmatia. In that case
+his knowledge was unfortunate, but otherwise it is surely as
+delightful as, up here among the tree-clad mountains, are the
+glow-worms that go darting through the night.
+
+BLAGOVE[vS]TENJE MONASTERY, CENTRAL SERBIA.
+
+    FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [Footnote 1: Cf. _The Near East_, October 6, 1921.]
+
+    [Footnote 2: _Observations of Count Romanzoff_,--Petrograd,
+    March 16, 1808,--Concerning the negotiations for the division
+    of Turkey, as to which he treated with the French Ambassador;
+    being Document No. 263 of the Excerpts from the Paris
+    Archives relating to the History of the first Serbian
+    Insurrection. Collected (Belgrade, 1904) by the learned
+    statesman and charming man, Dr. Michael Gavrilovi['c], now
+    the Minister of the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes
+    at the Court of St. James.]
+
+    [Footnote 3: This, the most ancient diocese in Serbia, takes
+    its name from the monastery of [vZ]i[vc]a, near Kraljevo,
+    which was built by St. Sava between 1222 and 1228. He made it
+    his archiepiscopal residence, and here the Serbian sovereigns
+    were crowned. It is now partly in a ruined condition, the
+    encircling wall having almost entirely vanished. For each
+    coronation a new entrance was made through this structure and
+    was afterwards walled up. Bishop Nicholai has now been
+    transferred to the more difficult diocese of Ochrida and is,
+    at the same time, Bishop of the Serbs in America.]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS OF VOLUME I
+
+                                                               PAGE
+PREFACE                                                          9
+
+INTRODUCTION: THE TRAGEDY OF A FRONTIER                         23
+
+  I. GLORY AND DISASTER (EARLIEST DAYS TO THE BATTLE
+     OF KOSSOVO)                                                26
+
+ II. FIGHTING THE DARKNESS (BATTLE OF KOSSOVO TO THE
+     APPEARANCE OF KARA GEORGE)                                 50
+
+III. BUILDING THE FOUNDATIONS: NAPOLEON AND STROSSMAYER         90
+
+ IV. THE SHIFTING SANDS OF MACEDONIA (1876-1914)               165
+
+  V. THE EUROPEAN WAR (1914-1918)                              225
+
+     INDEX                                                     301
+
+
+
+
+THE BIRTH OF YUGOSLAVIA
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+THE TRAGEDY OF A FRONTIER
+
+Kiepert, the famous geographer, was able, as the result of his
+diligent researches and explorations, to correct many errors in former
+ethnological maps; but in the map of the Balkan Peninsula, which he
+published in 1870, the country between Kustendil, Trn and Vranja is
+represented by a white space. And if the people who dwell in these
+wild, narrow valleys had been overlooked as thoroughly by subsequent
+Congresses and Frontier Commissions they would have been most
+grateful. They only asked--this well-built, stubborn race--that one
+should leave them to their own devices in their homes among the
+mountains where the lilac grows. They asked that one should leave them
+with their ancient superstitions, such as that of St. Petka, who
+inhabited a cavern high above the present road from Trn, while St.
+Therapon, so they say, lived by himself upon a neighbouring rock.
+Inside the cavern now the water drips continuously and is collected in
+large bowls; these are St. Petka's tears, which are particularly
+beneficial, say the natives, for afflicted eyes. But though this
+region is so poor that, towards the end of the Turkish regime and
+during the war of Bulgarian liberation and also in the winter of
+1879-80, the people were compelled, through lack of flour, to use a
+sort of "white earth," _bela zemja_, yet this land was coveted, and
+now the maps no longer show an empty space but a variety of names and
+a frontier line. From the nomenclature we perceive that the region was
+visited of old by people who were not Slavs--such were those who gave
+to a mountain the name of Ruj, to a village the name of Erul, and to a
+river the name of Jerma, which has been explained as being derived
+from the Lydian Hermos, the river of St. Therapon's birthplace. The
+names of Latin colouring may either be memorials of the Romanized
+Thracians or else may refer to the mediaeval Catholics, whether Saxon
+miners or travelling merchants. But there does not seem in the veins
+of the present population to be much trace of these other settlers or
+wayfarers; at any rate, the Slavs do not differ appreciably among
+themselves, and the drawing of a frontier line has been a peculiar
+hardship.
+
+One of the greatest misfortunes of the nineteenth century was the
+creation of separate Serbian and Bulgarian kingdoms, wherein there was
+so small an ethnological difference between these two branches of the
+Yugoslavs; and in those districts where a frontier runs one sees
+especially how criminal it was to make this separation. Balkan
+philologists to-day will tell you--and even those who are in other
+respects the most rabid Serbs or Bulgars--that there is really no such
+thing as a Serbian and a Bulgarian language, but only groups of
+Yugoslav dialects. And yet it pleased the Great Powers to prevent the
+union of the two Balkan brothers. In that region with which we are
+dealing the Berlin Congress attempted to draw, with very inadequate
+maps, a frontier line along the watershed; and the Commissioners who
+were sent to mark out this line, observing that many of the indicated
+points did not coincide with the watershed, thought it would be
+preferable to trace the frontier along the saddle, between the
+tributaries of the Morava on one side and of the Struma and the river
+of Trn on the other. As the region was, however, not uninhabited the
+farmers were frequently cut off, as at Topli Dol and Preseka, from the
+meadows and the forests which they had regarded always as their own.
+Bismarck, speaking with indifference of "the fragments of nations that
+inhabit the Balkan Peninsula," could see in the national yearning of
+the Yugoslavs only a yearning for lawlessness and tumult. So he
+laboured at his plan of dominating Europe with the mighty structure of
+the German, Austro-Hungarian and Russian conservative empires; and if
+he built it over a stream of democracy, with results that are to-day
+apparent, who knows whether the statesmen of our day are not somewhere
+constructing a house which to our descendants will appear equally
+ridiculous? And anyhow, as we shall see, he was far from being the
+only offender at the Berlin Congress. If that particular strip of
+frontier had been drawn in the most unimpeachable fashion it would
+still have been iniquitous.
+
+One may object that even if the people were divided by rough-and-ready
+methods, that was no reason why they should oppose each other, and
+indeed a number of frontier incidents which occurred between the time
+of the Congress and 1885 were not regarded, either by Serbs or by
+Bulgars, as being serious obstacles to a union. But Russia and
+Austria, revelling in the intrigues, continued to pull the two States
+now this way and now that, and all too frequently against each other.
+It can thus not be a matter of surprise if the rather inexperienced
+statesmen of those little countries fell into line with the two Great
+Powers and spent a good deal of their energies in assailing each
+other. So blind, alas! were these statesmen that all the tears of St.
+Petka would not have cured them, and now the two kindred people, so
+progressive in many ways, are--to speak of each people as a
+whole--further apart than when their shaggy forefathers came over the
+Carpathians. It has been the fate of the Yugoslavs--Slovenes, Croats,
+Serbs and Bulgars--to live for centuries beside each other and be kept
+always, by foreign masters, isolated from each other. At rare
+intervals, as we shall see in following their history, a person has
+arisen who has tried, with altruistic or with selfish motives, to make
+some sort of union of the Yugoslavs. And now we will go back to the
+time when Slavs first wandered westward to the Balkans.
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+GLORY AND DISASTER
+
+ARRIVAL OF THE SOUTHERN SLAVS--THEIR UNFORTUNATE DEMOCRATIC WAYS--TWO
+EARLY STATES--ECCLESIASTICAL ROCKS--THE SLAVS AND THEIR
+NEIGHBOURS--SIMEON THE BULGAR--WHAT ARE THE BULGARS?--STEPHEN
+NEMANIA--THE SLOVENES ARE SUBMERGED--THE FATE OF THE CROATS--THE GLORY
+OF DUBROVNIK--A GALLANT REPUBLIC--THE GLORIOUS DU[vS]AN--EVIL DAYS AND
+THE PEOPLE'S HERO--THE "GOOD CHRISTIANS" OF BOSNIA--KOSSOVO--GATHERING
+DARKNESS.
+
+
+ARRIVAL OF THE SOUTHERN SLAVS
+
+The Slavs who in the fifth, sixth and seventh centuries came down from
+the Carpathian Mountains were known, until the ninth century, as
+Slovenes (Sloventzi);[4] and if, as is natural, the Serbs and Croats
+wish to preserve their time-honoured names, they will perhaps agree to
+call their whole country by the still more ancient name of Slovenia,
+instead of the merely geographical and not wholly popular term
+Yugoslavia. Considering that this name (Slovenija) found favour in the
+eyes of their great Emperor Stephen Du[vs]an, one would imagine that
+the Serbs might adopt it in preference to the cumbrous "Kingdom of the
+Serbs, Croats and Slovenes," with its unlovely abbreviation into three
+letters of the alphabet. The Croats would be glad of this solution,
+and thus the Yugoslavs would, unlike their relatives the Russians, the
+Poles and the Czechs, have the satisfaction of living in a country
+called Slovenia, the land of the Slavs.... But, although this would be
+a happy solution, it seems much more probable that eventually the name
+Yugoslavia will be adopted. Everyone is agreed that one inclusive
+word, answering to Britain and British, is necessary. "Evo na[vs]ih!"
+["Here are our men!"] were the words used by the Serbs, Croats and
+Slovenes as their troops marched past them in Paris during the Allied
+celebration of July 1919. The Serbian Colonel of the Heiduk Velko
+regiment, which was stationed at Split in 1920, and of which the other
+officers were chiefly Croats, the men Moslem and Catholic, used in his
+public addresses to speak of "Our kingdom." There are various
+objections to the word Yugoslavia; in the first place, it was
+introduced by the Austrians, who did not wish to call their subjects
+Serbs and Croats; in the second place, the term is a literal
+translation from the German and is against the laws of the
+Serbo-Croatian language. Another, and more important objection, is
+that the Bulgars, though Yugoslavs, are not included in Yugoslavia;
+and perhaps the name will be officially adopted when the Bulgars join
+the other Southern Slavs.
+
+
+THEIR UNFORTUNATE DEMOCRATIC WAYS
+
+These Southern Slavs did not display the same genius for organization
+as the Germanic peoples or the Magyars at the period of their
+respective migrations. In communities of brethren (or _bratsva_, from
+the word _brat_, a brother) they had not raised up a king; but as a
+compensation they possessed a lofty moral code, a religion inspired by
+the worship of nature and by the principle of the immortality of the
+soul. Occupying themselves with agriculture and the rearing of cattle,
+it was not until they came into contact, that is to say hostile
+contact, with their more organized neighbours that they were compelled
+to join together under the authority of a prince, a _knez_. The bad
+result of this profoundly democratic spirit was that the Slavs, not
+knowing how to keep united, fell under the yoke of other nations. From
+the interesting series of documents, Latin, Arabic, Byzantine and
+others, which have been collected in _Monimenta Sclavenica_ by
+Miroslav Premrou, notary public at Caporetto, and published in 1919 at
+Ljubljana (Laibach), we can see that the Slovenes occupied a much
+greater extent of territory than do their descendants of our day--"ab
+ortu Vistulae ... per immensa spatia ..." (cf. _Jordanis de orig.
+Goth._ c. 5)--to beyond the Tagliamento, and from the Piave (cf.
+Ibrahim Ibn-Jakub[5]) to the Adriatic, the AEgean and the Black Sea.
+
+One of the earliest of the above-named Slovene princes was Samo, a
+Slovene by adoption, who struggled in Pannonia against the Avars in
+the first half of the seventh century; it happened also in the year
+626 that other Slovenes, as well as the Avars, attacked
+Constantinople. Both of them withdrew, the former being defeated at
+sea and the latter failing under the city walls. The Avars, having
+thus shown that they were vulnerable, had to bear an attack on a grand
+scale made upon them by the Slovenes, this attack being more shrewdly
+organized than any other transaction in which the Slovenes had as yet
+engaged. And they still appeared to be reluctant to form even a
+loosely knit State; they roamed about the Balkans and the adjacent
+countries to the north-west, seeking for lands that were adapted to
+their patriarchal organization. Not until the ninth century did they
+set up what might be called Governments on the Adriatic littoral,
+where they had no hostility to fear from the last remaining Romans,
+who were refugees in certain towns and islands.
+
+
+TWO EARLY STATES
+
+The two most important of these Slav States were, firstly, that one,
+the predecessor of our modern Croatia, which extended from the mouth
+of the Ra[vs]a (Ar[vs]a) in Istria to the mouth of the Cetina in
+central Dalmatia, and, secondly, to the south-east a principality,
+afterwards called Ra[vs]ka, in what is now western Serbia. In a little
+time the Slavs began to have relations with the towns of the Dalmatian
+coast and with the islands which were nominally under the sway of
+Byzantium, but in consequence of their remoteness and their exposed
+position had succeeded in becoming almost independent republics.
+
+
+ECCLESIASTICAL ROCKS
+
+Now Christianity had been definitely introduced into Dalmatia in the
+fourth century, but it was not until several centuries later that it
+made any headway with the Slavs, of whom the Croats, in the ninth
+century, were baptized by Frank missionaries. The arrival of the
+Slavs, by the bye, had been sometimes looked upon with scanty favour
+by the Popes: in July of the year 600 we find Gregory I. saying in a
+letter to the Bishop of Salona that he was much disturbed at the news
+he had just received "de Sclavorum gente, quae vobis valde imminet,
+affligor vehementer et conturbor." Similarly, the Council of Split
+branded the Slav missionaries as heretics and the Slav alphabet as the
+invention of the devil.[6] ... While the Croats were falling[7] under
+the dominion of the Franks, the holy brothers St. Cyril and St.
+Methodus, who had been born at Salonica in 863, were carrying the
+first Slav book from Constantinople to Moravia, whither they travelled
+at the invitation of the Prince of Moravia, Rastislav, St. Cyril going
+as an apostle and theologian, St. Methodus as a statesman and
+organizer. This famous book was a translation from the Greek, but it
+was written in Palaeo-Slav characters, the Glagolitic that were to
+become so venerated that when the French kings were crowned at Reims
+their oath was sworn upon a Glagolitic copy of the Gospels;[8] and the
+spirit of that earliest book was also Slav: it expresses the political
+and cultural resistance of Prince Rastislav against the State of the
+Franks, that is, against the German nationality, of whom it was feared
+that with the Cross in front of them they would trample down for ever
+the political liberties of the young Slav peoples. German theologians
+were giving a more and more dogmatic character to Western
+Christianity, whereas the Christianity of the East was at that time
+more liberal; it gathered to itself the Slavs of Ra[vs]ka and of the
+neighbouring regions, such as southern Dalmatia, while the influence
+which it exerted was so powerful that when the Croats, after
+vacillating between the two Churches, finally joined that of Rome,
+they took with them the old Slav liturgy that is used by them in many
+places on the mainland and the islands down to this day. Thus their
+Church became a national institution, and that in spite of all the
+long-continued efforts of the Vatican, as also of the Venetian
+Republic. The Roman Catholic hierarchy, by the way, is endeavouring to
+have this liturgy made lawful in the whole of Yugoslavia; the only
+opponent I met was a Jesuit at Zagreb who foresaw that the priests,
+being no longer obliged to learn Latin, might indeed omit to do so.
+Pope Pius X. was likewise an opponent of the Slav liturgy, because a
+Polish priest told him that it would lead to Pan-Slavism and hence to
+schism; but it is thought--among others by the patriotic Prince-Bishop
+Jegli['c] of Ljubljana--that the late Pope would have given his
+consent, had it not been for Austria, which recoiled from what would
+have probably strengthened the Slav element. One of the cherished
+policies of Austria was to utilize in every possible way the religious
+differences between the Southern Slavs.
+
+
+THE SLAVS AND THEIR NEIGHBOURS
+
+But the two States formed beside the Adriatic and in Ra[vs]ka were not
+only separated from early days by their religion; they had quite
+different neighbours to deal with. In 887 the Croats imposed their
+will on the Venetians, against whom they had been for some time waging
+war--and not merely a defensive war--the Venetians having attacked the
+country in order to despoil it of timber and of people, whom they
+liked to sell in the markets of the Levant. In 887, however, after the
+defeat and death of their doge, Pietro Candiano, the Venetians were
+forced to pay--and paid without interruption down to the year 1000--an
+annual tribute to the Croats, who in return permitted them to sail
+freely on the Adriatic. Beside that sea the Croats founded new towns,
+such as [vS]ibenik (of which the Italian name is Sebenico), and
+carried on an amicable intercourse with the autonomous Byzantine
+towns: Iader, the picturesque modern capital which they came to call
+Zadar and the Venetians Zara; Tragurium, the delightful spot which is
+their Trogir and the Venetian Trau, and so forth. These friendly
+relations existed both before 882 and subsequently, when the towns
+agreed to pay the Croats an annual tribute, in return for which the
+local provosts were confirmed in office by the rulers of Croatia. We
+have plentiful evidence from the ruins of royal castles and of the
+many churches built by the Slavs in this period, as well as from the
+discoveries of arms and ornaments, that the people had attained to a
+condition of prosperity. At the beginning of the tenth century, so we
+are told by the learned emperor and historian Constantine
+Porphyrogenetos, the Croatian Prince Tomislav could raise 100,000
+infantry and 60,000 cavalry; he had likewise eighty large vessels,
+each with a crew of forty men, at his disposal, and a hundred smaller
+ships with ten to twenty men in each of them.
+
+As for the State of Ra[vs]ka, protected on the south and west by
+formidable mountains, and in the very centre of the Serbian tribes, it
+is there that the lore and customs of the people have survived in
+their purest form. Ra[vs]ka was the land in which the love of liberty
+was always kept alive and from there the expeditions used to sally
+forth whose aim, frustrated many times, it was to found a powerful
+Serbian State. The chieftain, Tshaslav Kronimirovi['c], did, as a
+matter of fact, succeed in uniting his State with two others, one
+being in Bosnia and the other in Zeta, which is now Montenegrin. He
+even added three other provinces on the Adriatic coast; but after his
+death the State was dissolved and in the course of the conflicts which
+followed, the State of Zeta assumed the leadership. It had been
+necessary for these Serbian rulers of Ra[vs]ka and Zeta to resist the
+frequent assaults not only of the Byzantines but of the Bulgars.
+
+
+SIMEON THE BULGAR
+
+"Frequent assaults" is probably a correct description of what the Serb
+of that period had to endure at the hands of this particular
+opponent, the Bulgar. Having swarmed across the Peninsula, the Bulgar
+was now in the act of consolidating a great kingdom, for this was the
+magnificent epoch of the Bulgarian Tzar Simeon, whose word ran far and
+wide from the Adriatic. The Bulgarian map[9] which exhibits the
+Tzardom at the death of Simeon is painted in the same brown colour
+from opposite Corfu right across to the Black Sea and up as far as the
+mouths of the Danube, which signifies that in those parts (including,
+of course, Macedonia) the word of Simeon was supreme. But the Serbian
+provinces of Ra[vs]ka, Zeta, Bosnia and some adjoining lands are
+painted brown and white, being hatched with white diagonal lines; and
+this indicates very candidly that in the north-west Simeon was not
+omnipotent. We are indeed told in the letterpress that "on the other
+hand Simeon meanwhile took the opportunity to settle accounts with the
+Serbians because of their perfidious policy, and he subjected them in
+the year 924"; but doubtless this was a kind of subjection which in
+925 would have to be repeated, and this would account for one of
+Simeon's faithful chroniclers having made that allusion to perfidious
+policy. Of the Tzar himself we are given an attractive picture: unlike
+his father, Boris, who patronized Slav literature for the reason that
+it made his State less permeable to Byzantine influence, Simeon had no
+political object in his encouragement of native literature.[10] He was
+himself a man of letters, having studied at Constantinople. He was
+acquainted with Aristotle and Demosthenes, he discussed theology with
+the most eminent doctors of the Church, and of positive science--or of
+what was then regarded as such--he possessed everything which had
+survived the great shipwreck of ancient thought. Not only did he found
+monasteries and schools, but he gathered writers round him; and, in
+order to stimulate them, he himself wrote original books and
+translations, thus ennobling, we are told, the literary vocation in
+the eyes of his rude and warlike race. He would probably have smiled
+if he had known that one of his writers had attributed to him the
+subjection of the Serbs; but what one would like to learn is whether
+Macedonia, even then a kaleidoscope of races, was more or less
+completely under the shadow and the brilliance of his sword, more or
+less completely subjugated. Four centuries later the Serbs were to
+have a Macedonian empire which, like Simeon's, dissolved on the death
+of its founder. To these old empires the Serb and the Bulgar of our
+day are looking back, and it would be interesting to know if harassed
+Macedonia was calmly content to be first Bulgarian and then Serbian,
+or whether it was a calm of that Eastern kind which means that a
+ruler's assaults upon the people are infrequent.
+
+
+WHAT ARE THE BULGARS?
+
+And now, as the matter is in dispute, it is necessary to examine the
+origin of the Bulgarian people. A band of Turanian or Bulgarian
+warriors, probably not over 10,000 in number and led by one Asperouch
+or Isperich, had crossed the Danube in the year 679, had subdued the
+Slav tribes in those parts--for the newcomers reaped the advantage of
+being a well-disciplined people--and by the end of the eighth century
+had settled down in their tents of felt along the banks of the Danube.
+Then, after another hundred years, in the district bounded by Varna,
+Rustchuk and the Balkans, one may say that the original Turanians, a
+branch of the Huns, had been absorbed by the Slavs. "The forefathers
+of the Bulgars," says the great Slavist, Dr. Constantine Jire[vc]ek of
+Prague, in his _History of the Bulgars_, "are not the handful of
+Bulgars who conquered in 679 a part of Moesia along the Danube, but
+the Slavs who much earlier had settled in Moesia, as well as in
+Thrace, Macedonia, Epirus and almost the whole Peninsula." With regard
+to the retention of the name there is an analogy in France, where the
+Gauls came under the subjection of German Franks, who ultimately
+disappeared, but left their name to the country. So, too, the Greeks
+in Turkey who call themselves Romei, the name of their former rulers,
+and their language Romeica, though they are not Romans and do not
+speak Latin. To such an extent have the original Bulgars been absorbed
+by the Yugoslavs that even the most ancient known form of the
+Bulgarian language, dating from the ninth century, retains hardly any
+relics of the original Bulgarian tongue; and this tongue has in our
+time, with the exception of a word or two, been entirely lost: there
+is a celebrated old MS. in Moscow[11] which orientalists and
+historians have pondered over and which has now been explained by the
+Finnish professor Mikola and the Bulgarian professor Zlatarski to be a
+chronology of Bulgarian pagan princes, of whom the first are rather
+fabulous. Here and there, amid the old Slav, are strange words which
+are supposed to signify Turanian chronology, cycles of lunar years.
+And in a village between [vS]umen and Prjeslav there was found an
+inscription of the Bulgarian prince Omortag (?802-830), where in the
+Greek language, for the Bulgars had at that period no writing of their
+own, he says that he built something; and amid the Greek there is the
+word [Greek: sigor-alem], which occurs also in the above-mentioned
+document and is regarded as Turanian.... What we do know about this
+race is by no means so discreditable; it is true that they are reputed
+to have had no great esteem for the aged, and, according to a Chinese
+chronicle of the year 545, "the characters of their writing are like
+those of the barbarians." They held it to be glorious to die in
+battle, shameful to die of sickness. For the violation of a married
+woman, as well as for the hatching of plots and rebellion, the penalty
+was death, and if you seduced a girl you were compelled to pay a fine
+and also to marry her. Their sense of discipline, which served them so
+well in their contact with other people, was remarkably applied to
+their social life; thus a stepson was under an obligation to marry his
+father's widow, a nephew the widow of his uncle, and a younger brother
+the widow of an elder. It may be that the two much-quoted writers who
+claim that the modern Bulgars are of this race were moved more by
+their admiration of such customs than by scientific scrutiny. One of
+them, Christoff, who assumed the name of Tartaro-Bulgar to show that
+he believed in his theories, is usually thought nowadays to have been
+more of a poet than a devotee of erudition; if he had been still more
+of a poet, approaching, say, Pencho Slaveikoff, we would take less
+objection to his waywardness. The other champion of that ancestry is
+Theodore Paneff, who showed himself a brilliant and courageous officer
+during the war of 1912-1913. The fact that he was himself of Armenian
+origin--he changed his name--would, of course, not invalidate his
+Bulgarian studies; but even as he spoke Bulgarian with a Russian
+accent, so is he looked upon as writing like certain Russians; and his
+other literary work, such as that on the psychology of crowds, is held
+to be of more value. At all events in 1916 when a number of Bulgarian
+deputies made a joyous progress to the capitals of their allies, under
+the leadership of the Vice-President of the Sobranje, Dr. Momchiloff,
+renowned at the time as a Germanophil, they were welcomed with great
+pomp at Buda-Pest and declared in ceremonial orations to be brothers
+of the Turanian Magyars; but Momchiloff deprecated this idea. "We are
+brothers," he said, "of the Russians, and see what we have done to
+them!" It was also during the War that Dr. Georgov, Professor of
+Philosophy and Rector of Sofia University, wrote a dissertation in a
+Buda-Pest newspaper,[12] which demonstrated very clearly to the
+Hungarians that the Bulgars are Slavs; the Professor points out that
+the Turanians had so rapidly been absorbed that Prince Omortag
+bestowed Slav names upon his sons, and this complete mingling of the
+radically different peoples was assisted, says the Professor, by the
+fact that those Bulgarian hordes in the days before they crossed the
+Danube were already partly mixed with Slavs, since they had been
+wandering for decades to the north of the Danube, around Bessarabia,
+in which country the Slavs were members of the same Slovene race as
+those whom they were afterwards to meet. So thoroughly were the
+original Bulgars submerged in the Slavs that when their sons set out
+from the district between Varna, Rustchuk and the Balkans, proceeding
+west and south, they met with no resistance from the unorganized Slavs
+of Moesia and Thrace, owing to the circumstance that these latter
+did not feel that the new arrivals were strangers. In fact, says the
+Professor, there are in the present Bulgarian people far fewer and far
+fainter traces of the original Bulgars than there are of the old
+Thracians, as also of the Greeks and of the different people who in
+the course of the great migrations probably left here and there some
+stragglers. Sir Charles Eliot says of the Bulgars that "though not
+originally Slavs they have been completely Slavized, and all the ties
+arising from language, religion and politics connect them with the
+Slavs and not with Turkey or even Hungary." Professor Cviji['c], by
+the way, who in 1920 received the Patron's Medal of the Royal
+Geographical Society for his researches into Balkan ethnology, regards
+the author of _Turkey in Europe_ as a greater authority in this field
+than himself.... It is not easy, away from Montenegro and a few remote
+valleys, to find communities on the Balkan mainland that are
+altogether free from alien blood; Turks have come and gone, Crusaders
+of all nationalities have passed this way, with their hangers-on, here
+was the road from Europe to Asia, and here amid the ruin of empires
+lay much that was worth gathering. No doubt the Serbs, whose land was
+not so much a thoroughfare, have in their veins some Illyrian and
+other, but on the whole much less non-Slav blood than the Bulgars;
+still, when we consider some subsequent invasions of Bulgaria, we must
+ascertain how far they spread. For example, the Kumani who arrived in
+the thirteenth century were, according to Leon Cahun,[13] Turks of the
+Kiptchak nation, speaking a pure Turkish dialect; they--that is to
+say, the Gagaous who are supposed to be their descendants--are now
+Christians, they speak modern Turkish and inhabit the shores of the
+Black Sea and the region of Adrianople; they have kept much to
+themselves and are recognizable by their dark faces, large teeth and
+hirsute appearance. There are people who assert that all Bulgars have
+a physical divergence from other Yugoslavs, but, except if they
+happened to come across one of these Gagaous or some such person, it
+appears more likely that they saw what they went out to see.
+Naturally, if not very logically, those who regard the Bulgars in a
+hostile fashion have often brandished the arguments of Messrs.
+Tartaro-Bulgar and Paneff; if they will be so good as to accept what I
+honestly believe is the truth with regard to this people, they may
+have the pleasure of denouncing the Bulgar even more, seeing that his
+Yugoslav blood gives him less excuse for being what he has been. We
+shall have occasion, later on, to discuss his primitive as well as his
+more refined vices, endeavouring to ascertain how far they are not
+shared by his neighbours and whether he has any virtues peculiar to
+himself.
+
+
+STEPHEN NEMANIA
+
+After this long excursion into troubled waters we will go back to the
+Serbian States of Ra[vs]ka and Zeta. In the year 1168 the former of
+these was under the rule of Stephen Nemania (1168-1196), who bore the
+title of "Grand [vZ]upan," which means chief of a province. He was on
+friendly terms with the "Ban," or governor, of Bosnia, and with his
+assistance he added Zeta to his possessions. It was in his beneficial
+reign that the Bogomile heresy was propagated in Serbia--later on to
+spread through Bosnia and thence, under the name of Albigensian
+heresy, to France. Nemania summoned an assembly to decide on a plan of
+action; they resolved that this heresy should be exterminated by force
+of arms, seeing that most of the population belonged to the Orthodox
+religion. But Nemania was tolerant towards the Catholic Church, which
+had a considerable following in the Serbian provinces of the Adriatic
+coast, and this attitude became him well, for although he was the son
+of Orthodox parents he was born in a western part of the country where
+there was no Orthodox priest, so that he was baptized according to the
+Catholic rite and only joined the Orthodox Church at a considerably
+later date. A suggestive incident occurred in the year 1189, when
+Frederick Barbarossa, on his way to Constantinople and Jerusalem, was
+met at Ni[vs] by the Grand [vZ]upan, who presented him with corn,
+wine, oxen and various other commodities, placed the Serbs under his
+protection, and concluded with him and with the Bulgars a military
+convention for the taking of Constantinople. When at last Nemania was
+tired of fighting and administration he withdrew to the splendid
+monastery of Studenica, which he had built, and afterwards to the
+promontory of Mt. Athos, where his younger son, who called himself
+Sava and was to become the great St. Sava, had from his seventeenth
+year embraced the monastic life.
+
+
+THE SLOVENES ARE SUBMERGED
+
+Meanwhile the Slavs of Croatia and those farther to the north and
+west, with whom was kept alive the old name of Slovene, had been at
+grips with various neighbours. It has been said of the Slovenes that,
+shepherds and peasants for the most part, they have practically no
+national history, seeing that when the realm of Samo, who was himself
+a Frank, came to an end, they were subjected to the Lombards, to the
+Bavarians and finally to Charlemagne and his successors. Unlike the
+Serbs and the Croats, they had no warlike aristocracy; in fact, the
+only two Slovene magnates who displayed any national zeal were two
+Counts of Celje (Cilli) of whom the first rose to be Ban of Croatia
+and the second, Count Ulrich, the last of his race, was in 1486
+assassinated by Hungarians in Belgrade, thus causing his domains to
+fall to the Habsburgs.[14] But if the little, scattered Slovene people
+had to bend before the storm, if they withdrew from their outposts in
+the two Austrias, in northern Styria, in Tirol, in the plains of
+Frioul and in Venetia, they settled down, thirteen centuries ago, in a
+region which they still inhabit. This is bounded to the north
+approximately by the line extending from Villach--Celovec
+(Klagenfurt)--Spielfeld--Radgona (Radkersburg)--and the mouth of the
+river Mur, although there are noteworthy fragments at each end: about
+65,000 on the hills to the west of the Isonzo (of whom 40,000 have
+been since 1866 under Italy), and about 120,000, partly Catholics and
+partly Protestants, who live on the other bank of the Mur. Anyone who
+wished to follow the fortunes of the Slovenes through the Middle Ages
+would have chiefly to consult the chronicles of the Holy Roman Empire;
+he would find them in their old home at Gorica, but with a German
+Count placed over them, he would find them being gradually supplanted
+by the Germans in such towns as Maribor (Marburg) and Radgona, being
+thrust out to the villages and the countryside; nowhere except in the
+province of Carniola would he find a homogeneous Slovene population.
+It is an interesting fact[15] that in the fifteenth century theirs was
+the "domestic language" of the Habsburgs, even as in our time the
+Suabian-Viennese; but until the era of Napoleon they took practically
+no part in the world's affairs, and the part which they were wont to
+take was to fight other people's battles: for example, when the
+Venetians, in the midst of all their hectic merriment, were making the
+last stand, it was largely to the Schiavoni, that is Slovene,
+regiments that they entrusted their defence. We are told that there
+was no question of the loyalty and the fighting qualities of the
+Schiavoni and of their sturdy fellow-Slavs, the Morlaks of Dalmatia.
+It was not possible for the authorities to provide ships enough to
+bring over sufficient resources to maintain all those who were eager
+to fight.[16] In spite of all the centuries of political suppression
+the little Slovene people, which to-day only numbers 1,300,000,
+retained its identity with even more success than a certain frog in
+Ljubljana, their capital; for that wonderful creature, though
+preserving its shape in the middle of a black-and-white marble table
+at the Museum, has allowed itself to become black-and-white marble. We
+shall see how Napoleon awoke the Slovenes, how Metternich put them to
+sleep again, how they roused themselves in 1848 and what a role they
+have played in the most recent history.
+
+
+THE FATE OF THE CROATS
+
+The Croats were to be much more prominent in the Middle Ages. They did
+not, it is true, always manage to hold their heads above water; but
+they can now look back with more gratification than regret on the
+interminable conflicts which they had to sustain against the
+Hungarians on the one hand, the Venetians on the other. The Hungarian
+monarch, anxious to have an outlet on the Adriatic, attempted to
+cajole the Croats into electing him as their king, on the score of his
+being the brother of the wife of a late Croatian ruler. He secured by
+force what his pleadings had not gained him, and subsequently the link
+between Croatia and Hungary was more than once broken and reunited
+within the space of a few years; at last it was arranged that there
+was to be a purely personal union under the vigorous King Kolomon, and
+so it continued, with varying interference on the part of the
+Hungarians, until the dynasty of Arpad became extinct in 1301. The
+functionary who represented the central power in Croatia--there being
+for part of this period a similar official for Slavonia, the adjoining
+province--had the title of Ban. He was at the head of the Croatian
+army, he pronounced sentences in the name of the king and had other
+functions, so that the office came to be regarded with profound
+respect by the Croats, and many of its holders tried to deserve this
+sentiment.... Among the duties assumed by King Kolomon was that of
+recovering from the Venetians those coastal towns and islands which
+had fallen to them, owing to the chaos in Croatia. For more than two
+hundred years--that is, until the middle of the fourteenth
+century--this warfare between the Hungaro-Croatian kings and Venice
+raged without interruption; apparently the Dalmatian towns and islands
+were most unwilling to come under the sway of Venice. We read
+everywhere of how they themselves put up a strenuous resistance. At
+Zadar, the capital, where Pope Alexander III. had in the year 1177
+been welcomed by the people with rejoicings and Croatian songs, a
+chain was drawn across the harbour in 1202, for the people hoped in
+this way to keep out the Venetians, who, with a number of Frenchmen,
+were starting out on the famous Fourth Crusade--that enterprise which
+ended, on the outward journey, underneath the walls of Constantinople.
+The Venetians forced their way into Zadar, plundered and devastated
+it; and in order to mollify the Pope, who was indignant at Crusaders
+having behaved in this fashion against a Christian town, they
+subscribed towards the building of the cathedral, but retained
+possession of the place--this time for over a hundred and fifty years.
+Yet the holding of Zadar did not imply that of other Dalmatian towns:
+during this period when Venice clung to the chief place there were a
+good many changes in the not-distant town of [vS]ibenik, which was now
+under the Hungarians, now under Paul Subi[vc], Prince of Bribir, now
+under the Ban Mladen II., now an autonomous town under Venice.
+
+
+A GALLANT REPUBLIC
+
+The most renowned, as it is the most beautiful, of Dalmatian towns,
+Dubrovnik (Ragusa), was always more preoccupied with commerce and
+letters than with warfare. It managed to maintain itself in glory for
+a very long time, thanks to the astuteness of the citizens, who were
+ever willing to give handsome tribute to a potential foe. On occasion
+the Ragusans could be nobly firm, refusing to deliver a political
+refugee to the Turks, and so forth. In such tempestuous times the
+little State was forced to trim its sails; there was the gibe that
+they were prepared to pay lip service to anyone, and that the letters
+S.B. on the flag (for Sanctus Blasius, their patron saint) indicated
+the seven flags, _sette bandiere_, which they were ready to fly. But
+the Republic of Dubrovnik--a truly oligarchic republic, until the
+great earthquake of 1667 made it necessary to raise a few other
+families into the governing class--the republic can say, with truth,
+that when darkness was over the other Yugoslavs it kept a lamp alight.
+As yet the Serbian State was rising in prosperity and Dubrovnik made a
+treaty of commerce with Stephen (1196-1224), who had succeeded his
+father Nemania. During this reign St. Sava, the king's brother, came
+back to Serbia and organized the national Church, founding also
+numerous monasteries and churches, as well as schools. Of the
+successors of Stephen we may mention Uro[vs], whose widow, a French
+princess, Helen of Anjou, is venerated in Serbia for her good deeds
+and has been canonized. King Milutine (1281-1321) made Serbia the most
+united and the leading State in Eastern Europe; under Du[vs]an, who
+has been called the Serbian Charlemagne, success followed success, and
+under his sceptre he gathered most of the Serbian people, as well as
+many Greeks and Albanians. He had the idea--and it was not beyond his
+strength--to group together all the Serbian provinces.
+
+
+THE GLORIOUS DU[vS]AN
+
+It is facile for people of the twentieth century, and particularly so
+for non-Slavs, to say that this Serbian Empire of Du[vs]an, Lord of
+the Serbs and Bulgars and Greeks, whom the Venetian Senate addressed
+as "Graecorum Imperator semper Augustus," resembled the earlier
+Bulgarian Empire of Simeon, who called himself Emperor of the Bulgars
+and the Vlachs, Despot of the Greeks, in that we would consider
+neither of them to be an empire; and that therefore, in celebrating
+their glories, with pointed reference to their Macedonian glories, the
+Serbs and the Bulgars are living in a fool's paradise. No doubt a
+great many persons dwelt in this Macedonia of Simeon and Du[vs]an
+without being aware of the fact, for those who called themselves
+Bulgars or Serbs appear to have been chiefly the warriors, the nobles
+and the priests; a large part of the people were--as they are
+to-day--indifferent to such niceties. But there is latent in the Slav
+mind a longing for the absolute, which, except it be in some way
+corrected, inclines towards a moral anarchy, a social nihilism and
+indifference as to the destinies of the State. Looking merely at the
+consequence, it does not greatly seem to matter how this attitude is
+brought about.... One must admit that these two realms occupied in
+their world most prominent positions--positions to which they would
+not have attained if Simeon and Du[vs]an had not been altogether
+exceptional men, for on their death there was not anybody great
+enough to keep the great men of the State together. We have spoken of
+Simeon's peaceful labours--we might cultivate more than we do the
+literature of that age if it were less dedicated to religious topics,
+which anyhow at that time gave little scope for originality--his
+consummate ability as a soldier and statesman is revealed in the
+existence of his empire; we find in the Code of Du[vs]an, before such
+a thing flourished in England, the institution of trial by jury, while
+Hermann Wendel[17] has pointed out that the peasants were protected
+from rapacious landowners much more effectively than in the Germany of
+that age.... We need not try to establish whether the simple
+Macedonian desired to be under Simeon or Du[vs]an; but even if these
+two monarchs had, each of them, as far as was then possible, complete
+control of the country, one would scarcely urge that after all these
+centuries this is any reason why Macedonia should fall to Bulgaria or
+to Serbia. We shall have to see whether by subsequent merits or
+activities either of them has acquired the right to absorb these
+outlying Slavs who, be it noted, if in our day they are questioned as
+to their nationality, will often reply--and even to an enthusiastic,
+armed person from one of the interested States--the worried Macedonian
+Slavs, of whom a quarter or maybe a third do really not know what they
+are, will reply that they are members of the Orthodox Church.
+
+Du[vs]an perceived that an alliance with Venice would serve his ends;
+he did not cease trying to persuade the Venetians that such an
+arrangement was also in their interest. After having sent an army to
+Croatia, in the hope of liberating that people from the Hungarians, he
+conquered Albania, and in 1340 asked to be admitted as a citizen of
+the Most Serene Republic. In 1345 he informed the Senate that it was
+his intention to be crowned in _imperio Constantinopolitaneo_, and at
+the same time suggested an alliance _pro acquisitione imperii
+Constantinopolitani_. But Venice, while reiterating her protestations
+of friendship, declined his offers; for she could not bring herself to
+join her fortunes to those of an ally who might become a rival.
+
+
+EVIL DAYS AND THE PEOPLE'S HERO
+
+On the death of Du[vs]an his dominions fell apart, so that the
+conquering Turk, who now appeared, was only met with isolated
+resistance. At a battle on the river Maritza in 1371 the Christians
+were utterly routed and, among other chieftains, King Vuka[vs]in was
+slain. His territories had included Prizren in the north, Skoplje,
+where Du[vs]an had been crowned, Ochrida and Prilep. It was Prilep,
+amid the bare mountains, which passed into the hands of Marko, the
+king's son, Marko Kraljevi['c], and thereabouts are the remains of his
+churches and monasteries. But for the Serbs and the Bulgars Marko is
+associated with deeds of valour; he has become the protagonist of a
+grand cycle of heroic songs, wherein his wondrous exploits are
+recalled. Although he was, by force of circumstances, a Turkish
+vassal, and, fighting under them, he perished in Roumania in 1394, so
+that historically he may not have played a very helpful part, yet it
+is to him that numerous victories over the Turk are ascribed. He is
+said to have been engaged in combat against the three-headed Arab, to
+have waged solitary and triumphant warfare against battalions of
+Turks, to have passed swiftly on his faithful charger [vS]arac from
+one end of the country to another, to have defended the Cross against
+the Crescent, to have succoured the poor and the weak, to have
+conversed with the long-haired fairies, the "samovilas," of the forest
+lakes, who gave him their protection, and he is said to have assisted
+girls to marry by abolishing the Turkish restrictions. They say that
+he is still alive, and when he reappears, gloriously seated on
+[vS]arac, then will the people be free, at last, and united.[18]
+Through the long centuries of Turkish oppression he--who personifies
+many of the traits in the national character, with Christian and with
+pagan attributes--he, in these legends, many of which have a high
+poetic value, was able to keep alive the hope of deliverance. From one
+end of the Balkans to the other, from Varna to Triest, the popular
+hero is Marko Kraljevi['c]. He is as much the personage of Bulgarian
+as of Serbian folk-songs, and this is well, seeing that he was a
+Serbian prince while many of his adoring subjects were Bulgars--the
+noble Albanian chronicler, Musachi, for instance, calls his father Re
+di Bulgaria. As Marko is dear to them in song the Bulgars have come to
+think that he was a Bulgar; thereupon the Serbs point out that he was
+the son of Vuka[vs]in, that Marko is an admittedly Serbian name, and
+that Kralj (King) and Kraljevi['c] are titles so unknown in Bulgaria
+that when the Sofia newspapers alluded to Louis Philippe, Ferdinand's
+grandfather, they spoke of him--him of all people--as Tzar Louis
+Philippe. Thereupon the Bulgars retort that, anyhow, Marko was cruel
+and perfidious and a braggart and a drunkard and a fighter against
+Christians, and a fighter remarkable for cowardice. But if we are
+going to look at the private character of all the world's national
+heroes, we shall be the losers more than they. Let Marko, who joins
+the Serb and the Bulgar in song, find them engaged, when he comes
+back, in drinking together and not in making him the subject of
+antiquarian and acrimonious debate.
+
+
+THE "GOOD CHRISTIANS" OF BOSNIA
+
+While Serbia was listening to the Turkish cavalry, the Ban of Bosnia,
+Tvertko, raised that province to its greatest eminence. Being a
+collateral heir of the old house of Nemania, and having wide Serbian
+lands under his rule, he had himself proclaimed king on the tomb of
+St. Sava in 1377. He called his banat "the kingdom of Serbia," and
+allied himself to Prince Lazar, the most powerful of the Serbian
+rulers who were still independent. In Bosnia at this time the Bogomile
+heresy, after winning the people of Herzegovina, that wild and
+mournful province, attracted not only the peasants but the bans. Just
+as Du[vs]an and other Balkan princes had made of an autocephalous
+Church the surest foundation of their States, so did the Bans of
+Bosnia, beginning with Kulin at the close of the twelfth century, see
+in the Bogomile movement a national Church that would render their
+subjects more intractable to outside influences, to religious
+suggestions emanating from Rome, and to political ambitions that came
+from Hungary. The people, for their part, flocked to the ranks of the
+"good Christians," as the sect was called, on account of the Bogomile
+humility, the democratic organization of a Church that was in such
+contrast with the formalism of Byzantine ceremonial, and also on
+account of some pagan superstitions that were mingled with this
+Christianity and made to these simple, recently converted Christians a
+most potent appeal. It was in vain that the Popes preached a crusade
+against the Bogomiles, in vain that the Kings of Hungary descended on
+their heretical vassals; for the ban, in one way or another, would
+divert that wrath--sometimes, if no other choice presented itself, he
+became the temporary instrument of this wrath while standing at the
+people's back. From all the world, so say contemporary records, there
+was a constant stream of heretics to Bosnia, where now the Bogomiles
+were found in the most exalted positions. Ceaselessly the Popes
+persecuted them, and when at last in Sigismund of Hungary an ardent
+extirpator visited the land there came about a terrible result, which
+has made Bosnia so different from other Serbian territories.
+
+
+KOSSOVO
+
+Tvertko did his utmost to make of Bosnia the kernel of another great
+Slav State. The death of Lewis of Hungary freed him from his most
+redoubtable adversary; Dalmatia, Croatia and other lands were joining
+him--but then in 1389 came Kossovo, the fatal field of blackbirds,
+where a disloyal coalition of Serbian, Croatian, Albanian and
+Bulgarian chieftains went down in irretrievable disaster. Milos
+Obili['c], who is now one of Serbia's popular heroes, had been
+suspected of lukewarmness; he answered his accusers by gaining access
+to the Sultan's camp and slaying the Sultan. Not only did the Turks
+put him to death, but they decapitated their prisoner, Prince Lazar,
+and all the other chiefs.
+
+The Slavs along the Adriatic were now also on the eve of dire
+misfortune: protracted wars of succession, in consequence of the death
+in 1382 of Lewis of Hungary, had ravaged that country and Croatia, so
+that in their enfeebled condition they could give no assistance to the
+towns and islands of Dalmatia which for so long had been struggling to
+elude the grip of Venice. But even so--and with many places handing
+themselves over voluntarily, in disgust at the almost incredible
+treason of their elected monarch, Ladislas of Naples, who, after long
+bargaining, sold his rights to Venice for a hundred thousand ducats,
+and with many places, in dread of the Turks, placing themselves under
+the protection of Venice--even so the Venetians had a great deal of
+trouble in occupying Dalmatia, and a hundred years elapsed before they
+had the whole of it. As for the two ports, Triest and Rieka (Fiume),
+they had passed through various episcopal or aristocratic hands.
+Triest had been in a position to set her face against falling to
+Venice, of whom she had had, from the tenth to the twelfth centuries,
+an adequate experience. Both Triest and Rieka were now to pass into
+the power of the Habsburgs.
+
+
+GATHERING DARKNESS
+
+For a few years after Kossovo the Serbs resisted; but their efforts,
+now at Belgrade, which was made the capital and fortified by Stephen
+the chivalrous son of Prince Lazar, now at Smederevo on the Danube,
+were spasmodic. Bands of Turks and also of Magyars were terrorizing
+the country; and the sagacious old despot George Brankovi['c] was the
+last to offer opposition to the Turk at Smederevo. Meanwhile in
+Bosnia, the Bogomiles, driven to despair by persecution, had been
+calling to the Turk. Constantinople fell in 1453, Serbia laid down her
+arms in 1459, while in 1463 Muhammed II. appeared before Jajce,
+Bosnia's capital, where one can still see the skeleton of Stephen
+Toma[vz]evi['c], the last king, who was executed by the Sultan's
+order. And now in this land of heresy, which had become so hostile to
+the established Churches, hundreds of those who professed the Bogomile
+faith went over eagerly to Islam; they hoped that in this way they
+would triumph at the expense of their late persecutors. Those who had
+worldly possessions were the first to embrace Islam, in order to
+safeguard them. Those who had neither wealth nor much accumulated
+hatred remained Christians. One would expect that people who had
+adopted a religion under these impulses would be even more
+uncompromising than the usual convert, and indeed, as a general rule,
+the ex-Christian begs and aghas displayed until recent times not only
+a more than Turkish observance of the outward forms of Islam but a
+tyranny over the wretched raias, their slaves, that was much more than
+Turkish.
+
+Fortune had turned her back upon the Southern Slavs. In the north the
+Slovenes were imprisoned in the Holy Roman Empire, while the
+Croats--save for the time when they were under Tvertko--had a
+succession of alien rulers, such as the aforementioned Ladislas, whom
+they naturally disliked.
+
+After Kossovo some of the Serbian nobles had fled to Hungary, to
+Bosnia and to Montenegro. It was among the almost inaccessible, bleak
+rocks of Montenegro that a few thousand Serbs managed to retain their
+liberty. Various Serbian tribes or clans thus found a refuge, and
+owing to their isolation from each other they preserved their
+differences. They have, in fact, preserved them, as well as the tribal
+organization, down to the present day. And then there was Dubrovnik,
+the stalwart little republic. Now that she stood alone she needed all
+her acumen. Yet if she paid necessary tribute to the powerful, she
+would not give up helping the fallen. From this Catholic town in 1390,
+the following message was sent to the Serbian Prince Vuk Brankovi['c]:
+"If--and God forbid that it should be so--Gospodin Vuk should not
+succeed in saving Serbia, and should be driven thence either by the
+Magyars or the Turks or anyone else, we will receive the Gospodin Vuk
+and the Gospodja Mara his wife, together with their children and their
+treasure, in all good faith in our city; and if Gospodin Vuk desire
+to build a church of his own faith here for his use, he shall be at
+liberty to do so."[19]
+
+Darkness lay over the world of the Southern Slav--under the Turk there
+was no history. Generation followed generation, but the day of Kossovo
+does not seem to the Serbs as though it were a distant day. Do not we
+who go about our business in the brilliance of the morning sometimes
+linger to recall the frightful setting of the sun? And every year the
+Serbian people sing the Mass for the repose of them who died at
+Kossovo.... When, after more than five hundred years, the Serbian
+soldiers in the Balkan War came back to this historic plain one saw
+them halting, without being ordered to do so, crossing themselves and
+presenting arms.
+
+    FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [Footnote 4: From the word _sloviti_, to speak--meaning those
+    who can speak to and comprehend one another.]
+
+    [Footnote 5: Premrou quotes from the account of this
+    ambassador's journey in the year 965, which was published at
+    Petrograd in 1898.]
+
+    [Footnote 6: Cf. _Serbia_, by L. F. Waring. London, 1917.]
+
+    [Footnote 7: The sources of the ancient history of Croatia
+    have been collected by F. Ra[vc]ki in his _Documenta historiae
+    Croaticae periodum antiquam illustrantia_, Zagreb, 1877. Cf.
+    also his well-known and excellent essays in _Rad. jugoslav.
+    Akad._; the _Poviest Hrvata de Vjekoslav Klai[vc]_, Zagreb,
+    1899-1911, and a short but very good account by F.
+    Si[vs]i['c] in _Pregled povijesti hrv. naroda_, Zagreb, 1916.
+    I am indebted for these references to Dr. Yovan Radoni['c],
+    who is regarded as among the first of Croat historians.]
+
+    [Footnote 8: This book, dating from 1395, is in the town
+    library of Reims.]
+
+    [Footnote 9: "The Bulgarians, in their historical,
+    ethnographical and political frontiers." Text in four
+    languages. Berlin, 1917.]
+
+    [Footnote 10: _La Macedoine_, by Simeon Radeff. Sofia, 1918.]
+
+    [Footnote 11: _Obzor Chronografov_, published by Professor
+    Popov in 1863.]
+
+    [Footnote 12: _Pester Lloyd_, June 21, 1917.]
+
+    [Footnote 13: _Introduction a l'Histoire de l'Asie._ Paris,
+    1896.]
+
+    [Footnote 14: In a monograph on the 600th anniversary of the
+    Church of St. Mary at Celje (Celje, 1910) there is reproduced
+    a contemporary narrative of the funeral of Count Ulrich.
+    After describing how the widow, the noble lady Catharine, had
+    with dire wailing gone round the altar and offered sacrifice,
+    being followed by all the congregation, it proceeds: "Da diss
+    geschehen gieng wieder herfuer ein geharnischter Mann, der
+    Namb zu sich Schilt, Helmb, Wappen, legte sich auf die Erden,
+    vnd striche gar lauth, ganz erbaermlich vnd gar Claeglich mit
+    heller stimbe drei mahl nacheinander Graffen zu Cilli, vnd
+    Nimmehr zerreiss die Panier, Zerbrach die Wappen da war
+    Allererst ein Clagen, dass es nicht einen Menschen, sondern
+    ein harten stain hete Erbarmen Moegen."]
+
+    [Footnote 15: Cf. A lecture delivered by Sir Arthur Evans
+    before the Royal Geographical Society, January 10, 1916.]
+
+    [Footnote 16: Cf. _La Fine della Serenissima_, by Ricciotti
+    Bratti. Milan, 1919.]
+
+    [Footnote 17: _Suedosteuropaeische Fragen_, by Hermann Wendel.
+    Berlin, 1918.]
+
+    [Footnote 18: His equipment, as M. Charles Loiseau (in _Le
+    Balkan Slave et la Crise Autrichienne_, Paris, 1898) remarks
+    very truly, "n'est pas banal." One of his historians relates
+    that he was furnished with a sword, a lance, javelins and
+    arrows trimmed with falcons' feathers, sometimes also with a
+    sabre and a small axe. He was garbed in a cloak of wolf's
+    skin, using the same skin for his cap, round which was wound
+    a dark piece of cloth. On his saddle was a scarf of silk. The
+    reins of his horse were gilded, and he carried in his right
+    hand a javelin of iron, gold and silver, weighing 150 lb.
+    (?), and this he balanced on the left side with a large skin
+    of wine. On his back was a magnificent cloak, and behind him
+    there was a folded tent.]
+
+    [Footnote 19: _Monumenta Serbica_, edited by F. Miklosi['c].]
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+FIGHTING THE DARKNESS
+
+THE VENETIANS IN DALMATIA--METHODS OF THE TURK--THE SLAVS WHO
+MIGRATED--THE CONSOLATION OF THOSE WHO REMAINED--GOOD LIVING IN
+HUNGARY--THE PROTESTANT INFLUENCE--DUBROVNIK, REFUGE OF THE ARTS--HOW
+SHE SMOOTHED HER WAY--HER COMMERCIAL ENTERPRISE--HER NORTHERN KINSMEN
+AND THE MILITARY FRONTIERS--THE OPPRESSIVE OVERLORDS OF THE
+YUGOSLAVS--THE GREAT MIGRATION UNDER THE PATRIARCH--ACTIVITIES OF THE
+SOUTHERN SLAVS UNDER THE HABSBURGS--THE POSITION OF THEIR
+CHURCH--SERBS ASSIST THE BULGARIAN RENASCENCE--THE GERMAN COLONISTS IN
+THE BANAT--THE SOUTHERN SLAV COLONISTS AND THEIR RELIGION--BUNJEVCI,
+[vS]OKCI AND KRA[vS]OVANI.
+
+
+THE VENETIANS IN DALMATIA
+
+One might argue that the Slav of Dalmatia had no gratitude, because
+when Serbia and Bosnia were utterly under the Turk, when the Slovenes
+of Carniola, Carinthia and Southern Styria suffered between 1463 and
+1528 no less than ten Turkish invasions, when in the middle of that
+fifteenth century the crescent floated over all Croatia and only the
+fortified towns of the seacoast and the islands remained in the
+Christian hands of Venice, whom a fair number of these towns and
+islands had called in to protect them, surely one might argue that it
+was not seemly if the local population, Croats and Serbs, detested the
+Venetians. And on hearing that not long ago an orator in the Italian
+Parliament exclaimed, "I cani croati!"--a description that was greeted
+with a whirlwind of applause--you possibly might argue that the
+Speaker should have reprimanded him because ingratitude is not a
+quality associated with dogs.
+
+As we gaze at the splendid structures, the palaces, the forts, the
+magnificent cathedral of [vS]ibenik that was begun in 1443, the loggia
+of Trogir and Hvar, the loggia of Zadar--"a perfect example," we are
+told, "of a public court of justice of the Venetian period"--the
+towers on the old town-walls of Kor[vc]ula, as we gaze at all those
+elegant and useful and robust and picturesque buildings which bear the
+sign of the Lion of St. Mark, do not the complaints of the disgruntled
+population of that period tax our patience?
+
+We may waive the fact that the [vS]ibenik cathedral was left
+unfinished for centuries, being only completed by public subscription
+under the Austrians; we may overlook the fact that the Lion of St.
+Mark was sometimes placed on a building not erected by the Venetians.
+This we can see at the Frankopan Castle on Krk, and elsewhere. But it
+would be unjust if we held Venice up to blame on account of some
+exuberant citizens. There are many other buildings in Dalmatia which
+undoubtedly were built by the Venetians: palaces and forts and walls
+and loggia which are perfect examples of a Venetian court of justice.
+
+Some one may ask why the Venetians built no churches that were half as
+beautiful as those--say, St. Grisogono at Zadar, the cathedrals of
+Zadar and Trogir, and so forth--which were constructed under the
+Croatian kings. Well, the possession of such churches would have been
+a source of pride to the Dalmatians (and have kept awake the national
+spirit more than did the forts and loggia), and the Venetians wanted
+to preserve the people from the sin of pride. There was also a feeling
+that the Dalmatian forests were a source of pride to the people. So
+the Venetians removed them. They were able to make use of the wood for
+their numerous vessels, for the foundations of their palaces, and as
+an article of export to Egypt and Syria.[20]
+
+Then some one else may ask about the schools. One must confess that
+the Venetians built no schools. But, nay dear sir, contemplate the
+curious carving round the windows of that palace, and then there is
+that perfect example of a Venetian court of justice. Was it not
+unreasonable for some of the Dalmatians to be discontented it they and
+their countrymen were allowed no schools, seeing that one did not need
+a school in order to be eligible for the army or commercial navy,
+which were the professions open to the natives of Dalmatia? With
+regard to those natives who really wanted to have a University
+diploma--well, the University of Padua was prepared to grant one
+without an examination; the "overseas subjects" could become doctors
+of medicine or of law on the simple production of a certificate from
+two doctors or two lawyers of their country, stating that the
+candidate was a capable person. Thereupon he was allowed to
+practise--in Dalmatia. And Venice herself was disposed to grant
+privileges, such as an exemption from all taxes, to those noblemen and
+burgesses and highly placed clergy who were well disposed to her. But
+as for schools, she could not ignore an anonymous work of the end of
+the sixteenth century, which was attributed to Fra Paolo Sarpi, the
+learned councillor of the Republic; he warned them in this book that
+"if you wish the Dalmatians to remain faithful to you, then keep them
+in ignorance," and again: "In proportion as Dalmatia is poor and a
+wilderness, so will her neighbours be less anxious to seize her."
+
+With regard to roads--how could Venice be expected to build roads?
+They might have been of service to the population of the interior, but
+they would have caused a certain number of those people to devote
+themselves to trade, and thus would have prevented them from guarding
+the land against the Turk, which was the unquestioned duty of a man
+who lived in the interior.
+
+When the Venetians retired from Dalmatia in 1797, after holding it for
+three to four hundred years, the country as a country was not
+flourishing. The total of exports and imports was such as would now
+satisfy a single large trader. But, of course, the land possessed
+those buildings with the Lion of St. Mark upon them--which were
+possibly put up with the idea of enhancing the prestige of the
+Republic--and it possessed the loggia.
+
+In 1797 when the Austrians arrived they found in the prisons of Zadar
+that, out of two hundred convicts, fifty were beyond human punishment,
+and of these one had been dead for five years. The system was that the
+Government allotted to the prisoners for their subsistence a sum that
+was so inadequate that they were obliged to borrow from the warders;
+and when the prisoner had served his sentence and was unable to repay
+the warder, this functionary kept him under lock and key. There in the
+same dungeon lay the untried and the convicts and the insane, for whom
+there was no separate habitation. It was impossible, said those who
+set them free, to describe the horrors of filth, the bare ground not
+being even covered with straw, the windows being permanently closed
+with blocks of wood, so that the poor inmates could never get a
+glimpse of the loggia, that perfect example of a Venetian court of
+justice. The hospital at Split was a damp cellar, and outside it was a
+ditch of stinking water. The foundling home, which was called _Pieta_,
+was a room so horrible that, out of six hundred and three new-born
+children who had been there in ten years, _not one had gone out
+alive_.
+
+But were not these abuses general at that epoch? And can we demand
+that the Venetians of that time shall answer the reproaches which it
+pleases us to make? And what answer did they give to the reproaches of
+their subjects, illustrious Dalmatians, such as Tommaseo and Pietro
+Alessandro Paravia, who, although belonging to the Italophil party,
+passed the sternest judgment on the authorities? What excuse could
+there be in 1797, seeing that, the wars having concluded at the
+beginning of the eighteenth century, Venice was free to undertake a
+humanitarian and civilizing work? Venice was by no means in a
+disarming state of decrepitude. On her own lands she had brought her
+stock-raising, her agriculture and her industries to such a pitch of
+development that she had the experience, as well as the initiative and
+the means, to do something for the Dalmatians who, and especially in
+the interior, knew no other trade than that of arms. Terrible was the
+desolation of those days; over large areas there was no
+drinking-water; the land was merely used to pasture the herds of
+almost wild cattle; instead of the superb forests were hundreds of
+miles of naked rock; and nowhere had the Venetian families, to whom
+the Government had given great holdings, come to settle down among
+their peasants. Nothing at all had been done in the way of
+canalization or of drainage, so that the land was devastated with
+malarial fever. In 1797 only 256,000 inhabitants remained; a hundred
+years later the number had doubled. It had much more than doubled if
+we take into account those who emigrated from a land which could no
+longer support the population of the early Middle Ages.
+
+In 1797 the Venetian democrats begged Napoleon not to take Dalmatia
+from them, since the harbours and the population were indispensable to
+them. They made no allusion to the sentiments of affection which
+united these provinces to the Mother Country.
+
+But are we unfair to the Venetians? Are we omitting the salient fact
+that, even if they were not model administrators, they at all events
+kept out the Turk, who would possibly have been more nefarious than
+themselves?... When troops were needed to fight the Turk these were
+for the most part provided, in the several long campaigns, by the
+Croats and Serbs of Dalmatia.
+
+And what has been the fruit of all this? Let us take an Italian
+writer's observations on the people of the interior, the Morlaks.[21]
+In his book _I Morlacchi_ (Rome, 1890), Signor Francesco Majnoni
+D'Intignano says that they are "endowed with courage and, like all
+courageous people, with frankness. They say what they think and their
+sentiments are openly displayed. Thus, for example, they do not
+attempt to conceal their antipathy against the Italians. They are no
+longer mindful of the benefits which they received in the past nor of
+the fact that the Venetians freed them from the Turkish yoke; and this
+is so not only because of the lapse of years, but because under the
+Venetian rule they did not feel themselves independent; they saw in
+the Italian merely that astuteness which knows how to profit from
+other people's toil, and which has no thought of making any payment.
+In the Italian they have no faith, and so their 'Lazmansko Viro'
+(Italian fidelity) is equivalent to the Romans' expression 'Greek
+fidelity.' But all this does not prevent them, when they have occasion
+to offer hospitality to an Italian, from offering it with every
+courtesy."
+
+It is hardly worth while inquiring whether the Venetians or the Turks
+wrought more evil against their Yugoslav subjects. But though the
+modern Italian claim to Dalmatia and the islands may appear to us--in
+so far as it is based on historical grounds--to have small weight,
+nevertheless we must not allow it to make us insensible to the
+Venetian's good qualities. It may not nowadays be reckoned as
+meritorious that, after her own interests had been safeguarded, she
+did not interfere with the privileges of the small class of nobles,
+the "magnifica communita nobile," but at any rate it could be said of
+her that she left intact the local privileges. One must also bear in
+mind that the majority of her subjects in those parts had, through one
+cause or another, a prejudice against innovations which could only be
+broken down very gradually.
+
+Nor were the Turks altogether vicious. Those who came first into the
+Yugoslav lands were under a severe discipline, and, preserving the
+austere habits of a warlike race, they were not guilty--generally
+speaking--of excesses. As the first comers were not very numerous,
+they contented themselves with occupying the strategic points; and as
+the Yugoslavs were accustomed to the life of a State not being very
+prolonged, they were cheered by the thought that their subjugation to
+the Turk would fairly soon come to an end.
+
+
+METHODS OF THE TURK
+
+After the Turk had made himself master of Bosnia and Herzegovina he
+enrolled among his janissaries 30,000 of the young men, and in other
+parts of Yugoslavia showed himself inclined at first to permit the
+people to follow their own traditions, their religion,[22] their
+language and their customs, so long as he was maintained in luxury and
+so long as a sufficient supply of young men was forthcoming. The
+abominable acts of cruelty, by which he is now remembered in the
+Balkans, appear to have started at a later period, when he had himself
+degenerated, when his lawless soldiery provoked the people, when the
+people rose and he suppressed them in a manner that would make them
+hesitate to rise again. But from the first he saw to it that there
+should be recruits; many a young Slav taken early from his home was
+transformed at Constantinople into a redoubtable janissary who fought
+against Europeans; these troops, who were not allowed to marry, gave
+an absolute obedience. They were perhaps the finest infantry in the
+world--for two hundred years they formed the strongest prop of the
+Turkish Empire. Paulus Jovius, the historian, says that in 1531 nearly
+the whole corps of janissaries spoke Slav. Other young men were
+received into the Government offices--the Porte, until the end of the
+seventeenth century, used the Serbian language for its international
+transactions; its treaties with the Holy Roman Empire, for example,
+were all made out in Serbian and Greek. Finally there were not wanting
+Southern Slavs who rose to high distinction in the Sultan's service,
+such as Mehemet Sokolovi['c], who, after being thrice pasha of Bosnia,
+was elevated to the post of grand vizier; Achmet Pasha Herzegovi['c]
+(son of the last chief of Herzegovina), whose conversion was followed
+by an appointment as Bey of Anatolia; he became brother-in-law of
+Sultan Bajazet II. and likewise grand vizier. There was Sinan Pasha, a
+Bosnian, who constructed in [vC]ajnica, his native place, the handsome
+mosque that still exists, and there was the renowned Osman
+Pasvantooelu Pasha, also of Bosnian origin, who appeared in 1794
+outside the historic fortress called Baba Vida (Grandmother Vida), of
+the dusty, old rambling town of Vidin on the Danube. Having won his
+way into the fortress he was elected governor, and a year later he
+became Pasha. His independence was remarkable even at a period when
+Mahmud Bushatli Pasha flourished at Scutari and Ali Pasha at Jannina,
+so that Lamartine described Turkey in Europe as "une confederation
+d'anarchies." Pasvantooelu coined his own money, and, amongst other
+exploits, placed on the outside of a mosque his own monogram instead
+of the Caliph's emblem. Therefore the outraged Sultan sent against him
+three armies in succession, and each of them went back from Vidin
+vanquished. The pasha was a brave and energetic man of iron will, a
+great soldier and an expert architect. He built famous places of
+worship, whose gilded arabesques, whose fountains in the silent courts
+may bring us to meditate on one who died in 1807, three years after
+the first insurrection of his fellow-Yugoslav, Kara George. In
+Pasvantooelu's great library at Vidin there are one hundred and twelve
+books on scientific and literary matters. The Pasha was venerated and
+was regarded almost with dread for having managed to assemble so many
+volumes dealing with other than spiritual affairs.
+
+
+THE SLAVS WHO MIGRATED
+
+But, apart from the Bogomiles, the number of those who of their own
+free will went over to the Turks was scanty. Far more numerous were
+those who abandoned their country and crossed the Danube to Hungary,
+to Transylvania, to Wallachia, to Bessarabia, thus returning with
+weary hearts to some of the places which, a thousand years before, had
+seen their shaggy ancestors come trooping westward. What they heard in
+the Banat, the part of southern Hungary they came to first, must have
+induced a large proportion of them to remain, for they were told by
+those who had migrated after Kossovo, in the days of old George
+Brankovi['c] and of Stephen the son of Du[vs]an, that this was a good
+land and that the masters of it, the Hungarians, were much more easy
+to live under than the Turks. Not that it was necessary to live under
+them, because one could settle in the lands or in the towns which had
+been given by some arrangement to Stephen and to George Brankovi['c].
+These were lands so wide that all the Slav wanderers could make a home
+on them; they extended to the river Maro[vs] and even beyond it. If
+they settled in one of those districts it would be under one of their
+own leaders and judges, not those of the Hungarians. There did not
+seem to be many Hungarians, and perhaps that was why they wanted other
+people in the country, especially now that the Turk was not far off.
+If anyone decided to live under the Hungarians, that also was much
+better than under the Turks; in this country of fine horses you were
+not prevented from going on horseback. Then it was much easier to
+speak to the Hungarians, because a great many words in their language,
+particularly the words which had to do with agriculture, seemed to be
+Slav. So alluring, in fact, was the state of things in the Banat, as
+these people painted it, that many of the immigrants, in their relief
+and happiness, wanted to hear no more. They scarcely listened while
+they were being told about the Slav settlers, in pretty large numbers,
+who had been there longer still, people who said that they had lived
+there always, even before the building of the Slav monasteries, and
+some of these were three or four hundred years old, as could be proved
+by rescripts of the Popes. Likewise those who had always lived there
+reported that some of their own race had been great men--one had been
+the Palatine of Hungary in the days when King Stephen II. was a child,
+another was the Palatine Belouch, brother to Queen Helen; and were not
+the monasteries there to remind one of the leaders, the voivodas, who
+liked to raise such temples so that prayers could be said for the
+repose of their souls?
+
+It was known that a people which professed the same religion as
+themselves--"a people of shepherds," as King Andrew II. called them in
+a decree dated 1222, the time of their first appearance in Hungary--it
+was known that these Roumanians from Wallachia were just advancing
+from Caras-Severin, the most easterly of the three counties of the
+Banat, into Temes, which is the central one. But even if they came
+farther west it did not seem to matter; one had a kindly feeling for
+them, since there was a good deal of Slav in their language, and if
+they were averse from building monasteries, that was their own affair.
+They had, it was interesting to learn, invited a Serb, the same man
+who had erected Krushedol monastery in Syrmia, to build one at least
+as imposing for them at a place called Argesu, to the north of
+Bucharest.
+
+Thus one cannot be surprised that hundreds and thousands of Serbs and
+Bulgars quitted their native lands--they were not known to the Turks
+as Serbs and Bulgars, but merely as raia of the province of
+Rumili--and crossed the Danube, the Serbs going chiefly to their own
+countryfolk in Banat and the lands to the west of it, while the
+Bulgars went partly to the Banat, where their descendants have won
+fame as market-gardeners, but chiefly to Roumania, settling in
+villages round Bucharest.
+
+
+THE CONSOLATION OF THOSE WHO REMAINED
+
+Those who preferred to take arms against the Turk had the choice
+either of leaving their country and entering the service of one which
+was at war with Turkey or else abiding in their own land, gathering in
+bodies of fifty to a hundred men, massacring as many Turks as
+possible, protecting and avenging their own people, sometimes being
+killed themselves, otherwise returning to the mountains every spring.
+The "heiduks," as they were called, had the people's unbounded
+devotion. Their achievements, perhaps a little touched with romance,
+were celebrated in the people's songs, and as it may be of interest to
+know what kind of song this people made in the period of uttermost
+depression, I give overleaf a couple that are concerned with heiduks;
+they are translations from a book of mine, _The Shade of the Balkans_,
+which is out of print.
+
+
+              I.
+
+    Go now and tell them,
+    Tell your companions
+    That, O Heiduk,
+    I have cut off your hands.
+
+    Cut away, cut away,
+    For I did curse them
+    When, O Buljuk Pasha,
+    They trembled on the gun.
+
+    Go now and tell them,
+    Tell your companions
+    That, O heiduk,
+    I have pricked out your eyes.
+
+    Prick away, prick away,
+    For I did curse them
+    When, O Buljuk Pasha,
+    They failed along the gun.
+
+    Go now and tell them,
+    Tell your companions
+    That, O heiduk,
+    I have hacked off your head.
+
+    Hack away, hack away,
+    For I did curse it
+    When, O Buljuk Pasha,
+    It compassed not your end.
+
+
+              II.
+
+    O Mechmed,[23] my beloved son,
+    Have you come wounded back to me?
+    Where is your pipe and your heiduk garb?
+      --Ask me not, ask me not.
+      Ask me rather where are my comrades.
+      With six hundred I went to the mountains--
+      Six of them live and brought me hither,
+      Brought me though themselves were wounded.
+      A little time and I must die,--
+      Call everyone of those I love,
+      For I would take my leave of them.
+
+    When all were come young Mechmed said:
+      Mother, how long will you mourn for me?
+        --Till I step down to you in darkness.
+      Father, how long will you mourn for me?
+        --Till the raven's wing is white
+       And I see grapes on the willow-tree.
