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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Chinese Painters, by Raphael Petrucci
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Chinese Painters
+       A Critical Study
+
+Author: Raphael Petrucci
+
+Commentator: Laurence Binyon
+
+Translator: Frances Seaver
+
+Release Date: August 9, 2007 [EBook #22288]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHINESE PAINTERS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Dave Morgan, Anne Storer and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:  1. There is one instance each of
+                        Huang Yin-Piau and Huang Yin-Piao, and
+                        Yün Shou-p'ing and Yün Chou-p'ing
+                        so they have been left as printed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+CHINESE PAINTERS
+
+
+
+
+CHINESE PAINTERS
+A CRITICAL STUDY
+
+BY
+RAPHAEL PETRUCCI
+
+TRANSLATED BY
+FRANCES SEAVER
+
+WITH A BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE BY
+LAURENCE BINYON
+OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM
+
+AND WITH TWENTY-FIVE ILLUSTRATIONS IN DUOTONE
+
+NEW YORK
+BRENTANO'S
+PUBLISHERS
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY
+BRENTANO'S
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+THE · PLIMPTON · PRESS
+NORWOOD · MASS · U·S·A
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+A translator can have but one aim--to present the thought of the author
+faithfully. In this case an added responsibility is involved, since one
+who had so much to give to the world has been taken in his prime. M.
+Petrucci has written at length of art in the Far East in his exhaustive
+work _La Philosophie de la Nature dans l'Art d'Extrême Orient_ and
+elsewhere, and has demonstrated the wide scope of his thought and
+learning. The form and style in _Peintres Chinois_ are the result of much
+condensation of material and have thus presented problems in translation,
+to which earnest thought has been given.
+
+In deference to the author's wish the margin has not been overladen and
+only a short tribute, by one able to speak of him from personal knowledge,
+has been included, together with a few footnotes and a short bibliography
+of works of reference indispensable to the student who will pursue this
+absorbing study. The translator takes this opportunity to make grateful
+acknowledgement of her debt to the authors named, who have made such
+valuable information available, and to those friends who have read the
+manuscript and made many helpful suggestions.
+
+                                              FRANCES SEAVER
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
+
+
+In Raphael Petrucci, who died early in 1917, the world has lost one of the
+ablest and most devoted students and interpreters of the art of the Far
+East. He was only forty-five years of age, in the prime of his powers,
+brimming with energy and full of enterprises that promised richly. Though
+he did not die in the field, he was none the less a victim of the war. He
+had exhausted himself by his labours with the Belgian ambulances at La
+Panne, for Belgium was his adopted country. He had a house in Brussels,
+filled with a collection of Chinese and Japanese art, and a little cottage
+near the coast just over the borders of Holland. He came of the great and
+ancient Sienese family of the Petrucci, but his mother was French and he
+spent much of his earlier life in Paris, before settling in Brussels and
+marrying one of the daughters of the painter Verwée. He had also spent
+some time in Russia. In Brussels he was attached to the Institut Solvay.
+
+He was a man of science, a student of and writer on sociology and biology.
+He lectured on art and had a knowledge of the art of the world which few
+men in Europe rivalled. He wrote a philosophic novel, _La Porte de l'Amour
+et de la Mort_, which has run through several editions. He published a
+book on Michelangelo's poetry. At the same time he was a scientific
+engineer. When war broke out Petrucci was on his way home from Italy,
+where he had been engaged, I believe, on some large engineering project
+and he only got out of Switzerland into France by the last train which
+left Basle. He came to England for a time, looking after a number of
+Belgian refugees, including some very distinguished artists. At the end of
+1914 he was engaged by the India office to do some valuable work in London
+on the collection of Chinese and Tibetan paintings brought back from
+Tun-huang by Sir Aurel Stein. He then worked at La Panne for the Belgian
+army hospital (he had had a medical training in his youth), went to
+Provence for a rest, fell ill and died in Paris after an operation.
+
+Raphael Petrucci was a man who seemed to reincarnate the boundless
+curiosity and the various ability of the men of the Italian Renaissance.
