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diff --git a/old/22392.txt b/old/22392.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..de43a77 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/22392.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6897 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Essentials in Conducting, by Karl Wilson Gehrkens + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Essentials in Conducting + +Author: Karl Wilson Gehrkens + +Release Date: August 25, 2007 [EBook #22392] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ESSENTIALS IN CONDUCTING *** + + + + +Produced by David Newman, Chuck Greif, Linda Cantoni, and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net. + + + + + + + + + +[Transcriber's Note: In this e-book, a macron over a character is +represented with an equal sign, thus: [=e]. + +The character ' is used to denote musical octaves, e.g., a' denotes A +above middle C.] + + + + +ESSENTIALS + +IN + +CONDUCTING + + +BY + +KARL WILSON GEHRKENS, A.M. + +PROFESSOR OF SCHOOL MUSIC +OBERLIN CONSERVATORY OF MUSIC +AUTHOR OF "MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY" + + +$1.75 + +[Illustration] + +BOSTON +OLIVER DITSON COMPANY + +NEW YORK +CHAS. H. DITSON & CO. + +CHICAGO +LYON & HEALY + +LONDON +WINTHROP ROGERS, Ltd. + +MADE IN U.S.A. + +_Copyright MCMXIX_ +By OLIVER DITSON COMPANY +_International Copyright Secured_ + + + + +To the Memory of + +ROBERT C. BEDFORD + +for many years + +SECRETARY OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES + +of + +TUSKEGEE INSTITUTE + + + + +CONTENTS + + + Page + +CHAPTER I--Introduction 1 + +CHAPTER II--Personal Traits Necessary in Conducting 8 + +CHAPTER III--The Technique of the Baton 20 + +CHAPTER IV--Interpretation in Conducting--_Introductory_ 36 + +CHAPTER V--Interpretation in Conducting--_Tempo_ 46 + +CHAPTER VI--Interpretation in Conducting--_Dynamics_ 57 + +CHAPTER VII--Interpretation in Conducting--_Timbre, Phrasing, etc._ 64 + +CHAPTER VIII--The Supervisor of Music as Conductor 76 + +CHAPTER IX--The Community Chorus Conductor 85 + +CHAPTER X--The Orchestral Conductor 93 + +CHAPTER XI--Directing the Church Choir 108 + +CHAPTER XII--The Boy Choir and its Problems 118 + +CHAPTER XIII--The Conductor as Voice Trainer 131 + +CHAPTER XIV--The Art of Program Making 140 + +CHAPTER XV--Conductor and Accompanist 147 + +CHAPTER XVI--Efficiency in the Rehearsal 152 + +APPENDIX A--Reference List 164 + +APPENDIX B--Score of second movement of Haydn's Symphony, No. 3 166 + +INDEX 181 + + + + +PREFACE + + +In putting out this little book, the author is well aware of the fact +that many musicians feel that conductors, like poets and teachers, are +"born and not made"; but his experience in training supervisors of +music has led him to feel that, although only the elementary phases of +_conducting_ can be taught, such instruction is nevertheless quite +worth while, and is often surprisingly effective in its results. He +has also come to believe that even the musical genius may profit by +the experience of others and may thus be enabled to do effective work +as a conductor more quickly than if he relied wholly upon his native +ability. + +The book is of course planned especially with the amateur in view, and +the author, in writing it, has had in mind his own fruitless search +for information upon the subject of conducting when he was just +beginning his career as a teacher; and he has tried to say to the +amateur of today those things that he himself so sorely needed to know +at that time, and had to find out by blundering experience. + +It should perhaps be stated that although the writer has himself had +considerable experience in conducting, the material here presented is +rather the result of observing and analyzing the work of others than +an account of his own methods. In preparation for his task, the author +has observed many of the better-known conductors in this country, both +in rehearsal and in public performance, during a period of some twelve +years, and the book represents an attempt to put into simple language +and practical form the ideas gathered from this observation. It is +hoped that as a result of reading these pages the amateur may not only +have become more fully informed concerning those practical phases of +conducting about which he has probably been seeking light, but may be +inspired to further reading and additional music study in preparation +for the larger aspects of the work. + +The writer wishes to acknowledge the material assistance rendered him +by Professor John Ross Frampton, of the Iowa State Teachers College, +and Professor Osbourne McConathy, of Northwestern University, both of +whom have read the book in manuscript and have given invaluable +suggestions. He wishes also to acknowledge his very large debt to +Professor George Dickinson, of Vassar College, who has read the +material both in manuscript and in proof, and to whose pointed +comments and criticisms many improvements both in material and in +arrangement are due. + +K.W.G. + +OBERLIN, OHIO + _June, 1918_ + + + + +_Essentials in Conducting_ + + + + +CHAPTER I + +INTRODUCTION + + +[Sidenote: DEFINITION] + +The word "conducting" as used in a musical sense now ordinarily refers +to the activities of an orchestra or chorus leader who stands before a +group of performers and gives his entire time and effort to directing +their playing or singing, to the end that a musically effective +ensemble performance may result. + +This is accomplished by means of certain conventional movements of a +slender stick called a _baton_ (usually held in the right hand), as +well as through such changes of facial expression, bodily posture, _et +cetera_, as will convey to the singers or players the conductor's +wishes concerning the rendition of the music. + +Conducting in this sense involves the responsibility of having the +music performed at the correct tempo, with appropriate dynamic +effects, with precise attacks and releases, and in a fitting spirit. +This in turn implies that many details have been worked out in +rehearsal, these including such items as making certain that all +performers sing or play the correct tones in the correct rhythm; +insisting upon accurate pronunciation and skilful enunciation of the +words in vocal music; indicating logical and musical phrasing; +correcting mistakes in breathing or bowing; and, in general, +stimulating orchestra or chorus to produce a tasteful rendition of +the music as well as an absolutely perfect _ensemble_ with all parts +in correct proportion and perfect balance. + +In order to have his directing at the public performance function +properly, it thus becomes the conductor's task to plan and to +administer the rehearsals in such a way that the performers may become +thoroughly familiar with the music, both in technique and in spirit. +In other words, the conductor must play the part of musical manager as +well as that of artistic inspirer, and if he does not perform his task +in such fashion as to be looked up to by the members of his chorus or +orchestra as the real leader, and if he himself does not feel +confident of being able to do his work better than any one else upon +the ground, he cannot possibly be successful in any very high degree. +A conductor must first of all be a strong leader, and failing in this, +no amount of musical ability or anything else will enable him to +conduct well. We shall have more to say upon this point in a later +chapter. + +[Sidenote: SUMMARY OF THE HISTORY OF CONDUCTING] + +Conducting of one kind or another has undoubtedly been practised for +many centuries, but directing by gestures of the hand has not been +traced farther back than the fourteenth century, at which time +Heinrich von Meissen, a Minnesinger, is represented in an old +manuscript directing a group of musicians with stick in hand. In the +fifteenth century the leader of the Sistine Choir at Rome directed the +singers with a roll of paper (called a "sol-fa"), held in his hand. By +the latter part of the seventeenth century it had become customary for +the conductor to sit at the harpsichord or organ, filling in the +harmonies from a "figured bass," and giving any needed signals with +one hand or the head as best he could. Conducting during this period +signified merely keeping the performers together; that is, the chief +function of the conductor was that of "time beater." With the advent +of the conductor in the role of interpreter, such directing became +obsolete, and from the early nineteenth century, and particularly as +the result of the impetus given the art by the conducting of +Mendelssohn, Berlioz, Liszt, and Wagner, the conductor has become an +exceedingly important functionary, in these modern days even ranking +with the _prima donna_ in operatic performances! It is now the +conductor's aim not merely to see that a composition is played +correctly and with good ensemble; more than that, the leader of today +gives his own version or _reading_ of the composition just as the +pianist or violinist does. Instead of being a mere "time beater" he +has become an interpreter, and (except in the case of the +organist-director of a choir) he attempts to do nothing except so to +manipulate his musical forces as to secure an effective performance. + +[Sidenote: THE PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF CONDUCTING] + +The conductor works largely through the instrumentality of +_instinctive imitation_; that is, his methods are founded upon the +fact that human beings have an innate tendency to copy the actions of +others, often without being conscious that they are doing so. Thus, if +one person yawns or coughs, a second person observing him has an +instinctive tendency to do likewise. One member of a group is radiant +with happiness, and very soon the others catch the infection and are +smiling also; a singer at a public performance strains to get a high +tone, and instinctively our faces pucker up and our throat muscles +become tense, in sympathetic but entirely unconscious imitation. In +very much the same way in conducting, the leader sets the tempo,--and +is imitated by the musicians under him; he feels a certain emotional +thrill in response to the composer's message,--and arouses a similar +thrill in the performers; lifts his shoulders as though taking +breath,--and causes the singers to phrase properly, often without +either the conductor or the singers being aware of how the direction +was conveyed. It is at least partly because we instinctively imitate +the mental state or the emotional attitude of the pianist or the +vocalist that we are capable of being thrilled or calmed by musical +performances, and it is largely for this reason that an audience +always insists upon _seeing_ the artist as well as hearing him. In the +same way the musicians in a chorus or orchestra must see the conductor +and catch from him by instinctive imitation his attitude toward the +music being performed. This point will be more fully discussed in a +later chapter, when we take up interpretation in conducting. + +[Sidenote: CONDUCTING A COMBINATION OF SCIENCE AND ART] + +In setting out to become a conductor it will be well for the young +musician to recognize at the outset that by far the larger part of the +conductor's work rests upon an art basis, and that only a +comparatively small portion of it is science; hence he must not expect +to find complete information concerning his future work in any +treatise upon the subject. It is one thing to state that there are +three primary colors, or that orange is the result of mixing red and +yellow, but it is a very different matter to give directions for +painting an effective landscape, or a true-to-life portrait. One thing +involves _science_ only, but the other is concerned primarily with +_art_, and it is always dangerous to dogmatize concerning matters +artistic. To carry the illustration one step farther, we may say that +it is comparatively easy to teach a pupil to strike certain piano keys +in such a way as to produce the correct melody, harmony, and rhythm of +a certain composition; but who would venture, even in these days of +frenzied advertising, to promise that in so many lessons he could +teach a pupil to play it as a Hofmann or a Paderewski would? Here +again we see clearly the contrast between science and art, matters of +science being always susceptible of organization into a body of +principles and laws _which will work in every case_, while art is +intangible, subtle, and ever-varying. + +The application of our illustration to conducting should now be clear. +We may teach a beginner how to wield a baton according to conventional +practice, how to secure firm attacks and prompt releases, and possibly +a few other definitely established facts about conducting; but unless +our would-be leader has musical feeling within him and musicianship +back of him, it will be utterly futile for him to peruse these pages +further, or to make any other kind of an attempt to learn to conduct; +for, as stated above, only a very small part of conducting can be +codified into rules, directions, and formulae, by far the larger part +of our task being based upon each individual's own innate musical +feeling, and upon the general musical training that he has undergone. +All this may be discouraging, but on the other hand, granting a fair +degree of native musical ability, coupled with a large amount of solid +music study, any one possessing a sense of leadership can, after a +reasonable amount of intelligent practice, learn to handle a chorus or +even an orchestra in a fairly satisfactory manner. It is our purpose +in general to treat the scientific rather than the artistic side of +conducting, and we are taking for granted, therefore, that the reader +is endowed with musical feeling at least in a fair degree, and has +acquired the rudiments of musical scholarship as the result of an +extensive study of piano, organ, singing, ear-training, music history, +harmony, _et cetera_, and especially by attentive listening to a very +large amount of good music with score in hand. As a result of +combining such musical ability with a careful reading of these pages +and with a large amount of practice in actually wielding the baton, it +is hoped that the beginner will arrive at his goal somewhat earlier +than he would if he depended entirely upon what the psychologist calls +the "trial-and-error" method of learning. + +[Sidenote: IMPORTANCE OF MUSICAL SCHOLARSHIP] + +The musical amateur who is ambitious to conduct should therefore study +music in all its phases, and if in doubt as to his talent, he should +submit to a vocational test in order to determine whether his native +musical endowment is sufficient to make it worth his while to study +the art seriously. If the result of the test is encouraging, showing a +good ear, a strong rhythmic reaction, and a considerable amount of +what might be termed native musical taste, let him practise his piano +energetically and intelligently, and especially let him learn to read +three and four voices on separate staffs (as in a vocal score) in +order to prepare himself for future reading of full scores. Let him +study harmony, counterpoint, form, and, if possible, composition and +orchestration. Let him work indefatigably at ear-training, and +particularly at harmonic ear training, so that notes and tones may +become closely associated in his mind, the printed page then giving +him auditory rather than merely visual imagery; in other words, let +him school himself to make the printed page convey to his mind the +actual sounds of the music. Let him study the history of music, not +only as a record of the work of individual composers, but as an +account of what has transpired in the various periods or epochs of +musical art, so that he may become intelligent concerning the ideals, +the styles, and the forms of these various periods. And finally, let +him hear all the good music he possibly can, listening to it from the +threefold standpoint of sense, emotion, and intellect, and noting +particularly those matters connected with expression and +interpretation in these renditions. In as many cases as possible let +him study the scores of the compositions beforehand, comparing then +his own ideas of interpretation with those of the performer or +conductor, and formulating reasons for any differences of opinion that +may become manifest. + +Let the young musician also form the habit of reading widely, not +only along all musical lines (history, biography, theory, esthetics, +_et cetera_), but upon a wide variety of topics, such as painting and +the other arts, history, literature, sociology, pedagogy, _et cetera_. +As the result of such study and such reading, a type of musical +scholarship will be attained which will give the conductor an +authority in his interpretations and criticisms that cannot possibly +be achieved in any other way. Let us hasten to admit at once that the +acquiring of this sort of scholarship will take a long time, and that +it cannot all be done before beginning to conduct. But in the course +of several years of broad and intelligent study a beginning at least +can be made, and later on, as the result of continuous growth while at +work, a fine, solid, comprehensive scholarship may finally eventuate. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +PERSONAL TRAITS NECESSARY IN CONDUCTING + + +[Sidenote: IMPORTANCE OF PERSONALITY] + +In the introductory chapter it was noted that the conductor must build +upon a foundation of musical scholarship if he is to be really +successful; that he must possess musical feeling; and that he must go +through extensive musical training, if he is to conduct with taste and +authority. But in addition to these purely _musical_ requirements, +experience and observation have demonstrated that the would-be +conductor must be possessed of certain definitely established personal +characteristics, and that many a musician who has been amply able to +pass muster from a musical standpoint, has failed as a conductor +because he lacked these other traits. + +It is not my purpose to give at this point an exhaustive list of +qualities that must form the personal equipment of the conductor. In +general it will be sufficient to state that he must possess in a fair +degree those personal traits that are advantageous in any profession. +But of these desirable qualities three or four seem to be so +indispensable that it has been thought best to devote a brief chapter +to a discussion of them. These qualities are: + + 1. A sense of humor. + 2. A creative imagination. + 3. A sense of leadership combined with organizing ability. + +[Sidenote: A SENSE OF HUMOR] + +The first of these traits, a sense of humor, may perhaps upon first +thought seem a peculiar quality to include in a category of virtues +for the professional man of any type, and especially for the musician. +But upon reflection it will be admitted that the ability to see +things in a humorous light (which very frequently means merely seeing +them in true perspective) has helped many a man to avoid wasting +nervous energy upon insignificant occurrences, while the lack of this +ability has caused more trouble among all sorts of people (and +particularly, it seems to me, among musicians) than any other single +thing. + +[Sidenote: ILLUSTRATIONS OF HUMOR IN THE REHEARSAL] + +Some player or singer is either over-arduous or a bit sleepy during +the first stages of rehearsing a new composition, and makes a wrong +entrance, perhaps during a pause just before the climacteric point. +The occurrence is really funny and the other performers are inclined +to smile or snicker, but our serious conductor quells the outbreak +with a scowl. The humorous leader, on the other hand, sees the +occurrence as the performers do, joins in the laugh that is raised at +the expense of the offender, and the rehearsal goes on with renewed +spirit. + +An instrumental performer makes a bad tone, and the conductor laughs +at him, saying it sounds like a wolf howling or an ass braying. If the +remark is accompanied by a smile, the performer straightens up and +tries to overcome the fault; but if the comment is made with a snarl +there is a tightening up of muscles, an increased tension of the +nerves, and the performer is more than likely to do worse the next +time. + +There is a difference of opinion between the conductor and some +performer about fingering or bowing, phrasing or interpretation, and a +quarrel seems imminent; but the conductor refuses to take the matter +too seriously, and, having ample authority for his own viewpoint, +proceeds as he has begun, later on talking it over with the performer, +and perhaps giving him a reason for his opinion. + +Humor is thus seen to have the same effect upon a body of musicians as +oil applied to machinery, and musical machinery seems to need more of +this kind of lubrication than almost any other variety. + +But the conductor must distinguish carefully between sarcastic wit, +which laughs _at_, and humor, which laughs _with_. In a book bearing +the copyright date of 1849, the writer distinguishes between the two, +in the following words:[1] + + Humor originally meant moisture, a signification it + metaphorically retains, for it is the very juice of the + mind, enriching and fertilizing where it falls. Wit laughs + at; humor laughs with. Wit lashes external appearances, or + cunningly exchanges single foibles into character; humor + glides into the heart of its object, looks lovingly upon the + infirmities it attacks, and represents the whole man. Wit is + abrupt, scornful ...; humor is slow and shy, insinuating its + fun into your heart. + +[Footnote 1: Whipple, _Literature and Life_, p. 91.] + +[Sidenote: THE VALUE OF A CHEERFUL ATTITUDE] + +The conductor with a sense of humor will ordinarily have the advantage +also of being cheerful in his attitude toward the performers, and this +is an asset of no mean significance. It is a well-known psychophysical +fact that the human body does much better work when the mind is free +from care, and that in any profession or vocation, other things being +equal, the worker who is cheerful and optimistic will perform his +labor much more efficiently at the expense of considerably less mental +and bodily energy than he who is ill-humored, worried, fretful, and +unable to take a joke. But the _foreman_ who possesses this quality of +cheerfulness and humor is doubly fortunate, for he not only secures +the beneficial results in his own case, but by his attitude frequently +arouses the same desirable state of mind and body in those who are +working under him. It is particularly because of this latter fact that +the conductor needs to cultivate a cheerful, even a humorous outlook, +especially in the rehearsal. As the result of forming this habit, he +will be enabled to give directions in such a way that they will be +obeyed cheerfully (and consequently more effectively); he will find it +possible to rehearse longer with less fatigue both to himself and to +his musical forces; and he will be able to digest his food and to +sleep soundly after the rehearsal because he is not worrying over +trivial annoyances that, after all, should have been dismissed with a +laugh as soon as they appeared. There must not of course be so much +levity that the effectiveness of the rehearsal will be endangered, but +there is not much likelihood that this will happen; whereas there +seems to be considerable danger that our rehearsals will become too +cold and formal. A writer on the psychology of laughter states that +"laughter is man's best friend";[2] and in another place (p. 342) says +that the smile always brings to the mind "relaxation from strain." + +[Footnote 2: Sully, _An Essay on Laughter_.] + +[Sidenote: THE VALUE OF IMAGINATION IN CONDUCTING] + +Creative imagination is an inborn quality--"a gift of the gods"--and +if the individual does not possess it, very little can be done for him +in the artistic realm. Constructive or creative imagination implies +the ability to combine known elements in new ways--_to use the mind +forwards_, as it were. The possession of this trait makes it possible +to picture to oneself how things are going to look or sound or feel +before any actual sense experience has taken place; to see into +people's minds and often find out in advance how they are going to +react to a projected situation; to combine chemical elements in new +ways and thus create new substances; to plan details of organization +in a manufacturing establishment or in an educational institution, and +to be able to forecast how these things are going to work out. + +It is this quality of creative imagination that enables the inventor +to project his mind into the future and see a continent spanned by +railways and telephones, and the barrier of an ocean broken down by +means of wireless and aeroplane; and in every case the inventor works +with old and well-known materials, being merely enabled by the power +of his creative faculties (as they are erroneously called) to combine +these known materials in new ways. + +In the case of the musician, such creative imagination has always been +recognized as a _sine qua non_ of original composition, but its +necessity has not always been so clearly felt in the case of the +performer. Upon analyzing the situation it becomes evident, however, +that the performer cannot possibly get from the composer his real +message unless he can follow him in his imagination, and thus +re-create the work. As for adding anything original to what the +composer has given, this is plainly out of the question unless the +interpreter is endowed somewhat extensively with creative imagination; +and the possession of this quality will enable him to introduce such +subtle variations from a cut-and-dried, merely _accurate_ rendition as +will make his performance seem really spontaneous, and will inevitably +arouse a more enthusiastic emotional response in the listeners. + +Weingartner sums up the value of imagination in the final paragraph of +one of the few really valuable books on conducting at our disposal.[3] + + More and more I have come to think that what decides the + worth of conducting is the degree of suggestive power that + the conductor can exercise over the performers. At the + rehearsals he is mostly nothing more than a workman, who + schools the men under him so conscientiously and precisely + that each of them knows his place and what he has to do + there; he first becomes an artist when the moment comes for + the production of the work. Not even the most assiduous + rehearsing, so necessary a prerequisite as this is, can so + stimulate the capacities of the players as the force of + imagination of the conductor. It is not the transference of + his personal will, but the mysterious act of creation that + called the work itself into being takes place again in him, + and transcending the narrow limits of reproduction, he + becomes a new-creator, a self-creator. + +[Footnote 3: Weingartner, _On Conducting_, translated by Ernest +Newman, p. 56.] + +This quality is indispensable to all musicians, be they creators or +performers, but is especially desirable in the conductor, for he needs +it not only from the standpoint of interpretation, as already noted, +but from that of manager or organizer. Upon this latter point we shall +have more to say later, but it may be well to state just here that if +the conductor could imagine what was going on in the minds of his +players or singers, and could see things from their viewpoint; if he +could forecast the effect of his explanatory directions or of his +disciplinary rulings, nine-tenths of all the quarreling, bickering, +and general dissatisfaction that so frequently mar the work of any +musical organization could easily be eliminated. We might also add +that if the conductor could only foresee the effect upon his audiences +of certain works, or of certain interpretations, his plans would +probably often be materially altered. + +[Sidenote: ORGANIZING ABILITY AND A SENSE OF LEADERSHIP] + +But the conductor must be more than a humorous-minded and imaginative +musician. He must also (especially in these modern times) be an +organizer, a business man, a leader. The qualities of leadership and +organizing ability are so closely connected that we shall for the most +part treat them together in our discussion, and they are so important +that a fairly extensive analysis will be attempted. + +In an article on Schumann in _Grove's Dictionary_ Dr. Philip Spitta, +the well-known historian and critic, comments upon the conducting of +this famous composer as follows:[4] + + Schumann was sadly wanting in the real talent for + conducting. All who ever saw him conduct or played under his + direction are agreed on this point. Irrespective of the fact + that conducting for any length of time tired him out, he had + neither the collectedness and prompt presence of mind, nor + the sympathetic faculty, nor the enterprising dash, without + each of which conducting in the true sense is impossible. + He even found difficulty in starting at a given tempo; nay, + he even sometimes shrank from giving any initial beat, so + that some energetic pioneer would begin without waiting for + the signal, and without incurring Schumann's wrath! Besides + this, any thorough practice, bit by bit, with his orchestra, + with instructive remarks by the way as to the mode of + execution, was impossible to this great artist, who in this + respect was a striking contrast to Mendelssohn. He would + have a piece played through, and if it did not answer to his + wishes, have it repeated. If it went no better the second or + perhaps third time, he would be extremely angry at what he + considered the clumsiness, or even the ill-will of the + players; but detailed remarks he never made. + +[Footnote 4: _Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians_, New Edition, +Vol. IV, p. 363.] + +This estimate of Schumann's work as a conductor demonstrates +unmistakably that he failed in this particular field, not because his +musical scholarship was not adequate, but because he did not have that +peculiar ability which enables one man to dominate others: _viz._, _a +sense of leadership_, or _personal magnetism_, as it is often called. +Seidl asserts[5] that Berlioz, Massenet, and Saint-Saens likewise +failed as conductors, in spite of recognized musicianship; and it is +of course well known that even Beethoven and Brahms could not conduct +their own works as well as some of their contemporaries whose names +are now almost forgotten. + +[Footnote 5: Seidl, _The Music of the Modern World_, Vol. I, p. 106.] + +The feeling that one has the power to cause others to do one's will +seems in most cases to be inborn, at least certain children display it +at a very early age; and it is usually the boys and girls who decide +on the playground what games shall be played next, or what mischief +shall now be entered upon, who later on become leaders in their +several fields of activity. And yet this sense of leadership, or +something closely approximating it, may also be acquired, at least to +a certain extent, by almost any one who makes a consistent and +intelligent attempt in this direction. It is this latter fact which +may encourage those of us who are not naturally as gifted along these +lines as we should like to be, and it is because of this possibility +of acquiring what in conducting amounts to an indispensable +qualification that an attempt is here made to analyze the thing called +leadership into its elements. + +[Sidenote: THE FIRST ELEMENT IN LEADERSHIP] + +The primary basis upon which a sense of leadership rests is +undoubtedly confidence in one's general ability and in one's knowledge +of the particular subject being handled. The leader must not only know +but must know that he knows. This makes quick judgments possible, and +the leader and organizer must always be capable of making such +judgments, and of doing it with finality. The baseball player must +decide instantly whether to throw the ball to "first," "second," +"third," or "home," and he must repeatedly make such decisions +correctly before he can become a strong and respected baseball +captain. The same thing holds true of the foreman in a factory, and +both baseball captain and factory foreman must not only know every +detail of the work done under them, but must _know that they know it_, +and must feel confident of being able to cause those working under +them to carry it on as they conceive it. So the conductor must not +only know music, but must have confidence in his ear, in his rhythmic +precision, in his taste, in his judgment of tempo, in short, in his +musical scholarship; and he must not only feel that he knows exactly +what should be done in any given situation, but be confident that he +can make his chorus or orchestra do it as he wishes. Think for +instance of securing a firm attack on the first tone of such a song as +the _Marseillaise_. It is an extremely difficult thing to do, and it +would be utterly impossible to direct any one else exactly how to +accomplish it; and yet, if the conductor knows exactly how it must +sound, if he has an auditory image of it before the actual tones +begin, and if he feels that when he begins to beat time the chorus +will sing as he has heard them in imagination, then the expected +result is almost certain to follow. But if he is uncertain or +hesitant upon any of these points, he will as surely fail to get a +good attack. + +Such confidence in one's own ability as we have been describing +usually results in the acquiring of what is called an easy +manner,--self-possession,--in short, _poise_, and it is the possession +of such a bearing that gives us confidence in the scholarship and +ability of the leaders in any type of activity. But the influence of +this type of manner cannot be permanent unless it rests upon a +foundation of really solid knowledge or ability. + +[Sidenote: THE SECOND ELEMENT IN LEADERSHIP] + +The second element included in leadership and organizing ability is +the power to make oneself understood, that is, clearness of speech and +of expression. This involves probably first of all, so far as +conducting is concerned, a voice that can be easily heard, even in a +fairly large room, and that carries with it the tone of authority. But +it includes also a good command of language so that one's ideas may be +expressed clearly, and one's commands given definitely. An important +point to be noted in this connection is that the conductor must be +able to exercise rigid self-control, so as not to become incoherent +under stress of anger, emergencies, or other excitement. + +[Sidenote: THE THIRD ELEMENT IN LEADERSHIP] + +The final element involved in leadership is a tremendous love of and +respect for the thing that is being done. Napoleon became a great +general because of his confidence in his own ability, and because of +his very great enthusiasm for his work. Lincoln became one of the +greatest statesmen of all times largely because of his earnestness, +his extraordinary love and respect for the common people, and his +unfaltering confidence in the justice of the cause for which the North +was contending. Pestalozzi could never have become one of the world's +most influential teachers if he had not felt that the thing he was +trying to do was a big thing, a vital thing in the life of his +country, and if he had not had a real love in his heart for his work +among the ragged and untrained urchins whom he gathered about him. + +And for the same reason it is clear that no one can become a strong +and forceful conductor who does not have an overwhelming love of music +in his heart. We may go farther and say that no conductor can give a +really spirited reading of a musical composition if he does not feel +genuinely enthusiastic over the work being performed, and that one +reason for the sluggish response that musicians often make to the +conductor's baton is the mediocrity of the music which they are being +asked to perform. The conductor is not in sympathy with it (sometimes +without realizing this himself), and there is consequently no virility +in the playing or singing. The remedy for this state of affairs +consists, first, in allowing only those who have some taste in the +selection of music to conduct; and second, in inspiring all conductors +to take much more time and much greater pains in deciding upon the +works to be rehearsed. In directing a choir one may examine a dozen +cantatas, or twenty-five anthems, before one is found that is really +distinctive. If one stops at the second or third, and thinks that +although not very good yet it is possibly good enough, very probably +the choir will be found to be sluggish and unresponsive, filled with +what Coward calls "inertia."[6] But if one goes on looking over more +and more selections until something really distinctive is discovered, +it is more than probable that the chorus will respond with energy and +enthusiasm. + +[Footnote 6: Coward, _Choral Technique and Interpretation_, p. 73.] + +We have heard many arguments in favor of teaching children only the +best music, and here is yet another, perhaps more potent than all the +rest. They must be taught only good music because you as a musician +will find it impossible to become enthusiastic over mediocre or poor +works; and if you do not yourself glow over the music that you are +directing, you will hardly succeed in arousing the children's +interest, for enthusiasm spreads by contagion, and there can be no +spreading by contact unless we have a point from which to start. + +A sense of leadership consists, then, of a combination of +self-confidence and poise, clearness of speech and expression, and +enthusiasm for one's work; and if with these three there is mingled +the ability to think clearly and definitely, we have a combination +that is bound to produce distinctive results, no matter what the field +of activity may be. Let us repeat that the encouraging thing about the +whole matter is the fact that most of the things involved in +leadership can be _acquired_, at least to a certain degree, if +persistent efforts are made for a long enough time. + +Before going on with the topic to be treated in the next chapter, let +us summarize the materials out of which our conductor is to be +fashioned. They are: + + 1. Innate musical ability. + 2. A long period of broad and intelligent music study. + 3. An attractive and engaging personality. + 4. A sense of humor. + 5. A creative imagination. + 6. Conscious leadership and organizing ability. + +Some of these qualities are admittedly almost diametrically opposed to +one another, and it is probably because so few individuals combine +such apparently opposite traits that such a small number of musicians +succeed as conductors, and so few organizers and business men succeed +as musicians. But in spite of this difficulty, we must insist again +that any really tangible and permanent success in conducting involves +a combination of these attributes, and that the conductor of the +future, even more than of the past, must possess not only those +qualities of the artist needed by the solo performer, but must in +addition be a good business manager, an organizer, a tactician, a +diplomat, a task-master--in plain English, a good _boss_. It is +primarily because of the lack of these last-mentioned qualities that +most musicians fail as conductors. A writer in the _Canadian Journal +of Music_, signing himself Varasdin, sums it up well in the following +words: + + He who wishes to "carry away" his body of players as well as + his audience, the former to a unanimously acted + improvisation, the latter to a unanimously felt emotion, + needs above all "commanding personal magnetism," and + everything else must be subordinate to that. + + He must be "very much alive"--(highly accumulated vital + energy, always ready to discharge, is the secret of all + personal magnetism)--and the alertness, the presence of + mind, the acute and immediate perception of everything going + on during rehearsal or performance, the dominancy and + impressiveness of his minutest gesture, the absolute + self-possession and repose even in working up the most + exciting climaxes and in effecting the most sudden + contrasts--all these are simply self-evident corollaries + from our first and foremost requirement. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE TECHNIQUE OF THE BATON + + +[Sidenote: THE BATON ITSELF] + +Before giving actual directions for the manipulation of the +conductor's baton, it may be well to state that the stick itself +should be light in weight, light in color, and from sixteen to twenty +inches long. It must be thin and flexible, and should taper gradually +from the end held in the hand to the point. Batons of this kind can be +manufactured easily at any ordinary planing mill where there is a +lathe. The kinds sold at stores are usually altogether too thick and +too heavy. If at any time some adulating chorus or choir should +present the conductor with an ebony baton with silver mountings, he +must not feel that courtesy demands that it should be used in +conducting. The proper thing to do with such an instrument is to tie a +ribbon around one end and hang it on the wall as a decoration. + +[Sidenote: THE CONDUCTOR'S MUSIC STAND] + +A word about the music desk may also be in order at this time. It +should be made of wood or heavy metal so that in conducting one need +not constantly feel that it is likely to be knocked over. The ordinary +folding music stand made of light metal is altogether unsuitable for a +conductor's use. A good substantial stand with a metal base and +standard and wood top can be purchased for from three to five dollars +from any dealer in musical instruments. If no money is available and +the stand is constructed at home, it may be well to note that the base +should be heavy, the upright about three and a half feet high, and +the top or desk about fourteen by twenty inches. This top should tilt +only slightly, so that the conductor may glance from it to his +performers without too much change of focus. Our reason for mentioning +apparently trivial matters of this kind is to guard against any +possible distraction of the conductor's mind by unimportant things. If +these details are well provided for in advance, he will be able while +conducting to give his entire attention to the real work in hand. + +[Sidenote: HOLDING AND WIELDING THE BATON] + +The baton is ordinarily held between the thumb and first, second and +third fingers, but the conductor's grasp upon it varies with the +emotional quality of the music. Thus in a dainty _pianissimo_ passage, +it is often held very lightly between the thumb and the first two +fingers, while in a _fortissimo_ one it is grasped tightly in the +closed fist, the tension of the muscles being symbolic of the +excitement expressed in the music at that point. All muscles must be +relaxed unless a contraction occurs because of the conductor's +response to emotional tension in the music. The wrist should be loose +and flexible, and the entire beat so full of grace that the attention +of the audience is never for an instant distracted from listening to +the music by the conspicuous awkwardness of the conductor's hand +movements. This grace in baton-manipulation need not interfere in any +way with the definiteness or precision of the beat. In fact an easy, +graceful beat usually results in a firmer rhythmic response than a +jerky, awkward one. For the first beat of the measure the entire arm +(upper as well as lower) moves vigorously downward, but for the +remaining beats the movement is mostly confined to the elbow and +wrist. In the case of a divided beat (see pages 23 and 24) the +movement comes almost entirely from the wrist. + +[Sidenote: POSITION OF THE BATON] + +The hand manipulating the baton must always be held sufficiently high +so as to be easily seen by all performers, the elbow being kept well +away from the body, almost level with the shoulder. The elevation of +the baton, of course, depends upon the size of the group being +conducted, upon the manner in which the performers are arranged, and +upon whether they are sitting or standing. The conductor will +accordingly vary its position according to the exigencies of the +occasion, always remembering that a beat that cannot be easily seen +will not be readily followed. + +[Sidenote: PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TIME BEATING] + +If one observes the work of a number of conductors, it soon becomes +evident that, although at first they appear to have absolutely +different methods, there are nevertheless certain fundamental +underlying principles in accordance with which each beats time, and it +is these general principles that we are to deal with in the remainder +of this chapter. It should be noted that _principles_ rather than +_methods_ are to be discussed, since principles are universal, while +methods are individual and usually only local in their application. + +[Sidenote: DIAGRAMS OF BATON MOVEMENTS] + +The general direction of the baton movements now in universal use is +shown in the following figures. + +[Illustration] + +In actual practice however, the baton moves from point to point in a +very much more complex fashion, and in order to aid the learner still +further in his analysis of time beating an elaborated version of the +foregoing figures is supplied. It is of course understood that such +diagrams are of value only in giving a general idea of these more +complex movements and that they are not to be followed minutely. + +[Illustration: TWO-BEAT MEASURE] + +[Illustration: THREE-BEAT MEASURE] + +[Illustration: FOUR-BEAT MEASURE] + +[Illustration: SIX-BEAT MEASURE] + +[Illustration: VERY SLOW TWO-BEAT MEASURE] + +[Illustration: VERY SLOW THREE-BEAT MEASURE] + +[Illustration: SLOW FOUR-BEAT MEASURE] + +[Illustration: SLOW NINE-BEAT MEASURE] + +[Illustration: SLOW TWELVE-BEAT MEASURE] + +An examination of these figures will show that all baton movements are +based upon four general principles: + + 1. The strongest pulse of a measure (the first one) is + always marked by a down-beat. This principle is merely a + specific application of the general fact that a downward + stroke is stronger than an upward one (_cf._ driving a + nail). + + 2. The last pulse of a measure is always marked by an + up-beat, since it is generally the weakest part of the + measure. + + 3. In three- and four-beat measures, the beats are so + planned that there is never any danger of the hands + colliding in conducting vigorous movements that call for the + use of the free hand as well as the one holding the baton. + + 4. In compound measures the secondary accent is marked by a + beat almost as strong as that given the primary accent. + +[Sidenote: NUMBER OF BEATS DETERMINED BY TEMPO] + +The fact that a composition is in 4-4 measure does not necessarily +mean that every measure is to be directed by being given four actual +beats, and one of the things that the conductor must learn is when to +give more beats and when fewer. + +If the tempo is very rapid, the 4-4 measure will probably be given +only two beats, but in an _adagio_ movement, as, _e.g._, the first +part of the _Messiah_ overture, it may be necessary to beat eight for +each measure in order to insure rhythmic continuity. There are many +examples of triple measure in which the movement is so rapid as to +make it impracticable to beat three in a measure, and the conductor is +therefore content merely to give a down-beat at the beginning of each +measure; waltzes are commonly conducted by giving a down-beat for the +first measure, an up-beat for the second, _et cetera_; a six-part +measure in rapid tempo receives but two beats; while 9-8 and 12-8 are +ordinarily given but three and four beats respectively. + +It is not only annoying but absolutely fatiguing to see a conductor go +through all manner of contortions in trying to give a separate beat to +each pulse of the measure in rapid tempos; and the effect upon the +performers is even worse than upon the audience, for a stronger +rhythmic reaction will always be stimulated if the rhythm is felt in +larger units rather than in smaller ones. But on the other hand, the +tempo is sometimes so very slow that no sense of continuity can be +aroused by giving only one beat for each pulse; hence, as already +noted, it is often best to give _double_ the number of beats indicated +by the measure sign. In general, these two ideas may be summarized in +the following rule: _As the tempo becomes more rapid, decrease the +number of beats; but as it becomes slower, increase the number, at the +same time elaborating the beat so as to express more tangibly the idea +of a steady forward movement._ + +By carefully studying the second series of figures given on pages 23 +and 24 and by making certain that the principle of "continuous +movement" explained on page 28 is observed, the student will be able +to learn the more highly elaborated beats employed in slower tempos +without very much difficulty. These diagrams, like the first set, are, +of course, intended to be suggestive only. + +[Sidenote: SHALL WE BEAT THE RHYTHM OR THE PULSE?] + +In this same connection, the amateur may perhaps raise the question as +to whether it is wise to beat the rhythm or the pulse in such a +measure as [music notation]. In other words, is it well to give a +down-beat on 1, two small beats toward the left for 2, while 3 and 4 +are treated in the ordinary way? This question may be answered by +referring to the rule given on page 25, but perhaps it will be safer +to make the application more specific by advising the young conductor +to adhere fairly closely to beating the pulse unless a much slower +tempo makes extra beats necessary. The additional movements may be of +some service in certain cases, but in general they tend to confuse +rather than to clarify, this being especially true in the case of +syncopated rhythms. The only exceptions to this principle are: + + 1. When a phrase begins with a tone that is on a fractional + part of the beat; _e.g._, if the preceding phrase ends with + an eighth, thus: [music notation]; for in this case the + phrasing cannot be indicated clearly without dividing the + beat. + + 2. When there is a _ritardando_ and it becomes necessary to + give a larger number of beats in order to show just how much + slower the tempo is to be. The second point is of course + covered by the general rule already referred to. + +The conductor must train himself to change instantly from two beats in +the measure to four or six; from one to three, _et cetera_, so that he +may be able at any time to suit the number of beats to the character +of the music at that particular point. This is particularly necessary +in places where a _ritardando_ makes it desirable from the standpoint +of the performers to have a larger number of beats. + +[Sidenote: THE DOTTED-QUARTER AS A BEAT NOTE] + +Although covered in general by the preceding discussion, it may +perhaps be well to state specifically that the compound measures 6-8, +9-8, and 12-8 are ordinarily taken as duple, triple, and quadruple +measures, respectively. In other words, the dotted-quarter-note +([dotted quarter-note symbol]) is thought of as the beat note, some +modern editors going so far as to write [2 over dotted quarter symbol] +in place of 6-8 as the measure sign; [3 over dotted quarter symbol] in +place of 9-8; and [4 over dotted quarter symbol] in place of 12-8. In +conducting these various types of measure, the general principle given +on page 25 again applies, and if the tempo is very slow, the conductor +beats 6, 9, or 12, to the measure, but if it is rapid, the flow of the +rhythm is much better indicated by 2, 3, and 4 beats respectively. + +[Sidenote: FIVE- AND SEVEN-BEAT MEASURES] + +Although only occasionally encountered by the amateur, five- and +seven-beat measures are now made use of frequently enough by composers +to make some explanation of their treatment appropriate. A five-beat +measure (quintuple) is a compound measure comprising a two-beat and a +three-beat one. Sometimes the two-beat group is first, and sometimes +the three-beat one. If the former, then the conductor's beat will be +down-up, down-right-up. But if it is the other way about, then the +beat will naturally be down-right-up, down-up. "But how am I to know +which comes first?" asks the tyro. And our answer is, "Study the +music, and if you cannot find out in this way, you ought not to be +conducting the composition." + +Just as quintuple measure is a compound measure comprising two +pulse-groups, one of three and the other of two beats, so seven-beat +measure (septuple) consists of a four-beat group plus a three-beat +one. If the four-beat measure is first, the conductor's beat will be +down-left-right-up, down-right-up; _i.e._, the regular movements for +quadruple measure followed by those for triple; but if the combination +is three plus four, it will be the other way about. Sometimes the +composer helps the conductor by placing a dotted bar between the two +parts of the septuple measure, thus: [music notation] + +[Sidenote: AN IMPORTANT PRINCIPLE OF TIME BEATING] + +The most fundamental principle of time beating, and the one concerning +which the young conductor is apt to be most ignorant, is the +following: _The baton must not usually come to a standstill at the +points marking the beats, neither must it move in a straight line from +one point to another, except in the case of the down beat; for it is +the free and varying movement of the baton between any two beats that +gives the singers or players their cue as to where the second of the +two is to come._ We may go further and say that the preliminary +movement made before the baton arrives at what might be termed the +"bottom" of the beat is actually more important than the "bottom" of +the beat itself. When the baton is brought down for the first beat of +the measure, the muscles contract until the imaginary point which the +baton is to strike has been reached, relaxing while the hand moves on +to the next point (_i.e._, the second beat) gradually contracting +again as this point is reached, and relaxing immediately afterward as +the hand moves on to the third beat. In the diagrams of baton +movements given on preceding pages, the accumulating force of muscular +contraction is shown by the gradually increasing thickness of the +line, proceeding from the initial part of the stroke to its +culmination; while the light curved line immediately following this +culmination indicates the so-called "back-stroke," the muscular +relaxation. It is easy to see that this muscular contraction is what +gives the beat its definiteness, its "bottom," while the relaxation is +what gives the effect of continuity or flow. It will be noticed that +when the baton is brought down on an accented beat, the beginning of +the back-stroke is felt by the conductor as a sort of "rebound" of the +baton from the bottom of the beat, and this sensation of rebounding +helps greatly in giving "point" to these accented beats. + +In order to understand fully the principle that we have just been +discussing, it must be recalled that rhythm is not a succession of +jerks, but is basically a steady flow, a regular succession of similar +impulses, the word _rhythm_ itself coming from a Greek stem meaning +"flow." Like all other good things, this theory of continuous movement +may be carried to excess, and one occasionally sees conducting that +has so much "back-stroke" that there is no definiteness of beat +whatsoever; in other words there is no "bottom" to the beat, and +consequently no precision in the conducting. But on the other hand, +there is to be observed also a great deal of conducting in which the +beats seem to be thought of as imaginary points, the conductor +apparently feeling that it is his business to get from one to another +of these points in as straight a line as possible, and with no +relaxation of muscle whatever. Such conductors often imagine that they +are being very definite and very precise indeed in their directing, +and have sometimes been heard to remark that the singers or players +whom they were leading seemed exceedingly stupid about following the +beat, especially in the attacks. The real reason for sluggish rhythmic +response and poor attacks is, however, more often to be laid at the +door of a poorly executed beat by the conductor than to the stupidity +of the chorus or orchestra.[7] + +[Footnote 7: It is but a step from the conclusions arrived at above to +a corollary relating to conducting from the organ bench. How does it +happen that most choirs directed by an organist-conductor do not +attack promptly, do not follow tempo changes readily, and do not in +general present examples of good ensemble performance? Is it not +because the organist is using his hands and feet for other purposes, +and cannot therefore indicate to his singers the "continuous flow of +rhythm" above referred to? When a conductor directing with a baton +wishes to indicate a _ritardando_, he does so not merely by making the +beats follow one another at longer intervals, but even more by making +a more elaborate and more extensive movement between the beat +culminations; and the musicians have no difficulty in following the +baton, because it is kept continuously in motion, the points where the +muscular contractions come being easily felt by the performers, +because they can thus follow the rhythm in their own muscles by +instinctive imitation. But when the organist-conductor wishes a +_ritardando_, he merely plays more slowly, and the singers must get +their idea of the slower tempo entirely through the ear. Since rhythm +is a matter of muscle rather than of ear, it will be readily +understood that conducting and organ-playing will never go hand in +hand to any very great extent. There is, of course, another reason for +the failure of many organists who try to play and conduct +simultaneously, _viz._, that they are not able to do two things +successfully at the same time, so that the chorus is often left to +work out its own salvation as best it may; while, if the conducting is +done by using the left hand, the organ end of the combination is not +usually managed with any degree of distinction. Because of this and +certain other well-known reasons, the writer believes that choral +music in general, and church music in particular, would be greatly +benefited by a widespread return to the mixed chorus, led by a +conductor with baton in hand, and accompanied by an organist.] + +[Sidenote: HOW TO SECURE A FIRM ATTACK] + +Coordinate with the discussion of continuous movement and back-stroke, +the following principle should be noted: _A preliminary movement +sufficiently ample to be easily followed by the eye must be made +before actually giving the beat upon which the singers or players are +to begin the tone, if the attack is to be delivered with precision and +confidence._ Thus in the case of a composition beginning upon the +first beat of a measure, the conductor holds the baton poised in full +view of all performers, then, before actually bringing it down for the +attack, he raises it slightly, this upward movement often +corresponding to the back-stroke between an imaginary preceding beat +and the actual beat with which the composition begins. When a +composition begins upon the weak beat (_e.g._, the fourth beat of a +four-pulse measure), the preceding strong beat itself, together with +the back-stroke accompanying it, is often given as the preparation for +the actual initial beat. In case this is done the conductor must guard +against making this preliminary strong beat so prominent as to cause +the performers to mistake it for the actual signal to begin. If the +first phrase begins with an eighth-note ([music notation]), give a +short beat for 4 and an extra up-beat for the first note of the +phrase. If it begins with a sixteenth-note, do the same thing, but +make the extra up-beat with which the first tone is to be coincident +shorter and quicker. If a good attack cannot be secured in any other +way, beat an entire preliminary measure until the attack goes well, +then adopt some such plan as has just been suggested. + +[Sidenote: THE RELEASE] + +The preliminary up-beat which has just been discussed is equally +valuable as a preparation for the "release" or "cut-off." The movement +for the release is usually a down stroke to right or left, or even +upward. It is customary not to beat out the final measure of a +composition or a complete final section of a composition, but to +bring the baton down a few inches for the first beat of the measure, +and then to hold it poised in this position, either counting the beats +mentally, or trusting to feeling to determine the time for stopping. A +slight upward movement is then made just before the tone is to be +released, and it is the warning conveyed by this preliminary movement +that enables the performers to release the tone at the precise instant +when the baton is brought down for the cut-off. It should be noted +that the release must come at the _end_ of the duration value of the +final note. In 4-4 a final [dotted half-note symbol] would therefore +be held up to the _beginning_ of the fourth beat, _i.e._, until one is +on the point of counting _four_; a final [whole note symbol], until +the beginning of the first beat of the following measure. It is +because of carelessness or ignorance on this point that composers now +sometimes resort to such devices as [music notation] to show that the +final tone has four full beats. In such a case, the ending [music +notation] means exactly the same thing as [music notation], the tone +being released precisely on _one_ of the following measure, in either +case. + +[Sidenote: THE HOLD] + +In the case of a hold (_fermata_), the movement for the cut-off +depends upon the nature of what follows. If the tone to be prolonged +forms the end of a phrase or section, the baton is brought down +vigorously as at the end of a composition; but if the hold occurs at +the end of a phrase in such a way as not to form a decided closing +point, or if it occurs in the midst of the phrase itself, the cut-off +is not nearly so pronounced, and the conductor must exercise care to +move his baton in such a direction as to insure its being ready to +give a clear signal for the attack of the tone following the hold. +Thus, with a hold on the third beat, [music notation] the cut-off +would probably be toward the right and upward, this movement then +serving also as a preliminary for the fourth beat to follow. + +[Sidenote: THE ATTACK IN READING NEW MUSIC] + +For working in rehearsal it is convenient to use some such exclamation +as "Ready--Sing," or "Ready--Play," in order that amateur musicians +may be enabled to attack the first chord promptly, even in reading new +music. In this case the word "Ready" comes just before the preliminary +movement; the word "Sing" or "Play" being coincident with the actual +preliminary movement. In preparing for a public performance, however, +the conductor should be careful not to use these words so much in +rehearsing that his musicians will have difficulty in making their +attacks without hearing them. + +[Sidenote: LENGTH OF THE STROKE] + +The length and general character of the baton movement depend upon the +emotional quality of the music being conducted. A bright, snappy +_Scherzo_ in rapid tempo will demand a short, vigorous beat, with +almost no elaboration of back-stroke; while for a slow and stately +_Choral_, a long, flowing beat with a highly-elaborated back-stroke +will be appropriate. The first beat of the phrase in any kind of music +is usually longer and more prominent, in order that the various +divisions of the design may be clearly marked. It is in the length of +the stroke that the greatest diversity in time beating will occur in +the case of various individual conductors, and it is neither possible +nor advisable to give specific directions to the amateur. Suffice it +to say, that if he understands clearly the foregoing principles of +handling the baton, and if his musical feeling is genuine, there will +be little difficulty at this point. + +[Sidenote: NON-MEASURED MUSIC] + +The directions for beating time thus far given have, of course, +referred exclusively to what is termed "measured music," _i.e._, music +in which the rhythm consists of groups of regularly spaced beats, the +size and general characteristics of the group depending upon the +number and position of the accents in each measure. There exists, +however, a certain amount of non-measured vocal music, and a word +concerning the most common varieties (recitative and Anglican chant) +will perhaps be in order before closing our discussion of beating +time. + +[Sidenote: RECITATIVE] + +In conducting the accompaniment of a vocal solo of the recitative +style, and particularly that variety referred to as _recitativo +secco_, the most important baton movement is a down-beat after each +bar. The conductor usually follows the soloist through the group of +words found between two bars with the conventional baton movements, +but this does not imply regularly spaced pulses as in the case of +measured music, and the beats do not correspond in any way to those of +the ordinary measure of rhythmic music. They merely enable the +accompanying players to tell at approximately what point in the +measure the singer is at any given time, the up-beat at the end of the +group giving warning of the near approach of the next group. + +[Sidenote: THE ANGLICAN CHANT] + +In the case of the Anglican chant, it should be noted that there are +two parts to each verse: one, a reciting portion in which there is no +measured rhythm; the other, a rhythmic portion in which the pulses +occur as in measured music. In the reciting portion of the chant, the +rhythm is that of ordinary prose speech, punctuation marks being +observed as in conventional language reading. This makes it far more +difficult to keep the singers together, and in order to secure +uniformity, some conductors give a slight movement of the baton for +each syllable; others depend upon a down-beat at the beginning of each +measure together with the lip movements made by the conductor himself +and followed minutely by the chorus. + +The beginning of the second part of the chant is indicated by printing +its first syllable in italics, by placing an accent mark over it, or +by some other similar device. This syllable is then regarded as the +first accented tone of the metrical division of the chant, and, +beginning with it, the conductor beats time as in ordinary measured +music. If no other syllable follows the accented one before a bar +occurs, it is understood that the accented syllable is to be held for +two beats, _i.e._, a measure's duration. Final _ed_ is always +pronounced as a separate syllable. + +The most important thing for an amateur to learn about conducting the +Anglican chant is that before he can successfully direct others in +singing this type of choral music, he must himself practically +memorize each chant. The amateur should perhaps also be warned not to +have the words of the first part of the chant recited too rapidly. All +too frequently there is so much hurrying that only a few of the most +prominent words are distinguishable, most of the connecting words +being entirely lost. A more deliberate style of chanting than that in +ordinary use would be much more in keeping with the idea of dignified +worship. Before asking the choir to sing a new chant, it is often well +to have the members _recite_ it, thus emphasizing the fact that the +meaning of the text must be brought out in the singing. In +inaugurating chanting in churches where this form of music has not +previously formed a part of the service, it will be well to have both +choir and congregation sing the melody in unison for a considerable +period before attempting to chant in parts. + +[Sidenote: THE NECESSITY OF PRACTICE IN HANDLING THE BATON] + +Now that we have laid down the principles upon the basis of which our +prospective conductor is to beat time, let us warn him once more that +here, as in other things, it is intelligent practice that makes +perfect, and that if he is to learn to handle the baton successfully, +and particularly if he is to learn to do it so well that he need never +give the slightest thought to his baton while actually conducting, +hours of practice in beating time will be necessary. This practising +should sometimes take place before a mirror, or better still, in the +presence of some critical friend, so that a graceful rather than a +grotesque style of handling the baton may result; it should also be +done with the metronome clicking or with some one playing the piano +much of the time, in order that the habit of maintaining an absolutely +steady, even tempo may evolve. The phonograph may also be utilized for +this purpose, and may well become an indispensable factor in training +conductors in the future, it being possible in this way to study the +elements of interpretation as well as to practise beating time. + +[Sidenote: BATON TECHNIQUE NOT SUFFICIENT FOR SUCCESS IN CONDUCTING] + +It must not be imagined that if one is fortunate enough to acquire the +style of handling the baton which we have been advocating one will at +once achieve success as a conductor. The factors of musical +scholarship, personal magnetism, _et cetera_, mentioned in preceding +pages, must still constitute the real foundation of conducting. But +granting the presence of these other factors of endowment and +preparation, one may often achieve a higher degree of success if one +has developed also a well-defined and easily-followed beat. It is for +this reason that the technique of time beating is worthy of some +degree of serious investigation and of a reasonable amount of time +spent in practice upon it. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +INTERPRETATION IN CONDUCTING + +INTRODUCTORY + + +[Sidenote: THE CONDUCTOR AS INTERPRETER] + +Interpretation from the standpoint of the conductor differs from +interpretation in singing and playing in that the conductor must +necessarily convey ideas or emotions to his audience through an +intermediary, _viz._, the orchestra or chorus. He furthermore labors +under the disadvantage of having to stand with his back (certainly the +least expressive part of man's physique) to the audience. The pianist, +singer, and violinist, on the other hand, face their audiences; and +because they themselves actually do the performing, are able to work +much more directly upon the minds and emotions of their hearers. For +this reason, interpretation must be studied by the conductor from a +twofold basis: + + 1. From the standpoint of the expressive rendition of music + in general. + + 2. From the standpoint of securing the expressive rendition + of music from a group of players or singers. + +We shall devote this and the three following chapters to a discussion +of these two phases of interpretation. + +[Sidenote: INTERPRETATION AND EXPRESSION] + +The word _interpret_, as ordinarily used means "to explain,"--"to +elucidate,"--"to make clear the meaning of," and this same definition +of the word applies to music as well, the conductor or performer +"making clear" to the audience the message given him by the composer. +It should be noted at once, however, that interpretation in music is +merely the process or means for securing the larger thing called +_expression_, and in discussing this larger thing, the activity of two +persons is always assumed; one is the composer, the other the +performer. Which of these two is the more important personage has been +for many decades a much mooted question among concert-goers. +Considered from an intellectual standpoint, there is no doubt whatever +concerning the supremacy of the composer; but when viewed in the light +of actual box office experience, on an evening when Caruso or some +other popular idol has been slated to appear, and cannot do so because +of indisposition, it would seem as if the performer were still as far +above the composer as he was in the days of eighteenth-century opera +in Italy. + +It is the composer's function to write music of such a character that +when well performed it will occasion an emotional reaction on the part +of performer and listener. Granting this type of music, it is the +function of the performer or conductor to so interpret the music that +an appropriate emotional reaction will actually ensue. A recent writer +calls the performer a _messenger_ from the composer to the audience, +and states[8] that-- + + As a messenger is accountable to both sender and recipient + of his message, so is the interpretative artist in a + position of twofold trust and, therefore, of _twofold + responsibility_. The sender of his message--creative + genius--is behind him; before him sits an expectant and + confiding audience, the sovereign addressee. The + interpretative artist has, therefore, first to enter into + the _spirit_ of his message; to penetrate its ultimate + meaning; to read in, as well as between, the lines. And then + he has to train and develop his faculties of delivery, of + vital production, to such a degree as to enable him to fix + his message decisively, and with no danger of being + misunderstood, in the mind of his auditor. + +[Footnote 8: Constantin von Sternberg, _Ethics and Esthetics of Piano +Playing_, p. 10.] + +This conception of the conductor's task demands from him two things: + + 1. A careful, painstaking study of the work to be performed, + so as to become thoroughly familiar with its content and to + discover its true emotional significance. + + 2. Such display of emotion in his conducting as will arouse + a sympathetic response, first on the part of orchestra and + chorus, and then in turn in the audience. + +[Sidenote: EMOTION IN INTERPRETATION] + +Real interpretation, then, requires, on the part of the conductor, +just as in the case of the actor, a display of emotion. Coldness and +self-restraint will not suffice, for these represent merely the +intellectual aspect of the art, and music is primarily a language of +the emotions. This difference constitutes the dividing line between +performances that merely arouse our judicial comment "That was +exceedingly well done"; and those on the other hand that thrill us, +carry us off our feet, sweep us altogether out of our environment so +that for the moment we forget where we are, lose sight temporarily of +our petty cares and grievances, and are permitted to live for a little +while in an altogether different world--the world not of things and +ambitions and cares, but of ecstasy. Such performances and such an +attitude on the part of the listener are all too rare in these days of +smug intellectualism and hypersophistication, and we venture to assert +that this is at least partly due to the fact that many present-day +conductors are intellectual rather than emotional in their attitude. + +It is this faculty of displaying emotion, of entirely submerging +himself in the work being performed, that gives the veteran choral +conductor Tomlins his phenomenal hold on chorus and audience. In a +performance of choral works recently directed by this conductor, the +listener was made to feel at one moment the joy of springtime, with +roses blooming and lovers wooing, as a light, tuneful chorus in waltz +movement was being performed; then in a trice, one was whisked over to +the heart of Russia, and made to see, as though they were actually +present, a gang of boatmen as they toiled along the bank of the Volga +with the tow-rope over their shoulders, tugging away at a barge which +moved slowly up from the distance, past a clump of trees, and then +gradually disappeared around a bend in the river; and in yet another +moment, one was thrilled through and through with religious fervor in +response to the grandeur and majestic stateliness of the Mendelssohn +Motet, _Judge Me, oh God_. + +It was interpretation of this type too that gave the actor-singer +Wuellner such a tremendous hold upon his audiences a few years ago, +this artist achieving a veritable triumph by the tremendous sincerity +and vividness of his dramatic impersonations in singing German +_Lieder_, in spite of the fact that he possessed a voice of only +average quality. + +It was an emotional response of this character that the Greek +philosophers must have been thinking of when they characterized drama +as a "purge for the soul"; and surely it must still be good for human +beings to forget themselves occasionally and to become merged in this +fashion in the wave of emotion felt by performer and fellow-listener +in response to the message of the composer. + +It is emotion of this type also that the great composers have sought +to arouse through their noblest compositions. Handel is said to have +replied, when congratulated upon the excellence of the entertainment +afforded by the _Messiah_, "I am sorry if I have only entertained +them; I hoped to do them good." An English writer, in quoting this +incident, adds:[9] + + What Handel tried to do ... by wedding fine music to an + inspiring text, Beethoven succeeded in doing through + instruments alone ... for never have instruments--no matter + how pleasing they were in the past--been capable of stirring + the inmost feelings as they have done since the beginning of + the nineteenth century. + +[Footnote 9: C.F.A. Williams, _The Rhythm of Modern Music_, p. 13.] + +There is danger, of course, here as everywhere, that one may go too +far; and it is entirely conceivable that both soloist and conductor +might go to such extremes in their display of emotion that the music +would be entirely distorted, losing what is after all its main _raison +d'etre_, _viz._, the element of beauty. But there seems at present to +be no especial danger that such an event will occur; the tendency +seems rather to be toward overemphasizing intellectualism in music, +and toward turning our art into a science.