+      Sisters, how long will you mourn for me?
+        --Till we have babes to sing asleep.
+      How long will you mourn, my beloved?
+        --Till I go down among the flowers
+       And bring a nosegay back for him.
+
+
+
+The Turk had thrown aside any toleration he started with. The
+Patriarchate of Pe['c], which they had for a time left intact, was now
+abolished and was not again permitted until 1557, when its
+re-establishment was due to the efforts of Mehemet Sokolovi['c], the
+grand vizier from Bosnia, who raised to the Patriarchate his brother
+the monk Macarius. Every school in Serbia and Bulgaria was closed, so
+that no teaching could be given anywhere save in the monasteries; it
+is said to be a fact--I have it from Dr. Zmejanovi['c], lately Bishop
+of Ver[vs]ac--that when Kara George, the beloved and illiterate
+heiduk, made his first insurrection, there were, in addition to the
+monks, precisely eight individuals in Serbia--their names are
+recorded--who could read and write. Thus the absence of
+printing-presses was not greatly felt: in Bulgaria there was now no
+press at all, in Serbia a few prayer-books were roughly printed in the
+monasteries; but in the sixteenth century the monks, for the copying
+of these books, had reverted to the use of pen and ink.
+
+There had been in the bygone days, in the empires of Simeon and
+Du[vs]an, for example, a privileged class, commonly called an
+aristocracy, which as elsewhere had arisen from the people having been
+obliged to submit themselves to military discipline.... And it was in
+those dreary days when all the raia felt themselves as brothers[24]
+that the Serb and Bulgar planted that democracy which flourishes among
+them now. They saw what dangers threatened in the towns. Vuk
+Karaji[vc], the reformer of the Serbian language, tells of certain
+merchants there who, by assuming Turkish apparel and customs, came to
+be no longer counted as Serbs. And more numerous by far were the
+townsfolk, nobles and merchants and others, who went to live among the
+countryfolk and intermarried with them, and produced a people which is
+better described not as a democracy, but as an aristocracy.
+
+
+GOOD LIVING IN HUNGARY
+
+And always we hear that those in the Banat and those in the still more
+fertile province of Ba[vc]ka, to the west of it, or those who had gone
+even farther west, into the wine-growing hills of Baranja, had no
+reason to regret their enterprise. King Matthew Corvinus of Hungary
+writes to the Pope on the 12th of January 1483, informing him that
+200,000 Serbs have come into the Banat and Ba[vc]ka since 1479. He
+adds that he is favourably disposed towards them, as they are a
+fighting race of the first order, so that he can trust them to defend
+those provinces against the Turk.... Not only, therefore, did he
+bestow upon them exceptional privileges, but in 1471 he appointed Vuk,
+the grandson of George Brankovi['c], to be Serbian despot of southern
+Hungary. This newly organized dominion on the left bank of the Danube
+and the Save was much more important than those of Transylvania or of
+Szekeliek, which were held by Hungarian magnates and which, in the
+event of war, had to furnish, each of them, four hundred horsemen,
+whereas the Serbian despot undertook to furnish a thousand.
+
+The earliest Serbian settlement in Baranja appears to have consisted
+of natives of the Morava valley who came in 1508 to a district near
+Ciklos. The king made over the castle of Ciklos to their leader,
+Stephen Stiljanovi['c], called the Just, and when the Turks broke into
+Baranja they murdered him. History[25] relates that some years after
+this on the 14th of August the pasha, a man of Serbian origin,
+commanded that the corpse be exhumed; whereupon a ring on the dead
+man's finger proved that he was related to the pasha. According to the
+Turkish rules of that period it was illegal to celebrate the Mass
+except at night, and in the open air. Now every year on the night of
+the 14th of August a Mass is sung, with the congregation holding
+torches and candles, out on the side of a hill. Afterwards they dance,
+and so forth.
+
+However, it was the Banat to which the Serbs chiefly rallied, and
+after the fall of the fortress of Belgrade in 1521 they came in such
+multitudes that large portions of it had an exclusively Serbian
+character. And they were given the sole charge of defending it, while
+the Hungarians retired to the north. But Hungary herself went down at
+the terrific battle of Mohacs--10,000 Serbs under their voivoda, Paul,
+fought in the Hungarian ranks--and after the fall of Buda-Pest the
+political organization of the Serbs, with a despot as their ruler,
+came to an end, being replaced by a religious organization, at the
+head of which was the restored Patriarchate of Pe['c]. The diocese
+which the Patriarchs from their not very accessible monastery were
+supposed to administrate included all the Serbs between Monastir and
+Buda-Pest, and from the Adriatic to the Struma River. It was at this
+time that in the other Yugoslav lands, to the west and north, there
+came a breath of wind from the Reformation.
+
+
+THE PROTESTANT INFLUENCE
+
+When the German reformers tried, by way of the Yugoslavs, to reach
+Rome, they found a printing-press at Urach, from which, between 1561
+and 1564, a number of books in Glagolitic characters (and in Cyrillic,
+a special form thereof) were issued. The most cultivated of the
+Glagolitic clergy in Istria and the Croatian littoral, such as Antony
+Dalmatin, Primus Trubar the Slovene and George Juri[vs]i['c], were
+enthusiastic in seconding the press and in seeking, as writers, to
+disseminate Protestantism in the Slav world. One of their most notable
+fellow-workers was Matthew Vlaci['c] (Mathias Flacius Illyricus),
+professor at the Universities of Wittenberg, Jena, Strassbourg and
+Antwerp, a veritable encyclopaedist of the Reformation, and, with
+Luther and Melanchthon, one of its leaders. A very distinguished man,
+who had already, about 1550, joined the Protestant Church, was Peter
+Paul Vergerius; before 1550 he had twice been Papal Nuncio in Germany,
+a bishop in Croatia and afterwards in Istria. The rank and file of the
+Glagolitic clergy received these books with joy, for the Roman
+hierarchy, which had small liking for this truly national Church,
+would have been glad to see it perish in ignorance, with no books and
+no culture. By the way, the lower clergy remained what they had
+been--a national clergy. They availed themselves of these Glagolitic
+books from the Protestant press, but for that reason were not going to
+become Protestants. Theological subtleties were repugnant to them, and
+before and after the Council of Trent they married and lived a family
+life.
+
+
+DUBROVNIK, REFUGE OF THE ARTS
+
+The intellectual life of the Yugoslavs would, but for Dubrovnik, have
+died out altogether. And even at Dubrovnik, of which the Southern Slav
+thinks always with pride and gratitude, there was a movement to turn
+away from the Slav world. This was certainly one of the periods, which
+reappear not seldom in the story of Dubrovnik, when it seemed that
+miracles of wisdom would be wanted for the steering of the ship of
+State. Venice and the Turkish Empire were as two tremendous waves that
+rose on either side. By a very clever show of yielding, the little
+Republic had for a time disarmed the Turks, and, later on, when the
+Venetians declared that all the commercial treaties existing between
+the Dalmatian towns and Turkey were void, it was necessary for
+Dubrovnik also to accommodate herself to this enactment and to
+restrict her trade to Spain and the African coast. It would under
+these circumstances be most imprudent, so urged some of the citizens
+of Dubrovnik, if they were officiously to advertise their relationship
+to the hapless Slavs, who were enslaved to the Republic's mighty
+neighbours. And in 1472 the Senate had directed that within its walls
+no speeches should henceforth be made in Slav. But as the Senate
+consisted of forty-five nobles, and these were obliged to be over
+forty years of age, one may say that they did not represent what was
+most virile in the State; at all events, this isolated tribute to
+expediency may for a time have been observed in that assemblage, in
+the world of letters it was disregarded. And this is the more
+wonderful when we remember that Dubrovnik had from Italy a language
+that was already formed, she had Italian models and printers and even
+their literary taste. But [vS]i[vs]ko Men[vc]etic and D[vz]ore
+Dr[vz]i['c]--both of them nobles, by the way--started at once to write
+verses in Slav; not very sublime verses, as they were principally
+love-songs of the school that imitated Petrarch, but it is pleasing to
+recall that they were written in spite of the thunders of Elias
+Crijevi['c], a contemporary renegade. Under the name of Elias di Cerva
+this gentleman travelled to Rome, where he made himself a disciple of
+Pomponius Laetus and once more modified his good Slav name into AElius
+Lampridius Cerva, and received at the Quirinal Academy the crown of
+Latin poetry. Having thus qualified himself to be a schoolmaster, he
+went back to Dubrovnik and settled down to that profession. He was
+likewise very active as a publicist on the "barbaric" Slav language,
+which, as he was never tired of screaming, was a menace both to Latin
+and Italian. One is apt to call those persons reasonable, among other
+things, whose opinions coincide with one's own; but is there anybody
+willing to assert that because the Slav culture of that epoch was,
+like many another culture, inferior to the Italian; because the
+Italian towns were in the rays of artistic glory, whereas the Slav
+world was not; because on that account the Slavs were wise enough to
+profit from the Italian masters; is there anyone who, because some of
+the Slavs were and are unwise enough to be more Italian than the
+Italians, will assert that the Slav has no right to develop a national
+art, a national State?
+
+It is superfluous to make a catalogue of those Ragusan writers who
+were more or less successful in purging their Slav language of
+Italianisms. Luckily they had at their doors the language of
+Herzegovina, which is unanimously considered by philologists to be the
+purest of the Serbo-Croat dialects. The most considerable of these
+writers was Gunduli['c], although he never could forget that his
+productions must be pious, and, beyond all other aims, present a
+moral. It was in Poland that he saw the liberator of the Southern
+Slavs, and what he sings in Osman, his chief work, is the overthrow of
+Sultan Osman II. by Vladislav, heir to the Polish throne. As this poem
+of the seventeenth century, this flowering of the Slav spirit, might
+be looked upon as assailing "the integrity of the Turkish Empire," it
+was only allowed to circulate in MS. until 1830. According to Dr.
+Murko,[26] Professor of Slav Language and Literature at the
+University of Leipzig, this work surpasses Tasso's _Jerusalem
+Delivered_; but it is commonly thought that there is more literary
+merit in Gunduli['c]'s _Dubravka_, a lovely, patriotic pastoral. The
+worthy Franciscan Ka[vc]i['c],[27] who followed him with a
+work--_Familiar Conversations on the Slovene Nation_--would perhaps be
+regarded by us as more remarkable for his originality; but this
+patriotic production, in verse and in prose, didactic, chronological,
+allegorical and epic, has made him immortal. Beginning with Teuta, the
+first king of the Slovene nation, who flourished, says the author,
+about the year 3732 B.C., he proceeds imperturbably and sometimes in
+moving numbers to relate the lives and virtues of all the other
+Slovene kings, be they Bosnian, Croat, Serbian, Bulgarian; it may well
+be that the secret of his vogue is, in the words of the critic
+Lucianovi['c], that "he was less a minstrel of the past than of the
+future." On the fruitful island of Hvar (Lesina) there arose an
+exquisite lyric poet, Luci['c], whose romantic drama _Robinja_ (The
+Female Slave) is said to have great importance in the history of the
+modern theatre; but the most famous of Hvar's poets was Hektorovi['c]
+(1487-1572). "This nobleman with his democratic ideas," says the
+Russian savant Petrovski in speaking of his _Ribanje_ (Fishing), "is
+the intimate friend of his fisher-folk, the singers of national songs,
+and with his remarkable realism he was three centuries before his
+time." When we finally note that at Zadar in the sixteenth century
+there was written _Planine_ (The Mountains), in which Zorani['c] gave
+us the most patriotic work of mediaeval Yugoslav literature, we may say
+at least that the Dalmatian Yugoslavs did not abandon hope.
+
+By the way, these remarks on the Slav literature of Dalmatia may be
+thought otiose, for the national aspirations would not have been less
+fervent if they had been expressed in Italian. One is reminded by the
+well-known Italian writer, Giuseppe Prezzolini,[28] that until last
+century the ruling classes of Piedmont spoke French; Alfieri and
+Cavour had to "learn Italian," but who would on this account pretend
+that Piedmont is a French province? There is really nothing strange
+in the fact that the Pan-Slavist newspaper _L'Avenire_, published at
+Dubrovnik from August 1848 until March 1849 by Dr. Casna[vc]i['c], was
+written in Italian, or that those Irish who desire to be free from
+their hated oppressor have not completely given up the use of his
+language.
+
+
+HOW SHE SMOOTHED HER WAY
+
+We have alluded to the caution of Dubrovnik, and one must confess that
+in her story are such parlous situations, out of which there was
+apparently no rescue, that in reading of them one is more and more
+astonished at her customary enterprise. How did she succeed, for
+instance, in contributing thirteen vessels to the fleet which Charles
+V. sent against Tunis in 1535 without disturbing in the slightest her
+good relations with the Sultan? All that she asked for was peace, and
+so she paid a large sum to the Sultan every year, as also to the
+pirates of Barbary, so that she could continue to navigate freely; in
+the fifteenth century she had three hundred ships that were seen in
+all parts of the Mediterranean and even in England. She had been wont
+to pay five hundred ducats a year to the Kings of Hungary, and now and
+then, when it was opportune, she sent this tribute to the Austrian
+Archdukes, the rightful heirs of Hungary. To the captain of the Gulf
+of Venice she dispatched every year a piece of plate, to the King of
+the Two Sicilies she presented a dozen falcons, with a very respectful
+letter, and the Pope, who was not forgotten, overlooked her annual
+tribute to the Turk and proclaimed her to be the outer defences of
+Christianity. (Let it not be forgotten that in 1451, four centuries
+before Wilberforce's anti-slavery campaign, the Republic by a vote of
+75 out of a total of 78 forbade its citizens to traffic in slaves, and
+declared all slaves found on its territory to be free. "Such traffic,"
+it said, "is base and contrary to all humanity ... namely, that the
+human form, made after the image and similitude of our Creator, should
+be turned to mercenary profit and sold as if it were brute beast.")
+
+But of all the markets of the merchants of Dubrovnik, those which from
+the days of old they most frequented, were the markets of the
+Balkans. To Bulgaria and Serbia, Albania and Bosnia, they brought the
+products of the West and of their own factories: the cloth and metal
+goods, the silver and gold ornaments, the weapons, axes, harness,
+glass, soap, perfumes, southern fruits, fish oil and herbs; and most
+of all they valued their monopoly of salt, a most remunerative
+privilege. As they could not obtain sufficient of it in their own
+immediate territory, the Senate made a regulation that each vessel
+which came back after a voyage of four years must bring a cargo of
+salt. This was Dubrovnik's chief source of revenue until the end of
+her independence in 1808, and efforts that were made by others to
+break down this monopoly led to bitter conflicts. With regard to the
+goods which they carried home with them from the Balkans, these
+comprised cattle and cheese, dried fish from the Lake of Scutari,
+hides of the wolf and fox and stag, wax, honey, wool and rough
+wood-wares, and unworked metals. Some of the Balkan mines, such as the
+silver mines of Novo Brdo in Serbia, they worked themselves, even as
+the Saxons whom we find thus engaged in various parts of these lands.
+Under the Turkish domination it must have been with joy that the
+caravans from Dubrovnik were welcomed, bringing news of the one
+Southern Slav State which remained free and prosperous. A good many of
+these wandering merchants took Serbian or Bulgarian wives.
+
+
+HER COMMERCIAL ENTERPRISE
+
+If the men from Dubrovnik were able to bring happy tidings of their
+own Republic, such as the report, perhaps a little exaggerated, that
+the wealth of those who lived in the street of merchants, which runs
+parallel to the stately thoroughfare, the Stradone, amounted to a
+hundred million ducats, they were able to give very little news of the
+more distant Southern Slavs. The Serbs had not forgotten that brothers
+of theirs were living in the north-west. If in the days of the Turkish
+oppression they had been inclined to be oblivious of the Croats, yet
+they could not but remember that Du[vs]an's sister had married the
+Croatian prince, Mladen III. There is no incident connected with
+Du[vs]an that is not treasured in the memory of the Serbs.
+
+
+HER NORTHERN KINSMEN AND THE MILITARY FRONTIERS
+
+For a long time the Habsburgs had been planning to employ the Croats,
+who were excellent troops, as a bulwark against the Turks. And
+although Ferdinand of Habsburg, on being elected to the throne of
+Croatia on the 1st of January 1527, had sworn to respect the ancient
+rights and traditions of the realm, his heirs favoured more and more a
+policy of centralization; and in 1578, taking advantage of a serious
+agrarian conflict between nobles and peasants in Croatia, the
+Habsburgs instituted the Military Frontiers, the famous Vojna Krajina,
+one for Croatia proper, with Karlovac as capital, the other for the
+adjacent Slavonia, with the capital at Varazdin. Croatia's autonomy
+was ignored.
+
+This method of guarding the frontiers had been employed by the Romans,
+who made over lands to non-commissioned officers and men on condition
+that their male descendants rendered military service. Those men who
+had no children received no lands. Alexander Severus, who introduced
+this arrangement, used to say that a man would fight better if at the
+same time he were defending his own hearth. Under Diocletian the
+"miles castellani" or "limitanei," as they were termed, had slaves and
+cattle allotted to them, so that the land's development should not be
+hindered through lack of labour or on account of the owners losing the
+physical capacity for work.
+
+The Habsburgs were assisted in their scheme by various causes, one of
+which was the poverty of the soil in certain parts of Croatia, so that
+it came as a relief to many of the struggling inhabitants that for the
+future they would be provided for. The greatest misery was also
+prevalent at this time in consequence of the plague which desolated
+parts of Croatia and Istria. The distress was particularly acute in
+Istria, where between the years 1300 and 1600 the plague was rampant on
+thirty-nine occasions, the town of Triest being visited in ten
+different years between 1502 and 1558; and in the year 1600 the port
+of Pola was reduced to four hundred inhabitants. Venice attempted to
+colonize the desert places with Italian farmers, but having failed on
+account of malaria and the lack of water, she called in a more
+vigorous element, the Slav from Dalmatia and Bosnia. Meanwhile the
+towns, in which were the descendants of those who had come from Italy
+in the days of the Roman Empire, fell more profoundly into decay.
+Those western towns looked on the Slav with disdain, they would not
+mingle with the rural population; but as these were much more active
+and were often strengthened by fresh immigrants, one thought that they
+would gradually swamp the more effete men of the towns. And, on the
+other hand, the townsmen weakened their position by continually
+breaking, on account of economic disputes, the ties between themselves
+and Venice. And as example of their frequent attitude towards Venice,
+we may take the words which the deputies of Triest used in 1518 in the
+presence of the Emperor Maximilian: "We would all of us prefer to
+die," they said, "rather than to fall under the domination of Venice."
+Such language may, of course have been a compliment; and yet it does
+not seem unlikely that the people of Triest had some knowledge of the
+ruin and death that were overtaking all the Dalmatian towns with the
+one exception of Dubrovnik, which was independent.
+
+Allusion has been made to the Slavs who came from Bosnia; one may ask
+how it was that the Turks allowed them to depart. On such an extensive
+frontier it would not be difficult for people to escape; that they did
+so is made evident by all the solemn treaty clauses which declared
+that they should be forthwith delivered to their rightful owners. The
+Turks were quite as ready to bind themselves in this fashion. There
+is, for example, the treaty which settles what travelling expenses the
+Venetians are to pay to the emissary of the Pasha of Travnik on his
+way to Zadar, how much velvet, how many loaves of sugar and how many
+pots of theriac must be provided for each member of his entourage; and
+in the same treaty it is laid down that the Turks are to give up all
+those who have deserted to them, yea even if they have become
+Muhammedans. But the Turkish authorities never heard of any such
+people. And the Slavs were passing to and fro from one Yugoslav land
+to another, always thinking that in the new land life must be more
+tolerable.
+
+
+THE OPPRESSIVE OVERLORDS OF THE YUGOSLAVS
+
+Now and then we hear of insurrections; thus the Serbs of the Banat
+revolted in 1594, allied themselves to Prince Batthory of Transylvania
+and offered him the Serbian crown. With an army of Serbs and
+Hungarians the Prince appeared on the Danube with the intention of
+aiding the Bulgars. He won a splendid victory over the Turk, but in
+gaining it he had exhausted himself, and the Turk took his usual
+revenge. In Croatia the absolutist policy of Leopold I. exasperated
+the people to such an extent that they forgot their quarrels with the
+Magyars in order to be able to defend their rights against the attacks
+of Vienna. The Hungarian-Croatian magnates, amongst whom were the
+Croats Peter Zrinsky, the Ban, and Christopher Frankopan, conspired to
+overthrow the Habsburgs. When the plot was discovered the conspirators
+were executed in 1671 at Wiener Neustadt. In the spring of 1919, when
+the bones of these two patriots were brought back to Croatia and
+buried after a series of imposing and most moving ceremonies, Austria
+was in such a state of hunger that she waived her good taste and
+received what she had exacted for the bones, namely, five hundred
+trucks of meat and potatoes. After the battle of Vienna in 1683 both
+Serbs and Bulgars rose, for it seemed to many hopeful people that the
+Turk was on the point of dissolution. There was an outbreak in the
+Bulgarian mountain village of [vC]iprovtsi, but this was suffocated
+with such ferocity that for more than a hundred years the Bulgar would
+not make another effort. The spirit of the Slav appeared to have gone
+out of him. Wars that were disastrous to Turkey brought the Russians
+to the Danube and the Austrians to within twelve leagues of Sofia, but
+the Bulgar stayed at home with his black memories. A better fortune
+attended the Serbs who flocked to the standard of George Brankovi['c],
+a descendant of the old despots, in the Banat. With the goodwill of
+Leopold I. they fought by the side of his own troops, and after these
+latter were withdrawn, in consequence of the new campaign against
+Louis XIV., the Serbs continued to wage war with the Turks, and so
+successfully that Leopold became anxious lest Brankovi['c] should
+found an independent Serbian State. He therefore caused him and the
+leaders of his army to be captured. Brankovi['c] was brought, a
+prisoner, to Vienna. He survived in captivity at Eger for twenty-two
+years.[29]
+
+
+THE GREAT MIGRATION UNDER THE PATRIARCH
+
+In the year 1690 there happened the vast exodus of 30,000 Serbian
+families who migrated across the Danube and the Save under the
+leadership of the Patriarch of Pe['c], Arsenius [vC]arnoevi['c]. An
+oleograph of a picture illustrating this event is found in almost
+every Serbian house, be it private house or Government building. These
+refugees settled in Syrmia, Slavonia, the Banat and Ba[vc]ka, and
+received from the Emperor certain rights, such as that of electing
+their voivoda (duke), of owning land, and so forth; their privileges
+were not always respected, but the Serbian immigrants remained
+faithful to Austria.... The land of Pe['c], from which the Patriarch
+fled, with the neighbouring Djakovica and Prizren, became Muhammedan
+Albanian territories.
+
+[Mr. Brailsford[30] in 1903 found that in these parts the Albanian was
+overwhelmingly predominant, and that he refused to tolerate the claims
+of the Serbian minority. Saying that his race, descended from the
+Illyrians, was the most ancient in the Peninsula, he objected to this
+particular region being called Old Serbia simply because it was once
+upon a time conquered by Du[vs]an. In 1903 the Serbs of the district
+of Prizren and Pe['c] numbered 5000 householders against 20,000 to
+25,000 Albanians. As for the towns: "In Prizren," said an Albanian,
+"there are two European families, while the soil of Djakovica is still
+clean."[31] The life which these people led was one of misery--tribute
+in some form or other had to be given to an Albanian bravo, who made
+himself that family's protector, and, in spite of that, the holding of
+any property, house or land or chattels, seems to have depended on
+Albanian caprice, and the physical state of the Serbs was wretched,
+through lack of nourishment and disease. Various efforts had been made
+to render the land more endurable for those who were not Muhammedan
+Albanians; for example, a Christian _gendarmerie_ was introduced, but
+as they were not allowed to carry arms they spent their useless days
+in the police stations. They filled the Albanians with scorn, and made
+them shout more vociferously their cry of "Albania for the Albanian
+tribes!" Under these conditions it says much for the stamina of the
+Serbs that they persisted in their old faith; a certain number--Mr.
+Brailsford came across some of them in the district of Gora, near
+Prizren--have been converted to Islam, but in secret observe their old
+religion.]
+
+A Serbian historian, Mr. Tomi['c] of the Belgrade National Library,
+has now discovered that these uncompromising Muhammedan Albanians are
+not--as previous Serbian and other historians have written--descended
+from Albanians who flowed into the country because of its evacuation
+by the Patriarch Arsenius and his flock. When the Austrian armies
+penetrated to this region in the winter of 1689-1690, the Imperialists
+were on good terms both with the Serbian Orthodox people whom they
+found there and with the Albanian Catholics; but after the death of
+Piccolomini on the 8th of December (which was followed by that of the
+Catholic Archbishop), his successor, the Duke of Holstein, alienated
+the people, and when they would not obey his commands he set fire to
+their villages, this alienating them completely. The fortune of war
+then turned against the Austrians, who were compelled to retreat, and
+the Serbian Patriarch, with his treasury and a number of priests and
+monks, fled with them. They hoped that this exodus was to be of a
+temporary character, but in 1690 the Imperialists had to continue
+their retreat, taking with them across the Save and the Danube not
+only the Serbs who had, like Arsenius, sought refuge in Serbia, but a
+far more numerous body whose domicile had always been Serbia itself.
+What tells against the theory of the 30,000 families from Pe['c] and
+Old Serbia is the fact that the Turkish troops followed so closely on
+the heels of the Austrians that the Patriarch and his clergy had great
+trouble in escaping themselves, and in addition to the Turk there was
+the difficulty of those mountain roads in the middle of winter. Thus
+it seems likely that most of the Serbian population of what is called
+Old Serbia remained there. The previous historians, who say that such
+a vast number followed the Patriarch and his priests, have based
+themselves, it appears, on the notes and chronicles of those priests.
+And the people, deprived of the guidance of their priests--who were
+then the spiritual and lay and military leaders--found it difficult to
+stand out against conversion. Half a century before this a great many
+Catholic and Orthodox Serbs of those parts had embraced Islam, in
+order to escape the financial and military burdens which were laid on
+Christian men; the women and girls would continue to profess
+Christianity. This phenomenon is described by many travellers, such as
+Gregory Massarechi, a Catholic missionary for Prizren and the
+neighbourhood, who says in his report of 1651 that in the village of
+Suha Reka on the left bank of the White Drin there used to be one
+hundred and fifty Christian houses, but that he only found thirty-six
+or thirty-seven Christian women, the men having all gone over to
+Islam. People were wont to come secretly to him for confession and to
+communicate; he tells how these converted men would marry Christian
+women, but would leave them Christian all their lives, and only on his
+deathbed would a man ask his wife to be converted also.
+
+The Prophet had also found his way into many households of Montenegro,
+where the clans, with neither civil nor military government, had been
+compelled, for their protection, to live in a patriarchal fashion: the
+people--that is, the chiefs of the clans--elected a bishop and
+gathered round him as the champion of their religion against Islam.
+Until the time of Danilo (1697-1737) there had been fourteen bishops.
+During his reign the problem of Turkish penetration was taken in hand.
+It was intolerable that Montenegrin families should stand well with
+the Sultan because one of their members had gone over to Islam. The
+small, untidy village of Virpazar, by the Lake of Scutari, has got a
+certain fame, because the chosen men who were to purge the country of
+this evil started out from there on Christmas Eve in 1703. Those who
+participated in the "Montenegrin Vespers" were not likely to forget
+the incidents of that impressive ceremony. The Bishop celebrated Mass,
+and from the consecrated tapers in his hand the people lit their own.
+Every man was armed. They knelt--their tapers hardly trembling--and
+they kissed the sacred image which the Bishop held. Then he blessed
+their weapons and they sallied forth, running round the lake and
+climbing up the rough, long road to Cetinje. Every house was visited
+in which there was a Moslem, and the choice was given of repudiation
+or of death. With such missionaries and with subjects such as these to
+work upon, you could not hope that the negotiations would be quite
+pacific. Many of the Moslem, young and old, were slaughtered, and when
+Mass was sung on Christmas morning in the rugged, little monastery of
+Cetinje, many of the chosen men assembled, weary but content, and gave
+whole-hearted thanks to God that Montenegro had been liberated from
+the scourge.
+
+As for those who came under the influence of Islam in Old Serbia, they
+were left after 1737 even more to their own resources, as the zone
+which united them to the main body of Serbs was depleted by another
+great exodus, under Patriarch Arsenius IV., [vS]akabenta. But,
+although these men of Serbian origin preserve sometimes this or that
+peculiarly Serbian custom, yet, as Mr. Tomi['c] says:[32] "Living
+together with the Muhammedan Albanians, they have assumed the Albanian
+type and become the most savage foes of the Orthodox religion and of
+the people from which they are sprung. The popular saying," he adds,
+"is right which asserts that: 'A Christian become a Turk is worse than
+a real Turk.'" Of course, in order to make it appear that he was a
+real Albanian, there was always a tendency for an Albanized Serb to be
+preternaturally oppressive. And up to a short time ago it was very
+cold comfort for the Serbs to learn that many of these people are of
+Serbian ancestry. But, as we shall see further on, the old, mediaeval
+friendship between the Serbian and Albanian rulers is extending to the
+people, and this--provided that a sinister external pressure can be
+warded off--will bear good fruit.
+
+On behalf of the afore-mentioned 30,000 families the Patriarch
+negotiated with the Habsburgs and obtained very far-reaching rights,
+which permitted the Serbian people to form in Hungary a _corpus
+separatum_. A point which to Serbian eyes had extreme importance was
+the institution of a National Congress, to sit at Karlovci on the
+Danube in Syrmia, and, amongst other functions, to designate the
+Patriarch, whose seat was to be (and remains to this day) Karlovci,
+where a friendly white village on the rising ground, which anyhow
+would make it famous for the red wine and plum brandy, has received in
+its midst the marble palace of the Patriarch, a gorgeous church and
+various magnificent red and white buildings which look like so many
+Government offices but are, in fact, devoted to Church affairs, the
+training of theological students and so forth. Their Patriarchate at
+Karlovci appeared to the Serbs as the rock of their nationality
+outside Serbia. The Constitution granted to them did not make them
+precisely a State within a State, but at least it set up a
+political-religious unity--for the privileges included those of having
+a chief, the voivoda, and of having a certain territory with
+autonomous internal organization and exemption from all taxes. Here
+the Serbs, forming a separate and distinct group, with their own
+religion, calendar and alphabet, and with their own aspirations, would
+be able to stretch out their hands--prudently, of course--to their
+scattered brothers. So the Serbs began to whisper to the Croats of the
+ancient days; the Croats heard them gladly, but they could not stop
+another voice from whispering as well. They had lived for so long with
+another religion, another civilization, their eyes had been turned in
+other directions, their hearts been filled with other hopes. And now
+it was as if the modern voice was being interrupted by the ancient
+voice. The Croats were inclined to ask the interrupter to be silent,
+but they found they could not live without him.
+
+
+ACTIVITIES OF THE SOUTHERN SLAVS UNDER THE HABSBURGS
+
+In the Banat and elsewhere under Habsburg rule the Serbs were filling
+their accustomed part and fighting, now against the Turk and now
+against Rakoczi's insurrection, during which, between 1703 and 1711,
+they are said to have lost about a hundred thousand men. Prince Eugene
+of Savoy, in whose campaigns they took a large share, described them
+as "his best scouts, his lightest cavalry, his most trusted
+garrisons." And they are rewarded--Joseph I., making use of very
+chosen phrases, insists on the merits of the Serbs and confirms their
+privileges. And until the Treaty of Pojarevac these privileges are
+maintained immune. This treaty came at the conclusion of the 1716-1718
+war against the Turks; it put the Banat in the hands of Austria, who
+made it a Crown-land, with military government and autonomous
+administration. From this time onward the country, which had had an
+exclusively Serbian colouring, begins to receive an influx of
+strangers. The German governing class introduce Germans from the
+Rhine, from Saxony, from Wuertemberg, Bavaria, Upper and Lower Austria
+and Tirol. Not only are these colonists settled in some of the most
+fertile parts, but Vienna also makes enormous grants of land in the
+Banat to lofty military personages and to families of the
+aristocracy, and these in their turn assist the immigration of
+Germans.
+
+But before the Habsburgs could continue in their efforts to
+assimilate, by one process or another, the Southern Slavs in the
+Empire, it was necessary to induce them to accept the Pragmatic
+Sanction, for Charles VI., the reigning Emperor, had lost his only son
+and wished to secure the succession to Maria Theresa. It is
+interesting to see that Croatia negotiated independently of Hungary,
+that she recognized the Pragmatic Sanction in 1713, whereas the
+Magyars did not do so until 1733. Consequently, if the Emperor had
+died between these two dates Croatia would have been separated
+completely from Hungary. Maria Theresa would have become Queen of
+Croatia, but the Magyars would not have been obliged to place
+themselves under her. The Croats on this occasion declared that the
+crown of Croatia was to pass to that member of the House of Habsburg
+who should reign not only in Austria but also in the other hereditary
+Austrian lands, for the Croats wanted publicly to show that any
+separation from the Slovenes of Carniola, Carinthia and Styria would
+be far less endurable for them than separation from Hungary. "It is
+neither by force nor yet the spirit of slavery," they said, "that we
+have been put under the domination of Hungary; we have submitted
+ourselves voluntarily, and not to the royalty but to the king of the
+Hungarians."
+
+The Serb and Croat element in the Austrian army was at this time
+greater than the sum of all the others, and, owing to the privileges
+which their services acquired for them, they came to be regarded with
+extreme suspicion by the Magyars. It was under Magyar influence that
+Maria Theresa abolished the Croatian council, confided its functions
+to the Hungarian Government, and, on the same occasion, in 1779,
+proclaimed the town of Rieka (Fiume), with its surroundings, to be
+"_separatum sacrae regni Hungariae coronae adnexum corpus_." Rieka, like
+Triest, had been a free town under the Habsburgs, the reason being
+that they were the chief arteries of trade, so that a greater freedom
+was desirable. Like Triest, Rieka does not appear up to this date to
+have shown any hankering for Venice, and Maria Theresa's diploma
+which renews the freedom is hardly evidence, as some people have
+asserted, that the town was throbbing with Italian sympathies.
+
+
+THE POSITION OF THEIR CHURCH
+
+More and more Germans were being brought into the Banat, and to make
+room for some between Teme[vs]var and Arad the Roumanians, who had
+settled there, were transferred, in 1765, to the western county of
+Torontal. About half a century before this the Roumanian Bishop of
+Transylvania, with most of his clergy, passed from the Orthodox to the
+Greek Catholic Church; those of his flock who did not follow him
+attached themselves to the Serbian Church, and after a considerable
+time were given by Joseph II. in 1786 a Roumanian bishopric, at Sibiu.
+This bishopric was placed under the administration of the Serbian
+Patriarch at Karlovci "_in dogmaticis et pure spiritualibus_," which
+seems to show that the other privileges of the Serbian Church did not
+extend to the Roumanians. The Serbs had, from the beginning of the
+thirteenth century, been founding monasteries, and, although about
+twenty were secularized or affiliated to others by Maria Theresa, yet
+there remained eleven in the Banat and one, Hodosh, to the north of
+the Maro[vs]; and as the Roumanians had no monasteries at all they
+were received as guests in some of these. And so things continued for
+about a hundred years.
+
+
+SERBS ASSIST THE BULGARIAN RENASCENCE
+
+While the Serbs were flourishing, ecclesiastically, in the Banat, the
+Bulgars had been painfully keeping alive, until 1767, their lonely
+Patriarchate at Ochrida. Time and again the Greek Patriarch at
+Constantinople had tried to suppress it, at first on account of
+cupidity and afterwards, say the Bulgars, for fear lest it should help
+to arouse the Bulgarian national spirit; but that spirit had fallen to
+such a depth that the second edition of a comparative lexicon of the
+Slav languages, which was issued, at the behest of the Empress
+Catharine in 1791, makes no mention of Bulgarian, and in 1814 the
+Slavist Dobrovsky regarded Bulgarian as a form of Serbian. And yet,
+say the Bulgars, the national spirit survived so wonderfully by those
+far waters of Macedonia that even when the Greek language was
+introduced into the offices and the Church administration, and when
+Greeks had usurped the throne of St. Clement, they still found it
+possible to stand out for the independence of their Church, which
+handed on the memories of the Bulgarian past. We must be allowed to be
+sceptical--the town of Ochrida in the fifteenth, sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries is said by contemporary writers to be now in
+Serbian, now in Bulgarian, now in Macedonian territory. And the very
+observant Patriarch Brki['c] of the eighteenth century tells us, in a
+calm, passionless description of the diocese, which he wrote in
+exile--he was the last Patriarch of Pe['c]--that the inhabitants of a
+place called Rekalije, in the district of Djakovica, are not Albanians
+but Serbs and Bulgars who had been, a short time before, converted to
+Islam. It seems probable that the sharp divisions of Serb, Bulgar, and
+so on, did not then exist, and that the Greek Patriarch at
+Constantinople did himself not know what variety of reprehensible Slav
+it was that lived in those parts.... The last Patriarch of Ochrida,
+whose name was likewise Arsenius, spent the remainder of his life in
+exile at Mt. Athos, and there, in another monastery, was a pale,
+sickly monk, poring over crabbed MSS. This Paissu, a Bulgar, had
+entered, like his elder brother, the great Serbian monastery of
+Hilendar. We know from him that while the various Orthodox monks of
+Mt. Athos--Greeks, Bulgars, Russians, Serbs and Vlachs--were
+frequently at loggerheads, yet the others even more frequently
+combined to fall upon the Bulgars and to upbraid them because their
+history had not been glorious and because they had an insufficient
+number of saints. The Bulgar was nothing but a servant of the Greek;
+Bulgarian was no doubt written in a monastery here and there, but as
+for the spoken language, were not the townsfolk often ashamed of it?
+Did they not prefer to talk Greek? "I was filled with sadness," says
+Paissu, "on account of my race." There happened to be at Hilendar the
+monk Obradovi['c], who was less enthusiastic about Glagolitic than
+about the songs sung by the peasant. With the fundamental thought of
+working for the whole people, including the women, he clung to the
+idea of a literature in the popular, rather than in the old Church
+language. He was to set out, in pursuit of Western science, to France
+and Italy and England--he spent six months in London. The whole people
+was dear to him; he looked beyond their differences of religion, their
+other differences, and saw the brotherhood, in race and speech, of all
+the Southern Slav countries. He was to become one of the great
+inspirers of modern Serbia and her first Minister of Education.[33] He
+urged young Paissu to travel among his countrymen in search of
+manuscripts and legends. If only he could find the buried splendour of
+his people and call it into life again. And before he died--he
+suffered from continual headaches and an internal malady--he had
+finished, in 1762, his book, _Slav-Bulgarian History of the Bulgarian
+People and Rulers and Saints_. This naif, imperfect book, more lyric
+than scientific, but sincere and impassioned, has played a part in
+reminding the Bulgars of their story; it is the fountain-head of the
+Bulgarian Renascence.
+
+In Serbia the gallant Captain Kot[vc]a also tried to begin for his
+country a Renascence. Russia and Austria declared war against the
+Turks in 1787. The Serbian volunteers, who included Kara George,
+crossed the Danube and fought with great courage. Yet the Austrians
+were beaten and Kot[vc]a was captured, by treachery, in the Banat; he
+was brought back to Serbia and impaled with sixty of his comrades. But
+in the treaty of 1791 the Turks undertook to give autonomy to the
+Serbs of the Pashalik of Belgrade, and to keep from their lands in
+future the janissaries who had wrought so much mischief.
+
+
+THE GERMAN COLONISTS IN THE BANAT
+
+Further down the Danube, though, there would be a janissary watching a
+frontiersman, a Grani[vc]ar, on the opposite bank, waiting to kill
+him--both of them Serbs, both standing on Serbian land.... The
+military frontier regiments were not only organized to defend, in a
+long line, Croatia, Slavonia, Ba[vc]ka and the Banat from Turkish
+inroads, they had also to fight for the Habsburgs wherever a war was
+toward. Two centuries ago, at the time when the Serbian regiments were
+in a privileged position--the entire regiment, officers and men,
+consisting of Serbs, and their own arms being on the flag--it was
+their destiny to go to France, Italy and Spain, as afterwards to the
+battle of Leipzig and to Schleswig-Holstein. They may have grumbled a
+good deal on the way to all these battles, but once the fighting had
+begun they grumbled no more, thus resembling in two respects the
+French soldier. And this practice of going abroad on behalf of the
+Empire was continued till the frontier regiments, about fifty years
+ago, were broken up. Thus Joseph Eberle and George Huber were killed
+during the Italian campaign of 1848-1849. These men were German
+colonists, whose introduction had been so much encouraged in the
+eighteenth century. But, in order to separate Protestant Hungary from
+the Turks, so that the two should not unite against the Catholic
+Habsburgs, it was laid down by Prince Eugene that all the German
+colonists had to be Catholics. Some Protestants managed to settle in
+Lescovac, where they held secret services during the night; but in
+1726 this was reported to the Prefect of Bela Crkva, whereupon he sent
+word that if they would not be converted they would each receive
+twenty-five strokes with a birch.... Of course, those who lived on the
+frontier lands were subject to the same conditions as their
+neighbours. German frontier regiments existed side by side with
+Serbian regiments, and the life of all those people can be studied in
+a book[34] written by the German frontier village of Franzfeld and
+published in 1893, a few months after Franzfeld had celebrated its
+centenary. There would, no doubt, be variations enough in the domestic
+arrangements of Franzfeld and those of Zrepaja, the neighbouring
+Serbian village, some miles away; but, as the inhabitants of Franzfeld
+have now been gathered into Yugoslavia, it is not without interest if
+we see what sort of a life they have led. The tale of how these
+Lutherans from Wuertemberg laid out and constructed and painted their
+village, with all the tremendously broad, tremendously straight roads
+running parallel and at right angles to each other, with the
+church--whose decorations are a few stars on the ceiling--the pastor's
+house and the lawyer's and the town hall and other important houses
+standing round a square of mulberry trees in the middle of the
+place--the tale of all this is told in as deliciously matter-of-fact a
+manner as _Robinson Crusoe_. The picturesque, as in that book,
+startles us now and then, with a vivid scene--until 1848, we are told,
+at the arrival of a staff-officer or of a general, every bell in the
+place had to be set ringing and gunpowder had to be fired off. One
+finds oneself revelling in the minuteness of the descriptions, one
+follows happily or sadly the fortunes of Ruppenthal and Kopp and
+Morgenstern. Everything is true, for the compilers of the book have
+felt, like Defoe, that "this supplying a story by invention is
+certainly a most scandalous crime." We are given all the names of
+those who at the beginning occupied the ninety-nine houses--the
+hundredth being used as an inn--with their place of origin, the
+numbers of their male and female dependants, and by what means they
+had hitherto earned their bread. Many houses have been added since
+that time. Among all the Germans, house No. 79 was occupied by George
+Siraky, a Hungarian who had been a peasant. Ten years afterwards
+another list is made and Siraky still disposes of the same twenty-four
+"yoke"[35] of plough-land, ten of meadow and one of garden, which he
+had originally been given, whereas some of the others had increased or
+diminished their holdings. Then we lose sight of him, and his name
+does not become one of those which reappears in succeeding
+generations. Of course, the colony was established on a military
+basis; an officer, usually a lieutenant, with one or more
+non-commissioned officers, was stationed there, as the representative
+of a commandant who presided over several villages. The resident
+officer was supposed to maintain law and order, to see to it that the
+people sowed their land at the right season, and to inform the
+commandant of any delinquency, for the lieutenant was not allowed to
+punish anyone. As one or more of the able-bodied men belonging to a
+house might be absent for a long time on military service or in
+captivity, or else through sickness or wounds be unfit to work, and
+through lack of means the householder not be in a position to hire
+day-labourers, in that case his fellow-villagers, one after another,
+were obliged to assist him without payment. In order that all possible
+respect should be attached to the chief man and woman of a house--the
+house-father and house-mother--these were not liable to punishment for
+small offences, and if a considerable offence made it necessary to
+punish them, then they were first of all deposed from their position.
+Various public posts were filled by the house-fathers or other men,
+and for refusing to accept such a post a man was commonly arrested;
+but this punishment, as well as that of so many strokes with a cane
+(which seems to have been the most usual penalty), was abolished by
+1850. The military frontier system came to an end in 1872, at which
+time the communal life, which had been found to be very irksome, was
+also gradually done away with. Franzfeld is now a prosperous and
+peaceful place; their horses are well known, they breed excellent
+cattle and pigs and sheep, and they say of themselves that out of one
+Franzfeld man you can make a couple of Jews and there will still
+remain a Franzfeld man. They tell how once or twice a Hungarian Jew
+has opened a shop in the village, selling his goods very cheaply for
+two or three months, at a lower price, in fact, than he paid for them,
+and then putting up the prices; but as soon as he does that he is
+boycotted. The aliens who have settled in Franzfeld--Hungarians,
+Slovaks and Roumanians--have come as servants, have married Franzfeld
+girls and are looked upon as Germans. The same German dialect is
+spoken as in Wuertemberg; troops from that country marched through
+Franzfeld during the War. But Serbian, the villagers told me, is the
+international language of at any rate western Banat, in spite of the
+Magyars who, as in other parts, made for the last few years of their
+domination extreme efforts on behalf of their unlovely language. They
+supplied Franzfeld with schoolmasters and mistresses who could speak
+no German and no Serbian, so that it was very difficult for both
+sides. And the authorities told the pastor that the chief truths of
+religion, they considered, should be taught in Hungarian. But the
+pastor did not agree with them and they let the matter drop. Franzfeld
+has seen wild days, particularly in 1848, and her one monument records
+a calamity of two of her sons who vanished down a well which they were
+sinking. Of itself the land is not very fertile, but the people have
+been so successful that they have founded a colony, Franzjosephsfeld,
+in Bosnia--they multiplied too greatly for their own soil to support
+them. They speak, many of them, five languages, and they will not be
+the least worthy of Yugoslav subjects. [Their interests are much more
+agricultural than political.] With regard to their multiplication, by
+the way, it is related in this centenary book, among much curious
+information, that when another Franzfelder comes into the world it is
+usual to present certain largesse to the midwife, namely, one gulden
+(this was written in Austrian times), a loaf of bread, a little jar of
+lard and a few kilograms of white flour. In the old military period
+this personage was also, like the doctor and the schoolmaster, "on the
+strength." The last of those who bore the rank of Company-Midwife was
+Gertrude Metz; she was pensioned after thirty-eight years, and
+continued for a few years in private practice.
+
+
+THE SOUTHERN SLAV COLONISTS AND THEIR RELIGION
+
+The Magyars, being themselves of at least two religions, did not
+interfere in the religious matters of those whom they called "the
+nationalities" save to ask, with more or less firmness--it made a
+difference if they were dealing with Protestant Slovaks or with
+Protestant Germans--that the language of the ruling race should be
+employed. This comparative toleration was, of course, tempered by
+exceptions. Thus in the very Catholic city of Pe[vc]uj in Baranja the
+treatment applied to other religions depended on the individual
+bishop. Bishop Nesselrode, for instance, chased them all away, and
+until 1790 they were seldom permitted within fourteen kilometres of
+the town.
+
+The Austrians in the eighteenth century constrained a good many
+Southern Slavs to enter the Church of Rome. Austria has always been
+rich in faithful sons of the Church. Some years ago, for example, I
+happened in various parts of Dalmatia and Herzegovina to be from time
+to time the travelling companion of an elderly Viennese. He told me
+how he had lately impressed upon the mother of his illegitimate son
+that the boy must receive a thoroughly Catholic education, and in
+every place this gentleman made his patronage of an hotel dependent on
+the proprietor's religion, which he frequently knew before we got
+there. I saw him last at Mostar in distress, because the only good
+hotel was administered by an Israelite of whose religion he
+disapproved, and the weather, as it often is at Mostar, was so
+oppressingly hot that I suppose he had not energy enough to try to
+convert him....
+
+
+BUNJEVCI, [vS]OKCI AND KRA[vS]OVANI
+
+Perhaps Austria would not have displayed such fervour in creating
+Bunjevci, [vS]okci and Kra[vs]ovani if she had known that these Roman
+Catholic Slavs would remain, on the whole, very good Slavs. The
+Bunjevci, who live for the most part in Ba[vc]ka and Baranja, came
+originally from the Buna district of Herzegovina. The total population
+of the town of Subotica is 90,000, and 73,000 of these are Bunjevci,
+whose peculiarity is that the old father stays in the town house,
+while his sons, with their wives and children, drive out on Monday
+morning over that rather featureless landscape to the farm, which may
+be at a considerable distance, and there they remain till the end of
+the week. They are a quiet, industrious people who have lived
+withdrawn, as it were, from the world since the twenty-five or thirty
+families escaped from the Turks; and as they brought with them only
+that number of surnames it is now customary to add a distinguishing
+name. Thus the Vojni['c] family has divided into branches, such as
+Vojni['c]-Heiduk, Vojni['c]-Kortmi['c], Vojni['c]-Pur[vc]a. The
+Bunjevci seem, although Catholics, to incline less to the Croats than
+to the Serbs, some of whose customs--those, for instance, of
+Christmas--they share. But in merry-making they are a great deal more
+subdued, save that, in drinking to some one's health, you are expected
+to empty three glasses. In the intervals of a Bunjevci dance at
+Subotica men would promenade the room arm-in-arm with men and girls
+with girls. The faces of all of them express entire goodness of heart
+and absence of guile; many of the girls, who looked like early
+portraits of Queen Victoria, were arrayed in the local costume, which
+permits great variety of colour so long as the lady wears, I am told,
+about fifteen petticoats. These worthy people used to have nothing but
+their Church, and are now extremely religious. The man who has most
+influence over them is Bla[vs]ko Raji['c], a priest and deputy, who
+was not always able to prevent a Hungarian Archbishop from sending a
+priest to his church, where he held services in Magyar. During one
+night, at all events, this church caused the Magyars much annoyance.
+It was at the beginning of the Great War--they had accused Raji['c] of
+making signals from the tower, which is very high; and in order to
+prove their accusation they sent a large body of soldiers, who
+surrounded the church, on a boisterous winter's night. Sure enough,
+the signals were seen to be flashing up there. The church was locked
+and a blast of the bugles had no effect--save that a few Bunjevci
+looked out of their windows--for the flashes did not cease. Then the
+captain commanded his men to give a mighty shout: "Put out those
+lights! Put out those lights!" But not the least notice was taken.
+There was nothing to do but to wait until Raji['c], or whoever it was,
+should finish his nefarious business and come down. About an hour
+later, though, the wind became so piercing that a non-commissioned
+officer suggested that the captain should send for the big drum; the
+noise of that, said he, would surely reach that devil in the tower.
+But the big drum, when it came, had no success. The noise it made,
+reinforced by those of the bugles and the men's shouting, was such
+that some Bunjevci dressed themselves and ventured out into the cold,
+to see what really all the turmoil was about. To one of them the
+freezing captain yelled that he knew perfectly the criminal had heard
+them, and that he went on with his accursed flashes since he
+recognized that this would be the last base act that he would ever do
+on earth. For the remainder of that night the captain and his men, not
+with the hope that they would be obeyed but merely to warm themselves
+a little, kept on shouting now and then, "Put out those lights!" And
+in the dawn the non-commissioned officer discovered that the signals
+had been moonlight on some broken glass that was being shaken by the
+wind.... One sees in the very well-arranged archives of the town of
+Sombor that the Bunjevci were accustomed, like the Germans, to ally
+themselves with the Magyars and thus give them a majority. Only in the
+last ten years at Subotica (and not at all at Sombor) did they ask for
+their rights; they had seemed conscious of the religious difference
+between themselves and the Serbs, unconscious that they were of the
+same race and language. The Magyars attempted to show in Paris that
+the Bunjevci are not Slavs, but the remains of the Kumani (who died
+out in those parts about five to six hundred years ago and were not
+Magyars). In the census of twenty years ago the Bunjevci were called
+Serbo-Croats, in accordance with a monograph, "Sabotca Varosh
+Toertenete," in which Professor Ivanji, a Magyar, said they were simply
+Catholic Serbs. In the census of 1910 the Bunjevci are put under the
+heading "Egyebek," which means "miscellaneous."
+
+This census juggling by the Magyars was one of their milder methods of
+administration. The term Serbo-Croat came to be avoided, and, so that
+foreigners should be misled, the Yugoslavs in Baranja were classified
+as Serbs, Croats, Illyrians, [vS]okci, Bunjevci, Dalmatians and so
+forth. The [vS]okci, who were also converted in the eighteenth century
+to the Roman Catholic Church, are mostly found to-day in Baranja. The
+name by which they are known is derived from the Serbo-Croatian word
+_[vs]aka_, the palm of the hand, and refers to the fact that the
+Catholics cross themselves with the open hand, whereas the Orthodox
+join the tips of the thumb and first two fingers. The [vS]okci are
+considered a weaker people than the Bunjevci; the mothers--they say it
+is love--are often so weak that they allow their children to do
+anything they like at home, and would not think of remonstrating with
+them if they wear their caps in church. Among the [vS]okci none is of
+a higher than the peasant class, for which reason their priests have
+usually been Magyars. He who ministers to the village of Szalanta,
+however, is a Croatian poet. The mayor of that village--I believe a
+typical specimen of the [vS]okci--was a ragged, humorous-looking
+person with a very bushy moustache. He was in remarkable contrast with
+the young Magyar schoolmaster, whose remuneration is largely in kind.
+This gentleman looked as if he would be well content if the parents of
+his children sent him not eggs, butter and chickens, but armfuls of
+flowers. A month before the Hungarian revolution in 1918 an order had
+come from Buda-Pest to the effect that the lowest class in a school
+was to receive instruction solely in its own language, but the
+Hungarian Republic ordered that no history was to be taught, since it
+praises kings.
+
+As for the Kra[vs]ovani, who inhabit five villages of the mining
+district of Resica in Caras-Severin, the eastern county of the Banat,
+they also were converted by Maria Theresa, in whose time they fled
+from Montenegro, Macedonia and the Bulgarian frontier. Gradually they
+have come to reckon themselves as Croats, owing to their priests who
+come from Croatia. They are all big men with luxuriant moustaches.
+
+There is a district in southern Russia, near the Black Sea, which is
+called New Serbia. It is the fertile country that was chosen by
+150,000 Southern Slavs when they preferred, in 1768, to go into exile
+rather than change their religion, like the Bunjevci, the [vS]okci and
+the Kra[vs]ovani. They preserve some traces of their origin, but can
+no longer be considered Yugoslavs.
+
+In speaking of these converts and their descendants we have alluded to
+the Buda-Pest policy of enforcing the Magyar language. This movement
+may be studied from the close of the eighteenth century in Croatia,
+where Latin had hitherto been the official language. In 1790 the
+Croats were again delivered by Leopold II. to the Magyars, who were
+bent upon executing their designs.
+
+    FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [Footnote 20: Cf. _La Question Yougo-Slav_, by Vouk Primorac.
+    Paris, 1918.]
+
+    [Footnote 21: When the Slav first arrived in these
+    territories the Romans everywhere yielded to them, and while
+    the more prosperous Romans settled on the coast, the others
+    retired to the mountains. One of the sea-towns, by the way,
+    to which the Romans fled was Split, where they could live in
+    the ruins of Diocletian's enormous, decadent palace; and from
+    extant lists of the mayors of that town we see that until the
+    tenth century they all had Latin names, from then till the
+    twelfth century we find partly Latin and partly Slav names,
+    and during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries their
+    names were nearly always Slav. Those Romans--of course not
+    implying by that word that their forbears had come from Rome
+    or even from Italy--those refugees who took to the mountains
+    mingled with the Slavs and were also joined by wandering
+    shepherds from Wallachia, owing to whom all this variegated
+    population came to be called Black Vlachs, Mauro-Vlachs and
+    in English Morlaks. The epithet "black" was attached to the
+    Vlachs, so Jire['c]ek thinks (cf. _Bulletino di Archeologia
+    Dalmata_, Split, 1879), on account of the hordes of Black
+    Tartars who until the beginning of the fourteenth century
+    infested the plains of Moldavia. Gradually in this hinterland
+    population the Roman and the Vlach died out, but the latter's
+    name was retained. It had lost its ethnic meaning and among
+    the Ragusan poets of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
+    the word was used to signify a shepherd. The Venetians
+    employed the word Morlacchi as a term of mockery, because it
+    indicated people of the mountains, backward people. And this
+    derogatory connotation has clung to it, so that to-day the
+    Morlaks, who after all are Croats and Serbs, do not like to
+    be called by that name.]
+
+    [Footnote 22: The Serbian Archbishopric of Pe['c], which
+    Du[vs]an at his coronation had raised to the Patriarchate,
+    was for the time being left intact.]
+
+    [Footnote 23: This is a Pomak song. The Pomaks are the
+    descendants of those who in the seventeenth century (perhaps
+    also earlier) were forcibly converted to Islam. Their
+    folk-songs, customs and language are Bulgarian. They speak
+    the purest Bulgarian, save that the men count with Turkish
+    numerals. (The women, who can count up to 100, use the
+    Bulgarian language.) The Pomaks live for the most part in the
+    Rhodope Mountains and in the Lovac district of northern
+    Bulgaria. They are endowed, as a rule, with meagre
+    intelligence, so that the educational endeavours of the
+    Bulgarian Government had perforce to be abandoned, since very
+    few of these reluctant pupils ever left the lowest class. The
+    most exalted situation they aspire to is to serve as clerks
+    to Muhammedan priests. Nevertheless, they despise the Turks
+    and call their language the language of pigs.]
+
+    [Footnote 24: To-day in Serbia when the King addresses his
+    people, when the deputies address the Parliament, the mayor
+    his fellow-citizens, the priest his parishioners, the officer
+    his men--all of them begin with the words "Moja brat[vc]o!"
+    ["My brothers!"]]
+
+    [Footnote 25: Cf. _Baranja multja es jelenje_, 2 vols., by
+    Francis Varady. Pecuj, 1898.]
+
+    [Footnote 26: _Die suedslavischen Literaturen._ Leipzig,
+    1908.]
+
+    [Footnote 27: Cf. _Le Balkan Slave_, by Charles Loiseau.
+    Paris, 1898.]
+
+    [Footnote 28: _La Dalmazia._ Florence, 1915.]
+
+    [Footnote 29: There is in the museum at Eger in
+    Czecho-Slovakia a small painting of Brankovi['c] dated 1711.
+    It depicts him standing pensively outside a tent, clad in a
+    red and yellow Turkish costume and with a beard that reaches
+    to his knees. On the other hand, it seems to be established
+    that he was an ordinary inmate of the prison, whose site is
+    now occupied by the Cafe Astoria; and one's faith in the
+    accuracy of the Eger Museum is rather dimmed by the
+    exhibition of a number of pictures, each of them purporting
+    to give the authentic details of the assassination at Eger of
+    the great Wallenstein, and every picture is quite different
+    from the others.]
+
+    [Footnote 30: _Macedonia._ London, 1906.]
+
+    [Footnote 31: This was far too sweeping a statement. Only
+    thirty or forty Orthodox at Prizren--teachers, merchants and
+    others--used to dress in European raiment (with a fez), but
+    from of old the Serbs had a teachers' institute and a
+    seminary--the young men educated there frequently went to
+    Montenegro. And in view of what happened a few years later,
+    Miss Edith Durham must regret that in her book _High Albania_
+    (London, 1909) she did not confine herself to recording of
+    the men of Prizren that "of one thing the population is
+    determined: that is, that never again shall the land be
+    Serb"; but she adds, on her own account, that in this
+    picturesque town and its neighbourhood the Serbs are engaged
+    in a forlorn hope and that their claims are no better than
+    those of the English on Normandy. Yet if, in her opinion, the
+    Serbs have been rewarded beyond their deserts, she must
+    acknowledge that they are not wholly undeserving--in the days
+    of her cherished Albanians it was necessary for a Catholic
+    inhabitant to furnish himself with a loaded revolver before
+    guiding her through the streets of Djakovica.]
+
+    [Footnote 32: Cf. _Les Albanais en Vieille-Serbie et dans le
+    Sandjak de Novi-Bazar_. Paris, 1913.]
+
+    [Footnote 33: He worked for a long time at the monastery of
+    Hopovo, among the Syrmian hills, and there his collection of
+    books, in the two rooms just as he left them, was naturally
+    treasured. Half of them were stolen in the course of this
+    last war by the Austrians.]
+
+    [Footnote 34: _Geschichte der Franzfelder Gemeinde._
+    Pan[vc]evo, 1893.]
+
+    [Footnote 35: This was originally as much land as a yoke of
+    oxen could plough in a day. Until the introduction of the
+    French metrical system this measurement was used in Austria.
+    It still survives there, a "joch" or yoke being equivalent to
+    5754.6 square metres, or about 1.4 English acres. The
+    Hungarian joch is three-quarters the size of this.]
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+BUILDING THE FOUNDATIONS: NAPOLEON AND STROSSMAYER
+
+SLAVS WEEP FOR THE FALL OF VENICE--THEY HEAR THE VOICE OF THEIR
+BROTHERS--MEASURES TO KEEP THEM APART--BY ENCOURAGING THE ITALIANIZED
+PARTY--AND THE ORTHODOX CHURCH--AND BY FATHERLY LEGISLATION--IN SERBIA
+THE PEOPLE ARE FIGHTING FOR FREEDOM--THE MONTENEGRIN AUTHORITIES ARE
+OTHERWISE ENGAGED--NAPOLEON FAVOURS THE SOUTHERN SLAVS--RUSSIA AND
+BRITAIN OPPOSE HIM ON THE ADRIATIC--ILLYRIA, NAPOLEON'S GREAT WORK FOR
+THE SOUTHERN SLAVS--NAPOLEON'S SCHEMES ARE ROUGHLY INTERRUPTED--THE
+MONTENEGRIN BISHOP INCITES AGAINST HIM--DISASTER FOR NAPOLEON AND THE
+SOUTHERN SLAVS--AUSTRIA'S REPRESSIVE POLICY--THE WORK OF VUK
+KARA[vZ]I['C]--THE METHODS OF SERBIA'S MILO[vS]--THE SLAV SOUL OF
+CROATIA--THE MAGYARS AND CROATIA'S PORT--THE SULTAN REIGNS IN
+BOSNIA--A SORRY PERIOD FOR THE SOUTHERN SLAVS--SOME WHO TURN FROM
+POLITICS GROW PROSPEROUS--BUT THE CROATS STRIVE FOR POLITICAL
+LIBERTIES--THE AUSTRIANS, THE MAGYARS AND THE CROATS--THE CROATS,
+STRUGGLING FOR FREEDOM, INCIDENTALLY HELP AUSTRIA--HOW MONTENEGRO
+REFORMED HERSELF--THE PRINCE-BISHOP GIVES A LEAD TO THE SOUTHERN
+SLAVS--AUSTRIA POURS OUT A GERMAN FLOOD--THE CROAT PEASANTS AND THEIR
+CLERGY--WHAT THE CZECHS ARE DOING TO-DAY--STROSSMAYER--THE TURK IN
+MONTENEGRO AND MACEDONIA--THE CHEERLESS STATE OF SERBIA--THE SLAV
+VOICE IN MACEDONIA--THE MACEDONIAN SLAVS ARE UNDIVIDED--DAWN OF
+ITALIAN UNITY--HOW CAVOUR WOULD HAVE TREATED THE SLAVS--ITALIAN _V._
+SLAV: TOMMASEO'S ADVICE--AUSTRIA LEANS ON GERMANS AND ITALIANISTS--THE
+SOUTHERN SLAV HOPES ARE CENTRED ON CETINJE--FOR THEY KNOW NEITHER
+NICHOLAS OF MONTENEGRO NOR MICHAEL OF SERBIA--IF MICHAEL HAD
+LIVED!--THE STRANGE CAREER OF RAKOVSKI--THE YUGOSLAV NAME--RUSSIA AND
+AUSTRIA SOW DISCORD IN THE BALKANS--THE MACEDONIAN SLAVS UNDER THEIR
+GREEK CLERGY--THE AFFAIR OF KUKU[vS]--THE EXARCHATE IS ESTABLISHED--1867:
+AUSTRIA DELIVERS THE SLAVS TO THE MAGYARS--THE "KRPITSA"--RIEKA'S
+HISTORY, AS TWO PEOPLE SEE IT--AND THE SLOVENES ARE COERCED.
+
+
+SLAVS WEEP FOR THE FALL OF VENICE
+
+Early in 1797 the weak French garrisons which had been left in certain
+towns of Italy were massacred by the Venetians, who displayed no
+mercy either to the wounded soldiers or the women who were with the
+troops. Napoleon would come back no more, thought the Venetians. But
+he heard of what had happened as he was engaged upon the clauses of
+the Treaty of Leoben. No sooner had that courier brought him the
+dispatches than the Venetian envoys were ushered into his presence.
+They had been entrusted by the Senate with the task of following the
+armies and congratulating Napoleon or the Archduke, according to which
+of them had won the last battle. These envoys may have taken a
+despondent view of what would be the fate of the Serene Republic; but
+when, a short time afterwards, the perfumed and dishevelled citizens,
+stamping on the masks of last night's ball, were weeping pitiably in
+their palaces, the Slovenes and the Morlaks, who had fought for them
+so well, were weeping in the streets. Sadly and solemnly at Zadar--_la
+tanto disputata_--the flag of Venice was lowered; at other parts of
+the Dalmatian coast the nobles scarcely had to say a word before the
+peasants had snatched arms to fight the French and their _egalite_.
+The Venetians had, after all, been there a long time, even if they had
+not risen to the heights of Dubrovnik, which, as we learn from a
+traveller in 1805, kept no secret police and no gendarmes, and where a
+capital sentence pronounced at the time was the first in twenty-five
+years. (The city went into mourning on account of this, and an
+executioner had to be imported from Turkey.) Such a moral height had
+not been reached by the Venetians; but they had been in Dalmatia, as
+people loved to repeat, for a long time, and they had been easy-going
+in the collection of taxes, they had supported the bishops and the
+holy Church, they had made the peasants feel that each one of them was
+helping to support Venice, the grand and ancient, and so the faithful
+people mourned when she was falling.
+
+
+THEY HEAR THE VOICE OF THEIR BROTHERS
+
+Yet they were not wholly deaf to the call of their own race. When the
+Austrians sent a general, the "Hungarian party," working against the
+civil government of Count Raymond von Thurn, managed to have the post
+given to General Rukavina, a Croat from the Military Frontier. An
+eye-witness has left us an account of Rukavina's reception at Trogir.
+The general mounted a chair, and asked the people in the Slav language
+whether they would swear the oath of fidelity to His Majesty the
+Emperor and King, Francis II., and his descendants and legal
+successors. "Otchemo!" ["That is what we want!"] was the unanimous
+reply. After the swearing of the oath, the general suddenly began a
+vigorous speech: "Moi dragi Dalmatinci" ["My dear Dalmatians"], said
+he.... And afterwards, when two companies of Croat infantry were
+disembarked, the people collected round them were astonished to hear
+them speaking the same language as themselves and to learn that many
+of them had the same names as the Dalmatians.[36]
+
+Incidents of this character were, for more reasons than one, most
+galling to von Thurn. In July the archbishop and municipality of Split
+petitioned that they might belong to Hungary. One presumes that these
+officials were moved less by the sympathetic ways of one Hungarian
+than by the knowledge that Croatia was under the Hungarian crown. Very
+powerless, indeed, like themselves, Croatia might be--at that moment
+reduced to the rank of a Hungarian county, with her Ban no longer able
+to convoke the Diet--nevertheless, a Croatia still existed. Then Count
+Raymond took hold of the matter; he sent reports on Rukavina to the
+Viennese authorities, and he and they seem to have cared little
+whether these reports contradicted one another. He exhibited his
+adversary as a man of unbounded violence, as a man of the most
+pusillanimous nature; General Rukavina was despicable, said these
+documents, he was an absolute nonentity; but no, shrieked von Thurn on
+the next day, this man Rukavina was imbued as no other with the
+abominable spirit of Machiavelli. To bring about the fall of the
+Hungarian party in Dalmatia, Count Raymond's police set themselves the
+task of laying by the heels such Hungarian agents as Count Miaslas
+Zanovi['c], one of the four sons of Count Anthony, who for being
+implicated in a more than usually flagrant scandal had been expelled
+from Venice. And his sons lived agitated lives, although it is untrue
+that the second one, Stephen, before dying in prison in Amsterdam, had
+governed Montenegro and is known to history as Stephen the Little.
+[That mysterious person was a contemporary, who appearing in
+Montenegro when the land was in a state of barbarism and destitution,
+gave it out that he was the Russian Tzar Peter III., who had been
+strangled to death in 1762. The Montenegrins accepted him; and from
+1768 to 1773 he showed himself a most competent and zealous ruler,
+carrying out so many reforms that he was clearly not Peter III. It has
+not as yet been ascertained from where he came, but judging from his
+accent he was either a Dalmatian Serb or a native of the Military
+Confines. He was very taciturn; only one Montenegrin, a priest called
+Markovi['c], is believed to have been privy to his secret. Markovi['c]
+had visited Russia ten years previously and had celebrated Mass in the
+presence of the Tzar. It was the priest who assured the mountaineers
+that Stephen really was the Tzar. During his reign he repulsed the
+Turks and organized the public security, so that a lost purse--the
+people said--could easily be recovered. The Republic of Venice tried
+on several occasions to poison this excellent ruler; he was ultimately
+killed by a barber who came up to Cetinje at the bidding of the Pasha
+of Scutari, and, being appointed court barber, cut Stephen's throat.]
+As for the Zanovi['c], the elder brother, Count Premislas, was for a
+long time in a Finnish prison, on account of his conduct in
+gaming-houses; the two younger brothers, Hannibal and Miaslas, were in
+Budva in southern Dalmatia in 1797, distributing Venetian
+proclamations, after which they rearranged their minds and became
+Hungarian agents.
+
+
+MEASURES TO KEEP THEM APART
+
+The more active of the pair was Miaslas, and by confounding his
+machinations and those of other Hungarian adherents von Thurn
+overthrew the Hungaro-Croatian party. Thenceforward his greatest care
+was diligently to suppress those aspirations of the people of Dalmatia
+for a union with their brothers. He had to build the house with the
+materials that he found on the spot; the most obvious corner-stone was
+that numerically small body of nobles and merchants who had for so
+long associated with Venetian officials that they hated to confess
+that they were Slavs.
+
+
+BY ENCOURAGING THE ITALIANIZED PARTY
+
+A minute number of this small body consisted of real Italians, people
+who very exceptionally had settled in Dalmatia; but among these rare
+families there was not any single one of that extensive class in
+Venice which had been presented by their Government with vast domains,
+with farms and forests in Dalmatia. Well, the Count of Thurn observed
+that this small body of Italianized Slavs would probably not help him
+very much, for the Italian culture and the education which they were
+so proud of were--it is not unjust to say--nearly always superficial
+and not such as to compensate for this party's lack of numbers. But
+yet, for what they were worth, he supported them. No doubt the project
+which the Archduke Charles evolved in 1880, to transplant
+German-Austrians to Dalmatia, would have been preferred by von Thurn.
+"These colonists," explained the Archduke, "by their culture and
+laboriousness, by their devotion to the House of Habsburg would give
+to the Dalmatians a most valuable example and would soon persuade them
+thoroughly to merge themselves among the mass of peoples faithful to
+the Emperor." But this plan could not be carried through, because the
+people of Dalmatia would have risen in revolt; moreover, the most
+fertile regions had been so neglected that too many of them were now
+marshes or through other causes uninhabitable. Thus von Thurn assisted
+the Italianized party; they would, at any rate, unlike the other
+Serbo-Croats of Dalmatia, not strive for union with anybody else.
+Before the French Revolution no one in Italy dreamed that it would be
+possible to bring about Italian unity, and the patriots of 1848 longed
+only for the liberation of their Peninsula; they spoke of Triest as
+"the port of the future Slavia" or as "a neutral zone, a transitional
+region between Slavia and Italy."
+
+
+AND THE ORTHODOX CHURCH
+
+It may be that when von Thurn also gratified a reasonable ambition of
+the Orthodox Church he was moved by the idea that the Roman Catholic
+Church of the Croats might thus to some extent be counteracted; he
+may, on the other hand, have been impelled by altruistic motives when
+he authorized the establishment of an Orthodox bishopric. Under Venice
+the Church had not been recognized; and after having several times
+almost succeeded in obtaining their bishop, a _modus vivendi_ was at
+last reached in 1797, with the consent of the Senate and perhaps of
+Rome. Under this arrangement the Orthodox were free to profess their
+religion, but the Senate officially ignored their separation from the
+Roman Church; their priests had to obtain their rights from the
+Catholic bishops and allow the Catholic priests to cull certain of
+their legitimate revenues. And this, although the Orthodox formed
+one-half of the dioceses of Scardona and [vS]ibenik, and two-thirds of
+that of Bocche di Cattaro. They were not more backward than the rest
+of the population. Von Thurn--who, they thought, knew nothing of the
+circumstances--was informed by them that the see of Dalmatia was
+vacant and that they had elected the Archmandrite Simeon Ivcovi['c], a
+man universally esteemed for his prudence and wisdom. They begged von
+Thurn to confirm this election, and he did so.