+But for some years before his death he had concentrated his powers chiefly
+on the study of Oriental art, of the Chinese language, and of Buddhist
+iconography. His most important work in this line is _La Philosophie de la
+Nature dans l'Art d'Extrême Orient_, a sumptuously printed folio published
+by Laurens in Paris, with illustrations by the _Kokka_ Company, and
+written with as much charm as insight. Petrucci's knowledge of Chinese
+gave him an authority in interpreting Chinese art which writers on the
+subject have rarely combined with so much understanding of art in
+general, though as a connoisseur he was sometimes over-sanguine. His
+translation from a classic of Chinese art-criticism, originally published
+in a learned magazine, has lately appeared in book form. With his friend,
+Professor Chavannes, whose death, also in the prime of life, we have had
+to deplore still more recently, Petrucci edited the first volume of the
+splendid series _Ars Asiatica_. The present work, intended for the general
+reader and lover of art, illustrates his gift for luminous condensation
+and the happy treatment of a large theme.
+
+A man of winning manners, a most generous and loyal friend, Petrucci wore
+his manifold learning lightly; with immense energy and force of character,
+he was simple and warm-hearted and interested in the small things as well
+as the great things of life.
+
+                                              LAURENCE BINYON
+
+BRITISH MUSEUM
+October, 1919
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CONTENTS
+                                                             PAGE
+
+PREFACE BY THE TRANSLATOR                                       5
+
+BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE BY LAURENCE BINYON                            7
+
+INTRODUCTION                                                   15
+
+
+PART ONE. TECHNIQUE
+
+   I. EQUIPMENT OF THE PAINTER                                 21
+
+  II. REPRESENTATION OF FORMS                                  26
+
+ III. DIVISION OF SUBJECTS                                     33
+
+  IV. INSPIRATION                                              38
+
+
+PART TWO. THE EVOLUTION OF CHINESE PAINTING
+
+   I. ORIGINS                                                  45
+
+  II. BEFORE THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM                      46
+
+ III. THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM                             54
+
+  IV. THE T'ANG PERIOD--7TH TO 10TH CENTURIES                  58
+
+   V. THE SUNG PERIOD--10TH TO 13TH CENTURIES                  72
+
+  VI. THE YÃœAN PERIOD--13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES                 92
+
+ VII. THE MING PERIOD--14TH TO 17TH CENTURIES                 114
+
+VIII. THE CH'ING PERIOD--17TH TO 20TH CENTURIES               131
+
+CONCLUSION                                                    140
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                  149
+
+INDEX OF PAINTERS AND PERIODS                                 151
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+                                                             PAGE
+
+    I. Sculptured stones of the Han dynasty. Second to
+          third centuries. Rubbings taken by the
+          Chavannes expedition                                 23
+
+   II. Portion of a scroll by Ku K'ai-chih. British
+          Museum, London                                       27
+
+  III. Kwanyin. Eighth to tenth centuries. Painting
+          brought from Tun-huang by the Pelliot expedition.
+          The Louvre, Paris                                    31
+
+   IV. Palace of Kiu Cheng-kung by Li Chao-tao. T'ang
+          period. Collection of V. Goloubew                    34
+
+    V. Portrait of Lü Tung-ping by T'êng Ch'ang-yu.
+          T'ang period. Collection of August Jaccaci.
+          Lent to the Metropolitan Museum, New York.[A]        39
+
+   VI. Painting by an unknown artist. T'ang period.
+          Collection of R. Petrucci                            47
+
+  VII. Geese. Sung period. British Museum, London              51
+
+ VIII. White Eagle. Sung period. Collection of R. Petrucci     59
+
+   IX. Horseman followed by two attendants. Sung
+          period. Collection of A. Stoclet                     63
+
+    X. Landscape in the style of Hsia Kuei. Sung period.