[10] The thing that we +should like to convince the prospective conductor of is that real +interpretation--_i.e._, genuinely expressive musical performance--demands +an actual display of emotion on the part of the conductor if the ideal +sort of reaction is to be aroused in the audience. + +[Footnote 10: This danger is especially insidious just now in our +college and high school courses in the _appreciation of music_. +Instructors in such courses are often so zealous in causing pupils to +understand the _machinery_ involved in the construction and rendition +of music that they sometimes forget to emphasize sufficiently the +product resulting from all this machinery, _viz._, _beauty_. The idea +of these courses is most excellent, and in time those in charge of +them will doubtless realize that the hearing of actual music in the +classroom is more valuable to students than learning a mass of facts +about it; and that if a choice were necessary between a course in +which there was opportunity for hearing a great deal of music without +any comment, and one on the other hand in which there was a great deal +of comment without any music, the former would be infinitely +preferable. But such a choice is not necessary; and the ideal course +in the Appreciation of Music is one in which the student has +opportunity for hearing a great deal of music with appropriate +comments by the instructor.] + +In order to interpret a musical work, then, the conductor himself must +first study it so as to discover what the composer intended to +express. Having become thoroughly permeated with the composer's +message, he may then by instinctive imitation arouse in his chorus or +orchestra so strong a reflection of this mood that they will perform +the work in the correct spirit, the audience in turn catching its +essential significance, and each listener in his own way responding to +the composer's message. + +[Sidenote: DEFINITION OF INTERPRETATION] + +Musical interpretation consists thus in impressing upon the listener +the essential character of the music by emphasizing the important +elements and subordinating the unimportant ones; by indicating in a +clear-cut and unmistakable way the phrasing, and through skilful +phrasing making evident the design of the composition as a whole; and +in general by so manipulating one's musical forces that the hearer +will not only continue to be interested in the performance, but will +feel or understand the basic significance of the work being performed; +will catch and remember the important things in it, will not have his +attention distracted by comparatively unimportant details, and will +thus have delivered to him the real spirit of the composer's message. +This implies skilful accentuation of melody, subordination of +accompaniment, increasing the tempo or force in some portions, +decreasing them in others, _et cetera_. Clear enunciation and forceful +declamation in choral music are also included, and in it all, the +performer or conductor must so subordinate his own personality that +the attention of the listeners will be centered upon the composition +and not upon the eccentricities of dress or manner of the artist. + +[Sidenote: THE BOUNDARIES OF MUSIC] + +It is inevitable that there should be considerable difference of +opinion among composers, critics, listeners, and performers, as to +just what music may or may not legitimately be expected to express. +Some modern composers are apparently convinced that it ought to be +possible through music to suggest pictures, tell stories, or depict +moral and intellectual struggles on the part of the individual. Others +contend that music exists solely because of its own inherent beauty, +that it can arouse _general_ emotional states only, and that if it is +good music, it needs no further meaning than this. Even "pure music," +the champions of this latter idea urge, may express an infinite +variety of emotional tones, from joy, encouragement, excitement, +tenderness, expectancy, invigoration, and tranquillity, to dread, +oppression of spirit, hesitation, harshness, and despondency. A modern +writer on esthetics treats this matter at length, and finally +concludes:[11] + + Is the symbolization pervasive enough to account for the + steady continuing charm of lengthy compositions?... The + symbolizations ... mostly resemble patches; they form no + system, no plot or plan accompanying a work from beginning + to end; they only guarantee a fitful enjoyment--a fragment + here, a gleam there, but no growing organic exaltation like + that actually afforded by musical compositions. + +[Footnote 11: Gehring, _The Basis of Musical Pleasure_, p. 89.] + +At another point in the same work, this writer again discusses this +same matter (page 120): + + Music is presentative in character, not representative. + Measure, to be sure, may correspond to the beating of the + pulse, and the final cadence may picture the satisfaction of + desires; the coda may simulate a mental summary; but the + composition in its totality, with its particular melodies, + harmonies, and rhythms, and with the specific union of all + these elements characteristic of this composition, does not + represent any definite psychical or material fact. + +The majority of us would doubtless take a middle-ground position, +admitting the beauty and power of music, _per se_, but acknowledging +also the fact that abstract beauty together with a certain amount of +suggested imagery, in combination, will usually make a stronger appeal +to the majority of people than either element by itself. Many of us +are entirely willing to grant, therefore, that a more complex and more +vividly colored emotional state will probably result if the auditor is +furnished with the title or program of the work being performed; _but +we contend nevertheless that this music, regardless of its connection +with imagery, must at the same time be sound music, and that no matter +how vividly descriptive our tonal art may become, if it cannot stand +the test of many hearings as music, entirely apart from the imagery +aroused, it is not worthy to endure_. It is not the _meaning_ of the +music which makes us want to hear it repeated, but its inherent +_beauty_; it is not usually our intellectual impression, but our +emotional thrill which we recall in thinking back over a past musical +experience. + +Those of us who take the middle ground that we have just been +presenting contend also that descriptive music can only legitimately +arouse its appropriate imagery when the essential idea has been +supplied beforehand in the form of a title or program, and that even +then _the effect upon various individuals is, and may well be, quite +different_, since each one has the music thrown, as it were, upon the +screen of his own personal experience. + +[Sidenote: EXPRESSION CONCERNS BOTH COMPOSER AND PERFORMER] + +It will be noted that in this discussion we are constantly using the +word _expression_ from the twofold standpoint of composer and +performer, each having an indispensable part in it, and neither being +able to get along without the other. But in our treatment of +conducting, we shall need to come back again and again to the idea of +expression from the standpoint of interpretation, and in directing a +piece of music we shall now take it for granted that the composer has +said something which is worthy of being heard, and that as the +intermediary between composer and audience, we are attempting to +interpret to the latter what the former has expressed in his +composition. It should be noted in this connection that wrong +interpretation is possible in music, even as in literature. One may so +read a poem that the hearer, without being in any way to blame, will +entirely miss the point. So also may one conduct a musical work, +whether it be a child's song or a symphonic poem, in such a fashion +that neither performers nor audience gain a proper conception of what +it means. + +[Sidenote: INTERPRETATION IN VOCAL MUSIC] + +In the case of vocal music, the key to the emotional content of the +work may almost always be found by carefully studying the words. In +preparing to conduct choral singing, master the text, therefore; read +it aloud as though declaiming to an audience; and when you come to the +performance, see that your vocalists sing the music in such a way that +the audience will be able to catch without too great effort both the +meaning of the individual words and the spirit of the text as a whole. + +The great Italian tenor Caruso expressed himself forcibly upon this +point during an interview for the _Christian Science Monitor_, in +1913. In reply to the question "Where do you locate the source of +expression in singing?" he said: + + I find it in the words always. For unless I give my hearers + what is in the text, what can I give them? If I just produce + tone, my singing has no meaning. + +"Thereupon" (continues the interviewer), "vocalizing a series of scale +passages such as are used in studio practice, Caruso commented": + + Now, when I do that, I don't say anything. I may make + musical sounds, but I express nothing. I may even execute + the notes with a good staccato or legato (again illustrating + with his voice) and still, having no words to go by, I make + no effect on my listeners. + + Look at the question in another way. Suppose I were to sing + a line of text with a meaning in my voice that contradicted + the idea of the words. Would not that be nonsense? It would + be as much as though I were to say to you "This wood is + hard," and were to say it with a soft voice. People have + observed that I sing as though I were talking. Well, that is + just what I mean to do. + +"Singing, then" (the interviewer goes on), "as Caruso began to define +it, is a sort of exalted speech, its purpose being to illuminate the +imagery and sentiment of language. The mere music of singing he seemed +for the moment to put in a subordinate place. + +"By way of further emphasizing his point, he referred to a theme in +Donizetti's _L'Elisir d'Amore_, which is used in two opposing +situations--by the soprano in a mood of joy, and by the tenor in a +mood of sorrow. He sang the measures of the soprano as though +laughing. Then he sang those of the tenor as though weeping." + + "But those two passages of melody cannot be identical," + objected the interviewer. + + "Oh, yes, they are," the tenor declared; and he quickly + proved it by singing them over again with a less marked + indication of the moods. "Here you plainly see where + expression must start. It has to be from the words, of + course. The performer puts in the feeling of gladness or + sadness without regard to the notes, paying attention only + to the text." + +Expression in choral music is dependent upon the text to just as great +an extent as in the case of solo singing; and choral conductors may +well ponder upon the above words of one of the world's greatest +singers, and apply the lesson to their own problems. The average +audience is probably more interested in the _words_ of vocal music +than in anything else; and since both vocal and choral performances +are usually given before "average audiences" it behooves the conductor +to look into the minds of those before whom he is directing, and to +adapt the performance to the attitude of the listeners. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +INTERPRETATION IN CONDUCTING + +(_Continued_) + +TEMPO + + +[Sidenote: EXPRESSION IN INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC] + +In the last chapter we discussed expression and interpretation from a +general standpoint, closing with certain comments upon the +interpretation of vocal music. But it must be admitted at once that +expression in instrumental music is a vastly more intricate matter +than in the case of vocal music; and in order to get at the subject in +any tangible way, it will be necessary for us, first, to analyze music +into its expressional elements; second, to decide which of these +elements belong exclusively to the composer and which are shared by +the interpreter; and third, to examine each of these latter elements +in turn from the standpoint of the conductor as interpreter. + +[Sidenote: THE ELEMENTS OF EXPRESSION] + +There are eight elements upon which expression in instrumental music +rests. These are: + + 1. Rhythm + 2. Melody + 3. Harmony + 4. Pitch registers + 5. Timbre + 6. Phrasing + 7. Tempo + 8. Dynamics + +Of these, the composer is able to indicate _exactly_ the first four, +to convey his meaning fairly well in the fifth and sixth, but to give +only a relative idea of the seventh and eighth. The interpreter is +thus concerned with the first four only as it becomes necessary for +him to find out from the notation what the composer intended to +express. On the other hand, he is considerably concerned with the +fifth and sixth factors (_timbre_ and _phrasing_) and has the main +responsibility in the last two (_tempo_ and _dynamics_). This being +the case, we shall treat _tempo_ and _dynamics_ first of all, as being +the two primary factors of expression with which the conductor is +concerned. + +[Sidenote: IMPORTANCE OF TEMPO] + +Wagner, in his famous essay on conducting, takes the rather radical +ground that everything else is dependent upon the proper selection and +management of tempo. He says:[12] + + The whole duty of the conductor is comprised in his ability + always to indicate the right tempo. His choice of tempi will + show whether he understands the piece or not.... The true + tempo induces correct force and expression. + +[Footnote 12: Wagner, _On Conducting_, translated by Dannreuther, p. +20.] + +In another place in the same work he treats the matter further, as +follows: (p. 34) + + Obviously the proper pace of a piece of music is determined + by the particular character of the rendering it requires. + The question therefore comes to this: Does the sustained, + the cantilena, predominate, or the rhythmical movement? The + conductor should lead accordingly. + +It is doubtful whether many modern conductors would entirely agree +with Wagner's statement that correct tempo always "induces correct +force and expression." Nevertheless tempo is so important that +probably no one will quarrel with us if we at least give it first +place in the order in which the elements of expression are discussed. + +In modern music the composer indicates the tempos of the various +movements much more definitely than was true in earlier days, so it +would seem as if not nearly so much responsibility rested upon the +conductor; and yet there is still a wide difference of opinion among +musicians about the matter, and in many cases the conductor +substitutes his own judgment for that of the composer, assuming that +the latter either made a mistake in indicating the tempo, or else that +he had not tried the composition at the tempo preferred by the +conductor, and therefore did not realize how much more effective it +would be that way. + +[Sidenote: FINDING THE CORRECT TEMPO] + +In the main, there are five methods upon which the conductor depends +for determining the correct tempo of a composition. These are: + + 1. The metronome indication, found at the beginning of most + modern scores. + + 2. The tempo or mood expressions (_andante_, _allegro_, + _adagio_, _et cetera_), which have been in universal use for + two centuries or more, and which are found in practically + all music, even when a metronome indication is also given. + + 3. The swing and, in vocal music, the general spirit of the + text. + + 4. Tradition. + + 5. Individual judgment of tempo as depending upon and + resulting from the "quality" of the music. + +Of these, the fifth, _viz._, individual judgment is most important, +and is the court of final resort in the case of the mature musician; +but the amateur who has had but little experience and who is therefore +without any well developed musical taste must depend largely upon his +metronome, upon his knowledge of Italian tempo terms, and upon +tradition. A brief discussion of these matters will accordingly be in +order at this time. + +[Sidenote: THE METRONOME AS A TEMPO INDICATOR] + +The metronome[13] is a sort of clock with inverted pendulum, the ticks +or clicks or which can be regulated as to rate of speed by means of a +sliding weight. When this weight is set at the point marked 64, for +example, the metronome gives sixty-four clicks per minute; when set +at 84, or 112, corresponding numbers of clicks per minute result; so +that in this way the composer is able to indicate precisely the rate +of speed of his composition by indicating the number of beats per +minute. The indication [quarter-note symbol] = 84 means that the +sliding weight is to be set at the point marked 84, the metronome then +clicking eighty-four times per minute, each of these clicks indicating +a quarter-note. But if the marking is [half-note symbol] = 64, this +means that sixty-four half-notes are to be performed in a minute,--a +tempo equal to one hundred and twenty-eight quarter-notes in the same +composition. In compound measures such as 6-8, 9-8, _et cetera_, the +tempo indication shows the number of eighth-notes per minute if the +composition is in slow tempo; but in moderate and rapid tempos the +direction is usually given by taking the dotted-quarter-note as the +beat unit, thus: [dotted quarter-note symbol] = 84. It is of course +obvious that in this case the composer is thinking of each measure as +having only two or three beats instead of six or nine. + +[Footnote 13: The metronome is supposed to have been invented, or at +least perfected, by a Bavarian named Maelzel, about 1815, and for many +years the Maelzel metronome was the only one in existence. Hence the +letters M.M., still found in many scores, in connection with tempo +indications.] + +[Sidenote: THE ITALIAN TEMPO TERMS] + +Many instrumental compositions (particularly the older ones) are not +provided by the composer with definite tempo directions; and in this +case the Italian tempo terms usually give at least a clue to what the +composer has in mind. These terms do not of course give us the precise +tempo, but by indicating the _mood_ of a composition they at least +help one to determine the rate of speed (_adagio_--at ease; +_allegro_--cheerful; _largo_--large, broad; _andante_--going; _et +cetera_). A comprehensive knowledge of these terms from the twofold +standpoint of definition and derivation is indispensable to the +conductor. The most common of them are therefore defined at this +point. They are given in groups in order that the student may note how +much the various terms overlap in meaning. + + THE VERY SLOWEST TEMPO + _larghissimo_ (superlative of _largo_) + _adagissimo_ (superlative of _adagio_) + _lentissimo_ (superlative of _lento_) + + A VERY SLOW TEMPO + _largo_ (from Latin _largus_, meaning broad, large) + _adagio_ (at ease) + _lento_ (slow) + + A SLOW TEMPO + _larghetto_ (diminutive of _largo_) + _adagietto_ (diminutive of _adagio_) + + A MODERATELY SLOW TEMPO + _andante_ (going or walking) + _andantino_ (diminutive of _andante_ and therefore meaning + literally "going less," but because of a misconception + of meaning now often understood as meaning slightly + faster than _andante_) + + A MODERATE TEMPO + _moderato_ + + A MODERATELY RAPID TEMPO + _allegro_ (cheerful) + _allegretto_ (diminutive of _allegro_; a little slower + than _allegro_) + + A VERY RAPID TEMPO + _con moto_ (with motion) + _vivo_ (lively) + _vivace_ (vivacious) + _presto_ (quick) + _presto assai_ (very quick) + + THE MOST RAPID TEMPO POSSIBLE + _prestissimo_ (superlative of _presto_) + _vivacissimo_ (superlative of _vivace_) + _allegrissimo_ (superlative of _allegro_) + _prestissimo possibile_ (hypersuperlative of _presto_) + +The expressions given above are frequently used in combination with +one another, and with certain auxiliary terms, but to attempt to +define these combinations in this book would be altogether +impracticable. The conductor should however understand the +significance of the following qualifying expressions: + + _non tanto_ (not too much) + _non troppo_ (not too much) + _ma non tanto_ (but not too much) + _ma non troppo_ (but not too much) + +These expressions are used by the composer as a warning to the +performer not to overdo any indicated effect. Thus, _largo, ma non +troppo_ means that the composition is to be taken slowly, but not too +slowly. _Presto (ma) non troppo_, on the other hand, indicates a rapid +tempo, but not too rapid. For a fuller discussion of these matters, +see the author's text book on terminology.[14] + +[Footnote 14: Gehrkens, _Music Notation and Terminology_. The A.S. +Barnes Co., New York.] + +The third means of finding tempo has already been discussed, (see p. +45) and the fifth needs no further explanation; but a word should +perhaps be said to the amateur about the matter of tradition. The +young conductor must not fail to take into consideration the fact that +there has grown up, in connection with many of the classics, a well +defined idea of the tempos most appropriate to their rendition, and +that any pronounced departure from this traditional tempo is apt to +result in unfavorable criticism. Tradition is of course apt to make us +hide-bound in all sorts of ways, and yet in many respects it is a very +good thing, and before our conductor attempts to direct standard works +it will be well for him to hear them rendered by some of the better +organizations, so that he may ascertain what the traditional tempo is. +In this way he may at least avoid the accusation of ignorance which +might otherwise be made. This latter point will remind the reader of +the advice already so frequently given--_viz._, "study music and +listen to music a long time before you attempt very much conducting." + +[Sidenote: VARIATION IN TEMPO] + +Our treatment of tempo thus far has taken cognizance of only the +generalized tempo of the movement, and we have not discussed at all +the much more difficult matter of _variation_ in tempo. The more +evident changes of this sort are indicated by the composer through +such expressions as _ritardando_, _accelerando_, _et cetera_; and it +may be well to give at this point a list of the commoner of these +terms together with their meanings. Obviously, such indications are of +two general types dealing respectively with increasing and decreasing +speed, and we shall accordingly give the definitions in two classes: + + TERMS INDICATING A MORE RAPID TEMPO + + 1. A gradual acceleration + _accelerando_ + _affrettando_ + _stringendo_ + _poco a poco animato_ + + 2. A definitely faster tempo at once + _piu allegro_ + _piu presto_ + _piu animato_ + _piu mosso_ + _piu tosto_ + _piu stretto_ + _un poco animato_ + + TERMS INDICATING A SLOWER TEMPO + + 1. A gradual retard + _ritardando_ + _rallentando_ + _slentando_ + + 2. A definitely slower tempo at once + _piu lento_ + _meno mosso_ + _ritenuto_ + + 3. A slower tempo combined with an increase in power + _largando_ } + _allargando_ } (literally, "becoming broad") + + 4. A slower tempo combined with a decrease in power + _morendo_ } + _perdendo_ } + _perdendosi_ } (Usually translated, "gradually dying away") + _calando_ } + _smorzando_ } + + (After any of the terms in the above list, a return to the + normal tempo is indicated by such expressions as _a tempo_, + _tempo primo_, _et cetera_.) + +[Sidenote: TEMPO _NUANCES_] + +But in addition to the variations in tempo more or less definitely +indicated by the composer there are (particularly in modern music) +innumerable tempo fluctuations of a much subtler nature; and since +these are now recognized as a part of really artistic choral and +orchestral interpretation, (as they have long formed an indispensable +element in expressive piano performance) a brief discussion of their +nature will be included before closing this chapter. + +In some cases a variable tempo is asked for by the composer by means +of one of the following expressions: + + _tempo rubato_ (literally, "robbed time") + _ad libitum_ (at pleasure) + _a piacere_ (at pleasure) + _a capriccio_ (at the caprice) + _agitato_ (agitated) + + (The term _tempo giusto_--in exact tempo--is the opposite of + the above expressions, and is used to indicate that the + music is to be performed in steady tempo.) + +In the majority of cases, however, the composer gives no indication +whatsoever, and the whole responsibility therefore rests upon the +performer or conductor. It is because of this latter fact that the +amateur must study these matters indefatigably. The advent of a more +elastic rhythm and tempo has undoubtedly made all musical performance +infinitely more pleasurable to the listener than it formerly was; but +unfortunately (especially since the advent of Chopin's music) there +has been a great deal of misunderstanding as to the use and meaning +of this valuable new expressional element. + +_Tempo rubato_ may be compared to speaking certain words more slowly +or more rapidly in order that the essential meaning of the entire +sentence may be more strongly impressed upon the listener. It must not +however break up the continuity of the tempo; as one writer has said +"we must bend the tempo, but not break it." Another well-known author, +in treating the same point, states that[15] + + Freedom in tempo does not mean unsteadiness.... We must have + in music the sense of equilibrium, of stability. A careless, + spasmodic hurrying and retarding leads only to flabbiness + and inconsequence. + +[Footnote 15: Dickinson, _The Education of a Music Lover_, p. 21.] + +The most common kind of _rubato_ is probably that in which the first +part of the phrase (up to the climax) is accelerated, the climacteric +tone lingered upon slightly, then the remainder of the phrase rendered +_a tempo_ or possibly slightly _ritardando_. But there are many +phrases that demand a totally different sort of treatment; _e.g._, a +_ritardando_ in the first part instead of an _accelerando_. Which is +the appropriate way of delivering any particular phrase must be +determined in every case by musical feeling. + +The thing that the beginner is apt to forget at the period when his +musical feeling though sincere is yet characterized by lack of +refinement, is that these _nuances_ must always be subtle, and that +the listener ought not to have fluctuations in tempo thrust in his +face at every turn. Indeed we may say that he should hardly know that +they are present, unless he is making a definite attempt to analyze +the performance. The familiar story of Chopin's breathing toward a +candle flame and making it flicker slightly, with the remark, "That is +my rubato," then blowing it violently out and saying "This is yours," +is quite to the point in this connection. + +It is of course understood that _rubato_ is to be employed almost +exclusively in moderate or slow tempos, having little or no place in +rapid, strongly rhythmic music. It should also be remarked that the +more severe the form of the music,--the more architectonic it is--the +less variation in tempo should there be in its rendition, for in this +type of music the expression is primarily intellectual. Such +instrumental works (of which certain compositions of Bach and Mozart +are typical) must not be played sentimentally, as a modern English +writer has remarked, and yet they must be played with sentiment. The +remarks of this same author may well be quoted in closing this +discussion:[16] + + Rubato is necessary in emotional music and is an excellent + means of picturing longing, persuading, dreaming, _et + cetera_. That is why its use is so characteristic in + performing the works of the romantic school and why it must + be used with such caution in the classics. The classic must + be clear as daylight--the structure must be evident even on + the surface; but the romantic composition needs often to be + played in a veiled manner in order to produce atmosphere. In + such a case the rhythm is veiled as it were, draped in + gauze, but the rhythmic design is there under the veil just + the same. To express calmness, decision, _et cetera_, avoid + rubato. + +[Footnote 16: Matthay, _Musical Interpretation_, p. 88.] + +It must now be evident to the reader that this whole matter of musical +_nuance_ is too subtle to be treated adequately in a book of this +character, and it becomes necessary for us once more to advise the +amateur to study music, both vocal and instrumental, in order that his +latent musical feeling may be developed into a ripe and adequate +musical taste. + +[Sidenote: TEMPO RECORDED IN MUSCLES] + +In concluding the chapter let us emphasize the fact that the +establishing of a tempo is a matter of muscle even more than of mind, +and that before beginning to beat time the conductor should have the +tempo recorded in his muscular memory. Before rising to conduct a +composition then let him feel its tempo in the muscles of the arm and +hand wielding the baton; for if not thus felt, the work will rarely be +begun with a clearly defined rate of speed. This consideration +receives added weight when it is recalled that if the conductor does +not set the tempo, the chorus accompanist or first violinist will, and +they, not having studied the music from this standpoint, will rarely +succeed in hitting upon the correct rate of movement. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +INTERPRETATION IN CONDUCTING + +(_Continued_) + +DYNAMICS + + +[Sidenote: IMPORTANCE OF DYNAMICS] + +Another important factor in the expressive rendition of music is +_dynamics_, _i.e._, the relative loudness and softness of tone. The +composer is supposed to have a fairly large share in this phase of +expression, and in modern music always indicates in the score at least +the most important dynamic changes that he has in mind. But our +observation of musical performances tends to make us feel that in this +aspect, even more than in tempo changes, it is the conductor or +performer who must bear the greater responsibility, and that the +_amount_ of dynamic contrast to be employed certainly depends entirely +upon the taste of the conductor or performer. + +It is safe to say that the dynamic factor is easier to control than is +the tempo, and yet in spite of this fact, there is no question but +that the rendition of most choral and orchestral music could be made +much more interesting if it could be given with a greater variety of +dynamic shading. Nor is there, in our opinion, any question but that +the changes from _forte_ to _piano_ and _vice versa_, the gradually +worked up _crescendos_, the vigorous accents on certain important +tones or chords, together with those subtler shadings often referred +to as _dynamic nuances_, may become just as important and powerful a +means of conveying emotional effects as tempo. Joy and triumph and +exuberance are of course expressed by _forte_ and _fortissimo_ effects +(the crowd at a football game does not _whisper_ its approval when its +own team has made a touch-down), but the image of a mother singing a +lullaby would demand altogether different dynamic treatment. + +The _crescendo_ is one of the most powerful means of expression that +the composer has at his disposal--especially in writing for the modern +orchestra, but there seems to be a good deal of misunderstanding on +the part of amateur conductors and performers about the real meaning +of the term. _Crescendo_ does not mean _forte_; indeed Weingartner +(_op. cit._, p. 6) quotes von Buelow as remarking that _crescendo +signifies piano_,--meaning of course that a _crescendo_ usually +implies a soft beginning. + +It should perhaps be noted at this point that there are two varieties +of _crescendo_; one being produced by performing succeeding tones each +more loudly than the one immediately preceding it; the other by +prolonging the same tone and increasing its power gradually as it +continues to sound. The first type is much commoner than the second, +and is indeed the one kind of _crescendo_ that is possible in piano +playing; but the second variety can be secured in the case of an organ +with swell box, the human voice, and in both string and wind +orchestral instruments. Since some of the most beautiful musical +effects may be produced by the use of this second type of crescendo, +it should be employed very much more than it is in choral and +orchestral music. The English conductor Coward takes the ground that +the swell (a combination of _crescendo_ and _diminuendo_) is the most +powerful choral effect in existence.[17] + +[Footnote 17: Coward, _Choral Technique and Interpretation_, p. 112.] + +When the composer wishes to build up a really tremendous climax and +sweep all before him by the intensity of the emotional excitement +generated, he frequently indicates an increase in the amount of tone, +coupled with a very gradual acceleration in tempo, all proceeding by +slow degrees, and perhaps accompanied by a rise from a low pitch +register to higher ones. If on the other hand, he wants to let down in +emotional intensity, he does the opposite of all these things. The +combination of _crescendo_ and _ritardando_ is also tremendously +effective. + +In order to bring together in fairly comprehensive array the terms +that are ordinarily used by the composer to indicate various +expressional effects, a table of the most frequently encountered +dynamic expressions is here included. + + _Pianississimo_ (_ppp_) } + _pianissimo possibile_ } (as softly as possible) + + _pianissimo_ (_pp_) (superlative of _piano_--very softly) + + _piano_ (_p_) (softly) + + _piu piano_ (more softly) + + _il piu piano_ (most softly) + + _piano assai_ (very softly) + + _mezzo-piano_ (_mp_) (moderately softly) + + _forte_ (_f_) (loudly) + + _fortissimo_ (_ff_) (superlative of _forte_--very loudly) + + _fortississimo_ (_fff_) (as loudly as possible) + + _piu forte_ (more loudly) + + _il piu forte_ (most loudly) + + _il piu forte possibile_ (as loudly as possible) + + _mezzo forte_ (_mf_) (moderately loudly) + + _forte-piano_ (_fp_) (loudly followed immediately by softly) + + _forzando_ (_z_) } (These words and signs indicate that + _sforzando_ (_sf_ or _sfz_) } a single tone or chord is to be + _forzato_ (_fz_) } accented, the amount of stress + _sforzato_ (_sf_ or _sfz_) } depending upon the character of the + [accent hairpin symbol] or } passage and of the composition) + [accent symbol] } + + _rinforzando_ (_rinf_) } (reinforced; a definite increase in power + _rinforzato_ (_rfz_) } extending through a phrase or passage) + + _crescendo_ (_cresc._ or [crescendo symbol]) (gradually becoming + louder) + + _decrescendo_ (_decresc._ or } + [decrescendo symbol]) } (gradually becoming softer) + _diminuendo_ (_dim._ or } + [diminuendo symbol]) } + + _crescendo poco a poco_ (becoming louder little by little) + + _crescendo subito_ (becoming louder immediately) + + _crescendo molto_ (becoming much louder) + + _crescendo al fortissimo_ (becoming gradually louder until the + _fortissimo_ point has been reached) + + _crescendo poi diminuendo_ } (gradually louder then + _crescendo e diminuendo_ } gradually softer) + + _crescendo ed animando_ (gradually louder and faster) + + _diminuendo al pianissimo_ (becoming gradually softer until the + _pianissimo_ point is reached) + + _morendo_ } + _perdendosi_ } (gradually dying away, _i.e._, becoming slower + _smorzando_ } and softer by very small degrees) + _calando_ } + + _con amore_ (with tenderness) + + _con bravura_ (with boldness) + + _con energia_ (with energy) + + _con espressione_ } + _espressivo_ } (with expression) + + _con brio_ (with brilliancy) + + _con fuoco_ (with fire) + + _con passione_ (with passion) + + _con grazia_ (with grace) + + _con tenerezza_ (with tenderness) + + _dolce_ (gently) (literally, sweetly) + + _giocoso_ (humorously) (_cf._ jocose) + + _giojoso_ (joyfully) (_cf._ joyous) + + _con maesta_ } + _maestoso_ } (majestically) + + _pastorale_ (in pastoral, _i.e._, in simple and unaffected style) + + _pomposo_ (pompously) + + _scherzando_ } + _scherzo_ } (jokingly) + + _sotto voce_ (with subdued voice) + +We shall close our discussion of the subject of dynamics with a brief +presentation of a few practical matters with which every amateur +conductor should be familiar. + +The _pianissimo_ of choruses and orchestras is seldom soft enough. The +extreme limit of soft tone is very effective in both choral and +orchestral music, and most conductors seem to have no adequate notion +of _how soft_ the tone may be made in such passages. This is +especially true of chorus music in the church service; and even the +gospel singer Sankey is said to have found that the softest rather +than the loudest singing was spiritually the most impressive.[18] + +[Footnote 18: On the other hand, the criticism has been made in recent +years that certain orchestral conductors have not sufficiently taken +into consideration the size and acoustics of the auditoriums in which +they were conducting, and have made their _pianissimos_ so soft that +nothing at all could be heard in the back of the room. In order to +satisfy himself that the tone is as soft as possible, and yet that it +is audible, it will be well for the conductor to station some one of +good judgment in the back of the auditorium during the concert, this +person later reporting to the conductor in some detail the effect of +the performance.] + +_Pianissimo_ singing or playing does not imply a slower tempo, and in +working with very soft passages the conductor must be constantly on +guard lest the performers begin to "drag." If the same virile and +spirited response is insisted upon in such places as is demanded in +ordinary passages, the effect will be greatly improved, and the +singing moreover will not be nearly so likely to fall from the pitch. + +The most important voice from the standpoint of melody must in some +way be made to stand out above the other parts. This may be done in +two ways: + + 1. By making the melody louder than the other parts. + + 2. By subduing the other parts sufficiently to make the + melody prominent by contrast. + +The second method is frequently the better of the two, and should more +frequently be made use of in ensemble music than is now the case in +amateur performance. + +The conductor of the Russian Symphony Orchestra, Modeste Altschuler, +remarks on this point: + + A melody runs through every piece, like a road through a + country hillside. The art of conducting is to clear the way + for this melody, to see that no other instruments interfere + with those which are at the moment enunciating the theme. It + is something like steering an automobile. When the violins, + for instance, have the tune, I see to it that nobody hurries + it or drags it or covers it up. + +In polyphonic music containing imitative passages, the part having the +subject must be louder than the rest, especially at its first +entrance. This is of course merely a corollary of the general +proposition explained under number three, above. + +In vocal music the accent and crescendo marks provided by the composer +are often intended merely to indicate the proper pronunciation of some +part of the text. Often, too, they assist in the declamation of the +text by indicating the climax of the phrase, _i.e._, the point of +greatest emphasis. + +The dynamic directions provided by the composer are intended to +indicate only the broader and more obvious effects, and it will be +necessary for the performer to introduce many changes not indicated in +the score. Professor Edward Dickinson, in referring to this matter in +connection with piano playing, remarks:[19] + + After all, it is only the broader, more general scheme of + light and shade that is furnished by the composer; the finer + gradations, those subtle and immeasurable modifications of + dynamic value which make a composition a palpitating, + coruscating thing of beauty, are wholly under the player's + will. + +[Footnote 19: Dickinson, _The Education of a Music Lover_, p. 123.] + +In concluding our discussion of dynamics, let us emphasize again the +fact that all expression signs are relative, never absolute, and that +_piano_, _crescendo_, _sforzando_, _et cetera_, are not intended to +convey to the performer any definite degree of power. It is because of +misunderstanding with regard to this point that dynamic effects are so +frequently overdone by amateurs, both conductors and performers +seeming to imagine that every time the word _crescendo_ occurs the +performers are to bow or blow or sing at the very top of their power; +and that _sforzando_ means a violent accent approaching the effect of +a blast of dynamite, whether occurring in the midst of a vigorous, +spirited movement, or in a tender lullaby. Berlioz, in the treatise on +conducting appended to his monumental work on Orchestration, says:[20] + + A conductor often demands from his players an exaggeration + of the dynamic nuances, either in this way to give proof of + his ardor, or because he lacks fineness of musical + perception. Simple shadings then become thick blurs, accents + become passionate shrieks. The effects intended by the poor + composer are quite distorted and coarsened, and the attempts + of the conductor to be artistic, however honest they may be, + remind us of the tenderness of the ass in the fable, who + knocked his master down in trying to caress him. + +[Footnote 20: Berlioz, _A Treatise on Modern Instrumentation and +Orchestration_, p. 255.] + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +INTERPRETATION IN CONDUCTING + +(_Concluded_) + +TIMBRE, PHRASING, _ET CETERA_ + + +[Sidenote: IMPORTANCE OF TIMBRE IN INTERPRETATION] + +Having devoted considerable space to discussing the two expressional +elements for which the composer is mainly responsible, let us now +present briefly certain matters connected with the other six elements +in our list (see p. 46). The two described as being partly controlled +by composer and partly by the interpreter are timbre and phrasing, and +we shall accordingly treat these first. Timbre or tone-quality is less +important than either tempo or dynamics, and is obviously less under +the control of the conductor. The vocalist may be induced to sing more +loudly or the violinist to play more rapidly, but it is often +impossible to get either to so modify his actual tone quality as to +make his rendition more expressive. And yet, in spite of this +difficulty, there are many passages in both choral and orchestral +music in which the essential significance depends absolutely upon +beauty or ugliness or plaintiveness or boldness of tone; and +especially in choral music is it possible for the conductor to induce +his chorus to bring out many more such effects than is usually done. A +positively ugly and raspy vocal tone may convey a certain dramatic +effect that no mere variation in dynamics is able to bring about, an +example of this being found in the _Chorus of People_ who sing at +various points in the cantata by Dubois called _The Seven Last Words +of Christ_. Another very short passage of the same sort is found in +Stainer's _Crucifixion_ in the scene at the cross. Mr. Coward has +written more in detail upon this point than anyone else, and we may +well quote his discussion of the topic "characterization."