+
+
+AND BY FATHERLY LEGISLATION
+
+But von Thurn seems to have relied largely on the gratitude which this
+neglected province would feel for the introduction of Austrian
+improvements. The happy-go-lucky Venetian methods were no longer to
+disfigure the country. Those people were logical indeed who did not
+care for a government which did not care for them. No such reproach
+should be levelled against the Austrian Government, if he could avoid
+it; for in Dalmatia it would now be by the side of its new subjects
+from their getting up in the morning until they lay them down at
+night. Henceforward there would be a set of reasonable rules for
+everything, and if anyone remarked that this was too much in the
+spirit of the late Joseph II. who made the Kingdom of Prussia his
+model--what more excellent model could one imagine? Those people who
+had hitherto been troubled in their minds because they did not know
+how many flower-pots they might instal outside their windows, to those
+people it would be a boon to have a new list of detailed and complete
+regulations as to every aspect of this matter. People who had until
+now been nervous lest they would be punished if they started lotteries
+at Zadar, all these people would be glad to know that lotteries were
+legal if each person who manipulated one paid for the upkeep of a
+hundred lanterns in the streets. People had been bastinadoed in the
+past, not knowing if they would be smitten hard or gently; but the
+Austrian Government was far too civilized to leave such matters in the
+hands of chance. With regard to those who persisted in public smoking,
+von Thurn probably borrowed the rules which Baron Codelli, the mayor
+of Ljubljana, was elaborating at this time. "In the streets of the
+town and the suburbs," says the Baron, "smoking has become of late a
+general practice. The pleasure of smoking tobacco, which its partisans
+can sufficiently enjoy in their abodes, by the river and in the
+fields, makes them forget what is seemly, and, moreover, they
+disregard the peril that may arise from conflagrations, especially
+when their pipes are not shut. Several fires, due to this
+pipe-smoking, which is contrary to the police regulations, have not
+sufficed to lead the culprits back to the respect and precaution which
+they should preserve for the goods and property of their
+fellow-citizens. To satisfy the general well-being and to satisfy the
+police with regard to fires, it is forbidden to smoke tobacco, and
+especially cigars, in the streets and squares of this town and the
+suburbs, with the penalty of losing the pipe if a police-agent catches
+anyone with it in his mouth, and in the case of a repeated offence the
+penalty will be more serious."
+
+
+IN SERBIA THE PEOPLE ARE FIGHTING FOR FREEDOM
+
+This system of tutelage may have had its irksome moments; the Turkish
+rule in Serbia was such that any people with blood in their veins
+were bound to rebel. Sooner or later a race like the Serbs, who lived
+always with the songs of their old heroes and who gloried in their
+heiduks, were sure to dash themselves against this alien master. Kara
+George had seen that the Serbs in the Banat were prosperous, while in
+Serbia they were obliged to stand and watch the janissaries come back
+to the pashalik of Belgrade, though the Turks had sworn this should
+not be. Then the match was set to the fire--in January 1804 the Da-Hi,
+the chiefs of the janissaries, after having slain Mustapha Pasha, the
+enlightened Turkish Governor, who was known affectionately as "the
+mother of the Serbs," cut off the heads of a number of Serbian
+leaders; seventy-two of them on pikes were made into an awful avenue
+of trees. But even as the snowstorms beat against these Serbian heads,
+so Kara George and his companions from [vS]umadija, the heart of
+Serbia, flung themselves against the janissaries and vanquished them.
+This was what the Serbs had started out to do, and so for the moment
+Constantinople had been content to look on. However, when the Sultan
+was told that his unruly vassals had seized the whole of [vS]umadija
+and the departments of Valjevo and Pojarevac, he sent against them the
+Pasha of Bosnia, who demanded that they should lay down their arms.
+But now the Serbs had seen what some day they might struggle to--the
+liberation of their country. They had climbed a few steps up the stony
+path, they would not let themselves be lured back to the plain. Let
+Austria or some other one of the Great Powers guarantee their rights.
+The Pasha would not hear of it, and so these few undaunted men
+resolved to fight the Turkish Empire. An army came at once to stamp
+them out, and at Ivancovac they scattered it. From now they would
+fight on alone.[37] Their leader was the sort of man they wanted, a
+brave heiduk who was never weary, who had taken up one day a large
+rock and had flung it down a precipice, and who would do the same,
+they fancied, to a follower of his, if he saw fit.... The Serbs were
+left to fight alone, but the Great Powers took an interest in their
+future. We find in a report from the French Ambassador in Petrograd to
+his Minister of Foreign Affairs (No. 261 in the "Excerpts from the
+Paris Archives relating to the history of the first Serbian
+Insurrection," collected [Belgrade, 1904] by Dr. Michael
+Gavrilovi['c], now the Minister in London) that the treaty of alliance
+stipulated for Russia to have Moldavia, Bessarabia, Vallachia and
+Bulgaria; France to have Albania, part of Bosnia, Morea and Candia;
+Austria to have Croatia and part of Bosnia; while Serbia was to be
+independent and given to a prince of the House of Austria or to any
+other foreign prince who married a Russian Grand Duchess. According to
+another scheme which the Ambassador forwarded, Austria was to have
+Serbia in complete possession as an Austrian province, and Croatia to
+belong to Austria or France, as Napoleon might decide.... Serbia had
+to fight alone, and unluckily her ranks were anything but closed. The
+lack of education brought about some childish jealousies, such as that
+of Mladen Milanovi['c], who was ordered by Kara George to go to the
+relief of the Heiduk Veliko at Negotin, where 18,000 Turks were
+besieging him. "He may help himself!" quoth Mladen. "_His_ praise is
+sung to him at his table by ten singers, _mine_ is not. Let him hold
+out by himself, the _hero_." Veliko sent word to say that at the New
+Year (when Kara George and his chieftains were wont to meet in
+consultation) he would inquire as to how the country was being
+governed. But before then he was dead--shot by the Turks, who
+recognized him while he was going the rounds; and after five days his
+troops, in despair, made their escape across a morass and scattered.
+
+
+THE MONTENEGRIN AUTHORITIES ARE OTHERWISE ENGAGED
+
+There was no use in looking to the Montenegrin mountains, for that
+rallying-point of all the Serbs was in the midst of very delicate
+business. One year before the rising of Kara George, in 1803, the
+Montenegrin warriors had profited from the fact that they were
+fighting nobody and they had made a few reforms in their own country.
+The Bishop, Peter I., convoked an assembly at which the tribal chiefs
+approved of a Code and of the imposition of a tax, for State
+requirements. It was also decided to have a court of justice, the
+members of which should be elected by the people. Thus it will be seen
+that the patriarchal system still prevailed, and though the Bishop was
+regarded by the outside world--by the Turk whom with varying fortunes
+he was perpetually fighting, and by the Russian Tzar, whom he had
+visited at intervals from the time when Peter the Great called on the
+Montenegrins in 1711 to work with him in rescuing, if it was God's
+will, those Orthodox Christians who were oppressed by the yoke of the
+heathen--though the Bishop was regarded both by friend and foe as the
+sovereign of Montenegro, yet it was only round him that the tribal
+chiefs gathered as being the guardian of their religion, while the
+people, represented by their tribal chiefs, remained the real
+sovereign. If Kara George had risen one year earlier they would have
+flown immediately to help him--as, indeed, they did help him at a
+later period--they would have postponed, without a moment's
+hesitation, the establishing of Code and tax and court of justice. But
+in 1804 they found themselves in a most awkward situation. Since the
+death of the Tzar Paul the Russians had appeared to be indifferent to
+Montenegro, and for three years the annual subsidy of a thousand
+sequins had not been paid. This omission was made use of by the French
+Consul at Dubrovnik, who with the aid of a Dubrovnik priest, one
+Dolci, set himself to wean the Montenegrins from their Russian
+friendship. Fonton, Russia's Consul at Dubrovnik, demanded the
+sequestration and the scrutiny of Dolci's papers; the demand was
+rejected, and when force was tried Dolci leaped at the examiner's
+throat. It was proved that he was in the pay of France and the
+Montenegrins were obliged to disavow him. This exasperated the Bishop,
+who threatened to cut off Dolci's ears, but relented and only gave him
+a hundred blows with a stick and ordered him to be imprisoned in a
+monastery. The second half of Dolci's punishment was thought by many
+at the time to be unwise, as he might talk. And they were gladdened
+when they heard, soon afterwards, of his decease, though whether they
+were right in praising their bishop for this consummation we do not
+know. At all events, the hapless Dolci had not lived in vain, for
+Russia now resumed her good relations with the mountaineers, and she
+inaugurated them by paying the three thousand sequins.
+
+The Treaty of Pressburg in 1805 allotted Dalmatia to Napoleon. A few
+months afterwards his armies landed on the coast. Although the high
+command and certain regiments were French, a large part of the force
+consisted of Italians, Germans, Spaniards and Dutchmen. The scheme
+Napoleon entertained was to secure for himself the gates of the
+Balkans and Albania, incidentally to take the Ionian Islands in the
+rear, with the great purpose of securing the roads to Constantinople;
+thence to India.
+
+
+NAPOLEON FAVOURS THE SOUTHERN SLAVS
+
+The provinces of Dalmatia and Istria were placed under the government
+of Milan, in their towns were hoisted the Italian colours; but if to
+Napoleon these lands were chiefly stepping-stones to India, he did not
+long stay in ignorance regarding their inhabitants. His
+representative, Vincenzo Dandolo, was a Venetian who, on account of
+his democratic principles, had been expelled in 1799 and had sought
+refuge in France. We will therefore not repeat the epithets he uses
+when he writes about the late Venetian overseas regime. But Napoleon
+had no cause to be prejudiced in favour of the Yugoslavs. His origin
+was Italian. His daughter reigned in Italy. And if he had disapproved
+of Dandolo starting at Zadar in 1806 an official newspaper--the _Regio
+dalmato: Kraljski dalmatin_, written partly in Italian, partly in
+Serbo-Croat--he would very soon have stopped the paper and Dandolo's
+career. But, on the contrary, this paper (the first one to be written
+at all in Serbo-Croat) was followed by the planning of secondary
+schools at Zadar, [vS]ibenik, Trogir, Split, Makarska and the island
+of Hvar, twenty-nine elementary schools for boys and fourteen for
+girls, two academies at Zadar and Split, four seminaries for the
+education of priests and eight industrial schools. And in these the
+Serbo-Croatian language was to be largely employed.
+
+Kara George had no leisure in which to learn to read and write.
+Another Turkish army, formed in Bosnia, had to be encountered near
+[vS]abac in 1806. It was routed, and on this occasion the Serbian
+cavalry was led with great distinction by a priest, Luka Lazarevi['c].
+Yet another Turkish army suffered the same fate.
+
+
+RUSSIA AND BRITAIN OPPOSE HIM ON THE ADRIATIC
+
+It was not to be thought that France would be left tranquil on the
+Adriatic. Russia did not incommode her very greatly. After Kotor
+(Cattaro) had been delivered to the Muscovites by an Italian, the
+Marquis Ghislieri (who had concealed until that moment his antagonism
+to the French for having been removed by them from his Bologna home),
+the Russians made themselves obnoxious to a small extent upon the
+islands. They summoned the people of Hvar to recognize the Tzar as
+their overlord, and when the people declined to do so, the Russians
+bombarded them. For Dubrovnik this conflict between Russia and France
+was embarrassing; she wrote to Sankovski, the Russian Commissary, that
+if he exceeded his powers she would have recourse to the Tzar, "her
+beloved protector." But when in the summer of that year, 1806, she was
+besieged for twenty days, the French were in occupation of the town,
+while the Russians with their Montenegrin friends were trying to
+dislodge them. It is said that before the garrison was relieved, by
+the arrival of another French force, there had been so much damage
+done to the Republic's ancient walls and palaces and other buildings
+that the loss, to mention only the pecuniary loss, amounted to
+eighteen million francs. After the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807 the
+British undertook, and more effectively, those operations in the
+Adriatic which the Russians now abandoned. They tried to burn at
+Triest the Russian vessels which had been ceded to France, and for a
+few years they had command of the Adriatic, keeping sometimes as many
+as twenty-two ships in those waters, while the French are said to have
+had at no time more than seven frigates.
+
+The old Republic was dissolved; but many other questions weighed upon
+Napoleon. It was the Austrian Emperor and not he whom many people in
+Dalmatia held to be their lawful monarch, for the Habsburg was the
+heir of the Croatian Kings. And so while England had the sea in her
+possession, Austria had the salt-lands of the isle of Pago, and the
+populace on the Quarnero Islands took the rudders off the boats which
+were to carry food to Zadar. The Austrians advanced on Split, with
+ordinary troops and volunteers. At Hvar the people kept Napoleon's
+birthday with apparent enthusiasm; on the next day they revolted and
+hoisted the Austrian flag. Then the peasants seized the town and for
+three days indulged in pillage, burning amongst other things the
+valuable libraries of those who favoured France.
+
+
+ILLYRIA, NAPOLEON'S GREAT WORK FOR THE SOUTHERN SLAVS
+
+With the Treaty of Schoenbrunn Napoleon secured possession of
+Carniola, the Austrian part of Istria, Croatia, the military frontiers
+from the Save to the sea, and also certain districts of Carinthia,
+Styria and Tirol. Now at last the Adriatic littoral, with large tracts
+of the interior, was united under one hand. We may note that Eugene
+Beauharnais in vain entreated that the frontier for the Slovenes
+should, on account of strategic necessities, be drawn to the east of
+the Isonzo, but Napoleon did not hesitate to make that river the
+boundary between the two countries, as it was between the two races.
+Mazzini in 1860 shared this opinion, which he had also maintained in
+1831, in his book _The Rights of Man_, that Slavs and Italians should
+be divided by this river. And in 1860 Cavour expressed himself to the
+same effect in a letter to Laurent Valerio.
+
+"Mes braves Croates," says Napoleon in his Memoirs; and for what he
+did in this Illyria, the forerunner of our Yugoslavia, they must be
+always thankful. Never had these people had such able administrators,
+such sympathetic governors. They governed it too much as if it were a
+part of France, but they were doing their utmost to understand the
+people and their customs. General Marmont acquired an excellent
+knowledge of the Serbo-Croat language; he intended to introduce the
+national tongue into all the public offices. But this naturally could
+not be carried through without an intervening period, and unluckily
+Marmont so far excelled his compatriots as a linguist, that when the
+newspaper _Telegraphe officiel des Provinces Illyriennes_ appeared at
+Ljubljana, the capital (under the brilliant editorship of Charles
+Nodier, who came out from France for that purpose), and it was
+announced that there would be French, German, Italian and Slav
+articles, the latter do not appear to have been published. Illyria was
+under the influence of its neighbours, Italian, German and Hungarian,
+with regard to the spoken and still more with regard to the written
+language. A fundamental necessity was that the country should have one
+common language. Under French influence Joachim Stulli brought out his
+_Vocabulario italiano-illyrico-latino_ in 1810, and at Triest in 1812
+Star[vc]evi['c] published his new Illyrian grammar. There was visible
+in these works an aspiration that some day the Yugoslavs would be
+united in one country and with various dialects, and the proviso that
+for public affairs and for schools and literature the so-called
+"[vS]to" dialect, the most widely spread and the most perfect, should
+be given preference. If Napoleon had not fallen, his Illyria would no
+doubt have gradually attracted to herself the other Yugoslav provinces
+that still were under the Austrian, Hungarian or Turk; and in this way
+one of the great thorns would have been taken out of Europe's side.
+There was an official, Marcel de Serres, on Napoleon's staff, who was
+exclusively concerned with Yugoslav affairs; and it is probable that
+with a closer knowledge of the people there would have been less
+insistence on the radical reforms which were sometimes ill-adapted to
+the country and were often hated vehemently by the persons whom they
+shook out of their age-long comatose condition. Napoleon would have
+modified the methods of recruiting had he known how much resentment
+his conscription was arousing. Venice had obtained most faithful
+soldiers; this was one of the few trades that she permitted, but she
+had never said they were obliged to serve. Napoleon's system caused
+great numbers of desertions, while the men who stayed had little
+discipline and looked for opportunities to join the enemy. Perhaps in
+time the nobles would have been resigned to losing, if not all, at any
+rate a portion of their privileges; and the Catholic clergy would have
+moderated their strong views against the gaoler of Pius VII., the
+champion of liberal and emancipated France, the master of Dandolo, who
+wanted to reduce the number of bishoprics, oblige candidates for the
+priesthood to learn certain lay subjects and regulate the funds in the
+possession of the Orders, with the purpose of assisting the indigent
+clergy and benevolent institutions--much would have been forgiven by
+the clergy to the man who brought about national union.
+
+
+NAPOLEON'S SCHEMES ARE ROUGHLY INTERRUPTED
+
+The transactions of the British at Vis (Lissa) were such as to make
+the people of Illyria very discontented with Napoleon, not so much on
+account of his mischance at sea, as of the disagreeable effects
+thereof upon themselves. The British blockade had ruined the local
+merchant service, while the consequent state of a province which had
+necessarily to be revictualled by sea was compared with the
+flourishing fortunes of Vis. Before the British definitely occupied
+that island with its glorious harbour--21/2 kilometres in length by 1
+kilometre in breadth--they had to secure themselves by two naval
+engagements. In October 1810 the French-Italian attack was nearly
+successful, and in the following March came the great fight when
+Dubourdieu pitted himself against Commodore Hoste. Not counting a few
+smaller ships, the French had four frigates, each armed with 44 guns,
+and two corvettes of 32 guns. The British had the _Amphion_ and the
+_Cerberus_, each armed with 60 guns, the _Active_ with 44 and the
+_Volage_ with 22. The Italians having slow ships, arrived late, but
+fought very well. What lost Dubourdieu his chances was the separation
+of his squadron, which allowed the British to engage them one after
+another. Dubourdieu on the _Favorite_, his captain and two lieutenants
+were killed; the captain of the _Flore_ lost an arm; the captain of
+the _Bellona_ had both legs amputated, and died on the next day;
+Pasqualijo, captain of the _Corona_, wished to surrender his sword to
+Hoste, but as he had fought so nobly Hoste refused to take it.
+Pasqualijo was removed to Malta, and after a few months set at
+liberty. On the British side the losses were also severe. Most of the
+crew of the _Amphion_ were either killed or wounded, Hoste being among
+the latter. Of 254 on board the _Cerberus_ only 26 were untouched. It
+is said that the French and Italians had about 200 killed and 500
+wounded. Dubourdieu's fault was merely an excess of intrepidity; the
+French have called a cruiser after him. Their opinion at the time,
+according to their historians,[38] was that the British were superior
+in officers and men and ships--constant cruising on the Adriatic had
+brought them near perfection. Among the incidents recorded is that of
+one of the _Amphion's_ cadets who was doing police work at the fort;
+in despair at being out of the battle he swam to his ship. A fusillade
+from the _Favorite_ put some shot in his leg. On reaching the
+_Amphion_ he was bandaged and went to his post. His name was Farell or
+Farewell.... After this the British made themselves at home upon that
+mountainous, rich isle of palm-trees and vineyards that were praised
+of old by Agatharchides. Sir G. D. Robertson, the Governor, had two
+companies of the 35th Regiment, besides Swiss, Corsican and Calabrian
+contingents. There was great prosperity. Sometimes a hundred corsairs
+would be in the harbour, waiting for a favourable wind. On their
+return they would have splendid cargoes, and the goods which cost so
+little were sold at absurd prices. Rent was high, there were not shops
+enough for the tailors, carpenters, goldsmiths, pastry-cooks who
+landed there, chiefly from Italy; the people therefore pulled old
+boats on to the shore and lived in them. There one could buy the best
+Turkish tobacco, and cigars were advertised as "the finest cigars for
+gentlemen and ladies." Italian and Dalmatian smugglers flocked to Vis
+in search of goods, and even French officers could sometimes not
+resist wearing the cool garments from the East Indies. In two years
+the population increased from four to eleven thousand.
+
+Illyria's enemies on land were also aided by the British. In 1813,
+when the Austrians, under General Tomassich, penetrated into the
+Illyrian provinces, the Croat inhabitants threw in their lot with
+them. They and the British surrounded Zadar, which fell after a siege
+of six weeks. At Dubrovnik--whose merchantmen she had mostly captured
+or sunk--England assisted the population, nobles and commoners, in a
+revolt against the French. One object of the citizens was to restore
+the Republic, but in a democratic form.
+
+
+THE MONTENEGRIN BISHOP INCITES AGAINST HIM
+
+However, in the first days of 1814 the Austrians arrived and the
+French, in their reduced condition, could hold out no longer. 1813 had
+been a fatal year for Napoleon. The Montenegrin Bishop had addressed a
+stirring appeal to the Bocchesi and others in September. "Slavs!" he
+wrote. "Glorious and illustrious population of the Bocche di Cattaro,
+of Dubrovnik and Dalmatia! Behold the moment to seize arms against the
+destroyer of Europe, the universal foe who has attacked your religion,
+ruined your churches.... He has put his taxes on the blood of your
+veins and even on the corpses of your parents! What injustices has he
+not committed?... Behold the hour of vengeance.... Croatia is
+delivered, and Carniola, Triest, Istria, Rieka and Zengg. What else do
+you wait for, O valiant Slavs of Dalmatia, of Dubrovnik and of Kotor?
+By land the army of the Emperor of Austria, by sea that of the King of
+England enter Dalmatia. They have taken Zadar and have arrived at
+Makarska." ... [The Austrians, as a matter of fact, entered Dalmatia a
+month after this proclamation was issued. The Bishop has allowed the
+prophet in him to prevail over the chronicler.] "I am there," he
+continues, "with my Montenegrins, ready to go where peril has to be
+faced. The glory of the traitor Bonaparte has remained at Moscow and
+Smolensk: no longer need we tremble before the Tyrant....
+
+"Given at our Headquarters at Budva, 12/24 September 1813.
+
+PETER, Bishop."
+
+
+DISASTER FOR NAPOLEON AND THE SOUTHERN SLAVS
+
+1813 was a fatal year for Napoleon and for this first attempt to build
+a Yugoslavia. It was a fatal year for the first effort to construct
+again a Serbian State. Burning with the hope of liberation, no less
+than four Serbian armies had assembled and advanced victoriously
+against the Turk. One of the most outstanding episodes was the heroic
+death of Stephen Sindjelini['c] at T[vs]egar, near to Ni[vs]. As he
+was in a hopeless case, no reinforcements having come, he told his men
+that they must die, but as the Turks outnumbered them so more of these
+must perish than of Christians. He waited till the Turks pressed
+closely round him and then fired the magazine. In vengeance for this
+deed the Turks piled up a pyramid of Serbian soldiers' heads; they
+called it Tchele-Koula (Tower of Skulls), and for many years it was at
+Ni[vs] a veritable Turkish monument. King Milan built a wall around
+it; afterwards it was removed. And so the Serbs continued their long
+fight. It seemed to some of them that the authority of Kara George had
+grown excessive. They convoked a national assembly, which decided to
+set up a Ministry of six and a tribunal. Kara George was--in agreement
+with his Ministers--to nominate the prefects of the various
+departments. While the Serbs were settling these internal matters,
+Russia made her peace in 1812 with Turkey. As for Serbia, it was
+arranged that the new fortresses would be demolished and the towns be
+occupied by Turkish garrisons. Thus all that Serbia had won, and at
+the cost of so much blood, would now be stolen from her. Once again
+did Kara George and his companions take the field, but this time they
+were overpowered. Many fled to Hungary, among them Kara George, and
+were imprisoned. Others stayed in Serbia, and of these a great many
+were slaughtered by the Turks. They say that sixty were impaled on
+each side of the road which enters Belgrade, among them priests and
+monks, whose bodies were consumed by dogs.
+
+But Illyria and Serbia lived as inspirations.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Nearly thirty years after the Austrians came back to Illyria they, at
+the request of the Sultan, forbade the use of that name, except as
+one of their Emperor's string of titles. Turkish susceptibilities were
+not ruffled if he chose to call himself King of Illyria. Was he not
+also King of Jerusalem? There had been anxiety at Constantinople as to
+the effect which the name of Napoleon's province was producing on the
+Slavs of Bosnia. Considering the Austrian policy, this was not a
+glittering diplomatic triumph for the Turks. Had they approached the
+Austrians much earlier it is improbable that they would have been met
+with any very strenuous refusal. In their own phrase, a phrase that
+was used by Osman Pasha when he heard of the violent disputes between
+the Russians and Roumanians as to which of them had been the first to
+batter the defences down and take by storm the mighty Plevna--"Any
+pig," said he, "can walk in at an open door."
+
+
+AUSTRIA'S REPRESSIVE POLICY
+
+Another item of Austria's policy which it would not have been
+difficult to foretell was her refusal to countenance the union of
+Dalmatia and Croatia. Von Thurn's idea of favouring the harmless
+Italianized party was thought very admirable and was now once more put
+into action. This party was very much concerned to keep its head above
+water; the rising tide of nationalism and equality and of other
+pernicious French notions made as much appeal to them as they did to
+Metternich. What he stood out against, they also hated; for the
+national spirit, fostered by the union of the two Slav provinces,
+would swamp them. If Dalmatia, on the other hand, remained autonomous
+they would be much more likely to survive. So they became autonomists.
+
+A fair number of those who for economical or social reasons gave
+themselves out as belonging to this little autonomous party were
+unable to speak Italian, being less cultivated than many of those who
+continued to be patriotic Serbo-Croats. But as Italian now became the
+language of the schools and offices, of the law-courts and of public
+life generally, these autonomous persons hastened to learn it.
+
+
+THE WORK OF VUK KARA[vZ]I['C]
+
+But now we hear the steps of other Southern Slavs whose mission is to
+call the people to their own language and to make the language worthy
+of the people. With the encumbrances that in the centuries had so
+disfigured it, the archaisms and the pseudo-classicisms, it would
+never come to pass that one great Serbian nation would be formed. And
+that is what Vuk Kara[vz]i['c], throughout his life, was aiming at.
+While Milo[vs] Obrenovi['c] in Serbia took up the arms which Kara
+George had dropped, and used some others of his own, Vuk Kara[vz]i['c]
+was tramping with his wooden leg round Serbia and Montenegro,
+Macedonia and Bulgaria, Syrmia and the Banat. He longs to find out
+where his country lies and, having found his people, to use their own
+language as the spoken and the written language of the nation. For
+this purpose he had to reform the Cyrillic alphabet, as it contained,
+like Russian and Bulgarian, letters that are not pronounced; and the
+Serbian produced by him is a purely phonetic language. He had, of
+course, his enemies, particularly in the clergy, who were the most
+important class. What he was doing with the Palaeo-Slav displeased them
+hugely. Here was he trying to substitute what they called "a language
+of ox-herds" for that one which had not alone a venerable tradition
+but was the hall-mark of their superiority. A certain Dr. Haji['c]
+wrote a monograph in which he demonstrated most emphatically that it
+was the enviable happiness of the Serbian people to have no grammar.
+It was hinted by some other opponents of Vuk that he might well be an
+Austrian agent, who, in order to disturb the people, was now raising
+questions of a most contentious nature, which had previously not been
+thought of. But when the great philologist died in 1861 in Vienna he
+had long been recognized as one of the most ardent patriots. His three
+volumes of national songs excited the enthusiasm of Jacob Grimm, who
+rushed off to learn this new language, and with essays and letters to
+reveal it to Goethe. Translators, commentators, expounders and editors
+flocked from all sides, and Vuk was regarded as Serbia incarnate.
+
+
+THE METHODS OF SERBIA'S MILO[vS]
+
+One naturally judges a country of which one is ignorant by the little
+which one knows about the private life of its ruler. And it was
+fortunate for Serbia's reputation that Prince Milo[vs] had a Vuk to
+throw a shadow over him. Kara George had been a hero, Milo[vs] called
+himself a statesman. Anyhow, he walked in crooked paths, although the
+murders that he was accused of are now said to be not proven--with the
+exception of Archbishop Nik[vc]i['c], one of his critics, and another
+prominent man whom he requested the Pasha to have strangled. Kara
+George--one finds in many books--was done away with when he came back
+to renew the fight against the Turks; most people say that Milo[vs],
+his arch-rival, had him murdered in his sleep. All that one knows for
+certain is that the assassin was a man in the employ of one of
+Milo[vs]'s prefects. As for Milo[vs] sending the head to the Sultan,
+it is pointed out that as the Sultan's vassal he could not do
+otherwise. But the stories of his wife, the strong-minded Princess
+Liubica, are acknowledged to be true--how she would cry out to the
+warriors, if they seemed to waver, that they were but women, and how
+this induced them to attack again; how she would cook her husband's
+meals and wait on him; how when she discovered that any other lady had
+found favour in the Prince's sight she slew her, and retired into the
+mountains until her husband was appeased or had discovered a new lady.
+The court etiquette of that period was under the baneful influence of
+Turkey. Milo[vs] used to live in Turkish houses--some of them are
+extant to this day--he gave audience as a Turkish pasha, seated amid
+cushions on the floor, his room was hung with captured Turkish flags,
+and on his head he wore a turban. It was often rumoured that when he
+had gained sufficient money he would not continue to forbid the
+working of the Serbian salt-mines, lest the profits of his own mines
+in Roumania should diminish; and it is not creditable that he should
+have made his subjects pay their contributions to the Turkish Tribute
+in the currency of Austria, while he would forward it in Turkish
+currency--of course less valuable--and keep the difference. He also
+tried to monopolize the swine trade, the most lucrative in the
+country; he seized whatever he coveted--lands, mills and houses--and
+even burned down a part of Belgrade in order to build a new
+Custom-House, whose takings would flow into his pocket. "Am I not the
+chief," he said, "the Gospodar, and shall I not do what I like with my
+own?" But he was a real Prince. After the Peace of Adrianople in 1829
+an edict was issued by the Sultan, which recognized Serbia as an
+independent principality, with Milo[vs] as hereditary prince. He
+organized a standing army and built roads and schools and churches. He
+abolished, in 1833, the old Turkish system of land-tenure and
+introduced that peasant proprietorship which causes the Serbs, down to
+this day, to go into battle in defence of their own lands. In 1836 he
+offered the bishopric of [vS]abac to the famous Bulgarian monk,
+Neophyte Rilski, who wrote the first Bulgarian grammar and translated
+the New Testament, of which the first edition was burned by the Greek
+Church at Constantinople, while the second edition sold to the then
+enormous extent of 30,000 copies. The modest monk, who was born in
+1793 and died in 1881, preferred the life of a student and
+teacher;[39] he therefore declined an offer which was so creditable to
+him who made it.... Yet in spite of Milo[vs]'s great services to his
+country he had his detractors. It was one of them, perhaps, who
+painted the portrait that one usually sees of him--an incongruous
+portrait, because the uniform is most correct--he is holding in his
+hand the Serbian military headgear, not a turban--but the face, with
+its serpent-like moustaches, high cheek-bones and black eyes, looks
+more like that of a Tartar than anything else. Those who did not care
+for Milo[vs] said that it was barbarism not to let the laws be put in
+writing; but to this he never would consent. In 1835 he announced in
+the official Gazette (_Novine Srpski_) that he was the "only master";
+he set about gaining for his country the interest of foreign Powers.
+England, which in 1837 sent Colonel Hodges as her agent to Belgrade,
+was for having Serbia placed under the protection of the Great Powers.
+Constitutional England was backing Milo[vs] and his despotism, while,
+on the other hand, Russia and Turkey came out, to their own surprise,
+as champions of a constitution. They demanded that the power of
+Milo[vs] should be limited by something which they euphemistically
+called "an organic regulation." Finally, there was imposed on him a
+Senate consisting of members appointed for life, but when this body
+asked him to account for the manner in which he had spent the public
+funds the Prince found that he could not allow himself to be so
+hampered and, in 1839, he abdicated. ("If," he once said, "if Charles
+X. of France had understood how to govern as I myself did in Serbia,
+he would never have lost his throne.") Vut[vc]i['c], his arch-enemy,
+flung a stone after him into the Save. "You will not return," he
+cried, "until a stone can float on these waters!" "I shall die as
+Serbia's ruler!" shouted Milo[vs]. (And when he ultimately did come back
+Vut[vc]i['c] was cast into prison, where he died mysteriously--Milo[vs]
+refusing the Turks permission to examine the body.)
+
+
+THE SLAV SOUL OF CROATIA
+
+His democracy, in spite of his agrarian reforms, was very far from
+that of Vuk, and far from that of a young noble of Croatia, Ljudevit
+Gaj, who one evening in the drawing-room of Count Dra[vs]kovi['c]--the
+same Count Dra[vs]kovi['c] who wrote in German, for such was the
+spirit of the time, his Exhortation to Croatian Maidens that they
+should be truly Croatian--well, in this gentleman's house at Zagreb
+Ljudevit Gaj recites some verses he has written for a dowager. They
+are in Slav. The audience is inclined to be amused. Of course they
+know something of the language because, like Anastasius Gruen in the
+Slovene country, they talk it to the servants. But among themselves in
+Croatia the upper classes prefer to use Latin. There is no doubt, as
+Count Louis Voinovi['c], a Yugoslav poet, has said, that this pursuit
+of Latin brought into the Slav world much that is indispensable in
+modern thought. It created among them an atmosphere of social
+courtesy, which, according to Saint Francis of Assisi, is the sister
+of Charity. It has humanized the Slav world and furnished it thus with
+formidable weapons. But, on the other hand, it cast a veil over the
+differences between the nations and caused people to be blind to their
+own national genius. The Croat nobility, with few exceptions, were at
+this time so much in harmony with the Magyar magnates, so anxious to
+prevent their peasants from hearing the Marseillaise, that they would,
+if need be, learn the Magyar language. But to use Slav in a
+drawing-room! This was a new idea. They smiled good-naturedly; but
+Gaj, with some other young men, some priests and some savants, founded
+a literary brotherhood that was to become famous under the name of
+"Danica." Famous also is an image he conceived. "The Southern Slavs,"
+said he, in his programme of 1836, "are as a triangular lyre whose
+extremities are at Scutari, Villach and Varna." He said there was a
+time when the strings of this lyre resounded with harmonious sounds,
+but that the winds in their fury have torn them. Styria, Carinthia,
+Carniola, Croatia, Slavonia, Montenegro, Herzegovina, Serbia, Bulgaria
+and Southern Hungary are these broken strings, which it is necessary
+to repair. Let the people in these lands, he said, forget their
+religious differences and remember that they are the children of one
+mother. Let them write the same language. Gaj thus aimed at bringing
+Vuk's reforms to bear upon the Latin characters with which the
+Serbo-Croat language is written in Croatia. Before his party was
+victorious it had to vanquish most determined opposition. Pamphlet was
+hurled against pamphlet, grammar against grammar, Gaj and his men had
+to overcome not only those who were the guardians of tradition, but
+all those who thought it natural and proper that in syntax there
+should be some difference between the Croat and the Serb. Yet now the
+philologists are out and the poets; their business takes them between
+the legs of the Great Powers, where they sometimes come to grief, but
+they are striking all those fetters from their nation. Peter
+Preradovi['c] is born in the Military Frontier and he dies an
+Austrian General. At the beginning of his distinguished career he
+could speak nothing but German, and it was in emotional German poetry
+that he first expressed himself. But afterwards, carried away by the
+new winds that were cleansing the Croat language and sweeping from it
+the reproach of being a mere jargon for the servants, he became in his
+"Putnik" (The Traveller) and "Braca" (The Brothers) the greatest poet
+of the Croats. It is noteworthy that when this Austrian General writes
+a drama he takes for his hero the old legendary hero of the Serbs,
+Marko Kraljevi['c]. The Ban of Croatia, Ivan Mazurani['c], is a Latin
+poet in his youth; but when this high official too comes under the
+stirring influence of Gaj he dedicates himself to his own people and
+composes in "The Death of Smail Aga"[40] a poem that among
+Serbian-speaking people has become so much the property of all that
+the poet has been lost in the shadow of his own work. Peasants who
+sing fragments of it as they toil in the fields, and the minstrel, the
+guslar, who chants it for them of an evening, believe that it is, like
+their folk-songs, the anonymous production of the Serbian people.
+
+
+THE MAGYARS AND CROATIA'S PORT
+
+With the General and the Ban there is the Bishop, Joseph George
+Strossmayer, one of the greatest men of the nineteenth century. But
+before he became Bishop of Djakovo he saw the Government suppress
+those aspirations which he laboured for throughout his life. The
+Austrian Government had presented Gaj, in recognition of his literary
+work, with a diamond ring; but when they saw that his Illyrian
+programme persisted in aiming at the union of Croatia and Dalmatia,
+then at last they vetoed his Illyrianism and the word Illyria. His
+friends thereupon called themselves the "National party," which was in
+the Croatian Diet more numerous than the "Magyarones," who--many of
+them unprogressive landlords--stood for the most absolute union with
+Hungary. The National party demanded that Rieka, which was still
+"separatum sacrae regni Hungariae adnexum corpus," should be united with
+the rest of Croatia; but the Magyars would naturally not let their one
+small port be taken from them. Those among the Magyars who consented
+to discuss the matter with the Croats said that if indeed they had
+purloined one Croat port (for they confessed that 350 kilometres
+separate Rieka from the nearest place in Hungary), yet the Croatians
+could afford to treat them with generosity, since they possessed at
+least two other ports, Bakar and Zengg, that were every bit as good.
+It was quite true that till Rieka was connected by the railway to the
+valleys of the Save, the Drave and the Danube, she had no advantage
+over Zengg and Bakar. None of these are natural ports: at Rieka there
+is no protecting island, Zengg and Bakar are available for small ships
+only, and behind all three there is a barrier of mountains. All of
+them, moreover, suffer from the visitations of the bora, which blows
+from the north sometimes for weeks on end. Having pointed out their
+own necessities and all these limitations, the Magyars stayed at
+Rieka. But they cast about them for some means by which the
+inconvenient Croats could be countered, and of course the simplest
+plan was to protect, as Austria was doing in Dalmatia, that small
+party of the Slavs on whom the presence of a few Italians at Rieka and
+their knowledge of this language and perhaps their education at some
+school in Italy had made such a profound impression that they wished
+no longer to be looked upon as Slavs--and some of them quite honestly
+thought that they were not Slavs. Of such was the Autonomist party,
+whose sole purpose was to flourish at Rieka in alliance with
+Hungarians and to keep Rieka a free Hungarian town. Perhaps the
+Magyars had no choice of methods, but it does not look magnanimous to
+plant yourself in some one else's house and then proceed to make
+conspiracies with a disgruntled child. They succoured the Autonomists
+in every way. For instance, the Croats had, as elsewhere on the coast,
+been so unjustly kept from having schools. The two or three schools in
+existence were for those who turned their back on national ambitions
+and cultivated modern Italian, even as the nobles up at Zagreb had
+cultivated Latin. Now in 1838 the Croats of Rieka, who--it is needless
+to say--were much the more numerous part of the population, thought
+that Gaj's wonderful educational movement, which was spreading far and
+wide, should not find Rieka unresponsive. So they asked that the
+Croatian language should be taught, as well as the Italian, in the
+local schools. "This was the first attempt," says Mr. Edoardo
+Susmel,[41] who is, I gather, a schoolmaster or an ex-schoolmaster at
+Rieka. "But the people of Rieka," he says, "always with admirable
+tenacity resisted the brute force with which the Croats wanted to
+impose on the Italian city the rights of him who is strongest. The
+city arose as one man against this first attack and the schools
+remained Italian."
+
+The conflict in the Croatian Diet between the National party and that
+of the Magyarones grew in violence. The latter, egged on from
+Buda-Pest, demanded in the most peremptory fashion that the Croat
+deputies should henceforward speak in Magyar instead of Latin. It was
+in the same year, 1843, that one of the deputies, Ivan Kukulejevi['c],
+made the first speech in Croatian. Szemere, a Magyar, cried out
+furiously that Croatia was a land which had been conquered by force of
+arms, and the Hungarian Parliament went so far as to pass a law which
+made the teaching of Magyar obligatory in Croatian schools and for the
+Croatian delegates in the Hungarian Diet. The Croats replied by
+petitioning the Emperor to separate their country completely from
+Hungary. Ferdinand V. wavered between the two sides; in 1843 he
+annulled the decisions of the Hungarian Parliament, and in 1844 he
+laid it down that in six years the Croats would have to adopt Magyar
+as their official language. It seemed as if the questions between
+Magyar and Croat could be settled by no other method than by war.
+
+
+THE SULTAN REIGNS IN BOSNIA
+
+There was not in the other Southern Slav lands much consolation for
+the National party. In Bosnia the French Revolution and the Serbian
+wars of independence had an unfortunate effect, for in 1831 the
+Muhammedan Serbs of that province, under the leadership of Hussein
+Bey, the captain of Grada[vc]ac, began a holy war against the "giaour
+Sultan," because Mahmud thought it timely to promulgate a few reforms.
+Hussein assumed the title of "The Dragon of Bosnia"; and if it had not
+been for several other Moslem potentates who were not only inimical to
+the Sultan but to the Dragon and to each other, it would have taken
+the Sultan's army more than five years to assert itself. In 1839 the
+Sultan's representative at Gulhane had orders to reform the
+administration, and this time the chief of the indignant begs was Ali
+Pasha Rizvanbegovi['c], a powerful personage in Herzegovina. The
+revolt was, after a good deal of bloodshed, suppressed by Omar Pasha,
+who was determined to break once and for all the arrogance of the
+Bosnian aristocracy. Hundreds of begs were executed, drowned in the
+Bosna or taken in chains to Constantinople. But all these transactions
+did nothing to improve the lot of the raia. They had been roundly told
+in 1832 by His Apostolic Majesty that any one of those Christians "who
+persist in venturing to raise the banner of revolt" would be sent back
+from the Imperial and Royal frontier. After all there was a courtesy
+which monarchs must maintain towards each other.
+
+
+A SORRY PERIOD FOR THE SOUTHERN SLAVS
+
+When the Croat National party looked at Serbia they saw a people torn
+in two by rival dynasties: Michael, the son of Milo[vs], had after a
+few years followed his father into exile, as he also could not grow
+accustomed to ruling with a Constitution. After him came Alexander,
+son of the assassinated Kara George. He was a cold, indifferent,
+slothful prince, and constantly the banished house of Obrenovi['c] was
+plotting to turn out this scion of the house of Kara George. But after
+sixteen years his people turned him out.... In the Banat the Serbs
+were going backward. For example, they were at the summit of their
+strength in Arad in the eighteenth century, and since then they had
+been unable to resist the German wave. Time was when Arad had a
+Serbian princess, the wife of blinded Bela; and they were much
+esteemed when from 1703-1711 the Serbian cavalry and infantry had
+fought so strenuously for Austria against the rebels. Afterwards the
+Austrians believed they could get on without the Serbs; they started
+to destroy their privileges and to persuade them to give up their
+Church--it was in consequence of this that many of the Serbs in Arad
+went to Russia. A certain Colonel Peter Szejadinac objected to the
+Austrian policy and came to Arad for the purpose of procuring some
+alleviation for the Serbs, but he was broken on the wheel. In
+Teme[vs]var the Serbs had also basked in glory. Until 1818 they had
+owned all but seventeen houses of the inner town; they had their own
+magistrature. Until 1860 they remained the wealthiest community, but
+here also there was an influx of Germans against which they could not
+stand.
+
+
+SOME WHO TURN FROM POLITICS GROW PROSPEROUS
+
+However, owing to this endless struggle which the Serbs of Hungary
+were waging, they developed their activity and energy. The land was
+rich, particularly Ba[vc]ka, and that province held the town of Novi
+Sad, which was not only prosperous but the home of learning. When
+Serbia was not in a position to devote herself to intellectual or to
+literary life, she was assisted always by the Serbs of Novi Sad. And
+thus in other parts of southern Hungary the Serb, by his continual
+efforts against other people, such as the industrious German, made to
+flower those aptitudes within himself which under Turkish domination
+had perforce been lying dormant.... It is no unusual thing in the
+Banat to find a Serbian farmer who is five or six times a millionaire
+in francs. And if, like a hearty one whom I found having lunch without
+a collar, they have no children, then they are even more anxious to
+build schools and churches and to support anything Serbian. This
+gentleman, who lived in his native place, had presented it with a very
+fine school, and then had gone there himself, to learn how to read and
+write.... The Serbs of southern Hungary took a most active part in the
+events of 1848. When they saw that a conflict with the Magyars was
+inevitable, owing to the new Hungarian Constitution which created an
+enormous and free Hungary, but only free for the Magyars--a State
+founded on a mixture of democratic and feudal principles, reserving
+always the chief places for the magnates, lay and ecclesiastic, while
+rejecting the idea of universal suffrage--then the Serbs of southern
+Hungary assembled at Karlovci at the beginning of May and conferred
+upon Archbishop Rajacsich the title of Patriarch, at the same time
+electing Colonel Stephen [vC]uplikac the voivoda or chief of the
+Serbian Voivodina, which was to comprise Syrmia, Baranja, Ba[vc]ka and
+a part of the Banat.
+
+
+BUT THE CROATS STRIVE FOR POLITICAL LIBERTIES
+
+The Croats, whose last traces of independence had been wiped out by
+the Magyars, rallied round Colonel Joseph Jella[vc]i['c]. In the
+resounding and statesmanlike phrases of his proclamation on March 11,
+Jella[vc]i['c] had declared that a grand purpose was before them. "It
+is to attain," said he, "the renascence of our people! Alone I can do
+nothing, if among the sons of one same mother there is not peace and
+understanding and fraternity."
+
+"We are," exclaimed Gaj at a sitting of the Diet--"we are one nation!
+There are no more Serbs nor Croats!" One has been too apt to consider
+that the Croats armed themselves merely in defence of their own
+wrongs; their leaders anyhow looked far beyond.
+
+Two days after Jella[vc]i['c] had uttered these words the court of
+Vienna, aghast at the tempest that was blowing from everywhere, from
+Prague and Galicia and Hungary, from Lombardy and Venetia, and from
+their own easy-going capital, had destituted Metternich. On the next
+morning the Emperor made it known that he would grant his peoples all
+the liberties they wanted. He had not had time to ascertain whether
+this would gratify the Magyars. But as one of the Croatian liberties
+was the nomination of Jella[vc]i['c] as their Ban, the Emperor
+appointed him; Jella[vc]i['c] joined hands with the National party and
+proceeded to break all the chains that bound Croatia to Hungary. By
+his circular of April 19 he instructed the Croats to respect no other
+authority but his. Slavonia, Dalmatia, the Military Frontiers and
+Rieka were, according to his plan, to be reunited to Croatia.
+
+
+THE AUSTRIANS, THE MAGYARS AND THE CROATS
+
+The Emperor's plans were far less definite. Between Croat and Magyar
+he was unable to make up his mind. What he wanted most of all was
+recruits for his Italian armies, seeing that Radetzky had been forced
+back by the insurgents, and Venice, under the presidency of Daniel
+Manin, had separated herself from Austria. When the Hungarians
+declared themselves willing to help with their army in putting a stop
+to the national movement in Italy, then the grateful Ferdinand
+bestowed on them a mandate to put a similar stop to the "Croat
+separatism"; he also suspended the Ban and declared him a traitor to
+the Fatherland. This did not unduly depress Jella[vc]i['c], for in the
+month of June he was solemnly installed by the Patriarch Rajacsich in
+the cathedral of Zagreb. On this occasion the Mass was sung in old
+Slavonic by the Bishop of Zengg, and on leaving the cathedral another
+service was held in the Orthodox Church. "We desire by this solemn
+manifestation," said the Croats, "to make it clear to all the world
+that the brothers who belong to the Catholic and to the Orthodox
+religions have one heart and one soul."
+
+Meanwhile the citizens of Vienna had revolted, and the Court, although
+the Magyars offered their hospitality, considered it prudent to take
+shelter at Innsbruck. It was to that town that the Croats sent in June
+a deputation which explained to the Emperor that Croatia had for
+centuries and under various dynasties been an autonomous country, and
+that the Magyars had not only, by their new laws, abolished this state
+of things but had also abolished the link that joined them to his
+empire, for they would henceforward have a personage, the Palatine, at
+Buda-Pest wielding executive power at such times as the Emperor was
+absent. The Croats showed the Emperor that he could thus not rule both
+at Vienna and Buda-Pest except if he could be in both places
+simultaneously; and Ferdinand acknowledged that this was correct and
+that the Magyars had their foibles, but that they were on the point
+of sending him recruits. "We hoped," said the Croats, "that in a new
+world of liberty the Magyars would recognize the other races as their
+equals. We have been disillusioned, as you will be. And in July when
+Ferdinand announced, on the advice of Radetzky, that he would continue
+the operations in the Italian provinces until the bitter end, it
+became necessary for him to have these recruits. "We are prepared,"
+said Kossuth, "to send a Hungarian army to Italy--in principle." But
+while they were debating whether this would not expose them to the
+Croats, they were called upon to put down a revolt in the Banat, where
+the Roumanian population was quiescent and the Serbs had risen to
+assert the rights of the non-Magyar peoples. There the Serbs advanced
+victoriously, as did the Austrian troops in Italy. This caused the
+Emperor to assume another tone when he addressed the Magyars. Let them
+send a deputation to Vienna, where the Croats would be represented
+also; and together they would come to an arrangement regulating their
+relations to each other. The Hungarians were obstinate, chose Kossuth
+to be their dictator and thus began the revolution.
+
+
+THE CROATS, STRUGGLING FOR FREEDOM, INCIDENTALLY HELP AUSTRIA
+
+Jella[vc]i['c], on September 11, crossed the Drave with forty thousand
+Croats, annexed the territory between the Drave and the Mur, and
+advanced without opposition up to Lake Balaton. His commissary,
+General Joseph Brinjevac, occupied Rieka. They were confident that
+History would not misjudge them. "We demand," said Jella[vc]i['c], in
+his declaration of war, "we demand equality of rights for all the
+peoples and for all the nationalities who live under the Hungarian
+crown." Before he left Zagreb he transformed the feudal Croatian Diet
+into an elective assembly. This new Parliament cancelled the
+institution of serfdom and proclaimed that one of their objects was to
+have the Habsburg monarchy a federation, on the model of Switzerland.
+One would suppose that it was clear to everyone that Jella[vc]i['c]
+was not fighting for the Habsburgs but for the subjected
+nationalities, and that if the vacillating Austrians who had outlawed
+him on account of his nationalist views later on joined him in his
+attacks on the Magyars, this does not show that he was fighting
+Austria's battles. "The banner which the Croats have unfurled," said
+Cavour in a great parliamentary speech a month later, "is a Slav
+banner, and in no way, as some people suppose, the banner of reaction
+and of despotism.... His [Jella[vc]i['c]'s] chief, if not his only,
+aim was the redemption of the Slav nationality." This page would
+doubtless be more dignified if, after the dead lion, it did not refer
+to Mr. Edoardo Susmel; but since the autumn of 1918 a large number of
+people at Rieka have pinned their faith to Susmel rather than
+Cavour--his book was handed to me in a most impressive manner by the
+mayor. Let us see, therefore, what he says of 1848. "When the Croats,"
+says he, "on account of national reasons"--so far we are with
+him--"and on account of their loyalty to Austria, on account of the
+desire of Jella[vc]i['c] and by order of the Emperor attacked Hungary,
+which was at that time fighting for freedom, they also threw
+themselves upon Rieka.... For the first and solitary time Rieka fell
+into the hands of the Croats. It was, wrote the contemporary Giacich,
+an enemy invasion." Mr. Susmel sails merrily ahead, for he knows that
+Truth is mighty and that it is said to prevail; but in order to
+convince the most captious he calls on Mr. Giacich to testify. I know
+nothing about Mr. Giacich except that he was a contemporary--and yet
+it seems that one ought not to wish that Mr. Susmel had rather put his
+faith in Cavour, who was also a contemporary, since that gentleman was
+far less capable and never could have proved that when a Croat army
+comes into a Croat town it is engaged upon an enemy invasion.
+
+The Magyars were not to be repressed so easily, and Ferdinand made
+promise after promise to the Croats and the Serbs if they would help
+to overcome this people. From Serbia itself came many volunteers to
+aid their brothers who were trying to throw off the Magyar yoke; they
+came with the connivance of Prince Alexander, in fact, he sent one of
+his generals to lead them. And a great many hasty Kossuth enthusiasts
+in Western Europe, knowing only that the Magyars, a chivalrous
+nation, had been in arms against the despotic Habsburgs, and that the
+Serbs and Croats had a considerable share in subduing them, could not
+find invective virulent enough for this abominable brood of hell,
+whose one desire it was to be a tyrant's executioners. They were
+denounced as having not the least conception of independence; for a
+people of a disposition so abandoned there was not the faintest hope
+of any future; and the day would come when these outrageous little
+nations would be wiped away. Had not the noble Kossuth spoken like a
+prophet when he asked disdainfully where was Croatia, for he could not
+find it on the map?
+
+In December the new Emperor, Francis Joseph, began to rule his
+variegated realm with justice. He confirmed the Serbian Patriarch and
+Voivoda, who had been chosen in the previous May, and he bestowed upon
+the Serbs of Syrmia and Ba[vc]ka and the Banat a territory of their
+own, with their own organization and jurisdiction. Even a less
+extensive Serbian authority, namely, the Banat town of Velika Kikinda,
+with its ten dependent villages, raised its own taxes, had its own
+police and had the power of life and death. There was, indeed, a cloud
+which came across the Serbians' happiness when [vC]uplikac, the
+Voivoda, died suddenly. He was at Pan[vc]evo when he received from the
+Emperor the gracious edict and a box of cigars. No sooner had he
+mounted his horse, lit one of the cigars and uttered the word
+"Brother," than he fell down dead. As for the Croats, the Emperor made
+Jella[vc]i['c] governor of Dalmatia, which signified the union of that
+province to Croatia.
+
+
+HOW MONTENEGRO REFORMED HERSELF
+
+There was a poet on the throne of Montenegro, the greatest of Yugoslav
+poets, who now that the civil governor (to whom had been entrusted
+certain duties which it had been thought a bishop should not
+exercise)--now that this official was expelled, reigned over
+Montenegro as the first and last real Prince-Bishop. He was a
+magnificent person, even for a Montenegrin, since his height was no
+less than 6 feet 8 inches; and in his determination to establish order
+in the principality he had let nothing intervene. As Russia, after a
+longish interval, resumed her subsidies and paid Peter II. an annual
+allowance of nine thousand ducats, together with arms, ammunition and
+wheat, the Prince-Bishop was relieved of the necessity of taxing his
+people. This made it easier for him to build up a strong central power
+that would not be dependent on the tribal chiefs, though it is
+doubtful if a despotism was more suitable for Montenegro's economic
+circumstances than the patriarchal form of government. Peter
+surrounded himself with a senate of twelve members, whose salaries he
+paid, a bodyguard of a few dozen and a police force of several
+hundred. These men, who lived to execute his wishes, were the
+instruments by which he set about improving Montenegro. The vendetta
+was to give way to the law court; there was something to be said,
+though, for the people who withstood this innovation, since the
+court's decision was the will of Peter. But no arguments protected
+anyone who clung to the old-fashioned ways of the vendetta or of
+brigandage or theft from being placed before a file of the
+Prince-Bishop's men. Tales are still recited in the primitive, bleak
+homes of Montenegro touching the great number of his subjects whom the
+poet put to death. But that was not the only penalty, for of the two
+European institutions with which he had embellished his capital one
+was a prison. The other was a printing-press, in which he had a
+childish joy. Once when he was entertaining King Augustus of Saxony he
+composed a poem for him while they were at supper; it was printed in
+the night; the happy author, next morning, not a little proud of this
+achievement, gave a copy to the King. He issued an official paper from
+this printing-press; its name was _Grlica_, which means "The
+Turtle-Dove."
+
+
+THE PRINCE-BISHOP GIVES A LEAD TO THE SOUTHERN SLAVS
+
+Now Peter thought the moment had arrived for Jella[vc]i['c] to found
+at last an independent Yugoslav dominion. On December 20, 1848, he
+wrote to him: "An inscrutable destiny has placed you, O illustrious
+Ban, at the head of the Southern Slavs. You have preserved their
+throne, their destiny for the Habsburgs.... A grand mission is yours;
+from it may arise a new formation of Europe. Its accomplishment would
+absolve the Slavs from the shame of having been the miserable slaves
+or the paid creatures of others. As for me, I am free, at the head, it
+is true, of a handful of men, despite the double malediction of
+tyranny and espionage." [Here he is referring to his neighbours,
+Austria and Turkey.] "But what does that matter when I look round me
+at millions of brothers who are in alien bondage? Occupy Dalmatia
+immediately and let us join each other. That which one does not
+conquer with _heroic right_ is worth nothing. I am ready to come to
+your help with my Montenegrins." To these overtures Jella[vc]i['c]
+gave an evasive reply. It may be that he did not deem the moment
+opportune, it may be that, as some have said, he came under the
+atavistic influence of the military traditions of the Croats, whose
+long years of fighting for the Habsburgs had made them as devoted to
+that House as the Dalmatians had been for so long to Venice. The
+Habsburgs had exploited them, but the Croats felt that they were bound
+by all the blood which they had shed and by the military glory they
+had won in Austria's service. Had not Tomasi['c] and Milutinovi['c]
+been the Generals--both Croats--who were sent to change Napoleon's
+Dalmatia into a province of the Habsburgs? And the list is endless.
+Jella[vc]i['c] was very probably deceived by Francis Joseph, who kept
+dangling before his eyes a vision of a "Greater Croatia." But, by an
+irony of history, this hope of union of the Southern Slavs was for the
+time flung very much into the background by the action of the Tzar,
+who rescued Austria when in 1849 she was again at variance with the
+Magyars. Kossuth had been furious at the Constitution promulgated in
+the spring of that year, which not only made obsolete most of
+Hungary's privileges, but introduced the principle of equality among
+the various nationalities. The Hungarians had been too much accustomed
+to the classing of races as first-class people and second-class
+people. When they had been reduced--the Russian methods being
+drastic--and when their thirteen Generals had been executed at Arad,
+Francis Joseph thanked the Croats "for their ceaseless energy and for
+their numerous sacrifices in the interests of the State." But
+Jella[vc]i['c] did not move, and the Prince-Bishop wrote to Count
+Pozza, a friend of his at Dubrovnik. "I had hoped for an instant, my
+dear Count," he wrote, "but I am now convinced that Yugoslavism is,
+for the time being, merely an idle word. The Yugoslavs are unconscious
+of their own strength and sell themselves unconditionally to the
+strongest. It is a subject of profound grief for those who love them
+and for sensitive souls." Peter II. did not long survive. He may have
+wondered sometimes why the Croats did not call for him instead of
+Jella[vc]i['c], since his methods of administration had been so
+successful in the principality. He may have meditated sometimes on the
+Russians, wondering how one nation could be both so highly meritorious
+and so bloodthirsty. He died, aged thirty-nine, a disappointed man.
+(His _Turtle-Dove_ expired some time before.) And he was buried, as he
+wished, upon a lonely peak of Lov[vc]en, that vast mountain over Kotor
+which, until the deed of his great-nephew's son, his namesake, was
+impregnable. Peter II. had always been a man apart--it was his opinion
+that his Church was being choked with formalism and with ceremonial,
+and though he was a Bishop he went to church infrequently. The poet in
+him was much more attracted to the Bogomile sect, which taught that
+God had two sons, of whom the elder was Satan and the younger Christ;
+and when the world was created, the elder, seeing how lovely it was,
+separated himself from his Father in order to rule the world; and
+afterwards God sent the younger son to punish him.... Peter had far
+greater merits as a poet than as a ruler. In fact, Pushkin is perhaps
+the only Slav poet who surpasses him, and his philosophy is more
+original than that of Tolstoi. There came to Montenegro one
+Ivanovi['c], a Russian missionary, whom Peter appointed to be
+President of the Senate. Peter used to live chiefly in Venice, Rome or
+Naples, only coming to Montenegro as a guest, and it was during his
+residence in Naples that Ivanovi['c] introduced a number of reforms.
+According to the general opinion, Peter was the greatest Yugoslav that
+ever lived; as a ruler he was neither good nor bad.
+
+
+AUSTRIA POURS OUT A GERMAN FLOOD
+
+Now that the Austrians had escaped from all their perils, and
+Napoleon's _coup d'etat_ had removed the danger of another revolution
+in France, they took in hand the burying of the recent Constitution
+which had given so much umbrage to the Magyars and to the Croats no
+vast pleasure. In its place, in 1851, the policy of Bach, an
+absolutist and a German policy, was introduced. The Croats and the
+Serbs of southern Hungary were treated differently, the latter being
+given not the territory they had claimed but one much more extensive,
+so that they themselves were in a great minority.[42] The Croats found
+themselves, of course, no longer joined to the Dalmatians. Everywhere
+a flood of Germans, the "huzzars of Bach," was loosened on the
+population; German was erected to be the official language. But the
+Slovenes took advantage even of the German atmosphere. Their national
+consciousness, which Napoleon had awakened after centuries, was now
+aroused. They took small interest, as yet, in politics, but strove to
+make material progress, principally in agriculture, partly too in
+commerce, such as in the exploitation of their splendid forests. Like
+the Slavs of Istria, they had no educated class--except the
+clergy--which was strong enough and was sufficiently well organized to
+lead them. Consequently it was difficult to make much headway in the
+towns against the Germans here and the Italians there. But they were
+not discouraged; by means of organizations, political and economic,
+they fought this denationalizing effect of the towns. That they
+succeeded in arresting the tendency--for example at Gorica and
+Triest--is even more laudable in view of the serious educational
+handicap which for years they had to face, and which the Austrians
+continued to inflict upon them until 1914. The provincial
+administration of Carinthia, for instance, was in 1914 maintaining
+three Slovene schools and six hundred and twelve German schools,
+although the Slovenes formed one-third of the population. What the
+Austrians said was that German was a world-language and that it was a
+fad to want to learn Slovene. Perhaps the Slovenes told them that
+Welsh is not a world-language. Anyhow, being not only a patriotic but
+a very practical race, they built their own schools in the villages,
+with the result that they have to-day a far smaller proportion of
+illiterates--171/2 per cent.--than either the Croats or the Serbs. It
+was well that they were patriotic and practical; they would otherwise
+have reaped a bitter harvest. The Slavs of Istria, Croatia and
+Dalmatia were in contact with no German territories and were for that
+reason left in the cold shades. The Slovenes, having Germans near them
+and among them, had to have a share in what the Germans were enjoying
+and they reaped sagaciously. One must admit that it was practical on
+Austria's part to favour the Italian language in Dalmatia, for it was
+from there that she supplied herself with functionaries for the
+provinces of Lombardy and Venice.
+
+
+THE CROAT PEASANTS AND THEIR CLERGY
+
+The Croat peasants were in a much worse condition than the Slovenes,
+and the nobles who might have assisted them in building schools had
+recently been ruined by the Austrian agrarian policy, for when in 1853
+the Austrians put into execution what the Diet of Croatia had resolved
+to do in 1848 and freed the peasants from their serfdom, the indemnity
+they gave the landlords was in Austrian State papers, which the
+landlords had to take at the face value, though this was far above
+what they were worth. The owners of the so-called _latifundia_, mostly
+German or Hungarian noblemen, lost very little; for their wide domains
+were cultivated mostly by hired labour, not by peasants settled on the
+land. But these big landlords were not eager to build schools for
+peasants. It is said these should have been provided by the Church.
+The Croatian clergy in the villages would stand in a much better light
+if they had, irrespective of the higher clergy, made more vigorous
+attempts to bring down the illiteracy figures which to-day are said to
+be, for Croatia and Slavonia, 65 per cent. The higher clergy worked,
+with very few exceptions, hand in hand with Austria's Government,
+which Government was, after the Concordat of 1855, the close ally of
+Rome. If it was the Government's desire to build no schools, the
+higher clergy for the most part acquiesced. It surely is a function of
+a Government to occupy itself with education and to turn away from the
+great landlords who are frightened that a peasantry more educated will
+be troublesome. But those who have to bear a good part of the
+criticism are the village clergy; it is human not to criticize them
+half so much for what they left undone as for some aspects of their
+private life. The usual old stories circulate to the effect that they
+refuse to exercise their office till the peasant who is asking them to
+baptize or to marry or to bury some one brings a suitable amount of
+produce, eggs or fowls or something else, in lieu of money; but what
+is a more serious matter is the question of women. Three-and-twenty
+priests in the diocese of Zagreb passed a resolution a year or two ago
+that they were in favour of a married clergy. A Yugoslav bishop told
+me that most, if not all, of these gentlemen had anticipated the Papal
+consent; but that in his diocese only 3 per cent. of the clergy lived
+in sin [hostile critics say he should have added the word "openly"],
+whereas in two other Yugoslav dioceses, which he named, such clergy
+might amount to 50 per cent. An examination of this question, which
+exists in other countries, would be unprofitable, were it not that in
+Croatia, with a Roman Catholic and Orthodox population living very
+often side by side, the circumstances are peculiar. The people do not
+take up any narrow attitude towards the Church of which they are not
+members: a Roman Catholic will go to an Orthodox and an Orthodox to a
+Roman Catholic church if they have none of their own. They intermarry;
+and since their sacred days, such as Christmas, are not celebrated at
+the same time the non-celebrating congregation cease to work, out of
+sympathy. Even with the alteration of the Orthodox calendar there will
+be days which one community will keep as workless days, so that it may
+go visiting the others and congratulating them. But this bland
+behaviour of the people is unfortunately not maintained when they
+discuss their priests. And in the Lika, where the population leads a
+rough, laborious life, they are not satisfied to have an academical
+discussion. They hold that if a man is celibate he is not manly, and
+scenes have taken place which Hogarth might refuse to draw.
+
+
+WHAT THE CZECHS ARE DOING TO-DAY
+
+The twenty-three priests of the Zagreb diocese who were in favour of a
+married clergy and of several other reforms could not stand up against
+their ecclesiastical superiors. The movement has made no open progress
+and their leader has been constrained to abandon Holy Orders and
+become a timber merchant. Nevertheless the idea of a national Church
+has not vanished; a good deal depends for other countries on the
+degree of success which attends the newly established national Church
+in Czecho-Slovakia. It already possesses over half a million adherents
+out of a population of 13 millions. We may be going to witness the
+rise of a series of national Churches, a consummation which--a Roman
+Catholic might observe--will very likely be no more successful in
+bringing nearer the brotherhood of man than the wide-flung Catholic
+Church. The enthusiastic nationalism of such new Churches may, in
+fact, help to postpone that happy state of things. In any case, and
+whatever be the results, we shall do well not to ignore the beginnings
+of what may be a mighty Reformation.
+
+Ever since 1848 the Czech clergy have been anxious to obtain reforms,
+not so much in dogma as in discipline. They assert that it is more in
+accordance with the democratic spirit of the age if a priest is
+selected not by some magnate but by his prospective parishioners; they
+desire to have their mother-tongue employed for the liturgy--in this
+respect they are in advance of most Catholic countries--and they wish
+to allow their priests to marry or not to marry, as each man prefers.
+This, one need hardly say, is the point which, almost to the exclusion
+of all others, is taken up by the hostile compatriots of the new
+believers. "It is nothing more nor less than this," said a portly
+Benedictine abbot to me one day in Prague, "there are priests who live
+in concubinage and they actually want to have it legalized!" But in
+Czecho-Slovakia, with her vivid memories of the Hussites in the
+fifteenth century--magnificent new monuments to John Huss decorate the
+principal towns--in Czecho-Slovakia the old regime has not the same
+power as in Croatia. At first the new Church was sneered at, being
+called a Churchlet, then they called it a sect, and now they say it
+may persist for fifty years. While its critics occupy themselves so
+largely with the topic of clerical celibacy, the founders of the
+Church themselves are much more interested in other questions. They do
+not greatly concern themselves with their priests' apparel, holding
+that this need not trouble them more than a little, since they are
+striving for something more weighty--the freedom of conscience. In
+this, as they say, they are carrying on the doctrines of Huss, which
+were so bloodily repressed by the dominant party. Under Charles IV.
+the Roman Catholic Church possessed about one-third of all the land in
+Bohemia, while in Prague alone there were some three thousand priests.
+And if the doctrines of Huss had not sunk deeply into the minds of the
+Bohemians this new Church would have found her task very much more
+difficult. The first three bishops were ordained last year by the
+Serbian Bishop of Ni[vs]. It was at one time thought that the Orthodox
+religion would be adopted, but this was found to be impossible, and
+after a year of negotiations it was settled that the Serbian Church
+should be regarded as a sister Church.
+
+The significance of Czecho-Slovakia's new Church is to be found in the
+national idea. So much is it a thing of the people and not of the
+priests that several schoolmasters have had to be ordained, the clergy
+being otherwise too scanty. In June 1919 a delegation from 3000
+dissatisfied priests went to Rome. The Pope rejected what he called
+their foolish novelties. In January 1920 a secret meeting of 200
+priests was held in Prague and 144 of them declared themselves for a
+new national Church. But few of them possessed the necessary
+resolution, such as was displayed by Dr. Farsky, a very intelligent
+and earnest young man who was Professor of Religion in the University
+and has now been appointed the Head of this new Church, as Bishop of
+Prague and Patriarch. His opponent, the Roman Catholic Archbishop of
+Prague, has the reputation of being one of the cleverest of Czech
+politicians, and it will be interesting to see how the position
+develops. Since the War the Roman Catholic Church has lost 25 per
+cent. of its members--during the War it was, in the opinion of many,
+though perhaps it had no option, very much the servant of the
+Habsburgs. And one imagines that the Archbishop is handicapped by the
+demands of his party that the State should unquestionably continue to
+pay the yearly interests of the large number of monasteries that were
+dissolved more than a century ago by Joseph II. "All England's
+troubles," said the Coadjutor-Archbishop to me, "emanate from the fact
+that she nowadays pays nothing to the Church for those monasteries
+that were suppressed by Henry VIII." It is doubtful whether the
+Czechs, exulting in their regained liberty, will for the most part
+take the side of Rome when the matter has been fully ventilated and
+discussed. "We are not monarchist at all," said the Abbot Zavoral, "we
+are true to the Republic, we are democratic. And discussion is
+democratic, but," said he, "it should not be unlimited."
+
+
+STROSSMAYER
+
+To such a degree did the Austrian Government neglect its duties that,
+ten years ago, Croatia and Slavonia were short of at least one
+thousand school buildings and twelve hundred teachers. Bishop
+Strossmayer, coming from a family[43] which had settled at the
+sprawling town of Osiek, in Slavonia, did what he could. His Yugoslav
+Academy at Zagreb, the Zagreb University and the Society for studying
+the history of the Yugoslavs are but a few of the national
+institutions to which he devoted the princely revenues of Djakovo.
+From there this most remarkable man worked for the intellectual
+advancement of all the Southern Slavs; he subsidized the brothers
+Miladinoff who made the first collection of Bulgarian folk-songs (and
+who, on account of this forbidden subject, were both subsequently
+strangled at Constantinople); he paid for the education of young
+students no matter from what Yugoslav country they came; when
+Ra[vc]ki, the well-known Croat historian, was persecuted by the
+Government and living in misery, Strossmayer begged him to come to
+Djakovo, and Ra[vc]ki was his closest friend for many years; he built
+a large gallery at Zagreb and filled it with pictures, sacred and
+profane, and was as ready to assist a young artist in Istria as in
+Macedonia. It may be that he caused a circular to be read in the
+Croatian churches which referred to the Orthodox as "lost sheep," but
+he never used a method other than by prayer and the example of his
+life to cause them to forsake their fold; to him the forcible
+conversions by the Turks were as abhorrent as a system that was used
+in Ba[vc]ka, where a whole village near Sombor was ennobled--but not
+those who afterwards came to live there--for having joined the Roman
+Church. He was himself no blind follower of the Vatican; and when he
+went with a very princely retinue--in part the weakness of his humble
+origin--to Rome in order to explain why he was unable to subscribe to
+the dogma of Papal Infallibility, he ravished his audience with a
+marvellous Latin oration, for he spoke many modern languages but was
+most thoroughly at home in Latin. Often in conversation he passed from
+one language to another, in search of what would best express his
+meaning, and frequently he would have recourse to Latin. He became
+reconciled to the dogma and it was due to the hostility of Magyar
+potentates that he remained for more than fifty years the Bishop of
+Djakovo, was not promoted to Zagreb nor made a cardinal. His fervent
+and statesmanlike views can be seen in his correspondence[44] with
+Gladstone. His head, like Gladstone's, caused one not to notice that
+the rest of the body was unimpressive; they had the same brilliance of
+eye. This man who worked continuously for the Southern Slavs could not
+be always a _persona grata_ to Francis Joseph. Two remarks of the
+Emperor's are handed down, but that one may be a legend which, with
+the preface that Strossmayer was the only man to whom the Emperor was
+ever rude, says that Francis Joseph accounted for some proceedings of
+the bishop, as head of the National party in Croatia, by telling him
+that he must have been drunk--and, overtaken by remorse, making him an
+"Excellency" on the following day. Yet that story is certainly true
+which recounts how in 1881 the Emperor at Belovar said to him that he
+would sooner be an unimportant German Duke than Emperor of all the
+Slavs.
+
+
+THE TURK IN MONTENEGRO AND MACEDONIA
+
+The Emperor of a great many Southern Slavs, the Sultan, had in his
+time been satisfied if he could squeeze out of the Montenegrins so
+much tribute as would every year pay for his slippers. He could send
+an army now and then to devastate Cetinje and destroy the monastery
+where the people's bishop lived, but in those mountains a large army
+ran the risk of being ambushed and a very large one would be starved.