[21] + +[Footnote 21: Coward, _Choral Technique and Interpretation_, p. 73.] + + One of the distinguishing features of modern choral + technique is what I term "characterization," or realism of + the sentiment expressed in the music. Formerly this kind of + singing was tabooed to such an extent that when in + rehearsals and at concerts I induced the Sheffield Musical + Union to sing with graphic power musicians of the old school + voted me a mad enthusiast, extravagant, theatrical, ultra, + and many other things of the same sort. These people + wondered why I wanted variety of tone color--who had ever + heard of such a demand from a choir?--and many of my friends + even thought I was demanding too much when, in rehearsing + Berlioz's _Faust_, I asked for something harder in tone than + the usual fluty, mellifluous sound in order to depict the + hearty laugh of the peasants in the first chorus. They were + almost scandalized when I asked for a somewhat raucous, + devil-may-care carousal, tone in the "Auerbach's + Wine-cellar" scene, and when a fiendish, snarling utterance + was called for in the "Pandemonium" scene they thought I was + mad. However, the performance settled all these objections. + It was seen by contrast how ridiculous it was for a choir to + laugh like Lord Dundreary with a sort of throaty gurgle; how + inane it was to depict wine-cellar revelry with voices + suggesting the sentimental drawing-room tenor, and how + insipid it was to portray fiendish glee within hell's + portals with the staid decorum of a body of local preachers + of irreproachable character. + + Of course the battle in the rehearsal room had to be fought + sternly inch by inch, but frequent trials, approval of the + progress shown, and brilliant success at the concert won the + day. It was so convincing that many said they could taste + wine and smell brimstone.... + + Contrasts of tone-color, contrasts of differently placed + choirs, contrasts of sentiment--love, hate, hope, despair, + joy, sorrow, brightness, gloom, pity, scorn, prayer, praise, + exaltation, depression, laughter, and tears--in fact all the + emotions and passions are now expected to be delineated by + the voice alone. It may be said, in passing, that in + fulfilling these expectations choral singing has entered on + a new lease of life. Instead of the cry being raised that + the choral societies are doomed, we shall find that by + absorbing the elixir of _characterization_ they have renewed + their youth; and when the shallow pleasures of the picture + theater and the empty elements of the variety show have been + discovered to be unsatisfying to the normal aspirations of + intellectual, moral beings, the social, healthful, + stimulating, intellectual, moral, and spiritual uplift of + the choral society will be appreciated more than ever.... + + Tender-handed stroke a nettle, + And it stings you for your pains, + Grasp it like a man of mettle, + And it soft as silk remains. + + Before stating how to produce the laugh, the sob, the sigh, + the snarl, the moan, bell effects, ejaculations and + "trick-singing," all of which come under the head of + _characterization_, I would say that if an ultra thing is + undertaken it must be done boldly. The spirit of the old + rhyme above quoted must be acted upon, or fear will paralyze + the efforts put forth, and failure will be the result. In + choral singing, as in other things, the masculinity of the + doing, the boldness, the daring, the very audacity with + which an extreme effect is produced, carries success with + it. Therefore do not attempt a daring thing feebly or by + halves. + +[Sidenote: TIMBRE IN INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC] + +In instrumental music, timbre is also a highly potent influence in +arousing emotional states, and we are all familiar with the fact that +an oboe passage is often associated with the simplicity of outdoor +rural life; that a melody for English horn has somehow become +connected with mournful thoughts; the sound of trumpets, with martial +ideas; and the grunting of the lower register of the bassoon, with +comic effects. It is well known, also, that the skilful violinist can +cause his instrument to sound an infinite variety of shades of color. +But these means of expression are almost wholly under the control of +the individual players and of the composer (as orchestrator), and +cannot therefore be profitably discussed in a work on conducting. + +[Sidenote: PHRASING] + +The phrase in music is very similar to the phrase in language. In both +cases, it is a thought (usually incomplete and forming a part of some +larger idea) which must be slightly separated from the preceding and +following phrases, that it may be correctly understood; yet must be +so rendered in relation to the neighboring material as to seem an +integral part of the whole. In addition, it is of course necessary to +emphasize the important words in a language phrase and the most +significant tones in a musical one, as well as to subordinate the +comparatively unimportant parts, in such a way that the real +significance of the whole may be clear. Phrasing is thus readily seen +to be an extremely important factor in the expressive reading of +language, since one could scarcely interpret intelligibly if he did +not first of all read as a group the words that belong together as a +thought; and one could certainly not convey the correct idea of the +group to a listener if the most important words in it were not +stressed so as to stand out more vividly than the others. Although not +so readily understood because of the absence of symbolism, phrasing is +quite as important an element in the expressive rendition of music as +it is in the case of language. In order to interpret properly the +conductor must first of all determine what tones belong together in a +group; must make the individuality of these groups evident by slightly +separating them, but usually not to the degree of disturbing the basic +rhythmic flow; and must so manage the _dynamics_ and _tempo_ of each +phrase as to make its content clear to the listener. Many phrases are +so constructed that their proper delivery involves a gradual +_crescendo_ up to the climax (usually the highest tone) and a +corresponding _diminuendo_ from this point to the end of the phrase. + +[Sidenote: PHRASING IN VOCAL MUSIC] + +In vocal music, the matter of phrasing is comparatively simple because +here the composer has, in general, adapted the melody to the phrasing +of the text; and since in language we have definite ideas and concrete +imagery to assist us, all that we usually need to do in studying the +phrasing of vocal music is to follow carefully the phrasing of the +text. But even then a warning ought perhaps to be given the young +conductor regarding carelessness or ignorance on the part of singers +about some of the most fundamental principles of phrasing. The most +common mistakes made are: + + 1. Taking breath unnecessarily in the middle of a phrase. + + 2. Breathing between the syllables of a word. + + 3. Dividing a long phrase improperly. + + 4. Running over breathing places where a pause is really + necessary in order to bring out the meaning of the text. + + 5. Pronouncing the unaccented syllable of a word at the end + of a phrase with too much stress. + + 6. Failing to stress the climax sufficiently. + +Mistakes of this kind are made because the singer all too frequently +fails to recognize the fact that the interpretation of vocal music +must be based upon the meaning of the text rather than upon purely +musical considerations (_cf._ quotation from Caruso on page 44). + +A comma or rest ordinarily indicates the end of a phrase in vocal +music. If, however, the phrase as marked is too long to be taken in +one breath, the conductor should study it carefully for some point in +it where another breath may be taken without too greatly marring the +continuity of the text. Sometimes in a large chorus various sections +of a division may take breath at different points, thus preserving the +integrity of the phrase in certain cases where this is particularly +desirable. It should be noted that when a breath is taken in the +middle of a phrase or between the phrases where no rest occurs, the +time for breathing must always be taken from the last note of the +_preceding_ phrase, in order that the continuity of the rhythm may not +be sacrificed. + +The importance of studying phrasing from the standpoint of the +effective rendition of sacred music will be realized more vividly if +one takes the trouble to inquire of some of the members of the +congregation how well they understood the words of the anthem or solo. +The replies that will ordinarily be given to such a question will +probably astonish the director of the church choir; and although he +will sometimes be inclined to put the blame on the ears and minds of +the congregation, there is no doubt that in very many cases the +difficulty may be traced to poor enunciation and faulty phrasing on +the part of the singers. The following examples are reported to be +authentic instances of phrasing by church choirs: + + Jesus lives no longer now, + Can thy terrors, Death, appall us? + +The poet had quite a different thought in mind when he penned these +words, with the correct punctuation marks: + + Jesus lives! no longer now + Can thy terrors, Death, appall us! + + The wild winds hushed the angry deep, + Sank like a little child to sleep. + +What this verse means is, of course, easily seen by inserting the +correct punctuation marks: + + The wild winds hushed; the angry deep + Sank like a little child to sleep. + +[Sidenote: PHRASING IN INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC] + +In instrumental music we have no definite ideas and no concrete +imagery to guide us; and the conductor, in company with all other +students of instrumental music, will find it necessary to study his +score most carefully if he is to unravel the threads that are woven +together in such complex fashion in orchestral music. As implied +above, phrasing in instrumental music means: + + 1. The grouping together of tones that belong to the same + musical thought, this implying a slight break in continuity + between phrases, as in language. + + 2. Making evident the musical significance of the group by + accenting or prolonging its most important tones. + +These are only general principles, however, and the details of +phrasing in instrumental music cannot be treated adequately in writing +because of their too great complexity. It is only through practice, +reinforced by the intelligent criticism of a real musician, that skill +and taste in the art of phrasing can be acquired. A few concrete +suggestions are offered, and these may be of some slight help to the +amateur, but they are not to be thought of as "a complete guide." + + 1. The first tone of the phrase is often stressed slightly + in order to mark the beginning of the new idea. + + 2. The final tone (particularly of the short phrase) is + commonly shortened in order to make clear the separation + between phrases. + + 3. The climacteric tone of the phrase is often prolonged + slightly as well as accented, in order to make its + relationship to the other tones stand out clearly. + +[Sidenote: RHYTHM] + +Closely connected with phrasing is rhythm, and although the rhythmic +factor should perhaps theoretically belong wholly to the composer, +since he is able to express his rhythmic ideas in definite notation, +yet in actual practice this does not prove to be the case because the +amateur player or singer so often finds that "time is hard"; and there +are consequently many occasions when the rhythm indicated by the +composer is wholly distorted, either because the performers are weak +in their rhythmic feeling or because the conductor is careless and +does not see to it that the rhythmic response of his chorus or +orchestra is accurate and incisive and yet elastic. + +Rhythm is the oldest of the musical elements and there is no question +but that the rhythmic appeal is still the strongest of all for the +majority of people. Rhythm is the spark of life in music, therefore, +woe to the composer who attempts to substitute ethereal harmonies for +virile rhythms as a general principle of musical construction. Mere +tones, even though beautiful both in themselves and through effective +combination, are meaningless, and it is only through rhythm that they +become vitalized. In order to have interesting performances of choral +and orchestral music the conductor must see to it that the performers +play or sing all rhythmic figures correctly, that long tones are +sustained for their correct duration, and that in general the musical +performance be permeated by that steady throb of regular pulsation +which is the foundation of all rhythmic coherence. + +Modern musical rhythm is so complex in its frequent employment of +syncopations, "cross accents," _et cetera_, that the prospective +conductor must study indefatigably if he is to unravel its apparently +inextricably snarled-up threads. We assume, however, that detailed +study of rhythm has constituted a part of the student's work in piano, +singing, _et cetera_, and shall therefore not attempt to treat the +matter further. Let us advise the would-be conductor, however, to +continue his study of rhythm and phrasing unceasingly and never to +allow himself to be deluded into believing that an accurate knowledge +of these things is less necessary now than formerly. It has seemed to +us that some public performers of the present day were cloaking their +inability to play or sing with rhythmic accuracy under a pretense of +being highly artistic and flexible in their rhythmic feeling. Needless +to say, the existence of such a state of affairs is to be greatly +deplored and the student is admonished to make sure that he is able to +perform every detail of his music with metronomic accuracy before he +attempts _rubato_ effects. + +[Sidenote: MELODY, HARMONY, AND PITCH REGISTERS] + +The second, third, and fourth of the elements of expression as cited +in our list on page 46 belong almost wholly to the composer since he +is able to indicate them precisely, and the conductor's chief concern +in dealing with melody, harmony, and pitch registers will be to make +certain that the composer's wishes are carried out to the letter. For +this reason no attempt will be made to discuss these matters further, +the topic belonging to composition rather than to conducting. + +[Sidenote: PHYSICAL MEANS USED BY THE CONDUCTOR FOR INDICATING +EXPRESSIONAL EFFECTS] + +Now that we have reviewed the elements of expression somewhat fully, +what of the conductor? Shall we give him a set of specific directions +for making his chorus or orchestra sing or play more loudly or more +rapidly or more dramatically? Our reply is--no, not any more than we +should attempt to show the student of acting or oratory exactly what +gestures he is to make use of in playing upon the emotions of his +audience. As implied at the outset, the thing that is necessary in +both cases is that the interpreter have: + + 1. General scholarship. + + 2. An intimate acquaintance with the content and spirit of + the particular work to be interpreted. + +Granting the presence of these two things, the actual gestures will +usually take care of themselves. The conductor Altschuler remarks on +this point: + + There is no artificial code of signals needed between the + conductor and his men; what the conductor needs is a clear + conception of the composition. + +We are fully in accord with this sentiment; but for the benefit of the +tyro it may be well to note again that, in general, a quickening of +tempo is indicated by a shorter, more vigorous stroke of the baton, +whereas a slowing down in rate of speed, especially when accompanied +by a letting down of emotional intensity, involves a longer, more +flowing movement, with more back stroke. Louder tone is often +indicated by the clenched fist, the _fortissimo_ effect at the +climacteric point often involving a strong muscular contraction in the +entire body; while softer tone is frequently called for by holding the +left hand out with palm down, by loosening the grip upon the baton, +and by a generally relaxed condition of the entire body. Dynamic +changes are also indicated to a certain extent by the amplitude of the +beat and by the position of the hands. In calling for a _pianissimo_ +effect, the conductor usually gives short beats with the hands close +together (if the left hand is also used), but in demanding +_fortissimo_ the beat is usually of much greater amplitude, and the +hands, therefore, widely separated. For the swell ([crescendo-decrescendo +symbol]) the hands are usually close together at the beginning, are +then gradually separated as far as possible, coming together again at +the end of the _decrescendo_. + +Changes in quality are perhaps most frequently suggested by variation +in the facial expression, poise of body, _et cetera_, while phrasing +is often indicated by a movement of the left hand (thus signaling some +part to begin or stop) or by a lifting of the arms and shoulders at +the breathing point, thus simulating the action of the lungs in taking +breath, and causing the singers or players actually to take a breath +by instinctive imitation. The manner in which the baton is grasped and +manipulated is of course another way of indicating these various +expressional effects, this being especially noticeable in the case of +phrasing, which is perhaps most often indicated by simply raising the +baton higher at the end of a phrase, thus preparing it for a longer +sweep at the beginning of the following phrase. But all of these +things are done in different ways by various conductors, and no set +rules can therefore be formulated. + +The most important point to be noted by the beginner in conducting is +that one must not direct with merely the hand and arm, but must use +the entire body from head to toe in communicating to his chorus or +orchestra his own emotion. Facial expression, the manner of grasping +the baton, the set of the shoulders, the elevation of the chest, the +position of the feet, the poise of the head--all these must he +indicative of the emotional tone of the music being rendered. But be +sure you feel a genuine emotion which leads you to do these various +things, and do not play to the audience by going through all kinds of +contortions that are not prompted at all by the meaning of the music, +but are called into existence entirely by the conductor's desire to +have the audience think that he is a great interpreter. If the +conductor does his work at any point in such a fashion that the +audience watches him and is filled with marvel and admiration because +of the interesting movements that he is making, instead of listening +to the chorus or orchestra and being thrilled by the beautiful music +that is being heard, then that conductor is retarding rather than +advancing the progress of art appreciation; in short he is failing in +his mission. One of the sincerest compliments that the writer has ever +received came when he asked his wife whether he had conducted well at +a certain public performance, and she replied that she guessed it was +all right, but that she had been so absorbed in listening to the music +that she had not thought of him at all! + +The development of modern orchestral and operatic music has brought +about a tremendous change in the prominence of the conductor, and +there is no doubt but that his part in musical performance is now more +important than that of any other type of interpreter, being probably +second in importance only to that of the composer. From having been +originally a mere time-beater, he has now come to be the interpreter +_par excellence_; and as Weingartner remarks (_op. cit._, p. 9) in +referring to Wagner's conducting: + + He is often able to transform as if by magic a more or less + indefinite sound picture into a beautifully shaped, + heart-moving vision, making people ask themselves in + astonishment how it is that this work which they had long + thought they knew should have all at once become quite + another thing. And the unprejudiced mind joyfully confesses, + "Thus, thus, must it be." + +It will soon be discovered by the amateur that in every case where an +effect such as that described by Weingartner has been brought about, +it is because the conductor has studied the music and has then made +gestures which were prompted by his sympathetic response to the +thought of the composer. In other words, the conducting was effective +because the feeling which prompted the gestures came from within, as +is always the case when an orator or an actor moves us deeply. This is +what is meant by interpretation in conducting; and we can scarcely do +better, in concluding our discussion of the whole matter, than to +quote once more from a writer to whom we have already referred.[22] + +[Footnote 22: C.F.A. Williams, _The Rhythm of Modern Music_, p. 18.] + + The great interpreters of instrumental music are those who + can most nearly enter into the composer's ideals, or can + even improve upon them, and who are able to give a delicacy + or force of accentuation or phrasing which it is outside of + the possibility of notation to express.... The days of cold, + classical performance of great works are practically over. + The executant or conductor now seeks to stir the deeper + emotions of his audience, and to do so he must pay homage to + the artist who conceived the work, by interpreting it with + enthusiasm and warmth. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE SUPERVISOR OF MUSIC AS CONDUCTOR + + +[Sidenote: THE FIELD OF SCHOOL MUSIC] + +The phenomenal progress which has been made during recent years in the +music departments of both the grades and the high schools of our great +public educational systems, together with the fact that a large number +of young men and women of real musical ability are entering the field +of public school music as a life work, make it seem worth while to +include a chapter upon the work of the music supervisor as conductor. +The writer has long contended that the public school systems of this +country offered the most significant opportunity for influencing the +musical taste of a nation that has ever existed. If this be true, then +it is highly important that the teachers of music in these school +systems shall be men and women who are, in the first place, thoroughly +trained musicians; in the second place, broadly educated along general +lines; and in the third place, imbued with a knowledge concerning, and +a spirit of enthusiasm for, what free education along cultural lines +is able to accomplish in the lives of the common people. In connection +with this latter kind of knowledge, the supervisor of music will, of +course, need also to become somewhat intimately acquainted with +certain basic principles and practical methods of both general +pedagogy and music education. + +We are not writing a treatise on music in the public schools, and +shall therefore not attempt to acquaint the reader, in the space of +one chapter, with even the fundamental principles of school music +teaching. We shall merely call attention to certain phases of the +supervisor's work that seem to come within the scope of a book on +conducting. + +[Sidenote: DIFFICULTIES INVOLVED IN TEACHING LARGE GROUPS] + +The first point that we should like to have noted in this connection +is that teaching a group of from forty to one hundred children all at +the same time is a vastly different matter from giving individual +instruction to a number of pupils separately. The teacher of a class +needs to be much more energetic, much more magnetic, much more capable +of keeping things moving and of keeping everyone interested in the +work and therefore out of mischief; he needs, in short, to possess in +high degree those qualities involved in leadership and organization +that were cited in an earlier chapter as necessary for the conductor +in general. In teaching individual pupils one need not usually think +of the problem of _discipline_ at all; but, in giving instruction to a +class of from thirty to forty children in the public schools, one +inevitably finds in the same group those with musical ability and +those without it; those who are interested in the music lesson and +those who are indifferent or even openly scornful; those who are full +of energy and enthusiasm and those who are lazy and indifferent and +will do only what they are made to do; those who have had lessons on +piano or violin and have acquired considerable proficiency in +performance, and those who have just come in from an outlying rural +school where no music has ever been taught, and are therefore not able +to read music, have no musical perception or taste whatsoever, and are +frequently not even able to "carry a tune." In dealing with such +heterogeneous classes, problems of discipline as well as problems of +pedagogy are bound to arise, and it requires rare tact and skill in +working out details of procedure, as well as a broad vision of the +ultimate end to be accomplished, to bring order out of such musical +chaos. And yet precisely this result is being secured by hundreds of +music teachers and supervisors all over the country; and the musical +effects of a fifteen-minute daily practice period are already +surprisingly evident, and will undoubtedly become more and more +manifest as the years go by. The outlook for the future is wholly +inspiring indeed; and no musician need fear that in taking up public +school music he is entering upon a field of work which is too small +for one of his caliber. The only question to be asked in such a case +is whether the teacher in question is big enough and is sufficiently +trained along musical, general, and pedagogical lines to handle this +important task in such fashion as to insure a result commensurate with +the opportunity. + +[Sidenote: THE ADVANTAGES OF AN ATTRACTIVE PERSONALITY] + +Charm of personality has a great deal to do with the success of many +directors of children's singing. School superintendents are well aware +of this fact, and of two equally capable candidates for a school +position (especially one involving work with small children) the +supervisor who is attractive in appearance and neat in attire, is +almost sure to be chosen. We mention this fact not in order to +discourage those not possessing an average amount of personal charm, +but to encourage them to take physical exercise, and by other means to +increase the attractiveness of their physical appearance; to enhance +their charm further by tasteful dress; and most important of all, to +cultivate a sprightly and cheerful attitude (but not a patronizing and +gushing manner) toward children as well as adults. Attractiveness of +personality may be increased further by the cultivation of refined +language and a well-modulated voice in speaking, as well as by +schooling oneself in the habitual use of the utmost courtesy in +dealing with all people. + +[Sidenote: DIRECTING YOUNG CHILDREN] + +In the lower grades, it is best not to conduct formally with baton in +hand, but rather to stand (or sit) before the class, and by facial +expression, significant gesture, bodily pose, _et cetera_, arouse an +appropriate response to the "expression" of the song. Every song tells +a story of some sort and even little children can be caused to sing +with surprisingly good "expression" if the teacher makes a consistent +effort to arouse the correct mental and emotional attitude toward each +individual song every time it is sung. + +[Sidenote: DIRECTING OLDER CHILDREN] + +In teaching a class of older children, it is well for the supervisor +to stand at the front of the room with baton in hand, giving the +conventional signals for attack and release and beating time in the +usual way during at least a part of each song in order that the +children may become accustomed to following a conductor's beat. It is +not necessary to beat time constantly, and the teacher, after giving +the signal for the attack and setting the tempo, may lower the baton, +until a _fermata_, or a _ritardando_, or the final tone of the song +makes its use necessary again. + +A word of warning should perhaps be inserted at this point against +tapping with the baton, counting aloud, beating time with the foot, +_et cetera_, on the teacher's part. These various activities may +occasionally be necessary, in order to prevent dragging, to change the +tempo, to get a clear and incisive rhythmic response in a certain +passage, _et cetera_; but their habitual employment is not only +exceedingly inartistic, but is positively injurious to the rhythmic +sense of the children, because it takes away from them the opportunity +(or rather necessity) of each one making his own individual muscular +response to the rhythm of the music. The more responsibility the +teacher takes, the less the pupils will assume, and in this way they +are deprived of the practice which they need in working out the rhythm +for themselves, the result often being that a group of children get to +the point where they cannot "keep time" at all unless some one counts +aloud or pounds the desk with a ruler as an accompaniment to their +singing. + +[Sidenote: THE SELECTION OF MUSIC FOR GRADE CHILDREN] + +A very large element in the success of all public performances is the +selection of just the right type of music. In the case of small +children, unison songs with attractive music and childlike texts +should be chosen. When the children are somewhat older (from eight or +nine to twelve) longer and more elaborate unison songs provided with +musicianly accompaniments may be selected, while rounds and +unaccompanied part songs are effective by way of contrast. In the case +of upper-grade children, part songs (sometimes even with a bass part, +if there are enough changed voices to carry it successfully) are best. +But it should be noted that the voices in these upper grades are not +usually so clear and brilliant as they have been in the two or three +preceding years, the beauty and brilliancy of the child's voice +culminating at about the Sixth Grade. + +[Sidenote: THE HIGH SCHOOL CHORUS IN PUBLIC] + +In planning public performances for a high school chorus, many +difficult questions arise. Shall the program consist of miscellaneous +selections or of a connected work? If the latter, shall it be of the +operatic type, involving action, scenery, and costumes, or shall it be +of the cantata or oratorio type? And if the latter, shall heavy works +like the _Messiah_ and _Elijah_ be given, or shall our efforts be +confined to presenting the shorter and simpler modern works which are +musically interesting and in the rendition of which the immature +voices of adolescent boys and girls are not so likely to be strained? +A discussion of these matters properly belongs in a treatise on public +school music, and we can only state our belief here that, in general, +the _musical_ development of the children will be more directly +fostered by practice upon choral rather than upon operatic works; and +that extreme care must be exercised by the high school chorus director +in handling immature voices lest they be strained in the enthusiasm of +singing music written for mature adult voices. Whether this implies +the entire elimination of the _Messiah_ and other similar works, is +left to the discretion of each individual supervisor, it being our +task merely to point out the responsibility of the high school chorus +director for recognizing the difference between mature voices and +immature ones. + +[Sidenote: THE PUBLIC PERFORMANCE] + +In giving public performances with a large group of small children, +the director will need to learn that it is necessary to teach in +advance the precise shading to be employed at the performance. In +working with an adult chorus, the conductor expects every singer to +watch him closely throughout the selection, and many slight changes of +tempo and dynamics are made at the performance that have perhaps never +been thought of during the rehearsal. But children are usually not +able to keep their minds on the task in hand to this extent, and if +there is to be a _ritardando_ or a _crescendo_ at a certain point, the +only safe thing is to teach this change in tempo or dynamics when +first taking up the song, so that the expressional element may become +a habit in the same way as the tones and rhythms. This is particularly +necessary in teaching the same songs to several different groups +separately in preparation for a public performance in which various +groups that have not practised together are to sing the same numbers. + +[Sidenote: ATTITUDE OF THE CONDUCTOR AT THE PERFORMANCE] + +The conductor must always appear cheerful and confident when +conducting children (or for that matter, adults) in public, for if he +seems anxious and distressed, or worse yet, if he informs the singers +that he is afraid that they will not do well, his uneasiness is almost +sure to be communicated to the performers and there will probably be a +panic and perhaps even a breakdown. If the conductor seriously feels +that the compositions to be performed have not been rehearsed +sufficiently, it will be far better for him either to insist upon +extra rehearsals (even at considerable inconvenience), or else upon a +postponement of the performance. A good rule to follow in preparing +for a public performance of any kind is this: _Go through the work +over and over until it is done correctly; then go through it enough +times more to fix this correct way in mind and muscle as a habit._ Too +many performances are given upon an inadequate rehearsal basis, and it +has happened again and again that performers have been so busy +watching the notes that they have had no time to watch the conductor, +and the rendition of really beautiful music has been made in a tame, +groping, and consequently uninteresting manner. Our American +impatience with slow processes of any sort is as often to blame here +as the negligence of the conductor, the latter often arranging to have +a performance at an earlier date than he really wishes to because he +knows that his chorus will become impatient with the large number of +repetitions that a really artistic performance requires. + +[Sidenote: THE HIGH SCHOOL CHORUS] + +In directing a large high school chorus (sometimes numbering from five +hundred to fifteen hundred singers), the conductor will find it +necessary to study his score in advance even more than usual, for here +he is dealing with large numbers of bright and lively American boys +and girls, many of whom are not particularly interested in the chorus +practice and all of whom love to indulge in mischievous pranks of +various sorts. The conductor who is likely to be most successful in +handling such a chorus is he who, other things being equal, has +prepared his work most thoroughly and is able to conduct without +looking at his music at all, and who can, therefore, keep things +moving throughout the rehearsal period. We might add that if he does +not keep things moving _musically_, the students in his chorus will +keep them moving along other and probably less desirable lines! + +[Sidenote: SEATING THE HIGH SCHOOL CHORUS] + +Many other topics might be discussed in this chapter but the subject +is too complex for adequate treatment except in a work dealing with +this one subject alone. Let us, therefore, close the chapter by giving +a plan for seating the high school chorus that has been found +effective in various schools where it has been used. + +[Illustration: SEATING PLAN FOR A HIGH SCHOOL CHORUS + +-------------------------------------- + Mezzo-soprano | Mezzo-soprano + girls | girls +singing soprano | singing alto +------------------+------------------- + Girl | | Baritones | Girl +Sopranos | Tenors | and | Altos +---------+ | Basses +------- + Boy | | | Boy +Sopranos | | | Altos +---------+--------+-----------+------- + +--------+ +-----+ + |Director| |Piano| + +--------+ +-----+] + +The advantages of the plan given above are: + + 1. That it places the boys in front where their less + developed voices and often smaller numbers will insure + better balance,[23] and where also the teacher can more + easily see what is going on in their midst. + + 2. It places all the boys in the same part of the room and + thus removes the chief objection that boys with unchanged + voices make to singing soprano and alto. There will probably + not be a great number of these unchanged voices in any + ordinary high school chorus, but there are almost certain to + be a few, and these few should not be attempting to sing + tenor or bass when their voice-range is still that of + soprano or alto. + + 3. By placing the _mezzo_ voices (of which variety there are + usually more than of any other) between the sopranos and + altos, they can be used on either the soprano or alto part, + as may be necessitated by the range and dynamic demands of + the composition in hand. In seating these _mezzo-soprano_ + girls the teacher may furthermore allow those who, although + having _mezzo_ voices, prefer to sing the alto part, to sit + on the side next to the alto section and the others on the + side next to the soprano section. If there are any boys with + unchanged voices who are _mezzo_ in range, they may be + seated directly back of the bass section, thus keeping them + in the boys' division and yet giving them an opportunity of + singing with those who have the same range as themselves. + +[Footnote 23: The essentials of this same plan of seating are +recommended to adult choruses for a like reason; _viz._, in order to +enable a smaller number of men's voices to balance a larger number of +sopranos and altos by placing the men in the most prominent position, +instead of seating them back of the women, as is so frequently done.] + +As will be noted in the plan, the conductor stands directly in front +of the basses, the piano being placed on either side as may be most +convenient, the pianist, of course, facing the conductor. In directing +a large chorus, it is a great advantage to have two pianos, one on +either side. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE COMMUNITY CHORUS CONDUCTOR + + +[Sidenote: THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COMMUNITY MUSIC] + +The recent rise of community music has evoked no little controversy as +to whether art can be made "free as air" and its satisfactions thrown +open to all, poor as well as rich; or whether it is by its very nature +exclusive and aristocratic and therefore necessarily to be confined +largely to the few. We are inclined to the former belief, and would +therefore express the opinion that in our efforts to bring beauty into +the lives of all the people, we are engaged in one of the most +significant musico-sociological enterprises ever inaugurated. For this +reason we shall discuss at this point ways and means of securing +satisfactory results in one of the most interesting phases of +community music, _viz._, the community chorus. The development of the +community chorus (and indeed to a certain extent, the whole movement +to bring music and the other arts into the lives of the proletariat) +is due to a combination of artistic and sociological impulses; and it +undoubtedly owes its origin and success as much to the interest in the +living and social problems of the middle and lower classes, which the +recently developed science of sociology has aroused, as it does to +purely musical impulses. + +Because of the fact that community music is a sociological phenomenon +as well as an artistic one, the director of a community chorus must +possess a combination of artistic and personal traits not necessarily +present in the case of other musicians. In particular, he must be a +good mixer as well as a good musician; and if one or the other of +these qualities has to be sacrificed in some degree in favor of the +other, we should be inclined to insist first of all upon the right +sort of personal traits in the leader of community music. In order to +be really successful in working among the common people, the leader +must be one of them in all sincerity of spirit, and must be genuinely +in sympathy with their point of view. This fact is especially +pertinent in those types of work in which one deals with large masses +of men and women. The director of community singing must therefore, +first of all, be a good mob leader. But if, having met the people upon +their own level, he can now call upon his artistic instincts and his +musical training, and by means of a purely esthetic appeal raise his +crowd a degree or two higher in their appreciation of music as a fine +art, eventually perhaps finding it possible to interest them in a +higher type of music than is represented by the songs sung in this +friendly and informal way, then he has indeed performed his task with +distinction, and may well be elated over the results of his labors. + +[Sidenote: THE SOCIAL EFFECT OF COMMUNITY SINGING] + +One of the fundamental reasons for encouraging the use of carols at +community Christmas tree celebrations, as well as other similar forms +of group singing, is its beneficial effect upon the attitude of the +people toward one another and toward their social group or their +country. Through singing together in this informal way, each +individual in the crowd is apt to be drawn closer to the others, to +feel more interested in his neighbors; and in the case of "sings," +where the dominating note is patriotism, to become imbued with a +deeper spirit of loyalty to country. In very many cases, individuals +who formerly would have nothing to do with one another have been drawn +together and have become really friendly, as the result of sitting +together at a community "sing." Referring to the effect of the first +"Song and Light Festival" in New York City, a well-known artist +remarked:[24] + + The movement illustrates plainly to me the coming forth of a + new consciousness. Outside the park, strikes, sedition, + anarchy, hatred, malice, envy; within, beauty, peace, the + sense of brotherhood and harmony.... Community singing is + teaching men to find themselves, and to do it in unity and + brotherly love. + +[Footnote 24: Kitty Cheatham, _Musical America_, October 7, 1916.] + +This same sort of an effect has been noted by us and by innumerable +others in many other places, and various testimonies to the beneficial +social effect of community singing, neighborhood bands, school +orchestras, children's concerts, and similar types of musical activity +have come from all parts of the country since the inception of the +movement. + +The impulse to bring music into the lives of all the people is not a +fad, but is the result of the working out of a deep-seated and +tremendously significant innate tendency--the instinct for +self-expression; the same instinct which in another form is making us +all feel that democracy is the only sure road to ultimate satisfaction +and happiness. It behooves the musician, therefore, to study the +underlying bases of the community music movement, and to use this new +tool that has been thus providentially thrown into his hands for the +advancement of art appreciation, rather than to stand aloof and scoff +at certain imperfections and crudities which inevitably are only too +evident in the present phase of the movement. + +[Sidenote: QUALITIES OF THE COMMUNITY SONG LEADER] + +If the social benefit referred to above,--_viz._, the growth of group +feeling and of neighborly interest in one's fellows, is to result from +our community singing, we must first of all have leaders who are able +to make people feel cheerful and at ease. The community song leader +must be able to raise a hearty laugh occasionally, and he must by the +magnetism of his personality be able to make men and women who have +not raised their voices in song for years past forget their shyness, +forget to be afraid of the sound of their own voices, forget to wonder +whether anyone is listening, and join heartily in the singing. + +There is no one way of securing this result; in fact, the same leader +often finds it necessary to use different tactics in dealing with +different crowds, or for that matter, different methods with the same +crowd at different times. The crux of the matter is that the leader +must in some way succeed in breaking up the formality, the stiffness +of the occasion; must get the crowd to loosen up in their attitude +toward him, toward one another, and toward singing. This can often be +accomplished by making a pointed remark or two about the song, and +thus, by concentrating the attention upon the meaning of the words, +make the singers forget themselves. Sometimes having various sections +of the crowd sing different stanzas, or different parts of a stanza +antiphonally will bring the desired result. By way of variety, also, +the women may be asked to sing the verse while the entire chorus joins +in the refrain; or the men and women may alternate in singing stanzas; +or those in the back of the balcony may repeat the refrain as an echo; +or the leader and the crowd may sing antiphonally. In these various +ways, considerable rivalry may be aroused in the various sections of a +large chorus, and the stiffness and unfriendliness will usually be +found to disappear like magic. But if the director is cold and formal +in his attitude, and if one song after another is sung in the +conventional way with no comment, no anecdote, and no division into +sections, the people will be more than likely to go away criticizing +the leader or the accompanist or the songs or each other, and the next +time the crowd will probably be smaller and the project will +eventually die out. The chronic fault-finder will then say, "I told +you it was only a fad and that it would not last"; but he is wrong, +and the failure must be attributed to poor management rather than to +any inherent weakness in the idea itself. + +[Sidenote: VARIETY OF SONG MATERIAL MADE POSSIBLE BY COMMUNITY +SINGING] + +The majority of people have no opportunity of singing except when they +go to church; but many do not go to church often, and even those who +go do not always sing, and only have the opportunity of singing one +type of music when they do take part. Moreover, for various reasons, +the singing of church congregations is not as hearty as it used to be +a generation or two ago. The opportunity to spend an hour in singing +patriotic hymns, sentimental songs, and occasionally a really fine +composition, such as the _Pilgrims' Chorus_ from _Tannhaeuser_, is +therefore eagerly welcomed by a great many men and women--those +belonging to the upper classes as well as the proletariat. When once +the barrier of formality has been broken down, such gatherings, +especially when directed by a leader who is a good musician as well as +a good mixer, may well become the means of interesting many thousands +of men and women in the more artistic phases of music; may indeed +eventually transform many a community, not only from a crowd of +individuals into a homogeneous social group, but may actually change +the city or village from a spot where ugliness has reigned supreme to +one where the dominating note is beauty--beauty of service as well as +beauty of street and garden and public building; and where drama and +music, pictures and literature, are the most cherished possessions of +the people. In a place which has been so transformed, the "eight hours +of leisure" that have so troubled our sociologists will present no +problem whatever; for the community chorus, the neighborhood +orchestra, the music and dramatic clubs, and the splendid libraries +and art galleries will assume most of the burden of providing a worthy +use of leisure. + +[Sidenote: THE NECESSITY OF ADVERTISING] + +Community "sings" (like everything else that is to achieve success in +this age) must be advertised, and to the leader usually falls the lot +of acting as advertising manager. It will be well to begin the +campaign a month or more before the first "sing" is to be held, +sending short articles to the local papers, in which is described the +success of similar enterprises in other places. Then a week or so +before the "sing," carefully worded announcements should be read in +churches, Sunday schools, lodge meetings, and high-school assemblies. +In connection with this general publicity, the leader will do well +also to talk personally with a large number of men and women in +various walks of life, asking these people not only to agree to be +present themselves, but urging them to talk about the project to other +friends and acquaintances, inviting them to come also. On the day of +the first "sing" it may be well to circulate attractively printed +handbills as a final reminder, these of course giving in unmistakable +language the time and place of the meeting and perhaps stating in bold +type that admission is entirely free and that no funds are to be +solicited. These various advertising activities will naturally +necessitate the expenditure of a small amount of money; but it is +usually possible to secure donations or at least reductions of price +in the case of printing, hall rental, _et cetera_, and the small +amount of actual cash that is needed can usually be raised among a +group of interested people without any difficulty. It is our belief +that the whole project is more likely to succeed if the leader himself +is serving without remuneration, for he will then be easily able to +refute any charge that he is urging the project out of selfish or +mercenary considerations. + +[Sidenote: PROVIDING THE WORDS OF SONGS] + +The leader of community singing must not make the mistake of supposing +that "everybody knows _America_, _Swanee River_, and _Old Black Joe_," +and that no words need therefore to be provided. As a matter of fact, +not more than one person in twenty-five can repeat correctly even one +of these songs that "everybody knows," and we may as well recognize +this fact at the outset and thus prevent a probable fiasco. There are +three ways of placing the songs before our crowd of people: + + 1. Having the words of all songs to be sung printed on + sheets of paper and passing one of these out to each person + in the audience. + + 2. Furnishing a book of songs at a cost of five or ten cents + and asking each person in the audience to purchase this book + before the "sing" begins, bringing it back each succeeding + time. + + 3. Flashing the words (sometimes the music also) on a screen + in front of the assembly. The disadvantage of the last named + method is the fact that the auditorium has to be darkened in + order that the words may stand out clearly; but in + out-of-door singing the plan has very great advantages, + being for this purpose perhaps the best of the three. + +After the chorus has gotten well on its feet, it will probably be best +to purchase copies of some larger and more elaborate book, the copies +being either owned by individual members or else purchased out of +treasury funds, and therefore belonging to the organization. At the +first "sing" it will be a distinct advantage if no financial outlay +whatever is required of the individuals composing the chorus. + +[Sidenote: THE ADVANTAGES OF PLANNING IN ADVANCE] + +In conclusion, let us urge the leader of community singing to decide +beforehand just what songs are to be used, and to study the words of +these songs carefully so as to be able to imbue the chorus with the +correct spirit of each one, having at his tongue's end the story of +the song and other pointed remarks about it that will enliven the +occasion and keep things from stagnating. He will, of course, +frequently find it necessary to modify his plan as the "sing" +progresses, for one of the most necessary qualifications in the leader +is flexibility and quick wit. But if he has a definite program in mind +and knows his material so well that he does not need to look at his +book, he will be much more likely to succeed in holding the interest +of his chorus throughout the "sing." + +Let him be sure that a skilful accompanist is at hand to play the +piano, perhaps even going to the trouble of meeting the accompanist +beforehand and going through all material to be used so as to insure a +mutual understanding upon such matters as tempo, _et cetera_. In +out-of-door group singing a brass quartet (consisting of two cornets +and two trombones, or two cornets, a trombone, and a baritone) is more +effective than a piano, but if this is to be done be sure to find +players who can transpose, or else write out the parts in the proper +transposed keys. When such an accompaniment is to be used, the leader +should have at least one rehearsal with the quartet in order that +there may be no hitches. + +[Sidenote: THE MEETING PLACE] + +If possible, let the "sing" be held, in some hall not connected with +any particular group of people, so that all may feel equally at home +(there are decided objections to using either a church or a lodge +room); and, in giving the invitation for the first meeting, make sure +that no group of people shall have any ground whatsoever for feeling +slighted, even in the smallest degree. + +Granting the various factors that we have been recommending, and, most +important of all, having provided the right type of leader to take +charge of the "sings," the enterprise cannot but have significant +results along both musical and sociological lines. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE ORCHESTRAL CONDUCTOR + + +[Sidenote: DIFFICULTIES INVOLVED IN CONDUCTING A LARGE ORCHESTRA] + +Conducting an orchestra from full score is a vastly more complicated +matter than directing a chorus singing four-part music, and the +training necessary in order to prepare one for this task is long and +complicated. In addition to the points already rehearsed as necessary +for the conductor in general, the leader of an orchestra must in the +first place know at least superficially the method of playing the +chief orchestral instruments, the advantages and disadvantages +involved in using their various registers, the difficulties of certain +kinds of execution, and other similar matters which are often referred +to by the term _instrumentation_. In the second place, he must +understand the combinations of these various instruments that are most +effective, and also what registers in certain instruments blend well +with others; in other words, he must be familiar with the science of +_orchestration_. In the third place, he must understand the +complicated subject of _transposing instruments_, and must be able to +detect a player's mistakes by reading the transposed part as readily +as any other. And finally, he must be able to perform that most +difficult task of all, _viz._, to read an orchestral score with at +least a fair degree of ease, knowing at all times what each performer +is supposed to be playing and whether he is doing the right thing or +not. This implies being able to look at the score as a whole and get a +fairly definite impression of the total effect; but it also involves +the ability to take the score to the piano and assemble the various +parts (including the transposed ones) so that all important tones, +harmonic and melodic, are brought out. A glance at even a very simple +orchestral score such as that found in Appendix B will probably at +once convince the reader of the complexity of the task, and will +perhaps make him hesitate to "rush in where angels fear to tread" +until he has spent a number of years in preparation for the work. + +[Sidenote: DIRECTING A SMALL ORCHESTRA] + +The above description has reference, of course, to conducting an +orchestra of approximately symphonic dimensions, and does not refer to +the comparatively easy task of directing a group consisting of piano, +violins, cornet, trombone, and perhaps one or two other instruments +that happen to be available.[25] In organizing an "orchestra" of this +type, the two most necessary factors are a fairly proficient reader at +the piano (which, of course, not only supplies the complete harmony, +but also covers a multitude of sins both of omission and of +commission), and at least one skilful violinist, who must also be a +good reader. Given these two indispensable elements, other parts may +be added as players become available; and although the larger the +number of wind instruments admitted, the greater the likelihood of +out-of-tune playing, yet so great is the fascination of tonal variety +that our inclination is always to secure as many kinds of instruments +as possible. + +[Footnote 25: Let us not be misunderstood at this point. We are not +sneering at the heterogeneous collections of instruments that are +gathered together under the name of _orchestra_ in many of the public +schools throughout the country. On the contrary, we regard this +rapidly increasing interest in ensemble playing as one of the most +significant tendencies that has ever appeared in our American musical +life, and as a result of it we expect to see the establishment of many +an additional orchestra of symphonic rank, as well as the filling in +of existing organizations with American-born and American-trained +players. There is no reason why wind players should not be trained in +this country as well as in Europe, if we will only make a consistent +attempt to interest our children in the study of these instruments +while they are young, and provide sufficient opportunity for ensemble +practice in connection with our music departments in the public +schools.] + +The chief value to be derived from ensemble practice of this type is +not, of course, in any public performances that may be given, but is +to be found in the effect upon the performers themselves, and the +principal reason for encouraging the organization of all sorts of +instrumental groups is in order to offer an opportunity for ensemble +playing to as many amateur performers as possible. For this reason, +unavoidable false intonation must not be too seriously regarded. + +An orchestra such as we have been describing is frequently directed by +one of the performers; but it is our belief that if the group consists +of ten or more players it will be far better to have the conductor +stand before the players and direct them with a baton. The type of +music that is available for amateur ensemble practice is unfortunately +not often accompanied by a full score for the conductor's use, and he +must usually content himself with studying the various parts as well +as he may before the rehearsal, and then direct from a first violin +part (in which the beginnings of all important parts played by other +instruments are "cued in"). Directing from an incomplete score is, of +course, extremely unsatisfactory from the musician's standpoint, but +the necessity of doing it has this advantage, _viz._, that many +persons who have charge of small "orchestras" of this type would be +utterly unable to follow a full score, and might therefore be +discouraged from organizing the group at all. + +[Sidenote: SEATING THE ORCHESTRA] + +Symphony orchestras are always seated in approximately the same way, +and if our small ensemble group consists of twenty players or more, it +will be well for the conductor to arrange them in somewhat the same +manner as a larger orchestra. In order to make this clear, the +ordinary arrangement of the various parts of a symphony orchestra is +here supplied. The position of the wood winds and of the lower strings +as well as of the percussion instruments and harp varies somewhat, +this depending upon the composition being performed, the +idiosyncrasies of the conductor, the size and shape of the platform, +_et cetera_. + +[Illustration: SEATING PLAN OF A SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA] + +In dealing with a smaller group (not of symphonic dimensions), it will +be well to have the piano in the middle, the lower strings at the +left, the winds at the right, and the violins in their usual position. +The diagram will make this clear. It is to be noted that this seating +plan is only suggestive, and that some other arrangement may +frequently prove more satisfactory. + +[Illustration: SEATING PLAN SUGGESTED FOR A SMALL ORCHESTRA] + +[Sidenote: PROPORTION OF INSTRUMENTS] + +In a symphony orchestra of about one hundred players, the proportion +of instruments is approximately as follows: + + 1. STRINGS: + 18 first violins + 16 second violins + 14 violas + 12 violoncellos + 10 double basses + + 2. WOOD WIND: + 3 flutes } + 1 piccolo } (Usually only three players) + + 3 oboes } + 1 English horn } (Usually only three players) + + 3 clarinets } + 1 bass clarinet } (Usually only three players) + + 3 bassoons } + 1 double bassoon } (Usually only three players) + + 3. BRASS WIND: + 4 horns (Sometimes 6 or 8) + 2 or 3 trumpets (Sometimes 2 cornets also) + 3 trombones + 1 bass tuba + + 4. PERCUSSION: + 1 bass drum } + 1 snare drum } (One player) + + 3 kettledrums (Of different sizes--one player) + + 1 triangle } + 1 glockenspiel } (One player) + 1 pair cymbals } + _et cetera_ + + 1 harp (Sometimes 2) + +It will be noted that out of about one hundred players almost +three-quarters are performers upon stringed instruments, and it is +this very large proportion of strings that gives the orchestral tone +its characteristic smoothness, its infinite possibilities of dynamic +shading, its almost unbelievable agility, and, of course, its +inimitable sonority. The wind instruments are useful chiefly in +supplying variety of color, and also in giving the conductor the +possibility of occasionally obtaining enormous power by means of which +to thrill the hearer at climacteric points. + +Our reason for supplying the above information is mainly in order to +direct attention to the small proportion of wind (and especially of +brass) instruments, and to warn the amateur conductor not to admit too +large a number of cornets and trombones to his organization, lest the +resulting effect be that of a band rather than that of an orchestra. +If there are available a great many wind instruments and only a few +strings, it will probably be better to admit only a few of the best +wind instrument players to the orchestra (about two cornets and one +trombone) and to organize a band in order to give the rest of the +players an opportunity for practice.[26] It will probably be necessary +for the conductor to warn his wind players to aim at a more mellow +tone than they use when playing in a band, in order that the brass +tone may blend with the string tone. In the case of the reed +instruments, this will sometimes mean a thinner reed in orchestra work +than is used in bands. + +[Footnote 26: In making plans for the organization of a group of wind +instrument players into a band, it should be noted by the conductor +that here the entire harmony must be supplied by the individual +instruments (no piano being used) thus making it necessary to have +alto, tenor, and baritone saxhorns in addition to cornets, clarinets, +flutes, and trombones. The tuba is also almost indispensable, while +the inclusion of two or three saxophones will greatly increase the +mellowness of the effect as well as providing an additional color to +make the tonal textures more interesting.] + +[Sidenote: TRANSPOSING INSTRUMENTS] + +In dealing with any ensemble group that includes wind instruments, the +conductor must master the intricacies involved in the subject of +_transposing instruments_, and although this book is not the place to +get such technical knowledge as was referred to in the introductory +paragraph of this chapter, yet perhaps a brief explanation of the most +important points will not be wholly out of place, since we are writing +more especially from the standpoint of the amateur. + +By a transposing instrument we mean one in the case of which the +performer either plays from a part that is written in a different key +from that of the composition, or that sounds pitches an octave higher +or lower than the notes indicate. Thus, _e.g._, in a composition +written in the key of E-flat, and actually played in that key by the +strings, piano, _et cetera_, the clarinet part would probably be +written in the key of F, _i.e._, it would be transposed a whole step +upward; but, of course, the actual tones would be in the key of +E-flat. The player, in this case, would perform upon a B-flat +clarinet--_i.e._, a clarinet sounding pitches a whole step lower than +indicated by the notes. (It is called a B-flat clarinet because its +fundamental gives us the pitch B-flat--this pitch being a whole-step +lower than C; and it is because the pitch sounded is a whole step +_lower_ that the music has to be transposed a whole step _higher_ in +order to bring it into the correct key when played.) In the case of +the clarinet in A, the pitches produced by the instrument are actually +a minor third lower than the notes indicate (A is a minor third lower +than C, just as B-flat is a whole-step lower). In writing music for +clarinet in A, therefore, the music will need to be transposed upward +a minor third in order that when played it may be in the right key; +just as in the case of the clarinet in B-flat, it has to be transposed +upward a whole-step. + +"Clarinet or cornet in B-flat" means, therefore, an instrument that +sounds pitches a whole-step lower than written; "clarinet or cornet in +A" means one that sounds pitches a minor third lower than written; +"horn in F" means an instrument sounding pitches a perfect fifth lower +than written (because F is a perfect fifth below C); while the +"clarinet in E-flat" sounds pitches a minor third higher than written. +Whether the pitches sounded are higher or lower than the notes +indicate will have to be learned by experience or study. + +If the passage marked Fig. 1 were to be orchestrated so as to give +the highest voice to the clarinet and the lowest to the horn, the +clarinet and horn parts would appear as shown in Fig. 2. + +[Music: Fig. 1] + +[Music: Fig. 2 + +Clarinet in B-[flat] + +Horns in F] + +In order to make this information more specific, we add a table +showing the keys of the original and transposed parts. The practical +band man expresses the substance of this table tersely by saying, +"subtract 3 sharps or 2 flats." + +ORIGINAL KEY TRANSPOSED KEY KIND OF INSTRUMENT +C D B-flat +G B-flat A +D F A +A C A +E G A +B D A +F-sharp A A +C-sharp E A +F G B-flat +B-flat C B-flat +E-flat F B-flat +A-flat B-flat B-flat +D-flat E-flat B-flat +G-flat A-flat or A B-flat or A +C-flat D-flat B-flat + +[Sidenote: REASONS FOR TRANSPOSING INSTRUMENTS] + +The principal reasons for the use of transposing instruments are: +first, because certain sizes of instruments produce a better quality +of tone than others (_e.g._, the B-flat clarinet sounds better than +the C clarinet); and second, because it is easier to play in keys +having a smaller number of sharps and flats, and by transposing the +parts to other keys, we can usually get rid of several sharps or +flats. + +In the case of performers on the clarinet, each player is necessarily +provided with two instruments (an A and a B-flat--the C clarinet being +almost obsolete, and the E-flat being used only in military bands); +but in playing upon the brass wind instruments the same instrument may +be tuned in various keys, either by means of a tuning slide or by +inserting separate _shanks_ or _crooks_, these latter being merely +additional lengths of tubing by the insertion of which the total +length of the tube constituting the instrument may be increased, thus +throwing its fundamental pitch into a lower key. + +In order to gain facility in dealing with transposed parts, the +amateur is advised to try his hand at arranging simple music (hymn +tunes, folk songs, easy piano pieces, _et cetera_) for his group of +players, transposing the parts for clarinets, cornets, _et cetera_, +into the appropriate keys. In this way he will also get an insight +into the mysteries of instrumental combination that cannot be secured +in any other way. + +[Sidenote: PITCH STANDARDS] + +The first difficulty that the conductor of an amateur ensemble group +usually encounters is that the instruments owned by his players are +tuned according to various pitch standards; and he is very likely to +find at his first rehearsal that his first-clarinet player has an +instrument tuned in "high pitch," _i.e._, what is commonly known as +concert pitch (about one half step above standard), while his +second-clarinet player has an instrument in "low pitch," _i.e._, +international, a' having 435 vibrations per second. (There is also a +third pitch which is used by many of the standard symphony +orchestras--this pitch being based upon a vibration rate of 440 for +a'). If the conductor attempts to have his orchestra perform under +these conditions, disaster will surely overtake him, and he will not +only find his ears suffering tortures, but will be more than likely to +hear uncomplimentary remarks from the neighbors, and will be fortunate +indeed not to be ordered on to the next block or the next town by the +police force! The difficulty arises, of course, because the oboe, +English horn, clarinet, and other wood-wind instruments are built in a +certain fixed pitch, and since the length of the tube cannot be +altered, they must either play in the pitch intended or else not at +all. In the case of the clarinet and flute, the pitch can be altered a +very little by pulling out one of the joints slightly (the tube is +made in several sections) thus making the total length slightly +greater and the pitch correspondingly lower; but when this is done the +higher tones are very apt to be out of tune, and in general, if the +player has an instrument tuned in high pitch, he cannot play with an +ensemble group having low-pitched instruments, especially when the +piano supplies the fundamental harmony. In the case of the brass +instruments, a tuning slide is usually provided, and the same +instrument can therefore be utilized in either low or high pitch +combinations.[27] + +[Footnote 27: "High pitch" is employed mostly in bands; the reason for +its use being that the wind instruments are much more brilliant when +tuned to the higher pitch. It is encouraging to be able to state, +however, that more and more instruments are being built in +"philharmonic pitch" (a' 440), and the conductor who is organizing a +band or orchestra is advised to see to it that all players who are +purchasing new instruments insist upon having them built in this +pitch.] + +[Sidenote: TUNING] + +The conductor of an amateur ensemble group will find it very greatly +to his advantage to be able to tune the various instruments, or at +least to help the players to do it accurately. This involves not +merely a mechanical knowledge of what to do to the instrument to +change its pitch, but, what is much more important, a very high degree +of pitch discrimination on the conductor's part. It is at this latter +point that assistance is most often necessary, and the conductor who +can tell his cornet player when he is just a shade high or low, and +can determine precisely when the violinist has his strings tuned to an +absolutely perfect fifth, will have far less trouble with out-of-tune +playing than otherwise; for a great deal of sharping and flatting +(particularly in the case of wind instruments) is the result of +inaccurate tuning. + +[Sidenote: BOWING] + +Since an orchestra contains such a large proportion of stringed +instruments it will be very greatly to the interest of the conductor +to take up the study of some instrument belonging to the violin +family, and to learn to play it at least a little. If this is +altogether impracticable at the beginning, the next best thing for him +to do is to study bowing, learning not only the bowing signs and their +meaning, but familiarizing himself thoroughly with the principles +underlying the art. For this purpose some good work on bowing should +be studied, but meanwhile a few words on the subject at this point +will give the absolute beginner at least a small amount of +indispensable information. The signs commonly employed in music for +violin, viola, violoncello, and double-bass, to indicate various +manners of bowing, are as follows: + + [down-bow symbol] Down-bow: _i.e._, from nut to point. + + [up-bow symbol] Up-bow: _i.e._, from point to nut. + + [slur symbol] Slurred: _i.e._, all notes under the sign + played in one bow. + + [slur over staccato symbol] Staccato: _i.e._, all notes in + one bow, but the tones separated. + +The ordinary staccato mark ([dot staccato symbol] or [wedge staccato +symbol]) means a long quick stroke, either up or down as the case may +be. The absence of slurs indicates a separate stroke of the bow for +each tone. Sometimes the player is directed to use the lower half, the +upper half, or the middle of the bow, such directions being given by +printing the words "lower half," _et cetera_, above the passage, or by +giving the initials of these words (sometimes in German). When no +bowing is indicated, a phrase beginning with a weak beat commonly has +an up-bow for the first tone, while one beginning on a strong beat +has a down-bow; but this principle has many exceptions. It is perhaps +needless to state that correct phrasing in the case of the stringed +instruments depends upon the employment of suitable bowing; and since +the first violin part is most prominent and most important in +orchestral music, it becomes the business of the conductor to observe +most carefully the bowing of his concert-master and to confer with him +about possible changes in bowing wherever necessary. It will save a +great deal of confusion if players understand that the bowing is to be +exactly as indicated in the score unless a change is definitely made. +The first player in each group in point of position on the platform is +called the "principal," and is supposed to be the most skilful +performer in that section; and he is responsible, in conference with +the conductor when necessary, for selecting the best bowing, _et +cetera_, all others in the group watching him, and all phrasing as he +does. In actual practice, this means that the players at the second +desk bow like those at the first, those at the third desk follow those +at the second, _et cetera_. Absolute uniformity is thus secured in +each section. It should perhaps be remarked at this point that when +different groups are playing the same phrase, _e.g._, violoncellos and +basses, or second violins and violas, the bowing must be uniform in +the two sections, if absolute uniformity of phrasing is to result. + +In addition to the bowing signs explained on page 103, the conductor +should also be familiar with certain other directions commonly found +in music for stringed instruments. Some of the most important of +these, together with their explanations, are therefore added. + + _Pizzicato_ (_pizz._) (pluck the string instead of bowing) + + _Col arco_ (or _arco_) (play with the bow again) + + _Con sordino_, or } + _Avec sourdine_ } (affix the mute to the bridge) + + _Senza sordino_, or } + _Sans sourdine_ } (remove the mute) + + _Divisi_ (_div._) (divide, _i.e._, let some of the players + take one of the two tones indicated and the remainder of them + the other one. This direction is of course used only in case + two or more notes appear on the staff for simultaneous + performance. It is customary to divide such passages by + having the players seated on the side next the audience take + the higher tone, while the others take the lower. If the + section is to be divided into more than two parts, the + conductor must designate who is to play the various tones.) + +[Sidenote: SCORE READING] + +Reading an orchestral score is a matter for the professional rather +than for the amateur; and yet the great increase during recent years +in the number of amateur orchestras probably means that more and more +of these groups will continue their practice until they are able to +play a more difficult class of music--this involving the necessity on +the part of their conductors of learning to read an orchestral score. +For this reason a few suggestions upon _score reading_ are added as a +final paragraph in this chapter, and an example of a score is supplied +at the end of the book--Appendix B (p. 166.) + +The main difficulties involved in reading a full score are: first, +training the eye to read from a number of staffs simultaneously and +assembling the tones (in the mind or at the keyboard) into chords; and +second, transposing into the actual key of the composition those parts +which have been written in other keys and including these as a part of +the harmonic structure. This latter difficulty may be at least +partially overcome by practice in arranging material for orchestra as +recommended on page 101; but for the first part of the task, extensive +practice in reading voices on several staffs is necessary. The student +who is ambitious to become an orchestral conductor is therefore +advised, in the first place, not to neglect his Bach during the period +when he is studying the piano, but to work assiduously at the two- and +three-part inventions and at the fugues. He may then purchase +miniature scores of some of the string quartets by Haydn, Mozart, and +Beethoven, training himself to read all four parts simultaneously, +sometimes merely trying to hear mentally the successive harmonies as +he looks at the score, but most often playing the parts on the piano. +After mastering four voices in this way, he is ready to begin on one +of the slow movements of a Haydn symphony. + +In examining an orchestral score, it will be noted at once that the +string parts are always together at the bottom of the page, while the +wood-wind material is at the top. Since the strings furnish the most +important parts of the harmonic structure for so much of the time, our +amateur will at first play only the string parts, with the possible +addition of the flute, oboe, and certain other non-transposed voices a +little later on. But as he gains facility he will gradually be able to +take in all the parts and to include at least a sort of summary of +them all in his playing. The student is advised to purchase a number +of the Haydn and Mozart symphonies either in the form of pocket +editions or in the regular conductor's score, and to practise on these +until he feels quite sure of himself. By this time he will be ready to +try his hand at a modern score, which will be found not only to +contain parts for more instruments, but many more divided parts for +the strings. Meanwhile, he is, of course, taking every possible +opportunity of attending concerts given by symphony orchestras, and is +begging, borrowing, or buying the scores of as many of the +compositions as possible, studying them in advance, and taking keen +delight in following them at the performance; perhaps even imagining +himself to be the conductor, and having visions of changes in +interpretation that he would like to make if he were directing. As the +result of several years of this sort of study, even an amateur may get +to the point where he is able to conduct an orchestra from a full +score with some degree of skill, and hence with some little +satisfaction both to himself and to the performers. + +[Illustration: TABLE SHOWING RANGES OF ORCHESTRAL INSTRUMENTS + +_Note:_ The arrangement of instruments here indicated is essentially +that found in a modern orchestral score. The ranges given represent +practical orchestral usage. Additional tones possible for highly +skilled performers or on instruments with certain special keys (like +the low _b_ of the flute) are shown in brackets.] + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +DIRECTING THE CHURCH CHOIR + + +[Sidenote: THE PROBLEM] + +In taking up the special problems of conducting involved in directing +a church choir, we shall first of all need to consider the dual nature +of church music--its religio-artistic aspect, and in studying the +matter from this standpoint we shall soon discover that most of the +difficulties that have encompassed church music in the past can be +traced directly or indirectly to a conflict or a lack of balance +between these two factors. The churchman has not been sufficiently +interested in the _art_ side of church music, while the music +director, organist, and singers have all too frequently been not only +entirely out of sympathy with the religious work of the church, but +have usually been wholly ignorant concerning the purpose and +possibilities of music in the church service. The result in most +churches at the present time is either that the music is vapid or even +offensive from the art standpoint; or else that it emphasizes the +purely artistic side so strongly that it entirely fails to perform its +function as an integral part of a service whose _raison d'etre_ is, of +course, to inculcate religious feeling. "The church wishes for worship +in music, but not for the worship of music," is said to have been the +statement of Father Haberl at the Saint Cecilia Conference in Mainz +(1884).