+Besides, now that the European scientists and travellers were
+beginning to go up to Montenegro and were, among the few sights of
+Cetinje, always shown the shrivelled head of Kara Mahmud Pasha, who in
+1796 had been defeated, it was not advisable, the Sultan thought, that
+any other Turkish head of prominence should have this fate.... In
+Macedonia it was very different; the population might have once been
+warlike, but had so successfully been governed that some German
+travellers of the sixteenth century, Hans Ternschwamm and Ritter
+Gerlach, had described them as a "conquered, down-trodden, imprisoned
+people" who did not dare to lift up their heads, a people who "without
+intermission must toil for the Turks." And if three hundred years of
+this life had not completely tamed them, the Sultan had every
+confidence that the Greek Patriarch would tell the Powers what they
+knew already, namely, that the Macedonian Christians only had to pay a
+tenth and sometimes only an eleventh part of certain crops and that in
+return they were protected by the Spahi from the ills which every
+humbler man is heir to, and that the Powers, who politically said they
+must respect the Sultan, must now morally respect him also. But in
+1850 the Turkish Government made a change; in place of the old Spahi
+there was installed a landlord who retained the name of Spahi but who
+had none of his predecessor's careless benevolence. The property had
+been hired out to him for life and his one object was to get from it
+as much as possible. He made demands not only for a tenth but for a
+fifth and even a third part, and not only of the maize and wheat but
+of every product of the soil. Cattle, bees, vegetables, fruit--of all
+of these he had to have his share; the peasant often cut his fruit
+trees down as he could not afford to pay the various taxes that were
+put on them. In the old days the Spahi had an arrangement with a whole
+village, and a system so impersonal was much less onerous than when
+demands were made from every household individually. The new sort of
+Spahi was not only an evil product of the time, but as the progress of
+industry in other countries was supplying the Turkish market with many
+new commodities, so in order to acquire these articles for himself he
+exacted more and more tribute from the helpless peasants. Progress in
+Macedonia was not merely retarded--lands which had been under
+cultivation were abandoned, and the peasant, having been despoiled of
+everything, perhaps having borrowed money at 9 or 10 per cent., was no
+longer able to get his living from the land on which so many
+generations of his ancestors had laboured. It was no longer possible
+for him to get the mess of maize and miserable bread, the strips of
+repulsive-looking flesh that were his luxury, the medicine for his
+underfed children who were moaning on the naked earth of his cabin,
+and at the same time to make the necessary contributions to the
+landlord or the landlord's agent, whom the villagers had to furnish
+with a riding horse, with gun and ammunition, with furs and with
+clothing appropriate to his position, with special gifts whenever he
+or they were marrying, and with all the pretty girls on whom his eye
+had rested. Therefore the _[vc]if[vc]ija_ would lose the last shadow
+of freedom, he would become a serf. His sowing and his reaping would
+now be for another, and as it did not profit him at all to make the
+land more fruitful, he was content with any prehistoric implement,
+with little wooden ploughs and with a total absence of manure. And yet
+this pitiable serf would often be in a position less deplorable than
+that of one who had a little freedom left and who was called a free
+man, for the Turk would treat him no worse than the mule whose
+continual existence he desires. It does not seem surprising if these
+Christians wanted to be liberated from the Turk and did not greatly
+mind what uniform their rescuers would wear.
+
+
+THE CHEERLESS STATE OF SERBIA
+
+Meanwhile the Serbs of Hungary were saying that the state of things in
+Serbia was desperate. It seemed so to a number of young men who found
+the coldness of Prince Alexander and his anxiety to please the
+Austrians both very much out of harmony with the new Liberal ideas of
+Western Europe. They would have been horrified to see the plight of
+Macedonia, which after the Crimean War became, if possible, still
+worse, for during it the Porte took up the first loan; others
+followed, and in a surprisingly short time the Turk stood face to face
+with bankruptcy, so that in his dealings with the peasant he became
+still more extortionate. To be sure the Liberal young men who were
+publishing the _Omladinac_ and all those Southern Slavs who listened
+to the voices which in Italy and Germany were craving union and
+freedom, all of them saw in their dreams the freedom of the Southern
+Slav, but Serbia and Montenegro were the only portions of his
+patrimony which had any kind of independence and the Serbia of
+Alexander was in a distressing state. The Prince had managed to stay
+neutral during the Crimean War, in spite of the solicitations very
+vehemently put by Austria and Russia and the Porte; this neutral
+attitude secured for Serbia at the peace the benefit of having all her
+rights henceforward guaranteed collectively by the Great Powers. Yet
+Alexander was so anxious not to rouse the animosity of Austria that he
+declined to summon the national assembly, the Skup[vs]tina, in which
+the people's rising aspirations could be heard. And, although the
+family community, the "zadruga," was giving way to a more modern way
+of life--much to the misgiving of those persons who believed that
+strength lay rather in the union of thirty or forty people, under the
+authority of the head of the house, than in a more dispersed society
+which would encourage individual initiative--yet Serbia was still a
+semi-Turkish and a quite despotic country, with all the civil service
+largely filled by Serbs from Hungary and many of the higher offices in
+the possession of the relatives of the Princess, for Alexander's wife,
+a lady from the neighbourhood of Valjevo, was as celebrated for her
+cleverness as for her beauty. It is regrettable that she did not
+prefer to take in hand the women's legal status, which is still too
+much like that of minors. When the princely pair had been expelled in
+1858 and Milo[vs], to his infinite delight, called back from
+Bucharest, his place of exile, there was yet a great deal for the
+Omladina enthusiasts to do. Milo[vs] at the age of seventy-eight was
+senile; he would sit for hours outside his old, white Turkish house at
+[vC]a[vc]ak, while the passers-by knelt down to kiss his hand; in
+church he would become oblivious to his surroundings and would
+garrulously talk in a loud voice to friends around him.
+
+
+THE SLAV VOICE IN MACEDONIA
+
+Assuredly the Omladina Society had some knowledge of affairs in
+Macedonia, for Dimitri Miladinoff, the elder of the two brothers, had
+been at Karlovci, where he was offered the professorship of Greek at
+the Serbian school. Miladinoff had been born at Struga in Macedonia
+and educated at Jannina, where he noticed that a number of the names
+of forests, rivers, villages and ruins sounded odd in Greek--they
+seemed to have much more resemblance to the language spoken by the
+Slavs who lived beyond his home, the Bulgars. This awoke a flame in
+him. At Ochrida, where he was presently appointed as a teacher in the
+school, he gave his lessons in the customary Greek, nor did he
+undervalue the advantages the Macedonian Slavs could draw,
+particularly at the stage they were in, from the study of Greek
+literature and from the contemplation of the patriotic virtues of old
+Greece. But at the same time he began to give his pupils a Bulgarian
+translation of what they were learning; and one day in 1845 while he
+was in the middle of a lesson, taught in that strange manner, on
+Thucydides, the Russian archaeologist Grigorovi['c] appeared and in
+amazement cried, "But we are brothers!" It was to him a marvel that
+these people's mother-tongue was Slav. Miladinoff had a project to
+retain the Greek at college and to introduce Bulgarian in the
+elementary schools, but when in 1848 he spoke of this at Ochrida the
+notables had grown so hellenized that they considered an allusion to
+their Slav origin as most offensive. Far from giving up his plan,
+Miladinoff began a pilgrimage through Macedonia, pretending that his
+object was to gather funds for the construction at Constantinople of a
+Bulgar church. Everywhere he taught as he had done at Ochrida, and the
+elucidation, for example, of Demosthenes enabled him to plant his
+patriotic seeds. It was in the course of his travels that he (and
+afterwards his younger brother Constantine) collected the folk-songs
+that were published by the generosity of Strossmayer. He stayed for a
+time at Sarajevo and at Karlovci, where he was filled with emulation
+by the progress which the Serbs had made. On his return in 1857 to
+Macedonia the people of the town of Kuku[vs]--near the future
+boundaries of Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece--invited him to be
+headmaster at their school. He was overjoyed that this town had the
+courage to have the Bulgarian language taught, and we have his reply.
+The Phanariote Greeks, he says, "will hurl their anathema against us!
+The Bulgarian script is contrary to God! It will not be the first time
+that they have proclaimed this! But those days are past! Already the
+rays of dawn...." This letter is written in Greek. "Oh, how I am
+ashamed," he says, "to express my sentiments in the Greek language!"
+But the literary form of Bulgarian is, as yet, undeveloped. One year
+after his arrival at Kuku[vs] the population removed the Greek books
+from their cathedral and listened to the singing of the Mass in Slav
+by a Bulgarian monk from Mt. Athos. When he began to recite the Credo
+in the ordinary Bulgarian tongue, the congregation fell on their knees
+and burst into tears.
+
+
+THE MACEDONIAN SLAVS ARE UNDIVIDED
+
+Another Macedonian traveller was the highly distinguished Frenchman,
+Ami Boue. His great book _La Turquie d'Europe_, in four volumes of
+more than 500 pages each, appeared in Paris in 1840, and is a
+veritable encyclopaedia with which no other publication of the same
+kind can be compared, either for the largeness of his scheme, the
+versatility of his interests or the profound knowledge of his subject.
+Well, he found that many Slavs of Macedonia, whom he calls Bulgars,
+had their hopes centred in Milo[vs], who was then the reigning Serbian
+Prince. The difference in their eyes between the two people was that
+the Serbs had gained their independence. It was not as great an
+independence as the Macedonians fancied, for in addition to the
+vexatious remains of Turkish suzerainty there was the Greek
+ecclesiastical rule. During the reigns of Kara George and Milo[vs] the
+Greeks insisted on having their language used for the liturgy in all
+the Serbian towns, especially in Belgrade; after that period Greek and
+Slav were used for half the service each, and this practice was
+continued until 1858. Nevertheless for the unhappy Macedonians Serbia
+was a land of radiant liberty. And whether it was going to be a Serb
+or Bulgar who would rescue them--_qu'importe_? Ami Boue noted, as have
+many others, that the Macedonian Slav in his physical characteristics,
+in his language, in his outlook, in his native habits and in the
+expression of his sentiments is intermediate between the Serbs and
+Bulgars. And he says that as between the Serbs and Bulgars he does not
+recognize a greater difference than there is between the Istrians, the
+Dalmatians and the Croats, which is to say that there is none.
+
+This point of view was quite familiar to the readers of the
+_Omladinac_. Svetozar Markovi['c], a leader of both Radicals and
+Socialists in Serbia, was for a federated Balkan republic. Ljuben
+Karaveloff wrote articles in Serbian, whose object was to show that,
+in the liberation of the Southern Slavs, Serbia must take the lead.
+Rakovski, the most active of Bulgarian Radicals, maintained that, in
+default of union between the Southern Slavs, a selfish interference of
+the Great Powers in the Balkans and unceasing wars among the natives
+would be unavoidable. The ideas of Bogdanov regarding the Bulgarian
+and Serbian languages were current. "It is not a tower of Babel," says
+he, "but a temple of God. When we are united there will be no curse
+yelled in a hundred voices but a harmonious prayer." And in another
+passage he declares that "there is less difference, for example,
+between Serbian and Bulgarian than between certain Italian dialects."
+
+
+DAWN OF ITALIAN UNITY
+
+While they were speaking Italy had acted. It is more true to say that
+some Italians had acted. The defence of Venice and the five days at
+Milan are glorious episodes, but those volunteers who flocked to
+Garibaldi, notably from Piedmont, and of whose exploits we can never
+hear enough--in what proportion were they to the inhabitants of the
+Peninsula? The people as a whole exhibited indifference, which causes
+Garibaldi to complain most bitterly. And if it had not been for the
+genius of Cavour and his collaborators, for the diplomatic support of
+England, the alliance with Prussia and, above all, for the French
+army, the redemption of the country would have been delayed. No doubt
+the Church had an enormous influence upon the people, no doubt in the
+surviving mediaeval States--the duchies and republics--whose government
+belonged to the privileged classes, there was little to awaken popular
+interest; no doubt great masses of the people were untouched by
+education and the spread of new ideas--if freedom is a new idea; no
+doubt the peasants in various parts of the country were in as
+deplorable a plight as the peasants of to-day, which has had as one
+effect the inexpansive manner, as Italian officers have testified,
+with which the redeemed peasants of the Trentino and elsewhere often
+welcomed their redeemers. And the Italian peasants of 1859 may be
+pardoned for imagining that this world never would be made so good as
+to include their own salvation. One can find sufficient excuses for
+what occurred in Italy. Will not the Italians excuse, rather than
+praise, the very, very small number of Yugoslavs who have stood out
+against Yugoslavia? When Italy had been united did no Italians choose
+rather to go into exile?
+
+
+HOW CAVOUR WOULD HAVE TREATED THE SLAVS
+
+Some Italians were so intoxicated with the success of Garibaldi's
+troops and the French army that they began to see dangerous visions.
+Once again, on December 28, 1860, they were warned by the great
+founder of their country. "Let us avoid," wrote Cavour,[45] "every
+expression which could permit one to suppose that the King's
+government aspires not merely to the possession of Venice, but also to
+that of Triest, with Istria and Dalmatia. I know well that in the
+towns of the littoral the population is fundamentally Italian by race
+and sentiments, but that the rest of the country belongs exclusively
+to the Slavs.... Every word which touches this question, however
+lightly it be uttered, would become a dangerous weapon in the hands of
+our enemies. They would know very well how to use them in order to
+raise up England against us, for that Power would also not look with
+favour on the Adriatic Sea becoming, as in the days of Venice, an
+Italian Sea." Cavour's opinion as to the towns was presumably based on
+such researches as were made in 1842 by Kandler. The city of Triest
+contained in that year 53,000 persons "who speak Italian" and 21,000
+"who speak Slav"; but as Italian, an international language, was used
+by the numerous German, Armenian, Greek, Turkish and Levantine
+colonies, and was spoken in public by all the Slavs, the 53,000 would
+lose a considerable proportion who were not fundamentally Italian by
+race or sentiments. It may safely be stated, on the other hand, that
+none of the Italians and an infinitely small number of the exotic
+population would speak Slav, so that one may say that Triest contained
+21,000 Slovenes. One need not attach overmuch importance to the fact
+that the town in 1866, among other manifestations of loyalty
+occasioned by the defeat of the Italian navy near Vis (Lissa), created
+the Austrian Admiral Tegetthoff an honorary citizen. Even if the
+53,000 had all been Italians, Triest might have thought it expedient
+to act in this way.... Cavour may have accepted in very good faith the
+similar figures for the little ports of western Istria; in them there
+was no such miscellaneous population, but a large number of those who
+spoke Italian did so because it was only at this period that the
+Bishop, Dr. George Dobrila, the great regenerator of the Istrian
+Yugoslavs, began to rouse his countrymen and to induce them not to
+discard their own language. "Wachen sie die Slaven" ("Awaken the
+Slavs"), said Francis Joseph before the war against Italy in 1866 when
+he was anxious for the southern provinces; and although the Emperor
+used various means to put the Slavs to sleep again, it may be noted
+that in 1861 Cavour would learn that in the Diet there were two Slavs
+against twenty-eight Italians, in the Parliament no single Slav;
+whereas if he had lived another fifty years he would have seen the
+same country returning nineteen Slav deputies to the Diet against
+twenty-five Italians, and three to the Parliament at Vienna against
+three Italians....
+
+
+ITALIAN _v._ SLAV: TOMMASEO'S ADVICE
+
+As for Dalmatia, where also the Italian-speaking population was not
+fundamentally Italian by race or sentiments, we may turn to the
+renowned Nicolo Tommaseo, whose authority the Italians do not dispute.
+"We must not abolish the Italian language," he said--and this was in
+the year 1861--"for it would be a dream of fools to wish or hope to be
+able to abolish it immediately in public life without causing offence
+and confusion and injury even for those who speak Illyrian; this would
+be a tyranny the more abominable as it would be powerless ... because
+the Illyrian tongue, as is the case more or less with all the Slav
+languages, spoken by nations which up to the present have not entirely
+participated in the abstractions of science and in the refinements of
+European art, is not as yet equipped with all that reserve of terms
+and locutions which is demanded in a highly developed social life,
+_although that language possess in itself all the elements_." This
+capacity which he recognized in the Slav languages and which came
+subsequently to the surface in Russian and Czech literature, would, he
+said, in two generations cause the Slav to be employed as the official
+language of Dalmatia. He stipulated for two generations "because, in
+the first place, it is necessary that this language should be learned
+regularly in the schools from the lowest to the highest class, without
+for that reason ever banishing Italian; and secondly, it is requisite
+that men should become skilful in the use of this language and should
+render it adequate for the needs of social life."
+
+
+AUSTRIA LEANS ON GERMANS AND ITALIANISTS
+
+For a moment after her Italian misfortunes Austria assumed a kindly
+mien towards her Slavs. In the manifesto of July 15, 1859, which made
+public the treaty of peace, the Emperor promised "immediate
+modifications in the laws and in the administration." Bach, the German
+reactionary, was succeeded by Goluchowski, and in April 1861 Ivan
+Mazurani['c] became the Croat Chancellor at Vienna, with educational,
+legal and religious affairs included in the sphere of his office. The
+incorporation with Dalmatia was not granted then, but was promised. A
+letter was, however, sent to Mamula, the governor of Dalmatia,
+ordering him to create a majority hostile to the Emperor's letter of
+December 5, 1860, in which he had invited the two provinces to send
+their delegate to a conference at which the union would be discussed.
+The shrill protests of the German party were successful; for the next
+few years the Slavs were being pushed into their pit and then helped
+half-way out again. Schmerling, the German, would evolve an electoral
+system by which the Parliament must always have a German majority;
+Francis Deak, the Hungarian, would make excellent proposals that too
+often suffered shipwreck through no fault of his, he would manage to
+pass liberal legislation which remained in after years upon the
+statute book and was exhibited by Magyars to appreciative foreigners.
+The general tendency of those years after the Italian disaster was
+unfavourable to the Slav. In southern Hungary the Serbian duchy was
+dissolved, despite their protests, after an existence of eleven years.
+But as Francis Joseph was no longer able to bestow caresses on the
+recreant Italians he transferred his love to the Dalmatian
+autonomists, who now began to call themselves the Italian party. It
+is probable that he smiled on these 21/2 per cent. of the province,
+not only because of his family traditions, his leaning towards Italian
+art and the hope against hope that he would once more some day rule in
+Italy, where he had his numerous well-wishers among the clergy and the
+rural population--it is possible that he was gracious to the
+autonomist Dalmatian party because they were a brake upon the national
+sentiments. Until 1866 the whole administration was conducted in the
+language of the 21/2 per cent. In that year the Ministers of Justice
+and of the Interior decided to ask officials who thenceforward entered
+the Dalmatian service to have some sort of knowledge of the Illyrian
+language. In 1869 these Ministers permitted the Dalmatian communities
+to correspond in their own language with the tribunals and the
+administrative authorities; while in 1887 the administrative
+authorities and the tribunals were ordered to reply in Serbo-Croat to
+the local bodies who used that language. The autonomist party may not
+appeal to us and apparently it did not appeal to Nicolo Tommaseo. From
+wherever he is he must be looking on with interest at a controversy
+between two Italian writers who both published books on Dalmatia in
+1915 and who bear witness--Mr. Cippico to the truth that Tommaseo was
+an autonomist and Mr. Prezzolini to the truth that he was not. "The
+theory of Tommaseo," says Mr. Cippico, "desires an autonomous Dalmatia
+between the mountains and the sea." "Go to!" says Mr. Prezzolini.
+"Have the kindness to read what the man writes. Here is a passage:
+'Whatever one may say about it, it will not be Croatia, a poor
+country, lacking in civilization, _but the opulent Slav provinces
+subject to Turkey_ and morally less in subjection than Croatia, which,
+when they and Dalmatia are united, will make her wealthy and the
+mother of civilization and wealth. Destiny therefore lays it down that
+Dalmatia in the days to come shall be the friend and not the subject
+of Italy.' Tommaseo showed in 1848 what he thought of such a
+subjection. 'In 1848,' he writes, 'I could have raised the whole of
+Dalmatia with the help of an Italian colonel who with his men had
+offered to dislodge the German governor of Zadar, but I refused; I
+refused, because I foresaw.' And just as he was opposed to the union
+with Italy, so likewise was he opposed to autonomy. You spoke of
+mountains and the sea. Permit me to direct your attention to some
+lines of his:
+
+    'Ne piu tre il monte e il mar, povero lembo
+      Di terra e poche iznude isole sparte,
+      O Patria mia, sarai; ma la rinata
+      Serbia (guerniera mano e mite spirto)
+      E quanti campi, all' italo sorriso
+      Nati, impaluda l'ottoman letargo,
+      Teco una vita ed un voler faranno....'
+
+This one would translate as follows: 'Thou shalt no longer be, O my
+country, a poor stretch of land between the mountains and the sea,
+with some bare scattered islands; but Serbia reborn, that is now
+sicklied o'er with Turkish lethargy, shall make one life and one
+desire with thee and with all these fields that sprung into being
+under an Italian smile.' If you really think that this proves that
+Tommaseo contemplated a harmonious coexistence in Dalmatia of the two
+countries, Serbia and Italy, then I beg you to read the passage once
+again." This Mr. Antonio Cippico, by the way, is a native of Dalmatia
+with most Italian sympathies; another Cippico from Dalmatia, a cousin
+of his, has for years been a well-known litterateur in Belgrade, and
+according to him the great majority of the Cippico family are of his
+way of thinking.
+
+
+THE SOUTHERN SLAV HOPES ARE CENTRED ON CETINJE
+
+While Tommaseo foresaw this union, his contemporaries of the Omladina
+strove for another one. Prince Michael Obrenovi['c] had, in 1860,
+again succeeded his father, and as it was not known if he had
+undergone a change in exile, the young patriots of the Omladina did
+not look upon him as the saviour of the Serbian people. There was
+again a poet on the throne of Montenegro, a youth of whom they heard
+romantic things. Not only had Prince Nicholas borne arms against the
+Turk, but he had sung in moving verse the glory of the Serbian
+heritage, the triumphant union of the Serbs that was to be. Since 1860
+he had guided Montenegro's destinies--his uncle, the first purely
+temporal ruler, Danilo, having been assassinated in the Bocche di
+Cattaro after a reign of warfare against the Turk, and his own
+subjects, who resented the deposition of the tribal chiefs, the
+imposition of terrific taxes, based on the number of cattle they
+possessed, and occasional seduction of their wives. The Omladina knew
+that Michael had been visiting the West, that he had frequented the
+masters of science and politics in London, Paris and Berlin; but he
+would probably forget their precepts and in any case he was much
+duller than the splendid youth whom they affectionately called
+Nikita.... Some historians have wondered why this young man did not
+alienate the affection of his people by the slaughter of the Kadi['c]
+clan, whereof a member had assassinated Prince Danilo. But it was the
+Senate which punished the murderer by exiling him, with seven families
+of his kindred, to Turkey. Danilo had been aware of his intention,
+while the man was waiting--in obedience to Austria's orders--at Kotor.
+And the Prince, acting on a local custom, sent word that if Kadi['c]
+did not return to Montenegro he would bestow Mrs. Kadi['c] on some one
+else. After two weeks she became the wife of a neighbour. The story
+that Kadi['c] was avenging her seduction is an Austrian invention, for
+Danilo seems never to have met her.
+
+One day in 1862 the Turks, who still were in the Belgrade fortress,
+started, for some foolish reason, to bombard the town. Prince Michael
+in the subsequent negotiations showed that he had qualities one could
+not but respect. Still he was unsuccessful (until 1867) in obtaining
+the removal of the Turkish garrisons--Great Britain, fearing Russian
+influence, and Austria, hostile to the total independence of the
+Serbs, supported Turkey. And Michael governed with so firm a hand that
+there were many who believed that the material improvement he was
+introducing, schools of agriculture, schools of forestry and what not,
+could be just as well inaugurated by the far more sympathetic Prince
+Nikita. And when in 1866 Michael and Nikita made a grand convention
+for the union of the Serbs in Serbia and in Montenegro, and Nikita
+undertook to step aside, if necessary, so that all the independent
+Serbs might be united under Michael's sceptre, then indeed the
+Omladina talked of him with rapture. And Nikita made allusions to this
+"grand refusal" all his life and with a face of honest pride. He
+never mentioned anything about clause 3, which was not published. By
+that clause Nikita was to be Prince Michael's heir, in case he had no
+son. There was not much likelihood that he would have one, for the
+Hungarian wife from whom he was divorced[46] had given him no
+children, and the girl with whom he was overpoweringly in love was a
+cousin, whom the Church, because of their relationship, prevented him
+from marrying. It was with this girl that the Prince was always said
+to have been walking in the park near Belgrade on June 10, 1868, when
+he was mysteriously murdered.[47] After Michael's death the
+Skup[vs]tina, not acting in accordance with the secret clause, placed
+on the throne a grandson (?) of a brother of Prince Milo[vs], who was
+a minor and the nearest in the order of succession. By this time the
+_Omladina_ had perceived that in the character of their romantic
+prince lay certain lamentable traits. The friendship, which he had
+inherited, with Russia he continued, and the Russian Court rewarded
+him in no half-hearted fashion. When the Italians proposed in 1866
+that he and they should share the Bocche di Cattaro, he said the
+moment was not opportune; the Austrians for this bestowed on him a
+pension which they paid until the outbreak of the World War. One could
+understand, of course, that Nikita did not wish to rouse the enmity of
+Austria; it must have hurt him to refrain from going to the Bocche,
+where the population was most Slav and had endured a great deal for
+the cause, but other men were hurt by his acceptance of the pension.
+
+
+FOR THEY KNOW NEITHER NICHOLAS OF MONTENEGRO NOR MICHAEL OF SERBIA
+
+Michael in those few years had displayed such qualities that he might
+have united with his country Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria and
+Macedonia. His statesmanship, which made such a result seem very
+possible, may have induced some jealous partisans of the rival
+Karageorgevi['c] dynasty to murder him; the same reasons would have
+been sufficient for Austria. And Austria had given her formal consent
+to a diplomatic plan for the solution of the Bosnian question, whereby
+Michael was to administer the two distracted provinces as the Sultan's
+mandatory. The decapitation of the begs by Omar Pasha had by no means
+marked the dawn of a new era for the peasant. From 1856 till 1859 the
+country was in a condition of such anarchy, with pashas tyrannizing
+here and there, with villages obliged to take as their protector some
+marauding ruffian who had settled in their midst, with young men
+taking to the hills, that finally a conference was summoned, at
+Austria's instigation, in Constantinople, and of this the upshot was
+that the abuses practised hitherto by the great landlords were all
+sanctioned if they would inaugurate no new ones. The Franciscan monks,
+beloved by the people, had kept alive the people's hope that something
+would be done for them; they could not stop the people from attempting
+to obtain it by ill-organized revolts. From time to time there would
+be a concerted movement; thus Luka Vukalovi['c] in 1862 fired his own
+Herzegovina and also the Bocche di Cattaro, weapons and volunteers
+came from Montenegro, and Vukalovi['c] was recognized by Turkey as the
+military and civil head of an autonomous Herzegovina. But he was
+subsequently forced to fly to Serbia, while the Turks had such
+success against the Montenegrins that the Great Powers had to
+intervene. And that was one of the most fruitful of the insurrections.
+When the news was spread that Michael would arrive there were great
+popular rejoicings. Christians and Muhammedans were busy, till the
+time of his assassination, preparing for his solemn entry.
+
+
+IF MICHAEL HAD LIVED!
+
+Many of the Bulgars were as eager to associate themselves with
+Michael. In 1862, when Belgrade was bombarded by the Turks, Rakovski
+got together a Bulgarian legion which would fight in Serbia against
+the common foe; in 1867 the Bulgarian Revolutionary Committee at
+Bucharest, where these leaders of the people had sought sanctuary,
+proposed the union of Bulgaria and Serbia under Michael. "Between the
+Serbs and the Bulgars," says the first article, "there shall be
+established a fraternal union calling itself the Yugoslav Kingdom." If
+this idea had been put forward by any one but Rakovski one might
+consider it a mere fantastic notion, but the Bulgars who elected this
+extraordinary man to be their chief were, as is the habit of the
+Bulgars, nothing if not practical.
+
+
+THE STRANGE CAREER OF RAKOVSKI
+
+Rakovski was born at the picturesque little town of Kotel in the
+eastern Balkans, and was educated at Constantinople, but his ebullient
+temperament did not allow him to pursue his studies to the end. He
+turned up at Braila in 1841 and, being hardly twenty years of age, was
+dreaming of a revolution of the Orient. With a group of insurgents he
+tried to cross the Danube and to rouse the Bulgars. A Roumanian patrol
+opens fire, on each side there are several killed and wounded. He is
+captured and condemned to death, but having a Greek passport he is
+rescued by the Greek Consul and put on board a boat which lands him at
+Marseilles. For eighteen months he lives in France--it is not known
+where--and is imbued with democratic doctrine. Passing through
+Constantinople in 1843 he accepts a post as schoolmaster at Trnovo,
+but is immediately at loggerheads with the Greek bishop and departs.
+Returning to his birthplace he is irritated by the pride and harshness
+of the upper class, and he attempts to make the people rise against
+them. They charge him with being a disturber of the peace. "He has
+travelled through Europe," says their complaint to the Government,
+"and now in this town he bestrides a horse, brandishes his sword and
+overwhelms the Turks with insults, both their race and their
+religion." In consequence Rakovski and his father are arrested and
+dispatched to Constantinople, where they both of them remain in prison
+until 1847. After being liberated, he forms a secret society which is
+to take advantage of the approaching Russo-Turkish conflict. Its
+members are to have themselves enrolled among the Turks, with the
+double object of protecting the Bulgarian population from excesses on
+the part of the soldiery and also, at the propitious moment, to stir
+them up and so assist the Russians. He himself is appointed to the
+Turkish staff at Shumen, as first dragoman. His plot being discovered,
+he is arrested and sent to Constantinople; on the way he escapes, but
+he proceeds to Constantinople and organizes there a company of
+heiduks. Turkey's entrance into the European concert fills him with
+pessimism. The Bulgars at Constantinople believe that the civilizing
+influence of the West will not be in vain. He foresees a more evil
+despotism masked by the pseudo-liberal manoeuvres of the Powers, and
+henceforward he joins those Bulgars who agitate from Roumania or from
+Serbia. He goes to the Banat, where he is not only made most welcome
+but is enabled to publish _The Bulgarian News_, which is political,
+and a literary supplement, _The Swan of the Danube_. The Turks are
+uneasy; they ask the Austrians to suppress these papers. The Austrians
+comply and expel the editor. He is persecuted by the Porte in Moldavia
+and flies to Russia, where he devotes himself seriously to a long poem
+in honour of the heiduks. The first part of this very long work, the
+_Gorski Patnik_, had appeared at Novi Sad. It brought him considerable
+fame--he was compared with Virgil--but modern readers find this poem
+tedious. He likewise wrote a dissertation which established, by
+comparative philology, that the Bulgars are the most direct
+descendants of the Aryans, that their language is the nearest to
+Sanskrit, and that the other European languages, including Greek and
+Latin, are derived from it. Rakovski next appears in Belgrade, where
+he leads a life of splendour; he had carriages and wonderful horses,
+he was arrayed in a princely kind of uniform and was surrounded by a
+kind of guard. The source of his revenues, which always seemed to
+fluctuate, was never fathomed; but they may at this period have
+accrued from his literary labours, which--although the present
+generation smile--produced among the Bulgars a vast, patriotic pride.
+At Belgrade the visionary historian and whimsical philologist becomes
+a most sagacious politician. He is the first Bulgarian publicist to
+talk of a free press, and he refuses, unlike many others, to seek help
+from Russia only. "We must help ourselves," he cries. "As we are
+Orthodox, Russia will desire to keep us under the authority of the
+Greek Church; as we are Slavs, she will try to make the Western Powers
+suspicious of us." When there was a wave of emigration to Russia he
+frantically tried to stop it. "For you it will be suicide," he
+exclaimed, "for your children assassination and for Bulgaria ruin!" He
+painted Russia in appalling colours, and the would-be emigrants
+repented. His personal affairs oppressed him for a time in 1862, when
+he left Belgrade to the imprecations of his creditors. The Serbian
+statesmen, while appreciating his exalted patriotism, would have
+sooner had amongst them a more typical and stable Bulgar. Yet they
+declined the Porte's request for extradition. At the beginning of 1863
+Rakovski is in Athens, magnificent once more and now accompanied by an
+aide-de-camp, a Montenegrin captain, whom he introduces as related to
+Nikita. He is forming an alliance of the Balkan States, which,
+according to his calculations, will exterminate the Turk in Europe. He
+promises himself to furnish 20,000 volunteers--to start with. In the
+previous year when he had planned to liberate Bulgaria with 12,000
+volunteers, of whom a hundred were to be cavalry and another hundred
+gunners, he could gather only 500. And now again he is disillusioned
+and leaves Athens.
+
+It was during his stay there that he met the well-known Balkan
+travellers, Miss Irby and Miss Muir Mackenzie. They had been up and
+down the Peninsula in 1862 and 1863, making very exhaustive inquiries
+that were the basis of their book.[48] In 1917 Professor Ivan
+Shishmanoff discovered two letters of Miss Muir Mackenzie's in Sofia
+and published them in _Sbornik_. The first is dated May 12, and is in
+German. "Since we have been here we have made the acquaintance of Mr.
+Rakovski," she writes. "He has been so kind as to teach me Serbian,
+during Miss Irby's illness. We like him very much, and I know of no
+one among the Slavs with whose opinion we so entirely agree; because
+he does not think as a Serbian or yet a Montenegrin or a Croat or a
+Bulgar, but as a Slav.... I can't tell you how much I fear that their
+internal divisions will make impossible the realization of a Yugoslav
+country. One can't hope for much from the Greeks; they have exorbitant
+ambitions and neither private nor public integrity. Those are bad
+faults to find in an ally. And they speak openly of a Byzantine
+Empire! And reckon that all the Southern Slavs, Serbs as well as
+Bulgars, belong to them.... I hope that England will some day assure
+herself that there are other Christians in the East besides the
+Greeks."
+
+
+THE YUGOSLAV NAME
+
+Miss Muir Mackenzie's other letter, of June 23, is addressed to
+Rakovski from Bolsover Castle, Chesterfield. It is written in French.
+"We attach great importance," she says, "to the name Yugoslav. By
+means of crying that word in the ears of the Greeks one will succeed
+in making them understand that the Bulgars are Slavs. By means of
+crying it in the ears of the European diplomats one will succeed by
+making them comprehend that one cannot ignore a people of ten or
+twelve million souls. By means of crying 'We are Yugoslavs,' the
+Yugoslavs themselves will succeed in forgetting their little
+distinctions of environment and race, and in conducting themselves as
+a nation worthy of the name. Let us therefore cry that word--we will
+make people speak of it sooner or later."
+
+In June 1863 Rakovski was at Cetinje, but as he was requesting
+subsidies he did not find a very sympathetic audience in Nikita.
+Thence he passed to Bucharest, where he issued--for ten numbers--a
+Bulgaro-Roumanian newspaper; the Bulgars in Bucharest had grown too
+prosperous to be interested either in his journalistic or his military
+schemes, and he found the Bulgarian colonies in Russia equally obtuse.
+He was attacked by consumption while he was at work upon the
+_Provisional Law for the National Bands in the Forests_--a sort of
+written constitution for the heiduks, and in the intervals of his last
+sufferings he wrote a history of the heiduks from the days of the
+Turkish conquest. He died on October 20, 1867.
+
+The statesmen who then governed the Great Powers may have deprecated
+Rakovski as much as he deprecated them. It must have been exasperating
+for those solid persons subsequently to acknowledge--if they did
+so--that this unbalanced agitator weighed them very well. But the
+Balkan countries were too weak; they had to suffer being thrown aside,
+pushed here and there, and trampled on; for when the Great Powers came
+down to the Balkans they could really not pay much attention to the
+little peoples of the country and at the same time keep their eyes
+upon each other. Afterwards the Balkan countries found that it was
+better for them when the Great Powers fought each other there than
+when they came to friendly understandings. It was profitable and
+diverting for Albania when the Austrians and the Italians glowered at
+each other in that silent land: it was terrible in 1878 for Bosnia and
+Herzegovina when the Great Powers were on such good terms with one
+another that they allowed one of themselves to make off with those two
+waifs of whom he was not even the wicked uncle.
+
+Russia had been taking a keen interest in the Balkans after Austria's
+disaster in 1859 at Sadowa. It was then that Prince Gortchakoff and
+his colleagues in the Ministry were inspired by the doctrines of
+Katkoff, who in his _Moscow Gazette_ exercised much authority over
+public opinion and even over the Tzar. Panslavism, according to
+Debidour,[49] which a short time ago had been shivering in the
+background, lifted its head proudly and spoke of the new era which
+holy Russia was about to inaugurate, of the sacred mission that was
+incumbent on the Tzar. And the sanctity was greater in that it was not
+to be defined by merely mediaeval but by modern language; the Tzar must
+not alone protect all those who practised his religion, he must be a
+patron saint who patronizes.
+
+
+RUSSIA AND AUSTRIA SOW DISCORD IN THE BALKANS
+
+To this end committees, in Moscow and in Petrograd, deliberated;
+newspapers and pamphlets spread their views; agile agents propagated
+them throughout the Balkans, calling on the Bulgars and the Bosniaks
+to rise, promising aggrandizements to Serbia and Montenegro, spurring
+on the fiery Cretans to make their revolt of 1866. All promised well.
+There was to be a Balkan federation formed at the expense of Austria
+and the Porte: Serbia would receive the Voivodina and Bosnia,
+Montenegro would acquire Herzegovina, the Croats would at least annex
+Dalmatia, and the Slovenes and the Bulgars would come naturally into
+this united Yugoslavia, under Michael's sceptre. He was at the time
+not only in most cordial relations with the Bulgars, but in 1867 he
+began _pourparlers_ to ally himself with Greece, and he made overtures
+to the new sovereign of Roumania, Charles of Hohenzollern. And after
+this plan also had been nullified by Michael's death, the Russians
+still continued with their task, but now they had to deal with a
+convalescent Austria. It came to pass that the Bulgars found
+themselves in Russia's sphere, the Serbs in that of Austria. The
+little countries were thus violently pulled apart, and naturally each
+of them began to stretch their hands out to the neighbouring Slavs who
+were in servitude, but yet they managed to keep hand in hand with one
+another. The young men, such as Karaveloff and Tzankoff, whom Prince
+Michael sent to Western Europe to be educated, the young Bulgarian
+priests who had studied in that branch of the Belgrade seminary which
+Prince Michael opened for them, and all the Serbs and Bulgars who
+considered their two countries knew that, for political and economic
+reasons, they must not be kept apart. But there was always a Great
+Power to frustrate these designs. Yet even after they had been flung
+at each other in the fratricidal days of 1885, even after their
+attempt in 1905 to found a Customs union had been vetoed, even after
+some of their so-called _intelligentsia_ had done what injury they
+could by harping on the limitations from which they naturally, like
+the older peoples, are not exempt--nevertheless, as it was seen in
+1912, when the demonstrations of delight in Belgrade and in Sofia were
+touching, they are only too glad to fulfil their destiny. Since 1912
+that misguided _intelligentsia_ has been given a large store of fresh
+ammunition. They will go on firing and firing, while the people,
+including the real _intelligentsia_, will be better engaged.
+
+
+THE MACEDONIAN SLAVS UNDER THEIR GREEK CLERGY
+
+The name of Tzankoff brings to mind a strange ecclesiastical movement.
+The reader may remember how the little Macedonian town of Kuku[vs]
+carried from its church the books in Greek and how it welcomed the
+Bulgarian monk who sang the Mass in Slav. The bishops and the clergy
+of the Greek Church had not made themselves beloved in Macedonia,
+where the population was indisputably much more Slav. Greek villages
+were very scarce to the north of Lake Castoria; but after the
+suppression of the two Slav Patriarchates in the eighteenth century
+the only Christians who lead a dignified existence were the Greek
+clergy. Among the Slav upper class there was a good deal of
+Hellenization; to be a Greek was of much social value. But the people
+generally stayed intact, because the schools so thoughtfully provided
+by the Greeks were solely for the boys. The language spoken in the
+home would therefore still be Slav. And it is not likely that the
+people would have cherished their Greek clergy, even if they had been
+archangels, when once the national awakening had begun. But what we
+hear about this clergy is too seldom of a pleasing character. The
+children of the Macedonian peasants might go into ecstasies on seeing
+one of these episcopal processions, with the bishop's glorious white
+horse and harness such as they had never dreamed of, with his footmen
+round about him and with all those other priests, the old ones and the
+young ones and the monks, and then the bishop's doctor and some other
+men in spectacles, and then the bishop's cook and a few more monks.
+But the Macedonian villagers who had to entertain all this rapacious
+brood and pay terrific fees for everything--250 piastres for a
+liturgy, 500 for a whole service, 500 for marriages among relatives up
+to the seventh degree, large contributions under the name of charity,
+and so forth--these had only rancour for the Church. Perhaps the
+saintliest among the Greeks declined to go to Macedonia. One hears of
+them so little and of people like Meletios so much. This savage person
+was appointed in 1859 to be Bishop of Ochrida, although the reputation
+he had left there--having previously been the coadjutor--was
+atrocious. Protests and entreaties were sent to Constantinople, but
+from 1860 until 1869 he stayed at Ochrida and carried on an implacable
+duel with his flock. He was frequently received with hisses, sometimes
+he was struck by stones, sometimes he was flung out of a church. But
+he was not the man to be intimidated--a large man, with broad
+shoulders, an arrogant expression and a bristling beard; they say he
+had the appearance of a janissary in clerical garb. He took into his
+service an Albanian bandit, through whom he terrorized the diocese. At
+one time he had the young wife of a man who was away in Roumania
+brought into his harem. The husband returned, asked for his wife and
+succeeded in obtaining her, but after two months he was assassinated,
+and the widow thought she might as well allow the bishop to console
+her. The outcry was enormous; no one doubted that it was Meletios who
+had given orders for the crime. A deputation of thirty went to lay
+this case and numerous other transgressions before the Patriarch at
+Constantinople. He would only receive five delegates, who read their
+document in a plenary sitting of the Holy Synod. After they had
+recited the afore-mentioned episode, one of the bishops who was
+present lost patience and, "Is it really worth our while to listen to
+such tales?" he asked. "If Christ spoke to the Samaritan woman, why
+should not a simple bishop hold converse with a woman also?" "At last
+the moment has come!" said the delegates. They departed, and at the
+door they shook the dust from their feet. The Patriarch himself ran
+after them. "Come back, my children!" he cried. But they were deaf to
+his voice.
+
+About forty years after the reign of Meletios there was still a Greek
+bishop at Ochrida, but--this was in 1912, after the first Balkan
+War--the town had also a Bulgarian and also a Serbian bishop. The
+Greek ecclesiastic did not profess to administer a very large
+flock--it consisted of about twelve families--but he explained that
+his presence was made necessary by the ancient Greek culture. He was
+there to watch over it. The local church of St. Clement and the
+monasteries of SS. Zaim and Naoum are dedicated to disciples of Cyril
+and Methodus, the two brothers who introduced Christianity to these
+parts. They may well have recruited their disciples among the Slavs,
+whose language they had learned before they set out. But whether the
+old stones which the Greek bishop was guarding in 1912 are Greek or
+Slav, he was better employed than most of his predecessors.
+
+
+THE AFFAIR OF KUKU[vS]
+
+One of the first Macedonian villages to take an independent attitude
+had been Kuku[vs]. When it heard that some French priests were
+operating at Salonica, and that if it were converted to Catholicism it
+would be given a national clergy and the protection of France, the
+temptation was so great that it succumbed. One of the Bulgarian
+democrats at Constantinople, Dragan Tzankoff, identified himself with
+this idea, not through religious motives but in order that the Porte
+should no longer fear that the independence of the Catholic Bulgarian
+nation would be a gain for Russia. This may sound rather far-fetched;
+he may have also used Catholicism merely as a threat by which to
+induce the Russians to assist in procuring the Exarchate. Tzankoff and
+various other people went to Rome, where Pius IX. blessed their
+enterprise and consecrated one of them, the archimandrite Sokolski, as
+Bishop of the Bulgarian Uniate Church. Sokolski was a worthy,
+patriotic man, but not endowed with mental attributes such as this
+post demanded; they had, however, been unable to find anybody better
+qualified. He soon decamped to Russia, for he was down-hearted when
+the Church did not attract a greater number of disciples. His
+defection was a grave blow to the cause, chiefly on account of the
+laughter it excited. Bulgarian Catholicism had, however, a fair number
+of adherents at Constantinople and at Kuku[vs].... There was at the
+same time another movement, more discreetly undertaken, by American
+missionaries to convert the Bulgars to the Protestant religion. These
+Americans, drawn by the magic name of Greece, had come to Europe to
+assist that people in their fight for freedom. They had built them
+schools, had printed educational books in Greek, and had contributed
+in every way towards the people's moral progress; and no sooner was
+the country liberated than they were expelled. The Bulgars did not
+treat them in so cavalier a fashion, but neither did they adopt
+Protestantism as the State religion. Sir Henry Bulwer, the British
+Ambassador, recommended them rather to persevere with Catholicism; it
+seemed to him that this religion, with its authoritative organization,
+would be more adapted to removing the Bulgars from the influence of
+Russia. The Russian Ambassador, the disdainful Prince Lobanoff-Rostovski,
+was very much bored by all this trouble that the Bulgars were giving;
+the Greeks were furious. One day a Catholic Bulgar died in the French
+hospital at Pera, and a body of Greeks, accompanied by clergy, wished
+to have the corpse handed over to them for burial according to the
+Orthodox Greek rite. When they were refused admission they attempted
+to enter by force, raising loud cries and threatening to sack the
+whole place. In the end they were dispersed by a detachment of French
+sailors....
+
+
+THE EXARCHATE IS ESTABLISHED
+
+These religious disputes between Greek and Bulgar were agreeable to
+the Porte, which encouraged the Bulgars to persevere with the
+Catholic plan. Russia continued to be very embarrassed, not wishing to
+make a permanent enemy either of the Greek Church or of the Bulgarian
+people. Finally the Bulgarian efforts to secure a national Church met
+with reward. The Turkish authorities--Fuad Pasha, the Grand Vizier,
+being an enlightened man--did not persist in the impracticable plan
+that this Church should be in communion with Rome. One of the
+consequences of the establishment of their autocephalous Church was
+that many of the Bulgarian Catholics at Constantinople and Kuku[vs]
+abandoned that religion. The Vatican complained--and not
+unreasonably--that it had been fooled. The Russians are generally
+given much credit for this Bulgarian success, but although they
+participated in the negotiations--and their Ambassador, the
+resourceful Count Ignatieff,[50] would make it seem that they were
+gratified with the result--their situation was so delicate that they
+preferred to play for safety. When the news was brought to Serbia it
+gave rise to great rejoicings, for the Exarchate was the charter of
+liberty for the Macedonian Slavs. No one dreamed at this time that, on
+account of Macedonia, Serbs and Bulgars would be some day flying at
+each other's throat.
+
+
+1867: AUSTRIA DELIVERS THE SLAVS TO THE MAGYARS
+
+The Southern Slavs had recently been shown that if they waited in the
+hope that others would assist them to improve their fortunes they
+would have to have a monumental patience. When Austria, after her
+defeat at the hand of the Prussians, was flung out of the German
+federation, she availed herself of the services of a German, Count
+Frederick Beust, to put her house in order. His negotiations with
+Hungary produced the compromise, the _Ausgleich_, of 1867. This
+Constitution, which made them independent of each other as regards
+internal matters, bade their Slavs prepare themselves to lose all
+shreds of independence. The Serbs of the Banat and Ba[vc]ka, as well
+as the Roumanians of Transylvania and the Slovaks, were delivered to
+the Magyars without any guarantee that their language or their
+nationality would be respected. "Look!" said the Magyars in after
+years, when travellers came to see what they had done, "we have a
+language law, evolved by Deak, which lays down that everybody in the
+law courts has the right to use his mother-tongue." The traveller had
+been wondering what unusual people lived in Hungary, for he had seen a
+peasant choose precisely that time when a train was due to come and
+quarrel about something with the booking clerk. How was the traveller
+to learn that the non-Magyar peasant wished to buy a ticket for his
+native village, whose name had just been Magyarized, and that the
+clerk refused to sell a ticket except the peasant used a name he did
+not know? And when the peasant had walked home he might see in the
+village register that he who had been Saba was now Shebek and that his
+friend Ziva, who could speak no word of Magyar, was now Vitaljos; and
+that the children of poor Vitaljos, in order that they should not
+suffer from their father's handicap, were not confining their
+education to ordinary subjects, but were learning the Magyar language
+for seventeen hours every week. Well, how was your traveller to know
+that if a person used his own tongue in the law courts, which was very
+probably the tongue of everyone who lived there save a handful of
+officials, one of these officials who was accidentally in court would
+say he was acquainted with that person's language? The judge would
+take his word for it and he would start interpreting. When the
+Hungarians came to deal with the Croats they were careful to give
+them, for the world's eye, a great deal of autonomy. Strossmayer,
+assisted by the historian Ra[vc]ki, had in April 1866 led a deputation
+to Buda-Pest when it was clear that extreme divergencies existed
+between the Croats and the Magyars. Among other Croatian demands was
+one that Rieka should no longer be the scene of Magyar intrigues. As
+yet the town's importance was not great: in 1869 she had only 17,884
+inhabitants and the total of her exports and imports did not exceed
+150,000 tons. But everybody knew that by the building of a direct line
+to Croatia and to the valleys of the Save, the Drave and the Danube
+there would come an era of prosperity. The Magyars had allied
+themselves with the Autonomist party, showing them what great
+advantages the town would reap if it were joined to Hungary. Would not
+Hungary, for instance, be able to manipulate the railway freights?
+There had been constant bickerings between the Croats and the
+Autonomist party, so that Strossmayer's deputation asked that the
+Magyars should refrain from giving to the latter their financial and
+moral support. But the Magyars had no such intention. "One should try
+to convince everyone," said Ra[vc]ki, "that in national politics the
+Magyars and ourselves stand at the Antipodes. We see in the Slav and
+Yugoslav solidarity the most powerful guarantee for our national
+future, whereas the Magyars see in it the tomb of their nationality.
+We consider the liberation of the East as a condition of a happier
+future, while the Magyars regard it as the beginning of their absolute
+ruin or at least as the end of their aspirations for the sole
+dominion. The idea of a Yugoslav State, arising in Croatia or in
+Bosnia or Serbia, would always find in Hungary a most determined foe."
+It was thus improbable that any satisfactory arrangement would be
+made, particularly as the Austrians, oblivious to all that
+Jella[vc]i['c] had done for them, were quite prepared to give their
+erstwhile enemies, the Magyars, a free hand. And what the Magyars did
+was to confer upon Croatia this autonomy for educational and legal and
+religious matters, while they reserved financial, railway, fiscal and
+commercial questions, military legislation and the laws relating to
+the roads and rivers in which both were interested--all these subjects
+they reserved for the Parliament at Buda-Pest, in which, of course,
+the Croats formed an impotent minority. Francis Joseph on May 1, 1867,
+sent a message to Zagreb in which he stated that "the pourparlers with
+the Kingdom of Hungary, which to him was always dear and faithful, had
+led to the desired results." He trusted that the Croats would be
+represented at his coronation at Buda-Pest. Strossmayer was ordered to
+bring this about; he went instead to the Paris Exhibition. He and the
+National party prepared themselves for a severe struggle. But now
+Baron Levin Rauch, of infamous memory, was nominated as Ban. He at
+once altered the electoral laws, so that the National party came back
+with only fourteen deputies. If any one in Western Europe thought
+about the Croats it was with the traditional aversion for the way in
+which they had behaved to the most noble Kossuth. This was years
+before the time when Dr. Seton-Watson, as it may interest him to hear,
+defeated the Magyarophil candidate at an election in the town of
+Ogulin. The bright idea occurred to somebody to whisper it abroad that
+Dr. Seton-Watson would arrive that day in order to make notes of the
+election for the British Press. With Rauch's obedient majority a
+compromise, the _Nagodba_, was arranged with Hungary. The terms of
+this, subordinating Croatia economically and financially to Buda-Pest,
+are what one would expect; the chief novelty concerns Rieka, as to
+which port no agreement had been reached.
+
+
+THE "KRPITSA"
+
+On the Croat text of the _Nagodba_, which had received the Emperor's
+sanction on November 8, a piece of paper, the famous "Krpitsa," was
+glued; and on this paper were the words Rieka knew of old--_Corpus
+separatum sacrae coronae Hungaricae_. They had been put forward by the
+Hungarian delegates and approved by the Emperor on November 17. This
+rather melodramatic affair would have been thought worthy of at any
+rate a few lines by most of us if we had written a whole book, nay two
+books, about Rieka. But our friend Mr. Edoardo Susmel glides, as
+gracefully as possible, over it. In his _Fiume Italiana_ he is as _peu
+communicatif_ as a carp. His other book,[51] written in French,
+simply and beautifully says of this law of 1868 that it is "a precious
+heritage transmitted from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in
+which period there was condensed"--or shall we say made
+palpable?--"the spirit which is jealous of the municipal liberties."
+"Down to this day," says he, "Rieka is in complete possession of her
+charter. Rieka has to-day still got her great charter. This
+constitutional charter ..." and so on and so on. But these modern
+coryphees of Rieka and Dalmatia are so forgetful.
+
+
+RIEKA'S HISTORY, AS TWO PEOPLE SEE IT
+
+Mr. Susmel begins by saying that the origins of the Italianity of
+Rieka lose themselves in the story of Rome. He knows--none
+better--that the Romans came to these parts. They disappeared--but of
+course one can't put in every detail. Anyhow, they left an arch, a lot
+of coins, some vases, etc.; and a few of these are depicted in Mr.
+Susmel's book. What a relief it must have been to innumerable people
+as they turned his pages and discovered that he had forgotten to
+include the illustrations of our Roman Wall, of the Pont du Gard and
+of the glorious aqueduct that traverses Segovia! From the time of the
+"Krpitsa" onwards a regular colonization began. Italians were urged to
+come from their own country--but if Mr. Hilaire Belloc, who studied
+the question on the spot, is accurate in his diagnosis that Fiume is
+Italian "with that intensity of feeling bred by alien rule and the
+sudden victorious liberation therefrom" (_Land and Water_, May 29,
+1919), it certainly does seem a little strange that the Italians
+should think in this way of the Magyars who invited them and were so
+good to them. They were told, no doubt, by the Magyars that the Croats
+would not hurt them, that the city council would always be Italian,
+that if the saucy Croats asked for schools--as indeed their numbers
+entitled them to do--well, they would receive no reply. ("Show me a
+single Croat school!" cried the Italian mayor triumphantly to me in
+1919.) The Magyars spent vast sums on the harbour, making the other
+little harbours of Croatia obsolete, and they were not going to lose
+their grip of the town for want of proper legislation. They were
+surprised that more "regnicoli" (Italians from Italy) did not respond;
+but the renegades made up for them. "Passionate and justified," said
+Mr. Hilaire Belloc in 1919,[52] is Italian feeling with respect to
+Fiume. But this writer, who says he travelled to the Adriatic with a
+view to ascertaining the real facts, did not altogether waste his
+time, since one of his two adjectives is quite correct. With regard to
+the renegades no questions were ever asked, if only one helped to keep
+Rieka from the Croats, if, for example, on a voting paper for the
+Croatian Diet one put the word "nessuno" (no one). Mr. Susmel, I see,
+says that the Diet's continued invitation to the town that it should
+send its deputies to Zagreb was a display of "incredible obstinacy."
+
+
+AND THE SLOVENES ARE COERCED
+
+The _Ausgleich_ was of ill-omen to the Slav subjects of Hungary. It
+was not much more auspicious for the Slovenes, Istrians and
+Dalmatians. The Slavs seem to have been the Habsburgs' nightmare. Why
+the million and a quarter of Slovenes--people who do not approach the
+Basques, for instance, in pugnacity--should be the butt of everlasting
+coercion and repression may seem inexplicable. When the
+German-Austrians of Triest, even after the Italians in Italy had begun
+to claim the town, allied themselves with the Triest Italians "to
+fight," as they declared, "the common enemy," it can surely not have
+been these quiet Slovenes who had won for themselves by great industry
+a place in the town which is situated in their province. The "common
+enemy" to whom the German-Austrians referred must have been Russia.
+And so the Southern Slavs of the Balkans and of the Adriatic owed part
+of the bad treatment they received not to their own vices but to the
+organizing virtues which their larger brother was supposed to have.
+
+    FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [Footnote 36: _Memorie per la storia degli arvenimenti che
+    seguirono in Dalmazia la caduta della Republica veneta_, by
+    G. Cattalinich, 1841.]
+
+    [Footnote 37: This is perpetuated by the initial letters of
+    the saying "Samo sloga Srbina spasava" ("Only in the union of
+    Serbs is salvation"), which are placed round the cross in
+    Serbia's coat of arms.]
+
+    [Footnote 38: Cf. _La Dalmatie de 1797-1815_, by the Abbe
+    Paul Pisani. Paris, 1893.]
+
+    [Footnote 39: His fame as a teacher was such that several
+    towns entreated him to settle in their midst. In 1845 the
+    inhabitants of Stara Zagora sent him this curious letter:
+    "When Philip, King of Macedonia, invited Aristotle to be the
+    tutor of his son, he wrote to him: 'I am happy, in the first
+    place, because God has given me a son, and, secondly, because
+    this son was born in your time....' And we also, we thank
+    God, firstly, because it has been granted to us to found a
+    school, and, secondly, because we know that under your
+    direction it will be a real school. That is why we supplicate
+    and pray that you will come to us and be our teacher."]
+
+    [Footnote 40: Smail Aga, Vice-Governor of Herzegovina, had
+    earned for himself the greatest detestation of the
+    Montenegrins, whom he harried, and of his own unhappy
+    subjects. In August 1840 he was attacked by a small band of
+    heroes, men of Montenegro and of Herzegovina. He and a large
+    number of his men were killed. A translation of this
+    celebrated poem was made by Mr. J. W. Wiles at Salonika, and
+    printed there, under difficult circumstances, entirely by
+    Serbian refugees.]
+
+    [Footnote 41: Cf. _Fiume Italiana_. Rome, 1919.]
+
+    [Footnote 42: According to the census of 1857 the figures
+    were: Serbs, 452,500; Roumanians, 414,900; Germans, 394,100;
+    Magyars, 256,100; Jews, 12,500; Gipsies, 600.]
+
+    [Footnote 43: Their German origin had become so completely
+    obliterated that they no longer spoke anything but Croat. It
+    is curious in this connection to note that Kossuth, the
+    champion of Magyarism, was of Slav blood; that Rieger, the
+    Czech leader, was of German blood; and that Conscience, chief
+    of the Flemish movement, had a French father.]
+
+    [Footnote 44: Cf. Seton-Watson's _The Southern Slav
+    Question_. London, 1911.]
+
+    [Footnote 45: Cf. _Letters of Count Cavour_, edited by Gl.
+    Chiala, vol. iv. pp. 139-140.]
+
+    [Footnote 46: This lady, the Princess Julia, subsequently
+    married the Duke of Aremberg. She died in February 1919 in
+    Vienna at the age of eighty-eight. In the early sixties she
+    came on a mission to England to enlist sympathy for Serbia's
+    final struggle for independence. Much to her annoyance she
+    found that it was necessary to ask through the Turkish
+    Embassy for an audience with Queen Victoria. However, the
+    Ambassador was a very affable person, who completely
+    mollified the Princess. It was to her that Palmerston made
+    one of his famous puns. Her dress caught in a door and he
+    stepped forward with the words: "Princesse, la Porte est sur
+    votre chemin pour vous empecher d'avancer."]
+
+    [Footnote 47: As a matter of fact he was walking with a girl
+    called Catharine, also a relative, a lame girl more
+    remarkable for wit and wisdom than for physical beauty. She
+    and Michael are celebrated in one of Serbia's most famous
+    songs. There has been a great deal of speculation as to his
+    assassins, some maintaining that they were Austrian agents,
+    others holding that it was the work of the rival
+    Karageorgevi[vc] dynasty. A certain Radovanovi[vc] who
+    settled down in Karlovci--he was there at any rate till
+    1895--was most probably an Austrian instrument in this
+    affair; he in his turn making use of Austrian police for the
+    actual deed. He was wont to say that he knew who were the
+    murderers; but since he was looked upon as a mere tool, his
+    fellow-Serbs of Karlovci did not molest him. Yet he never
+    frequented a Serbian cafe. He was a travelled, pretty
+    well-educated man; with the Austrian officials he was on very
+    friendly terms, and the source of his money was never
+    discovered.]
+
+    [Footnote 48: _The Turks, the Greeks and the Slavons: Travels
+    in the Slavonic Provinces of Turkey-in-Europe._ London, 1867.
+    The second edition of this book appeared with a preface by
+    Gladstone.]
+
+    [Footnote 49: Cf. his _Histoire diplomatique de l'Europe_.]
+
+    [Footnote 50: The promulgation was a surprise to him; it was
+    also a defeat, as he had aimed at a direct understanding
+    between Greeks and Bulgars and not at a solution which left
+    the Porte as arbitrator between these two Christian races.
+    However, he would not acknowledge that he had been beaten.
+    "He thought it more intelligent to recognize the _fait
+    accompli_ and not to let his dissatisfaction be visible,"
+    says Prince George Troubetzkoi, the distinguished diplomat
+    who explored the archives of the Russian Embassy at
+    Constantinople. In reply to his telegram announcing the
+    promulgation of the firman, Gortchakoff, the Prime Minister,
+    cabled that "an adjustment of this awkward question and one
+    that would not break the links between the Bulgarian
+    community and the OEcumenical Patriarchate would be a great
+    alleviation, whereof the credit would be mostly yours." The
+    Russians repudiated the Exarchate publicly and they are not
+    now, as are the Serbs, in communion with the Bulgars. For
+    example, when the Bulgarian bishops in Macedonia, after the
+    troubles following the first Balkan War, went to Russia in
+    order to state their case, they were taken to a monastery and
+    not allowed to participate in the religious offices.]
+
+    [Footnote 51: _Le droit italique de Fiume._ Bologna, 1919.]
+
+    [Footnote 52: In _Land and Water_, June 5, 1919.]
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+THE SHIFTING SANDS OF MACEDONIA
+
+WHAT ARE THE MACEDONIAN SLAVS?--THE RIFT CAUSED BY
+RELIGION--VERSATILITY OF THESE MACEDONIAN SLAVS--HOW FOREIGNERS HAVE
+STIRRED UP TROUBLE--AUSTRIAN, RUSSIAN AND TURKISH MANOEUVRES--THE
+DEPLORABLE MILAN--NIKITA THE COMEDIAN--THE GREAT STROSSMAYER--RELIGIOUS
+DISPUTES BETWEEN SERBS AND ROUMANIANS--THE BURDEN OF THE OBRENOVI['C]--A
+HAPPY ADVENT--AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN WRATH--THEIR MONTENEGRIN FRIEND--AUSTRIA
+GIVES HOSTAGES TO HISTORY--THE DREAMS OF AN OLD REALIST--VERY HIGH
+POLITICS--THE RIDDLE OF SARAJEVO--THE MISERABLE MACEDONIANS--FEROCITIES
+OF EDUCATION--THE STORM IS PAST.
+
+
+A wealthy gentleman of Belgrade, one George Weiffert, who brews
+admirable beer, is said some years ago to have sworn an oath that if
+his wished-for ice, that was strangely lacking, should appear by Saint
+Sava's Day (January 27, New Style) he would adopt this old archbishop
+as the patron saint of his family. Another Teuton, of Hebraic origin,
+whom I met at Zaje[vc]a, had placed himself and his house under the
+protection of the Archangel Michael, whose festival is on November 21.
+The Roumanians of eastern Serbia seem, all of them, to have assumed
+this custom which the Serbs call the "slava," and those inhabitants,
+say of Pirot, who did not consider themselves Serbs at the time of
+their annexation would gradually fall into line with their neighbours
+and select a saint, if only because the annual "slava" celebration is
+a day of tremendous hospitality, when the peasant is glad to squander
+his savings in the entertainment even of persons unknown to him. And
+those who are in the habit of attending "slavas" naturally feel that
+they must have a "slava" of their own. It may also have happened in
+Macedonia that a traveller has been told by the very adaptable
+peasants how Saint Nicholas or Saint Alimpija is their house saint, a
+commitment which the holy one has but lately had thrust upon him. One
+would therefore do well to look for some other test, and not to follow
+those people who roundly assert that the man who honours the "slava,"
+and no other man, is a veritable Serb.
+
+
+WHAT ARE THE MACEDONIAN SLAVS?
+
+If, for example, one wishes to decide whether a given Macedonian Slav
+is a Serb or a Bulgar--many thousands have been called and have, quite
+happily, called themselves both--we must use a more scientific method.
+Some investigators, such as Vateff, have made measurements that are
+not without value; others, such as Djeri['c] and Shishmanoff, have
+published good monographs on the Serbian and Bulgarian name. We have
+had some learned dissertations on the language of Macedonia, as to
+whether the Slav dialects approach more nearly the Serbian or the
+Bulgarian literary language. But this question remains unanswered,
+owing to the imperfect manner in which the grammatical and syntaxical
+peculiarities of the Macedonian dialects have, as yet, been examined.
+Some people have argued that as the Bulgarian peculiarity of the
+postponed article is also found in Macedonia it follows that the
+province really is Bulgarian. But as the postponed article is found in
+a wide zone, which extends from the Albanian shores to those of the
+Black Sea, this argument loses in strength, for how can Roumania be
+called Bulgarian? Very possibly before the Slavs arrived that zone was
+inhabited by another people who left this characteristic behind them,
+though they left no documents. It is a logical hypothesis. And
+Barbulescu, the Professor of Slav Philology in the University of
+Jassy, said in 1912 that "the Serbs have just as many reasons for
+asserting that the Macedonian is a Serbian language as the Bulgars
+have to deny it." As it was in the Middle Ages, so it is now; the
+mediaeval language used to oscillate between the two, and it is
+sometimes impossible to tell whether an old Macedonian Slav document
+is Bulgarian or Serbian.... When we come to the ethnologists we find
+they have only written books which deal with certain parts of
+Macedonia. They have confessed that, generally speaking, it is
+impossible to say whether a man is a Serb, a Bulgar or a
+Serbo-Bulgar. These Macedonians were for centuries at such a distance
+from the other Slavs and were so thoroughly neglected that they lost
+their national consciousness, an attribute which many thousands of
+them, in the days of the vast, loose empires of Du[vs]an and Simeon,
+never possessed. Sir Charles Eliot, in his excellent book _Turkey in
+Europe_ (London, 1900), says that it is not easy to distinguish Serb
+and Bulgar beyond the boundaries of their respective countries. He
+divides the Macedonian Slavs into pure Slavs, Slavized Bulgars and
+pure Slavs influenced by Slavized Bulgars: "all three categories," he
+says, "have been subjected to a strong and often continuous Greek
+influence, to say nothing of the Turks and the inconspicuous Vlachs,"
+so that in his opinion it is rash to make sharp divisions among a
+people who have thus acted and reacted on one another. A large
+proportion of the Macedonians[53] have no knowledge of the race to
+which their ancestors belonged; and one is brought to the conclusion
+that it is much wiser not to use for Macedonia the two words, Serb and
+Bulgar, but to say that these Slavs became either Exarchists (in which
+case they were commonly called Bulgars) or Patriarchists (who were
+called Serbs). Basil Kanchov, a Macedonian, who is the most accurate
+in giving the numbers of the Slav population of the old provinces of
+Turkey, divides them not into races but religions. It is, of course, a
+mistake to think that on the institution of the Exarchate it merely
+received the allegiance of those Macedonians whose origin was more or
+less Bulgarian. Thousands of Slavs who were, or believed themselves to
+be, of Serbian blood passed over to the schism with the sole object of
+obtaining for their Church a Slav liturgy. There was little reason for
+them to hesitate, since at that time the names of Serb and Bulgar
+implied no national differentiation, but were used to designate the
+brothers of two different provinces. We find then that the Macedonian
+Slavs, vaguely Serbs and vaguely Bulgars, passed pretty
+indiscriminately, and of course without the least apprehension of the
+future, into the Exarchist Church, or else remained under the Greek
+Patriarch. Exarchists and Patriarchists were found in the same family:
+thus at Tetovo the priest Missa Martinoff was an Exarchist and
+president of the Bulgarian community, while his brother Momir
+Martinovi['c] was a Patriarchist, and president of the Serbian
+community in the same town. Stavro, a well-known watchmaker at
+Skoplje, was a Patriarchist, whereas a brother of his, also at
+Skoplje, was an Exarchist priest. Ivko, a farmer at the village of
+Poboujie and his eight nearest relatives were Exarchists, his other
+relatives and all the rest of the village were Patriarchists. Many
+similar examples could be given.
+
+
+THE RIFT CAUSED BY RELIGION
+
+One may observe by the sequence of events in one of the Macedonian
+towns, what was the dire effect of this dividing of the Slavs into two
+religious bodies. Ghevgeli, a town which before the War had about 6000
+inhabitants, will provide a fair illustration. In the middle of the
+nineteenth century the church service was in Greek and there was no
+school, but the Slavs were indifferent--and learning was regarded as a
+rather praiseworthy accomplishment for the priest. Now and then some
+one would travel to where the Serbian or the Bulgarian language could
+be heard in church and on his return to Ghevgeli be discontented with
+the Greek. This feeling was fanned by certain agitators from outside;
+and ultimately a Slav service was introduced, being celebrated in the
+same church as the Greek service and by the same priest. As he was
+unable to read a Slav language, the words were written for him with
+Greek letters. One should mention, by the way, that no Greeks were to
+be found at Ghevgeli--only Slavs with a few Turks and five or six
+Jews. A Slav school was also opened about 1860, with a teacher whose
+salary was paid by the parents; he used Slav church books and taught
+arithmetic and folk-songs. The Greek bishop started a school, but with
+no great success, and although it went on until 1913 it was patronized
+by fewer and fewer children.
+
+The Slav service in the church became after a time Exarchist; as a
+sequel to which, to the dissatisfaction of many of the people, it was
+called "Bulgarian." The objectors had been to Serbia and sympathized
+with that country, and at Ghevgeli they were supported by about half
+the population. But the Bulgars were then more favourably viewed by
+the Turkish authorities.... A Bulgarian school was likewise opened a
+few years before the Serbian, which began in 1882. By this time the
+Slavs, largely owing to external pressure, were not content to have
+two separate schools; they were the keenest rivals, and the proprietor
+of the Serbian school, Risto Naumovi['c], was killed for no other
+reason in 1883. His successor, one Be[vc]irovi['c], who is still
+alive, was threatened that he would be shot within twenty-four hours,
+but his valiant young son--who was then a pupil at the school--found
+the komitadji chieftain who had uttered this threat and slew him. So
+both the schools continued, together with a Turkish, a Greek, a
+Roumanian and a Catholic school. The Catholic friars were supported by
+Austria and France; the Roumanian establishment, which was visited by
+not more than twenty children from the neighbourhood, was maintained
+by Roumania--the teacher being a native of Bucharest. In fact, there
+was a good deal of propaganda which between the Serbs and the Bulgars
+became violent.
+
+What can be said for the Exarchists?... Some years ago the Albanians
+in the region of Monastir were asking to be inscribed on the books of
+the American Church, for they thought in that way to obtain the
+benefits of American citizenship. They made no pretence of having been
+impressed by other doctrines. A Church was in their eyes a sort of
+naturalization bureau. And when the Exarchists were rejoicing in their
+new-found strength and perceiving that this Church of theirs might be
+a corner-stone of a Great Bulgaria, they were so completely carried
+away that they bestowed an all-too-scant attention on the methods
+which they brought to bear. These methods of the enthusiastic
+Exarchists were altogether deplorable and succeeded in alienating not
+only the Patriarchist Slavs whom they freely murdered, but even in
+many cases the very Exarchists, who came to dislike the komitadji
+bands, whom they were required to shelter and to feed and to assist
+with a subscription to their funds. "Still more," says a Bulgarian
+proverb--"still more than if you have a boat on the sea or a Roumanian
+wife, are you certain to sleep ill if you have a property in
+Macedonia." As year after year went by and the komitadji men appeared
+to be doing very little beyond terrorizing the country, those who
+supported them began to frown. No guerilla leader presented a
+balance-sheet, and it was generally known that the famous Boris
+Sarafoff allowed himself, each year, a few months in Paris. This, he
+said, was due to him after his arduous time in the Macedonian
+mountains. More and more displeased were the Exarchist peasants--the
+Macedonian Slav is a very thrifty soul--and in the Great War one had
+the spectacle of men who called themselves Bulgars and concealed their
+sons, lest they be taken into the Bulgarian army. "If it pleases the
+Bulgars," they said, "let them come and liberate us."