[28] And it is indeed a far cry from this demand to the very +evident deification of music that exists in many of our modern city +churches, with their expensive soloists and their utter failure to +cause music to minister as "the handmaid of religion." The problem is +not a new one, and in a book written about a century ago the author +says:[29] + + The guiding rule which ought always to be present to the + mind of a clergyman should also be held in mind by all good + musicians who would help the church's object, and not employ + the sacred building merely as a place where all kind of + sounds that tickle the ear can be heard. All kinds of music + are suitable for sacred use that do not raise secular + associations. A _Largo_, an _Adagio_, a _Grave_, an + _Andante_, an _Allegro_, a fugal or a non-fugal composition + can all be performed in the Church but should one and all be + of a staid and dignified character throughout, elevated and + sober, and of such a nature that any preacher of note could + say: "This splendid music is a fitting introduction to my + discourse"; or "After such singing my lips had better be + closed, and the spirit left to its own silent worship." + +[Footnote 28: Quoted by Curwen on the title page of _Studies in +Worship Music_ (second series).] + +[Footnote 29: Thibaut, _Purity in Music_, translated by Broadhouse, p. +24.] + +A distinguished modern writer voices the same thought in the following +words:[30] + + The singing of the choir must be contrived and felt as part + of the office of prayer. The spirit and direction of the + whole service for the day must be unified; the music must be + a vital and organic element in this unit. + +[Footnote 30: Dickinson, _Music in the History of the Western Church_, +p. 401.] + +But in most churches music does not function in this ideal way and in +many cases (especially in non-liturgical churches) there is no unity +whatever in the service, and the music is evidently both performed and +listened to from a purely art standpoint; or else it is so crude and +inartistic as to be actually painful to the worshiper with refined +sensibilities. + +[Sidenote: THE REMEDY] + +What is to be the remedy for this state of affairs? Or is there no +remedy, and must we go on, either enduring tortures artistically, or +suffering spiritually? We are not omniscient, but we venture to assert +that conditions might be caused to improve by the adoption of several +changes of procedure that are herewith recommended. + + 1. Educate the minister musically during his general and + professional training, causing him not only to acquire a + certain amount of technical musical ability, but attempting + also to cultivate in him that intangible something which we + call musical taste. A few seminaries--notably the Hartford + Theological Seminary and the Boston University Department of + Religious Education--are doing pioneer work along this line, + but they are the exception rather than the rule, and the + thing must be done by all if the desired result is to obtain + in the future. + + 2. Encourage the organization of chorus choirs composed + largely of those who belong to or attend the church and are + therefore vitally interested in its work. + + 3. Select more churchly music, _i.e._, a type of music which + when appropriately rendered will tend to bring about a mood + of worship. This will often mean a simpler style of music; + it may mean more _a cappella_ singing; and it undoubtedly + implies music that is fundamentally _sincere_. That many of + our modern sacred solos and anthems fail in this latter + respect must be evident to any one who has given the matter + any thought whatever. + + 4. Let the church make an attempt to secure as its musical + director one who possesses a type of seriousness and + high-mindedness that will make him sympathetic with what the + church is trying to do, thus enabling him to minister to the + people through music even as the priest or preacher does + through words of consolation or inspiration. We admit that + this sort of a man (who is at the same time unimpeachable in + his musical authority) is often hard to find; but that the + two elements are incompatible, and that such a type of choir + director cannot be trained, we absolutely refuse to believe. + If the church sufficiently recognizes the failure of music + as now frequently administered, and makes a strong enough + demand for leaders of a different type, they are bound to be + forthcoming. + +[Sidenote: CORRELATING THE MUSIC WITH THE REST OF THE SERVICE] + +Having trained our minister from a musical standpoint, organized a +chorus choir, selected appropriate music, and secured the right type +of choir leader, let us now make a strenuous attempt to correlate the +musical with the non-musical parts of the service; and if we succeed +in our effort at this point also, our task will be at least in sight +of completion. This desirable correlation will only result if both +minister and musician are willing to work together amicably, each +recognizing the rights of the other, and both willing to give in upon +occasion in order to make the service as a whole work out more +smoothly. Many humorous stories are told, the point of which is based +upon the absolute incongruity of the various parts of the church +service. The writer remembers most vividly an incident that occurred +during the first year of the Great War, in the church in which he was +at that time the choirmaster. The choir had just finished singing an +anthem written by an English composer as a prayer for peace,[31] the +concluding strains being sung to the words "Give peace, O God, give +peace again! Amen." As the choir sat down, after an effective +rendition of the anthem, there was a hush in the congregation, showing +that the message of the music had gone home to the hearers. But a +moment later the spell was rudely broken, as the minister rose, and in +a stentorian voice proclaimed the text of the day--"For I come not to +bring peace into the world, but a sword." + +[Footnote 31: John E. West, _O God of Love, O King of Peace_.] + +The responsibility in this case rested as much upon the shoulders of +the choir director as upon those of the preacher, for he should at +least have taken the trouble to acquaint his coworker with the nature +of the anthem, so that some reference might have been made to the +subject in either the prayer or scripture reading or in some of the +hymns, if not in the sermon itself. It is perhaps not always feasible +to have sermon and anthem agree absolutely in subject, but it is +entirely possible to avoid such occurrences as that cited above, if +even a small amount of thought is given to the matter of correlation +each week. Surely the choir leader could at least provide the minister +with the titles of the anthems and solos to be rendered. + +[Sidenote: DIFFICULTIES INVOLVED IN THE CHORUS CHOIR] + +In advocating a return to the volunteer chorus choir instead of the +salaried solo quartet, we are well aware of the disadvantages that are +likely to accompany any attempt along this line. We know that the +chorus choir composed of volunteers is often poorly balanced, usually +contains for the most part indifferent voices and often unskilful +readers, and frequently consists largely of giddy young girls, whose +main object in singing in the choir is obviously not based upon their +interest in the spiritual advancement of the community! But we believe +that under the right type of leadership most of these bad conditions +will in time disappear, and that, through the chorus choir, music may +well become a vitalizing force in the life of many a church in which a +revitalizing process is badly needed. + +In order to make ourselves perfectly clear, let us summarize at this +point the qualifications especially needed by the conductor of a +volunteer church chorus. + + 1. He must be a reasonably good musician, possessing not + only familiarity with music in general, but in particular an + intimate knowledge of vocal music, and knowing at least the + fundamentals of voice training. + + 2. He must understand the purpose of church music, and must + be in sympathy with the religious work of the church. + + 3. He must be young in spirit, and thus be able to take a + sympathetic attitude toward the members of his choir as + human beings, and particularly as human beings who are still + young, inexperienced, and frequently thoughtless. This + implies, of course, a certain amount of personal magnetism + and this is as necessary in the volunteer choir for holding + the membership together and securing regular attendance as + it is for inspiring them musically. + +[Sidenote: THE DANGER OF INDIVIDUALISM] + +One of the chief difficulties encountered in more or less all choral +organizations, and especially in the volunteer church choir, is the +tendency on the part of many members to do all they possibly can in +the way of dress, actions, loud singing, and lack of voice blending, +to call attention to themselves as individuals. This not only results +in frequent offense to the eye of the worshiper because of clashing +color combinations (the remedy for which is, of course, some uniform +method of dressing or perhaps a vestment), but what is even more +serious, it often causes a lack of voice blending that seriously +interferes with both the religious and the artistic effect of the +music. For this latter state of affairs there is no remedy except to +learn to listen to individual voices, and when some voice does not +blend with the rest, to let the person who owns it know that he must +either sing very softly or else stop entirely. This can often be +accomplished by a look in the direction of the singer who is causing +the trouble; but if this does not suffice, then a private admonition +may be necessary--and here we have a situation in which the diplomacy +and the good humor of the conductor must be exercised to the utmost, +especially if the offending voice belongs to a prominent member of, +and perhaps a liberal contributor to, the church. In such a case, one +may sometimes, without unduly compromising one's reputation for +veracity, inform the offending member that his method of singing is +very bad indeed for his voice, and if persisted in will surely ruin +that organ! + +Needless to say, the conductor must exercise the utmost tactfulness in +dealing with such matters as these, but it is our belief that if he +insists strongly enough in the rehearsal upon a unified body of tone +from each part, and backs this up by private conversations with +individual members, with perhaps a free lesson or two in correct voice +placement, or even the elimination of one or two utterly hopeless +voices, a fine quality of voice blending will eventually result. It +might be remarked at this point that such desirable homogeneity of +tone will only eventuate if each individual member of the choir +becomes willing to submerge his own voice in the total effect of his +part; and that learning to give way in this fashion for the sake of +the larger good of the entire group is one of the most valuable social +lessons to be learned by the young men and women of today. It is the +business of the choir leader to drive home this lesson whenever +necessary. It is also his task to see to it that no member of his +choir by his actions causes any interference with the worship of the +congregation. In plain speech, it is his duty to see to it that choir +members conduct themselves in a manner appropriate to their position, +and that they do not by whispering, laughing, note writing, and other +similar frivolities, hinder in any way the development of a spirit of +reverent devotion on the part of the congregation. + +[Sidenote: SOLO SINGING IN THE CHURCH SERVICE] + +Another type of undesirable individualism is to be found in the case +of the church solo singer. We have no quarrel with the sacred solo +when sung in such a way as to move the hearts of the congregation to a +more sincere attitude of devotion; and we are entirely willing to +grant that the sacred solo has the inherent possibility of becoming as +pregnant with religious fervor as the sermon itself, and may indeed, +because of its esthetic and emotional appeal, convey a message of +comfort or of inspiration to many a heart that might remain untouched +by the appeal of a merely intellectual sermon. But it has been our +observation that the usual church solo very seldom functions in this +way; that the singer usually considers it only as an opportunity to +show how well he can perform; that he seldom thinks very much about +the words; that the selections are usually not chosen because they are +appropriate to the remainder of the service but because they are +"effective" or perhaps because they are well adapted to the voice or +the style of the singer; and that our congregations have grown so +accustomed to this sort of thing that the performance of a sacred solo +is now usually listened to, commented upon, and criticized in exactly +the same way in the church service as would be the case at a concert +performance. + +Instead of thinking, "I am delivering a _message_," the singer is only +too palpably saying to us, "I am singing a _solo_, don't you think I +am doing it well?" + +The remedy for this condition of affairs is the same as that which we +have been recommending for church music in general, and before church +solo singing can be commended in very glowing terms as a method of +assisting the congregation to become more thoughtful, more fervent in +their devotional attitude, we must have: + + 1. More appropriate selections. + + 2. A more sincerely reverent and a more thoroughly + non-egoistic attitude on the part of the soloists. + +Because these things are so difficult of attainment under present +conditions our feeling is that, all in all, chorus music is probably +considerably more effective as a vehicle for making a religio-esthetic +appeal, than solo singing. + +[Sidenote: PROGRESS IN PUBLIC SCHOOL MUSIC AS RELATED TO CHURCH +CHOIRS] + +The public schools are doing very much more in the way of teaching +music than formerly, and in many places consistent work is being +carried on as the result of which the children now in school are +learning to read music notation somewhat fluently, to use their voices +correctly, and are cultivating as well a certain amount of taste in +music. Because of this musical activity in the public schools, our +task of organizing and directing volunteer church choirs should be +very much simplified in the near future. Community singing will help +at this point also, and the very much larger number of boys and girls +who are receiving training as the result of the development of high +school music, ought to make it considerably easier to secure the right +type of choir director in the future than has been the case in the +past. As a result of the present widespread interest in music and +music study, it should be possible also to get very much better +congregational singing, and withal to interest the congregation (and +the preacher!) in a better type of music. All in all, the outlook is +extremely promising and we venture to predict a great improvement in +all that pertains to church music during the next quarter century. + +[Sidenote: IMPORTANCE OF CONGREGATIONAL SINGING] + +Let us close this discussion by urging the choir director to remember +that the most important music, at least in the Protestant church, is +the congregational singing; and to consider the fact that if music is +to help people worship without becoming a substitute for worship, it +will be necessary for him not only to inspire his choir with high +ideals of church music, but also to devise means of inducing the +congregation to take part in the singing to a much greater extent than +is now the case in most churches. It is usually true that the finer +the choir, and the more elaborate the accompaniment, the less hearty +is the congregational singing. If there is to be steady growth in the +efficiency of chorus choirs, therefore, it will not be surprising if +congregational singing sometimes falls off in volume and enthusiasm. +The reasons for such a decline are: First, because the people take no +responsibility for the singing, knowing that it will go well whether +they join in or not; second, because the choir often sings so well +that the people would rather listen than take part; third, because the +director frequently stands with his back to the congregation and +apparently does not expect much singing from them; and fourth, because +the choir leader often insists upon a highly musical interpretation of +the hymns, this involving the carrying over of phrases, _et cetera_. +These latter things may well be done after a long period of training, +but in the early stages the way to arouse interest in congregational +singing is not to insist too strongly upon the purely artistic +aspects, but to remember that most of the congregation are musically +untrained and not only do not see the point to all these refinements, +but will frequently become discouraged and stop singing entirely if +too many of them are insisted upon. It will be well also to apply to +this type of group singing the principles already discussed in +connection with community "sings," having the congregation sing alone +part of the time, having a stanza sung as a solo occasionally, making +use of antiphonal effects, and in other ways introducing variety and +placing more responsibility upon the congregation; and, most important +of all, calling attention more frequently to the words of the hymns, +either the preacher or the choir leader sometimes giving the stories +of their origin, and in other ways attempting to interest the +congregation in the meaning of the hymn as a poem. Perhaps a more +careful selection of the hymns would help also, especially if a +consistent attempt were to be made to give the congregation an +opportunity of practising the more musical tunes, so that they would +come to feel familiar with them and at ease in singing them. If the +choir director will take the trouble to go through the hymn book and +select forty or fifty really fine hymns and tunes that are not being +used, suggesting to the minister that these be sung sometimes in +connection with the more familiar ones, he will very often find the +minister more than willing to meet him half way in the matter. In +these various ways the choir leader and the minister may by consistent +cooperation inspire the congregation to the point where the vocal +response is as hearty and as _heartfelt_ as it used to be in the olden +days. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +THE BOY CHOIR AND ITS PROBLEMS + + +[Sidenote: THE PROBLEMS] + +The two special problems connected with directing a boy choir are: + + 1. Becoming intimately acquainted with the compass, + registers, possibilities, and limitations of the boy's + voice. + + 2. Finding out how to manage the boys themselves so as to + keep them good-natured, well-behaved, interested, and hard + at work. + +To these two might be added a third--namely, the problem of becoming +familiar with the liturgy of the particular church in which the choir +sings, since male choirs are to be found most often in liturgical +churches. But since this will vary widely in the case of different +sects, we shall not concern ourselves with it, but will be content +with giving a brief discussion of each of the other points. + +[Sidenote: PECULIARITIES OF THE CHILD VOICE] + +The child voice is not merely a miniature adult voice, but is an +instrument of quite different character. In the first place, it is not +nearly so individualistic in timbre as the adult voice, and because of +the far greater homogeneity of voice quality that obtains in +children's singing, it is much easier to secure blending of tone, the +effect being that of one voice rather than of a number of voices in +combination. This is a disadvantage from the standpoint of variety of +color in producing certain emotional effects, but it is in some ways +an advantage in the church service, especially in churches where the +ideal is to make the entire procedure as impersonal and formal as +possible. In the second place, the child voice is good only in the +upper register--the chest tones being throaty, unpleasant, and +frequently off pitch. In the third place, the child voice is immature, +and his vocal organs are much more likely to be injured by +overstraining. When directed by a competent voice trainer, however, +the effect of a large group of children singing together is most +striking, and their pure, fresh, flutelike tones, combined with the +appearance of purity and innocence which they present to the eye, +bring many a thrill to the heart and not infrequently a tear to the +eye of the worshiper. + +[Sidenote: THE BOY VOICE IN THE CHURCH CHOIR] + +In many European churches, and in a considerable number in the United +States, it is customary to have boys with unchanged voices sing the +soprano part, men with trained falsetto voices (called male altos) +taking the alto,[32] while the tenor and bass parts are, of course, +sung by men as always. Since the child voice is only useful when the +tones are produced with relaxed muscles, and since the resonance +cavities have not developed sufficiently to give the voice a great +deal of power, it is possible for a few men on each of the lower parts +to sing with from twenty to thirty boys on the soprano part. Six +basses, four tenors, and four altos will easily balance twenty-five +boy sopranos, if all voices are of average power. + +[Footnote 32: In many male choirs the alto part is sung by boys; but +this does not result in a fine blending of parts, because of the fact, +as already noted in the above paragraph, that the boy's voice is good +only in its upper register. It may be of interest to the reader to +know that in places where there are no adult male altos, these voices +may be trained with comparative ease. All that is needed is a baritone +or bass who has no particular ambitions in the direction of solo +singing (the extensive use of the falsetto voice is detrimental to the +lower tones); who is a good reader; and who is willing to vocalize in +his falsetto voice a half hour a day for a few months. The chief +obstacle that is likely to be encountered in training male altos is +the fact that the men are apt to regard falsetto singing as +effeminate.] + +[Sidenote: THE NECESSITY OF BEING A VOICE TRAINER] + +There is one difference between the mixed choir of adult voices and +the boy choir that should be noted at the outset by the amateur. It is +that, in the former, the choir leader is working with mature men and +women, most of whom have probably learned to use their voices as well +as they ever will; but in directing a boy choir, the sopranos must be +taught not only the actual music to be sung at the church service, +but, what is much more difficult, they must be trained in the +essentials of correct breathing, tone placement, _et cetera_, from the +ground up. Hence the absolute necessity of the choirmaster being a +voice specialist. He need not have a fine solo voice, but he must know +the essentials of good singing, and must be able to demonstrate with +his own voice what he means by purity of vowel, clearness of +enunciation, _et cetera_. These things are probably always best taught +by imitation, even in the case of adults; but when dealing with a +crowd of lively American boys, imitation is practically the only +method that _can_ be used successfully. We shall not attempt to give +information regarding this highly important matter in the present +volume, because it is far too complex and difficult to be taken up in +anything short of a treatise and because, moreover, the art of singing +cannot be taught in a book. The student who is ambitious to become the +director of a boy choir is advised, first, to study singing for a +period of years, and second, to read several good books upon the +training of children's voices. There are a number of books of this +character, some of the best ones being included in the reference list +in Appendix A (p. 164). + +[Sidenote: THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE VOICES OF BOYS AND GIRLS] + +The child's larynx grows steadily up to the age of about six, but at +this time growth ceases, and until puberty the vocal cords, larynx, +and throat muscles develop in strength and flexibility, without +increasing appreciably in size. This means that from six until the +beginning of adolescence the voice maintains approximately the same +range, and that this is the time to train it as a _child voice_. + +The question now arises, why not use the girl's voice in choirs as +well as the boy's?--and the answer is threefold. In the first place, +certain churches have always clung to the idea of the _male_ choir, +women being refused any participation in what originally was strictly +a priestly office; in the second place, the girl arrives at the age of +puberty somewhat earlier than the boy, and since her voice begins to +change proportionately sooner, it is not serviceable for so long a +period, and is therefore scarcely worth training as a child voice +because of the short time during which it can be used in this +capacity; and in the third place, the boy's voice is noticeably more +brilliant between the ages of seven or eight and thirteen or fourteen, +and is therefore actually more useful from the standpoint of both +power and timbre. If it were not for such considerations as these, the +choir of girls would doubtless be more common than the choir of boys, +for girls are much more likely to be tractable at this age, and are in +many ways far easier to deal with than boys. + +At the age of six, the voices of boys and girls are essentially alike +in timbre; but as the boy indulges in more vigorous play and work, and +his muscles grow firmer and his whole body sturdier, the +voice-producing mechanism too takes on these characteristics, and a +group of thirty boys ten or twelve years old will actually produce +tones that are considerably more brilliant than those made by a group +of thirty girls of similar age. + +[Sidenote: THE COMPASS OF THE CHILD VOICE] + +To the novice in the handling children's voices, the statement that +the typical voice of boys and girls about ten years of age easily +reaches a'' and frequently b'' or c''' [music notation] will at first +seem unbelievable. This is nevertheless the case, and the first thing +to be learned by the trainer of a boy choir is therefore to keep the +boys singing high, beginning with the higher tones [music notation] +and vocalizing downward, instead of _vice versa_. The main reason for +the necessity of this downward vocalization is what is known as the +_movable break_. In an adult voice, the change from a low register to +a higher one always takes place at approximately the same place in the +scale; but the child's voice is immature, his vocal organs have not +formed definitely established habits, and the chest register is often +pushed upward to c'', d'', or even e'' [music notation]. This is +practically always done in singing an ascending scale loudly, and the +result is not only distressing to the listener, but ruinous to the +voice. In former days this type of singing was common in our public +schools, the result being that most boys honestly thought it +impossible to sing higher than c'' or d'' [music notation] this being +the limit beyond which it was difficult to push the chest voice. The +head voice was thus not used at all, and the singing of public school +children in the past has in most cases been anything but satisfactory +from the standpoint of tonal beauty. But most supervisors of music +have now become somewhat familiar with the child voice, and are +insisting upon high-pitched songs, soft singing, and downward +vocalization, these being the three indispensable factors in the +proper training of children's voices. The result is that in many +places school children are at the present time singing very well +indeed, and the present growing tendency to encourage public +performance by large groups of them makes available a new color to the +composer of choral and orchestral music, and promises many a thrill to +the concert-goer of the future. + +It is the head register, or _thin_ voice, that produces the pure, +flutelike tones which are the essential charm of a boy choir, and if +chest tones are to be employed at all, they must be made as nearly as +possible as are the head tones, thus causing the voice to produce an +approximately uniform timbre in the entire scale. This may be +accomplished with a fair degree of ease by a strict adherence to the +three principles of procedure mentioned in the above paragraph. In +fact these three things are almost the beginning, middle, and end of +child-voice training, and since they thus form the _sine qua non_ of +effective boy-choir singing, we shall emphasize them through +reiteration. + + 1. The singing must be soft until the child has learned to + produce tone correctly _as a habit_. + + 2. Downward vocalization should be employed in the early + stages, so as to insure the use of the head voice. + + 3. The music should be high in range, in order that the + child may be given as favorable an opportunity as possible + of producing his best tones. + +When these principles are introduced in either a boy choir or a public +school system, the effect will at first be disappointing, for the tone +produced by the boy's head voice is so small and seems so +insignificant as compared with the chest voice which he has probably +been using, that he is apt to resent the instruction, and perhaps to +feel that, you are trying to make a baby, or worse yet, a girl, out of +him! But he must be encouraged to persist, and after a few weeks or +months of practice, the improvement in his singing will be so patent +that there will probably be no further trouble. + +[Sidenote: THE LIFE OF THE BOY VOICE] + +Boys are admitted to male choirs at from seven or eight to ten or +twelve years of age, but are often required to undergo a course of +training lasting a year or more before being permitted to sing with +the choir in public. For this reason, if for no other, the director of +a boy choir must be a thoroughly qualified voice trainer. He, of +course, takes no voice that is not reasonably good to start with, but +after admitting a boy with a naturally good vocal organ it is his task +so to train that voice as to enable it to withstand several hours of +singing each day without injury and to produce tones of maximal beauty +as a matter of habit. But if the choir leader is not a thoroughly +qualified vocal instructor, or if he has erroneous ideals of what +boy-voice tone should be, the result is frequently that the voice is +overstrained and perhaps ruined; or else the singing is of an insipid, +lifeless, "hooty" character, making one feel that an adult mixed choir +is infinitely preferable to a boy choir.[33] + +[Footnote 33: Even when an ideal type of tone is secured, there is +considerable difference of opinion as to whether the boy soprano is, +all in all, as effective as the adult female voice. Many consider that +the child is incapable of expressing a sufficient variety of emotions +because of his lack of experience with life, and that the boy-soprano +voice is therefore unsuited to the task assigned it, especially when +the modern conception of religion is taken into consideration. But to +settle this controversy is no part of our task, hence we shall not +even express an opinion upon the matter.] + +Adolescence begins at the age of thirteen or fourteen in boys, and +with the growth of the rest of the body at this time, the vocal organs +also resume their increase in size, the result being not only longer +vocal cords and a correspondingly lower range of voice, but an +absolute breaking down of the habits of singing that have been +established, and frequently a temporary but almost total loss of +control of the vocal organs. These changes sometimes take place as +early as the thirteenth year, but on the other hand are frequently not +noticeable until the boy is fifteen or sixteen, and there are on +record instances of boys singing soprano in choirs until seventeen or +even eighteen. The loss of control that accompanies the change of +voice (with which we are all familiar because of having heard the +queer alternations of squeaking and grumbling in which the adolescent +boy so frequently indulges), is due to the fact that the larynx, vocal +cords, _et cetera_, increase in size more rapidly than the muscles +develop strength to manipulate them, and this rapid increase in the +size of the parts (in boys a practical doubling in the length of the +vocal cords) makes it incumbent upon the choir trainer to use extreme +caution in handling the voices at this time, just as the employer of +adolescent boys must use great care in setting them at any sort of a +task involving heavy lifting or other kinds of strain. In the public +schools, where no child is asked to sing more than ten or twelve +minutes a day, no harm is likely to result; but in a choir which +rehearses from one to two hours each day and frequently sings at a +public service besides, it seems to be the consensus of opinion that +the boy is taking a grave risk in continuing to sing while his voice +is changing.[34] He is usually able to sing the high tones for a +considerable period after the low ones begin to develop; but to +continue singing the high tones is always attended with considerable +danger, and many a voice has undoubtedly been ruined for after use by +singing at this time. The reason for encouraging the boy to keep on +singing is, of course, that the choirmaster, having trained a voice +for a number of years, dislikes losing it when it is at the very acme +of brilliancy. For this feeling he can hardly be blamed, for the most +important condition of successful work by a male choir is probably +permanency of membership; and the leader must exercise every wile to +keep the boys in, once they have become useful members of the +organization. But in justice to the boy's future, he ought probably in +most cases to be dismissed from the choir when his voice begins to +change. + +[Footnote 34: Browne and Behnke, in _The Child's Voice_, p. 75, state +in reply to a questionnaire sent out to a large number of choir +trainers, singers, _et cetera_, that seventy-nine persons out of one +hundred fifty-two stated positively that singing through the period of +puberty "causes certain injury, deterioration, or ruin to the after +voice." In the same book are found also (pp. 85 to 90) a series of +extremely interesting comments on the choirmaster's temptation to use +a voice after it begins to change.] + +Let us now summarize the advice given up to this point before going on +to the consideration of our second problem: + + 1. Have the boys sing in high range most of the time. The + actual compass of the average choir boy's voice is probably + g--c''' but his best tones will be between e' and g'' [music + notation]. An occasional a'' or b'' or a d' or c' will do no + harm, but the voice must not remain outside of the range + e'--g'' for long at a time. + + 2. Insist upon soft singing until correct habits are + established. There is a vast difference of opinion as to + what soft singing means, and we have no means of making the + point clear except to say that at the outset of his career + the boy can scarcely sing too softly. Later on, after + correct habits are formed, the singing may, of course, be + louder, but it should at no time be so loud as to sound + strained. + + 3. Train the voice downward for some time before attempting + upward vocalization. + + 4. Dismiss the boy from the choir when his voice begins to + change, even if you need him and if he needs the money which + he receives for singing. + +[Sidenote: THE BOY HIMSELF] + +The second special problem mentioned at the beginning of this chapter +is the management of the boys owning the voices which we have just +been discussing; and this part of the choirmaster's task is +considerably more complex, less amenable to codification, and requires +infinitely more art for its successful prosecution. One may predict +with reasonable certainty what a typical boy-voice will do as the +result of certain treatment; but the wisest person can not foresee +what the result will be when the boy himself is subjected to any +specified kind of handling. As a matter of fact, there is no such +thing as a _typical_ boy, and even if there were, our knowledge of boy +nature in general has been, at least up to comparatively recent times, +so slight that it has been impossible to give directions as to his +management. + +[Sidenote: HOW TO HANDLE BOYS] + +In general, that choir director will succeed best in keeping his boys +in the choir and in getting them to do good work, who, other things +being equal, keeps on the best terms with them personally. Our advice +is, therefore, that the prospective director of a choir of boys find +out just as much as possible about the likes and dislikes, the +predilections and the prejudices of pre-adolescent boys, and +especially that he investigate ways and means of getting on good terms +with them. He will find that most boys are intensely active at this +stage, for their bodies are not growing very much, and there is +therefore a large amount of superfluous energy. This activity on their +part is perfectly natural and indeed wholly commendable; and yet it +will be very likely to get the boy into trouble unless some one is at +hand to guide his energy into useful channels. This does not +necessarily mean making him do things that he does not like to do; on +the contrary, it frequently involves helping him to do better, +something that he already has a taste for doing. Space does not permit +details; but if the reader will investigate the Boy Scout movement, +the supervised playground idea, and the development of school +athletics, as well as the introduction of manual training of various +sorts, trips to museums of natural history, zooelogical and botanical +gardens, _et cetera_, school "hikes" and other excursions, and similar +activities that now constitute a part of the regular school work in +many of our modern educational institutions, he will find innumerable +applications of the idea that we are presenting; and he will perhaps +be surprised to discover that the boy of today _likes_ to go to +school; that he applies at home many of the things that he learns +there, and that he frequently regards some teacher as his best friend +instead of as an arch enemy, as formerly. These desirable changes have +not taken place in all schools by any means, but the results of their +introduction have been so significant that a constantly increasing +number of schools are adopting them; and public school education is to +mean infinitely more in the future than it has in the past because we +are seeing the necessity of looking at things through the eyes of the +pupil, and especially from the standpoint of his life outside of and +after leaving the school. Let the choir trainer learn a lesson from +the public school teacher, and let him not consider the boy to be +vicious just because he is lively, and let him not try to repress the +activity but rather let him train it into useful channels. Above all, +let him not fail to take into consideration the boy's viewpoint, +always treating his singers in such a way that they will feel that he +is "playing fair." It has been found that if boys are given a large +share in their own government, they are not only far easier to manage +at the time, but grow enormously in maturity of social ideals, and are +apt to become much more useful citizens because of such growth. +Placing responsibility upon the boys involves trusting them, of +course, but it has been found that when the matter has been presented +fairly and supervised skilfully, they have always risen to the +responsibility placed upon their shoulders. We therefore recommend +that self-government be inaugurated in the boy choir, that the boys be +allowed to elect officers out of their own ranks, and that the rules +and regulations be worked out largely by the members themselves with a +minimum of assistance from the choirmaster. + +Let us not make the serious mistake of supposing that in order to get +on the good side of boys we must make their work easy. Football is not +easy, but it is extremely popular! It is the motive rather than the +intrinsic difficulty of the task that makes the difference. The thing +needed by the choir director is a combination of firmness (but not +crossness) with the play spirit. Let him give definite directions, and +let these directions be given with such decision that there will never +be any doubt as to whether they are to be obeyed; but let him always +treat the boys courteously and pleasantly, and let him always convey +the idea that he is not only _fair_ in his attitude toward them, but +that he is attempting to be _friendly_ as well. + +Work the boys hard for a half hour or so, therefore, and then stop for +five minutes and join them in a game of leapfrog, if that is the order +of the day. If they invite you to go with them on a hike or picnic, +refuse at your peril; and if you happen to be out on the ball ground +when one side is short a player, do not be afraid of losing your +dignity, but jump at the chance of taking a hand in the game. Some one +has said that "familiarity breeds contempt, only if one of the persons +be contemptible," and this dictum might well be applied to the +management of the boy choir. On the other hand, it is absolutely +necessary to maintain discipline in the choir rehearsal, and it is +also necessary to arouse in the boys a mental altitude that will cause +them to do efficient work and to conduct themselves in a quiet and +reverent manner during the church service; hence the necessity for +rules and regulations and for punishments of various kinds. But the +two things that we have been outlining are entirely compatible, and +the choir director who plays with the boys and is hailed by them as a +good fellow will on the whole have far less trouble than he who holds +himself aloof and tries to reign as a despot over his little kingdom. + +[Sidenote: REMUNERATION _ET CETERA_] + +In conclusion, a word should perhaps be added about various plans of +remunerating the boys for their singing. In some large churches and +cathedrals a choir-school is maintained and the boys receive food, +clothing, shelter, and education in return for their services; but +this entails a very heavy expense, and in most smaller churches the +boys are paid a certain amount for each rehearsal and service, or +possibly a lump sum per week. The amount received by each boy depends +upon his voice, his experience, his attitude toward the work, _et +cetera_, in other words, upon his usefulness as a member of the choir. +Attempts have often been made to organize a boy choir on the volunteer +basis, but this plan has not usually proved to be successful, and is +not advocated. + +When the boys live in their own homes and there are Sunday services +only, the usual plan is to have them meet for about two rehearsals +each week by themselves, with a third rehearsal for the full choir. +Often the men have a separate practice also, especially if they are +not good readers. + +If the organization is to be permanent, it will be necessary to be +constantly on the lookout for new voices, these being trained partly +by themselves and partly by singing with the others at the rehearsals +through the period of weeks or months before they are permitted to +take part in the public services. In this way the changing voices that +drop out are constantly being replaced by newly trained younger boys, +and the number in the chorus is kept fairly constant. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +THE CONDUCTOR AS VOICE TRAINER + + +[Sidenote: THE CONDUCTOR'S NEED OF VOCAL TRAINING] + +Correct voice placement, the full use of the resonance cavities, good +habits of breathing, and other details connected with what is commonly +termed _voice culture_, cannot be taught by correspondence; neither +can the conductor be made an efficient voice trainer by reading books. +But so many choral conductors are failing to secure adequate results +from their choruses because of their ignorance of even the +fundamentals of singing, that it has been thought best to include a +brief presentation of a few of the most important matters with which +the conductor ought to be acquainted. In discussing these things it +will only be possible for us to present to the student of conducting +the problems involved, leaving their actual working out to each +individual. The chief difficulty in connection with the whole matter +arises from the fact that the conductor needs in his work certain +qualities of musicianship that are more apt to result from +instrumental than from vocal training, the education of the +instrumentalist usually emphasizing harmony, ear-training, form, and +in general, the intellectual aspect of music; while that of the +vocalist too often entirely leaves out this invaluable type of +training, dealing only with voice culture and in general the +interpretative side of music study. The vocalist who attempts to +conduct is therefore frequently criticized for his lack of what is +called "solid musical training"; but the instrumentalist-conductor as +often fails to get adequate results in working with singers because of +his utter ignorance of vocal procedure; and this latter type of +failure is probably as productive of poor choral singing as the +former. This chapter is, of course, written especially for the +instrumentalist, and our advice to him is not merely to read books +about singing, but to study singing itself, whether he is interested +in cultivating his own voice for solo purposes or not. It might be +remarked in this connection that aside from the considerations that we +have been naming, the conductor who can sing a phrase to his orchestra +or chorus and thus show by imitation exactly what shading, _et +cetera_, he wishes, has an enormous advantage over him who can only +convey his ideas by means of words. + +[Sidenote: PROPER BREATHING] + +Probably the first thing about singing to be learned by the student of +conducting is that good voice production depends upon using the full +capacity of the lungs instead of merely the upper portion. Hence the +necessity of holding the body easily erect as a matter of habit, with +chest up, and with the diaphragm alternately pushing the viscera away +in order to enable the lungs to expand downward, and then allowing the +parts to come back into place again, as the air is in turn expelled +from the lungs. By practising deep breathing in this way the actual +capacity of the lungs may be considerably increased, and breathing +exercises have therefore always formed part of the routine imposed +upon the vocal student. A deep breath involves, then, a pushing down +of the diaphragm and a pushing out of the lower ribs, and not merely +an expansion of the upper part of the chest. The singer must form the +habit of breathing in this way at all times. To test breathing, the +singer may place the hands about the waist on the sides of the thorax +(fingers toward the front, thumbs toward the back) and see whether +there is good side expansion of the ribs in inhaling, and whether in +taking breath the abdomen swells out, receding as the air is expelled. +We have always felt that a few minutes spent at each chorus rehearsal +in deep breathing and in vocalizing would more than justify the time +taken from practising music; but such exercises should not be +undertaken unless the conductor understands singing and knows exactly +what their purpose is. + +It is important that the conductor should understand the difference +between the use of the singer's _full breath_ which we have been +describing, and his _half breath_. The full breath is taken at +punctuation marks of greater value, at long rests, before long +sustained tones, and, in solo singing, before long trills or cadenzas. +The half breath is usually taken at the lesser punctuation marks and +at short rests, when it is necessary to replenish the supply of air in +as short a time as possible, in order not to interrupt the _legato_ +any more than is absolutely necessary. + +[Sidenote: BREATH CONTROL] + +The next point to be noted is that, having provided as large a supply +of air as possible every particle of it must now be made use of in +producing tone; in the first place, in order that no breath may be +wasted, and in the second place, in order that the purity of the tone +may not be marred by non-vocalized escaping breath. This implies +absolute breath control, and the skilful singer is able to render +incredibly long phrases in one breath, not so much because his lungs +have more capacity, but because every atom of breath actually +functions in producing vocal tone. And because of the fact that no +breath escapes without setting the cords in vibration, the tone is +clear, and not "breathy." The secret of expressive singing in +sustained melody is absolutely steady tone combined with a perfect +_legato_, and neither of these desirable things can be achieved +without perfect breath control, this matter applying to choral singing +as forcefully as it does to solo work. + +[Sidenote: RESONANCE] + +The next point to be noted is that the carrying power and quality of a +voice depend far more upon the use made of the resonance cavities than +upon the violence with which the vocal cords vibrate. Every musical +instrument involves, in its production of tone, a combination of three +elements: + + 1. The vibrating body. + + 2. The force which sets the body in vibration. + + 3. The reinforcing medium (the sound board of a piano, the + body of a violin, _et cetera_.) + +In the case of the human voice, the vocal cords (or, as they might +more properly be termed, the vocal _bands_) constitute the vibrating +body; the air expelled from the lungs is the force which sets the +cords in vibration; and the cavities of the mouth, nose, and to a +lesser extent, of the remainder of the head and even of the chest, are +the reinforcing medium--the resonator. A small voice cannot of course +be made into a large one; but by improving its placement, and +particularly by reinforcing it with as much resonance power as +possible, it may be caused to fill even a large auditorium. This +involves such details as keeping the tongue down, allowing part of the +air to pass through the nose, focusing the tone against the roof of +the mouth just back of the teeth, opening the mouth exactly the right +distance, forming the lips in just the right way, _et cetera_. The +result is that instead of sounding as though it came from the throat, +the tone apparently comes from the upper part of the mouth just back +of the teeth; and instead of seeming to be forced out, it appears to +flow or float out without the slightest effort on the part of the +singer. A forced or squeezed-out tone is always bad--bad for the voice +and bad for the ear of the listener! + +[Sidenote: THE VOWEL IN SINGING] + +Another point to be noted by the conductor is that one sings upon +vowels and not upon consonants; that most of the consonants are in +fact merely devices for interrupting the vowel sounds in various +ways; and that good tone depends largely upon the ability of the +singer to select the best of several different sounds of the vowel and +to hold this sound without any change in quality during the entire +time that the tone is prolonged. It is comparatively easy to make a +good tone with some vowels, but extremely difficult with others, and +it is the singer's task so to modify the vowel that is unfavorable as +to make it easier to produce good tone in using it. But while thus +modifying the actual vowel sound, the integrity of the vowel must at +least be sufficiently preserved to enable the listener to understand +what vowel is being sung. All this is particularly difficult in +singing loudly, and it is largely for this reason that the vocal +student is required by his teacher to practise softly so much of the +time. Some vowels have two parts (_e.g._, i = ae + [=e]), and here it +is the singer's task to sustain the part upon which the better tone +can be made, sounding the other part only long enough to produce a +correct total effect. + +[Sidenote: CONSONANTS] + +As noted above, the consonants are in general merely devices for +cutting off the flow of vowel sound in various ways, and one of the +most difficult problems confronting the singer in his public +performances is to articulate the consonants so skilfully that the +words shall be easy to follow by the audience, and at the same time to +keep the vowel sounds so pure and their flow so uninterrupted that the +singing may be perfect in its tone quality and in its _legato_. It is +because this matter presents great difficulty that the words of the +singer with a good _legato_ can so seldom be understood, while the +declamatory vocalist who presents his words faultlessly is apt to sing +with no _legato_ at all. The problem is not insoluble, but its +solution can only be accomplished through years of study under expert +guidance. Vocal teachers in general will probably disagree with us; +but it is our opinion that in choral performance at least, the _tone_ +rather than the _words_ should be sacrificed if one or the other has +to give way, and the choral conductor is therefore advised to study +the use of the consonants most carefully, and to find out how to make +use of every means of securing well enunciated words from his body of +singers. + +[Sidenote: RELAXATION] + +The next point to be noted is the importance of what vocal teachers +refer to as the "movable lower jaw," this, of course, implying +absolute (but controlled) relaxation of all muscles used in singing. +Without relaxation of this sort, the tone is very likely to be badly +placed, the sound seeming to come from the throat, and the whole +effect being that of tone squeezed out or forced out instead of tone +flowing or floating out, as described in a previous paragraph. This +difficulty is, of course, most obvious in singing the higher tones; +and one remedy within the reach of the choral conductor is to test all +voices carefully and not to allow anyone to sing a part that is +obviously too high. But in addition to this general treatment of the +matter, it will often be possible for the director to urge upon his +chorus the necessity of relaxation in producing tone, thus reminding +those who tighten up unconsciously that they are not singing properly, +and conveying to those who are ignorant of the matter at least a hint +regarding a better use of their voices. + +[Sidenote: VOCAL REGISTERS] + +A vocal register has been defined as "a series of tones produced by +the same mechanism." This means that in beginning with the lowest tone +of the voice and ascending the scale, one comes to a point where +before going on to the next scale-tone, a readjustment of the vocal +organs is necessary, this change in the action of the larynx and vocal +cords being _felt_ by the singer and _heard_ by the listener. The +point at which the readjustment takes place, _i.e._, the place where +the voice goes from one register into another, is called the _break_; +and one of the things the voice trainer tries to do for each pupil is +to teach him to pass so skilfully from one register to another that +these breaks will not be noticeable to the hearer--the voice +eventually sounding an even scale from its lowest to its highest tone. +There is considerable difference of opinion as to the number of +registers existing in any one voice, but perhaps the majority of +writers incline to the view that there are three; the chest or lower, +the thin or middle, and the small or head. It should be noted, +however, that the readjustment in the action of the vocal cords +referred to above probably takes place only when passing from the +lowest register to the next higher one, and that such changes in +action as occur at other points are more or less indefinite and +possibly even somewhat imaginary. Authorities differ as to just what +the change in mechanism is in passing from the chest register to the +middle one; but the most plausible explanation seems to be that in the +lowest register, the change in pitch from a lower tone to the next +higher one is accomplished at least partly by _stretching_ the vocal +bands more tightly, and that when the limit of this stretching process +has been reached, the cords relax slightly, and from this point on +each higher tone is made by _shortening_ the vibrating portion of the +cords; in other words, by decreasing the length of the glottis (the +aperture between the vocal cords). This point may become clearer if we +compare the process with tuning a violin string. The string may be a +third or a fourth below its normal pitch when the violinist begins to +tune his instrument, but by turning the peg and thus stretching the +string tighter and tighter, the tone is raised by small degrees until +the string gives forth the pitch that it is supposed to sound. But +this same string may now be made to play higher and higher pitches by +pressing it against the fingerboard, thus shortening the vibrating +portion more and more. The tuning process may be said to compare +roughly with the mechanism of the chest register of the human voice; +while the shortening of the string by pressing it against the +fingerboard is somewhat analogous to what takes place in the higher +registers of the voice. + +We have now enumerated what seem to us to be the most essential +matters connected with vocal procedure; and if to such information as +is contained in the foregoing paragraphs the conductor adds the +knowledge that the _messa di voce_ (a beautiful vocal effect produced +by swelling a tone from soft to loud and then back again) is to be +produced by increase and decrease of breath pressure and not by a +greater or lesser amount of straining of the throat muscles; that +_portamento_ (gliding by infinitely small degrees in pitch from one +tone to another), although a valuable and entirely legitimate +expressional effect when used occasionally in a passage where its +employment is appropriate, may be over-used to such an extent as to +result in a slovenly, vulgar, and altogether objectionable style of +singing; and that whereas the _vibrato_ may imbue with virility and +warmth an otherwise cold, dead tone and if skilfully and judiciously +used may add greatly to the color and vitality of the singing, the +_tremolo_ is on the other hand a destroyer of pitch accuracy, a +despoiler of vocal idealism, and an abhorrence to the listener; if our +conductor knows these and other similar facts about singing, then he +will not run quite so great a risk of making himself ridiculous in the +eyes of the singers whom he is conducting as has sometimes been the +case when instrumentalists have assumed control of vocal forces. But +let us emphasize again the fact that these things cannot be learned +from a book, but must be acquired through self-activity, _i.e._, by +actual experience in singing; hence the importance of vocal study on +the part of the prospective choral conductor. + +In conclusion, let us enumerate the main points involved in what is +called good singing--these points applying to choral music as directly +as to solo performance. + + 1. The intonation must be perfect; _i.e._, the tones + produced must be neither sharp nor flat, but exactly true to + pitch. + + 2. The tone must be attacked and released exactly at the + right pitch; _i.e._, the voice must not begin on some + indefinite lower tone and slide up, or on a higher tone and + slide down, but must begin on precisely the right pitch. + + 3. The tone must be absolutely steady, and there must be no + wavering, no _tremolo_, no uncertainty. This means absolute + breath control. + + 4. The tones must follow one another without break, unless + the character of the music demands detached effects; in + other words, there must be a perfect _legato_. The tones + must also follow each other cleanly, unless the character of + the music makes the use of _portamento_ desirable. + + 5. The singer must feel the mood of each song, and must sing + as he feels, if he is to perform with real expression. This + is a much more vital matter in song interpretation than the + mere mechanical observation of _tempo_ and _dynamic_ + indications. + + 6. The text must be enunciated with sufficient clarity to + enable the audience to catch at least the most important + ideas presented. This involves not only the _complete_ + pronunciation of each syllable instead of the slovenly + half-pronunciation so commonly heard; but implies as well + that the sounds be formed well forward in the mouth instead + of back in the throat. + +If the singing of a soloist or a chorus can meet the test of these +requirements, the singing may be called good. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +THE ART OF PROGRAM MAKING + + +[Sidenote: THE PROBLEM STATED] + +In constructing a concert program for either a solo or an ensemble +performance, and in the case of both vocal and instrumental music, at +least five important points must be taken into consideration: + + 1. Variety. + 2. Unity. + 3. Effective arrangement. + 4. Appropriate length. + 5. Adaptability to audience. + +[Sidenote: VARIETY] + +We have given variety first place advisedly; for it is by changing the +style and particularly through varying the emotional quality of the +selections that the conductor or performer will find it most easy to +hold the attention and interest of the audience. In these days the +matter of keeping an audience interested presents far greater +difficulty than formerly, for our audiences are now much more +accustomed to hearing good music than they used to be, and a +performance that is moderately good and that would probably have held +the attention from beginning to end in the olden days will now often +be received with yawning, coughing, whispering, early leaving, and a +spirit of uneasiness permeating the entire audience, especially during +the latter part of the program. The change of etiquette brought about +by the phenomenal popularization of the moving picture theater has +doubtless had something to do with this change in the attitude of our +audiences; the spread of musical knowledge and the far greater +intelligence concerning musical performance manifested by the average +audience of today as compared with that of fifty years ago is also +partly responsible; but the brunt of the charge must be borne by our +habitual attitude of nervous hurry, our impatience with slow processes +of any kind, and the demand for constant change of sensation that is +coming to characterize Americans of all ages and classes. It is +doubtless unfortunate that conditions are as they are; but since the +attitude of our audiences has admittedly undergone a decided change, +it behooves the program maker to face conditions as they actually +exist, rather than to pretend that they are as he should like them to +be. Since our audiences are harder to hold now than formerly, and +since our first-class performers (except possibly in the case of +orchestral music) are probably not greatly above the level of the +first-class performers of a generation ago (although larger in +number), it will be necessary to keep the listener interested by +employing methods of program making, which, although they have always +been not only entirely legitimate but highly desirable, are now +absolutely necessary. As stated above, the obvious way to help our +audience to listen to an entire concert is to provide variety of +material--a heavy number followed by a light one; a slow, flowing +_adagio_ by a bright snappy _scherzo_; a tragic and emotionally taxing +song like the _Erl-King_ by a sunny and optimistic lyric; a song or a +group of songs in major possibly relieved by one in minor; a +coloratura aria by a song in cantabile style; a group of songs in +French by a group in English; a composition in severe classic style by +one of romantic tendency, _et cetera_. These contrasting elements are +not, of course, to be introduced exactly as they are here listed, and +this series of possible contrasts is cited rather to give the amateur +maker of programs an idea of what is meant by contrast rather than to +lay down rules to be followed in the actual construction of programs. + +[Sidenote: UNITY] + +But while contrast is necessary to keep the audience from becoming +bored or weary, there must not be so much variety that a lack of unity +is felt in the program as a whole. It must be constructed like a +symphony--out of material that has variety and yet that all belongs +together. In other words, the program, like a musical composition, +must achieve _unity in variety_; and this is the second main problem +confronting the conductor or performer who is planning a concert. It +is impossible to give specific directions as to how unity is to be +secured, for this is a matter to be determined almost wholly upon the +basis of taste, and taste is not subjectable to codification. The most +that we can do for the amateur at this point, as at so many others, is +to set before him the main problem involved, and in constructing a +program, this is undoubtedly to provide variety of material and yet to +select numbers that go well together and seem to cohere as a unified +group. + +[Sidenote: LENGTH] + +Our third question in making a program of musical works is, how long +shall it be? The answer is, "It depends upon the quality of the +audience." An audience composed largely of trained concert-goers, many +of whom are themselves musicians, can listen to a program composed of +interesting works and presented by a first-rate artist even though it +extends through a period of two and a half hours, although on general +principles a two-hour program is probably long enough. But one made up +mostly of people who have had very little musical training, who read +little except the daily newspaper and the lightest sort of fiction, +and whose chief amusement is probably attendance upon the picture +show,--such an audience must not be expected to listen to a program +that is either too heavy or too long; and our judgment is that for +such a group a program an hour and a half long is probably more +suitable than one of two or two and a half hours. Our feeling is, +furthermore, that the "tired business man" would not object so +strenuously to attending the serious musical performances to which his +wife urges him to go if some of these matters were considered more +carefully by the artist in planning the program! But here again, of +course, we have a matter which depends altogether upon the kind of +music presented, whether the entire program is given by one artist or +whether there are several performers, whether the whole program is of +one kind of music or whether there is variety of voice and instrument, +whether the performers are amateurs or professionals, and upon whether +the performer is an artist of the first rank and is able by his +perfection of technique, his beauty of tone, and his emotional verve, +to hold his audience spellbound for an indefinite length of time, or +whether he belongs to the second or third rank of performers and is +able to arouse only an average amount of interest. Our purpose in +including a discussion of the matter is principally in order that we +may have an opportunity of warning the amateur conductor not to cause +an audience which would probably give favorable consideration to a +short program, to become weary and critical by compelling them to sit +through too long a performance. This is particularly true in the case +of amateur performance; and since this book is written chiefly for the +amateur director, it may not be out of order to advise him at this +point to plan programs not more than an hour or an hour and a quarter +long, at first. It is far better to have the audience leaving the +auditorium wishing the program had been longer than to have them +grumbling because it is too long. + +[Sidenote: ADAPTABILITY TO AUDIENCES] + +Our fourth problem has already been presented in discussing the other +three, for it is because of the necessity of adapting the performance +to the audience that we have insisted upon variety, unity, and +reasonable length. Many a concert has turned out to be an utter fiasco +because of failure on the part of the program maker to consider the +type of people who were to listen to it; and although on such +occasions it is customary for the performer to ascribe his failure to +the stupidity of the audience, it must nevertheless be acknowledged +that the fault is more commonly to be laid at the door of the one who +planned the event. A program composed of two symphonies and an +overture or two, or of two or three Beethoven sonatas, is not a +suitable meal for the conglomerate crowd comprising the "average +audience"; indeed it is doubtful whether in general it is the best +kind of diet for any group of listeners. Here again we cannot give +specific directions, since conditions vary greatly, and we must +content ourselves once more with having opened up the problem for +thought and discussion. + +[Sidenote: EFFECTIVE ARRANGEMENT] + +Having selected musical material that is varied in content and yet +appropriate for performance upon the same program; having taken into +consideration what kind of music is adapted to our audience and how +much of it they will probably be able to listen to without becoming +weary; our final problem will now be so to arrange the numbers that +each one will be presented at the point in the program where it will +be likely to be most favorably received, and will make the most +lasting impression upon the auditors. + +In general, of course, the heavier part of the program should usually +come in the first half and the lighter part in the second, for the +simple reason that it is at the beginning that our minds and bodies +are fresh and unwearied, and since we are able to give closer +attention at that time we should accordingly be supplied with the more +strenuous music when we are best able to digest it. But although this +is doubtless true in most cases, we have often noticed that audiences +are restless during the first part of the concert, and frequently do +not get "warmed up" to the point of giving close attention to the +performance until ten or fifteen minutes after the program begins, and +sometimes not until the second half has been reached. For this reason, +and also to cover the distraction arising from the entrance of the +ubiquitous late-comer, it seems best to us that some shorter and +lighter work be placed at the very beginning of the program--possibly +an overture, in the case of a symphony concert. The phenomenon here +alluded to has an exact parallel in the church service. When we enter +the church, we are thinking about all sorts of things connected with +our daily life, and it takes us some little time to forget these +extraneous matters and adjust ourselves to the spirit of a church +service, and particularly to get into the appropriate mood for +listening to a sermon. The organ prelude and other preliminary parts +of the service have as their partial function, at least, the +transference of our thoughts and attitudes from their former chaotic +and egoistic state to one more appropriate to the demands of the more +serious part of the service to follow. Somewhat the same sort of thing +is found in the case of the majority of people who go to a concert +hall for an evening's performance, and although the end to be attained +is of course altogether different, yet the method should probably be +somewhat the same. Our feeling is therefore that there ought usually +to be some comparatively light number at the beginning of the concert +program in order that we may be assisted in getting into the listening +mood before the heavier works are presented. On the other hand, an +artist often plunges into a difficult composition at the very +beginning of the concert, and by his marvelous technique or his +tremendous emotional vitality sweeps his audience immediately into an +attitude of rapt attention; all of which proves again that art is +intangible, subtle, and ever-varying--as we stated at the beginning. + +[Sidenote: THE IMPORTANCE OF SMALL DETAILS] + +In concluding our very brief statement of program-making, it may be +well to mention the fact that small details often have a good deal to +do with the failure of audiences to follow the program with as keen +attention as might be desired. These details are often overlooked or +disdained merely because they seem too trifling to make it worth the +artist's while to notice them; but by seeing to it that the concert +hall is well warmed (or well cooled), that it is well lighted and well +ventilated; that the doors are closed when the first number begins, +and that no one is allowed to enter during the performance of any +number; that there are no long waits either at the beginning or +between numbers; that unnecessary street and other outside noises are +stopped or shut out so far as practicable; and that the printed +program (if it has more than one sheet) is so arranged that the pages +do not have to be turned while compositions are being performed--by +providing in advance for someone who will see to all these little +matters, the artist may often be rewarded by a fine type of +concentrated attention which would not be possible if the minds of the +individuals comprising the audience were being distracted by these +other things. + +The printer too bears no small responsibility in this matter of having +an audience follow a program with undiminished attention from +beginning to end, and there is no doubt that the tastefully printed +page (and particularly if there are explanatory remarks concerning the +composer, style, meaning of the composition, _et cetera_) will usually +be followed with much keener attention than one the parts of which +have merely been thrown together. The reason for this we shall leave +for some one else to discuss--possibly some writer of the future upon +"the psychology of the printed page." + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +CONDUCTOR AND ACCOMPANIST + + +[Sidenote: NECESSITY OF CORDIAL RELATION] + +In chorus directing, it is of the utmost importance that conductor and +accompanist not only understand one another thoroughly, but that the +relationship between them be so sympathetic, so cordial, that there +may never be even a hint of non-unity in the ensemble. The unskilful +or unsympathetic accompanist may utterly ruin the effect of the most +capable conducting; and the worst of it is that if the accompanist is +lacking in cordiality toward the conductor, he can work his mischief +so subtly as to make it appear to all concerned as if the conductor +himself were to blame for the ununified attacks and ragged +rhythms.