+
+
+VERSATILITY OF THESE MACEDONIAN SLAVS
+
+If the Exarchist leaders had gone about their business with more
+prudence--but how could one expect political sagacity among a people
+which had not only been for centuries under the shadow of the Horses'
+Tails, but which at the time when the Turk appeared was no whit his
+superior in civilization? Very possibly the Balkan Slavs would in
+those five hundred years have turned in disgust from Vlad the Impaler
+and other exponents of Byzantine culture, if it had not been for the
+Turk, who ignored his raia's potential moral progress and did not
+think of regulating his natural cruelty. If the Exarchist leaders had
+been born different, then Macedonia might easily have become--as now,
+one hopes, it will at last become--a Yugoslav bond of union, instead
+of an apple of discord. "I used to be a Bulgar and now I am a
+Serb,"[54] said a man with whom I was walking one day in Monastir,
+"and so long as I have work," he said, "I shall be perfectly
+contented." How many Macedonians ought to echo his words! At Resan I
+stayed at the house of an old gentleman called Lapchevi['c] and in
+Sofia I had previously met his brother, whose name was Lapchev and who
+was Minister of War. Until 1868 there was at Resan only a Greek
+school, so that the elder brother's education left him merely a
+Macedonian Slav, who could have become with equal facility a Serb or a
+Bulgar; the younger brother had the advantage of a Bulgarian school,
+but the disadvantage of having his Slav nationality narrowed down into
+that of Bulgaria. These two brothers should set an example, renounce
+the name of Serb and Bulgar, and call themselves simply Yugoslav. At
+Resan the Serbian authorities are certainly trying to smooth away
+these wretched divisions. No longer, as in 1890, does the little town
+support half a dozen schoolmasters who are nothing if not Serb or
+Bulgarian. Now the Serbs of Resan have retained not only the priests
+who were in office during the Bulgarian occupation, but the male and
+female Bulgarian teachers. In the winter of 1869 Ljuben Karaveloff
+started his paper, the _Svoboda_, which was in opposition to those
+Bulgars who dreamed of their country being freed by Russia and placed
+under a Russian protectorate. Karaveloff's hopes were centred on an
+independent revolutionary movement, and the Bulgars, he urged, could
+best achieve their political, as distinct from their ecclesiastical,
+freedom by associating themselves with the other Balkan peoples and
+especially with the Serbs. "What is required," he said, "of the Balkan
+Christians is union and union and union."
+
+
+HOW FOREIGNERS HAVE STIRRED UP TROUBLE
+
+If you stand, soon after daybreak, looking at the white facade of
+Sofia's enormous, Russian-built cathedral, you will perceive that
+whether accidentally or by some architectural _tour de force_, the
+upper part is a majestic face, the face of some old god, benevolent
+and quite implacable. The Bulgars never would deny that Russia
+liberated them and showered on them every kind of gift. But woe be it
+to them if in return they did not forward Russia's purposes. Hundreds
+of young Bulgars were received in Russia and gratuitously educated;
+the Church books which the Bulgars used, their ecclesiastical
+vestments and sacred utensils had usually come to them as gifts from
+Russia; both before and after the political emancipation Russia's
+literature was most assiduously studied. And a pious care was taken of
+the places around Plevna that were memorable for a feat of Russian
+arms; the people down to this day speak about "The Holy Places." All
+was well until the death of Alexander II. No, all was not well--for
+the Russians had, in their design to make the Bulgars their devoted
+Balkan agents, given them by the Treaty of San Stefano a vast
+territory which in gratitude they were expected to administer for
+Russia's greater glory. Yes, it may be said, but Russia was using the
+best available maps, and these indicated that Macedonia was
+Bulgarian.... Perhaps we have already shown sufficiently that the
+Macedonian Slavs are devoid of an innate national sense, but that
+they have Bulgar or Serb sentiments which are, for the most part,
+imported, thrust upon them or created by the propagandists. Very
+rapidly the Macedonian Slavs transform themselves into Serbs or
+Bulgars; according to circumstances they will or will not be faithful
+to the nationality which they have chosen. And in their wavering they
+have thousands of precedents--towards 1400, for example, a Slav
+chieftain called Bogoja attacked the town of Arta, and in order to
+gain an easier victory announced, the chroniclers tell us, that he was
+of Serb, Albanian, Bulgar and Greek descent. One must therefore be a
+little dubious of maps which ascribe the Macedonian Slavs to any
+particular nationality. Much more than the rival maps, it was
+Kiepert's that was used by the Russians and others for determining the
+Bulgaria of San Stefano. "It is the best map that we know of," said
+Bismarck, and Kiepert's ethnographical statements were completely
+adopted by British scientists and diplomats at the time of the Berlin
+Congress. No doubt a well-equipped foreigner could obtain more exact
+ethnographical results in Macedonia than equally gifted Serb or Bulgar
+observers. But not one of the travellers whose observations Kiepert
+used for his map was acquainted with the Serb or the Bulgar language,
+nor had any one of them travelled for purposes of research; hence it
+is not surprising that none of them perceived that the Macedonian
+Slavs have no sense of nationality and that "Bulgar" is not used there
+as a national term. In former as well as in recent times the
+Macedonian Slavs have readily abandoned one name for the other, the
+temporary predominance of either depending solely on the conquests,
+political circumstances and various events, internal and external,
+which give rise to certain sentiments and instincts among this people,
+easily transforming them into Serb or Bulgar aspirations. It seems
+clear that Serbia's existence as an independent State for a good many
+decades before Bulgaria was freed would render the name of Serb more
+disagreeable to the Turk; it is therefore not astonishing that in
+Macedonia under the Turks one discarded the Serb name in favour of the
+Bulgar. Without dwelling upon the more or less valuable remarks which
+were made by priests and monks and Turkish geographers and French
+explorers and German doctors from the sixteenth to the eighteenth
+centuries and from which we can at least deduce that the Slav
+inhabitants of southern Macedonia were not fanatically constant to the
+Bulgar name, it would appear that in the nineteenth century the
+earlier deliverance of Serbia and, above all, the foundation of the
+Exarchate caused the Bulgar name to become the more popular. The Serbs
+were looked upon by Turkey as a revolutionary element, while the
+Bulgars aimed at an independent Slav Church within the limits of the
+Turkish boundaries. It is unnecessary to add that after Bulgaria's
+deliverance and her annexation of Eastern Roumelia, and especially
+after the rebellious movements in Macedonia, which had the moral if
+not the official encouragement of the Principality, there was less
+eagerness on the part of the Slavs to let their Turkish masters think
+that they were Bulgars. But in the period preceding the publication of
+Kiepert's map the Bulgar name was the more fashionable with Macedonian
+peasants. And by giving practical effect to this map in the Treaty of
+San Stefano the Russians did a huge disservice to the Bulgars. In the
+first place, they aroused in this young people such an exhilaration
+that the subsequent annulling of the Treaty at the hands of the Great
+Powers would naturally leave a rankling disappointment. Also the
+relations between Serbs and Bulgars were not rendered easier by the
+chief Slav nation coming down so heavily upon the Bulgar side in what
+necessitated a most delicate and scientific handling. Three Russian
+ethnographical maps on Macedonia were issued by the Petrograd
+_Slavyansko Ob[vs]t[vc]estvo_, which worked for Pan-Slavism and
+assisted Slav students. These maps--one of them is described by
+Kntchev, the chauvinistic Bulgar, as "giving the Bulgars somewhat more
+territory than they in reality occupy"--were lamentably superficial.
+While remaining unnoticed in the rest of Europe they exercised an
+unfortunate influence on the Balkan educated classes, who believed
+that, according to tradition, the potent "elder brother" would be
+anxious to decide righteously the disputes between the small Balkan
+nations. These maps were, no doubt wrongly, looked upon as the plans
+of Russian policy, and on this account the Bulgars became still more
+unapproachable for an understanding or for united work; it appeared
+to the Macedonian _intelligentsia_, whose hope was to see their
+country set free, that Bulgaria was the land which fortune and the
+Russians favoured. Except the foundation of the Bulgarian Exarchate in
+Macedonia and the creation of Bulgaria at San Stefano, perhaps nothing
+contributed so much to the estrangement of the Balkan nations as these
+maps; for it was long before one could be persuaded that this Slav
+society had produced the maps through ignorance and false information,
+so that, as Professor Cviji['c] remarks,[55] "the educated classes in
+Serbia were as culpable for the pernicious effects of these maps as
+were the Russian authors themselves." And Serbs and Bulgars had good
+reason to complain of the manner in which Russia treated them.
+
+
+AUSTRIAN, RUSSIAN AND TURKISH MANOEUVRES
+
+While Bulgaria came from the San Stefano peace dazzled with jewels
+that she was not to clasp, the Serbs continued walking in the shadows
+which had, from the time of Michael's death, been gradually falling
+round them. No practical result was obtained from a letter which the
+Serbian Government ordered their representative to read to the Greek
+Patriarch, pointing out that only such parishes should be held as
+unquestionably Bulgarian which had formerly been subject to the
+Patriarchate of Trnovo, even as those of the Pe['c] Patriarchate were
+undoubtedly Serbian, while those of Ochrida were disputable, since
+that region had belonged in turn to both of them. Small advantage
+accrued to the Serbs from their fidelity to the Greek Patriarch: in
+Macedonia they came to be regarded by many Slavs as foes to the new
+national Church, while the only desire of the Greeks was to use them
+for their own purposes. "There are no Serbs in this parish," wrote a
+Bishop when the Patriarch commanded him to permit the Serbian priests
+now and then to celebrate a Slav service, "there are no Serbs but
+merely Greeks" (in which official terminology the Serbs were included)
+"and hellenized Vlachs." ... The Serbs about this time were most
+unfortunate in warfare. Prince Milan tried to secure, without coming
+to blows, from the Sultan what he expected that his victorious armies
+would give him, namely, the administration of Bosnia-Herzegovina.
+After the failure of the 1874 crops the peasants of Herzegovina and
+then of Bosnia were driven to desperation by the demands of the
+tax-gatherers. Miss Irby's eloquent description[56] tells us of the
+terrible state of these provinces during the years that preceded the
+outbreak. Taxes of one-eighth were demanded by the Governor, one-third
+or one-half by the Beg, taxes for exemption from military service,
+taxes for pigs, cattle and everything "you have or have not." One
+informant said, "I have seen men driven into pigsties and shut up
+there in cold and hunger till they paid; hung from the rafters with
+their heads downwards in the smoke, until they disclosed where their
+little stores were hidden. I have known them hung from trees and water
+poured down them in the freezing cold; I have known them chained
+barefoot and forced to run behind the Beg's carriage...." The
+provinces revolted and vengeance was wrecked upon them. More than a
+third of the population fled the country. Sir Arthur Evans[57]
+describes the refugees as a "squalid, half-naked swarm of women and
+children and old men, with faces literally eaten away with hunger and
+disease.... After seeing every moral mutilation," he goes on to say,
+"that centuries of tyranny could inflict ... who can go away without a
+feeling of despair for the present generation of refugee Bosnia?" The
+people of Montenegro and Serbia were profoundly stirred by the
+miseries of their brothers. But Milan vacillated, and when finally he
+took up arms it was without success, and five weeks after the peace
+signature Russia began the Turkish War, one of whose necessary
+antecedents was the recognition by Russia that the Austrians were not
+to be hampered in Bosnia-Herzegovina. (After the Treaty of Berlin had
+placed the two provinces under Austria's administration it is said
+that Andrassy, on his return from Berlin, remarked to Francis Joseph
+that the door of the Balkans was now open to His Majesty. But the
+Russian delegate, Prince Gortchakoff, had prophesied to Andrassy that
+Bosnia-Herzegovina would prove the Empire's grave.) One effect
+produced by this incursion of the Austrian eagles was a serious
+divergence between the Croats and the Serbs. By historic and by ethnic
+rights the provinces, so the Serbs argued, should be theirs when once
+the Turk had ceased to rule. The Croats, laying special emphasis on
+the religious question, were for justifying Austria's occupation. The
+Catholic Slav clergy, unlike the Orthodox, ranged themselves with the
+great Catholic Power; while Croat politicians of the school of
+Star[vc]evi['c] invoked other historic and ethnic sanctions in their
+endeavour to found, under the name of "Great Croatia," a State uniting
+all the Yugoslav lands of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Thus the
+Serbs and their Croatian brothers were acutely in conflict. Never,
+said the Serbs, would that "Trialism" come to pass, for the Magyars
+would veto the formation of a Yugoslav State within the Empire, having
+a population roughly equal in numbers to its own. We Yugoslavs have
+nothing to hope for, said the Serbs, except from ourselves, and, being
+divided, we are ruining our common interests.... From yet another
+quarter was a storm-wind blowing on the Serbs. The Russian volunteers
+and officers had taken back with them highly unfavourable impressions
+as to the capabilities of the Serbian army, which they accompanied in
+the luckless campaign of 1876; also, in the opinion of the
+Pan-Slavists the Serbs had been contaminated by European civilization,
+whereas the Bulgars seemed, in the words of Professor Miliukoff,[58]
+to be the sons of an untouched, virgin soil, free from politics and
+ready to work, with all possible zeal for the "inner truth" of
+Pan-Slavism, while begging its protector to concern herself with the
+"outer truth." The Bulgars were, for these reasons, to have the
+preference in the allotment of the spoils of the Turkish War; and,
+owing to the conflicting demands of Russia and Prince Milan, Serbia
+did not declare war against Turkey until several days after the fall
+of Plevna, so that she could not hope that the Russians would show any
+special tenderness towards her national aspirations. It is difficult
+to see what Serbia could have hoped to gain from the elder brother,
+if she had been less dilatory; she gained from this intervention no
+vast gratitude from the younger brother. Men may still be found in
+Bulgarian frontier villages who were prominent there during the
+Serbian army's regime. Some of the officers seem to have told the
+people that they ought no longer to call themselves Bulgars, since
+they were Serbs; but the propaganda was very mild. Serbian schools
+were opened here and there, but if no pupils wished to attend them,
+the schoolmasters had a holiday; and the occupying troops limited
+themselves to collecting signatures on addresses of loyalty to Prince
+Milan. No one, probably, thought that the addresses and petitions were
+very serious--no one, that is to say, except a Dalmatian publicist
+called Spiridon Gop[vc]evi['c], who printed a large number of them in
+his handsome, illustrated book, _Makedonien und Alt-Serbien_ (Vienna,
+1889). With regard to Gop[vc]evi['c] as a savant--he says that all the
+Macedonian Slavs are Serbs--and there are equally uncompromising
+Bulgarian authors--the celebrated Slavist Jagi['c] says that he is
+sorry for the good paper which was used for Gop[vc]evi['c]'s book.
+Another of his wonderful discoveries was that the Macedonian Slavs are
+Croats. And one of his severest judges is a Croat, S. Jurini['c]. He
+gives, as if they were most valuable, these fatuous lists of
+signatures and informs us that some Bulgarian priests and agitators
+tried to prevent them being collected. A Turkish official did, it is
+true, show in too Oriental a fashion that he disapproved of these
+collectors--on July 16, 1878, he quartered one Cvetkovi['c]-Bo[vz]in[vc]e
+on the road between Skoplje and Kumanovo for having obtained 5000
+signatures; and after quartering him, the Turk nailed the four parts
+of his body, each with a quarter of the petition tied to it, on to
+four posts at a place where four roads met. But many of the more
+reasonable Bulgars appear to have recognized that these activities of
+some Serbian officers and others need certainly not embroil the two
+people; while some other manifestations of joy, such as when they
+pulled out the beard of the priest of Pirot, and after nightfall, in
+celebration of this triumph, illuminated the town, those and similar
+transactions were treated as the folly of exuberant subalterns; and
+Tako Peyeff of Trn, the spokesman of the little, far-away town and
+its representative at San Stefano, told me that although he refused to
+sign petitions, yet he said that if Prince Milan should visit Trn it
+was the duty of all men to salute him. Up to this time, then, there
+was no veritable friction--there was only the cloud gathering over
+Macedonia; and even when the Berlin Congress of 1879 adjudged certain
+towns to Serbia, as a recompense for the abandonment of any claims on
+Bosnia, this was rightly taken by most Bulgars as being far less the
+fault of Serbia than of Austria and the other Powers. It is strange,
+in fact, that this difficult passage in Serbia's history was marked by
+greater animus between Serb and Croat than between Serb and
+Bulgar--and the Serbs were standing in Bulgaria. Milan had not yet
+made his ill-omened remark that the road to Sarajevo went _via_ Sofia.
+
+
+THE DEPLORABLE MILAN
+
+One of the direst misfortunes that ever came upon Serbia was Milan,
+her fickle, headstrong, extravagant ruler. He was, perhaps, no Serb at
+all; it had been given out, when he came as a child from Roumania,
+that he was the grandson of the younger brother of Milo[vs], but this
+statement was not universally accepted--he lived under the suspicion
+of being an illegitimate son of the Roumanian Prince--and at his first
+appearance before the Skup[vs]tina a certain Ranko Tajsi['c], a
+deputy, refused to rise. "I want that man's birth certificate!" he
+shouted. It is not surprising that Milan did his best to make, from
+that time onwards, Ranko's life a burden. If the Prince had been a
+more satisfactory monarch, his origin would have mattered little. Many
+of his attributes seem to his detractors to be peculiarly Roumanian,
+although it is true that extravagance is not unknown in Serbia, and
+this was the foible which his subjects, even when they learned the
+colossal amount of his debts, were most willing to overlook. It was
+only after his death that the secret treaty of alliance between
+himself and his paymasters, the Austro-Hungarian Government, became
+known; but the people, and especially the educated classes, were in
+opposition to his politics, and the conflict between him and the
+Radical party degenerated into a revolt that was suppressed by the
+sword. The leaders of the party fled from Serbia: Pa[vs]i['c], who was
+for so many years to be Prime Minister, settled in Bulgaria where he
+practised his profession of railway engineer.... As a benignant-looking
+patriarch Nicholas Pa[vs]i['c] was for a long time the solitary Serb
+with whom the well-informed public of the rest of Europe was familiar.
+And of course upon his countrymen, whose fortunes he directed through
+years of shadow and sunshine, his hold was tremendous. "May God bless
+our dear old brother Nikky," says the peasant as he tastes his morning
+glass of rakia. There is no brilliance but a profound knowledge of
+human nature in this humorous old Balkan gentleman. It is not by
+brilliant oratory that he sways the Skup[vs]tina, for he merely thinks
+aloud; slowly and haltingly, while he caresses his beautiful white
+beard, the words come out in a very bass voice--it is a grave and
+confidential talk, although a merry gleam occasionally dances in his
+eyes. With such homeliness does he talk that he pays no strict regard
+to the complications of Serbian grammar--when he appointed a very able
+young official of the Ministry of Education to a diplomatic post some
+hostile critics in the Press asserted that he did so on account of his
+enormous admiration for a man who had produced eight books on grammar.
+As a specimen of Pa[vs]i['c]'s parliamentary methods we may quote from
+a speech that he made in answer to one by the aforementioned
+Tajsi['c], who was an illiterate but most eloquent peasant. For three
+hours Tajsi['c] had railed against the secret fund, the 30 million
+dinars that were every year at the disposal of the Foreign Office. At
+last when Pa[vs]i['c] gets up and very courteously smiles at the
+would-be reformer: "Well, well," says he, "as to what our friend has
+told us--the--how should I say?--well, it is not altogether wrong--in
+a way, the--what was his name?--when you examine the matter from all
+sides, there is--I forget the word--in a way, these non-public
+matters, you know--how should I say?--it is best--how should I
+say?----" "Are you satisfied with His Excellency's answer?" says
+Nikoli['c], the Speaker. And Tajsi['c] puts it to himself that after
+all he is only a peasant and Pa[vs]i['c] is an Excellency and he must
+know better what one should do. This habit of stroking his beard used
+to be adopted by the Prime Minister when his personal finances were
+under discussion. Doubtless there were many who scented something
+scandalous in the fact that he possessed half the shares in the Bor
+copper mines, which had risen from 500 to 80,000 dinars apiece. He had
+bought them, as anybody else might have done. "Ah well," he was wont
+to say in that ultra-deep voice, "you see my wife brought them me."
+And a large contribution to his wealth was made by a farmer near
+Kragujevac; he persuaded Pa[vs]i['c] to buy from him for 1000
+piastres--a few pounds--a meadow on which to put his horses, and
+subsequently on that meadow there was found an excellent spring of
+mineral water. Once for a change another political leader, whose
+Christian name was also Nicholas, thought he would pull the beard of
+Pa[vs]i['c], and he did so very vehemently just outside Kolarac, which
+is a large restaurant in Belgrade. The Prime Minister was being
+followed by a couple of detectives, but he signed to them that they
+were not to interfere. "My darling old Nikky," said he, as he beamed
+at his assailant and grasped him tightly round the throat, "you and I
+are party leaders, so please don't let us quarrel. It creates an
+unfortunate impression, my friend." And it was some weeks before this
+man recovered, for Pa[vs]i['c] was then about sixty years of age and
+still in the flower of his strength. But to return to the disastrous
+reign of Milan.
+
+
+NIKITA THE COMEDIAN
+
+The discontented Serbs could now no longer, as in days gone by, look
+hopefully towards Cetinje. Rumours and something more than rumours
+were circulating as to Nikita's character. For many years that very
+shrewd person was going to gull the Western world which, meeting him
+on the Riviera, was enchanted by his picturesque costume. But if Queen
+Victoria and Mr. Gladstone had gone to ask the Montenegrins they would
+have found that he was hated, and not only in the Brda and the parts
+bordering on Herzegovina but even in old Montenegro. His adherents
+were chiefly to be found among the Njegu[vs]i, his own clan, and in
+the family of his wife. Certain English devotees of Nikita have
+actually been to Cetinje, have, as they proudly tell us, been embraced
+by him and have enormously admired his alfresco audiences when he
+settled all manner of problems to the perfect satisfaction of these
+tourists. Some of them, with a decoration or so and with memories of
+dinners and shoots, have written books that are a song of praise; and
+if Nikita's subjects tell these gentlemen and others, including
+members of the British Parliament, who have not been to Cetinje--but
+who know just as much as the travelled ones about Montenegro--if they
+tell them that Nikita is a ruffian, the answer will probably be that
+he who says such things must have a grievance, and that those
+foreigners who have criticized him, Miss Edith Durham, Baron
+d'Estournelles de Constant and Mr. Nevinson, are altogether mistaken.
+I do not propose to make a long and dreary catalogue of his
+iniquities, but only to mention a few items.... It was in Montenegro a
+matter of common knowledge that the wheat which Russia sent in large
+quantities for his famine-threatened people was not given but was sold
+to them by Nikita, the proceeds being shared by himself and four or
+five privileged families, the Petrovi['c], Vukoti['c], Martinovi['c]
+and Jabu[vc]ani. A member of one of these families became so affluent
+that he built himself a house, and a gentleman who still survives,
+Tomo Oraovac by name, wrote on this in the year 1878 a rather humorous
+poem which he called "The Red House." Oraovac was at the time an
+official, the intendant of the Montenegrin army at Kotor, and he
+naturally had to resign his post. The Tzar sent a certain General
+Ritter to examine the charges and, as one result, a Russian decoration
+was conferred upon Oraovac; according to etiquette it was transmitted
+through Nikita, and that personage gave it to a friend of his, a Turk
+at Podgorica. Nikita is apt to disarm one by the quaintness of his
+ways. Later on, Oraovac, who was one of Montenegro's earliest
+schoolmasters, organized the _intelligentsia_ for the purpose of
+obtaining a Constitution. Nikita was not yet ready to grant such a
+thing, and his representative who attended one of Oraovac's meetings
+at Podgorica inflicted upon him two grave wounds. The reformer was
+then expelled--the powerful intervention of one of Nikita's cousins
+saved his life--his mother and both his brothers, _more Montenegrino_,
+were likewise expelled and his house was bestowed upon a certain
+Kru[vs]a, who lived in it for forty years. One must add, with respect
+to the Russian wheat, that Nikita did not sell it for cash--the wars
+of that period had left the land in such distress that no cash was
+available. And so the wheat was delivered in exchange for bonds that
+would some day become payable. When the wars of the seventies were
+over, an edict was issued, and from end to end of the country, so goes
+the story, men had to sell their sheep and cattle and horses, their
+sticks of furniture, their land itself, to meet their obligations.
+Meanwhile the Austrian frontiers had been closed. No selling was
+possible outside the land, and selling within it was only permitted to
+certain specified persons, agents of the Prince, and at fixed prices.
+The profits were enormous; the country was ruined, and from that time
+date the great emigrations to America, as was pointed out by Mr.
+Leiper the Serb-speaking Scot in his admirable contributions to the
+_Morning Post_.... Nikita loved to bestow things upon himself. A
+famous hero, Novak Voujo[vs]evi['c], killed seventeen Turks in one
+day, and when he went, in consequence of an invitation, to Petrograd,
+the Tzar presented him with a sword on which were the Russian crown
+and the Montenegrin crown in diamonds. When the old warrior came back
+to Cetinje, Nikita said that such a weapon could not possibly be worn
+by a simple man; he therefore abstracted the diamonds and gave it him
+with false ones in their place. Nikita could not endure criticism, but
+those persons, including myself, who have charged him with inhuman
+treatment in the case of Vladimir Tomi['c], an intelligent young
+judge, were acting on faulty information. The tale was that Tomi['c],
+after being incarcerated, was soused with petrol and so badly burned
+that he lost his reason. As a matter of fact, this neurasthenic young
+man--whose imprisonment was due to his having wantonly insulted the
+whole Royal Family--poured the petrol on himself. Eventually, when
+Radovi['c] came into office, he was released and, a few years later,
+he died in his native village.... The Montenegrin records are crowded
+with the names of those whom Nikita drove into exile for no other
+reason than that they had gone abroad for an education and would no
+longer be disposed to regard his methods as quite up to date. With the
+exception of the few favoured families Nikita was all against anyone
+acquiring riches; he deliberately put obstacles in the way of plum
+cultivation, and in such a state of poverty did he keep the
+Montenegrins that the Baron d'Estournelles de Constant, whose official
+connection with Montenegro dates back to 1878, addressed to Nikita an
+open letter with reference to the decreasing population, as to which
+the statistics had been destroyed. On account of the rigorous taxation
+a great many of the people were forced to migrate to America, from
+where they sent almost everything they earned to their unhappy
+relatives; these were compelled to pay up to 100 per cent. interest on
+the loans which they had been obliged to negotiate, so that they could
+not meet the taxes. And there would have been some consolation had
+those taxes been productive; but by far the larger part of them, as of
+the loans raised in Vienna (with the Boden Credit and the Laender Bank)
+and at Constantinople were devoted to the Court and its favourites,
+for rewards, journeys, decorations--every thing in fact, save the
+needs of the people. It suited Nikita very well to keep his people in
+dire poverty and ignorance. Such has been the poverty of the
+Montenegrins that it was no uncommon sight to see them cultivating so
+minute a _polje_ that the wheat which it produced would give no more
+than half a loaf. And meanwhile they were not allowed to exploit the
+wealth of the forests. Figs, olives, grapes and plums could all have
+been cultivated with profit, and in the lower regions oranges and
+lemons and tobacco. But there was the deliberate policy to keep the
+population from enriching themselves. Occasionally their native wit
+gained for them a surreptitious triumph. Thus it happened that a poor
+peasant's son went up into the higher lands to tend the flocks of one
+who was more prosperous. By some means the boy discovered that the
+mountain torrent of his new abode dived underneath the rocks and
+subsequently reappeared and was the stream which ran past his old
+home. He turned this knowledge to effect by killing a lamb and
+throwing it into the water. His parents, down below, retrieved the
+lamb. Various other animals went the same journey, until the farmer
+ascertained what the boy was doing; and then the day arrived when the
+poor peasant, watching by the stream, saw the body of his son being
+carried down towards him.
+
+Very few schools were opened; for example the Vasojevi['c], who are
+the most numerous tribe not only of Montenegro but of all the Serbian
+lands, had to content themselves with one school, built in 1882. In
+1869 there was established a seminary with three classes, that was
+afterwards converted into a high-school of four classes; but both of
+these were frequently closed, the true reason being that the Russian
+subsidies given for the school were spent on the various needs of
+Nikita's Court. (By the way, at one time when Montenegro had this one
+high-school and one hospital the three sons of Nikita were in
+possession of ten palaces.) In 1869 the Russian Empress caused a
+girls' college to be opened at Cetinje. It was one of the best
+institutions in the whole Peninsula; many Serb and Yugoslav girls, in
+addition to the Montenegrins, gathered at Cetinje. This college was
+the centre from which education and modern ideas spread out to the
+remotest corners of Montenegro; in 1913 it was obliged to close--the
+Court had long been looking at it with a very jaundiced eye....
+Russia, Serbia, Italy, France and even Turkey offered free education
+to a certain number of young Montenegrins. But only the sons of the
+favoured families were able to get passports to go abroad; there was
+scarcely anything Nikita feared as much as education.... And if one
+asks why no patriot could be found to kill this prince one is given
+two reasons, the first being that his semi-secret treaty with the
+Austrians provided that they should come into Montenegro if he were
+killed, and secondly, because of the old-time custom of vicarious
+punishment. In 1856, for instance, Nikita's father attacked the
+Po[vc]ara Ku[vc]i, burned their houses, and is reputed to have slain
+more than 550 children, women and old men, including the
+septuagenarian grandfather of Tomo Oraovac, on the ground that these
+people had set up a kind of republic, independent both of Montenegro
+and of the Sultan and declined to pay the former any taxes. These
+measures were taken against them in the summer when most of the men
+were with their herds in the mountains. Three children survived. The
+Great Powers protested, consuls were sent and ultimately the Po[vc]ara
+Ku[vc]i, who had always helped the Montenegrins against the Turks,
+consented to pay taxes. It was for these reasons that Nikita was never
+assassinated.
+
+
+THE GREAT STROSSMAYER
+
+While the Serbs of Serbia and Montenegro no longer placed any trust in
+their princes, they had good cause to give more and more of their
+confidence to Strossmayer, who remained for more than half a century
+at Djakovo and never, on account of Magyar opposition, became a prince
+of the Church. He saw that the Star[vc]evi['c] policy with respect to
+Bosnia was a retrograde step, since it was causing the Serbs of that
+province, who until the occupation had been on good terms with the
+Catholic minority and the Serbs of Croatia--about 40 per cent. of the
+population--to stand very much aloof from the Croats. This state of
+things was naturally very pleasing to the Magyar imperialist Ban,
+Count Khuen-Hedervary, whereas Strossmayer's Yugoslav idea would have,
+owing to the intermingling of the two religions, a particularly
+favourable ground in Bosnia. It may be that Leo XIII.'s conception of
+drawing back the Slavs to Rome will remain a dream, but his and
+Strossmayer's policy of an alliance would have been a blessing to the
+Yugoslavs, and primarily in such provinces as Bosnia and Croatia.
+Negotiations were begun in 1882, between Strossmayer and the Serbian
+Government, with a view to establishing a Concordat. Serbia's Roman
+Catholic subjects--who, by the way, were not very numerous--would be
+placed under a patriotic priest depending not on Austria-Hungary but
+directly on Rome. And thus the fence between them and their Orthodox
+kindred would be gradually broken down. It would be foolish to assert
+that Strossmayer and his fellow-workers were able to make all the
+Yugoslavs dismiss their religious differences and remember their
+national affinities. Orthodox and Catholic Slav have for so long been
+divided that their approach to one another must often be slow and is
+liable to be interrupted by the manoeuvres of third parties. The
+Austrians were pretty successful, just before and during the Great
+War, in setting the Catholic and Orthodox Bosniak at each other's
+throat, and this antagonism will endure for a while in remote
+districts, such as in a certain village of the Sandjak where one
+found, in the summer of 1919, that the Catholic chief official and his
+wife were compelled to dismiss their Orthodox maid, since the
+villagers would not allow her to continue to serve in a Catholic
+house. But Strossmayer's statesmanship went a long way towards
+breaking down these barriers. "I have had to set my face against your
+mission," said von Khevenhueller, the Austro-Hungarian Minister, to
+Father Tondini when this Italian Barnabite, in whom Strossmayer had
+every confidence, came to Belgrade. "It is one of our principles,
+inherited from Schwarzenberg and Metternich," said the Minister, "that
+we should exercise a sort of control over the Serbian Catholics by
+having them under the jurisdiction of an Austrian Bishop." When
+Strossmayer visited Belgrade, for the purpose of conducting
+confirmations, he was driven at once, amid the booming of cannon, to
+the royal palace. And if the negotiations were allowed to drag it was
+obviously not due to any Orthodox fanaticism. Talking of fanaticism,
+one had instances in Bosnia and in Slavonia, not long ago, of Catholic
+priests who discarded Strossmayer and endeavoured to get their flock
+to use a different pronunciation from that of the Orthodox. It was
+because he strove to bring them together that the great bishop was so
+heartily disliked in Vienna and Pest. It had been decided in 1883
+that, unless he made his political submission, he was to be interned
+at the Trappist monastery of Banjaluka. But if he were no longer in a
+position to spend the great resources of the bishopric--to say nothing
+of the removal of his personal influence--the Cause would have
+suffered enormously. Therefore he listened to the prayers of his
+friends and submitted. "Be glad," said he to Radi['c], the Croat
+patriot--"be glad that you are not a priest." His successful efforts
+to bring about the moral and intellectual awakening of the Yugoslavs
+were most unpopular in those two capitals. But on the wide Slavonian
+lands and far beyond them one would find the sturdy farmers imitating
+his new methods--his own estate was so large that he paid 35,000
+florins a year in taxes. The tall, thin prelate might be walking with
+you in his garden, telling you with simple eloquence--and in Latin,
+for choice--how much he regretted that Doellinger had not submitted,
+as did his adored Dupanloup, to the dogma of Papal Infallibility, when
+one of those painted carts would rattle round the corner and in two
+minutes this father of his people would be deep in a technical
+discussion with the peasant as to which of the episcopal stallions or
+bulls he should borrow for the improvement of his stock. When
+Strossmayer consecrated the cathedral which he had built at Djakovo he
+exclaimed that in the hour of his departure from this world his last
+prayer would be for the union of his people. "Almighty everlasting
+God," he cried, "have mercy upon my brave people and unite them!" As a
+very old man, verging on the nineties, with brilliant eyes peering out
+from under a great forehead and physically so fragile that in walking
+from one room to another he had to put his arm round my neck, he was
+still in every direction working to this end. Six months earlier, in
+June 1903, Khuen-Hedervary had been recalled and, after his twenty
+years of oppression, the young men of Croatia, Catholic and Orthodox,
+in harmony with the Slovenes, were forming the Serbo-Croat Coalition.
+This was a great step in the direction of the Yugoslavia which
+Strossmayer did not live to see.
+
+
+RELIGIOUS DISPUTES BETWEEN SERBS AND ROUMANIANS
+
+Between Serbs and Roumanians of the Banat an ecclesiastical dispute
+was on the horizon. The Roumanian Orthodox body had suffered a severe
+loss through the Uniate Church, which captured many of the old
+Orthodox places of worship. Thus the famous little church of
+Huniadora, whose frescoes have been so glowingly described by Mr.
+Walter Crane, fell into their hands. This occurred in many cases at
+the wish of a small part of the congregation--and this part might
+consist of gipsies--whereupon the majority would be obliged to build
+themselves another church. The Greek Catholic Uniate Church was apt to
+lose its national Roumanian colouring and admit the Magyar language,
+which was occasionally resented by the faithful. Thus, as the Bishop
+of Caransebes (now the Metropolitan of Roumania) told me, there came
+into a church at Tergul, near Moros-Varshahel, a woman with a basket
+of eggs. When she perceived that she could not understand the language
+that was being used she put down her basket and uttered a loud curse,
+"May thunder and lightning strike this church!" she cried. And after
+the service had begun in a church near Grosswardein the wife of a
+clergyman pulled the priest's beard, while other ladies tore off his
+robes. Nevertheless this Uniate Church continued to exist and it was
+natural that the Orthodox Roumanians should seek in some way to
+compensate themselves for their losses. They had, as we have mentioned
+above,[59] been given hospitality by the Serbian Church and given the
+use of a monastery for the education of their priests. They now
+suggested that it would be well if the Serbs handed over to them a
+number of the Banat monasteries, and when the Serbs declined they
+started a great lawsuit at Buda-Pest. Professor Iorga, the historian,
+told me that he thought his countrymen were justified in that these
+monasteries were originally neither Serbian nor Roumanian, but Roman
+Catholic, being erected, in pursuance of their propaganda, by the
+French dynasty which the Hungarians had over them in the fourteenth
+century. Their nomenclature, said the Professor, is neither Serb nor
+Roumanian, they had no privileges from Serb or Roumanian princes and
+he believed that they only passed to the Serbs after having been
+abandoned by the Catholics. A line on p. 145, vol. i., of the
+_Monumenta Vaticana Hungariae_ (Buda-Pest, 1887):
+
+     "Item Stephanus Sacerdos de Beesd solvit I fertonem"
+
+appeared to lend colour to this view, for the name Beesd might have
+been slavized into Besdin and this might be the record of a payment
+made, between 1332 and 1337, to the Pope. It is only fair to say that
+the learned Magyar Jesuit who presides over the episcopal library at
+Gjula Fehervar (Alba Julia in Roumanian) did no more than say that
+these surmises were possible. He was, as a matter of fact, much more
+interested in the political situation and in another book, the oldest
+printed Bible in Roumanian (of 1582 and in Slav characters) which, as
+he pointed out with half a sigh, was published by one Magyar through
+the liberality of another. The charming Bishop of Caransebes, as he
+sat with me one Sunday morning in his rose garden, did not receive
+Professor Iorga's idea with approbation. The Professor, he thought,
+was too fond of originality and he himself preferred to claim some of
+the monasteries on equitable instead of on historical grounds. They
+were founded after all, he said, for the people of the Banat and of
+those a majority were now Roumanian. (But in Caras-Severin, the chief
+stronghold of his countrymen, there are no ancient monasteries with
+the exception of some ruins. The Roumanians are not ostentatiously
+religious; they do not take kindly to the building of churches and in
+their portion of the Banat one usually finds churches of wood, some of
+these being 150 years old.) But another librarian, this time a German
+at Ver[vs]ac, poured cold water on Professor Iorga. Only one Roman
+Catholic religious house, he said, was founded by that French dynasty
+in the Banat and this was at Egres, near the Maro[vs], where the wife
+of Louis of Anjou built a church which remained Catholic and is now in
+ruins. The monastery of Besdin was founded in 1539 and a Serb-Slav
+psaltery which is kept there has, on p. 270, the following words: "In
+the name of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost. So that all people shall
+know when a beginning was made to build the monastery of Besdin. It
+was begun in the year 7058 from the creation of the world, that is
+1539 from the Birth of Christ ... Joseph Milutinovi['c],
+archimandrate, built it, and his monks and the Christians helped him.
+Written by me: Leontic Bogojevi['c], administrator and monk." Beesd
+and Besdin, said the librarian, are from the same root, signifying
+that which has no bottom, an abyss, and the marshes in the Banat are
+numerous. The Beesd of the above citation is, said the librarian, a
+place between the rivers Temes and Berzava; Catholics were there in
+the fourteenth century, but the founders were Slavs. The burly
+archimandrate of Besdin, whose constitution had withstood
+twenty-seven years of marshes and mosquitoes, was extremely scornful
+of his adversaries' pretensions. "They wanted to prove that they built
+it! Not one stone, not a single stone! Then they argued that something
+was due to them as they had paid a part of the church taxes. We had
+invited them!" ... Most of the Serbs acknowledge that their
+monasteries in the Voivodina, as elsewhere, are not under present
+conditions as meritorious as in the Middle Ages when the people from
+twenty or thirty villages would meet there and listen to the blind
+guslar-player. Sometimes one of their few monks is a man of erudition,
+such as the well-known Bishop Nicholai Velimirovi['c] or Ruvarac the
+great historian, who in thirty years freed his monastery from debt and
+left large sums for charities. On the other hand we have the
+archimandrate Radi['c], who ruled several monasteries in succession;
+he never drove with less than four horses in his carriage and he drove
+so recklessly that between eight and sixteen horses were rendered
+worthless every year. The Radical party desired, after paying fixed
+salaries to the archimandrates and monks, to give two-thirds of the
+rest to clerical funds and one-third to schools. But the
+Austro-Hungarian Government had an understanding with the clerical
+party and prevented the public from exercising any control over these
+funds. The twenty-seven monasteries in the Voivodina, Syrmia and
+Croatia could have supported three Universities, so richly endowed are
+they with lands; the Roumanians did in fact with some of the revenues
+of their one monastery of Hodosh maintain the Arad seminary. There is
+no knowing what other monasteries the Roumanians would have secured if
+the Great War had not intervened, for the Pest judges knew every
+morning which of the two litigant countries their own country happened
+to prefer.
+
+What the Serbs of the Banat had, in the political world, to contend
+against may be illustrated by some incidents of the career of Dr.
+Svetozar Mileti['c], who after having been a deputy for twenty-five
+years was charged with high treason for having sent volunteers into
+Serbia at the time of the Serbo-Turkish War; even if this was true it
+can scarcely be said to have constituted high treason against Hungary.
+The witnesses against him were two forgers, released _ad hoc_ from
+prison, his own witnesses were hundreds. He was condemned to six
+years' imprisonment, at the expiration of which he was in such a state
+that he had to be transferred to an asylum, where he died. The pitiful
+dodges of the dominating Magyar minority are by this time well enough
+known; it was their argument that certain villages, say ten miles from
+a town, had to give their votes in that town, while intervening
+villages of other nationalities were obliged to present themselves at
+a booth twenty miles in another direction, because if such methods had
+not been employed then the more ancient and more reputable Magyar
+culture would have been entirely swamped by the wicked non-Magyars.
+Thus the three million Slovaks in Hungary were represented at
+Buda-Pest by three deputies.[60] "Hungary," says the delicious Aubrey
+Herbert, M.P., in the _Oxford Hungarian Review_ (June 1922), "Hungary
+was situated amongst reactionary neighbours, and any loosening of her
+hold upon the non-Magyar population threatened her very existence. The
+path of spectacular liberalism was closed to her...." The ballot was
+supposed to be secret in the towns, where the Magyars could hope to
+exercise an appropriate control; but even in the towns they thought it
+more advisable to take no risks. Some of the dead were permitted to
+vote; but only if they were faithful Magyar dead. And in Dr.
+Mileti['c]'s constituency no arrangements were made to ferry the
+living--on the large lake of Mutniatsa the boats were hidden and the
+voters were compelled to swim across.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Although a great many of his subjects charged Prince Milan with
+preferring his own and the dynasty's interests to those of the State,
+they should have taken into account that the Berlin Congress had left
+their country in a more than difficult economic and political
+situation. Not only were Serbia and Montenegro kept apart, but in the
+intervening territory, the Sandjak of Novi Bazar, permission was given
+to Austria-Hungary, of which she soon availed herself, to establish
+garrisons. Serbia was now almost encircled by the Austrians and there
+remained only two inconvenient routes for the exportation of her
+products to other countries: down the Danube, with the very high
+tariffs imposed by the Berlin Congress, or by the line to Salonica,
+which was in the hands of Austrian capitalists and ran through Turkish
+territory. Therefore Serbia's independence, political and economic,
+existed at Austria's pleasure; and this must be remembered in
+extenuation of the secret Treaty[61] (June 23, 1881) whereby the Serbs
+bound themselves for ten years to abstain from any propaganda or other
+activity against the Habsburgs and to make no political treaties with
+other Powers without the knowledge and consent of Vienna. Nor were any
+foreign troops or volunteers to be allowed into Serbian territory. In
+return for this the Emperor undertook to recognize Prince Milan as
+King whensoever he might be pleased to assume that dignity (as he did
+on March 6, 1882), to protect his dynasty from the Karageorgevi['c]
+and to favour his acquisition of as much as possible of the valley of
+the Vardar. The grateful Prince affirmed this Treaty (on October 24,
+1881) by a still more emphatic declaration by which he appears to have
+constituted himself a vassal of the Emperor. This infuriated the young
+politicians whose radical ideas, mostly imbibed at Paris and Geneva,
+were not balanced by the moral and social discipline which is the
+fruit of an advanced civilization. As a result Serbia was given over
+to chaos.... When Prince Alexander of Battenberg aquiesced in his
+Bulgars annexing eastern Roumelia it was said that he was violating
+the Berlin Treaty, but it is now known[62] that, in spite of the 1879
+Treaty, this union had been foreseen and approved by Germany, Russia
+and Austria-Hungary in 1881. Nevertheless Austria, which hoped to
+embroil and enfeeble the two Slav States, urged Milan to declare war
+against the Bulgars, and this he did the more willingly as he fancied
+that it would divert from him the enmity of so many of his subjects;
+but this war was such an unpopular enterprise that the King did not
+dare to mobilize fully, and with his available forces indifferently
+equipped and badly led, the upshot was that the Bulgars were
+victorious. While Austria had thus been the Serb's evil genius,
+Russia, by withdrawing all her officers from Bulgaria, again acted in
+a manner which seemed scarcely to allow her and others, in 1915, to
+denounce the Bulgars for their ingratitude. (The Russians, as a
+subsequent Russian Minister at Sofia relates,[63] so completely
+mishandled the situation in the early days of Bulgaria's freedom that
+they had only themselves to blame for the invitation to Ferdinand of
+Coburg which was made with the express purpose of thwarting Russian
+aggression.)
+
+
+THE BURDEN OF THE OBRENOVI['C]
+
+The fratricidal Serbo-Bulgarian conflict of 1885 has been well
+commemorated by a monument at Vidin: a soldier of the victorious
+Bulgarian army is depicted, prostrate in sorrow.... Milan, after an
+effort to rule with a new liberal constitution, abdicated and
+delivered his country to a Regency. These statesmen, who were aware of
+the secret convention with Austria, obstructed the development of the
+country and had recourse to a _coup d'etat_ in order to prevent a
+Radical election. Alexander, the ill-fated son of Milan, by another
+_coup d'etat_ proclaimed himself of age, summoned a Radical Cabinet
+and restored to the people their political liberties. But the
+enthusiasm caused by these proceedings was not often to be roused
+again by Alexander. The midnight _coups d'etat_, which rapidly
+succeeded one another, were a form of government congenial to this
+gloomy, silent, friendless youth who blinked at the world through his
+spectacles and was incapable of seeing anything except the narrowness
+and the intrigues that were a part of his surroundings. More and more
+he showed himself a despot; he persecuted and imprisoned hundreds of
+Radicals, who were the overwhelming majority of the population.
+Espionage was rampant, the finances were in a state of chaos and
+Serbia's prestige was at such an ebb that, what with the disasters of
+1885 and the reign of Alexander, the Macedonian Slavs were naturally
+more inclined to proclaim themselves Bulgars. Alexander annulled the
+constitution, imposed that of 1888, annulled this one also, superseded
+all the judges of appeal as well as all the councillors of state,
+married his mistress (an engineer's widow) and plotted, it was said,
+to nominate as heir to the throne his brother-in-law, a worthless
+young lieutenant. Meanwhile this officer and his brother were
+exasperating the people of Belgrade by commanding the orchestras in
+cafes to play the national anthem at their entrance, and occasionally,
+while they drank, firing their revolvers into the air. It was
+something more than personal exasperation which brought about
+Alexander's death. Those who participated in the murder were both
+partisans and opponents of the dynasty. Likewise the Austro-Hungarian
+Government was aware of the plan: Count Goluchowski promised the
+conspirators that Austria would not resort to armed interference,
+although two army corps were held in readiness to march into Serbia.
+Of course it would have suited Austria much better if the king, who
+seemed to be emancipating himself from the veiled tutelage accepted by
+his father, had been dethroned and kept by the Ballplatz as a
+restraint on the political waywardness of any successor. Some of those
+who entered the palace on the night of June 10, 1903, may have had
+their intentions changed by the panic which was caused owing to the
+lateness of the hour and the groping along unlighted passages--the
+electricity was out of order--but amid the band of executioners there
+may very well have been some who recognized that, for Serbia's future
+peace and welfare, it was infinitely preferable that he should not
+live. From practically the whole nation there came, when they heard of
+his death, a sigh of relief; he was killed by the detestation of his
+subjects. Yet there might have been, in the people's state of nerves,
+an outbreak against the actual murderers and this might have
+inaugurated a reign of terror if Pa[vs]i['c] had not walked up and
+down in front of the palace, wearing a bowler hat and buttonholing
+everyone he saw. "Most unfortunate, most unfortunate," he said; "they
+were both drunk, and so they killed each other." Meanwhile, machine
+guns were being mounted at appropriate spots, but they were not
+required. And Austria published to the world a few abominable
+incidents that accompanied the deed and followed it; these were almost
+wholly untrue, yet they served to make not only Western Europe but
+even the Sultan hold up their hands in horror. Abdul Hamid raised
+those hands that were dripping with the blood of hundreds of thousands
+of Armenians, and in exalted phrases, says Mr. Laffan,[64] lectured
+the Serbs on the undesirability of assassination.
+
+A younger man than King Peter Karageorgevi['c], who now succeeded,
+might have been appalled by the difficulties of the situation. Murder
+and the rearing of pigs were universally regarded as the purposes for
+which God had created the Serbs, and years were to elapse before the
+little country could persuade the world that it was not inhabited by
+beings who approached the lower animals--and then the world perceived
+that it was, to a great extent, inhabited by heroes. When King Peter
+ascended the throne the Royal Families of Europe congratulated each
+other that they were not related to him, and they sympathized with
+Nikita of Montenegro for having this personage as a son-in-law. The
+indebtedness of Serbia--she owed 450,000,000 francs, a sum which
+swallowed a quarter of the annual budget--the corruption of the public
+services, the lack of industrial development, the rudimentary state of
+agriculture and whatsoever else of evil which the Obrenovi['c] had
+done or left undone--everything was the fault of King Peter. A great
+many people were positive that Alexander had been slain by his
+myrmidons; for this foul deed he had been always plotting, from the
+time when he fought as a lieutenant in the French army of 1870-1871
+(when he was wounded and decorated), during the Bosnian insurrection
+of 1876 (when he served the national cause) and while he was
+translating Mill's _Treatise on Liberty_. These liberal activities
+were held as the absolute proofs of the hypocrisy of Europe's outlaw.
+In a few years "old Uncle Pete," as his people affectionately came to
+call him, was revered by the men not only of friendly countries but
+even by those who were in arms against him.
+
+
+A HAPPY ADVENT
+
+He started by placing the government in the hands of the Radical party
+and by showing that his own position would be strictly that of a
+constitutional monarch. Numerous reforms were undertaken with respect
+to the finances, the exploitation of the country's resources and the
+reorganizing of the army, which had been debilitated by intrigue and
+corruption. So many tasks had simultaneously to be accomplished that
+the greatest Serbophil may have despaired, since the national
+qualities do not, as yet, include much power of organization. Is it
+not astonishing, therefore, that in a few years so much was done?--the
+army, for example, becoming so closely identified with the people that
+high Obrenovi['c] officers felt that it was unpatriotic to perpetuate
+these dynastic divisions, and gradually they resolved to offer their
+swords to the State. More than one General whose abilities in the
+Great War gained him a high British decoration had once been
+conspicuous for his enmity to the Karageorgevi['c]. With regard to
+Serbia's international standing we have the fact that in 1899-1900 it
+was impossible to arrange a loan of 40 millions at Vienna even though
+the entire railway system was offered as a guarantee; in a few years
+various loans, with relatively easy terms, were contracted for amounts
+of 90, 110 and 150 millions. One saw the peasant, who a short time
+before had sold his harvest while it was still green (zeleno) to the
+local usurer (hence called the "Zelenac"), now demanding every day by
+telegram _via_ Belgrade or Smederevo the market prices at Antwerp. In
+1895 Serbia had sunk to such depths that a Dalmatian leader said
+openly to a German journalist that the Yugoslav idea could only be
+realized by Bulgaria; in 1910 the "Narodna Odbrana" (or Organization
+for National Defence), that was not, as the Austrians alleged, a
+nursery for murderers but a patriotic body--it no doubt reminded the
+people of their brothers in Macedonia, the Voivodina and Bosnia, but
+at the same time urged them to cultivate the land more rationally, to
+visit the doctor rather than some old woman, to dress, sleep and eat
+in accordance with hygiene, and to take steps against illiteracy--in
+1910 the efforts of the "Narodna Odbrana" had had such success that an
+inquiry, in which the French participated, found that out of a hundred
+recruits from a backward region 61 per cent. could read and write, 99
+per cent. had some knowledge of the battle of Kossovo and the reign
+of Du[vs]an, while 82 per cent. could enumerate the provinces
+inhabited by their unredeemed brothers. The rise of Serbia was due to
+the happy direction that was now given to the virile spirit of the
+people; standing back to back in their own land, they were soon able
+to arouse the despondent hearts of their countrymen who languished
+under various tyrannies outside the national frontiers.
+
+Those who in Old Serbia acknowledged their Serbian nationality were
+the constant victims of Albanian intolerance. One massacre followed
+another--that people which, according to some of its present
+champions, is mild and noble and misunderstood, with a particular
+aptitude for silver-work and embroidery--Miss Edith Durham asks that
+this poor nation should not be robbed of its country, its one
+ewe-lamb, which they love intensely and which, to everyone's
+admiration, they defend with great heroism; one cannot expect her, the
+Secretary of the Anglo-Albanian Committee, to refer to the numerous
+lambs, etc., which the Albanians, armed with machine guns, carried off
+in 1919 from a Serbian monastery near Tetovo; and in 1903 the
+Albanians, waiving their mildness, appear to have been more
+conspicuous in attacking others than in defending themselves. The
+monks of the old Serbian patriarchate of Pe['c] were obliged to have
+Moslem and Albanian attendants, and it does not strike one as heroic
+when the monks themselves were murdered, so that the great monastery
+of De[vc]ani had perforce to be served by Russian monks from Mt.
+Athos. Far distant, indeed, was the day when those Albanians, who
+called themselves, after a river, the Fani, went to the assistance of
+Du[vs]an. They had been brought to a temporary standstill by the
+swollen waters of the Drin--"but," exclaimed one of their chieftains,
+"for a hero every day is good." They crossed the river and Du[vs]an
+gave them the name of Mirditi, by which they are still known, "mir
+dit" signifying in their language "good day." Not only were the Serbs
+compelled to don Albanian raiment--the Orthodox priest who ministers
+to Djakovica had, in 1903, to put aside his Serbian head-dress on
+leaving his quarter of the town; when making an official visit his
+head-dress was Greek and always in the surrounding country it was
+Albanian. Mr. Brailsford found, in June 1903, that the Serb peasants
+were tenants at will, exposed to every caprice of their Albanian
+conquerors; both at Pe['c], he says, and at Djakovica there was no law
+and no court of justice. In 1903 at Muerzsteg, near Vienna, Francis
+Joseph and the Tzar concluded their Macedonian reform scheme, this
+rather futile arrangement paying, as one might suppose, not much
+deference to the Serbs. In Bosnia also and in southern Hungary the
+Serbs were in a humiliating position.
+
+But the Serbs in the little kingdom strove manfully to put their own
+house in order and to encourage their brethren. What is known as the
+"Pig War" was waged, with astonishing success, against the Austrian
+Empire; by sending her live-stock and meat overland to Salonica, her
+cereals down the Danube, Serbia managed to break down the barriers
+behind which the Austrians had intended to control her economic life.
+The measures adopted by Stojanovi['c], the Minister of Commerce, were
+confirmed by the Skup[vs]tina and enthusiastically supported by the
+whole people, regardless of the accompanying privations or of any
+bribes held out by the Austrians. Thus when the Austrians reduced the
+fares on their well-equipped Save and Danube vessels, these were still
+boycotted in favour of the Serbian boats. One morning at [vS]abac a
+civil servant had embarked on the Austrian ship, while everybody else
+was crowding on to the much smaller, slower and less cleanly Serbian
+rival. The civil servant was being vigorously hissed, when he shouted
+across to his compatriots that as he was an official he had a free
+pass and he thought it a good plan to make the Austrians consume,
+simply for him, a certain amount of coal.... The young men of the
+_intelligentsia_ were not idle. [vZ]erjav for the Slovenes, Krisman
+for the Croats, Yovanovi['c] and Ne[vs]i['c] for the Serbs, were
+eagerly at work to bring about the union of the Southern Slavs. They
+had some sympathizers in Bulgaria, but that country was too much
+oppressed by Ferdinand and the Germanic influence. Both [vZ]erjav and
+Krisman were destined to become Ministers in the South Slav
+Parliament, which of course does not yet include Bulgaria.
+Ne[vs]i['c], who was the diplomat of the Serbian movement, became
+Consul at Pri[vs]tina, took part in the Balkan War, for instance at
+the siege of Scutari, as an artillery officer, and after some years
+found himself inside the town as Yugoslav Envoy. He is now Minister at
+Tirana, a delicate post which could not be in better hands. Ljuba
+Yovanovi['c] was the idealist whose work was to arouse his
+fellow-countrymen by articles and poems. In the war against Bulgaria
+he was wounded and in hospital contracted cholera. On the day of his
+death he wrote to a brother of Ne[vs]i['c], now one of Belgrade's
+leading lawyers; he was utterly grieved, he said, that brother-Slavs
+should have shed each other's blood, but he was certain that the day
+of union would come.
+
+
+AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN WRATH
+
+The first external result of Serbia's efforts was seen in 1905, when
+forty young intellectuals of Croatia, Dalmatia and Istria met at Rieka
+and, while accepting the union of Croatia with Hungary, called on the
+Serbian political parties to join them. Twenty-six Serbian deputies
+met at Zadar, endorsed this policy and formed with the Croats the
+Serbo-Croat Coalition, to which the Slovenes also subscribed. Francis
+Kossuth, the Magyar Opposition leader, welcomed with eloquent phrases
+the idea of an alliance between his party and the new Coalition; but
+when he came into power he forsook this attitude and exhibited the
+ordinary Magyar ruthlessness--he himself introducing a bill to make
+the Magyar language obligatory on Croatia's railways, and if a
+prospective Croat passenger did not know what name the Magyars had
+given to his old home and could not ask for a ticket in the Magyar
+language, he was told to stop where he was until he had acquired the
+necessary knowledge. In general, the Magyars had no reason to be
+dissatisfied with the sort of knowledge that the world had of them. In
+1907, when a funeral pall was spread over the liberties of the Croats,
+Serbs, Slovaks and Roumanians in Hungary, Mr. Roosevelt, who was
+making his famous tour, gave many bouquets to "immortal Hungary," the
+"virtuous," the "chivalrous." The Serbo-Croats tried, by every
+possible method, to hold out against Buda-Pest. A Ban--Baron
+Rauch--was appointed with the special purpose of breaking the
+Coalition; and when the Serbo-Croats obtained fifty-seven seats out
+of eighty-eight, although one-half of the electorate consisted of
+employees dependent on the Government, an order was issued proroguing
+the new Diet.
+
+In fact the Austro-Hungarian authorities had resolved to suppress any
+Yugoslav union. To the Dalmatians, who were in need of schools, roads
+and railways, they said, "Show us first that you are patriotic
+subjects of the House of Habsburg." Necessities, as Hermann Bahr has
+pointed out[65] were thus turned into rewards, which were to be the
+fruit of years of toil....
+
+
+THEIR MONTENEGRIN FRIEND
+
+The association of the Montenegrin Royal Family and the Habsburgs,
+which was to culminate in the barefaced treachery of Lov[vc]en, may be
+said to have begun in the year 1906, when the two heirs, Francis
+Ferdinand and Danilo, met at Dubrovnik. A statement was issued, after
+a few days, which declared that Russia was far away and that
+Montenegro required the support of a Power whose help would be
+effective. If it had not been for the disasters of the Russo-Japanese
+War, Nikita would have found it much more difficult to direct his
+country in this manner. The Black Mountain had always thought of
+Russia as all-powerful; her defeat, when they could bring themselves
+to realize it, was to them as if the foundations of the world were
+rocking; in their dazed condition they agreed that it was well to have
+recourse to Austria. (When the Russian Minister at Cetinje protested,
+some explanation was given.) The financial details of the Dubrovnik
+agreement are unknown, but from what one does know of Danilo it is
+fairly safe if we assume that the whole benefit did not accrue to the
+Montenegrin Government. Danilo may in other respects have been an
+incapable young man--the advice of his unmarried sister, Xenia, was
+always preferred to his; in fact, her father had such confidence in
+this masterful woman with the pallid face and large, black eyes--the
+"femme fatale," as her enemies have called her--that he never gave an
+audience but she was present, either openly or behind a screen.
+Danilo's incapacity, however, seems to have stopped short, as we shall
+see, at the procuring of cash.
+
+In that same year, 1906, Montenegro's first Skup[vs]tina assembled.
+Many people wondered why the autocrat bestowed a Constitution and a
+Skup[vs]tina upon his subjects. They for their part--at least the
+great majority whose knowledge of the world was gained by looking at
+it from their mountain fastnesses--could never for a moment doubt but
+that the Montenegrins were the grandest and the noblest of the Serbs.
+Hour after hour of peace they spent, disdaining to do any work more
+arduous than smoking cigarettes and drinking rakia, and talking,
+talking ... they would relate to one another what their ancestors had
+done by way of cutting Turkish noses, and unweariedly they would
+announce how their own blood was undiluted and heroic. If Greater
+Serbia was to be created it was surely they who--but Nikita, their
+keen-witted ruler, was not so certain. The Karageorgevi[vc] were no
+longer being treated by Europe as outlaws; by his constitutional
+methods King Peter had not only effected vast and needed improvements
+in his country, but was gradually winning for himself and it, if not a
+general esteem, at all events the first approach to that condition
+which for so long had been lacking. And Nikita was uneasy. He must
+also have a Constitution in his country and a Skup[vs]tina. Very well
+he knew that with the inexperience of his people, with their furious
+local rivalries and with his power of veto, he would not be greatly
+hampered by this Skup[vs]tina. It would be a semblance of modernity.
+
+Nikita had no intention of allowing himself to be put in the shade by
+the Prime Minister. Whether it was Tomanovi['c], a kindly man of
+straw, or General Martinovi['c], an upright soldier, or anybody
+else--their function was to execute the royal orders. The differences
+which separate one political party from another in a Balkan State, and
+separate them very often into frantically hostile camps, are wont to
+be minute as to their principles, for it is largely a question as to
+whether you are a devotee of this or of that statesman. Two of the
+three parties which existed in Montenegro down to the Great War were
+both grouped round the Crown Prince Danilo, and apparently the sole
+difference between them was that no member of the Miu[vs]kevi['c]
+Cabinet had been in prison. To a western European it would be
+surprising that the kindred Radovi['c] party should also be on terms
+of close friendship with Danilo, seeing that it consisted of Nikita's
+dissatisfied relatives (one of these was Radovi['c]'s powerful
+father-in-law) who disliked the new statute which limited the Royal
+Family to Nikita and his children. Danilo protected this party for
+personal reasons. As for the third political party, that of General
+Martinovi['c], its principal plank was its opposition to the other two
+parties. Mita Martinovi['c] himself was not much of a politician; he
+was a sturdy friend of Russia. Of his rivals, Lazar Miu[vs]kevi['c], a
+bearded, rather stout, medium-sized man, has a pious opinion of his
+own abilities, and is, or was, very proud of his friendship with
+Danilo. He need not be taken seriously, for he has no knowledge of
+administration, no political courage and no popular support. [During
+the Great War he was for a time the Premier, and after the War, when
+the other five ex-Premiers ranged themselves against Nikita, he stayed
+in Switzerland, where he tried for many months to make up his mind.]
+Andrija Radovi['c], a middle-aged man, whose tall, athletic form is
+crowned with the head of a grave poet, was erstwhile a favourite of
+Nikita's. Being related to the Royal Family, Nikita called him his
+fourth son, and when, after the fatuous bomb conspiracy (of which more
+anon), Radovi['c] was lured back from Paris and sentenced to four
+years' imprisonment, it was not because he was in any way guilty, but
+on the ground that he knew what was going to happen and should have
+handed on the information. The real reason was that any party which
+was even to a mild extent in favour of reforms did not meet with the
+approval of the Gospodar. In his opinion it was necessary to reduce
+Radovi['c] to obedience; and Nikita used to try, without success, to
+force the innocent prisoner to beg for pardon. Since he declined to do
+so, he remained incarcerated with a large cannon-ball chained to his
+left leg. While he was in prison he corresponded with Danilo, and on
+being liberated was received by Nikita--they wept in each other's
+arms.
+
+Nikita fancied he was just the man to govern a progressive modern
+State. When he had the famous old warrior Pero publicly flogged by a
+criminal for having refused to degrade himself by flogging that same
+criminal, Nikita might plead that he was acting in the interests of
+discipline. When he confined his critics in the old Turkish fortress
+on the small, malarial island of Grimojuri, with the water oozing into
+the cells, he might plead that this was precisely the same curriculum
+as fell to the lot, at San Juan de Ulloa, of those who incurred the
+displeasure of Porfirio Diaz, the Mexican President--and Diaz had been
+almost worshipped (till his fall) by many Europeans. When Nikita drove
+one afternoon with friends of his to Nik[vs]i['c] and approvingly
+looked on while they destroyed the building and the whole machinery of
+Montenegro's weekly newspaper, which had departed from the paths of
+adulation--well, I see that his apologist, a certain Mr. A.
+Devine,[66] says that "in 1908 political passions resulted in the
+extinction of the organ of the political Opposition, _Narodna Misao_
+("The National Idea")."
+
+In 1908 there fell the blow of Bosnia-Herzegovina's annexation to the
+Empire, thus placing definitely under foreign sway the central portion
+and ethnically among the purest of that Serbian people which was
+already divided into seven different administrations or States. Russia
+was still enfeebled by the Japanese War, and although she and Great
+Britain protested against the annexation, Count Aerenthal was able to
+gather this booty. It would, however, be an exaggeration to say that
+Russia--apart from the ultra-patriotic Press--was violently excited.
+As M. Nekludoff, the able diplomat, explains,[67] his country was
+annoyed not so much at the Bosnian annexation as because there was for
+it no _quid pro quo_, no free passage through the Dardanelles. Poor
+Serbia was advised by the Great Powers to accept the _fait accompli_.
+She constrained herself to do so, but both she and certain folk in
+Austria were under no illusions as to the inevitable--a month after
+the annexation a Viennese newspaper announced that a conflict with
+Serbia and Montenegro could not be avoided. "The longer we postpone
+it," said the paper, "so much the more will it cost us."
+
+One gets very weary of hearing the phrase "Divide et impera," which
+always occurs at least several times in the course of an exposition of
+Austrian policy. But we are bound to say that this principle governed
+her behaviour when she stage-managed in 1908 the Zagreb high-treason
+trial,[68] which was to drive a wedge between Serbs and Croats, in
+1909 the Friedjung case, as also the Cetinje bomb affair which was to,
+and did in fact, alienate Nikita from his son-in-law, the Serbian
+King.
+
+
+AUSTRIA GIVES HOSTAGES TO HISTORY
+
+The Zagreb trial was conducted by a man who gave a good impersonation
+of Mr. Justice Shallow. "There is nothing to laugh at!" he cried, when
+a Serb doctor was asked whether he did not refuse to wear cravats
+because of the resemblance of that word to Croat. The whole farce
+resulted, not as one might have expected, in the collapse of the
+prosecution but in thirty-one convictions, varying in length from five
+to twelve years. The Croats, however, had thwarted Austria's schemes.
+They remained true to the Serbs, acted as their counsel without
+payment and helped to support the families of the poorer prisoners. At
+the Friedjung trial this professor, an eminent historian, produced a
+series of photographs of documents which were subsequently shown to
+have been fabricated at the Austro-Hungarian legation in Belgrade; he
+wished to prove that a political club in that town was guilty of a
+most extensive plot involving the Yugoslav territories of the House of
+Habsburg. Among those whom these proceedings and those at Zagreb
+brought into European prominence were the Pribi[vc]evi['c] brothers, a
+very zealous family of Croatian Serbs, that is to say Croats belonging
+to the Orthodox Church. [The chief of these four brothers was
+Svetozar, a statesman whose Serbo-Croat Coalition party was, with the
+advent of Yugoslavia in 1918, to form the nucleus of the Democratic
+party. He then became for many months the all-powerful Minister of
+the Interior, a man with the appearance of a bull-dog in whose veins
+is electricity. The vehemence of his methods of centralization is
+supported and opposed by his countrymen with an almost equal
+vehemence.] ... But to return to the events of 1908 and 1909--the
+result of these two trials was lamentable from the Austrian point of
+view. More success attended her efforts in Cetinje, for Nikita was
+intensely roused against his son-in-law, and the European reputation
+of Serbia was again dragged down to the level of the day which saw the
+murder of Alexander and his Queen. An individual called Nasti['c]
+whom, according to Professor Friedjung, one could only touch with a
+pair of tongs, accused the Serbian Royal Family of attempting to blow
+up their picturesque relative, under whose roof, by the way, Princess
+Helen of Serbia, his grand-daughter, happened to be staying. The bombs
+were carried in an ordinary portmanteau to Kotor, where they were
+discovered. Those who believed that Nikita, the arch-intriguer, was
+using this method for discrediting the Karageorgevi['c] dynasty, can
+point to the fact that he never wanted a public trial, and it seems
+probable that Nikita--who was aware that a group of his young,
+discontented subjects was planning against him a demonstration, but
+nothing more than that, even though there are in the Balkans a certain
+number of people who incline to the throwing of a bomb when their
+British equivalents would write to the _Times_--it seems probable that
+Nikita may not only have stolen their thunder but have put the
+lightning in their pockets and have then indignantly revealed it. But
+the whole affair is wrapped in darkness and awaits the exploring of
+Austria's archives. The probability is that Aerenthal was at his work
+to demonstrate that Belgrade was a nest of vipers, so that Europe
+would not hearken to their protest when the time came for the House of
+Habsburg to smother them.[69] ... This same Austrian police-spy
+Nasti['c] had procured for Nikita a certain "revolutionary statue"
+which that personage made over to the Imperial authorities, for use
+against the Serbs at the Zagreb treason trial. This atrocious deed
+against his brother Serbs destroyed for ever the last shreds of
+Nikita's reputation.
+
+
+THE DREAMS OF AN OLD REALIST
+
+Nevertheless he dreamed that from the mighty castle which looks down
+on Prizren he would rule the Southern Slavs; his eyes were ever turned
+towards the famous legendary land of Old Serbia. One essential was
+that he should be a king, and in 1910 with the consent of the Powers
+he assumed this title. The spider-webs of which he was so fond began
+to join Cetinje and Sofia, Cetinje and the mountains of Albania, while
+the master-weaver mitigated in his usual fashion the monotony of life
+in his poor capital. The Petrovi['c] have such a way with them
+that--if you do not happen to be one of their subjects--you are in
+danger of being disarmed. Thus when they were basking in the goodwill
+of Austria and when Nikita himself, in the spring of 1911, had been
+splendidly received at Vienna, so that on his return to Cetinje he was
+welcomed by the whole diplomatic body, save for the Russian Minister,
+Count Giers, and General Potapoff, the Russian military attache, who
+were exhibiting their Government's disapproval, this appeared to
+Nikita a favourable moment for--as the Persians would say--blackening
+the face of the Austrian representative.
+
+It was said by many of his discontented subjects that the King of
+Montenegro's great solicitude for his own personal affairs caused him
+frequently to be quite dull in recognizing other people's merit. But
+that day when he received the Austrian Minister he was so very much
+delighted with him that he there and then gave him promotion from the
+second to the first class of the Order of Danilo. He had some months
+before conferred upon this gentleman the second class, with diamonds
+of paste, and when the Austrian now told the King of his appreciation
+of the honour being so profound that he had ventured to replace the
+other diamonds with real ones--"I am enchanted," said the King, "to
+see that we have such a real friend in you, and I propose to grant
+you," said the King, as he produced another star composed of imitation
+diamonds, "to grant you this, the most exalted class. Your Excellency
+has deserved right well of our beloved Montenegro. Give me back now
+that inferior decoration, and to-morrow, with due ceremony at eleven
+o'clock to-morrow," said the King with his paternal smile, "we will
+bestow on you what you deserve so richly, and it gives me every
+satisfaction, I assure you," said His Majesty.
+
+The Malissori of Albania were also listening to the old man's
+blandishments. If they would revolt against the Turks--they were
+exasperated at the time against the Young Turk rule--then their
+families would be sheltered in Montenegro and their land, after it had
+been liberated, would be given independence. With the potent help of
+Ferdinand of Bulgaria the Turk was to be overthrown. But nothing came
+of all these plans; the Malissori were abandoned to the mercy of
+Constantinople.
+
+However, in 1912 that which had been thought impossible was brought
+about: Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece and Montenegro were allied against the
+Turk. "Onamo, onamo!..."
+
+    "Yonder, yonder!--Let me see Prizren,
+     For it is mine--I shall come to my home...."