[35] + +[Footnote 35: On the other hand, the conductor sometimes shifts the +responsibility for mishaps to the accompanist when the latter is in no +wise to blame, as, _e.g._, when the organ ciphers or a page does not +turn properly.] + +[Sidenote: CHOOSING THE ACCOMPANIST] + +In order to obviate the disadvantages that are likely to arise from +having a poor accompanist, the conductor must exercise the greatest +care in choosing his coworker. Unless he knows of some one concerning +whose ability there is no question, the best plan is probably to have +several candidates compete for the position; and in this case, the +points to be especially watched for are as follows: + + 1. Adequate technique. + 2. Good reading ability. + 3. Sympathetic response to vocal _nuance_. + 4. Willingness to cooperate and to accept suggestions. + +Of these four, the last two are by no means the least important; and +sometimes it is better to choose the person who has less skill in +reading or technique but who has sufficient innate musical feeling to +enable him not only to follow a soloist's voice or a conductor's beat +intelligently, but even to anticipate the dynamic and tempo changes +made by singer or conductor. + +The minds of conductor and accompanist must work as one. In stopping +his chorus for a correction, it should be possible for the conductor +to assume that the accompanist has followed him so carefully and is in +such close musical rapport with him that, before the conductor speaks, +the accompanist has already found the badly executed passage, and the +instant the conductor cites page and score, is ready to play the +phrase or interval that was wrongly rendered. The same sort of thing +ought of course to take place whenever there is a change of tempo, and +it is to be noted that in all these cases the accompanist must make a +_musical_ response to the conductor's interpretation, and not merely +an _obedient_ one. + +[Sidenote: COURTEOUS TREATMENT NECESSARY] + +Having chosen the best available person to do the accompanying, the +next thing in order will be to treat the accompanist in such a way +that he will always do his best and be a real help in causing the +chorus to produce effective results. Next to the conductor, the +accompanist is undoubtedly the most important factor in producing fine +choral singing; hence our reference to the accompanist as the +conductor's _coworker_. The first thing to note in connection with +getting the best possible help from the accompanist is that he shall +always be treated in a pleasant, courteous way, and the conductor must +learn at the very outset not to expect impossible things from him; not +to blame him for things that may go wrong when some one else is really +responsible; and in general, to do his utmost to bring about and to +maintain friendly, pleasant relations. This will mean a smile of +approval when the accompanist has done particularly well; it may +involve publicly sharing honors with him after a well rendered +performance; and it certainly implies a receptive attitude on the +conductor's part if the accompanist is sufficiently interested to make +occasional suggestions about the rendition of the music. + +If you as conductor find it necessary to make criticisms or +suggestions to the accompanist, do this privately, not in the presence +of the chorus. Much of the sting of a criticism frequently results +from the fact that others have heard it, and very often if the matter +is brought up with the utmost frankness in a private interview, no bad +blood will result, but if a quarter as much be said in the presence of +others, a rankling wound may remain which will make it extremely +difficult for the conductor and accompanist to do good musical work +together thenceforth. + +[Sidenote: NECESSITY OF PROVIDING THE MUSIC IN ADVANCE] + +One of the best ways to save time at the rehearsal is to provide the +accompanist with the music in advance. Even a skilful reader will do +more intelligent work the first time a composition is taken up if he +has had an opportunity to go through it beforehand. This may involve +considerable trouble on the conductor's part, but his effort will be +well rewarded in the much more effective support that the accompanist +will be able to furnish if he has had an opportunity to look over the +music. When the accompanist is not a good reader, it is, of course, +absolutely imperative that he not only be given an opportunity to +study the score in advance, but that he be _required_ to do so. If in +such a case the conductor does not see to it that a copy of the music +is placed in the accompanist's hands several days before each +rehearsal, he will simply be digging his own grave, figuratively +speaking, and will have no one but himself to blame for the poor +results that are bound to follow. + +[Sidenote: ORGAN ACCOMPANYING] + +If the accompaniments are played on the organ, the conductor will need +to take into consideration the fact that preparing and manipulating +stops, pistons, and combination pedals takes time, and he will +therefore not expect the organist to be ready to begin to play the +instant he takes his place on the bench; neither will he be +unreasonable enough to assume that the organist ought to be ready to +pass from one number to another (_e.g._, from a solo accompaniment to +a chorus) without being given a reasonable amount of time for +arranging the organ. The fact that in such a case the accompanist has +been working continuously, whereas the director has had an opportunity +of resting during the solo number, ought also to be taken into +consideration; and it may not be unreasonable for the organist to wish +for a moment's pause in order that he may adjust his mental attitude +from that demanded by the preceding number to that which is +appropriate to the number to follow. All this is especially to be +noted in performances of sacred music, in which no time is taken +between the numbers for applause. In any case, the least the conductor +can do is to watch for the organist to look up after he has prepared +the organ, and then to signal him pleasantly with a nod and a smile +that he is ready to go on with the next number. This will not only +insure complete preparedness of the organ, but will help "oil the +machinery" and keep relations pleasant. + +The conductor of a church choir should remember that the organist has +probably studied and is familiar with the dynamic resources of his +instrument to a much greater extent than the conductor; and that many +times the organist is not depending upon his _ear_ in deciding the +amount of organ needed, so much as upon his _knowledge_ of what the +total effect will be in the auditorium. It is frequently impossible to +tell from the choir loft how loud or how soft the sound of the organ +is in the body of the house. The conductor, not knowing the dynamic +values of the various stop combinations as well as the organist, must +not presume to criticize the latter for playing too loudly or too +softly unless he has gone down into the auditorium to judge the effect +there. Even this is not an absolute guide, for the balance is very +likely to be different when the auditorium is full of people from what +it was when empty. Moreover, the amount of choral tone frequently +increases greatly under the stimulus of public performance. All in +all, therefore, a good organist should be permitted to use his own +judgment in this matter. In any case, do not resort to conspicuous +gestures to let him know that there is too much or too little organ. +He has probably discovered it as soon as you have, and will add or +subtract as soon as it can be done without making an inartistic break +in the dynamic continuity of the accompaniment. If a signal becomes +absolutely necessary, make it as inconspicuously as possible. + +[Sidenote: ACCOMPANIST MUST SEE DIRECTOR] + +We have previously stressed the fact that the conductor must stand so +that his beat may be easily seen by all performers; and this matter is +of the utmost importance in connection with the accompanist. He must +be able to see you _easily_ if he is to follow your beat accurately; +further, he should be able to see your face as well as your baton, if +a really sympathetic musical relationship is to exist. This may appear +to be a small point, but its non-observance is responsible for many +poor attacks and for much "dragging" and "running away" on the part of +accompanists. + +The sum and substance of the whole matter may be epitomized in the +advice, "Be courteous, considerate, and sensible in dealing with your +accompanist and verily thou shalt receive thy reward!" + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +EFFICIENCY IN THE REHEARSAL + + +[Sidenote: ORGANIZING ABILITY NEEDED TO AVOID WASTING TIME] + +Having now reviewed the various essentials in conducting from the +standpoint of public performance, we wish emphatically to state our +conviction that in many cases both choruses and orchestras have been +short-lived, being abandoned after a season or two of more or less +unsatisfactory work, directly as a result of the inefficient methods +used by the conductor in the rehearsal. In an earlier chapter (p. 18) +we noted that the successful conductor of the present day must possess +a personality combining traits almost opposite in their nature; +_viz._, _artistry_ and _organizing ability_. We were referring at that +time to business sense in general as needed by the conductor in +selecting works to be performed, deciding upon the place, duration, +and number of rehearsal periods, engaging artists to assist in the +public performances, and in general, seeing to it that the business +details of the organization are attended to in an efficient manner. +But such organizing ability is needed most of all in planning and +conducting the rehearsal, and there is no doubt that mediocre results +at the public performance and not infrequently the actual breaking up +of amateur organizations may be traced more often to the inability of +the conductor to make the best use of his time in the always +inadequate rehearsal hour than to any other source. It is for this +reason that we have thought best to devote an entire chapter to a +discussion of what might be termed "The Technique of the Rehearsal." + +[Sidenote: EFFICIENCY NOT A DESTROYER OF IDEALISM] + +The word _efficiency_ has been used so frequently in recent years that +it has come to be in almost as bad odor as the word _artistic_, as +employed by the would-be critic of esthetic effects. This antipathy to +the word is perhaps most pronounced on the part of the artist, and +there has been a well-defined feeling on the part of a good many of us +that efficiency and advancement in art appreciation do not perhaps go +hand-in-hand as much as might be desired. Granting the validity of +this criticism of efficiency as a national ideal, it must nevertheless +be evident that the artist has in the past been far too little +concerned with life's business affairs, and that both he and his +family on the one hand, and those having business relations with him +on the other would be far better off if the artist would cultivate a +more businesslike attitude in his relationships with the rest of the +world. However this may be in general, it is certain that the +conductor of the present must take more definitely into consideration +what is going on outside the world of art; must recognize the fact +that this is now a busy world and that there are a great many +interesting things to do and a great many more distractions and +amusements than there were a half-century ago; and that if the members +of a chorus or orchestra (particularly in the case of an amateur +society) are to continue to attend rehearsals regularly and to keep up +their enthusiasm for the work of the organization, the conductor must +see to it that something tangible is accomplished not only during each +season, but in each and every practice hour, and that regular +attendance at the rehearsals does not cause the members to feel that +they are wasting time and energy. + +This is, after all, the essence of scientific management--to +accomplish some desired result without any waste moves and without +squandering valuable material; and surely no artistic loss will be +involved if efficiency of this type is applied to conducting a musical +rehearsal. On the contrary, the application of such methods will +enable the conductor to secure a much higher degree of artistry in the +public performance because, by avoiding any waste of time in +rehearsing, he will be able to put the musicians through the music +more often, and thus not only arouse greater confidence on their part, +but be enabled to emphasize more strongly the interpretative, the +artistic aspect of the music. Most of the rehearsal hour is often +spent in drilling upon mere _correctness_ of tone and rhythm, +especially in the case of amateur organizations. + +In order to make these matters as concrete and practical as possible, +we shall give in the remainder of this chapter a series of somewhat +unrelated suggestions about conducting an ensemble rehearsal, trusting +that the reader will forgive the didactic (and possibly pedantic) +language in which they are couched. + +[Sidenote: PLANNING THE REHEARSAL] + +Do not make the mistake of attempting to study your score at the same +time that your singers or players are learning it. Study your music +exhaustively beforehand so that at the rehearsal you may know +definitely just what you are going to do with each selection and may +be able to give pointed directions as to its rendition. This will +enable you to look at your performers most of the time, and the +freedom from the score thus allowed will make your conducting very +much more effective and will enable you to stir your singers out of +their state of inertia very much more quickly. Weingartner, in writing +upon this point (with especial reference to the public performance) +says:[36] "He should know it [the score] so thoroughly that during the +performance the score is merely a support for his memory, not a fetter +on his thought." The same writer in another place quotes von Buelow as +dividing conductors into "those who have their heads in the score, +and those who have the score in their heads"! + +[Footnote 36: Weingartner, _On Conducting_, p. 43.] + +Study the individual voice parts, so as to find out so far as possible +beforehand where the difficult spots are and mark these with blue +pencil, so that when you want to drill on these places, you may be +able to put your finger on them quickly. It is very easy to lose the +attention of your performers by delay in finding the place which you +want them to practise. It is a good plan, also, to mark with blue +pencil some of the more important _dynamic_ and _tempo_ changes so +that these may be obvious to the eye when you are standing several +feet from the desk. + +Decide beforehand upon some plan of studying each composition, and if +a number of works are to be taken up at any given rehearsal, think +over in advance the order in which they are to be studied. In brief, +make a plan for each rehearsal, writing it out if necessary, and thus +avoid wasting time in deciding what is to be done. + +In case you are a choir director, learn also to plan your services +weeks or even months in advance,[37] and then keep working toward the +complete carrying out of your plan by familiarizing your musicians +with the material as far in advance of the public performance as +possible. In this way the music is _absorbed_, as it were, and the +singers and players are much more apt to feel at ease in performing it +than when it has been taken up at only one or two rehearsals. + +[Footnote 37: The complete list of works to be given by leading +symphony orchestras during the entire season is usually decided upon +during the preceding summer, and somewhat the same procedure might +profitably be followed with a church choir or an amateur orchestra.] + +[Sidenote: DISCIPLINE IN THE REHEARSAL] + +It is impossible to conduct well unless you have the absolute +attention of every singer or player. Hence the discipline at all +rehearsals must be rather strict and the performers must be trained to +keep their eyes on you practically all the time. (In the case of +choral music, it would be well to have a great deal more of it +entirely committed to memory so that at the performance the singers +might be enabled to give the conductor their absolute attention.) You +have a perfect right to demand that all shall work industriously +during every working minute of the rehearsal hour and that there shall +be no whispering or fooling whatsoever, either while you are giving +directions, or while you are conducting. If you are unfortunate enough +to have in your organization certain individuals who do not attend to +the work in hand even after a private admonition, it will be far +better to drop them from the organization, for they are bound to do +more harm than good if they are retained. On the other hand, you will +recognize the temptation to whisper which the performer feels while +you are giving a long-winded explanation of some pet theory of yours, +and you will accordingly cut down the amount of talking you do to the +minimum. A good rule to follow is this: "_Talk little at the +rehearsal, but when you do talk, be sure that every one listens._" +Keep your performers so busy that they will have no time to think +about anything but the work in hand. Plan plenty of work so as to be +able to keep things moving through the entire hour. Better a rehearsal +conducted in this way and only one hour long, than a slow-moving, +boresome affair, two hours in length. If the tax of such concentrated +attention is too severe to be kept up constantly for an entire hour, +plan to have a five-minute intermission when everyone may talk and +laugh and thus relax. The author has found that with a body of amateur +singers, a ninety-minute rehearsal, with a five- to seven-minute +intermission in the middle, works very well indeed. + +[Sidenote: BEGINNING THE REHEARSAL] + +Do not shout at your chorus or orchestra if the members are noisy. +Wait until the noise subsides entirely before you begin to speak, and +address them in a quiet, dignified, authoritative way when you do +begin. Unless you have some pointed remark to make about the +rendition of the music, it is far better to give merely the place of +beginning without making any remarks at all. Securing quiet by a +prolonged rapping with the baton is a sign of weak discipline. Do not +rap at all until the music is distributed, the accompanist in his +place and ready to begin, your score open, and until you know exactly +what you are going to do first. Then let just a slight tap or two +suffice to notify everyone that the rehearsal is to begin at once. + +[Sidenote: LEARNING DIFFICULT PASSAGES] + +In drilling on a difficult passage, it is usually better to stop at +the actual spot where the mistake occurs than to go on to the end and +then turn back. Find the exact spot that is causing trouble and +"reduce the area of correction to its narrowest limits," as one +writer[38] states it. It is to be noted that merely one repetition of +such a passage is usually of little avail. _It must be gone over +enough times to fix the correct method of rendition in mind and muscle +as a habit._ If a section sings a certain passage incorrectly twice +and then correctly only once, the chances are that the fourth time +will be like the first two rather than like the third. The purpose of +drilling on such a passage is to eradicate the wrong impression +entirely and substitute for it an entirely new habit at that point. +After learning a difficult tonal or rhythmic phrase in this way, be +sure to fit it into its environment before assuming that it has been +finally mastered. The difficulty in such passages often consists not +in performing the intervals or rhythms in isolation, but in doing them +while the other parts are going on. + +[Footnote 38: Richardson, _The Choir-trainer's Art_, p. 156.] + +[Sidenote: LOCATE DIFFICULT SPOTS QUICKLY] + +In directing attention to some particular place in the score about +which you wish to speak, give the details of your direction always in +the same order, _viz._: (1) page, (2) score (or _brace_ if you +prefer), (3) measure, (4) beat. Thus _e.g._, "Page 47, second score, +fourth measure, beginning with the second beat." Give the direction +slowly and very distinctly, and then do not repeat it; _i.e._, get +your musicians into the habit of listening to you the first time you +say a thing instead of the second or third. Carrying out this plan may +result in confusing unpreparedness on the part of your singers or +players for a time or two, but if the plan is adhered to consistently +they will very soon learn to listen to your first announcement--and +you will save a large amount of both time and energy. + +[Sidenote: REHEARSAL LETTERS AND NUMBERS] + +Ensemble music is frequently supplied with _rehearsal letters_ or +_numbers_, these enabling the performers to locate a passage very +quickly. When not printed in the score, it will often be a saving of +time for the conductor to insert such letters or numbers in his own +copy of the music in advance of the first rehearsal, asking the +members to insert the marks in their music as he dictates their +location by page and score, or by counting measures in the case of +orchestra music. These letters or numbers are best inserted with soft +red or blue pencil. + +[Sidenote: THE "WHOLE METHOD" OF LEARNING] + +When a new composition is to be taken up, go through it as a whole a +few times, so as to give everyone a general idea of its content and of +the connection and relation of its parts. After this, begin to work at +the difficult spots that you have found, then when it begins to go +fairly well, work definitely for expressive rendition. You will of +course not expect ordinary performers to go through the composition +the first time in a very artistic fashion. If they keep going and do +not make too many mistakes, they will have done all that +non-professionals should be expected to do. Psychologists have found +as the result of careful investigation that the "whole method" of +study is much to be preferred to what might be termed the "part +method," because of the fact that a much clearer and closer +association between parts is thus formed, and there is no doubt but +that this point applies very forcibly to the study of music. In an +interview published in the _New York World_ in June, 1916, Harold +Bauer writes as follows about this matter as related to piano music: + + Now, in taking up a new work for the piano, the child could + and should play right through every page from beginning to + end for the purpose of obtaining a definite first impression + of the whole. A mess would probably be made of it + technically, but no matter. He would gradually discover just + where the places were that required technical smoothing, and + then by playing them over slowly these spots would be + technically strengthened. By the time the composition was + thoroughly learned the technique would be thoroughly + acquired, too. Obtaining first a perfect mental picture of + the whole, and afterward working out the details, is better + than learning a work by starting with the details before + gaining a broad impression of the composition as a whole. + +This method of studying musical compositions is especially important +from the standpoint of _expression_. In many an instance, the source +of wrong interpretation (or of no interpretation at all) may be traced +directly to a method of studying the composition which has not +impressed the singers or players with its essential meaning and +spirit, and with the significance of the various details in relation +to the plan of the work as a whole. This is particularly true of +choral compositions, and in taking up such works, it may often be well +for the conductor to read aloud the entire text of the chorus that is +being studied in order that the attention of the singers may be +focused for a few moments upon the imagery conveyed by the words. Such +attention is frequently impossible while singing, because the minds of +the singers are intent upon the beauty or difficulty of the purely +musical aspects of the composition, and thus the so-called +"expression" becomes merely a blind and uninspired obedience to +certain marks like _piano_, _forte_, and _ritardando_--the real spirit +of interpretation being entirely absent. + +[Sidenote: DISTRIBUTING AND CARING FOR THE MUSIC] + +Have the distribution and care of music so systematized that there +will be neither confusion nor waste of time in this part of the +rehearsal. In a professional organization there will of course be a +salaried librarian to see to such work, but it is entirely possible to +secure somewhat the same kind of results in an amateur body by having +two or three members elected or appointed for the task, these persons +serving either entirely without salary or being paid a purely nominal +sum. These librarians will then be expected to take the responsibility +of marking new music, of distributing and collecting it at such times +as may be agreed upon by librarian and conductor, and of caring for it +at concerts or at any other time when it is to be used. + +It will be the duty also of the head librarian to keep a record of all +music loaned or rented, and to see that it is returned in good +condition. It would be well too if he kept a card index, showing just +what music is owned by the organization, the number of copies of each +selection, the price, the publisher, the date when purchased, _et +cetera_. Ask the librarians to come five or ten minutes before the +beginning of the rehearsal, and make it your business to provide one +of them with a slip having upon it the names or numbers of all the +selections to be used at that particular rehearsal. Keeping the music +in covers or in separate compartments of a cabinet, one of which will +hold all of the copies of a single selection, and having these +arranged alphabetically or numerically, will considerably facilitate +matters for both you and the librarians. Do not think it beneath your +dignity to investigate the number of copies of any composition that +you are planning to use, and when there are not enough to supply each +singer in the chorus and each desk in the orchestra with a copy, to +see to it that more music is ordered. It is impossible to rehearse +efficiently if the singers in a chorus have to use a part of their +energy in trying to read music from a book or sheet held by some one +else, or if the players in an orchestra are straining their eyes +because three or four instead of two are reading from a single desk. + +It will be convenient for the conductor to possess a file containing a +copy of each number in the library at his home or studio, each copy +being marked "conductor's copy." In this way, the director will always +be assured of having the same music, and will feel that it is worth +while to mark it in such a way as to make it more useful in both +rehearsal and performance. + +[Sidenote: COUNTING ALOUD, TAPPING, AND SINGING WITH THE CHORUS] + +Do not make the mistake of counting or tapping on the desk constantly +during the rehearsal. You may think you are strengthening the rhythm, +but as a matter of fact, you are actually weakening it, for in this +way you take away from the performers the necessity of individual +muscular response to the pulse, and at the performance (when you +cannot, of course, count or tap) the rhythm is very likely to be +flabby and uncertain. Singing with the chorus is another mistake +against which the amateur should be warned. The director not only +cannot detect errors and make intelligent criticisms if he sings with +the chorus, but will make the members dependent upon his voice instead +of compelling them to form the habit of watching him. The only +exception to this principle is in teaching new music to a choir +composed of very poor readers, in which case it is sometimes much +easier to teach a difficult phrase by imitation. Even here, however, +it is almost as well to have the organ give the correct tones. In +leading community singing, the conductor will of course sing with the +crowd, for here he is striving for quite a different sort of effect. + +[Sidenote: VENTILATION] + +See to it that the practice room is well ventilated, especially for a +chorus rehearsal. Plenty of fresh air will not only enable your chorus +to sing with better intonation, but will allow them to sing for a +longer period without fatigue. (We are tempted to add a corollary to +this proposition: namely, that sleepy congregations are not always due +to poor preaching, as is generally supposed, but are as frequently the +result of a combination of fairly good preaching and a badly +ventilated auditorium!) + +[Sidenote: _A CAPPELLA_ REHEARSING] + +In directing a chorus rehearsal, have your singers study without +accompaniment much of the time. The organ "covers a multitude of sins" +and practising without it will not only enable you to discover +weaknesses of all sorts but will help the singers themselves +enormously by making them more independent, improving the intonation, +and compelling them to make cleaner and more definite attacks and +releases. + +[Sidenote: THE VALUE OF A SENSE OF HUMOR] + +Finally, in concluding both this chapter and the book as a whole, let +us commend once more to the conductor that he cultivate "the saving +grace of humor." This quality has already been commented on somewhat +at length in an earlier chapter (see p. 8), but it is in the rehearsal +period that it is most needed, and the conductor who is fortunate +enough to be able to laugh a little when annoyances interrupt or +disrupt his plans instead of snarling, will not only hold the members +of the organization together for a longer time, because of their +cordial personal attitude toward him, but will find himself much less +fatigued at the end of the rehearsal; for nothing drains one's +vitality so rapidly as scolding. A bit of humorous repartee, then, +especially in response to the complaints of some lazy or grouchy +performer; the ability to meet accidental mishaps without anger; even +a humorous anecdote to relieve the strain of a taxing rehearsal--all +these are to be highly recommended as means of oiling the machinery of +the rehearsal and making it run smoothly. + +But of course, even humor can be overdone. So we shall close by +quoting the Greek motto, "Nothing too much," which will be found to +apply equally well to many other activities recommended in the +foregoing pages. + + + + +APPENDIX A + +REFERENCE LIST + + +I. GENERAL: + +Berlioz, _The Orchestral Conductor_. A short treatise full of +practical suggestions. It is found in the back of the author's +well-known volume on _Orchestration_. + +Weingartner, _On Conducting_. A small volume of about seventy-five +pages, but containing excellent material for both amateur and +professional. + +Schroeder, _Handbook of Conducting_. A practical little book from the +standpoint of both orchestral and operatic directing. + +Wagner, _On Conducting_. A short treatise that every professional +conductor will wish to read, but not of much value to the amateur. + +Mees, _Choirs and Choral Music_. A well-written account of the history +of choral music from the time of the Hebrews and Greeks down to the +present, containing also an excellent chapter on the Chorus Conductor. + +Grove, _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_ (article, Conducting). + +Henderson, _What Is Good Music?_ (chapters XIII and XVII). + +Krehbiel, _How to Listen to Music_ (chapter VIII). + + +II. INTERPRETATION: + +Coward, _Choral Technique and Interpretation_. One of the few really +significant books on conducting. The author gives in a clear and +practical way the principles on which his own successful work as a +choral conductor was based. + +Matthay, _Musical Interpretation_. A book for the musician in general, +rather than for the conductor specifically; an excellent treatise and +one that all musicians should read. + + +III. THE ORCHESTRA: + +Lavignac, _Music and Musicians_ (chapter II). + +Mason, _The Orchestral Instruments and What They Do_. + +Corder, _The Orchestra and How to Write for It_. + +Prout, _The Orchestra_ (two volumes). + +Kling, _Modern Orchestration and Instrumentation_. + +Henderson, _The Orchestra and Orchestral Music_; contains two chapters +(XII and XIII) on the Orchestral Conductor that will be of great +interest to the amateur. + +Mason (Editor), _The Art of Music_ (Vol. VIII). + +Stoeving, _The Art of Violin Bowing_. + +Forsyth, _Orchestration_. A particularly good book both for +professional and amateur, as it gives many illustrations and treats +the various instruments from an historical as well as a practical +standpoint. + +Widor, _The Modern Orchestra_. + + +IV. THE CHURCH CHOIR: + +Curwen, _Studies in Worship Music_ (two volumes). + +Dickinson, _Music in the History of the Western Church_. + +Helmore, _Primer of Plainsong_. + +Pratt, _Musical Ministries in the Church_. + + +V. THE BOY CHOIR: + +Bates, _Voice Culture for Children_. + +Brown and Behnke, _The Child Voice_. + +Howard, _The Child Voice in Singing_. + +Johnson, _The Training of Boys' Voices_. + +Richardson, _The Choir Trainer's Art_. + +Stubbs, _Practical Hints on Boy Choir Training_. + + +VI. VOICE TRAINING: + +Ffrangcon-Davies, _The Singing of the Future_. + +Fillebrown, _Resonance in Singing and Speaking_. + +Greene, _Interpretation in Song_. + +Henderson, _The Art of the Singer_. + +Russell, _English Diction for Singers and Speakers_. + +Withrow, _Some Staccato Notes for Singers_. + + +VII. MISCELLANEOUS: + +Hamilton, _Outlines of Music History_. + +Hamilton, _Sound and Its Relation to Music_. + + + + +APPENDIX B + +HAYDN--SYMPHONY No. 3 + +"Surprise" Symphony + +Score of Second Movement + +[Transcriber's Note: The modern designation for the "Surprise" +Symphony is No. 94.] + + +[Music] + + + + +INDEX + + +A + +A cappella singing, 162. + +Accompanist--Relation to conductor, 147. + Choosing of, 147. + Treatment of, 148. + +Accompanying, organ, 150. + +Adolescent boy, 124, 125. + +Alto, male, 119. + +Altschuler, quoted, 61. + +Anglican chant--Baton movements for, 33. + +Attack--How to secure it, 30. + In reading new music, 32. + + +B + +Back stroke, 28. + +Baton--Description of, 20. + How used, 21. + Position of, 22. + +Baton movements--Diagrams of, 22. + Principles of, 22. + Length of stroke, 32. + +Bauer, quoted, 159. + +Berlioz, quoted, 62. + +Boundaries of music, 41. + +Bowing--Directions for, 103. + Signs, 103, 104. + +Boy--Problem of, 126-129. + +Boy choir--Problem of, 118. + Government of, 126-129. + Remuneration of members, 129. + +Boy voice--In church choir, 118-125. + Life of, 123. + During adolescence, 124. + +Break--Adult voice, 137. + Child voice, 122. + +Breathing, 132. + +Breath Control, 133. + + +C + +Canadian Journal of Music, quoted, 19. + +Caruso, quoted, 44. + +Chant, Anglican--Baton movements for, 33. + +Cheatham, quoted, 87. + +Cheerful attitude--Value of, 10. + +Child Voice--Peculiarities of, 118. + Difference between boy and girl, 120. + Compass of, 121. + +Children, directing, 79. + +Choir, boy--Problems of, 118. + Boy voice, 118, 119, 120-125. + Qualifications of leader, 119. + Remuneration of boys, 129. + Government of boys, 126-129. + +Choir, church--Problems of directing, 108. + Remedies, 109. + Difficulties involved in, 111. + Qualifications of leader, 112. + Danger of individualism, 112. + Solo singing in, 114. + +Chorus, high school--Music for, 80. + Direction of, 82. + Seating of, 83 + +Church music--Remedies needed, 108. + Solo singing, 114. + Importance of congregation singing, 116. + +Clarinet, 99. + +Clearness of speech--As element in leadership, 16. + +Community music--Significance of, 85. + Social effects of, 86. + Qualifications of song leader, 87. + Song material, 89. + Advertising, 90. + Provision of words, 91. + +Compass of child voice, 121. + +Compass of orchestral instruments, 107. + +Compound measures, 23, 24, 26, 27. + +Conducting--Definition, 1. + History of, 2. + Psychological basis of, 3. + Orchestral, 93. + Church choir, 108. + Boy choir, 118. + +Conductor--Qualities of, 8, 110. + Present status of, 2, 3. + As organizer, 13. + As interpreter, 36. + Orchestral, 93. + Relation to accompanist, 147-151. + +Congregational singing, 116. + +Consonants in singing, 135. + +Counting aloud, 161. + +Coward, quoted, 65. + +Creative imagination, 11. + +Crescendo, 58. + + +D + +Diagrams of baton movements, 22, 23, 24. + +Dickinson, quoted, 62, 109. + +Discipline in rehearsals, 155. + +Dynamics, 57-63. + Terms defined, 59, 60. + + +E + +Efficiency in the rehearsal, 152. + +Efficiency vs. Idealism, 153. + +Emotion--In interpretation, 38. + +Enthusiasm as an element in leadership, 16, 17. + +Expression--Meaning of, 36, 43. + In instrumental music, 46. + Elements of, 46. + How produced, 72, 75. + + +F + +Fermata, 31. + +Five-beat measure, 27. + + +G + +Gehring, quoted, 42. + +Girl voice, 120, 121. + + +H + +Harmony, 71. + +Haydn score, 166. + +Head voice, 122, 123. + +High school chorus--Direction of, 82. + Seating of, 83. + Music for, 80. + +History of conducting, 2. + +Hold, 31. + +Humor--Sense of, 8. + Illustrations of, 9. + Value in rehearsals, 162. + +Hymns--Selection of, 117. + + +I + +Idealism vs. Efficiency, 153. + +Imagination--Value of, 11. + +Individualism--Danger of in church choir, 112. + +Instinctive imitation, 3. + +Instrumental music--Expression in, 46. + Timbre in, 66. + Phrasing in, 69. + +Instruments--Proportion of, 97. + Transposing, 98-100. + Pitch standards, 101. + Tuning of, 102. + Bowing, 103. + Range of, 107. + +Interpretation and expression--Definition, 36. + +Interpretation, 36-75. + Emotion in, 38. + Definition, 40. + In vocal music, 43. + Importance of timbre in, 66. + + +L + +Leadership--Sense of, 13. + Elements of, 15, 16, 17. + Summary, 18. + +Legato, 135. + +Length of program, 142. + +Life of boy voice, 123. + + +M + +Male alto, 119. + +Melody accentuation, 61. + +Memory, muscular in tempo, 55. + +Messa di voce, 138. + +Metronome, 48. + +Movable break, 122. + +Music--Non-measured, 33. + Boundaries of, 41. + Vocal, 43. + Instrumental--Expression in, 46. + School--Field of, 75. + Church, 108-117. + +Music--Distribution and care of, 160. + +Music--Selection of, 80. + For children, 80. + High school chorus, 81. + Church, 108-117. + +Music stand, 20. + +Musical scholarship, 6. + + +N + +Non-measured music, 32. + +Nuances, tempo, 53. + + +O + +Orchestra--Directing of, 93-95. + Seating of, 96. + +Orchestral instruments--Proportion of, 97. + Transposing, 98. + Pitch standards, 101. + Tuning, 102. + Ranges of, 107. + +Organ accompaniments, 150. + +Organizing ability, 13. + + +P + +Personality of conductor, 8. + +Personality of supervisor, 78. + +Phrasing--Explanation of, 66. + In vocal music, 67. + Mistakes in, 68. + In instrumental music, 69. + +Pianissimo, 60, 61. + +Pitch--Registers, 71. + Standards, 101. + +Planning the rehearsal, 154. + +Poise--as element in leadership, 16. + +Portamento, 138. + +Principle of time beating, 28. + +Program-making, 140. + Length of, 142. + Arrangement of numbers, 144. + Importance of details, 146. + +Program music, 42. + +Psychological basis of conducting, 3. + +Public performance--Attitude of conductor at, 82. + +Public school music, 76. + Relation to church choirs, 115. + + +Q + +Qualities of conductor, 8. + + +R + +Ranges of orchestral instruments, 107. + +Recitative, 33. + +Registers--Child voice, 122, 123. + In adult voice, 136. + +Rehearsal--How to save time in, 152-163. + Planning of, 154. + Discipline in, 155. + +Rehearsal letters or numbers, 158. + +Relation between conductor and accompanist, 147-151. + +Relaxation in singing, 136. + +Release--How to secure, 30. + +Resonance, 134. + +Rhythm, 70. + +Rubato, 53. + + +S + +Scholarship, musical--Importance of, 6. + +School music--Field of, 76. + Supervisor's personality, 78. + Direction of children, 79. + Selection of music, 80. + Public performance, 81. + +Schumann as a conductor, 13. + +Score--Reading, 93, 105. + +Seating--Orchestra, 96. + High School chorus, 83. + +Self-confidence--Element in leadership, 15. + +Seven-beat measure, 27. + +Singing--Solo, 114. + Congregational, 116. + Use of vowel and consonants 134, 135. + Legato, 135. + Relaxation in, 136. + Summary of good, 139. + A cappella, 162. + +Solo singing, 114. + +Spitta, quoted, 13. + +Standards of pitch, 101. + +Sternberg, C. von, quoted, 37. + +Stroke, length of, 32. + +Supervisor of music, 76. + + +T + +Table--Of orchestral instruments, 107. + Transposing instruments, 100. + +Technique of the rehearsal, 152. + +Tempo, 46-56. + Importance of, 47. + Finding correct, 48. + Rubato, 54, 55. + Establishing of, 55. + +Tempo terms defined, 49-53. + +Timbre, 64. + In instrumental music, 66. + In vocal music, 64, 65, 66. + +Time beating--Principles and methods of, 22-29. + Back stroke, 28, 29. + +Tone--How produced, 134. + +Tone quality, 64-66. + +Transposing instruments, 98, 99, 100. + +Tremolo in singing, 138. + +Tuning orchestral instruments, 102. + + +U + +Unity in program making, 142. + + +V + +Varasdin, quoted, 19. + +Variety in program, 140. + +Ventilation of practice rooms, 162. + +Vibrato, 138. + +Vocal cords, Action of, 137. + +Vocal music--Interpretation, 43. + Timbre, 64. + Phrasing, 67. + +Vocal register, 136. + +Voice, the boy's--In church choir, 118-125. + Life of, 123. + During adolescence, 124, 125. + +Voice, the child's--Peculiarities of, 118. + Compass of, 121. + Difference between voice of boy and girl, 120. + Head voice, 122, 123. + +Voice training--In conducting, 119, 131. + Breathing, 132. + Breath control, 133. + Resonance, 134. + Legato, 135. + Tone production, 137. + +Vowel in singing, 134. + + +W + +Wagner, quoted, 47. + +Weingartner, quoted, 12. + +Whipple, quoted, 10. + +Whole method, 158. + +Williams, C.F.A., quoted, 75. + + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Essentials in Conducting, by Karl Wilson Gehrkens + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ESSENTIALS IN CONDUCTING *** + +***** This file should be named 22392.txt or 22392.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/2/3/9/22392/ + +Produced by David Newman, Chuck Greif, Linda Cantoni, and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these 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