+
+but Nikita, who had written these famous words and who had taught them
+to his people for a generation, had no cavalry--in the Montenegrin
+mountains they would have been of no avail--and thus, while his
+warriors were still some hours from Prizren, they had the
+mortification of hearing that the Serbs had entered it. With
+passionate desire they turned to Scutari. Nikita told them of the old
+Slav princes who were buried there--and to the simple-minded
+Montenegrins that seemed a good enough reason why 20,000 of them, the
+flower of the army, should lay down their own lives on the dreary
+hills that barred them from the town. It was hardly necessary for
+Nikita to allude to the wealth that would be theirs if they could gain
+possession of this outlet to the Adriatic. There in the plain at the
+end of the lake was the glittering white town, and if they could have
+seen themselves as clearly and their own inadequate resources, they
+would have refrained from the attempt. The minarets of Scutari, raised
+like so many warning fingers, failed to warn them. Their equipment was
+such that munitions and other supplies were frequently carried up to
+the lines by women--on the Bardonjolt no less than eighty of these
+were killed and wounded in one day. When the Serbs in October pushed
+through Albania to the Adriatic they offered to assist in the taking
+of Scutari, but Nikita shook his head. And it was not until some time
+after this that he accepted the co-operation of three batteries of
+Krupp guns, which had been meanwhile taken from the Turks at Kumanovo.
+But the Montenegrin army was not only handicapped by its lack of
+resources; the Crown Prince, who commanded a division, actually
+instigated a revolt among his own men. He had promised the Austrian
+Minister, Baron Giesl von Gieslingen, that the Montenegrin army would
+not enter Scutari, and the Government could only put a stop to
+Danilo's intrigues by invoking the aid of General Potapoff. The Turks
+were not wasting their time; they employed Austrian engineers to
+strengthen the fortifications, and thus the task had become far more
+difficult when finally the Montenegrin Court party availed itself of
+Serbian reinforcements. In more ways than one they were badly needed
+by the brave but ill-disciplined soldiers. "It is wonderful," they
+said to Major Temperley,[70] "their troops do not fire until an
+officer gives the word." Primitive men and a venal commander--according
+to Dr. Sekula Drljevi[vc], who was Minister of Finance and Justice,
+Prince Danilo is alleged to have remembered, just before his country's
+entrance into the War, that money could be made on the Vienna Bourse
+by judicious selling and, after the declaration of war, by purchasing.
+The professional financier who on this occasion, thanks to his
+knowledge of the Montenegrin royal plans, is alleged to have realized,
+with his friends, the sum of 140 million francs, was no less a person
+than Baron Rosenberg, whose subsequent operations in Paris at the
+beginning of the Great War and in Switzerland during the War received
+the close attention of the French authorities.[71] These financial
+methods of Danilo's did less material harm, at any rate to his own
+people than the system he employed as a motorist; it was necessary
+that he should obtain the latest models, and it suited him that the
+Government, not haggling over the price, should take over his
+discarded vehicles. Similar hostages to gossip were given by Mirko,
+his younger brother; one remembers the smiles of the diplomatic corps
+at Cetinje when this young man dispatched, at the cost of the
+Government, a telegram of about 500 words to Austria, concerning a
+horse which he wanted to buy. Mirko, who died during the Great War in
+an Austrian sanatorium, was not one of those rugged and valiant
+Montenegrin mountaineers whom Gladstone and Tennyson celebrated; once
+when his father ordered him to come back from Paris, where he was
+copiously spending his country's substance on an actress with whom he
+had decamped, leaving his wife and several young children at Naples,
+he dutifully returned and settled down in his palace, a large,
+comfortable house outside Podgorica. Since it was less amusing than in
+Paris he remained in bed for most of the twenty-four hours; he would
+often spend an hour before dinner in superintending the removal of
+pictures from one wall to another, and having dined he would immerse
+himself in State affairs, which took the form of speculating as to
+when he and his heirs--Danilo being childless--would be called to rule
+over the great Serbian kingdom of Serbia combined with Montenegro. As
+to the fate of the Karageorgevi['c] dynasty, this was wont to vary
+from night to night, in proportion to the amount of wine that Mirko
+had drunk.
+
+These events occurred in 1913, and in the same year the Montenegrins
+entered Scutari. It was not brought about by force of arms, but by
+some arrangement with Essad Pasha, the illiterate and clever Albanian
+who succeeded to the command of the town after Hussein Riza Bey, the
+Turkish leader, had been assassinated on the threshold of Essad's
+house, where he had been dining, by a couple of the Pasha's men,
+disguised as women. Scutari was not to stay for long in Montenegrin
+hands; an International Force arrived, under Admiral Sir Cecil Burney,
+and took it over. One need scarcely add that the national sentiment of
+the Albanians moved the Powers at this juncture as little as it moved
+the Albanians.
+
+
+VERY HIGH POLITICS
+
+We have seen that Prince Danilo, before flinging himself against the
+infidel Turk, is alleged to have transacted a little business on the
+Bourse--a former Montenegrin Minister of Finance says that he may well
+have netted between 25 and 30 million crowns--and his royal father,
+though his methods often had a tinge of mediaevalism, was not the man
+to rush, like some old knight, in succour of distress. When Serbia was
+attacked in 1914 he refrained from flying to her side. Montenegro
+"stood up spontaneously to defend the Serbian cause: she fought and
+she fell," says Mr. Devine. There is not the least doubt but that the
+vast majority of Montenegrins would have acted in this fashion. To
+some degree they had deteriorated under the example of Nikita--"A fish
+stinks from its head," says a Turkish proverb; but when their brother
+Serbs were in deadly peril all else was forgotten. And they were
+bewildered and suspicious when the Skup[vs]tina was summoned, seeing
+that the Constitution laid it down that the declaring of war was a
+royal prerogative. As practically every man was thirsting for
+battle--after all they were Serbs and incapable of committing high
+treason against their brethren--they marvelled at the King's delay.
+But to the politicians his manoeuvre explained itself; they
+recognized that Nikita had some secret arrangement[72] with the
+Austrians and that he wanted to tell Francis Joseph that the War had
+been forced upon him. From that moment he was playing a double role; a
+Serbian officer was chief of the Montenegrin staff. "They have placed
+my army under Serbian command," he told the Austrians. "So faithful
+was I," he said to the Entente, "that I even took a Serbian
+commander."
+
+In view of the persistent pro-Nikita propaganda which subsequently
+reared its foolish head in Great Britain, it is as well to note what
+were the sentiments of the Montenegrins towards their own country and
+their brother Serbs, and on the other hand how they regarded Nikita.
+Alone among the Allies the Montenegrin soldier received no decorations
+either in the Balkan wars or in the Great War, and yet he had formerly
+been so proud of such recognition that it had often been carved upon
+his tombstone, and when for one decoration there were two claimants a
+duel was frequently arranged in order to decide which was to be the
+recipient. But Nikita's regime of corruption and intrigue caused these
+marks of distinction to be conferred more and more upon police-agents
+and such like, so that in the Balkan War, when the heroes could no
+longer be counted, when more than five standard-bearers fell one after
+another in carrying the same standard and when it was proposed to
+decorate _en bloc_ the Ku[vc]i brigade, the soldiers refused to accept
+what had been so profaned.
+
+
+THE RIDDLE OF SARAJEVO
+
+On June 28, 1914, the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the
+Austro-Hungarian throne, was murdered at Sarajevo.
+
+In the course of July 1914 the Austro-Hungarian Government (wherein
+far more influence was exerted by Count Tisza, the wealthy and
+incorruptible, the vastly ambitious Magyar Prime Minister, than by the
+Foreign Minister, Count Berchtold, the courteous, somewhat frivolous
+man of the world who was doomed to execute reluctantly the orders of
+Berlin and be swept away by the resulting storm, while the brave and
+brutal Tisza, fighting for the glory of the Habsburgs and the greater
+glory of the Magyars, rode upon the storm for years)--the
+Austro-Hungarian Government in July 1914 dispatched to Sarajevo a
+commissioner for the purpose of investigating whether the Serbian
+authorities had anything to do with the Archduke's assassination. This
+official, Baron von Weisner, a very distinguished Professor of
+Political Economy who was a German Bohemian[73] with staunch German
+sympathies, reported in the same month that he was convinced that no
+accusation whatever could be levelled against Belgrade. (As a matter
+of fact the Serbian police, who had information that a plot was being
+hatched in Bosnia, gave warning to the Austrian authorities; but no
+notice was taken of this, not even when a similar warning was uttered
+on June 21 by the Serbian Minister at Vienna, nor were any special
+precautions laid down for the Archduke's safety. It was all rather
+mysterious.) "Byzantium, the everlasting and unconquerable Byzantium,"
+says an Austrian publicist,[74] "had won another victory.... The
+Habsburg Empire," says he, "only wished to defend herself against
+those invisible and irrepressible intrigues." And after denouncing the
+Serbs for throwing a spark into the powder barrel on June 28, 1914, he
+accounts for their conduct by writing that "it is the tradition of
+nomad blood to tear down ancient, noble palaces, replacing them by
+nomad huts." What we know is that General Potiorek, the Governor of
+Bosnia, who had urged Francis Ferdinand and his wife to continue their
+programme after the failure of the first attempt at assassination
+before lunch, was never invited to explain anything--unfortunately for
+Austria he was placed in command of the "punitive expedition" into
+Serbia. Other incidents on which a light may some day be thrown were
+the very unceremonious funeral arrangements for the murdered couple
+(though this may very likely have been due to the High Chamberlain's
+personal hatred of the Archduke), and the fact that an Imperial
+Commission was sent to Konopi[vs]t[ve], the Archduke's Bohemian
+estate, to seize his papers. It was there that he had lately been
+confabulating with the German Emperor; and Count Berchtold had visited
+the place on the day after the Kaiser's departure to try to ascertain
+what had occurred.... It was also at Konopi[vs]t[ve] that Francis
+Ferdinand, who was threatened with hereditary madness, had shot a
+gamekeeper dead. Knowing that the Archduke was as good a shot as he
+was insignificant in horsemanship, this had excited great attention in
+the highest circles, coming as it did after other scenes of
+violence.... In contrast with all these semi-mysteries it is clear
+that Serbia had nothing whatever to gain by the Archduke's
+disappearance, and although Austria had time and again endeavoured to
+pick a quarrel with her she had managed to avoid a situation which,
+after the two recent wars, would be perilous in the extreme. The
+Serbian Press, which enjoyed a complete freedom, was naturally violent
+in tone when it observed that the Austro-Hungarian Government was
+doing little to control the demonstrations hostile to Serbia. Houses
+of prominent Serbs were looted and gutted at Sarajevo, while similar
+scenes took place--with the connivance of the authorities--in other
+large towns of the Monarchy. But the Belgrade populace, uninflamed by
+their Press, conducted themselves with great moderation. The stories
+circulated in Austria-Hungary of several Magyar journalists having
+been murdered were absolutely false. Just as false were the rumours of
+a demonstration against the Austrian Minister at the funeral of M.
+Hartwig, his Russian colleague, although Serbian public opinion
+ascribed the sudden death of this powerful friend of theirs to a cup
+of poisoned coffee at the Austrian Legation. Hartwig has been
+criticized for his encouragement of Serbia's idea of expansion and for
+having fostered anti-Austrian propaganda--of course it was a very
+wicked thing, from the Austrian point of view, to think of the day
+when the Serbs might be joined to their unredeemed brethren; and as
+for the blessed word "propaganda," which covers everything from the
+mildest expression of opinion to assassination, there has been no
+responsible Austrian so reckless as to accuse the Serbs or M. Hartwig
+of having had recourse to methods that approached in wrong-doing their
+own notorious (and unsuccessful) forgeries.
+
+Let us address three questions to those who carried on a calumnious
+campaign against Serbia:
+
+     (a) Why was the Sarajevo trial conducted behind a closed
+     door? If the crime was instigated and perpetrated by Serbia,
+     the Habsburg Monarchy, which at the time of the trial had
+     already declared war on Serbia, had every interest in
+     establishing with all publicity the guilt and the complicity
+     of Serbian circles.
+
+     (b) Why were the evidence of the witnesses and the
+     declarations of the authors of the assassination not
+     published? It was only in 1918 that the Austrian Government,
+     with the help of a professor of Berlin University, published
+     a few facts taken from the proceedings of the trial.
+     Although in this book[75] a great deal of material
+     importance has been omitted--for example, the declarations
+     of the witnesses as well as the last declarations of the
+     accused, nevertheless that which we have before us
+     constitutes one of the most terrible accusations against the
+     Habsburg Monarchy. The young accused persons were not afraid
+     to state, even behind closed doors in a barrack-room, some
+     bitter truths concerning Austria-Hungary. One can have some
+     idea of what they would have said in a public trial from the
+     results of the famous trials of Zagreb and of Friedjung. All
+     the accused persons, as well as their accomplices, declared
+     that the decision to kill the Archduke was an act of their
+     own personal will and that nobody incited or ordered them
+     to make the attempt, least of all any authority of the
+     Kingdom of Serbia. The crime was the personal act of Bosnian
+     patriots who believed that they were serving their oppressed
+     people. "In Bosnia," said the Minister Burian--"in Bosnia,
+     there is no policy, there is only administration."
+
+     (c) Why did the Sarajevo police and Austro-Hungarian
+     official circles conduct themselves so strangely with
+     respect to the bomb-thrower [vC]abrinovi['c], a notorious
+     anarchist and son of a Sarajevo police spy, who had on a
+     former occasion been expelled by the police from Sarajevo?
+     Later on, after the Belgrade police had been obliged, owing
+     to the intervention of the Austrian Consulate, to allow him
+     to stay in Belgrade, he returned to Sarajevo and was quite
+     unmolested by the police, whose precautions a few years
+     previously, at the time of the visit of Francis Joseph, had
+     gone so far as to expel, as suspected persons, two members
+     of the Bosnian Parliament.
+
+The sole charge that could be laid, not against Serbia but against a
+Serbian subject, concerned the relations of the subordinate officer
+Tankosi['c] with the authors of the crime. It was asserted that he
+knew of the plan and that he helped the assassins to procure money and
+weapons. The accused definitely said that he exercised no influence on
+their decision, which had been taken before conversation with him. But
+even supposing that he was an accomplice, it is evident that the whole
+Serbian nation and especially the Serbian Government is not identical
+with an officer who, on account of other troubles with the Ministry of
+War, had already been removed from the active service list.[76] When
+the Austrian ultimatum was transmitted to the Serbian Government,
+Tankosi['c] was immediately arrested, so that his guilt and complicity
+might be enquired into and established. Serbia could not do more than
+that. But the whole Serbian people, in Serbia and out of Serbia, was
+declared guilty of the crime, and immediate steps were taken to carry
+out the sentence. The unprecedented atrocities committed by the
+Austro-Hungarian army in Serbia were to be the expiation of an
+imaginary crime, and such proceedings, which recall the times of
+Attila, are shielded by the illustrious name of the aforementioned
+Professor Kohler, whose reputation it was to be the most democratic of
+German jurists. All his previous theories on crime, causality and
+responsibility became void; we see him adopt the monstrous theory
+according to which every act of private persons is the responsibility
+of the whole nation.
+
+It remained for Nikita, a man of Serbian blood, a man whose verses had
+been laden with love for the Serbian nation, it remained for this
+shameless Prince to charge his brothers with the crime. So implacable
+was the old man's hatred of Serbia that when President Wilson arrived
+in Europe he immediately wrote[77] to him, in his indifferent French,
+for fear, he said, lest the intrigues conducted by the Serbs or their
+accomplices should precede him in capturing the President's
+sympathies. "In spite of their perfidy," said he, "I was the first to
+lend them a hand by being the first to declare war against Austria,
+although I was certain that the provocation originated on their side
+by the Sarajevo murders and their Black Hand.... Horrible thought that
+this country refuses to realize the crime it has committed, for which
+it is responsible to mankind no less than William!"
+
+At last, on January 5, 1917, the _Neue Freie Presse_ acknowledged that
+Austria provoked the war with the intention of crushing Serbia. It is
+a formal and categorical confession. And it obliges us to consider
+seriously the thesis put forward by Jules Chopin in _Le Complot de
+Sarajevo_ (Paris, 1918), according to which the plot was hatched at
+Konopi[vs]t[ve] between the German Kaiser and the man to whom the plot
+proved fatal. Monsieur Chopin, after a minute examination of the facts
+and of grave presumptions, believes that Serbia was to be held up to
+the world as having provoked the war that was to consolidate the
+Monarchy and satisfy the Archduke's paternal ambitions. The army
+manoeuvres were to be in Bosnia, the Archduke was to make his
+ceremonial entry into Sarajevo on Vidov dan, the day when the Serbs
+solemnly celebrate the battle of Kossovo, and [vC]abrinovi['c], son of
+the Sarajevo police-spy, was to be assisted through the Chinese Wall
+which then encircled Bosnia. But what did not enter into the royal
+calculations was the possibility that other Southern Slavs, acting on
+their own initiative, might strike a real blow.
+
+
+THE MISERABLE MACEDONIANS
+
+This period of Yugoslav history (from 1876 until the European War) was
+at the beginning much concerned with Macedonia. And so it was towards
+the end. Very wretched was the lot of the Macedonian Slavs--occasionally
+the Exarchists and occasionally the Patriarchists were in the
+ascendant, but while in religious matters the Greeks clung by all
+possible means to their ancient, privileged position, so the Turks
+maintained in secular affairs the sorry plight of their Slav raia. The
+Macedonian Slavs, when the rest of Europe began to listen to their
+cries, were not the most sympathetic of mortals--the more enterprising
+of them had abandoned the country, while the moral sense of those who
+stayed was grievously affected by the course of conduct which the
+presence of the Turk compelled. Europe was touched by the anguish of
+these Christians and did not inquire too closely as to the proportion
+of the virtues, often called the Christian virtues, which they
+cultivated. And it was undoubtedly a fact that their treatment left a
+great deal to be desired. The peasant was obliged to pay direct
+imposts in cash. There were taxes on landed property, on cattle, on
+sheep and on fruit-trees, tithes on every species of harvest and a
+poll-tax to which only Christians were liable, amounting to ten
+shillings per annum for every male. To complete the exactions with a
+touch of irony, there was also an education-tax and a heavy road-tax
+for the upkeep of the indescribable highways. These taxes were not
+collected by Government officials, but were farmed out to the highest
+bidder, and so flagrant were the abuses of this system that it was not
+unusual for the villagers to cut down their fruit-trees in order to
+avoid the tax upon them, for the tax-farmer, against whom an appeal
+would be worse than useless, was wont to appear with gendarmes and
+estimate, according to his fancy, the amount of any crop.[78] Another
+tax very frequently imposed upon the helpless peasant was the tribute
+to some Albanian chief, who in return undertook to protect the
+village. And if the village was outside the Albanian sphere of
+influence it was usually obliged to have its own resident brigands,
+who might or might not be Albanians. Generally speaking, those
+villages were the least to be envied which were on the borders of
+Albanian territory: cattle were lifted, crops of corn or hay were
+carried off before they could be garnered, young men and old men were
+kidnapped and held to ransom; sometimes, says Mr. Brailsford, they
+were fettered and driven to the fields at sunrise with the cattle and
+were forced to work there until evening. Most of the villages in
+Macedonia were owned by a Turkish bey to whom the peasant was obliged
+to give a clear half of the harvest, besides a certain amount of
+labour on the bey's private farm and in his mill, as well as hewing
+wood for him and transporting his produce to the market without
+payment. It is not surprising that the Macedonian Slavs, whose labour
+brought them such inadequate reward, sank into very slothful habits.
+Thus at Monastir in 1914-1915, when the population had the choice of
+taking flour from the Serbian Government or else the British Consul's
+bread, which came from India, most of them--to save themselves
+trouble--preferred the bread, though with the Serbian flour they could
+have baked themselves just twice as much.... When Europe took up the
+Macedonian problem towards the close of 1902 there had been a
+considerable revolt, followed by an outburst of official ferocity and
+the flight of some thousands of peasants. The Sultan, in the hope of
+forestalling any Russian interference, promised various reforms. But
+Russia and Austria proceeded to discuss what each of them would do in
+Macedonia, and one resolve was that they also, being the two
+"interested" Powers, would institute a scheme of reform. The Western
+Powers for a time abdicated their responsibilities and left the
+miserable Macedonians to the supervision of the two countries which,
+as they themselves said, were the least disinterested. Now and then
+the other Powers made a suggestion, as when Lord Lansdowne, who was in
+favour of autonomy, made in January 1905 a number of proposals which
+would have assisted the solution of the problem. But Austria and
+Russia would only accept a part of his programme. Their own programme,
+drawn up at Muerzsteg in September 1903, was plainly of a transitional
+nature. It announced to the different Balkan peoples that the end of
+their serfdom was approaching, and thus it accentuated their latent
+rivalries and hostilities. Greek, Serbian and Bulgarian bands ravaged
+the country.
+
+"The Serbo-Bulgarian conflict," said Dr. Milovanovi['c], a Serbian
+Minister of Justice, "has its origin exclusively in the chauvinistic
+circles of both countries. Macedonia is the battlefield." He said,
+very rightly, that the population of Macedonia was equally near to
+Serb and to Bulgar; but unhappily, in his efforts to establish a
+_modus vivendi_, he proposed that Macedonia should be divided between
+the two countries. Surely it is far better that it should become the
+common possession of Serb and Bulgar, the link joining them to one
+another. After Dr. Milovanovi['c] came the Balkan wars, of which the
+second utterly destroyed for many a long day his hopes of an
+understanding, since the experiences of the invaded Bulgars were
+generally very different from those recorded by the careful
+schoolmaster, Stavri Popoff, in his monograph, _The Self-Defence of
+the Village of Ciprovci against the Serbo-Roumanian Invasion of 1913_
+(Berkovica, 1915). This isolated village in the mountains was defended
+by thirty old reservists, who possessed 100 guns and 15,000
+cartridges. So pleased is their historian with the manner in which
+they held their own--the rocks which surround Ciprovci are so many
+natural fortresses--that he tells us not only the names of the thirty
+warriors but those of the other inhabitants who carried milk and bread
+to the outposts. On July 14, a Sunday, there was an exciting battle,
+in the course of which the Bulgars suffered no human casualties, but
+lost to the Serbs 900 sheep and a score of cattle, and this, says
+Popoff, "made the women weep very much." As soon as possible a
+telegram was sent to the War Office at Sofia, asking for
+reinforcements, after which "their spirits rose to such a height that
+they felt they could resist anything." On July 26 the Serbs were again
+repulsed, but once more a number of sheep and cattle were carried off.
+In conclusion the author thanks "all those who morally and materially
+have helped and will help the cause," including the mayors of the
+neighbourhood.
+
+If the second Balkan War had not left memories more bitter than at
+Ciprovci then the reconciling labours of those who follow Dr.
+Milovanovi['c] would be less difficult. In our own day Mr. Leland
+Buxton, working also for this union which eventually must come,
+suggests in his _Black Sheep of the Balkans_[79] that Macedonia should
+be made autonomous. But this would do no more than perpetuate the
+wearisome and fierce intrigues of which exponents can be always found
+in Balkan countries. Macedonia must become the common possession; and
+what could be more desirable than that one of these countries should
+administer the province in such a way as to attract the other country?
+Marshal Mi[vs]i['c] was of opinion that the officials whom the Serbs,
+after the Balkan War, placed in Macedonia were too often not the kind
+of men whom wisdom would have chosen; but there was as yet a general
+eagerness to avoid being sent to those unalluring parts. The officials
+left behind them such unhappy recollections that the Serbian army,
+advancing through Macedonia in 1918, was received, as a rule, with
+something less than delight. Fortunately the Yugoslav Government was
+able, after these events, to induce a far superior class of officials
+to serve in Macedonia, though I believe the scale of remuneration is
+no higher than in the old kingdom. Men are selected who, in addition
+to other qualities, speak the Turkish or Albanian of the district.
+"You can count on our moral and material support, on all that we now
+give to Turkey," said Mr. Balfour in 1903 to M. Svetislav Simi['c],
+the Serbian Minister of Foreign Affairs, who came as special envoy to
+London "if," said Mr. Balfour, "you can come to an understanding with
+the Bulgars on the one side and the Croats on the other." In many
+Macedonian places one finds that priests and schoolmasters--I have
+said this before but it will bear repetition--who officiated under the
+Bulgars have been confirmed in their posts. How very different is this
+from the policy of a few years ago when, for example, at Kriva (or
+Egri) Palanka there was considerable propaganda with respect to the
+school. While Macedonia was part of the Sultan's dominions there was,
+on the whole, more willingness of Serbs and Bulgars to provide a
+school than of the local population to frequent it.
+
+
+FEROCITIES OF EDUCATION
+
+A report of February 1901 says that in Rankovci three pupils came to
+the teacher's house; in April of the same year the attendance has been
+reduced to one pupil, who after coming regularly for a month decided
+to keep away. In 1906 the peasants of that locality prevented a school
+from being opened. At Kriva Palanka until the Balkan War the teachers
+came from Kustendil--but how far they were patronized I do not know.
+The three teachers from Serbia who appeared in 1909 seem to have spent
+their time in promenading the village. Not until after the Balkan War
+did pupils resort to them. In 1916 the same school taught Bulgarian.
+In 1918 the Serbian language was resumed. These changes were
+unfortunate for the child and still more so for the teachers, who were
+continually being chased away or hanged. And now at last one finds the
+Serbs so much in advance of what they and the Bulgars used to
+practise. Their ex-Bulgarian schoolmasters are mostly of Macedonian
+origin, so that it is not difficult for these gentlemen to give their
+instruction in the kindred Serbian language, using, of course, the
+local dialect. And we can look back with a smile to the not very
+distant days when a zealous Serbian schoolmaster in Macedonia was
+wont, instead of prayers, to make the children repeat after him three
+times, every morning and every afternoon, "Ja sam pravo Serbin" ("I am
+a true Serb"). Likewise the Bulgar was so certain of the superiority
+of his religion that he deprived the Pomaks of their Moslem names,
+giving them for Abdulla such a name as Anastasius. The Pomak, unable
+to remember his new name, was handed a sheet of paper with a record of
+the matter; but very few of these people can read.
+
+
+THE STORM IS PAST
+
+Gone for ever are the days of the Turkish censor when Danov, who sold
+at Veles and Salonica the schoolbooks which at first he wrote himself,
+was obliged to leave the name of Pushkin out of an anthology because
+of its resemblance to pushka, a gun. And, with their more civilized
+methods towards each other, we may be sure that the days have gone
+when a Serb at Kumanovo could compel Moslem children, before uttering
+the above-mentioned slogan, to cross themselves; while no Serbian
+bishop will find himself confronted with such a problem as that which
+in 1913 nonplussed the Bishop of Skoplje--certain Moslems had been,
+against their will, converted by the Bulgars to Christianity and they
+now requested the Bishop to undo what had been done. These days of
+religious intolerance are as distant as those mediaeval ones in Bohemia
+when Roman Catholic nobles, many of them foreigners, succeeded after
+the Battle of the White Mountain to the estates of the decapitated
+Protestants and conducted themselves after the fashion of one Huerta,
+an ennobled tailor of Spanish origin, who drove the peasants of his
+district to Mass with the help of savage dogs.... In view of the
+strides which have been made in so short a time we shall have in
+Macedonia an example for the other Yugoslav lands. No longer then will
+anyone complain like that old couple at Ni[vs] who, on the arrival of
+the Bulgarian army in the winter of 1915-1916, announced that they
+were Bulgars. "But what can you do with our daughter?" they asked,
+"for she says resolutely that she is a Serb, since she has been to
+the Serbian school." Both the Serbian and the Bulgarian people have,
+in the last twenty or thirty years, been through the severest school.
+Now, after an appropriate interval--some authorities say five and some
+say a hundred years--they will be fellow-citizens in Yugoslavia. The
+last serious conflict between them, which we will consider in the next
+chapter, has been waged.
+
+    FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [Footnote 53: Of the three millions, which is estimated to
+    have been the population of Macedonia at the time of the
+    Great War, almost two millions were Slav, and it is to these
+    only that we refer in using the term "Macedonians" in this
+    chapter. Among the other inhabitants of the variegated
+    province are Greeks and Turks and Circassians, Albanians
+    (Tosks and Ghegs), Jews whose ancestors came from Spain,
+    gipsies and Kutzo-Vlachs. A French observer said some years
+    ago that Macedonia was a school of brigandage and ethnology.
+    He said it was the prey of the Albanians and the
+    professors--that is, of unconscionable savages and of
+    laborious agents of all kinds of foreign propaganda. Even the
+    Kutzo-Vlachs, which in Greek signifies "Limping Roumanians,"
+    made their propaganda, or had it made for them. Gustav
+    Weigand, a German professor who devoted himself very
+    thoroughly to this people, used to wish us to believe that
+    the Aromunes, as the Roumanians of the kingdom call their
+    Macedonian relatives--another name to which they answer is
+    Tsintsares--are free from all Greek blood. But this is not
+    the case; they have become very hellenized, although it is
+    true that there are some who call themselves Greek and who,
+    besides having no such mixture in their veins, cannot speak a
+    word of the Greek language. According to circumstances--and
+    very much like the Serbo-Bulgarian Macedonians--this people,
+    who number less than 100,000, have been accustomed to
+    proclaim themselves now Greek and now Roumanian. They are a
+    good example of the bad effects of propaganda, and this,
+    added to the Turkish domination and the perpetual exodus of
+    those who could manage to escape, has left in Macedonia a
+    population that is generally more unsympathetic than any
+    other in the Balkans. One may wonder, by the way, why the
+    Roumanians should have put themselves to so much trouble with
+    respect to these more or less hellenized kinsmen of theirs,
+    not merely giving them direct support, but subsidizing
+    Weigand's institution at Leipzig. A great reason was that
+    King Charles, the friend of the German and Austro-Hungarian
+    Empires, aimed at diverting the eyes of his statesmen from
+    the unredeemed Roumanians in Transylvania.]
+
+    [Footnote 54: But Macedonia is not the only part of
+    Yugoslavia where a man's nationality varies. One Rejuka, for
+    example, came to Ver[vs]ac in the Banat. He was a Czech, but
+    as at that period (1850-1860) everything German predominated,
+    he preferred to be a German and sent his son to German
+    schools. Then the boy learned Magyar at college and, long
+    before he was appointed mayor, had become a Magyar. Thus we
+    have three nationalities in two generations.]
+
+    [Footnote 55: _Remarks on the Ethnography of the Macedonian
+    Slavs._ London, 1906.]
+
+    [Footnote 56: Quoted in Miss Waring's excellent little book
+    _Serbia_. London, 1917.]
+
+    [Footnote 57: This famous archaeologist and publicist has been
+    a leading authority on the eastern side of the Adriatic for
+    more than forty years. We refer on p. 184, Vol. II., to what
+    befell him in 1918-1919.]
+
+    [Footnote 58: _Russkoje Bogatstvo_, 1899.]
+
+    [Footnote 59: Cf. p. 79.]
+
+    [Footnote 60: _Detruisez l'Autriche-Hongrie_, by Dr. Edvard
+    Bene[vs]. Paris, 1916.]
+
+    [Footnote 61: Cf. "Secret Treaties," in the _Times_, March
+    17, 1920.]
+
+    [Footnote 62: Cf. _Die politischen Geheimvertrage
+    Osterreich-Ungarns, 1879-1914_, by Dr. Alfred Pribram. Vienna
+    and Leipzig, 1920.]
+
+    [Footnote 63: Cf. _Diplomatic Reminiscences_, by M.
+    Nekludoff. London, 1920.]
+
+    [Footnote 64: Cf. _The Guardians of the Gate_. Oxford, 1918.]
+
+    [Footnote 65: Cf. _Dalmatinische Reise_. Berlin, 1909.]
+
+    [Footnote 66: Cf. _Montenegro in History, Politics and War_,
+    by A. Devine. London, 1918.]
+
+    [Footnote 67: Cf. _Diplomatic Reminiscences_. London, 1920.]
+
+    [Footnote 68: A very detailed and interesting account is
+    contained in Dr. Seton-Watson's _The Southern Slav Question_.
+    London, 1911.]
+
+    [Footnote 69: "That Austria, as some have stated, should have
+    planned the _coup_," says Miss Durham (in her _Twenty Years
+    of Balkan Tangle_) "is very improbable." This lady tells us
+    that the plot was a very genuine one, "as I learnt beyond all
+    doubt from my own observations," etc. And, needless to say,
+    she denounces the Serbs, who in her eyes are a very criminal
+    people. It is a pity that Miss Durham did not confine herself
+    to the excellent relief work she was doing the Balkans. Her
+    description of the travels this involved is interesting. But
+    even her account of relief work is biased by a prejudice in
+    favour of the Albanians and against the Slavs, for when she
+    has occasion to speak of the famous Miss Irby, whose thirty
+    years of untiring benevolence were spent among the Serbs of
+    Bosnia and not among the Albanians, it is without a word of
+    commendation.]
+
+    [Footnote 70: Cf. _History of Serbia_, by H. W. V. Temperley.
+    London, 1917.]
+
+    [Footnote 71: Cf. _Le Montenegro Inconnu_, by Louis Bresse.
+    Paris, 1920.]
+
+    [Footnote 72: An illuminating document was found, after the
+    Great War, in the Austrian archives. It is a lengthy report
+    sent from Cetinje on November 1, 1911, by Baron Giesl, the
+    Austrian Minister, to Count Aerenthal, the minister of
+    Foreign Affairs. Giesl puts down very vividly a conversation
+    he has had with Nikita, who suggested that the Minister
+    should go forthwith to Vienna with the purpose of preparing
+    for a secret treaty. "I will do all that Austria desires,"
+    the King is reported to have said; "for instance, I will
+    place under her protection the kingdom of Montenegro.... For
+    years I have aimed at this and, in spite of all that has
+    happened [the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina], I was
+    preparing my people for this and putting Austria in a
+    sympathetic light." The King promised that his army (whose
+    numbers, says Giesl, he multiplied by two in this
+    conversation) should act in perfect harmony with Austria's
+    troops--they would, if need arose, assist each other. Baron
+    Giesl appears to have irritated Nikita by his lack of
+    enthusiasm for the scheme. "With Austria-Hungary, the King
+    had said, "I must be frank and honest." But the Minister
+    characterized his efforts as the throwing of dust in
+    Austria's eyes.]
+
+    [Footnote 73: The average German-Bohemian was, in July 1914,
+    anxious that Austria should go to war. These people
+    calculated that if Austria proved successful it would be
+    advantageous to themselves, while if she were defeated they
+    would merge themselves in the German Empire.]
+
+    [Footnote 74: L. von Suedland's _Die Suedslavische Frage und
+    der Weltkrieg_. Vienna, 1918.]
+
+    [Footnote 75: _The Trial of the Authors of the Sarajevo
+    Crime._ Presented according to the documents by Professor
+    Pharos, with an Introduction by Professor Dr. Joseph Kohler.
+    Berlin, 1918.]
+
+    [Footnote 76: Cf. the admirably clear account in Dr. Lazar
+    Markovi['c]'s _Serbia and Europe, 1914-1920_. London, 1921.]
+
+    [Footnote 77: Cf. _Ex-King Nicholas of Montenegro and his
+    Court_ (Collection of eighteen original documents in
+    facsimile). Sarajevo, 1919. "This collection of documents,"
+    says the _Times_ (April 15, 1920), "goes far to dethrone the
+    last of the Petrovich dynasty from his once picturesque
+    position in the sympathies of Western admirers. Criticism
+    directed against him during the Balkan wars fell on deaf
+    ears; and the censorship to a great extent prevented the man
+    in the street from realizing during the late War that an
+    Allied Monarch was suspected of 'not playing the game.'" Mr.
+    Ronald M'Neill, M.P., who loved to dance in front of
+    Nicholas, informs us (in the _Nineteenth Century and After_,
+    for January 1921) that "so far as the present writer has been
+    able, after diligent endeavour, to discover, there never was
+    any evidence whatever for the Serbian legend that King
+    Nicholas was at any time during the War untrue to the Allied
+    cause."]
+
+    [Footnote 78: Cf. _Macedonia_, by H. N. Brailsford. London,
+    1906.]
+
+    [Footnote 79: London, 1920.]
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+THE EUROPEAN WAR
+
+HOW THE AUSTRIANS WAGED WAR--THE SERBIAN PRINCES--THE TACTICS OF THE
+MONTENEGRIN KING--THE MAGYARS AND THEIR PRISONERS--THE SOUTHERN SLAVS
+IN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY--HOW THE WAR RAGED IN THE WINTER OF 1914-1915--THE
+TREATY OF LONDON, APRIL 1915--HOW BULGARIA CAME INTO THE WAR--ATTEMPT
+TO BUY OFF THE SERBS--GREEK TRANSACTIONS--FLIGHT OF THE SERBS--THE
+FAITHFUL CROATS--HOW THE SERBS CAME TO THEIR PATRIARCH'S TOWN--THE
+SHADOW OVER MONTENEGRO--THE BROKEN SERBS AT CORFU--THE SOUTHERN SLAVS
+IN THE UNITED STATES--CASH AND THE MONTENEGRIN ROYAL FAMILY---THE
+BURDEN OF AUSTRIA'S SOUTHERN SLAV TROOPS--THE FAITHFUL ITALIANS--SOUTHERN
+SLAVS IN THE AUSTRIAN NAVY--ADVANCE OF THE ALLIES IN MACEDONIA--HOW
+THE MAGYARS TREATED THEIR SERBIAN SUBJECTS--THE SOUTHERN SLAVS PAY
+PART OF THEIR DEBT TO THE HABSBURG MONARCHY: (_a_) IN SYRMIA;
+(_b_) IN SLOVENIA.
+
+
+HOW THE AUSTRIANS WAGED WAR
+
+"Machen Sie Ordnung!" ["Put matters in order"] was the phrase used by
+Austrian officers in Serbia when they wished a non-commissioned
+officer to see that such and such Serbian civilians should be hanged
+or shot. Occasionally an accident occurred, as when a priest near
+Vi[vs]egrad came to an officer with the request that his plum trees
+should be spared, since he had nothing else. This officer intended to
+be kind and, not knowing or forgetting the sense in which those three
+words were being used, he said to a sergeant, "Machen Sie Ordnung!"
+and the next morning a prominent citizen of Split, Count Pavlovi['c],
+whose post in the Austro-Hungarian army was that of a provost-marshal,
+saw the priest, his wife and his three little boys hanging from the
+plum trees. It was and is the fashion to assert that the Austrian army
+was incomparably less brutal than the Prussian, so that some readers
+will be disinclined to believe a conversation which Count
+Pavlovi['c], particularly as he is a Yugoslav, once had at Donja Tusla
+in Bosnia with a certain Captain Waldstein, who between 9 a.m. and 1
+p.m. had sentenced nineteen people to be hanged. These people, by the
+way, were all over twenty years of age, so that each case had to be
+tried; persons under that age could, as we have seen, also be hanged,
+but not as the result of a trial. Pavlovi['c] approached the
+captain--his rank, to be accurate, was captain-auditor--and asked him
+how he had lunched after such a morning's work. "I felt," was the
+reply, "as if I had drunk nineteen glasses of beer." An Austrian army
+surgeon, Dr. Wallisch, who during the occupation travelled
+professionally in Serbia and wrote a good deal about it in Viennese
+papers and Austrian papers in Belgrade, said that "everywhere in this
+Balkan and patriarchal environment you see educational mansions and
+spacious barracks.[80] Does not this, better than anything else, show
+the criminal, premeditated hostility of the Serbs against our
+Monarchy? They have the longing to learn, which devours the ambitious,
+and likewise the wish to realise by force of arms this fantastic ideal
+of an over-excited national sentiment." Yes indeed, this was the ideal
+of King Peter, in accordance with the device of the poet, Aksentie
+Teodosijevi['c]: "Towards liberty, in the first place through learning
+and culture, then with arms." Very few people would be inclined to
+believe that the invading Austrians could be so petty as to burn all
+the schoolbooks they came across, and still fewer would credit the
+fact that Yugoslav patients with gold-filled teeth ran any special
+risk in Austrian army hospitals. Ivo Stani[vs]i['c] of the Bocche di
+Cattaro had fought with the Montenegrins and, in consequence of
+Nikita's capitulation, had fallen into the Austrians' hands. He was
+warned by his friends not to go into hospital, where his twelve gold
+teeth, which he had acquired in the United States, might prove his
+undoing. He did, as a matter of fact, die there, and the overdose of
+morphia--witnessed by the well-known architect, Matejorski of
+Prague--may have been accidental, and the Austrians who took his teeth
+out may have thought it foolish to leave so much gold in a corpse.
+Another Bocchesi who underwent the same treatment was one Risto
+Lije[vs]evi['c]. Perhaps the Austrians do not deny these incidents,
+and considering the trouble which they gave themselves to have a long
+series of open-air brutalities officially photographed and made the
+subject of picture postcards, one presumes that the dental operations
+were omitted on account of the bother of indoor photography. The
+postcards, of which I have a large collection, place on record the
+procedure used in the wholesale hanging and shooting of Bosnian and
+Serbian civilians, young and old, men and women. More trouble was
+taken over the photographs, which are sometimes minute and sometimes
+artistic in depicting a row of gallows on an eminence with gloomy
+clouds behind them, than was taken with the manufacture of these
+gallows, for in many cases they were no more than a seven-foot stake,
+to the top of which the victim's throat was firmly fastened, holding
+his or her feet a short distance from the ground. We have in the
+London Press and in the House of Lords a number of reactionary persons
+who do not cease regretting the disappearance of Austria-Hungary. The
+new States, such as Yugoslavia and Czecho-Slovakia, they argue, are
+very unsatisfactory, if only for the reason that they substitute a
+lower civilization for a higher. Austrian culture, in their opinion,
+is so different from that of the new States that you cannot compare
+them. And when they talk of the Habsburg dynasty it is after the
+fashion of old Francis Joseph who, in 1891, when the four hundredth
+anniversary of the great Czech teacher Comenius was being officially
+celebrated in all the schools of Prussia, commanded that nothing of
+the sort was to be done in the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, because his
+attention had been drawn by Archbishop Schwarzenberg of Prague to a
+Latin letter in which the great man uttered some sharp words
+concerning the dynasty. One is prepared to overlook a great many
+things which happened in the stress of war, but the postcards which
+portray fashionably dressed women and girls strolling between the
+gallows as if at a garden party and merely using their parasols
+against the sun, do not appear to leave any attributes for a
+civilization lower than that which they exhibit. The Bosniaks and
+Serbs who were thus done away with were frequently even less to blame
+than those ignorant peasants who, being told by their priests that
+Peter was their King, shouted "Long live King Peter!" as the Austrian
+troops marched through their villages, and were forthwith hanged for
+high treason. "Whenever," says Euripides, "I see the wicked fall into
+adversity I declare that the gods do exist." At Trnovo twenty-eight
+were executed, including two women and at Pale, near Sarajevo,
+twenty-six, the Austrians killing all the old folk and the children
+who remained when the Montenegrin and Serbian armies retreated. Those
+who were not murdered on the spot had a period of imprisonment during
+which they were fed on white bread; but all that they were asked,
+prior to their execution, was their name, their father's name and
+their domicile. Thousands were interned--at Doboj between twenty and
+thirty died every day of illness or of famine. The fate of the
+abandoned children in Bosnia was such that when Dr. Bilinski, the
+Governor (afterwards Minister of Finance in Poland) was told of it he
+had the decency to weep. His informant was Madame ['C]uk of Zagreb, so
+well known to British travellers; this lady was at the head of an
+organization which removed as many children as possible from Bosnia to
+other parts of the Dual Monarchy. The diet of grass, cow's dung and a
+kind of bread, chiefly composed of clay and wood-shavings and the bark
+of trees, gave to nearly all the children a protruding stomach; they
+were so weak that they would fall out of the luggage-racks of the
+railway carriages, and with 500-600 children in three waggons it was
+necessary to deposit some of them in the racks. At a place called
+Sunia it was the ladies' custom to have cauldrons of maize and water,
+as well as bacon, waiting for the travellers, but very often this food
+brought on a colic, so unaccustomed were the children to fats.[81] If
+the Austrians intended to put their Bosnian house in order by
+finishing off the population--"Machen Sie Ordnung"--they made
+considerable progress. They had hoped, before the War began, to send a
+punitive expedition into Serbia that would finish off that insolent,
+small country. Delirious was the enthusiasm of the Viennese at the
+declaration of War. Fate was giving them the whitest of bread before
+their execution.
+
+The Austrian statesmen did not embark on the War without taking
+certain precautions. Count Berchtold, on July 28, submitted for the
+old Emperor's signature the war declaration, which explicitly stated
+that the Government was forced to protect its rights and interests by
+recourse to arms, the more so as the Serbian troops had already
+attacked the Imperial and Royal soldiers at Temes-Kubin on the Danube.
+After the Emperor had signed the declaration of war in this form,
+Count Berchtold struck out the reference to a fight at Temes-Kubin,
+and sent a letter to Francis Joseph explaining that he had taken it on
+himself to eliminate this sentence as the reports had not been
+confirmed. "It is clear," said the _Arbeiter-Zeitung_,[82] commenting
+on the Austrian Red-book which revealed this affair, "it is clear that
+the fight at Temes-Kubin never occurred, but was simply invented by
+Count Berchtold. That arch-scoundrel not only deceived the people, but
+also the Emperor. The destiny of the world depended upon whether an
+eighty-four-year-old man permitted himself to be deceived. For such a
+crime Berchtold must certainly be sent to prison, or, more justly, to
+the gallows."
+
+If the punitive expedition into Serbia had been less disastrous, it
+would perhaps have been accompanied with less barbarity--though the
+Austrian army was handicapped, owing to the large number of
+aristocratic, and presumably more gentle, officers who found
+themselves unable to leave the War Office and similar institutions in
+Vienna. Yet the Austrians seem to have determined how to act before
+they came. A special branch of the army occupied itself with the
+stealing, packing and dispatching of cameras, engravings, ladies'
+garments, etc. etc.--numerous lists were accidentally left behind in
+Belgrade, and every sheet at the top left-hand corner was stamped
+with the words "Sammlungs-Offizier" (_i.e._ Collection-officer). I do
+not know what knowledge and what skill are necessary before this
+rubber stamp is conferred upon a man. Did the Imperial and Royal
+authorities regard him as a non-combatant? The "Sammlungs-Offizier"
+might resent such a classification if in private life he had been a
+courageous burglar. And the Imperial and Royal army, according to
+certain "Instructions for the conduct of troops" which were found on a
+wounded officer of the 9th Army Corps, had resolved--irrespective of
+success or failure in the War--to massacre the Serbs without
+compunction: "Any person encountered in the open, and especially in a
+forest, must be regarded as a member of a 'band' that has concealed
+its weapons somewhere, which weapons we have not the time to look for.
+These people are to be executed if they appear even slightly
+suspicious"; and another paragraph says that "I will not allow persons
+armed, but wearing no uniform, whether encountered singly or in
+groups, to be taken prisoners. They must be executed without
+exception." The Austrians knew very well that the Serbs had not
+received their new uniforms, and that at least one-third of their army
+was obliged to take the field in ordinary peasant's dress.[83] The
+fact that the Austrian invasion of north-western Serbia came to such
+an ignominious end before September is no reason why so large a number
+of women, children and old men were, as is very well authenticated,
+cut to pieces, burned alive, despoiled of their eyes, their noses,
+disembowelled, and so forth. One expects a certain amount of licence
+from the baser elements of an invading army; but in Serbia--perhaps
+because this was a punitive expedition--it seems to have been the
+Imperial and Royal officers who egged on their men.... I have tried,
+from the Austrian records, to ascertain whether any comparable
+outrages can be laid at the door of the Serbs. And there is one
+incident which utterly disgraces some of their Montenegrin brothers:
+the men of Fo[vc]a in Herzegovina joined the Montenegrin army when it
+penetrated to the neighbourhood of Sarajevo. When it was thrown back
+the Fo[vc]a comrades--Yugoslavs, of course, and guilty of high treason
+against Austria--accompanied them to Montenegro; and later on some
+Montenegrin officers denounced the people of Fo[vc]a to the Austrians,
+with the result that fourteen of them were hanged.
+
+On August 24, 1914, after twelve terrible days, the Austrians were
+dislodged from [vS]abac and flung across to the northern bank of the
+Save. More useful to the Serbs than their 6000 prisoners were the 50
+cannons and over 30,000 rifles, for the Serbian troops had entered the
+War with such scanty equipment that many of the regiments with an
+effective strength of over 4000 men possessed only 2500 rifles. The
+armed soldiers went into action, while the unarmed waited in reserve,
+springing forward as their comrades fell, and taking up the weapons of
+the fallen to continue the fight. Here occurred an incident of which
+the hero was a boy. He had run away to the army and, to his vast
+delight, been made a standard-bearer. When an officer perceived that
+he was continuously exposing himself he told him to hide. "No one will
+see you," said the officer. "But," answered the boy, "the flag will
+see." And he was killed. Many of the dead or wounded Austrians were
+Southern Slavs who had not been able to surrender to their brothers;
+they were often found with all their cartridges intact, and with their
+rifles made incapable of shooting.
+
+
+THE SERBIAN PRINCES
+
+One of the first results of this victory was the invasion, by Serb and
+Montenegrin troops, of Bosnia. They succeeded in penetrating to within
+a few miles of Sarajevo, and there they were held up not only by the
+encircling forts but by the scarcity of their ammunition, for the
+Russian supplies had not yet come through. "Your Royal Highness," said
+a corporal one day to Prince George, the impetuous young man who had
+resigned his position as heir to the throne and was at this moment far
+more congenially occupied as the chief of an irregular band in the
+mountains, "we have no more ammunition," said the corporal. "Each man
+has a knife?" asked George. The corporal nodded. "Then let us go on."
+The Prince has a great wound across his breast, from one side to the
+other. He is very much the descendant of Kara George; he dislikes
+making a secret of his opinions. King Peter, who was present at the
+inauguration of the Belgrade synagogue, always refrained from entering
+the Roman Catholic Church, since it was included in the buildings of
+the Austrian Legation. His elder son was not averse, when relations
+were strained, from taking an enthusiastic part in anti-Austrian
+demonstrations, so that the Austrians were delighted to spread a
+report that this ebullient youth had killed his orderly and must be
+set aside from the succession. The truth was that George happened to
+catch this orderly reading a private letter of his; in a sudden fit of
+rage he struck him a blow, even as Kara George would have
+done--unluckily the man rolled down some steps and from the resulting
+injuries he died. A good many Austrian and German writers have said
+that George is mad; he is certainly less fitted to govern Yugoslavia
+than is Alexander, his brother. One remembers George, so dark and lean
+and hawk-eyed, traversing the broad Danube at Belgrade in a most
+original fashion; as the blocks of ice swept along he made his horse
+leap from one of them to another. And one thinks of that more patient
+prince, Alexander, poring for hours over papers of State, gazing up a
+little wearily through his glasses, wondering for month after month
+whether the crisis between Government and Opposition in Yugoslavia
+will ever be solved. George will seek relaxation in driving a
+motor-car as if the Serbian roads were a racing track; Alexander's
+relaxation is to hear a new musical play, then to go home and repeat
+the whole score by heart on his piano.
+
+All through the War Alexander, the Prince Regent--for King Peter felt
+himself, on account of his age and his rheumatism, unequal to anything
+save the personal encouragement of his soldiers in the
+trenches[84]--throughout the War Alexander was with his army. In his
+eloquent proclamations one sees the student; on the battlefield he
+conquered his shyness. And now he is a truly democratic King, at whose
+table very often is some non-commissioned officer or private whose
+acquaintance he has made in the War. He asked the man to come and see
+him one day in Belgrade, so that the royal adjutants are always busy
+with this stream of warriors. The men are well aware that their own
+peasant costume, with the sandals, is admissible at Court--even at a
+ball you see some fine old peasant, who is perhaps a deputy (and who
+does not, like a certain Polish Minister of recent years, remove his
+white collar before entering the Chamber). You can see him in his
+thick brown homespun with black braiding, breeches very baggy at the
+seat and closely fitting round the legs; as he comes in he knocks the
+snow from off his sandals, and strides, perfectly at ease, across the
+Turkish carpets. With such a man the King loves greatly to go hunting;
+last winter in the Rudnik region the inhabitants were being plagued by
+wolves, so the King went down there with some officers and peasants.
+Though he is so short-sighted that he constantly wears glasses--if you
+met him casually you would suppose that this keen-faced young officer
+was probably a writer of military books--though he is short-sighted he
+is one of the best shots in Europe. On the Slovenian mountains he has
+brought down many chamois and, before he succeeded, at a summer resort
+in Serbia he was always first at target practice. Nor is he less
+skilled at cards, particularly bridge. He gathers round him the best
+players in the town. Such are his relaxations after the long round of
+audiences and hours of other work. During the day he will have very
+likely undertaken to pay the expenses from his own pocket of another
+Serbian student, at home or abroad. So many of them are his
+pensioners. And it may be said without flattery that in the pursuit of
+knowledge he affords them an example. His subjects number about 14
+millions, but when in conversation I happened to allude to a remote
+border village, his subsequent remarks made me wonder whether he had
+just been reading an article about the chequered history of that
+little place. He is, in fact, like his late grandfather of Montenegro,
+the father of his people. But they have different ideas about the
+duties of a father; and while Nikita's laugh was pretty grim, the
+deep whole-hearted laugh of Alexander takes you into the sincere
+recesses of the man.
+
+During the Bosnian offensive there was launched an expedition over the
+Save into the goodly land of Syrmia, one of those Yugoslav provinces
+of which the Austro-Hungarian Empire was to be stripped. This
+expedition had a varying success, for the assault that was attempted
+in the neighbourhood of Mitrovica was not skilfully conducted; and the
+Serbian army, for the first time in the War, was worsted. Then troops
+in Bosnia, just before the grand attack on Sarajevo, were thrown into
+confusion by an order from the Montenegrin King who, without vouching
+any reason, called his army back. The Serbian troops had no other
+course than to retreat as well; and their enemies delivered, all the
+rest of September and throughout October, a tremendous thrust against
+the army that was shielding Valjevo. The Serbs, who were lamentably
+short of arms, munition, clothing and every sort of hospital
+equipment, did not care to think of the approach of winter. They
+hurled themselves against the Austrian swarms--and up to this period
+they had lost, in dead and seriously wounded, more than 130,000 men.
+
+
+THE TACTICS OF THE MONTENEGRIN KING
+
+The co-operation between Serbs and Montenegrins for the Bosnian
+campaign was the occasion of some of Nikita's usual devious diplomacy.
+He summoned, as we have seen, a superfluous Skup[vs]tina, whose
+resolutions would enable him to go to Francis Joseph, his secret ally,
+with a tale of _force majeure_. And he telegraphed to his grandson,
+the Serbian Prince-Regent: "My Montenegrins and myself are already on
+the frontiers, ready to die in the defence of our national
+independence." While his ill-equipped warriors pushed on to Budva,
+arrived before Kotor, seized Fo[vc]a, Rogatica and other towns,
+pressing on until they stood before the forts of Sarajevo, the
+disreputable Royal Family, jealous as ever of Belgrade, were plunging
+deeper and always deeper into treachery. The Serbian officers, General
+Jankovi['c] and Colonel (now General) Pe[vs]i['c], who, mainly at the
+instance of Russia, had been sent to reorganize the Montenegrin army,
+saw themselves hampered at every turn by the Court clique at Cetinje.
+Jankovi['c], finding that orders were given without his knowledge,
+returned to Ni[vs]; and later on, after the fall of Lov[vc]en, Nikita
+tried to foist upon Pe[vs]i['c] the odium of a surrender which his own
+machinations had brought about.
+
+
+THE MAGYARS AND THEIR PRISONERS
+
+As one might have expected, the withdrawal from Bosnia was followed by
+a repetition of the reign of terror in that beautiful land of woods
+and villages, where the Imperial and Royal authorities had been
+engaged for years in showing foreign journalists exactly what they
+wanted them to see. There had been some doubt as to whether
+Bosnia-Herzegovina came under the crown of Austria or that of Hungary.
+The Magyars had been gradually getting the upper hand in the
+administration, and now, in the autumn of 1914, it was they who
+undertook to deal with those subjected Bosniaks. Again we are
+furnished with evidence galore, not this time by picture postcards but
+by the cemeteries at Arad, the Hungarian (now it is a Roumanian) town
+on the Maro[vs]. It was in the casemates of the Arad fortress, many of
+which had not been opened from the days of Maria Theresa, that
+thousands of poor Bosniak civilians were interned. In one of the
+cemeteries I counted 2103 black wooden crosses, in another between 600
+and 700, in another about a thousand. These dead witnesses are more
+eloquent than the living. "On October 31, 1915," says an inscription
+on a cross in the largest cemetery, "there died, aged 95, Milija
+Arzi['c]." She may have been a fearful danger to the Magyar State.
+Cross No. 716 says merely "Deaf and Dumb," so does No. 774. Jovan
+Kruni['c], No. 706, was 11/2 year old. There are children even
+younger. The Magyars seem to have applied to Bosnia that label which
+the monkish mediaeval map-makers applied to the remoter peoples: "Here
+dwell very evil men." If, however, the commandant, Lieut.-Colonel
+Hegedues--a magyarized version of the German _held_, which means
+"hero"--and his subordinates, Sergeants Rosner and Herzfeld, would
+claim that they did their best, they have some excuse in the fact that
+although the 10,000 interned people began to arrive in July, the
+first two doctors--who were also captives--did not appear until
+January 1915. In the absence of medical advice the sergeants may have
+thought it was an excellent plan, in November, to drive the prisoners
+into the Maro[vs] for a bath and then to walk them up and down the
+bank until their clothes were dry; Hegedues may have thought it was
+most sanitary to have dogs to eat the corpses' entrails and sometimes
+the whole corpse. Dr. Stephen Pop, a Roumanian lawyer in Arad
+(afterwards a Minister at Bucharest), displayed his humanity by
+drawing up a terrible indictment of the conditions. "You should be
+glad," said Tisza, the reactionary Premier, to him, "very glad that
+you can breathe the free air of Hungary." The casemates were provided
+with less than three centimetres of straw, which was not removed for
+months. Spotted fever, pneumonia and enteritis were the chief
+epidemics: those who were guilty of some offence, such as receiving a
+newspaper, would be put among the spotted fever cases. Sometimes the
+dead were left for two or three days with the living. Such was the
+state of the bastions and their underground passages that the Magyar
+soldiers came as rarely as they could manage. It was, said Hegedues, a
+provisional arrangement to have about a thousand people in one of
+these passages or lunettes, with no lavatory. But it was not only the
+nonagenarians--several of whom were at Arad--that found their life was
+a very provisional affair. You could be killed in different ways: the
+dying were occasionally wrapped in a sheet and rocked against a wall.
+When they groaned the soldiers laughed, and said that this was
+"Cheering King Peter." In fact the Magyars behaved with rare
+generosity to their prisoners, we are told in the _Oxford Hungarian
+Review_ (June 1922), by Mr. Aubrey Herbert, M.P., a gentleman who
+persists in writing of that which he does not know. A woman called
+Lenka (or Helen) Mihailovi['c], who had kept the canteen in the
+fortress during fifteen years, was expelled in January 1916 for having
+helped to clothe some naked children. People used to give Rosner, the
+sergeant, a tip in order to be allowed to visit the canteen. Their
+ordinary food was the reverse of appetizing. Constantine, the son of
+Ilja Jovanovi['c], a boy who used to be employed at the fortress (and
+who had not been permitted by the Magyars to learn his own language),
+saw the children being fed, very often, on salt fish--no matter
+whether they were ill or not--and sometimes on the intestines of
+horses. The Serbian grave-diggers used to cook themselves a dish of
+grass, salt and water. They were too weak to work, and they had work
+enough: on February 1, 1915, for instance, twenty-nine people were
+buried. A certain captain (afterwards Major) Lachmann, an Austrian
+officer, arrived in Arad and heard the apprehensions that an epidemic
+might spread from the fortress. This had, in fact, been debated by the
+town council; and Lachmann was eventually responsible for a commission
+of inquiry. But Hegedues, although he was degraded and condemned to
+prison, made a successful appeal, for his father-in-law was a
+field-marshal, one Pacor.
+
+A few improvements were made in the casemates towards the end of 1917,
+as a Spanish commission was expected. But it never came. Some of the
+long galleries have, since the Armistice, been furnished with windows
+and electric light; but about four months after the Armistice I found
+them full of dead flies and heavy with an abominable stench. Amid the
+debris were many lamps, such as one uses in a mine. There was a
+proclamation, dated 1918, which tried to lure deserters back; it
+promised that no punishment would be inflicted on them if they should
+return, but that robbery or murder would meet with capital punishment,
+either by shooting or by strangling. The floor was littered with all
+kinds of paper, with scraps of furniture, a few chains and some prison
+books, which dated back for years. These gave details of all the
+punishments and were written in a very ornamental script, as though
+the clerks had taken a pleasure in their work. The Arad fortress had
+been partly used as a prison for a long time; but Misko Tatar, a
+Magyar, who stayed there sixteen years for having murdered his
+fiancee, his mother and his sister, as well as one Kocian, who
+remained for more than eighteen years--he had murdered the proprietor
+of a canteen, his wife and child in the Bocche--and Rujitatzka, a
+Croat, who together with another man had been accused of theft, had
+killed their escort and thrown his body into the Danube--none of these
+culprits could remember having heard of such punishments as the
+Bosniak civilians had to bear. The iron ring from which people used to
+be suspended for a couple of hours could still be seen on a large
+tree. If the relatives or friends could pay a fine this penalty was
+discontinued. Another method was to fasten a man's right wrist to his
+left ankle and the left wrist to the right ankle. He would then be
+left for a week; every night a blanket was thrown over him. But there
+is something very strange in the composition of the Magyars. When the
+revolution broke out and the prisoners, after all the years of horror,
+were gaining their freedom, an acquaintance of mine, a certain
+Gavri['c], whose job for three and a half years had been the
+comparatively pleasant one of cleaning boots, was on the point of
+leaving the prison. There he was met by the director's daughter. "And
+you an intelligent person!" she said. "Are you not ashamed of
+yourself?" The Hungarian newspapers wrote that Hegedues was dead, which
+may or may not have been true; and in another paper, _The Hungarian
+Nation_, printed in English, in February 1920, the Rev. Dr. Nally
+said: "May we not still cling to the hope that chivalrous England will
+give a helping hand to the nation whose weakness is that she is too
+chivalrous?" One Englishman--whom the reader may or may not consider
+worth quoting--is with the Magyars. "No country," says Lord
+Newton,[85] "treated their prisoners of war so well as the Hungarian,
+and I know it, because looking after prisoners of war was my job." "My
+husband," says Lady Newton,[86] "had interested himself in their
+cause"--of "this delightful race," she terms them in the previous
+sentence--"and had been able to do their country some slight service,
+and for this they simply could not sufficiently show their gratitude
+towards ourselves. From the prince to the peasant the Hungarian is a
+_grand seigneur_, with all the instincts of a great gentleman and the
+manners of a king." May I mention that at the same time, I believe, as
+Lord and Lady Newton were being entertained, a poor Slovak was being
+differently treated. Having left his home in Hungary to serve in the
+Czecho-Slovak army, and having settled in Czecho-Slovakia, after the
+War he got word that his mother was dying. He thereupon applied for
+and received a Hungarian visa, and on entering that territory he was
+arrested! A long time afterwards the Czecho-Slovak Legation at
+Buda-Pest was vainly trying to have him liberated.
+
+
+THE SOUTHERN SLAVS IN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
+
+From the beginning of the War the Imperial and Royal authorities had
+been exasperated by the Southern Slavs within the Empire. A few
+extracts from the archives which, after the end of the War, were found
+at Zagreb, will be of interest:
+
+
+(A)
+
+[_In Serbo-Croat:_] TELEGRAM FROM THE COMMANDER OF THE BALKAN ARMY,
+RECEIVED IN ZAGREB, 3/10/1914
+
+[_In German:_] HIS EXCELLENCY THE BAN BARON
+SKERLECZ, ZGB. [ZAGREB].
+
+sss. TUZLA, 387, 146, 2/10/05.
+
+Res. No. 817/ok. Investigation by Lieut.-Field-Marshal Szurmay has
+demonstrated that our soldiers have been shot at from houses in
+Be[vz]anija to the west of Semlin and that enemy troops have been
+given shelter. In accordance with the request of Lieut.-Field-Marshal
+Szurmay I urgently request that all male inhabitants over fifteen
+years of age shall be evacuated from this place and from all others in
+which similar incidents have occurred, that measures be taken without
+delay in the interior of Croatia, and a stern examination be carried
+out in association with the Zagreb military command as also with the
+Army group command of Petrovaradin, acting in conjunction with the
+Government Commissary Hideghethy. Guilty persons are to be handed over
+to the military court for legal treatment.
+
+Identical copies to the Ban of Croatia, Slavonia and Government
+Commissary Baron Tallian and, for his information, to Lieut.-Field-Marshal
+Szurmay as well as to the Army group command of Petrovaradin.
+
+POTIOREK, Field-Marshal.
+
+
+(B)
+
+IMPERIAL AND ROYAL ARMY--DIRECTOR OF SUPPLIES AND TRANSPORT.
+K. No. 114.
+
+TO THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT COMMISSARY
+BRCKO, on the 12th September 1914.
+
+VUKOVAR.
+
+I have the honour to inform you that during these last days the
+railway near Mitrovica has been damaged by the artillery of the
+Serbian army, which would be almost incredible without signals made by
+the local population, and moreover that between Ruma and Indjija--that
+is to say in a part occupied by our troops--the permanent way has been
+injured, which in all probability was done by the people of that
+district.
+
+These events and anyhow the general atmosphere in Syrmia make it
+necessary to take the most energetic steps, as indicated in the orders
+of the Imperial and Royal Prime Minister No. 6538/1914 and of the No.
+913 of 1914.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+IMPERIAL AND ROYAL 5TH ARMY--DIRECTOR OF
+SUPPLIES AND TRANSPORT.
+K. No. 114.
+
+
+(C)
+
+IMPERIAL AND ROYAL MILITARY COMMAND IN ZAGREB.
+
+PRESS BUREAU, No. 2590.
+TO THE HIGHER COMMAND OF THE ARMY.
+HIGHER COMMAND OF THE BALKAN FRONT.
+ROYAL MILITARY PRESS BUREAU.
+
+ZAGREB, _November_ 2, 1914.
+
+_/Ceteris exmissis./_
+
+"Thousands of loyal officers and men have fallen victims to the
+treachery that has penetrated so deeply into the Fatherland and is
+directed against our enthusiastic, brave and heroically fighting army.
+It is evident from all the reports of the wounded that no one has been
+afraid of the enemy troops, but rather of treachery which comes upon
+them from the front, the left, the right, the rear, from trees and
+from houses." ...
+
+"Through treachery the foe was and is still made acquainted with
+every movement of troops, the enemy artillery is helped in every way
+through signals, so that it can direct upon us a fire that falls like
+lightning. Light signals, smoke signals, positions of church tower
+clocks, herds of cows, flocks of geese, imitations of the noises of
+animals, yellow and black flags, etc. etc., have indicated the
+strength and movements of troops." ...
+
+SCHEURE, Lieut.-Field-Marshal.
+
+
+(D)
+
+IMPERIAL AND ROYAL MILITARY COMMAND IN ZAGREB.
+
+PRESS BUREAU, No. 3050.
+
+_The Spreading of Disquieting News among the Population._
+
+TO HIS EXCELLENCY THE IMPERIAL AND
+ROYAL SECRET COUNCILLOR DR. IVAN
+BARON SKERLECZ, Ban of the Kingdom of
+Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia.
+
+ZAGREB, _November_ 26, 1914.
+
+[This document, signed by Lieut.-Field-Marshal Scheure, draws
+attention to a secret society in Zagreb which from the beginning of
+the War is said to have been circulating false reports, not only with
+reference to "the most incredible news of our troops being defeated,"
+but also as to the attitude of neutral States and of our own tried and
+excellent commanders, who are said to "have practised treachery,
+followed by suicide." The Ban's attention is directed to the
+introduction of hostile newspapers, and he is asked to have the
+foreign consuls in Zagreb discreetly watched. He is also told that in
+Zagreb the bank officials are said to have discouraged the citizens
+from investing in war loans.]
+
+
+(E)
+
+IMPERIAL AND ROYAL MILITARY COMMAND IN ZAGREB.
+
+PRESS BUREAU, No. 3297.
+
+[Another note to the Ban, dated December 10, 1914, on the same
+subject. It is recommended that the persons chiefly responsible for
+these false reports be apprehended and interned, either on the charge
+of espionage or on account of having agitated. The Government is
+asked by the military command to have all such reports assembled,
+together with an appeal to loyal citizens, in an article which every
+newspaper should print twice, in successive numbers. At the same time
+all the newspapers should be told to print inspiring articles, and an
+article of this kind should be sent in for approval by the Government
+and the military command. The signature at the bottom of this note is
+undecipherable.]
+
+
+(F)
+
+IMPERIAL AND ROYAL MILITARY COMMAND IN ZAGREB.
+
+PRESS BUREAU, No. 841.
+
+ZAGREB, _February_ 1915.
+
+[This is a long and conscientious expose by the military commandant of
+Zagreb of the political situation there and in Croatia generally. He
+mentions that when in June 1913 several men deserted from the 4th
+company of the 53rd Infantry Battalion, which belonged to the 8th
+Mountain Brigade, it was not thought to have any special significance.
+"When," says the writer, "I happened to express my astonishment that
+Croats should desert to Serbia, I received the following answer: 'The
+Croats are loyal, but the Emperor does not care for us; the Magyars do
+not understand us and we also do not wish to become Magyars. Therefore
+the Croats turn to the Serbs, who at least understand their language.'
+At that time," he continues, "I did not understand these words, but
+now that I have become more acquainted with this country, I see that
+they reveal everything. Alas, so many Croats have adopted this popular
+logic and seem to incline to the Serbs."
+
+He explains that harmonious relations did not exist between the
+military command and the local government, since the former acted
+without taking into account the political position of any individual,
+while the latter acted in the reverse fashion.]
+
+
+HOW THE WAR RAGED IN THE WINTER OF 1914-1915
+
+In the winter of 1914 the Serbian army had been obliged to withdraw,
+leaving Valjevo to the Austrians. The retrograde movement had to
+continue; Belgrade was abandoned at the end of November, and the
+people from those northern and western parts of the country could not
+resign themselves to waiting for the enemy, after the manner in which
+he had behaved. Terror-stricken fugitives began to block the roads and
+to impede the movements of the army. Everywhere was panic. It is
+remarkable that the Serbian Government at Ni[vs] chose this time
+(November 24) for making to the National Skup[vs]tina the first
+Declaration[87] that they proposed to carry on the War until "we have
+delivered and united all our brothers who are not yet free, Serbs,
+Croats and Slovenes." (Later on when old King Peter after many trials
+managed to reach Durazzo he was given a few hours' notice in which to
+leave that place; he was also thrust out of Brindisi by the Italians
+because he declined to repudiate this Declaration.) "Machen Sie
+Ordnung" would soon be heard. Even the army, unaccustomed to defeat,
+was losing its self-possession. Putnik, the revered old strategist,
+declared that he could do no more. No longer in his over-heated room,
+struggling with asthma, could the famous marshal evolve a plan. And
+then it happened that General Mi[vs]i['c], placed in command of the
+first army, determined, after studying the situation, to risk
+everything on a last throw. Mi[vs]i['c] was a quiet, methodical little
+man, whose optimism was always based on knowledge--in the intervals
+between Serbia's former campaigns he had won distinction as Professor
+of Strategy. He now caused 1400 young students, the flower of the
+nation, to be appointed non-commissioned officers; he likewise
+produced a most brilliant scheme of operations, so that the whole army
+was fired with enthusiasm, and so irresistibly did they attack that by
+December 13 not a single armed Austrian remained in the country.
+Ernest Haeckel, the great professor, had said at Jena that the native
+superiority of the German nation conferred on them the right to occupy
+the Balkans, Asia Minor, Syria and Mesopotamia, excluding from these
+parts the weaker and inferior peoples who were living there. On
+December 15 King Peter made a triumphal entry into Belgrade--a
+Hungarian flag which had floated from the Palace was employed as a
+carpet on the steps of the cathedral when the King proceeded thither
+with his generals to give thanks for the miraculous success of
+Serbia's army. Once more the famous little town, the "white town" that
+is throned so splendidly above the plain where two wide rivers meet,
+was in possession of the Serbs. Against this rampart many human waves
+have broken--Attila and his Huns encamped on the plain, the Ostrogoths
+appeared, Justinian built the city walls, then came the Avars and
+Charlemagne and the Franks, the Bulgars, the Byzantines, the Magyars.
+The white town, Beli Grad or Beograd, which we call Belgrade--Wizzenburch
+was the old German name--has a glorious past and surely a
+magnificent future.
+
+When the Serbs came back to Belgrade in December 1914, the total of
+Austrian prisoners was more numerous than the Serbian combatants. But
+35,000 of these prisoners, together with 250,000 Serbs of all ages and
+106 Serbian and Allied doctors, were now to succumb to the plague of
+typhus, which the Austrian troops had carried from Galicia. Hospitals
+were hurried out from France and Great Britain; heroic work was done
+by women and by men; doctors operated day and night--in the hospitals
+the patients were so closely packed that it was impossible to step
+between them.
+
+"In Skoplje," says Colonel Morrison, who in civil life is senior
+surgeon to the Queen's Hospital, Birmingham--"in Skoplje a British
+unit was installed in a large factory accommodating over 1000 medical
+and surgical patients. Besides their inherent unsuitability the
+premises were detestably insanitary and the floor space overcrowded to
+its utmost capacity. On the ground floor I saw 250 men lying on sacks
+of straw packed closely together, covered only by their ragged uniform
+under a blanket. Gangrenous limbs and septic compound fractures were
+common, the stench being overpowering; yet every window was closely
+shut." He tells how seven out of the members of the British staff went
+down with typhus. At U[vz]ice he found over 700 patients crammed into
+rooms containing about 500 beds; many were lying on the bare floor;
+others were on sacks of straw; others on raised wooden platforms in
+series of six men side by side. Often one would see an elderly
+warrior, who had been wounded a week or two previously, being jolted
+along in an ox-cart with several civilians who were suffering from
+typhus--all trying to find a hospital that could take them in. And
+meanwhile it was necessary to reorganize the army: all the men between
+the ages of seventeen and fifty-five were called to the colours,
+including those whom the doctors had declared to be totally unfit for
+military service.
+
+
+THE TREATY OF LONDON, APRIL 1915
+
+On April 26, 1915, the negotiations were concluded between France,
+Great Britain, Russia and Italy; the Treaty of London was signed and
+the Italians had become our Allies. By this Treaty we and France and
+Russia undertook to give them, if we were victorious, a very large
+increase of territory--over which, by the way, we none of us had any
+right of disposal.
+
+["For Serbia and for Montenegro this is a war of defence and of
+liberation and not of conquest," said the Yugoslav Committee in London
+(May 1915)--which Committee, by the way, made its first headquarters
+in Rome, and only transferred itself to London and Paris in view of
+the frankly hostile attitude of Sonnino and his colleagues. It
+consisted of the prominent Croats and Slovenes who had managed to
+escape across the Austrian frontier. "Serbia and Montenegro," said the
+Committee, "fight to liberate our people from a foreign yoke and to
+unite them in one sole, free nation.... To perpetuate the separation
+of these territories in leaving them under the Austro-Hungarian
+domination or another foreign domination, would be in flagrant
+violation of our ethnographic, geographic and economic unity; our
+people would, without any doubt, oppose to it an energetic and
+justified resistance."] At other times during the nineteenth century
+the Great Powers made amongst themselves and without consulting the
+Small Powers certain arrangements which affected the latter, although,
+as Professor Westlake observes,[88] all the States, so far as their
+sovereignty is concerned, stand equal before the law. But these
+arbitrary arrangements had always been made in the interest and for
+the security and well-being of the weaker State, as, for example, when
+the Congress of Berlin decided on the independence of Roumania and
+Serbia, in accordance with the will of the people. This beneficent
+action on the part of the Great Powers infringed none of the
+principles of international law, whereas the Treaty of London took
+away from the smaller Power nearly everything of value it possessed
+and stripped it of the possibility of future greatness; the spoil was
+presented by the Great Powers to one of themselves. We may concede, as
+Mr. C. A. H. Bartlett of the New York and United States Federal Bar
+points out in his closely reasoned monograph[89]--we may concede that
+belligerents can by way of anticipation allot enemy land among
+themselves, yet such a compact cannot properly be exercised by them so
+as to work injustice to another ally who was not a party to the
+division of territory. From the first it was well understood that the
+Treaty of London could only be imposed in direct defiance of the
+wishes of the populations most immediately concerned, so that the
+Italian Cabinet insisted that the whole transaction should be kept
+from the knowledge of the Serbian Government. As an illustration of
+the domineering and extortionate nature of Italy's demands (to which
+the Entente submitted) one may mention that part of the proposed
+boundary was traced over the high seas beyond the three-mile limit,
+which of course was a proposition entirely at variance with
+international law. We should not forget, says the _Spectator_,[90] the
+whole Italian record of idealism and liberal thought. And Mr. G. M.
+Trevelyan, an Italian exponent,[91] remarks that the terms of the
+Treaty of London were unknown to the people who paraded the streets
+of Rome impatient for their country to enter the War, and threatening
+with death the Minister Giolitti who had hitherto succeeded in keeping
+them out of it. The grandiose bargain which the Government had made
+was unknown to them; but surely Mr. Trevelyan is paying meagre tribute
+to their idealism and liberal thought when he implies they would have
+been elated by a knowledge of the details of the Treaty. Ought not,
+rather, a people imbued with the afore-mentioned virtues to have
+threatened with death a Minister who should attempt to carry through
+so scandalous an instrument? "The broad reason why the Italians joined
+our side," says Mr. Trevelyan, "was because they were a Western, a
+Latin and a Liberal civilization." Mr. Bartlett, who ponders his words
+with legal precision, thinks that "Italy was not inspired by any very
+noble principles of right and justice when the War began, nor until
+long after it had swept over the greater portion of Europe ... nor was
+she spontaneously moved by any sentiment of human justice. She was
+cool, calculating and business-like. She weighed carefully in the
+balance the advantages and disadvantages she might derive from the
+pending struggle; she saw on which side the profit might lie, and with
+that commercial prudence for which her people are renowned she set her
+own price on the value of her aid to the Entente." But if the long
+hesitation was nothing more than governmental prudence, and if the
+nation as a whole was out of sympathy with such ideas, how came it
+that, after the plunge was taken, no less than 300 deputies left their
+cards on Signor Giolitti? The country was, through various causes,
+swept into the War; and in considering whether this was in harmony
+with or in opposition to the desires of the majority I think one
+should pay at least as much attention to the deputies who acted as to
+the crowd who shouted.... The country was swept into the War, and a
+Bologna newspaper (_Resto del Carlino_, March 21, 1915) has published
+a telegram from Sonnino to the Italian Ambassadors in Paris, London
+and Petrograd, which announced that Italy was joining in the World War
+for the purpose of destroying the strategical advantage enjoyed by
+Austria in the Adriatic. But at the same time the Southern Slavs must
+be prevented from gaining a similar position, and so the coast must be
+neutralized from Kotor to the river Voju[vs]a. Sonnino expressly gives
+Rieka to the Croats. It is not only this which lends great interest to
+the document, but the fact that Italy's entrance into the War was
+determined five weeks before the signing of the Treaty of London and
+two months before she actually declared war.
+
+
+HOW BULGARIA CAME INTO THE WAR
+
+In the course of the year 1915 Ferdinand of Bulgaria, with his
+henchman Radoslavoff, was arranging to come into the War. Public
+opinion in that country was smarting under the drastic Treaty of
+Bucharest, which had been imposed by the victors of the second Balkan
+War. It was Roumania which had inflicted the shrewdest wound by taking
+the whole of the Dobrudja as a recompense for a military promenade,
+during which she lost a few men who deserted, and a few officers who
+were shot in the back. The Dobrudja is a land whose people cause it to
+resemble a mosaic--Greeks, Turks, Roumanians, Tartars, Bulgars,
+Armenians and gipsies are to be found--but the southern parts are
+undoubtedly Bulgarian. After the great outcry which the Bulgars had
+raised over the surrender of one town, Silistra, it can be imagined
+that the loss of the whole land came as an unendurable sentence. Quite
+apart from Bulgaria's Macedonian aspirations, it was felt in Belgrade
+that Ferdinand, by pointing to the Dobrudja, would be able to drive
+his kingdom into an alliance with the Central Powers, an alliance
+whose aim, as far as he was concerned, was to leave him Tzar of the
+Balkans. The photograph which he circulated of himself, seated in a
+splendid chair upon a promontory by the Black Sea, wearing the
+appropriate archaic robes, and with a look of profound meditation on
+his otherwise Machiavellian features, was exactly what he thought a
+Balkan Tzar should be.
+
+The Serbs were in favour of delivering an attack upon the Bulgars
+before they had mobilized and concentrated their troops. This would
+not have warded off the Teutonic invasion, but the Serbs would have
+been able to maintain contact with Salonica, thus facilitating the
+evacuation of their army. And who knows whether this diversion would
+not have induced the Greeks and the Roumanians to change their
+attitude? However, the proposal was vetoed by Serbia's great Allies,
+who thought that their diplomacy might work upon the Bulgars. Many
+worthy people said that it would be quite inconceivable for the
+Bulgarian army to oppose the Russian, seeing that this would be
+terrible ingratitude. But they forgot that if the Russians had been,
+not for purely altruistic motives, the kind patrons of the Bulgars,
+they had recently--when the Tzar Nicholas and the Tzarina came to the
+Constanza fetes--made open cause with Bulgaria's opponents. They were
+also forgetting, rather inexcusably, that the Bulgars were averse to
+the idea of the Russians securing Constantinople. On the other hand,
+the old pro-Russian sentiments of the people still survived: the
+Russian Legation at Sofia received numerous applications to serve in
+the army; large contributions were made to the Russian Red Cross, and
+public prayers were offered for the success of the Russian arms. But
+the Muscovite Minister at Sofia was a man unfitted for the post, and
+Ferdinand's task was made easier. The Allied diplomats could argue,
+later on, that they failed by a narrow margin, since Radoslavoff only
+succeeded in gaining a majority by means of the help of the Turkish
+deputies; but if the Sobranje had been hostile to Ferdinand and
+Radoslavoff they would simply have dissolved it. As a pattern of
+morals Dr. Radoslavoff is not worth quotation--the offences for which
+during a previous Premiership he was convicted were rather
+flagrant--but his views on international politics are quite
+instructive. On November 14, 1912, he wrote to his friend Mavrodieff,
+the prefect of Sofia, a letter which was afterwards reproduced in
+facsimile. "It is clear," he said, "that Russian diplomacy is
+disloyal. It wants Constantinople.... But it is not only Russia which
+envies Bulgaria; the same thing is true for Austria-Hungary and
+Germany. The Balkan Union has surprised them, and they will seek a new
+basis in their future politics...." But then the second Balkan War and
+the Treaty of Bucharest enabled Ferdinand to commit his country to an
+alliance which various of his statesmen and generals vehemently
+deprecated. "If the Germans should win," telegraphed Tocheff, the
+Minister at Vienna, in August 1915, "that would be still more
+dangerous for Bulgaria."
+
+Ferdinand was sure that the Austro-Germans would succeed in conquering
+the Serbs. On October 6, after a treacherous artillery preparation,
+the two armies began to cross at various points the Danube, the Save
+and the Drin. Their losses in the hand-to-hand engagements may have
+reminded them of a phrase in the official explanation that was issued,
+after the rout of the previous December, by the Viennese authorities:
+"The retirement of our forces after their victorious offensive in
+Serbia has given birth to divers rumours for the most part entirely
+without foundation.... It was inevitable that we should have important
+losses in men and material." So it was on this occasion--at Belgrade,
+for example, thousands were killed as they struggled to the shore--in
+a broad street leading down to the harbour a brigade of Skoplje
+recruits plunged through the Austrians with their knives. But in the
+end, on October 10--and in spite of heroic work on the part of some
+French and British naval detachments--Belgrade fell. On October 12 the
+Bulgars attacked. "The European War is drawing to its close," said
+Ferdinand's proclamation. "The victorious armies of the Central Powers
+are in Serbia and are rapidly advancing." They advanced less rapidly
+than they had planned, thanks to the wonderful exploits of the Serbian
+army, which was heavily encumbered by the growing stream of fugitives.
+The Austro-Germans failed to encircle the Serbian troops--slowly and
+keeping in touch with those who were on the Bulgarian frontier, the
+Serbs retired to the south and west.
+
+
+ATTEMPT TO BUY OFF THE SERBS
+
+The Government and the diplomatic corps had been for some time at
+Ni[vs], the second largest town, whose Turkish character is
+disappearing. But the population in the direst Turkish times were less
+exposed to epidemics than the thousands of unwilling residents who
+thronged the little, painted houses and the wide, cobbled streets in
+1915. It was at Ni[vs] that the negotiations were conducted with
+Bulgaria, and in July an aged gentleman from Budapest came with the
+offer of a separate peace. This gentleman, a stockbroker of Slav
+origin, was imbued with patriotic motives, for he was assured that
+Germany would win the War. It was an undertaking in those days for a
+man in his seventy-sixth year to travel, by way of Roumania and
+Bulgaria, to Ni[vs]; but as he had connections in Serbia he was
+resolved to see them, and he travelled at his own expense, although
+the German Consul-General at Buda-Pest, acting apparently for the
+Deutsche Bank, had spoken of 18 million crowns for distribution among
+the politicians at Ni[vs] and five millions for the old stockbroker
+himself. His suggestion was that Serbia should make certain small
+modifications in the Bucharest Treaty in favour of the Bulgars, that
+Albania should be hers up to and including Durazzo, that she should be
+joined to Montenegro, and that her debts to the Entente should be
+shouldered by Germany, which would likewise give a considerable loan,
+and requested merely the permission to send German troops down the
+Danube. "My dear boy," said a Minister, an old friend of his, "go back
+at once, or they'll lock you up in a mad-house." And when the poor old
+gentleman got back he found himself compelled to start a lawsuit
+against the Germans, since they were unwilling to pay his costs. The
+Consul-General at Pest disowned all knowledge of him, but the broker
+called in the police as witnesses; for they had summoned him, on more
+than one occasion, to explain why he was so much in the Consul's
+company. The German Government said also that he was a perfect
+stranger to them; but finally they settled with him for a sum which is
+believed to have been 35,000 crowns.
+
+
+GREEK TRANSACTIONS
+
+One reason why the Entente had dissuaded the Serbs from attacking
+Bulgaria was to prevent the _casus foederis_ with Greece being
+jeopardized. This treaty between Greece and Serbia would become
+operative by a Bulgarian aggression--and the fox-faced M. Gounaris
+when he was Prime Minister of Greece in August 1915 assured the
+Allied Powers that Greece would never tolerate a Bulgarian attack upon
+Serbia. It was largely on the strength of this assurance that, when, a
+little later, the attitude of Bulgaria grew menacing and the Serbian
+General Staff suggested marching upon Sofia and nipping the Bulgarian
+mobilization in the bud, the then Russian Foreign Minister, M.
+Sazonov, supported in this by Sir Edward Grey, warned Serbia not to
+take the initiative. Serbia yielded to the demands of her great
+Allies, only to see herself abandoned by the Greeks. King Constantine
+and probably the greater part of his people were anxious to remain
+outside the war. And to free himself from the embarrassing Treaty with
+Serbia he declared that it would only have applied if Serbia had been
+attacked by the Bulgars. [We may say that it was doubtful whether the
+_casus foederis_ arose when Serbia was attacked by Austria; but it
+clearly and indubitably did arise when she was attacked by Bulgaria.
+When Venizelos spoke of the obligations of Greece towards Serbia, a
+certain Mr. Paxton Hibben, an American admirer of Constantine, said in
+his book, _Constantine I. and the Greek People_ (New York, 1920), that
+Venizelos was making an appeal to the sentimentality of his
+countrymen!] So Constantine proclaimed that Greece was neutral--"Our
+gallant Serbian allies," he declared some five years later, when he
+returned from exile, "Our gallant Serbian allies"; and the Athenian
+mob--
+
+                                    August Athena! where,
+    Where are thy men of might, thy grand in soul?
+    Gone.[92] ...
+
+--the Athenian mob cheered itself hoarse. One word from Constantine
+and they would have wrecked the Serbian Legation and the French and
+the British for the terrible bad taste of not exposing their flags.
+But Constantine, clutching his German Field-Marshal's baton (or
+perhaps it was the native baton given to the royal leader who in the
+Balkan War wiped out some of the ignominy with which the previous
+Turkish War had covered him), at any rate Constantine restrained
+himself. Why the devil couldn't these Serbs understand that they were
+his gallant allies! Let them wipe out the unhappy past. Had they
+never heard of that magnificent French actress who, being asked about
+the paternity of her son, replied that she really did not know?
+"Alas!" she said, "I am so shortsighted." Well, it was true that in
+1915 he had been neutral and unable to tolerate the presence of
+Serbian soldiers on his territory; if they found themselves obliged to
+leave their country and retreated by way of Greece he gave orders to
+have them disarmed. This was the attitude imposed upon a neutral. And
+thousands and thousands of them had unfortunately died in consequence
+while passing over the Albanian mountains. "Our alliance with Serbia,"
+quoth the King while opening the Chamber in 1921--"our alliance with
+Serbia now drawn closer as the result of so many sacrifices and heroic
+struggles...." The son of the eagle, as his people call him, stopped a
+moment, but could hear no laughter. As for his policy in 1915, he had
+been perhaps a neutral lacking in benevolence. If he and his Ministers
+did not actually refuse to receive the non-combatant young Serbs they
+very certainly did not go out of their way to offer any shelter to
+these erstwhile little allies in distress, when the alternative to
+Greece was wild Albania. Twenty thousand Serbian children lost their
+lives upon those bleak and trackless mountains.[93] It was most
+unfortunate. And in the Cathedral of Athens, in the gorgeous presence
+of the clergy and the more responsible sections of the population, the
+King chuckled to himself as he was acclaimed with cries of "Christos
+aneste!" (Christ is risen!). After all, those 20,000 Serbian boys
+would not have lived for ever. These excellent Athenians were resolved
+that bygones should be bygones. It was perfectly true that British
+soldiers and French, entrapped and shot down by his command, were
+buried away yonder in Piraeus cemetery. He felt like having a good
+laugh, but if you are a King you must be dignified....
+
+
+FLIGHT OF THE SERBS
+
+Ni[vs] fell on November 4, 1915, King Peter's plate, according to the
+subsequent avowals of one Brust, a non-commissioned officer, being
+distributed among the 145th Prussian Regiment, the Colonel annexing
+ten pieces and several privates receiving spoons and knives--and now
+the Serbs had to leave their country. On the other side of the
+Albanian mountains they might hope to find a land of exile. It is said
+that several of the Ministers contemplated suicide--the Minister of
+War had so far lost his head that, after reaching Salonica by way of
+Monastir, he refused to join his colleagues at Scutari--but the
+venerable Pa[vs]i['c] did not lose his jovial humour. He may have
+laughed in order to encourage those who were despairing. On the other
+hand, he may have known that Serbia would rise, and rise to greater
+heights. He made no secret of the satisfaction which he felt when the
+Bulgars attacked, for this, he said, would settle once for all the
+Macedonian question. Whether the attitude of the Southern Slavs in
+Austria-Hungary appealed to him in equal measure is a little doubtful.
+It was hard for him, at his time of life, to envisage anything more
+than a Greater Serbia.
+
+
+THE FAITHFUL CROATS
+
+But the Croats, as is shown by other documents from the Zagreb
+archives, were faithful to their race. The extracts, by the way, reply
+to those foolish Italians who persisted for years in shouting that the
+Croats had been the fiercest foes of the Entente. That they were the
+foes of Italy is not surprising, for the provisions of the wretched
+Treaty of London, concluded behind the back of the British Parliament
+and without even the Cabinet being consulted, were by this time public
+property, and it was seen that the Italians had succeeded in
+persuading the Entente to promise them the reversion of a great slice
+of Yugoslav territory, very large portions of which were as completely
+Yugoslav as the island of Scedro (Torcola), whose population consists
+of one Slav woman called Yaka[vs], over eighty years of age. Save for
+their sentiments towards the Italians, it is clear that a large number
+of Croats were very warmly and very actively on the side of the
+Entente. I am sure that the unfortunate Italians of the Trentino who,
+like them, were enrolled in the Imperial and Royal army were as eager
+to desert, and no doubt if they had been more numerous we should have
+had an Italian contingent fighting with the Russians, in association
+with the Czecho-Slovak and the Yugoslav brigades.
+
+
+(G)
+
+IMPERIAL AND ROYAL MILITARY COMMAND IN             _Sealed._
+ZAGREB.                                          CHIEF OF STAFF.
+INT. DEP.        ARMY G.H.Q.               1  To be dispatched in
+COMMANDER ON THE S.E. FRONT.                  two envelopes, K.N.
+         F.P.O. 11.                        2  to be written on the
+5 op. by H.Q.F.    P.O. 305.               3  one inside and N.
+5 A.E.C.          F.P.O. 81.               4  alone without K. on
+      Evid. O. Vienna.                     5  the outer; seal!
+
+ZAGREB, _July_ 10, 1915.
+
+In spite of the ten months' war with Serbia, in spite of the notable
+executions of native citizens for assisting the enemy at the time of
+his incursion into Syrmia and Bosnia, there has latterly been an
+alarming increase in the number of cases of grossest insult to the
+person of H.M. the Emperor and King; outbreaks of deeply felt, only
+forcibly controlled hatred against everything friendly to the dynasty
+and the Monarchy, curses upon the exalted wearer of the Crown,
+glorification of King Peter and the Serb realm, expressed by men and
+women alike, are of daily occurrence....
+
+
+(H)
+
+In this document we return to the subject of desertions:
+
+ROYAL HUNGARIAN 42ND INFANTRY OF THE LINE.
+Op. No. 1312/6.
+
+TO THE IMPERIAL AND ROYAL CORPS
+COMMAND IN SADAGORA.
+
+CZERNAWKA, _August_ 12, 1915.
+
+In the period from the 8/8 to the 9/8 two men of the 10th company have
+deserted (of whom one is probably wandering somewhere behind the
+front, as he is mentally deficient, having even gone away without a
+cap and being a Roman Catholic); likewise four men of the 12th company
+and all the men recently enrolled from the village of Dolnji Lapac, of
+the Greek Orthodox religion, have apparently deserted to the foe.
+
+The impressions which I had of these men--impressions based on a
+personal intercourse of several hours while they were being marched to
+the recruiting depot--was unfavourable. And this I immediately made
+known in writing to the regimental command, with a brief note on this
+point on the 6/8 to the 11th Corps command. Unhappily my impressions
+were correct; there are scoundrels in these ranks. I have for the
+present instituted a most thorough and severe examination, wherein I
+am already myself participating; for I am inflexibly determined, at
+the very smallest sign of a recurrence, to apply to these traitors the
+military judicial procedure and, if necessary, to have the men
+decimated, as I was unfortunately compelled to do with the
+Bosnian-Herzegovinian line regiment No. 4 last winter, which method
+had the most excellent results. That regiment has thenceforward been
+blameless.... I am so very well informed as to conditions in the south
+that I cannot be deceived, and I know that, in spite of all--including
+some misguided--measures, there are still a number of traitors, some
+of them occupying a high social position, moving about freely in
+Croatia-Slavonia instead of being strangled.
+
+So that steps may be taken against the families of guilty persons, I
+enclose a list of the men who have deserted from the middle of June,
+this year. I beg that I may be supported to the uttermost, without the
+slightest wavering, and in a short time--so my experience tells me--we
+shall be in a most satisfactory position.
+
+LIPOSCAK, Lieut.-Field-Marshal.[94]
+
+IMPERIAL AND ROYAL CORPS COMMAND,
+SADAGORA, 12/8, 1915. 9 p.m.
+
+No. 2446, with three enclosures.
+
+
+(I)
+
+We then get an elaborate and indignant dissertation, dated November
+1915 and signed by Lieut.-Colonel Olleschick. It is a study of the way
+in which the secret police was hampered and its patriotic activities
+watered down; the Colonel also exposes the manner in which
+antipatriotic, or shall we say anti-Habsburg, citizens of
+Croatia-Slavonia are protected:
+
+IMPERIAL AND ROYAL MILITARY COMMAND IN ZAGREB.
+_Chief of the General Staff._
+
+K. No. 1681.
+
+The Colonel expresses his unbounded approval of Maravi['c], the chief
+of this branch of the police, and of von Klobu[vc]ari['c], a police
+captain. The former, who is dead, was for many years at the head of
+the police at Zemlin, opposite Belgrade, and has left behind a
+reputation for fairness. The whereabouts of von Klobu[vc]ari['c] are
+unknown, and it would be prudent if this ex-Austrian officer,
+ex-dentist's assistant and ex-policeman were to ensure their remaining
+so. The Ban is accused of having frustrated various designs of this
+couple. He is further accused of having placed at the head of the
+Koprivnica internment camp--where 6000 "politically untrustworthy"
+Serbs were assembled--the mayor, Kamenar, who himself had been
+dismissed for his political untrustworthiness; and when the military
+protested, they received no answer, while the mayor--so the wrathful
+writer hears--has been removed from his post at the internment camp
+and restored to his former office and dignity. The colonel asks how it
+is that in Croatia the crimes of "Majestaetsbeleidigung" and high
+treason are seldom punished with more than three or four months'
+incarceration, while in other parts of the Empire they are visited
+with death or at least a sentence of several years. (The answer is
+that in Croatia the Government was obliged, on account of the
+language, to employ Croatian judges.) He mentions that Professor
+Arshinov, alleged to have come to Zagreb in order to carry on an
+anti-Habsburg and pro-Serbian propaganda, is indeed under arrest, but
+is being far too well treated at the hospital, where he receives his
+Serbian associates and even has convivial evenings with them. In fact
+the whole country, so the writer asserts, is saturated with Serbian
+sympathies and agitators. He says that in some villages every
+functionary, from the highest to the lowest, is a Serb; the
+_gendarmerie_, the tax-gatherers and the foresters are frequently
+Serbs and he regards it as noteworthy that the hotels, inns and cafes
+are almost exclusively in Serbian hands; "and it is only too well
+known,"--so he rather strangely says--"that these are the places where
+suspicious characters are wont to hatch their secret plans under the
+influence of alcohol." He complains at length of the anti-Austrian
+activities of the Serbo-Croatian Coalition, and this proves that the
+party was not, as its critics have said, too subservient to the
+Habsburgs.
+
+
+HOW THE SERBS CAME TO THEIR PATRIARCH'S TOWN
+
+At the end of November the Serbian army, with the Government and
+thousands of refugees, arrived at the ancient towns of Prizren and
+Pe['c]. It was at the rambling old patriarchal town of Pe['c] that the
+Serbian soldiers had to do a thing which even their marvellous
+optimism could not endure--most of the field guns had now to be
+destroyed, after a few years of crowded and victorious life. An
+American correspondent, Mr. Fortier Jones, tells us[95] how a gunner
+asked to be photographed beside his beloved weapon, and how, when he
+wanted to leave his address, he suddenly realized that with the loss
+of this gun he would be a mere homeless wanderer. It was not
+surprising that these steel-built stoics, than whom all French and
+British witnesses agree there are no better fighters in the world,
+should have broken down at this ordeal. As for the chauffeurs, they
+were busy polishing their cars and cleaning their engines--presumably
+through force of habit--prior to the breaking up of all these
+touring-cars and lorries. Some were saturated with petrol and set on
+fire, others were exploded with hand grenades, but the most
+imaginative method was to drive the car up to that place, two or three
+miles from Pe['c], where the road to Andrievica turned into a
+horse-trail on the side of the precipice. Here the chauffeur would
+jump out, after having let in the clutch and pushed down the
+accelerator--and the car would leap into space, three or four hundred
+feet over a mountain torrent. From this point the _via dolorosa_
+stretched away precariously, at first a winding path of ice and then a
+track across the snowdrifts of the barren uplands. The Serbian
+Government had offered to construct this very necessary road to
+Andrievica; the engineer, one Smodlaka, undertook to build it in three
+months, but Nikita's Minister replied that the Austrian prisoners,
+whom it was proposed to use, were mostly in the grip of spotted fever.
+This was not the case, and one of the results of there being no road
+was that nearly all the supplies from Russia for the Montenegrins were
+abandoned at Pe['c]. Cold, starvation and exposure took a fearful toll
+among the straggling wanderers--between 1000 and 1500 were cut off and
+murdered by savage Albanians (whose considerate treatment of the Serbs
+is highly praised by their champion, Miss Edith Durham. Reviewing in
+the _Daily Herald_ a book of Serbian tales that have precious little
+to do with Albania, she goes out of her way to laud, in those days of
+the terrible retreat, the kindliness of her proteges.) As we have
+mentioned, of the 36,000 boys who accompanied the army in order to
+escape the Austrians, only some 16,000 reached the Adriatic, where it
+was said that there was nothing human left of them except their eyes.
+They had lived on roots and bark of trees, they drank the water into
+which decomposed corpses had been thrown. Of the 50,000 Austrian
+prisoners--many of them Yugoslavs--about 44,000 died in the course of
+their eight weeks' retreat; none of them were heard to complain or
+seen committing any brutal act. Very many Englishwomen were included
+in this long procession; old King Peter walked a good deal of the way,
+the Archbishop of Belgrade brought the relics of Stephen the
+First-Crowned and was followed by priests with lighted tapers, and
+Marshal Putnik, whom exposure would have killed, was carried all the
+way inside a primitive sedan-chair.... "Whence do you come and what
+are you?" asked a Serbian woman[96] of the wounded and dying. "We
+are," they replied in prose that reminds one of Mestrovi['c], "we are
+the smouldering torches with which our country is kept warm. In the
+heart of one's native land there is neither truth nor justice--we love
+our native land; this love is a barrier against human love; the heart
+of one's native land is great and selfish and it throbs--in this heart
+is the faith of all our hearts, we love our native land. We watch
+over it and we defend it and we love, though the lettering upon our
+tomb be enveloped in ivy. Formidable is its victory, and we will march
+along, not asking whether anybody will return. We love our native land
+and even when the blood is thickening inside our throats and we are
+carrying our entrails in our hands." Though they were Serbs they had
+forgotten how to sing; it was some time later that the words, now
+famous, of "Tamo daleko" burst from the inspired lips of a simple
+soldier and were taken up by his companions: "There, far away, far
+away by the Morava, there is my village, there is my love...."
+
+"They came exhausted into Scutari, one by one or in small groups,"
+says Monsieur Boppe, the French Minister,[97] "some of them on
+horseback, some on foot; here and there one saw a trace of military
+order, but most of them had no weapons. They looked as if they could
+not march another mile, these moving skeletons, so painfully they
+crawled along, so haggard, so emaciated, with a colour so cadaverous
+and eyes so dull. This mournful band of brothers struggled into
+Scutari for days, beneath the rain and through the mud. No bitterness
+came from the lips of those who had undergone every privation; as if
+impelled by destiny, they passed along in silence; from time to time,
+indeed, one heard them say 'hleba' (bread)--that was the only word
+they had the strength to pronounce. For several days the majority of
+them had had nothing to eat, and in the cantonments where they were
+lodged outside the town their Government could only provide a meagre
+ration." A hundredweight of maize cost 300 francs in gold.... But what
+of the women who had remained in Belgrade? Miss Annie Christi['c],
+whose unflagging work for her people is so well known in this country,
+has told us how the Austro-Hungarians started paying out relief money
+to the families of State officials. They advertised their generosity
+on a large scale, but the amounts were very small, and many women were
+too proud to accept this dole from the enemy. They preferred to do any
+kind of work offered by the municipality of Belgrade. Thus one saw
+women in furs or smart clothes--the remnants of former days--trundling
+wheelbarrows of stone for road repairs, or carrying heavy loads.
+Delicately nurtured girls could be seen working at the slaughterhouse
+among the entrails and offal for twelve hours on end. The wife of a
+professor scrubbed office floors for many months before her husband at
+the front could send her any money. Street-sweeping was a common
+occupation for women of all classes.
+
+"We rescued the gallant Serbian army," said the Italians, in the
+course of a long and rhetorical placard which in 1919 they pasted up
+throughout Rieka and the Adriatic lands they occupied, and which was
+not more convincing than the caravan of Dalmatian mayors whom, after
+the War, they very proudly exhibited in Paris, a suave official from
+the Embassy acting as the showman. (The Italian authorities had taken
+in hand the election of these mayors--save Signor Ziliotto of Zadar,
+who was elected by his fellow-townsmen.) ... When the wretched Serbs
+who found themselves staggering through central Albania--among them
+large numbers of boys so young that they would not have been called up
+until 1919--when they hoped to reach the Adriatic at Valona, they were
+told that this route was barred to them. Having eluded the Austrians,
+the Germans and the Bulgars, they were left by the Italians to die of
+starvation and fatigue. It may well have seemed to them, as to Bedros
+Tourian, the Armenian poet, that "All the world is but God's mockery."
+When King Peter, worn out by the journey and his ailments, reached
+Valona by way of Durazzo, he was ordered by the commandant of that
+place to depart with his suite--which consisted of four
+persons--within twenty-four hours.... In the middle of December a
+French relief mission arrived on the Albanian coast, General de
+Mondesir reached Scutari and a large British mission under General
+Taylor landed at Durazzo. These did what was possible to save the
+remnants of the Serbian army. But, after a short time, a fresh series
+of obstacles arose. The King of Montenegro, very loyal to the
+Austrians, facilitated their advance across his country. Thus it was
+impracticable for the Serbs to concentrate and to embark from those
+few wooden huts which are called, in Italian, San Giovanni di Medua.
+Between the bare cliffs and the sea the miserable men and boys and
+women were compelled to plod towards the south. One hundred and fifty
+thousand survivors were eventually carried by the Allies to Corfu.
+
+
+THE SHADOW OVER MONTENEGRO
+
+These had been busy days for Nikita and his sons. A royal order was
+issued to the Montenegrin military and police authorities, commanding
+them to prevent the population from giving or selling any provisions
+to the Serbian army. "Ne bogami, svetoga mi Vassilija ne!" ["Goodness
+gracious, no! And by St. Basil, no!"] was the phrase which greeted the
+Serbs;[98] and when they remonstrated with the Montenegrins for
+demanding eleven Serbian dinars in silver for ten Montenegrin
+perpers--the exchange was at par, but the people were acting under
+orders--"If I had ten sons I would give them to King Peter," was the
+usual reply, "but money is money." Yet the Austrians were not as
+grateful as they might have been. Nikita was intending, after the
+annihilation of the Serbs, to conclude a separate peace with Austria
+and to rule, as an Austrian satrap, over an enlarged territory. But
+they ignored his aspirations; they did not take into account that he
+had been so kind to them at Lov[vc]en and elsewhere. They swarmed over
+his country--this time he was not play-acting when he showed his
+indignation--and the deceived deceiver was forced to fly. On January
+10, Lov[vc]en had fallen. A characteristic telegram:
+
+    Ku[vc]a mi gori,
+    Ku[vc]i mi trebaju--
+
+["My house is burning, I want the Ku[vc]i"] was sent by Nikita to his
+best fighting men, the Ku[vc]i, whom he had left in reserve at
+Danilovgrad. When General Gajni['c] received this he marched all night
+with his brigade and reached Cetinje in the morning. Nikita met them
+and announced that, after all, he did not require them. He would
+conquer without them. And Lov[vc]en fell.
+
+That Adriatic Gibraltar, which rises gaunt and sheer to some 6000
+feet, was entrusted by Nikita to his youngest son, Prince Peter, a
+young man of marvellous vanity. He used to deny, after the surrender
+of Lov[vc]en, that he had consorted at Budva with Lieut.-Colonel
+Hupka, the former military attache at Cetinje, whom the Austrians
+brought specially from the Italian front for this purpose. The
+well-known patriot, Dr. Machiedo of Zadar, who happened to be confined
+during the summer of 1915 by the Austrians in the fortress of
+Gora[vz]da, which lies above Kotor, read in the telephone book certain
+messages from Prince Peter, asking for an interview with Hupka--these
+messages were carried by a patrol to the lines and thence telephoned
+to Gora[vz]da. When the Prince at last acknowledged that he had been
+meeting Hupka--which he naturally had done at his father's command--he
+stated that it was with the object of preventing the bombardment of
+open towns by Austrian aeroplanes. Between him and Hupka the
+arrangements were made; many of the Austrians exchanged their military
+boots for the Serbian national sandals, so that they could more easily
+scale the rocks; and Peter sent verbal orders to his two outlying
+brigadiers that they must not resist. General Pejanovi['c] demanded,
+however, that this should be put in writing, and the document is
+extant. Thirteen Austrians lie buried in a little graveyard on the
+slopes of Lov[vc]en, mostly men who missed their footing; and this was
+the price that Austria paid for the tremendous mountain that she had
+coveted for years; she had been willing, more than once, to let the
+Montenegrins, in exchange for it, have Scutari. The great picture of
+"The Storming of Lov[vc]en," which Gabriel Jurki['c], the Sarajevo
+artist, was commissioned by the Austrians to paint, was never painted;
+and when Nikita motored out from Cetinje to meet the men who were
+retiring from Lov[vc]en he had the hardihood to rebuke them as
+traitors. "It is not we who are traitors," shouted a colonel, "it is
+you and your sons!" "Oh! that I must hear such words!" groaned the
+King, "I want to die!" But he did not die; on the contrary, he went to
+Paris. His eldest son had announced, early in the campaign, that he
+was unwell, and he had gone to France by way of Athens. There he was
+very accurately told by Constantine in which month Mackensen and the
+Bulgars would descend upon Serbia. When the Prince arrived at Nice he
+mentioned this to his friend, Jovo Popovi['c], the former Montenegrin
+Minister at Constantinople, and to Radovi['c]. They advised him to
+inform the Entente, in order to rehabilitate himself. But when he
+telegraphed to his father the reply was "Be quiet." Prince Danilo has
+never denied the allegations that while he was at Nice, Signor
+Carminatti, the Montenegrin Consul-General in Milan, conducted
+negotiations on his behalf at Lugano with a certain Herr Bernsdorf of
+the Deutsche Bank, with a view to a separate peace by Montenegro. The
+amount of the financial consideration is not known. And the
+business-like Prince, realizing that it would be impossible for him to
+return to his native land, secured himself against the future by
+selling, through a couple of confidential agents, his real estate to
+the Austrians. He likewise disposed of a good deal of forest which is
+alleged to have belonged not to him but to the State, and when his
+father heard of the resulting sum of a hundred million francs he was
+exceedingly annoyed that this robbery and trafficking with the enemy
+during the War had only replenished Danilo's and not his own
+exchequer. When his political opponents heard of these transactions he
+denied, over and over again, that they had taken place; but we have
+his autograph letter on the subject to Danilo. Before the King left
+Montenegro he found another opportunity for a grandiose attitude. He
+appeared at Podgorica where he made an eloquent speech, exhorting his
+people to march on the morrow against the hated Austrian and assuring
+them that their old King would fire the first shot, whereas he
+decamped in the night for Scutari, which is in the opposite direction.
+He and the Queen, Prince Peter and Miu[vs]kevi['c], the Premier, fled
+the country; while Prince Mirko, the remainder of the Cabinet, the
+National Assembly and--above all--the army had instructions to remain
+behind. How much easier it would have been for his army than for the
+Serbs to reach Corfu. But this terrible old man delivered 50,000 of
+the best Yugoslav soldiers to the enemy. On January 21 he sailed away.
+I do not know if anybody sang the National Anthem--"Onamo! Onamo!"
+["Yonder! Yonder!"]--which in his youth Nikita had himself composed.
+And a few years later when the gallant Montenegrins could again lift
+up their voices and sing "Onamo!" how many of them thought of him who
+was skulking and of course intriguing yonder in France.
+
+We have alluded to the treatment which in their distress the Serbs
+received from their Italian Allies; but in Albania the Italian army
+did render a certain amount of assistance--every day at eleven o'clock
+the Austrian aeroplanes would reach Durazzo, and the Italian soldiers,
+sentries and all, would rush helter-skelter from the plentiful food to
+which they were just sitting down. The Serbs, many of them, after
+their privations, looking like grey ghosts, were always in the
+neighbourhood of the Italian barracks and very glad they were to see
+those aeroplanes which permitted them to enter in and enjoy a
+bounteous meal. When the senior Italian officer complained to his
+Serbian colleague, "Surely," said the latter, "you have a sentry at
+the door. He can prevent anyone from going in." At some distance
+inland a Serbian major, a friend of mine, was resting on the side of
+the road; he had eaten nothing for four days. A spick-and-span Italian
+lieutenant of _gendarmerie_ paused in front of him and was clearly
+interested. The major wondered whether he would have some food about
+him. But the lieutenant did not even offer him a cigarette. "Pardon
+me," he said with a friendly smile, "but will you allow me to take a
+photograph?" Large numbers of mules were brought over by the Italians
+and apparently it gave them pleasure to cut their throats. The
+officers purchased many Serbian horses--their owners were too
+destitute to bargain. But in fairness it must be said that some
+Italian ships worked with the French and British vessels in conveying
+the Serbs, soldiers and civilians, from the coast of Albania.
+
+As for the Montenegrin King, he had attempted, before his departure,
+to put the whole blame on the shoulders of Colonel Pe[vs]i['c]. He
+sent--in order to make more certain the success of the Austrian
+army--a telegraphic command[99] to the Voivoda Djuro Petrovi['c], the
+chief of the Herzegovinian detachment, in which he required him to
+destroy his cannons and machine guns and then (although the enemy was
+exerting no pressure upon him) to withdraw towards Nik[vs]i['c]. This
+order was issued in the name of Colonel Pe[vs]i['c], the signature
+being forged. In fact Nikita thought his Serbian Chief of Staff was
+quite a useful personage. But there exists a letter in which the
+Colonel wrote that, in order to avoid capitulation, a supreme effort
+would be necessary at certain positions which he indicated and anyhow
+the army should be withdrawn to Scutari and the defence of the town
+organized. Scutari, by the way, was the scene of another of Nikita's
+exploits: he caused the Bank of Montenegro to send money to the
+Austrian Consul there, the cash being delivered by Martinovi['c], the
+Montenegrin Consul. It was used to incite the Albanians to take
+military action against the Serbs between Prizren and Djakovica. When
+this affair was exposed all the Montenegrins knew by what traitors
+they were governed. The fall of Montenegro had been brought about more
+swiftly by the Austrian submarines which in the Gulf of San Giovanni
+di Medua torpedoed practically every ship that carried food or
+munitions, while other boats were not molested. An investigation
+showed that the shipping news had been telegraphed to Prince Peter,
+and he in his turn handed it on to the Austrians. The Prince's
+egregious parent wanted to be in a position to say that, owing to the
+lack of food and munitions, he had been compelled to surrender. One of
+his final acts was to summon the Skup[vs]tina, as he did not wish to
+be saddled with the responsibility of making peace. At a secret
+sitting on December 11, 1915,--when the retreating Serbs were in San
+Giovanni, Scutari and Podgorica,--the Government declared that they
+had no resources, that the Entente could not assist them and that they
+would wage war for so long as they had the means--in other words, that
+the war would cease. It was continued, however, by those Montenegrin
+troops between Kola[vs]in and Bielo Polje, who--even after the fall
+of Lov['c]en on January 10, and the flowing of the Austrian army
+towards Scutari--were ordered to make a counter-offensive, during
+which they had over 1500 dead and wounded. The reason for this was
+that Nikita wished to prevent his army from escaping to Scutari; he
+was afraid lest, if they escaped with the Serbs, they would dethrone
+him forthwith. Afterwards he gave an explanation that he had ordered
+the Chief of Staff, Yanko Vukoti['c], to rescue the army, which order
+he alleged he had wirelessed from Brindisi. Vukoti['c], together with
+Prince Mirko and the Ministers who stayed behind, declared in the
+_Pester Lloyd_ that Nikita was lying. They added that he could have
+sent no wireless from Brindisi, because there was at that time no
+receiving station in Montenegro, the French one at Podgorica having
+been destroyed at the order of the British Minister, Count de Salis,
+the doyen of the diplomatic corps. The King, by the way, had
+endeavoured for some time to rid himself of the diplomats, who were
+inconvenient witnesses of what was in progress. On December 31 a
+telegram was sent by the Ministers of France, Great Britain, Italy and
+Russia, in which they said that "Apparently our presence is
+displeasing to the King and he is trying to disengage himself from us.
+He has begged us on several occasions to depart and last night he
+insisted, with the asseveration that in forty-eight hours it would be
+too late. We suspect that His Majesty is playing a very ambiguous
+game...." And on January 9 the French Minister telegraphed, among
+other things, that "My Russian and English colleagues are of opinion
+that the King is merely performing a comedy with us and that this
+comedy will end in a tragedy for the belligerents." Nikita, on his
+arrival in France, proposed to settle down at Lyons, but the French
+authorities did not care for him to be so close to Switzerland, which
+was one of his intriguing centres. So they placed at his disposal a
+chateau near Bordeaux and it was not until he had made repeated
+requests that they permitted him to come to Neuilly, a suburb of
+Paris. He replaced Miu[vs]kevi['c] as Premier by Radovi['c], the
+former victim of the Bomb Trial, hoping by this move towards the Left
+to silence his critics. But in August 1916 Radovi['c] presented a
+memorandum in favour of the formal union between Montenegro and
+Serbia, under King Peter's son and King Nicholas' grandson, Prince
+Alexander. The Montenegrin monarch was enraged at this and, after
+Radovi['c] had resigned, one after another all the Montenegrins of any
+standing withdrew from Nikita, who was openly working against the
+Serbs. He and the Princess Xenia conducted all the Government
+business, though he distributed among his tiny clique of adherents
+various empty titles. An aged friend of his, Eugene Popovi['c], a
+native of Triest and a naturalized Italian, was made Premier, to give
+pleasure to Italy; a more active person was the War Minister,
+Hajdukovi['c], a former shipping contractor in Constantinople, where a
+long time ago he had been one of those young Montenegrins who, to the
+number of twenty, the Sultan used to educate--a process which, in the
+case of idle boys, was not very irksome. During the Great War
+Hajdukovi['c] was invited by the Allies to quit Salonica, as they had
+certain suspicions against him. He had also, on behalf of his King,
+urged the Montenegrin volunteers who had managed to get to Salonica
+not to allow themselves to be commanded by Serbian or French officers,
+but to demand Montenegrin officers, of whom there was no adequate
+supply. These men had ultimately to be sent to Corsica and kept there
+till the end of the War. What Hajdukovi['c] performed at Salonica,
+another royal agent, one Vukovi['c], a bootmaker, attempted at
+Marseilles, where he continually went on board the vessels that were
+bringing Montenegrins and, to a smaller extent, other Yugoslavs from
+the United States and South America to the Salonica front. These
+travelled men were less easily influenced than those who obeyed
+Hajdukovi['c]; but 300-400 did refuse to proceed. They were installed
+in a factory at Orange, where the Montenegrin Government fed them and
+paid them. Now and then they were encouraged by being told that if
+they had gone to the Front the Serbian officers would have flogged
+them.... And so the little Court at Neuilly occupied the years with
+many a congenial intrigue. Feelers were stretched out to this country,
+where an English edition of Radovi['c]'s _Montenegrin Bulletin_, the
+pro-Yugoslav organ, was being published by my friend Vassilje Buri['c]
+to the furious indignation of the busybodies who supported the King
+and of the Italian Embassy. From these two sources and from Neuilly
+the Foreign Office was bombarded with protests, begging it in the name
+of justice, etc., to put a stop to this dire scandal. One day a
+charming Foreign Office clerk, an acquaintance of mine, had Buri['c]
+to lunch at the Royal Automobile Club; in the course of the meal he
+suggested that, as Buri['c] was not looking well, they two should have
+a little holiday in France. Buri['c] said he would be very glad to go
+with him, but he thought it would be nice to stay in England. The
+charming official held out for the Continent, and with such obstinacy
+that Buri['c] at last put his hand upon his arm and invited him to
+promise that they would both of them come back to England. Thereupon
+the host acknowledged that a perfect flood of letters had been pouring
+on the Foreign Office with respect to the _Montenegrin Bulletin_, and
+they were weary of receiving them.... Sometimes the Neuilly Court was
+plunged in gloom, as when old Tomo Oraovac's little book appeared with
+seventy-five awkward questions to Nikita. For three days the King shut
+himself up in his room, trying to decide as to whether he should issue
+an answer. He decided to do nothing. Now and then a French review or
+newspaper referred to him. "The official courtesies extended by the
+French Government to Nicholas I. and his family should not deceive the
+public," said the eminent publicist Monsieur Gauvain in the _Revue de
+Paris_ (March 1917). M. Gauvain showed that the Petrovi['c] dynasty
+constituted the sole obstacle to a union of Montenegro with Serbia and
+the rest of the Yugoslav lands. As Nikita drove past the office of the
+_Revue de Paris_ he may have been thinking, rather wistfully, of that
+brave afternoon at Nik[vs]i['c].[100] ... Sometimes the old man was
+worried by his sons. Peter, for example, who had been the spoilt child
+and who had been given posts for which he was unfitted, now discovered
+in himself, during the autumn of 1918, a great desire to obtain a
+certain Madame Violette Brunet, the legal wife of Monsieur Brunet, who
+was in Nikita's service. The ardent lover, regardless of the ancient
+Montenegrin custom which inflicted stoning on the guilty married
+woman, while the husband sometimes cut her nose off, wrote to his
+parents, asking them to arrange the matter, and when the ex-King
+raised objections, Peter blackmailed him by threatening to divulge to
+the world at large all the unsavoury details connected with Lov['c]en.
+"My dear son," wrote Nikita in November 1918,[101] "You write again
+asking me to send an emissary to represent myself and your mother in
+suing for the hand of the woman of your choice, failing this, you say
+you will make a scandal whereby the honour of both of us and of the
+whole family will suffer; to obviate this unpleasant possibility we
+may see our way to agree to your wish, but under the following
+conditions...."
+
+
+THE BROKEN SERBS AT CORFU
+
+Meanwhile the Serbs had, ever since the early days of 1916 when they
+began arriving in Corfu, been hard at work upon their army. Thousands
+landed at Corfu in such a state that only with continual care, with
+warmth and nourishing food could they be rescued. But on the little
+island of Vido where they were deposited the tents were few, the beds
+were fewer, wood was lacking, so that fires could not be made, and
+thousands died where they sank down, amid the olive groves and orange
+trees. The doctors nursed as many as they could in that one empty
+building; but for very long about a hundred corpses were each day
+piled in a little boat and taken out to sea. Usually they had died of
+pure exhaustion. Out of the 16,000 boys who had scrambled along with
+the army as far as Durazzo, about 2000 died on the sea and another
+7000 on the Isle of Vido.
+
+At Corfu the Serbs, with the other Yugoslavs, had also to set about
+securing the foundations of their State that was to be. The Russians,
+at the time of the negotiations which ended in the Treaty of London,
+had been looking forward to an Orthodox State, a Greater Serbia,
+bounded by the river Narenta. This, if it had been carried out, would
+have jettisoned, and probably for ever, the Croats and Slovenes. That
+was the incredibly stupid old Russian policy of identifying Slav
+patriotism with the Orthodox Church, a policy held up to ridicule by
+Strossmayer. It was the Yugoslav Committee, working chiefly in London,
+assisted by English friends, working there and at Corfu, which caused
+the Serbs, the Croats and Slovenes to publish on July 20, 1917, the
+historic Corfu Declaration, which laid it down that the nation of the
+three names was resolved to free itself from every foreign yoke and to
+become a constitutional, democratic and Parliamentary Monarchy under
+the Karageorgevi['c] dynasty. It is said that those two excellent
+friends of the Southern Slavs, the brilliant Mr. Wickham Steed and Dr.
+Seton-Watson, than whom no publicist is more conscientious, had to
+face a determined opposition on the part of M. Pa[vs]i['c] before it
+was agreed that the Roman Catholic religion should in the prospective
+State have equal rights with the Orthodox. One would be disposed to
+criticize the Serbian Premier on account of a narrow policy dictated
+by his excessive wish for self-preservation--he saw very well that
+these clauses of equality might undermine the long reign of the
+Radicals--but it must be acknowledged that if the Southern Slavs had
+limited themselves to a Greater Serbia, in which the Radical party had
+been supreme, they would not have wasted so much of their energy,
+after the War, in domestic political conflict. They would also, very
+probably, have gained more favourable terms from the Entente; and the
+union with the Croats and Slovenes might have been effected later. But
+against this is the opinion of those who argue that the separation
+would have become permanent. However, if the union of the Southern
+Slavs could not be postponed, we may believe that it would have been
+wise to call the new country, for a couple of years, Greater Serbia.
+No doubt the logical Italians would have pointed out to the rest of
+the Entente that their bugbears, the Croats and the Slovenes, were
+included in this State; but the Allies as a whole would have been more
+inclined to be indulgent towards a country whose name they honoured
+than towards the same country whose various new-fangled
+designations--Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes; or
+Yugoslavia; or S.H.S.--they found so puzzling. The Transylvanians who,
+one supposes, will play the chief role in Greater Roumania have as
+yet, much to the profit of all the Roumanians, permitted the retention
+of that name. This course was not adopted by the Southern Slavs, and
+Pa[vs]i['c] giving way to Messrs. Steed and Seton-Watson, appointed M.
+Yovanovi['c] to London with the object of working on the lines of the
+Declaration of Corfu.
+
+
+THE SOUTHERN SLAVS IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+The building of the new State and its army was also being undertaken
+with great fervour in America, New Zealand and Australia. North
+America contained about 100,000 Orthodox Serbs, 200,000 Catholic
+Slovenes and 400,000 Catholic Croats; South America had some 50,000
+Yugoslavs, chiefly Catholic Dalmatians; while the 8000-10,000 in
+Australasia were mostly of that origin. Two kinds of Southern Slav
+newspapers were being printed in North America, namely those which the
+Austrian Ambassador supported, and those which were national. The
+chief argument of the former species was the Treaty of London, which,
+as the editors pointed out, gave up a large part of Dalmatia to the
+Italians. Two of these editors, by the way, were imprisoned for other
+reasons by the authorities. They had constantly threatened the
+terrible punishment that Austria would inflict on those who had worked
+against the Fatherland--many of the Southern Slavs, like the
+Roumanians, Czechs, Ruthenians and Magyars, were employed in munition
+factories, and the Austrian Embassy, in concert with the German, hoped
+to see them on the land. After a time the Yugoslavs took an office in
+Washington and attacked this propaganda, their example being followed
+by the Czechs and the Poles. When the United States entered the War
+these Austrophil papers no longer wrote in favour of Austria, but
+confined themselves to animadversions against the Serbian leaders,
+suggesting likewise that Croatia and Slovenia should be
+independent.... The patriotic Yugoslav papers--three dailies in New
+York, three in Chicago, and over twenty weekly organs--were not
+subsidized by the Yugoslav Committee in London or by the Government in
+Corfu; and some of the editors did not display a very prosperous
+appearance. But the poor Yugoslav workers contributed 20 million
+dollars to the first three Liberty loans, and when the National
+Council at Pittsburg in November 1916 united the different charitable,
+gymnastic and political associations, a call was made for volunteers.
+Between 25,000-30,000 men joined the United States army, a good many
+joined the Canadian contingents, and about 10,000 sailed for Salonica.
+The Yugoslavs in South America were in different circumstances: the
+Dalmatian temperament being nearer to the Spanish they found it easier
+to make their way; besides which, those who went to South America were
+on the average more advanced than those who preferred the North. In
+Chili, the Argentine and Bolivia the Yugoslavs are often very
+prosperous merchants and shipowners. They organized the Yugoslav
+National Defence and found all the funds for the Yugoslav organization
+in London. From New Zealand, where there is a Yugoslav paper called
+_Zora_ (the _Dawn_), about 300 volunteers sailed to the Dardanelles,
+and others, when the Salonica base was established, joined their
+compatriots in that port.
+
+
+CASH AND THE MONTENEGRIN ROYAL FAMILY
+
+While the distant Yugoslavs were, in one way or another, helping the
+cause, that family of criminals which reigned in Montenegro did not
+shrink from malversation of the funds of the Red Cross. A young Croat,
+Mr. Mili[vc]evi['c], who before the War became a naturalized
+Montenegrin and in Neuilly served as Minister of Justice, has related
+how the Government continually borrowed (and did not repay) large sums
+of Red Cross money, and that if new clothes came from England for the
+refugees they would in Paris be replaced quite often for much older
+ones. How did the people fare? After the country had been occupied by
+the Austrians, most of the Allies consented that it should be
+revictualled on the same lines as Belgium. Even Austria offered no
+objections. One State only and one man were hostile to the scheme, and
+that man actually the King of Montenegro. "A poor and starving
+people," he argued, "is the most subservient. My interests will suffer
+if commodities are given to the Montenegrins. Let them wait. And when
+the moment comes for my return, I will go back with large supplies and
+be most popular." Even when his Ministers had realized that there must
+be no more delay in asking for the King of Spain's good offices--since
+the Italians (presumably in concert with Nikita) fought against the
+plan--and when the letter to the King of Spain was drafted it produced
+another one from Nikita to his Ministers--written by Nikita, but
+signed by his aide-de-camp. "The King," he said, "considers that the
+letter to the King of Spain should stand over, so long as one cannot
+be sure that Italy will permit the transit of foodstuffs destined for
+the people." He desired no mediation between himself and the Italians.
+Perhaps the most audacious act of spoliation was the sale of the State
+stores at Gallipoli, just when the Allied offensive on the Salonica
+front was leading to the collapse of the enemy. Instead of forwarding
+the 25,000 greatcoats, the 20,000 kilos of leather, and great
+quantities of material, medical and other stores, to Montenegro and
+rendering first aid to the liberated population, the managers of the
+Royal Treasury deemed it wiser to transfer the value of all these
+stores into their own pockets, disposing of more than 21/2 million
+francs worth of goods to trusted figureheads for a few hundred
+thousand Italian lire. Fortunately the French naval authorities put a
+stop to this brigandage, and the honest guardians of the people only
+succeeded in diverting a few hundreds of thousands. You may suppose
+that there is no excuse for conduct of this kind; but the Royal Family
+could say, "Behold, the people do not want our gifts." The
+Montenegrins, for example, who were interned at Karlstein in Austria,
+where they were not overfed, sent a telegram on November 27, 1916, to
+ask at whose initiative the Red Cross parcels had been sent to them.
+This was (in German) the prepaid reply: "Montenegrin Committee,
+President, Professor Pugnet, supported by the Red Cross. (Signed) THE
+BAKERY." As Pugnet was Danilo's professor, all the interned, except
+six or seven, declined the parcels.[102] Among the half-dozen were
+some relatives of Nikita, and some who explained that "We take the
+traitor's bread, for otherwise we should die; and after all it is the
+Entente which sends it. How unfortunate for us that they regard Nikita
+as our King." After the Armistice Nikita and his adherents complained
+bitterly that the Podgorica Assembly which deposed him was convened
+before these internees had come back from Austria!
+
+Although the funds of the Montenegrin Red Cross were, as we have seen,
+not devoted to the needs of many of the Montenegrins, yet the Royal
+Family were very energetic in collecting cash. They caused a letter to
+be written to the French Red Cross, which had collected two millions
+for the Serbs, and in the letter they asked for a part of the two
+millions. A diplomatic answer was received. "You are only working," it
+said, "for Montenegro, whereas we are for all the Yugoslavs." This
+lack of success in financial matters was a new experience for the
+Royal House. When Russia sent the Montenegrin officers their pay
+during the War, an arrangement was made for it to come _via_ Serbia in
+Serbian dinars. The King of Montenegro kept the dinars and paid his
+officers in paper money. Later on he sold such enormous quantities of
+dinars on the Paris Bourse that the Serbian Minister, Mr. Vesni['c],
+had to protest. One remembers the haste with which Nikita left his
+country--both his people and his army he forgot, but not his gold. And
+for two years in France he struggled to get into his own hands this
+bullion which belonged to the State. Apparently he did at last receive
+it when he was at Pau in 1918. He was granted, for the expenses of his
+Court, a monthly allowance of 100,000 francs by Great Britain, the
+same by France, and 300,000 by Italy, which latter was not registered
+in the books. It would be interesting to know how much of this money
+was used for objects that Great Britain and France would never have
+countenanced. Virulent anti-Serbian newspapers were published in
+Switzerland--the _Srpski List_, the _Na[vs]a Borba_ and the _Nova
+Srbija_. The tone of these papers was so pleasing to the Austrians
+that they bought up large numbers and distributed them throughout the
+Southern Slav lands they were occupying. We are, therefore, not
+astonished that the British subsidy came to an end in the course of
+1917; to be resumed, however, in 1918 and finally stopped in June
+1919, much to the indignation of Nikita and his partisans, who pointed
+out that it had been decided in Paris in the beginning of the War that
+the little nations participating in it should be helped pecuniarily.
+France stopped her payment four months after England and said, in
+answer to a Montenegrin Note, that if Great Britain resumed payment
+they would follow her example. Pa[vs]i['c] asked that the subsidies
+should be discontinued, thus reducing "this little country to such a
+state of despair," said Mr. Ronald M'Neill in the House of Commons in
+November 1919, "and to strip it so naked before the world that it will
+be compelled, having no other course to take, to accept union with
+Serbia, as the only way out of hopeless misery and bankruptcy." It is
+possible that Mr. M'Neill is referring to some subsidy other than that
+given to Nikita, but I have my doubts. In the same speech he alluded
+to American Relief work in Montenegro, saying that 70 per cent. of it
+was consumed by Serbian troops and the rest sold to profiteers. He
+confused the American Red Cross, which maintained four hospitals and
+distributed vast quantities of clothing and food among the inhabitants
+of Montenegro, and those American supplies which the Yugoslav
+Government purchased, mainly for the troops. But Mr. M'Neill, M.P., is
+very angry with the Serbs for spreading, as he says, reports
+discreditable to the King of Montenegro--if he knew a little more I
+think that he would say a good deal less--and Nikita must have
+deprecated the remark that no facilities at all had been given by the
+Great Powers to enable him and his Ministers to return to Montenegro.
+If every Serbian soldier were to be withdrawn the country would, with
+a tremendous majority, have been adverse to the ex-King and his
+family. This was recognized by Danilo when his father suggested that
+he should go out in the autumn of 1918. On December 5 he replied from
+Cap Martin saying that the appendicitis from which he had suffered
+since the War prevented him even from going into the garden. Mr.
+M'Neill and a few similar enthusiasts are not weary of repeating that
+the Serbs and the Montenegrins are quite distinct peoples. This, no
+doubt, is Mr. M'Neill's opinion, and if he wishes to retain it he is
+welcome to do so. But I should like to refer his audiences in the
+House of Commons and elsewhere to the Patriarch Brki['c] of Pe['c],
+who wrote in the eighteenth century concerning some of the Turkish
+provinces. No one would pretend that Brki['c] was profoundly versed in
+philology or in ethnography, and I believe he studied the Slav
+languages not any more than does Mr. M'Neill. He was a Montenegrin
+whose education had been that of an ordinary pupil in a monastery. He
+spoke the Southern dialect, and in his eyes all those who had another
+accent were not veritable Serbs. Even in our time there are many
+Montenegrins whom it is quite difficult to convince that they are not
+the only true Serbs.
+
+
+THE BURDEN OF AUSTRIA'S SOUTHERN SLAV TROOPS
+
+Meanwhile Austria's Yugoslav soldiers and sailors had been continuing
+their patriotic work. On February 2, 1918, a telegram was sent to the
+Army High Command at Baden (near Vienna). [This message is No. 974. It
+concerns itself with the Austrian navy, in whose ranks Sarkoti['c]
+perceives agitation. The rest of the message consists chiefly of the
+drastic remedies which the writer would apply.]
+
+There follows a document, numbered 106,116, and dated May 5, 1918, in
+which the disaffection of Slovene troops is described. Not only have
+anti-dynastic ones been raised, but a N.C.O. has torn off his two
+Austrian decorations and has stamped on them, while troops have worn
+their national colours in their caps, though this is only authorized
+when they are marching to a battlefield.
+
+In a notice on the subject of Southern Slav and Italian propaganda in
+Dalmatia, the military command at Mostar denounces the Southern Slavs,
+officers and men:
+
+IMPERIAL AND ROYAL ARMY: HIGHER COMMAND.
+_Chief of the General Staff._
+
+Op. No. 109,942.
+
+BADEN, _August_ 5, 1918.
+
+[After discussing various manifestations of disloyalty, the writer
+says that he has observed how there is a kind of link between the Slav
+officers, educated at the Academy, and their men. He finds that
+Spalato is particularly given to these Southern Slav ideas, which he
+believes is to be accounted for from the fact that Dr. Trumbi['c],
+"the celebrated agitator," is mayor and deputy of that town.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+So much for the complaints with regard to Austria-Hungary's Southern
+Slav soldiers. Two military courts of justice sat at Zagreb through
+the War, the Imperial and Royal Court, and that of the Royal Hungarian
+No. 6 (Croatian-Slavonian) Honved Division. No statistics are to hand
+with reference to the various courts in Syrmia, and that one which
+earned such an evil reputation in the fortress of Peterwardein. The
+judgments of the two Zagreb courts, where Croat officers were able to
+make their influence felt, did not appear to the authorities of Vienna
+and Buda-Pest to be sufficiently drastic. No death sentences were
+pronounced, although these had been demanded; and on June 24, 1918, it
+was decided that any further trials for high treason or for offences
+against the military authorities should be held in Pressburg
+(Bratislava) and not in Zagreb. The following statistics, relating to
+the two Zagreb courts, were compiled from the official books which the
+Austrians did not remove. The figures shown opposite, which are
+certified by Captain Sto[vz]ir, Provost-Marshal, show the increasing
+determination to risk everything rather than to fight for Austria.
+
+
+___________________________________________________________________________
+|            |   IMPERIAL AND ROYAL COURT.  |     ROYAL HUNGARIAN AND     |
+|            |                              |        HONVED DIVISION.     |
+|------------|------------------------------------------------------------|
+|Year.       |1914|1915 |1916 | 1917 | 1918 |1914|1915 |1916 |1917 |1918  |
+|------------+----+-----+-----+------+------+----+-----+-----+-----+------|
+|Total Number|    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|of Persons  |442 |2,730|4,790|11,275|25,095|632 |3,000|3,470|6,101|13,425|
+|tried.      |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|------------+----+-----+-----+------+------+----+-----+-----+-----+------|
+|Charged with|    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|Military    |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|Offences:   |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|Desertion,  |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|Self-       |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|inflicted   |233 |1,688|2,737|7,782 |19,838|154 | 779 | 926 |3,248|8,039 |
+|Wounds,     |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|Insubordi-  |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|nation,     |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|Disregard of|    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|Calling-up  |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|Orders.     |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|------------+----+-----+-----+------+------+----+-----+-----+-----+------|
+|Offences    |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|against the |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|State: High |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|Treason,    |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|Espionage,  |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|Insults     | 52 | 66  | 336 | 397  | 559  |257 |1,471|1,223| 727 |1,007 |
+|against the |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|Emperor,    |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|Offences    |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|against     |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|Public      |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|Order.      |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|------------|----+-----+-----+------+------+----+-----+-----+-----+------|
+|Number of   |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|Persons     |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|Charged     |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|with        | 53 |  78 | 375 | 414  | 568  |730 |1,875|1,261| 839 |1,018 |
+|Offences    |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|under       |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|Rubric 4.   |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|------------|----+-----+-----+------+------+----+-----+-----+-----+------|
+|Number of   |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|those       |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|convicted   | 3  |  3  |  7  |  2   |  1   | 46 | 48  | 22  | 17  |  --  |
+|under       |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|Rubric 4.   |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|------------|----+-----+-----+------+------+----+-----+-----+-----+------+
+|Number of   |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|those who   |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|committed   |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|Offences    | 11 |  6  |  7  |  3   |  4   |116 | 179 | 89  | 89  |  --  |
+|under Rubric|    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|4 and were  |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|acquitted.  |    |     |     |      |      |    |     |     |     |      |
+|____________|____|_____|_____|______|______|____|_____|_____|_____|______|
+
+
+It may be of interest to give some details of one of the regiments
+whose composition was chiefly Slav. My informant, Dr. Ivo Yelavi['c],
+served as telephone officer on the staff of the 37th Dalmatian
+Regiment. At different times--at the fall of Gorica, in December 1916
+at Sanmarco, and in June 1917 at Tolmein, three battalions went over
+to the enemy; 170 officers (of whom 169 were reserve officers) gave
+themselves up during the War. Some of them were Serbs, most were
+Croats. With respect to the fall of Gorica, this was not--despite the
+clamour that they made about it--due to the Italians, but to two
+officers, Tolja and Salvi, who took over with them all the plans of
+the underground forts and maps made to the scale of one step to a
+millimetre. Among the accomplishments which the officers of this
+regiment taught their men was how to surrender to the foe. Efforts
+were made to bring about a different state of things: German and
+Magyar regiments were placed behind it, with machine guns; the
+regiment itself was filled up with Magyars. On some occasions the 37th
+desisted from going over in order not to bring persecution upon their
+homes. In 1914, opposite the Montenegrins at Gora[vz]da, all the plans
+were worked out, but at the last moment Dr. Count Gozze (of Dubrovnik)
+said he had just thought of what would happen to their families, and
+they refrained. After the battalion had gone over in 1916 General
+Seidler told them he would do his best to have the regiment dissolved
+and the men divided among other regiments, but that not all the
+officers would go. This was an ominous hint that he intended to
+decimate them, after the fashion of Field-Marshal Liposcak. A
+fortnight later, in the presence of Field-Marshal Boroevi['c], General
+Wurm and General Seidler, they were highly praised; and when they, in
+company with a Magyar regiment, took Hill No. 166, it was announced
+that this had been achieved by the "fame-covered regiment," which was
+done to throw dust in the eyes of the Italians and the Entente.
+Various other methods were used to escape service at the front. A Slav
+doctor, whose hospital at Konjica could hold 400 patients, used to
+have 4000-5000 on the books; those whom he was unable to keep he gave
+convalescent leave. In this way he saved a great many of the Dalmatian
+_intelligentsia_. He and another Dalmatian doctor would send the men
+backwards and forwards, now to one hospital, now to another. One
+ordinary method for avoiding the front was to bribe the company
+commander and the N.C.O. who made out the lists. Yet sometimes there
+was no help for it. When, for instance, in September 1914 they were at
+Banjaluka, the enemy advanced to Pale, very near Sarajevo. My
+informant has a vivid recollection of the way in which a Viennese
+captain, the leader of the contingent, trembled. In a Bosnian valley
+they met a woman with five small children, one of whom was at her
+breast. The captain told my acquaintance (who was then a N.C.O.) to
+stay behind with some men and shoot her, but not to let him hear
+anything. He said that the General at Sarajevo had commanded that
+everything Serb that goes on two legs must be cut down. Yelavi['c]
+refused to carry out this order, whereupon the captain told Dr.
+Gozze, whom he greatly disliked, that he must do it. Gozze stayed
+behind, fired a few shots in the air and informed the captain that
+everything was over.
+
+What the Austrian command really thought of the 37th Regiment, and of
+others, may be seen from a report dated December 2, 1916, and signed
+by the Archduke Frederick:
+
+"... Certain events that have occurred can be explained only as the
+consequences of the weak attitude of the authorities towards the
+traitorous propaganda. On July 21, five soldiers of the 23rd Regiment
+deserted near Pogger, and gave the Italian Command important
+information regarding movements of troops and the course of the
+fighting near Gorica. Quite recently a lieutenant, two reserve
+officers, two N.C.O.'s and two soldiers deserted from the 37th
+Regiment, as did three soldiers from the 23rd Regiment. Since April,
+244 desertions have taken place from the two regiments. Inquiry shows
+that these desertions occur regularly and immediately after the return
+of the soldiers from leave. Unless effective counter-measures are
+adopted it will be impossible to utilize these Dalmatian regiments."
+
+It was not always an easy operation to surrender, even after one had
+reached the Italian lines. A friend of mine went over with another
+officer and eight men. In the first-line trenches they could see no
+one and felt uncertain what to do. However, they proceeded, and from
+the second-line trench their whispered calls were answered. They were
+made to pass in single file, holding up their hands, and with all the
+available weapons held in readiness against them. My friend, at his
+request, was conducted to the colonel, and the first thing that he did
+was to make a formal complaint against the way in which this army, of
+which he considered himself an ally, manned its front-line trenches.
+
+The Yugoslavs who managed to escape to Russia volunteered for service
+and, after being organized by General Zivkovi['c] at Odessa, formed
+the two Divisions which, as is well known, did remarkable work in the
+Dobrudja. One only has to hear what the Bulgars say about them. In the
+battles round Constanza, during the campaign of 1916, one of these
+Divisions was so frequently engaged in the most arduous positions and
+had such enormous losses that it was regarded as having been wiped
+out. When the Roumanian troops retreated these Yugoslavs found
+themselves encircled by the Bulgarian and German armies; they hacked a
+way out with their bayonets. The higher officers had come from Serbia,
+the rest of them had previously been enrolled in Austria's army.
+Thirty-two officers out of 500 were killed, while 300 were wounded;
+and of the 42,000 men 1939 were killed and more than 8000 were
+wounded. Nevertheless the _morale_ remained excellent and there was no
+lack of new volunteers. "Verily," as the Serbian proverb says, "it
+does not snow to kill the beasts, but in order that they may leave
+their traces."
+
+
+THE FAITHFUL ITALIANS
+
+Now let us see what Austria's Italian subjects achieved in the War,
+basing ourselves less upon the post-war declarations of some Istrian,
+Trentino and Dalmatian Italians than upon the official Austrian
+reports that were sent about these gentlemen to the Government during
+the War. For example:
+
+IMPERIAL AND ROYAL ARMY: SUPREME COMMAND.
+
+Pr. z. 3903.
+
+_Dalmatia: Treatment of the Croatian
+    and Italian Factors._
+
+TO THE IMPERIAL AND ROYAL MINISTER OF
+    THE INTERIOR, VIENNA.
+
+KNIN, _June_ 25, 1915.
+
+_I permit myself to notify:_
+
+[Herein the Statthalter, Graf Attems, praises his Government for not
+having favoured one party more than another at Zadar. He proceeds to
+testify to the admirable conduct of Dr. Ziliotto, the well-known mayor
+(who subsequently toiled with such zeal for Italy). He says that under
+this gentleman Zadar was a very model of a place, never allowing an
+occasion to pass by when it was possible to show that, in grief and in
+gladness, the sentiments of the glorious House of Habsburg were its
+own. Thus on the "all-highest" birthday of the Emperor did the doctor
+and his townsfolk revel in loyalty, while at the outbreak of the Great
+War they accompanied the departing troops to the quay and provided
+patriotic music and refreshments. _This worthy conduct was not in the
+least modified_, says the Statthalter, _when Italy entered the War_.]
+
+Further on in this book there are similar good-conduct testimonials
+from Split, where the chief Italian used to wander down with an
+Austrian official to the harbour and there witness the embarkation, in
+chains, of the Yugoslav _intelligentsia_ who were being taken as
+hostages. Hundreds and hundreds of Yugoslavs were shot, hanged,
+imprisoned; we know the numbers (not difficult to count) of the
+Italians in Dalmatia who suffered in any way. We know the equally
+minute numbers who escaped to Italy and enrolled themselves in the
+Italian army. As for the population of the Italian irredentist
+provinces, one may read in the _Secolo_ of August 11, 1916 how it
+became generally known that "with the exception of Cervignano and
+Monfalcone, our soldiers have been received, on the other side of the
+old frontier, with demonstrations quite the reverse of enthusiastic on
+the part of the agrarian population. The surprise and disillusion of
+our troops were very great, for they expected from our unredeemed
+brothers, who all speak our language, a joyous reception." This
+frigidity may, however, have been due to the influence of Austrian
+priests and gendarmes. What are we to say, though, when we come to the
+more enlightened classes? The Italians in Austria were represented by
+twelve deputies who were devoted to the Austrian Government and
+hostile to Italy, and by six national-liberals and one socialist who
+were animated with pro-Italian sentiments. In electing such deputies,
+however, the peasants may not have simply allowed the priests and the
+gendarmes to command them; it is also possible that they were moved by
+the fear that the Trentino would economically be ruined if it were to
+become Italian and had to compete with the agricultural products of
+the Kingdom. As a matter of fact it was the Trentino _intelligentsia_
+which looked forward to annexation, and not, as a class, the peasants.
+And, during the War, Italian deputies of various parties overflowed
+with loyal Austrian sentiments; unlike the Yugoslav deputies, who
+refused in a body to vote the budget and the war credits, the Italian
+deputies never even ventured on a national pronouncement. Pittoni,
+chief of the Italian socialists at Triest, Faidutti (who was born in
+Italy) and Bugatto, the chiefs of the Italian Catholic party of
+Gradi[vs]ca, uttered not a few words of hate against the Madre Patria.
+The Italians praise always, and with excellent reason, their three
+heroes: Battisti, Rismondo and Sauro. But the Yugoslavs, in the course
+of the late War, lost in the unredeemed provinces so many hundreds of
+thousands who were hanged in Bosnia, who were dragged away--centenarians
+and infants--to the prison camps, were spat upon and stoned and
+treated in the most barbaric fashion, that they look upon those
+Yugoslavs who, like Battisti, fled from Austria and afterwards were
+slain by Austrians, as rather to be envied, since at any rate they
+struck a blow. But anyhow the names of all these volunteers could not
+be celebrated, on account of their great number. "There is nothing in
+fact," wired Mr. Beaumont on December 31, 1919, from Milan for the
+blameless readers of the _Daily Telegraph_, "there is nothing that
+creates such terrible exasperation in Italy as the persistent
+repetition of this patent falsehood that the Yugoslavs--meaning
+thereby the Croats--fought for the common cause."
+
+Poor Battisti--when his regiment was captured he feigned to be dead.
+His men, however, told the Austrians that it was he, and this they did
+because they said that he and his Irredentist party were to blame for
+the War. These facts are now fairly well known, thanks to the Czech
+doctor who was on the spot and tried to save him by assuring the
+Austrians that it was not Battisti. The soldiers insisted, and in the
+end the Austrians executed him.
+
+
+SOUTHERN SLAVS IN THE AUSTRIAN NAVY
+
+The several transactions or attempted transactions which took place at
+various periods of the War between the Yugoslav members of the
+Austro-Hungarian navy, associated with other Yugoslavs, on the one
+hand and the Italian authorities on the other, were frustrated time
+and again by the astounding conduct of the Italians. Had they made
+anything like a proper use of the invaluable information that was
+showered upon them or if they had requested the other Allied navies in
+the Mediterranean to act on their behalf many Allied ships in the
+Mediterranean would not have been torpedoed--since the submarine
+activity centred at Kotor, one of the stations which could have been
+seized--the Austrian front in Albania must have collapsed and the
+entire war would have ended sooner.
+
+In October 1917 the Austrian torpedo boat No. 11 was seized by the
+Slav members of her crew and brought into Ancona, but their offers of
+service were refused. The ringleaders showed, by refusing to accept
+large sums of money, that their purpose was purely patriotic. The
+Italians, however, simply interned them.
+
+A much more serious affair was that of February 1, 1918, on which day
+it had been arranged that the Slav sailors at Pola and Kotor should
+mutiny. At the former place it did not succeed, at Kotor it was so far
+successful that the mutineers, after imprisoning Admiral Njegovan and
+many other officers whom they suspected of not being in sympathy with
+them, took command of the ships and left unanswered an ultimatum
+addressed to them by the High Naval Command. There was a prospect of
+the whole fleet shaking off the Austro-Hungarian authority. The chief
+revolutionary leader was Ante Sesan, a Croat ensign, twenty-six years
+of age, from near Dubrovnik and the son of a well-known sea captain on
+the coast. "We drew up," he says, "a proclamation representing our
+case to the Yugoslavs, Czechs and Poles from the national point of
+view, and to the Germans and Magyars from the socialist point of view.
+The Germans threw in their lot with us, but the Magyars went against
+us. From our ship we continually sent wireless messages asking for
+help from the Entente fleet, and at first from Italy which was nearest
+and could help most quickly. The messages were continually jammed by
+sailors at the Ercegnovo station loyal to Austria-Hungary, but
+nevertheless it was known in Italy that something was happening at
+Kotor. We told the High Command at Bok Kotor (Bocche di Cattaro) that
+we no longer recognized their authority and asked that we might get
+into touch with our deputies, whom alone we recognized. The High
+Command consented. We wired for the following deputies to come to us:
+Tre[vs]i['c] (Yugoslav), Stanjek (Czech), Karolyi (Magyar), Adler
+(German) and one Polish deputy, but our wires did not, for the most
+part, get through. Our object was to get help, but meanwhile our
+situation became more and more desperate. We knew that the Third
+Division was coming from Pola against us, and also the army in
+Herzegovina. We were prepared to take the battery of the Punta
+d'Ostro, the most important battery and the key to Bok Kotor, which
+was in the hands of sailors inimical to us. The news came from Gaa
+that the Magyars there had got the upper hand. We tried to bring them
+over to us, but in vain. They said, 'If you don't stop this, we shall
+join the Third Division and take action against you.' The Magyars from
+other boats sent the same message. The Council of Sailors then debated
+what was to be done, and it was suggested that Rasha (who was shot
+later) should go in a hydroplane to Italy to give information on the
+situation and ask for help, and that we in the meantime should lie
+low, and in the event of help coming, again raise a revolt. Rasha
+objected that he did not know Italian, and proposed that I should go.
+The Third Division meanwhile was already in the port Bok Kotor.
+
+"At half-past eight in the morning we flew away in the hydroplane to
+Italy, I and two Poles. At ten we reached Mattinato, and I explained
+at the Carabineers' station why I had come and asked to be brought as
+soon as possible before the Commander of the District. Later I saw
+Captain Odo (of the Territorials) and told him all, and asked him to
+put me into communication with Brindisi, Taranto or Rome. He had us
+put under arrest. I was interviewed by two flying officers two days
+later, but they went off to Brindisi in my hydroplane without me.
+
+"On February 17 I was taken under armed escort to Brindisi, where I
+was imprisoned in a cabin of the man-of-war _Varese_.... I told the
+commander of the ship that I was at his disposal with all my knowledge
+of the Austrian fleet. I asked him to put questions, because I did
+not know how much he knew. It was all to no purpose. On February 21
+the Admiral in command at Brindisi saw me. From what he said I
+understood that nothing had been done about Bok Kotor and, what was
+more, that not one hydroplane had been sent to investigate the
+situation there. I learned that I was to go to Rome. They clapped me
+into barracks.... I again asked the Italians to allow me to speak to
+the Serbian Minister, whom I considered the representative of the
+Yugoslav people, but the request was refused on the plea that it was a
+question of high politics. Meanwhile the Polish representative
+Zamorski was allowed to visit the Poles, but from February 3 to May 25
+I was unable to get into communication with any of our people."
+
+In May there was another outbreak at Kotor, but it was overpowered,
+and many Yugoslav sailors were shot or imprisoned. Sesan was also kept
+in his Italian prison, though occasionally he was brought out,
+questioned and then taken back again. Thus at Ferrara he informed
+Captain Ciano about the whole organization of the Austrian offensive
+and defensive forces, and especially about Pola and Split. Sesan
+begged to be allowed to take part in the action against the Austrian
+fleet, and, at Rome, where he came before Captain Soldati, of the
+Bureau of Information, he made the same request. With two motor
+launches he undertook to organize communication between Italy and the
+Slavs of Dalmatia, in this way to follow events in Austria and help
+the revolutionary movement. It would be possible to procure the secret
+wireless codes which the Austrian and German submarines used--but the
+Italians would do nothing, because they were not willing to recognize
+that the Yugoslavs were fighting against Austria.... Seeing that he
+would never move the Italians to take serious action against the
+Austrian fleet, Sesan asked to be sent to the Serbian army in
+Macedonia, so that at Salonica he could get into touch with the French
+and British fleet. In this also he failed, for he was interned from
+June till December with Yugoslav officers at Nocera Umbra. While there
+he was visited by Bissolati, from whom he learned that the Chief of
+the Admiralty was hostile to the Yugoslavs. And at Nocera Umbra he
+remained until December 6, when he was liberated, owing to the
+efforts of Trumbi['c] and other members of the Yugoslav Committee.
+
+In the month of September a memorandum was drawn up by Trumbi['c], in
+which he proposed to English and American political and military
+circles the landing at [vS]ibenik of a force of 50,000 men. This would
+have been assisted by the mutinous crews of the Austro-Hungarian
+Fleet, whose preparations had been completed in July (at this port 90
+per cent. of the sailors of the fleet were Yugoslavs, and among them
+there was a strong national feeling; in fact, if their political
+leaders had not held them back, they would have endeavoured in July to
+blow up the naval fortifications and sail with the ships to Corfu).
+The expeditionary army, once at [vS]ibenik, could have penetrated
+inland and, acting in consort with the many Yugoslav deserters and the
+insurgent population of Dalmatia and Bosnia, have accelerated the
+Austrian _debacle_. In this memorandum Trumbi['c] asked that the
+combined Anglo-American-French fleet should support the action, but
+that the Italians, whom the Yugoslavs distrusted, should take no part.
+He sneered at the cowardice of the Italians who, with a huge army, did
+not dare to start an offensive on a grand scale.
+
+[In well-informed circles in Italy this memorandum was already known,
+but when it was read in the Italian Chamber in the spring of 1919 it
+made a considerable sensation.]
+
+On October 3, Messrs. Frederick [vS]tepanek, Rudolph Giunio, Valentine
+Zi['c] (of [vS]ibenik) and other authorized Czecho-Slovak and Yugoslav
+emissaries went in a sailing-boat from Vis to Italy, with a view to
+getting into connection with Dr. Bene[vs] (afterwards the
+Czecho-Slovak Foreign Minister) and Dr. Trumbi['c], to inform them as
+to the situation in the Monarchy and to obtain instructions regarding
+the moment of the revolution in which their soldiers and sailors were
+to participate. On arrival in Rome on October 7, the delegates were
+interrogated by Major Trojani of the Bureau of Information and on the
+same day for three hours by the Inspector-General of Public Safety.
+From then till October 20, they were interned in the Macoa barracks at
+the Castro Pretoris, and although they made repeated attempts to see
+a member of the Yugoslav Committee or Dr. Bene[vs], who was in Rome,
+they were told that this "delicate" question could only be solved by
+the Premier himself; and when brought before him Dr. Bene[vs] had
+departed. The delegates had entreated that he and Trumbi['c] should be
+informed of their arrival, but in spite of various assurances nothing
+whatever was done. It is suggested that the fleet would have been in
+Slav hands two or three weeks earlier, which would very probably have
+precipitated events on the Western front, if the Italians had not
+acted in this inexcusable fashion.
+
+
+ADVANCE OF THE ALLIES IN MACEDONIA
+
+The collapse of Austria-Hungary was being hastened by the fine work of
+the Allies' Macedonian army. France and Great Britain had provided for
+the re-equipment of the Serbs. And of the variegated forces that were
+based on Salonica none did more magnificently than this resurrected
+army. A weather-beaten sergeant of the French Infanterie Coloniale
+told me that he had never seen an exploit such as that of
+Kaimat[vc]alan, where the Serbs set themselves the task of climbing to
+the summit, which towers 8000 feet high, and from there dislodging the
+Bulgarian artillery. Over and over again the Serbs were thrown back,
+and with terrific losses, for the mountain-side was strewn with rocks
+not large enough to shelter more than a man or two. But as the
+Infanterie Coloniale is habitually chosen for the roughest work, so
+the Serbs asked for nothing better than to climb the wall that shut
+them out from their own country. The labyrinth of trenches on the
+mountain-top was taken and retaken many times, until the
+Bulgars--inadequately supported by their Allies--had to retreat; and
+this, after further ferocious fighting, enabled the Serbs and the
+French to liberate Monastir. The complicated story of Greek
+manoeuvres need not detain us, nor need we ask whether Mr. Leland
+Buxton[103] is justified in saying that the majority of that people
+were pro-German, "but were subsequently compelled by the Allied
+blockade ... to declare themselves supporters of Venizelos, on whose
+behalf, indeed, the British Admiralty and War Office had to carry on a
+sort of election campaign (by Eastern European methods) until the
+numerous waverers wisely decided that it was better to be a well-fed
+Venizelist than a hungry Royalist." Sufficient that after months of
+delaying, in the course of which the Russian troops had to be turned
+into labour battalions, Marshal Mi[vs]i['c]--whose plan of campaign
+had fortunately been adopted--had the satisfaction of seeing his own
+countrymen and their Allies racing up at last through Macedonia and
+Serbia to the Danube and beyond it.... What did they find? Bridges
+hastily blown up, tunnels rendered impassable by two locomotives laden
+with dynamite being made to collide in the middle of them--but the
+Serbs went rushing on. The supply columns could not keep pace with the
+troops--during the first eight days of the offensive the men of the
+2nd Army received but two days' rations--they continued their advance
+across the Vardar, though but little bread and practically no other
+food was obtainable. In three days they had covered sixty miles. There
+was only time for them to greet the women and old men--and even if
+they had then been told of the 130,000 horses, the 6,000,000 sheep and
+goats, the 2,000,000 pigs, 1,300,000 cattle and over 8,000,000 poultry
+which the enemy had taken; if they had learned that the losses
+sustained by Serbia--exclusive of her own expenses and of the war
+loans from her Allies--amounted to some 10,000,000,000 frs. on a
+pre-war valuation, what did all this matter in that joyous time?
+
+
+HOW THE MAGYARS TREATED THEIR SERBIAN SUBJECTS
+
+At the beginning of the War the dominant Magyars of the Banat had as
+little uncertainty about the result as Count Julius Andrassy professed
+to have at a later period. "Victory must come to our troops," he said,
+"because they are better organized and more efficient, and because
+they are, above all, filled with unexampled enthusiasm, which makes
+heroes of them all." The enthusiasm which, for instance, caused the
+mob at Velika Kikinda to shout "Eljen a haboru!" ["Long live the
+War!"] while they fired revolvers in at the windows of an
+unilluminated house because it was the house of a Serb, a son-in-law
+of the well-known banker, Marko Bogdan, without stopping to ascertain
+that he was at the front fighting against Serbia, might be dismissed
+as a folly on the part of the crowd if it were not so characteristic
+of the whole Magyar administration. The "subject nationalities" were
+to be enrolled in the Magyar host and treated, at the same time, with
+contumely. At Ver[vs]ac Dr. Slavko Mileti['c],[104] son of the famous
+patriot, was suspected not only of cherishing Serbian sympathies,
+which was natural, but of committing a felony. The authorities
+believed that in his medical capacity he was exempting people from
+their military service, and not for the advantage of the Serbian cause
+so much as for that of his own pocket. Several detectives were
+therefore put to bed in one or two of the wards of the military
+hospital; and the upshot of it was that three other doctors--all of
+them Magyars--who had given way to these practices, committed suicide;
+the chief of the hospital poisoned himself, one of the staff shot
+himself, and the third culprit hanged himself in prison. Dr.
+Mileti['c] had previously been kept for three and a half months under
+the shadow of a conviction for high treason: one Bonchocat, a
+Roumanian who did not understand the Serbian language, asserted that
+the doctor, at a meeting held two weeks before the Archduke's
+assassination, must have known that war was brewing, since--so said
+Bonchocat--he had not confined himself to Serbian ecclesiastical
+affairs, which was the object of the meeting, but had uttered the
+remark that if the Austrians had bayonets the Serbs had axes. Although
+Bonchocat was a man condemned to nine years' penal servitude for
+murder, and although the doctor only called on his own behalf two
+witnesses who were not Serbs, but the head of the frontier police and
+the head of the town police, he was nevertheless kept in suspense for
+three and a half months. Afterwards, owing to the lack of Magyar
+doctors, he was begged to be the State doctor for the town. Similarly
+the Orthodox priest, Radulovi['c], of Pan[vc]evo, was transported to
+Arad and interned there for no other reason than his nationality,
+whereas his son, a first lieutenant of the Hungarian Honved, was
+expected to be very loyal. When certain rumours came to the son's
+ears--he was then serving on the Russian front--he inquired, and was
+told that his father had merely been warned. Presently he learned the
+truth, and in consequence deserted to the Russians and became a member
+of the Yugoslav brigade. Thus it will be seen that the Magyar unwisdom
+was on a par with that which they had shown in days of peace.
+Unfortunately for their State the Magyar politicians were less honest
+than the Magyar peasants, so that the de-nationalizing process met
+with pretty firm resistance. What can be said for the honesty of a
+legal decision which laid it down that as two Serbian philanthropists,
+Barajevac and Sandulovi['c], at Pan[vc]evo had not specially mentioned
+that the funds they had bequeathed for a school were to be for a
+Serbian school--(this the benefactors had assumed as a matter of
+course)--they must be used for a Magyar establishment? Save for the
+officials there were practically no Magyars in Pan[vc]evo. And when
+the War began the remainder of the fund was invested by the Magyars in
+their War Loan! It is curious, by the way, to see what methods were
+employed to make the Loan successful. Fathers were frequently told
+that if their subscription was adequate their sons at the front would
+duly be granted leave. The Slovak village of Kova[vc]ica in the Banat
+was compelled to put three million crowns into War Loan, the Magyar
+notary making a list of the amounts which every person had to pay
+under penalty of being sent to the front; if he was too old for this
+he was threatened with internment. Kova[vc]ica, a few years before the
+War, had shown the Magyar fitness for governing an alien people. The
+population consisted of 5200 Lutheran Slovaks and 200 miscellaneous
+persons--Jews, Magyars and Germans. Nevertheless it was ordered that
+the church services must be in the Magyar and not in the Slovak
+language. When the parishioners objected, the police, with sticks and
+guns, expelled them from the large, lofty church, and 83 of them were
+sentenced to various periods of imprisonment. Serbian barristers
+defended them gratuitously, but the judge had himself taken an active
+part in turning the people out of the church; and presently the
+barristers were told that they had themselves been convicted--Dr.
+Du[vs]an Bo[vs]covi['c] for one year, on the ground that he had had
+the napkins at a banquet decorated with the Serbian colours; Dr.
+Branislav Stanojevi['c] for three years, because his visits to
+Belgrade, where his parents and his brother were living, stamped him,
+said the Magyar judge, as a traitor. The total number of Magyars at
+Kova[vc]ica was ten, and for a time they came to hear their language,
+which had thus been compulsorily introduced. Handbills were sent round
+to summon the Magyars from neighbouring villages, but gradually this
+congregation grew smaller and smaller. When two Magyars attended, then
+the pastor gave them a sermon; if only one was present he confined
+himself to prayers. The Magyars had seen to it, by the way, that there
+should not be much sympathy between the pastor and his bishop: of this
+diocese about three-quarters were Slovaks and one-quarter Germans and
+Magyars; but the Government vetoed the choice of Dr. Czalva, who was
+disqualified for being friendly to the Slovaks--his father and
+grandfather had both been bishops of that same diocese--and a certain
+Dr. Raffay was appointed, who spoke nothing but Magyar and some words
+of German.... However, by taking in this way a few examples of Magyar
+methods, one may be accused of having chosen merely those which
+illustrate one's theme. It would be hazardous to draw conclusions as
+to Magyar officers in general because a certain Lieutenant Chaby, who,
+during the War, found himself quartered on a Serbian family of the
+name of Stejvovi['c] at Priboj in the Sandjak, behaved differently
+from his predecessor, an Austrian colonel. This Austrian had been well
+satisfied, but the lieutenant's first night was so disturbed that he
+fined his hosts sixty crowns for giving him a bug-ridden bed.
+Nevertheless, if large numbers of Austrian colonels and Magyar
+lieutenants had acted in a similar fashion we should be justified in
+deducing that several characteristics, be they good or bad, are
+possessed by the average Magyar subaltern. And the catalogue of Magyar
+limitations in the Banat, both prior to and during the War, is so
+voluminous that one would have thought them to be not worth
+discussing; if one restricts oneself to a few it is in order to avoid
+being tedious, and if they are ineffective among the resolute
+pro-Magyars of this country, then one must resign oneself to leaving
+these gentlemen unconvinced. They will argue that stupidity is
+universal, and that the Magyar authorities should not be called in
+question for their treatment of the priest of Crvna Crkva, a village
+with 1108 inhabitants--1048 Serbs, 34 Slovaks, 17 Germans and 9
+Magyars. This intelligent man--he is a noted player of a complicated
+card game--was indicted for high treason, because on hearing that the
+Emperor William was alleged to have undertaken to slaughter every
+Serb, the priest remarked that the Emperor should have added, "if God
+wills it." But near the village of Zlatica there was, at the beginning
+of the War, one Adam Rada, who was charged with making signals to the
+Serbs across the Danube by means of lights, and this although the
+situation of Rada's mill made such a thing impossible. Before being
+executed he was led ceremoniously through the village, his coffin
+being carried in the procession. This coffin was so small that Rada's
+feet had to be cut off. The grave was guarded by a soldier, who kept
+the family away from it; Rada's servant was in the hands of the
+police--after having been thrashed in order to compel him to give
+hostile evidence, he was convicted to six years' imprisonment. But the
+lack of evidence does not appear to have weighed very strongly with
+the Magyar judges. "It is quite true," said one of them in 1915 in the
+town of Bela Crkva, during the trial of a young priest, Voyn
+Voynovi['c], "that there are witnesses who say he did not utter
+certain words in 1913, and no witnesses who say that he did; but I am
+convinced that he uttered them." The ferocity of the punishments may
+be seen from the example of Alexa Petkovi['c] of Pan[vc]evo, the
+father of nine, who was condemned to hard labour for nine years
+because his twelve-year-old son, during the War, is alleged to have
+said to him: "Father, don't accept German money; it won't have any
+value." At the same place, in 1914, the Serbian peasants were brought
+in from the village of Bort[vs]a; there was no proof that they were
+traitors, but they had been denounced and they were sentenced to be
+shot. With a military escort they were promenaded through the town,
+each one of them having to hold a Hungarian flag. At the scene of
+execution the Hungarian elite, together with their wives and
+daughters, were assembled. And after the bodies had been thrown on to
+a cart they were flogged, for some unknown reason, by one Blajek, a
+detective, while the audience cried "Eljen!" ["Hurrah!"]. But the War
+brought to an end the bad old days of a tyrannous minority. It will be
+shown, in a year or two, when a proper census is taken, that the
+Magyars were always much more in a minority than they ever admitted.
+Instead of nine millions out of the eighteen millions--which was the
+pre-war population of Hungary--it will be found that the Magyars
+themselves numbered barely six millions, though in their efforts to
+obtain recruits they charged only one crown and afterwards nothing at
+all for a naturalization paper. The day has gone by when a father
+could be interned for being a Serb, while his son, an assistant
+notary, was reckoned a Magyar--only Magyars being eligible for that
+office. The day has gone when the Buda-Pest Government could order its
+officials while taking a census to swell the Magyars' numbers as much
+as possible: the officials at Subotica confessed on oath, after the
+War, that they had received orders to this effect. One of their
+practices was to put down as "uncertain" those Serbian children who
+were too young to speak. Even those who were most willing to be
+absorbed into magyardom were often indigested: one finds in the
+statistics cases of converted Jews who, being asked to state their
+religion and nationality, replied to the former question "Catholic"
+and to the latter "Jew."
+
+
+THE SOUTHERN SLAVS PAY PART OF THEIR DEBT TO THE HABSBURG MONARCHY
+
+If the practices of Buda-Pest had been less flagrant one would write
+of Hungary's decomposition with a certain sympathy. It is conceivable
+that in the British Empire there are anti-British elements whose aims
+would commonly be classed by the authorities as "mad ambitions," which
+is what Count Apponyi called the separatist tendencies of the Southern
+Slavs in Austria-Hungary. But--may the platitude be pardoned!--there
+is all the difference between the spirit in which the alien rule of
+the one government was, and of the other is, administered. No doubt
+there are portions of the British Empire in which a plebiscite would
+have the same disintegrating result as it would have had in most of
+the regions that have been lopped from Hungary. We, with our Allies,
+declined to permit a plebiscite in Hungary's late territories, since
+we believed that the population had overwhelmingly displayed its
+wishes at the end of the War; and an Englishman may hope to escape the
+charge of hypocrisy if he does not permit the withholding of a
+plebiscite from certain of his fellow-subjects to prevent him from
+alluding with satisfaction to those who have been liberated from the
+sway of Buda-Pest.
+
+
+(a) IN SYRMIA
+
+Everywhere the dawn was breaking for the Habsburg's Southern Slavs. At
+Vukovar in Syrmia--to take an example--there was formed, as elsewhere,
+a National Council. Under Baron Joseph Rajacsich, a grandson of the
+Patriarch and--to all appearances--a brother of Falstaff, the Council
+maintained order until the coming of the Serbian army. An Austrian
+naval captain with a floating arsenal, four steamers and twenty-two
+drifters, was held up, as he proposed to sail towards Buda-Pest, by
+being told of a battery at Dalja, higher up the Danube. However, the
+Vukovar townsfolk, in view of a possible explosion, begged that the
+prisoner, who had wept at being stopped, should be sent on his way.
+The German harbour-master, a lieutenant, assured the Baron that he
+would assist him if he were allowed to keep his liberty. But he was
+tempted, in the middle of a night, to assist two German captains who
+were trying to get through, each with a string of drifters. Rajacsich,
+whose armed force consisted of forty Serbian ex-prisoners and fifty of
+his own workmen--he armed them with what he found on the drifters--had
+no means of stopping the German boats. But after telephoning in vain
+to the ex-harbour-master, he fired a shot into one of the boats, which
+fortunately found the kitchen, and made such a terrible noise among
+the pots and pans that the Germans considered it more prudent to
+remain. The Baron succeeded in sending back to Belgrade altogether 39
+steamers and 217 loaded drifters, which contained booty, even from the
+Ukraine, that was valued at about a milliard crowns; ... but the
+Austro-Hungarians managed to get away with a considerable amount of
+plunder. The people of Buda-Pest were surprised, on the morning of
+November 5, to find the _Sophie_, one of the most luxurious passenger
+steamers on the Danube, lying at their quay, with her decks groaning
+under such a pile of packing-cases and parcels and furniture and all
+kinds of objects heaped upon each other as almost to make the boat
+unrecognizable. A lieutenant with a dozen soldiers was sent to
+investigate, and the captain showed him an order from the Minister of
+War, commanding that the _Sophie_ should take on board the Military
+Government in Serbia and transport it to Vienna. But the Buda-Pest
+authorities insisted on removing all the articles whose ownership the
+passengers were unable to prove; and it took a whole day to unload the
+enormous quantities of flour, leather, clothing, poultry, sugar, fats,
+etc. General Rhemen, the former military governor of Serbia, related
+that on October 5 he received the order to begin the military
+evacuation of Serbia. This was carried on day by day, and on October
+28 it was completed. "We sent by the railway and by boats," said
+Colonel Kerchnaive to the Hungarian journalists, "4000 carloads of
+wheat, 10,000 fat oxen, 10,000 transport oxen, 10,000 pigs, 4000
+sheep, 15 carloads of wine, 400 carloads of jam, enormous quantities
+of wood, of telephone material, of arms, munitions and 16 million
+crowns in silver." Such was the "military evacuation" of Serbia....
+And at the beginning of the same month, when the whole Austro-Hungarian
+monarchy was in a state of collapse, Baron Hussarek stood up in the
+Reichsrath and said that "the task will arise for the Government
+carefully to prepare and inaugurate the difficult but hopeful work of
+reconstructing the monarchy on the basis of national autonomy." The
+imperturbable Prime Minister announced that "we shall have to go to
+work and set our house in order." But you will say that the Baron was
+a futile Mrs. Partington, an isolated antagonist of the inevitable,
+and only mentioned here for the sake of dramatic effect. Not at all!
+So far from being laughed at everywhere as an absurd reactionary he
+was held in the highest Buda-Pest circles to be a perilous innovator.
+He actually spoke about conciliating the Austro-Hungarian Slavs: not
+so Count Tisza. "What is happening in Austria," exclaimed the grim
+Calvinist a few months before, "are strange, grotesque displays of the
+ridiculous symptoms of the presumptuous mentality of people of no
+importance."
+
+
+(b) IN SLOVENIA
+
+One further example of Southern Slav activity may be given, as it will
+show us what was happening among the pious and industrious Slovenes.
+It would have been unnatural if the Clerical party had longed for
+Austria's downfall, and a large number of priests would still have
+been Austrophil[105] if Dr. Jegli['c], the eminent Prince-Bishop of
+Ljubljana, had not summoned all the political parties and caused them
+to adopt a patriotic Yugoslav attitude. (His retirement was in
+consequence demanded; but the Pope, who asked him for an explanation
+of the whole movement, was quite satisfied. Nor would Vienna have been
+able to take any serious steps against the Bishop, seeing that most of
+the Slovenes were behind him.) But the small Slovene people could,
+until November 1, 1918, offer nothing more than a passive resistance
+to their masters. They did not dare to speak Slovene in public. "What
+is the easiest language in the world?" was being asked in Maribor on
+the 1st of November. It was the language which so many people had
+apparently learned in a single night. The people were Slovenes, the
+officials were Austrian--though one or two of the officials were
+Slovenes and a minority of the people claimed to be Austrians, this
+being more marked in the town of Maribor (where the German-Austrians
+were as many as 35 per cent.) than in the surrounding district (where
+95 per cent. are Yugoslav). Dr. Jegli['c] had prepared the forces that
+were going to break their bonds on that fateful day. At 7 a.m. Dr.
+Sre[vc]ko Lajn[vs]i['c]--one of the rare Slovene officials--he had
+been denounced by two of his colleagues and imprisoned at the
+beginning of the War, for having, as they said, "laughed maliciously"
+at Great Britain resolving to fight--Dr. Lajn[vs]i['c] and his friend
+General Maister took over the administration in the name of the
+Yugoslav State. General Maister had been till then a Major,
+employed--as he was a political suspect--on depot work. And when the
+eight or nine Austrian colonels appeared on November 1 before
+Lajn[vs]i['c], the genial official, and Maister, they were informed by
+the latter that he was a General--he looks like a swarthy Viking--and
+they were asked to surrender their swords. As they did not know how
+many men the General had behind him--as a matter of fact he had
+nine--they acted on his suggestion; one of them wept as he did so. At
+11 a.m. Lajn[vs]i['c] deposed all the chief civil officials in that
+part of Styria, and the General persuaded the 47th Regiment to leave
+by train. They were influenced by a notice in the papers which said
+that 100,000 Frenchmen (invented by the General and Lajn[vs]i['c]) had
+just arrived at Ljubljana. After this the two companions carried on at
+Maribor; very little was known of them for a month at Ljubljana,
+Zagreb or Belgrade. But then they were confirmed in the posts they had
+assumed and Maister became a regular General. They were not
+intolerant; they expelled less than ten people, although so many of
+the German-Austrians had come, under the auspices of the Suedmark
+Verein (a colonization society) or the Deutsche Schulverein (an
+educational body), to propagate Germanism. One of these colonists, a
+doctor, who had lived a dozen years in Maribor, could only say "Good
+morning" in Slovene; and German women in the market-place (themselves
+unable to speak proper German) used to insist on the Slovene peasants
+speaking a language of which they knew scarcely a word. Lajn[vs]i['c]
+and Maister took no steps against the Bishop of Maribor who, three
+months after the Austrian collapse, celebrated a Mass in honour of the
+ex-Emperor. This Bishop, the son of Slovene peasants, had been
+educated near Vienna, had been a confessor of the House of Habsburg,
+and he found it difficult to regard himself as a Slovene. Gradually
+the voice of his own people spoke in him and then, after very long and
+honourable mental conflict, he developed into an excellent Yugoslav.
+He and Maister are, both of them, poets. Most of the General's
+pieces--which are all in Slovene--treat of love and nature. But he
+wrote at least one set of other verses, which the Austrians suppressed
+during the War. This is the nearest translation I can make of them:
+
+    Have pity, Christ, on Thy poor folk,
+      For now the fields are desolate
+      And misery and famine wait
+    On all, the chimneys give no smoke--
+    Our men have marched away from us.
+
+    Soon will the village bells have gone
+      From their dark places up on high,
+      And we who watch will never tie
+    Gay blossoms round them, and upon
+    Their path no laughter will resound.
+
+    Beloved bells, when thunder rolled
+      And lightning threatened us you swayed,
+      Our music-censers, and you prayed
+    That God Almighty would behold
+    The danger and be merciful.
+
+    O bells that sang of love and joy,
+      A foul destruction you will spread.
+      Once you moaned sweetly for the dead
+    And now 'tis you that will destroy,
+    And on their course the bullets moan.
+
+    But once again, O bells, we pray,
+      Let the tremendous music roll.
+      Sing us the secrets of your soul,
+    And then your last song of dismay
+    And wrath and sacrilegious death.
+
+
+
+    FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [Footnote 80: Cf. "Le Progres politique et economique sous le
+    Regne de Pierre I.," by A. Mousset, in _Yugoslavia_, December
+    15, 1921.]
+
+    [Footnote 81: In all, 7130 boys and girls were removed from
+    Bosnia-Herzegovina. And a year or two after the end of the
+    war a good many of them were still with their foster-parents
+    in other parts of Yugoslavia. They preferred to remain there,
+    because of the lack of food in their own homes; the parents
+    of many--especially in Herzegovina--had been hanged, and
+    others had been for so long away from their parents that they
+    had no keen desire to return to them.]
+
+    [Footnote 82: Quoted in the _Times_ of September 24, 1919.]
+
+    [Footnote 83: Cf. _Serbia's Part in the War_, vol. i., by
+    Crawfurd Price. London, 1918.]
+
+    [Footnote 84: He intervened, for example, near Lazarevac,
+    where he observed, with tears in his eyes, that one of the
+    finest regiments, the 10th [vS]umadija, was giving way to
+    overwhelming numbers. He told them that he intended to stay
+    where he was, and he invited any soldier who wished to remain
+    with him to do so. Every man remained. "Tres charmant," was
+    the comment of the colonel, an eye-witness, who told me of
+    this incident.]
+
+    [Footnote 85: Cf. _Manchester Guardian_, October 22, 1921.]
+
+    [Footnote 86: Cf. _Nineteenth Century and After_, January
+    1922.]
+
+    [Footnote 87: Cf. _Dokumenti o postanku Kraljevine Srba,
+    Hrvata i Slovenaca, 1914-1919_, by Ferdo [vS]i[vs]i['c].
+    Zagreb, 1920.]
+
+    [Footnote 88: Cf. _International Law_, Part I. p. 321.]
+
+    [Footnote 89: _Italy and the Yugoslavs: A Question of
+    International Law._ Paris, 1919.]
+
+    [Footnote 90: July 17, 1920.]
+
+    [Footnote 91: I think that, in so far as concerns this
+    article in the _New Europe_ (July 8, 1920), it is fairer to
+    describe Mr. Trevelyan as an Italian exponent rather than
+    apologist. Although we cannot agree with various remarks of
+    his, he makes it clear that he is out of sympathy with the
+    Italian extremists. He deprecates also the views of those
+    English publicists who are altogether on the side of the
+    Yugoslavs. "The truth, perhaps," says he, "lies somewhere hid
+    in the centre." And if that is not a very happy observation,
+    it is at any rate much more moderate than the average views
+    of those English writers whose spiritual home is in Italy.]
+
+    [Footnote 92: Byron, _Childe Harold_.]
+
+    [Footnote 93: About 36,000 boys--partly recruits and partly
+    boys of more tender years--started over the mountains, and
+    some 20,000 of them perished.]
+
+    [Footnote 94: This officer, aided by others, was charged with
+    having organized an attempt to overthrow the Yugoslav
+    National Council soon after its constitution in the autumn of
+    1918. The day of the counter-revolution was to be November
+    25, according to the _Hrvatska Rije[vc]_ of November 23. The
+    General and others were arrested, but as he was able to prove
+    his innocence he was liberated.]
+
+    [Footnote 95: _With Serbia into Exile._ New York, 1916.]
+
+    [Footnote 96: Cf. _The Question_, by Isidora Sekuli['c].]
+
+    [Footnote 97: _Revue des Deux Mondes_, January 1, 1917.]
+
+    [Footnote 98: In contrast with this attitude that was adopted
+    at Nikita's command one must mention the transactions of a
+    Podgorica merchant, M. Buri[vc], and his partners, who sold
+    150,000 kilos of grain to the retreating army at cost price,
+    that is, at one dinar per kilo when they could have obtained
+    five. Two million kilos of hay they sold at 8 paras per kilo
+    instead of at 50 or more. There were at this time only 20
+    tons of flour in all Montenegro. Undoubtedly the refusal of
+    Buri[vc] and his friends to profit from the distress of their
+    brother Serbs was much more typical of the Montenegrins than
+    the conduct which Nikita drew forth from the weak side of
+    their character.]
+
+    [Footnote 99: Cf. an article in the _Gazette de Lausanne_,
+    November 29, 1917, by Danilo Gatalo, a former Montenegrin
+    Minister of War.]
+
+    [Footnote 100: Cf. p. 204.]
+
+    [Footnote 101: _Ex-King Nicholas and his Court_ (Collection
+    of eighteen original documents in facsimile). Sarajevo,
+    1919.]
+
+    [Footnote 102: These almost incredible facts are vouched for
+    by Dr. Sekula Drljevi['c], ex-Minister of Justice and
+    Finance, who was one of the internees at Karlstein.]
+
+    [Footnote 103: _The Black Sheep of the Balkans._ London,
+    1920.]
+
+    [Footnote 104: In 1919 this very popular physician became
+    Minister of Public Health in a Coalition Cabinet, and in 1920
+    he became Minister of Posts and Telegraphs.]
+
+    [Footnote 105: A couple of months before the triumph of the
+    Yugoslav idea one of these priests, Dr. Alexius
+    U[vs]eni[vc]nik, Professor of Theology, published at
+    Ljubljana a little book packed with ancient and modern
+    quotations from Latin and French, Italian and German sources.
+    He called it _Um die Yugoslavija; Eine Apologie_; and in the
+    strongest terms he combated the reproach that the Slovene
+    bishop, the clergy and the people were not loyal to the
+    Habsburgs. Dr. U[vs]eni[vc]nik proved that the poor Slovenes
+    were suffering an almost intolerable subjection at the hands
+    of the Germans, but he persisted in demanding nothing more
+    than freedom within the Habsburg Monarchy. "The Monarchy,"
+    said our unhappy author, "is in the midst of its
+    development." And this priest, who was so deaf to the grand
+    Yugoslav idea, quoted with approval the words of Gustave le
+    Bon: "Ideas take a long time in possessing the people's
+    soul."]
+
+END OF VOLUME I.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF VOLUME I
+
+(_The Names of Books and Newspapers are in Italics._)
+
+
+Aerenthal (Count) and the bombs, 206.
+-- -- and Bosnia, 204.
+
+Agram, _see_ Zagreb.
+
+Albania, part of, offered to the Serbs, 251.
+
+Albanian activities, 72 _et seq._, 219.
+-- language, 13, 14.
+
+Alexander (King of Serbia), the lamentable, 194 _et seq._
+-- (King of Yugoslavia), 232 _et seq._
+-- (Pope), 40.
+-- (Prince), the frigid, 117, 122.
+
+Alphabet, Slav, 29.
+
+Andrassy (Count Julius), his confidence, 290.
+
+Apponyi on mad ambitions, 295.
+
+Arad and the Serbs, 117-8.
+-- Executions at, 125.
+-- the Magyar slaughter-house, 235 _et seq._
+
+_Arbeiter-Zeitung_ on Berchtold, 229.
+
+Austria and Macedonia, 220.
+-- -- some atrocities, 225 _et seq._
+-- -- some intrigues (and _see_ Habsburgs), 25, 30, 118, 176,
+        177, 187, 193 _et seq._
+
+_Avenire_, a newspaper, 67.
+
+
+Bach, his "huzzars," 127.
+
+Ba[vc]ka, 62, 72 _et passim_.
+
+Bahr (H.), his _Dalmatinische Reise_, 201.
+
+Banat, the frontier regiments, 82 _et seq._
+-- German colonists, 82 _et seq._
+-- Migrants to, 62, 72.
+-- Revolt in, 71, 121.
+-- Serbs and Roumanians, 188 _et seq._
+
+Baranja, 62 _et passim_.
+
+Barbulescu (Prof.) on Macedonian language, 166.
+
+Bartlett (C. A. H.) on Treaty of London, 246, 247.
+
+Battisti, how he died, 284.
+
+Beaumont, of the _Daily Telegraph_, 284.
+
+Be[vc]irovi['c], the Macedonian schoolmaster, 169.
+
+Belgrade, 7, 62, 149, 243-4, 260.
+
+Belloc (H.), his pronouncements, 163, 164.
+
+Bene[vs] (Dr. E.), his _Detruisez l'Autriche-Hongrie_, 192.
+-- -- in Italy, 288-9.
+
+Berchtold (Count) and the Great War, 213-4, 229.
+
+Berlin Congress, 24-5.
+
+Bilinski (Dr.), his tears, 228.
+
+Bismarck on the Balkans, 24.
+
+Bissolati, the gallant Minister, 287.
+
+_Blackwood's Magazine_, quoted, 10.
+
+Bogomile heresy, 37, 45 _et seq._, 126.
+
+Bonchocat, a murderer's testimony, 291.
+
+Boppe, the French Minister, on the Serbs, 260.
+
+Bosnia and the Magyars, 235.
+-- and Michael, 148.
+-- and the Powers, 153, 177, 204.
+-- under the Turks, 56, 117, 176.
+-- _see_ Tvertko.
+
+Boue (Ami), his _La Turquie d'Europe_, 138-9.
+
+Brailsford (H. N.), his _Macedonia_, 72-3, 198, 199, 219.
+
+Brankovi['c], the despot, 47, 58.
+-- George (a descendant), 71-2.
+-- Vuk, 48, 62.
+
+Bratti (R.), his _La Fine della Serenissima_, 39.
+
+Bresse (L.), his _Le Montenegro Inconnu_, 210.
+
+Brki['c] (Patriarch), his description, 80, 277.
+
+Bulgarian language, 13-4, 34, 80-1, 139, 140, 166.
+-- origins, 33 _et seq._
+
+Bulgars, attitude to Serbia and Yugoslavia, 11 _et seq._,
+        44-5, 149, 166 _et seq._, 193.
+-- enter the War, 248 _et seq._
+
+_Bulletin Hellenique_, quoted, 37.
+
+Bulwer (Sir H.), his advice, 158.
+
+Bunjevci, 86 _et seq._
+
+Buric, the patriotic merchant, 262.
+-- (Vassilje), his brother, 268-9.
+
+Buxton (Leland), his _Black Sheep of the Balkans_, 289, 290.
+-- -- his unfortunate proposal, 221.
+
+
+[vC]abrinovi['c] and the Sarajevo crime, 216, 218.
+
+[vC]a[vc]ak and Milo[vs], 137.
+
+Cahun (L.), his _Introduction a l'Histoire de l'Asie_, 36.
+
+[vC]arnoevi['c] (Arsenius), the Patriarch, 72 _et seq._
+
+Cattalinich, his _Memorie_, 92.
+
+Cattaro, _see_ Kotor.
+
+Cavour, 66, 123, 140 _et seq._
+
+Chiala (Gl.), his _Letters of Count Cavour_, 141.
+
+Chopin (J.), his _Le Complot de Sarajevo_, 218.
+
+Christi['c] (Annie) on Serb women in the War, 260.
+
+Christoff, _see_ Tartaro-Bulgar.
+
+Cippico (Antonio), his arguments, 144-5.
+
+[vC]iprovtsi, its outbreak, 71.
+
+Clergy in Croatia, 129.
+-- in Czecho-Slovakia, 130 _et seq._
+
+Codelli (Baron), his rules, 96.
+
+Constantine (King) and the Serbs, 252-3.
+
+Corfu, Declaration of, 271-2.
+-- Serbs at, 270.
+
+Crijevi['c] (Elias), the renegade, 65.
+
+Croats, their history, 25, 29, 30-1, 38, 40, 46 _et seq._,
+        69, 112 _et seq._, 119 _et seq._, 125.
+-- relations with Serbs, 177, 187-8, 205, 239 _et seq._, 254 _et seq._,
+        275 _et seq._
+
+[vC]uk (Madame), her good work, 228.
+
+[vC]uplikac (Colonel), the voivoda, 119, 123.
+
+Cviji['c] (Prof.), 14, 36, 175.
+
+Cyril (Saint), 29.
+
+Czecho-Slovakia, disapproval of, 10.
+-- its national Church, 130 _et seq._
+
+
+_Daily Telegraph_, quoted, 284.
+
+Dalmatia, its Christianity, 29.
+-- suggested settlers, 94.
+-- and Venice, 40, 41, 47, 50 _et seq._, 64.
+-- _see_ Morlaks and Tommaseo.
+
+Dandolo (Vincenzo), 100.
+
+Danica, the brotherhood, 113.
+
+Danilo (Crown Prince), the financier, 201 _et seq._,
+        209 _et seq._, 264, 276.
+-- (Prince), his death, 145-6.
+
+Deak (Francis), his liberal methods, 143, 160.
+
+Debidour, his _Histoire diplomatique_, 154.
+
+Democracy of Serbs, 61, 233.
+
+Devil, _see_ Alphabet.
+
+Devine (A.), the apologist, 204, 211.
+
+D'Intignano (F. M.), his _I Morlacchi_, 54.
+
+Djakovica, some years ago, 73.
+
+Dobrila (Bishop George), 142.
+
+Dolci, his fate, 99, 100.
+
+Dra[vs]kovi['c], his _Exhortation_, 112.
+
+Drljevi['c] (Dr. S.) on Danilo, 209.
+-- -- on Montenegrin Red Cross, 274.
+
+Dubourdieu, 104-5.
+
+Dubrovnik, her dissolution, 101.
+-- her glory, 41, 48-9, 64 _et seq._
+-- her moral height, 91.
+-- her poets, 54, 65-6.
+
+Durham (Edith), her _High Albania_, 73.
+-- -- her partiality, 206.
+-- -- in praise of Albanians, 198, 259.
+-- -- her _Twenty Years of Balkan Tangle_, 206.
+
+Du[vs]an (Emperor), 26.
+-- -- his ambitions, 43.
+-- -- his Code, 43.
+-- -- his greatness, 42, 69.
+-- -- his sister, 68.
+
+
+Eliot (Sir Charles), his _Turkey in Europe_, 36, 167.
+
+England in the Adriatic, 104 _et seq._
+
+Essad Pasha, at Scutari, 211.
+
+Evans (Sir Arthur), 39, 176.
+
+Exarchate, its beginning, 159.
+-- and the Serbs, 168.
+
+_Ex-King Nicholas of Montenegro and his Court_, 217, 270.
+
+
+Fiume, _see_ Rieka.
+
+Francis Ferdinand (Archduke), his murder, 212-3.
+-- -- -- various mysteries, 214 _et seq._
+
+Francis Joseph, 123, 133, 143, 162.
+
+Frankopan (Christopher), 71.
+
+Frederick Barbarossa, 37.
+
+Friedjung (Prof.) and the forgeries, 205-6.
+
+
+Gaj (Ljudevit), the patriot, 112 _et seq._, 119.
+
+Gatalo (Danilo) exposes Nikita, 266.
+
+Gauvain exposes Nikita, 269.
+
+Gavrilovi['c] (Dr. Michael), 16, 98.
+
+_Gazette de Lausanne_, quoted, 266.
+
+George (Prince), his ways, 231-2.
+
+Georgov (Prof.), 35.
+
+German colonists, 82 _et seq._
+
+Germans favoured by Habsburgs, 127-8, 143.
+-- appraised by Haeckel, 243.
+
+_Geschichte der Franzfelder Gemeinde_, 82.
+
+Ghevgeli, a typical Macedonian town, 168 _et seq._
+
+Giacich on Rieka, 122.
+
+Giesl (Baron) and the Montenegrins, 209, 211-2.
+
+Gladstone and Montenegro, 210.
+-- his preface, 152.
+-- and Strossmayer, 133.
+
+Glagolitic, 29, 30, 63-4, 120.
+
+Goad (H. E.), Comments on, 18-9.
+
+Gop[vc]evi['c], his bad book, 178.
+
+Gorica, 39, 127, 278.
+
+Gortchakoff, his inspirations, 153, 177.
+-- his instructions, 159.
+
+Greek in Macedonian churches, 155 _et seq._, 218.
+-- -- schools, 137 _et seq._ 169.
+
+Gregory (Pope), quoted, 29.
+
+Grimm (Jacob), his enthusiasm, 109.
+
+Gruen (Anastasius), the Slovene, 112.
+
+Gunduli['c], his works, 65-6.
+
+
+Habsburgs and the Croats (and _see_ Rieka), 69, 127.
+-- and the Magyars, 119 _et seq._
+-- and Montenegro (and _see_ Lov[vc]en), 201-2, 209, 211-2.
+-- and the Pragmatic Sanction, 78.
+-- and the Serbian regiments, 82.
+-- and the Serbs, 213.
+-- and the Slovenes (and _see_ Triest), 127-8.
+
+Hajdukovi['c], Nikita's Minister, 268.
+
+Haji['c] (Dr.), against grammar, 109.
+
+Hartwig, the Russian Minister, 214-5.
+
+Hegedues, the villain, 235 _et seq._
+
+Heiduks, 59 _et seq._
+
+Hektorovi['c], the famous poet, 66.
+
+Helen (Queen), 42.
+
+Herbert (Hon. Aubrey, M.P.), considers the Magyars, 236.
+-- -- considers the Magyars' neighbours, 192.
+
+Herzegovi['c] (Achmet Pasha), 56.
+
+Herzegovina, the dialect (and _see_ Bosnia), 65.
+
+Hibben (Paxton), on Venizelos, 252.
+
+Hodges (Colonel), 112.
+
+Homer, on atrocities, 14.
+
+Hoste (Commodore), 104, 105.
+
+Hupka (Lieut.-Colonel) and Lov[vc]en, 263.
+
+Hussarek (Baron), his optimism, 297-8.
+
+Hussein, the Dragon, 117.
+
+Hvar, bombarded by Russians, 101.
+-- in the Middle Ages, 50, 66.
+-- revolts against Napoleon, 102.
+
+
+Ignatieff (Count), and the Exarchate, 159.
+
+Iorga (Prof.), his suggestion, 189, 190.
+
+Irby (Miss), benefactress and traveller, 12, 152.
+-- -- her _The Turks, the Greeks and the Slavons_, 152, 176.
+
+Isonzo, important river (and _see_ Mazzini), 39, 102.
+
+Istria in distress, 69, 70.
+-- its population, 141-2.
+
+Italianized party, 94, 108, 115.
+
+Italians, their Austrian testimonials, 282 _et seq._
+-- help the Serbs, 265.
+-- Surrendering to, 281, 285 _et seq._
+
+Italians, their union, 140 _et seq._
+-- against Yugoslavia, 243, 245 _et seq._, 261, 282 _et seq._
+
+Ivanovi['c], the Russian, 126.
+
+
+Jegli['c] (Prince-Bishop), 30, 298, 299.
+
+Jella[vc]i['c] (J. J.), his decline, 125-6.
+-- -- his expedition, 121.
+-- -- Governor of Dalmatia, 123.
+-- -- his proclamation, 119.
+
+Jire[vc]ek (Dr. C.), his _History of the Bulgars_, 33.
+-- -- on the Morlaks, 54.
+
+Jones (Fortier), his _With Serbia into Exile_, 258.
+
+Jovius (Paulus), the historian, 56.
+
+Julia (Princess), and Palmerston, 147.
+
+
+Ka[vc]i['c], his long work, 66.
+
+Kanchov (Basil) and the Macedonians, 168.
+
+Kara George, his end, 110.
+-- -- his first insurrection, 57, 81, 98.
+-- -- his internal enemies, 107.
+
+Karaji['c] (Vuk), his great work, 61, 109, 113.
+
+Karaveloff (Ljuba), his articles, 139, 154, 172.
+
+Khuen-Hedervary (Count), 186, 188.
+
+Kiepert (H.), the geographer, 23, 173.
+
+Klobu[vc]ari['c], the police-captain, 257.
+
+Kohler (Prof.), the jurist, 215, 217.
+
+Kolomon (King), 40.
+
+Kossovo, the great battle, 46, 47, 49.
+
+Kossuth, 121 _et seq._, 125, 132, 200.
+
+Kot[vc]a (Captain), 81.
+
+Kotor, 7, 285 _et seq._
+
+Kova[vc]ica, Magyar excesses at, 292-3.
+
+Krk, 51.
+
+Kronimirovi['c], the chieftain, 31.
+
+"Krpitsa," 162.
+
+Kuku[vs], the strange movement, 155, 157, 159.
+
+
+Ladislas, the traitor, 47.
+
+Laffan (Rev. R. G. D.), his _The Guardians of the Gate_, 196.
+
+Lajn[vs]i['c] (Dr. S.) and the rise of the Slovenes, 299, 300.
+
+Lamartine, quoted, 57.
+
+Landowners in Croatia, 128.
+-- in Macedonia, 134 _et seq._
+
+Language, Serbo-Croat (and _see_ Albanian and Bulgar), 112 _et seq._
+
+Lansdowne (Lord) on Macedonia, 220.
+
+Lazar (Prince), 45 _et seq._
+
+Lazarevi['c] (Lazar), the militant priest, 101.
+
+Leiper (R.) on Montenegro, 183.
+
+Liubica (Princess), the strong-minded, 110.
+
+Loiseau (C.), his _Le Balkan Slave_, 44, 66.
+
+Lov[vc]en, 126, 201, 262 _et seq._
+
+Luci['c], the lyric poet, 66.
+
+
+Macedonia and the Allied advance, 239, 240.
+-- examined, 43, 166 _et seq._
+-- in old times, 33, 42.
+-- under the Turks, 134 _et seq._, 137 _et seq._, 218 _et seq._
+
+Machiedo (Dr.), what he read, 263.
+
+Magyars, atrocities at Arad, 235 _et seq._
+-- against Croats, 116, 119 _et seq._, 200-1.
+-- measures in the War, 290 _et seq._
+-- _see_ Kossuth and Rieka.
+
+Maister (General), patriot and poet, 299, 300.
+
+_Manchester Guardian_, quoted, 238.
+
+Maravi['c], the good policeman, 257.
+
+Maribor, 39.
+
+Marko Kraljevi['c], 44-5.
+
+Markovi['c] (Dr. Lazar), his _Serbia and Europe_, 216.
+
+Markovi['c] (Svetozar), 139.
+
+Marmont (General), 102-3.
+
+Martinovi['c] (General), friend of Russia, 202, 203.
+
+Massarechi (Gregory), a missionary, 74.
+
+Matthew Corvinus (King), 62.
+
+Mazurani['c], poet and ban, 114, 143.
+
+Mazzini and the Isonzo, 102.
+
+Meletios, the savage bishop, 156.
+
+Methodus (Saint), 29.
+
+Metternich, 39, 108, 119.
+
+Michael (Prince) of Serbia, 12, 117, 145 _et seq._, 154.
+
+Miklosi['c] (F.), his _Monumenta Serbica_, 49.
+
+Miladinoff (Dimitri), 132-3, 137-8.
+
+Milan (Prince, afterwards King), his abdication, 194.
+-- -- -- his aims, 175-6.
+-- -- -- considered, 179 _et seq._
+
+Mileti['c] (Dr. Slavko) in the War, 291.
+
+Mileti['c] (Dr. Svetozar), against the Magyars, 191-2.
+
+Millo (Admiral), 19.
+
+Milo[vs] (Prince), 110 _et seq._, 137.
+
+Milovanovi['c] (Dr.) on Macedonia, 220.
+
+Milutine (King), 42.
+
+Mirko (Prince), the unregretted, 210, 264, 267.
+
+Mi[vs]i['c] (Marshal), commander-in-chief, 243, 290.
+-- -- on officials in Macedonia, 221.
+
+Miu[vs]kevi['c], the Premier, 203, 264, 267.
+
+M'Neill (Ronald, M.P.), champion of Nikita, 217, 276-7.
+
+Momchiloff (Dr.), his pronouncement, 35.
+
+_Montenegrin Bulletin_, 268-9.
+
+Montenegrin Vespers, 75.
+
+Montenegro, a disgrace, 230-1.
+-- her purity, 36.
+-- and the Turks, 134.
+-- _see_ Nicholas, Peter I. and Peter II.
+
+Morlaks, of Dalmatia, 39, 54-5, 91.
+
+_Morning Post_, quoted, 183.
+
+Morrison (Colonel) and Serbia's wounded, 244-5.
+
+Mousset (A.), his _Le Progres politique, etc._, 226.
+
+Muhammedan ascendancy, 48, 73.
+
+Muir Mackenzie (Miss), 12, 152-3.
+
+Murko (Dr.), his _Die suedslavischen Literaturen_, 65.
+
+Musachi, the chronicler, 45.
+
+
+Nally (Rev. Dr.) on the chivalrous Magyars, 238.
+
+Napoleon and Dalmatia, 100 _et seq._
+-- his fleet in the Adriatic, 104-5.
+-- his Illyria, 102 _et seq._
+-- and the Slovenes, 39, 91.
+
+Nationality, unstable in those parts, 171.
+
+Naumovi['c] (Risto), a Macedonian victim, 169.
+
+_Near East_, quoted, 13.
+
+Nekludoff, his _Diplomatic Reminiscences_, 194, 204.
+
+Nemania (Stephen), 37-8, 41.
+
+Ne[vs]i['c] (Ljuba), his varied activities, 199, 200.
+
+_Neue Freie Presse_, admits Austria's guilt, 217.
+
+Newton (Lord and Lady), on the Magyars, 238.
+
+Nicholas of Montenegro, his early fame, 145-6.
+-- -- the secret clause, 147.
+-- -- dealings with the Press, 204, 275.
+-- -- the cloven hoof, 147-8, 181 _et seq._, 201 _et seq._,
+        259, 273 _et seq._
+-- -- works against the Serbs, 217, 234-5, 261 _et seq._
+
+Nikita, _see_ Nicholas of Montenegro.
+
+_Nineteenth Century and After_, quoted, 217, 238.
+
+Nodier (Charles), the editor, 103.
+
+Novi Bazar, and the Austrians, 192.
+
+Novi Sad, 7, 118.
+
+
+Obilic, the hero, 46.
+
+Obradovi['c], monk and Minister, 80-1.
+
+Omladina, a society, 137, 145 _et seq._
+
+_Omladinac_, their review, 136 _et seq._
+
+Omortag, his inscription, 34.
+-- his sons, 35.
+
+Oraovac (Tomo), his grandfather, 185.
+-- -- his _Red House_, 182-3.
+-- -- his seventy-five questions, 269.
+
+
+Padua University, its diplomas, 52.
+
+Paissu, the monk, 80-1.
+
+Paneff (Theodore), his ideas, 35, 36.
+
+Paravia (P. A.), his judgment, 53.
+
+Pa[vs]i['c] (Nicholas), his exile, 180.
+-- -- his methods, 180-1, 195, 254, 271.
+
+Pasvantooelu (Osman Pasha), 57.
+
+Pavlovi['c] (Count) and Austrian atrocities, 225-6.
+
+Pe['c], 56, 61, 63, 72, 198, 199, 258-9.
+
+Pe[vs]i['c] (General) and Nikita, 234-5, 236.
+
+_Pester Lloyd_, quoted, 35.
+
+Peter I., the energetic bishop, of Montenegro, 99, 106.
+
+Peter I. (King) of Serbia and Yugoslavia, his accession, 196.
+-- -- -- his good work, 197, 202.
+-- -- -- his old age, 232, 243-4, 259, 261.
+
+Peter II., the great poet, of Montenegro, 123 _et seq._
+
+Peter (Prince) of Lov[vc]en, 263, 266.
+-- -- -- the lover, 269, 270.
+
+Pharos (Prof.), his _The Trial of the Authors of the Sarajevo Crime_, 215.
+
+Pisani (Abbe), his _La Dalmatia_, 105.
+
+Pius X. (Pope), and the liturgy, 30.
+
+Podgorica Skup[vs]tina, 275.
+
+_Politika_, quoted, 11.
+
+Pomaks, 60, 223.
+
+Popoff (S.), his engaging monograph, 220-1.
+
+Popov (Prof.), his _Obzor Chronografov_, 34.
+
+Popovi['c] (Eugene), the aged Premier, 268.
+
+Porphyrogenetos (Constantine), 31.
+
+Potiorek (General) in Bosnia, 213.
+-- -- in the War, 214, 239.
+
+Pragmatic Sanction, and the Croats, 78.
+
+Premrou (M.), his _Monimenta Sclavenica_, 27-8.
+
+Preradovi['c] (Peter), poet and general, 113-4.
+
+Prezzolini (G.), his arguments, 144-5.
+-- -- his _La Dalmazia_, 66.
+
+Pribram (Dr.), on eastern Roumelia, 193.
+
+Pribi[vc]evi['c] (Svetozar), his zeal, 205.
+
+Price (Crawfurd), his _Serbia's Part in the War_, 230.
+
+Prizren, as it was, 73.
+
+Propaganda, Albanian, 198.
+-- Austrian, 272.
+-- Bulgarian, 14, 15.
+-- German, 299.
+-- Italian, 277.
+-- Serbian, 14, 15, 272, 277.
+-- Roumanian, 167.
+
+Putnik (Marshal), his end, 243, 259.
+
+
+Ra[vc]ki (F.), the historian, 29, 133, 161.
+
+Radeff (S.), his _La Macedoine_, 32.
+
+Radi['c] (S.) of Croatia, 187.
+
+Radoni['c] (Dr. Y.), Croat historian, 29.
+
+Radoslavoff (Dr.) and the War, 248, 249.
+
+Radovanovi['c], and Michael's death, 147.
+
+Radovi['c] (Andrija), 203, 264, 267-8.
+
+Raduli['c] and his son's nationality, 291-2.
+
+Ragusa, _see_ Dubrovnik.
+
+Rajacsich (Baron Joseph), 296-7.
+
+Rajacsich (Patriarch), 119, 120.
+
+Raji['c] (Bla[vs]ko), the priest, 87.
+
+Rakovski, 139, 149 _et seq._
+
+Ra[vs]ka, 28, 30 _et seq._, 37.
+
+Rauch (Baron), the drastic Ban, 162, 200-1.
+
+_Resto del Carlino_, quoted, 247.
+
+_Revue de Paris_, quoted, 269.
+
+_Revue des Deux Mondes_, quoted, 260.
+
+Rieka, 7, 42, 122.
+-- "corpus separatum," 78, 115.
+-- Magyar machinations, 161.
+
+Rilski (Neophyte), 111.
+
+Rizvanbegovi['c] (Ali Pasha), 117.
+
+Romanzoff (Count), quoted, 16.
+
+Roumanians in Banat, 58-9, 188 _et seq._
+-- and the Serbian Church, 79.
+
+Rukavina (General), 92.
+
+Russia, her activities in the Balkans, 25, 153-4, 172 _et seq._
+-- in the Adriatic, 99 _et seq._
+-- and Macedonia, 220.
+-- and Montenegro, 185.
+
+
+Samo, an old Prince, 28, 38.
+
+San Stefano, the unfortunate Treaty, 172 _et seq._
+
+Sarajevo and the World War, 213 _et seq._, 234.
+-- _see_ [vC]abrinovi['c], Francis Ferdinand, Potiorek and Tankosi['c].
+
+Sarpi (Fra Paolo), his warning, 52.
+
+Sava (Saint), 17, 38, 41-2, 45.
+
+Saxons in the Balkans, 24.
+
+Sazonov, restrains Serbia, 252.
+
+Schools, Croats' vain demand for, 115-6, 129, 163.
+-- in Macedonia, 137-8, 169, 170, 178, 222-3.
+-- in Montenegro, 185.
+-- and the Pomaks, 60.
+
+Schools in Serbia, 226.
+-- Serbo-Croat, under Napoleon, 100.
+-- Slovene, 127-8.
+
+Scutari, 7, 208 _et seq._, 260, 266.
+
+_Secolo_, on reception of Italians in Austria, 283.
+
+Sekuli['c] (Isidora), her _The Question_, 259.
+
+Serbo-Croat Coalition, 200-1.
+-- language (and _see_ Gaj and Karaji['c]), 139, 140, 144.
+
+Sesan (Ante), his enterprise, 285 _et seq._
+
+Seton-Watson (Dr. R. W.), 162, 271, 272.
+-- -- his _The Southern Slav Question_, 133, 205.
+
+_Shade of the Balkans_, 59.
+
+Shishmanoff (Prof.), 152, 166.
+
+[vS]ibenik, 30-1, 41, 51.
+
+Simeon (Tzar), 32, 42.
+
+Sinan Pasha, 56.
+
+Sindjelini['c], the hero, 107.
+
+Si[vs]i['c] (F.), a writer, 29, 243.
+
+Slava, a Serbian custom, 165.
+
+Slovenia, suggested name, 26.
+
+Slovenes free themselves, 298 _et seq._
+-- their history, 25, 27-8, 38, 48, 91, 127-8.
+-- their language, 13.
+
+[vS]okci, of Baranja, 88.
+
+Sokolovi['c] (Mehemet), 56, 61.
+
+Sokolski, who decamped, 158.
+
+Sonnino (Baron) and the Adriatic, 247-8.
+
+_Spectator_, quoted, 246.
+
+Split, 54.
+
+Stability of Yugoslavia, 11, 223, 270.
+
+Stambouluesky, 11.
+
+Star[vc]evi['c] party, 186.
+
+Steed (H. Wickham) and Corfu Declaration, 271, 272.
+
+Stephen the Little, 93.
+
+Stiljanovi['c] (Stephen), his corpse, 62.
+
+Stojanovi['c], his measures against Austria, 199.
+
+Strossmayer, the great bishop, 114.
+-- his origin, 132.
+-- his work, 132 _et seq._, 138, 161, 162, 186 _et seq._
+
+Stulli (J.), his _Vocabulario_, 103.
+
+Suedland (L. von), his _Die Suedslavische Frage_, 213.
+
+Susmel (Edoardo) of Rieka, 116, 122, 162 _et seq._
+
+
+Tajsi['c] (Ranko) answered by Pa[vs]i['c], 180.
+-- -- his blunt demand, 179.
+
+Tankosi['c] and the Sarajevo crime, 216.
+
+Tartaro-Bulgar, 34, 36.
+
+Taylor (A. H. E.), his _The Future of the Southern Slavs_, 12-3.
+
+Teme[vs]var and the Serbs, 118.
+
+Temperley (H. W. V.), his _History of Serbia_, 209.
+
+Teodosijevi['c] (A.), his device, 226.
+
+Thoreau, quoted, 17.
+
+Thurn (Count Raymond von), 91-2, 108.
+
+_Times_, quoted, 193, 229.
+
+Tisza (Count) and the Great War, 213.
+
+Tolerance among Yugoslavs, 37, 48, 129.
+
+Tomassich (General), 106.
+
+Tomi['c] (Vladimir) and Nikita, 183.
+
+Tomi['c] (Yovan), the librarian, 73.
+
+Tomislav (Prince), 31.
+
+Tommaseo (Nicolo), 53, 142 _et seq._
+
+Treaty of Berlin, 176.
+-- of London, 245 _et seq._, 254.
+-- of Pressburg, 100.
+-- of San Stefano, 172 _et seq._
+-- of Schoenbrunn, 102.
+-- of Tilsit, 101.
+-- between Milan and Austria, 193.
+
+Trevelyan (G. M.), 246-7.
+
+Triest, Slovene efforts at, 127, 141, 164.
+-- against Venice, 47, 70.
+
+Trogir, 31, 50.
+
+Trumbi['c] (Dr. Ante), 278, 288.
+
+Turks and Dubrovnik, 67.
+-- in Macedonia, 134 _et seq._, 178.
+-- in Montenegro, 134, 145-6.
+-- against Serbs, 62, 107, 110 _et seq._
+-- in Yugoslavia, 55 _et seq._, 70.
+
+Tvertko, the Ban, 45-6.
+
+Tzankoff, 154, 155, 157.
+
+
+Ulrich (Count), his funeral, 38.
+
+Urach, its printing-press, 63.
+
+U[vs]eni[vc]nik (Prof.), his deafness, 298.
+
+
+Varady (F.), his _Baranja multja es jelenje_, 62.
+
+Veglia, _see_ Krk.
+
+Velimirovi['c] (Bishop), 17.
+
+Venetians and Dalmatia, 40-1, 47, 50 _et seq._, 64.
+-- and Du[vs]an, 43.
+-- their last stand, 39, 91.
+-- their submission, 30, 31.
+
+Vis, after the battle, 141.
+-- and the British, 104-5.
+
+Vlaci['c] (Matthew), 63.
+
+Voujo[vs]evi['c] (N.), the hero, 183.
+
+Vukalovi['c] of Herzegovina, 148.
+
+Vukoti['c] (Yanko), denounces Nikita, 267.
+
+
+Wallisch (Dr.) on Serbian schools, 226.
+
+Waring (Miss), her _Serbia_, 29, 176.
+
+Weigand (Gustav) and the Aromunes, 167.
+
+Weisner (Baron), his report, 213.
+
+Wendel (H.), his _Suedosteuropaeische Fragen_, 43.
+
+Westlake (Prof.), his _International Law_, 245.
+
+Wiles (J. W.), the translator, 114.
+
+
+Xenia (Princess), the "femme fatale," 201-2, 268.
+
+
+Yovanovi['c] (Ljuba), the idealist, 200.
+
+Yugoslav Committee, 245, 271.
+
+Yugoslavia, the word, 8, 26-7, 271.
+
+Yugoslavs in America, 272-3.
+-- in Russia, 281-2.
+
+
+Zadar, 31, 40-1, 51 _et seq._, 66, 91, 106, 282.
+
+Zagreb, Military Courts, 278, 279.
+-- Trial, 205-6.
+-- _see_ Croats.
+
+Zara, _see_ Zadar.
+
+Zeta, 31, 32, 37.
+
+Ziliotto (Dr.) of Zadar, 261, 282.
+
+Zmejanovi['c] (Bishop), 61.
+
+Zorani['c], of Zadar, 66.
+
+Zrinsky (Peter), 71.
+
+
+PRINTED BY MORRISON AND GIBB LIMITED, EDINBURGH
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
+
+Fixed Issues
+
+p. 015--typo fixed, changed "commited" to "committed"
+p. 070--inserted a missing period after "people"
+p. 092--added a missing opening quote in front of "My dear Dalmatians"
+p. 107--typo fixed, changed "the" to "them"
+p. 111--typo fixed, changed a comma to a period after "would consent"
+p. 143--typo fixed, changed "Goluchovski" to "Goluchowski"
+p. 164--typo fixed, changed "Solvenes" to "Slovenes"
+p. 165--inserted a missing emdash between "The riddle of Sarajevo"
+        and "The miserable Macedonians"
+p. 182--typo fixed, changed "probable" to "probably"
+p. 190--typo fixed: changed "Bessd" to "Beesd"
+p. 218--typo fixed: changed "policy-spy" to "police-spy"
+p. 229--typo fixed: changed "Arbeiter Zeitung" to "Arbeiter-Zeitung"
+p. 236--typo fixed: changed "nonagenaraians" to "nonagenarians"
+p. 301--typo fixed: changed "Detruisez" to "Detruisez"
+footnote 94--typo fixed: changed 'rije['c]' to 'rije[vc]'
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Birth of Yugoslavia, Volume 1, by
+Henry Baerlein
+
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