+          Collection of Martin White                           67
+
+   XI. Landscape by Ma Lin. Sung period. Collection
+          of R. Petrucci                                       73
+
+  XII. Mongol horseman returning from the Hunt, by Chao
+          Mêng-fu. Yüan period. Doucet collection              77
+
+ XIII. Pigeons by Ch'ien Hsüan. Yüan period. Collection
+          of R. Petrucci                                       85
+
+  XIV. Bamboos in monochrome by Wu Chên. Yüan
+          period. Musée Guimet                                 93
+
+   XV. Paintings of the Yüan or early Ming period. Style
+          of the Northern School. Collection of R. Petrucci    97
+
+  XVI. Portrait of a priest. Yüan or early Ming period.
+          Collection of H. Rivière                            101
+
+ XVII. Horse. Painting by an unknown artist. Yüan or
+          early Ming period. Doucet collection                105
+
+XVIII. Visit to the Emperor by the Immortals from on
+          high. Ming period. British Museum, London           109
+
+XIX. Egrets by Lin Liang. Ming period. Collection of
+          Mrs. John D. Rockefeller, Junior                    115
+
+XX. Flowers and Insects. Ming period. Collection of
+          R. Petrucci                                         119
+
+XXI. Landscape. Ming period. Bouasse-Lebel collection         125
+
+XXII. Beauty inhaling the fragrance of a peony. Ming
+          period. Collection of V. Goloubew                   133
+
+XXIII. Halt of the Imperial Hunt. Ming period. Sixteenth
+          century. Collection of R. Petrucci                  137
+
+XXIV. Painting by Chang Cheng. Eighteenth century.
+          Collection of M. Worch                              141
+
+XXV. Tiger in a Pine Forest. Eighteenth to nineteenth
+          centuries. Collection of V. Goloubew                145
+
+  [A] Now owned by Mr. and Mrs. Robert Woods Bliss.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+Whatever its outward expression, human thought remains essentially
+unchanged and, throughout all of its manifestations, is fundamentally the
+same. Varying phases are but accidents and underneath the divers wrappings
+of historic periods or different civilizations, the heart as well as the
+mind of man has been moved by the same desires.
+
+Art possesses a unity like that of nature. It is profound and stirring,
+precisely because it blends and perpetuates feeling and intelligence by
+means of outward expressions. Of all human achievements art is the most
+vital, the one that is dowered with eternal youth, for it awakens in the
+soul emotions which neither time nor civilization has ever radically
+altered. Therefore, in commencing the study of an art of strange
+appearance, what we must seek primarily is the exact nature of the
+complexity of ideas and feelings upon which it is based. Such is the
+task presented to us, and since the problem which we here approach is
+the general study of Chinese painting, we must prepare ourselves first
+to master the peculiarities of its appearance and technique, in order
+to understand later on the motives which inspired it.
+
+While the first part of this study will carry us far from our habitual
+modes of thought, the second part will bring us back into a domain which
+our own philosophies, sciences and arts have already made familiar.
+Admittedly, Chinese painting is governed by distinctive ideas. Born of a
+civilization vastly different from our own, it may at times appear in a
+guise that seems incomprehensible. It would be astonishing, however, if
+Western intelligence were unable to grasp an aesthetic code of a magnitude
+which is too great to be ignored.
+
+The progress of history and of criticism has given us the opportunity to
+reach a comprehension of the most peculiar formulas. Our culture is
+sufficiently broad to allow us to perceive the beauty of an Egyptian
+fresco or an Assyrian bas-relief as well as of a Byzantine mosaic or a
+painting of the Renaissance. We have therefore no excuse for remaining
+inaccessible to the art of the Far East and we have surely all the mental
+vigor that is requisite in order to accustom ourselves to the foreign
+nature of its presentation. It is in the realm of painting that this
+foreign element is most noticeable. This is due partly to a special
+technique and partly to the nature of the doctrines which serve as its
+inspiration.
+
+It behooves us then to acquaint ourselves with these new aspects of the
+human soul. That is the justification for this little book. It forms an
+introduction in which gaps are shown without attempt at concealment and
+is presented in all modesty.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PART ONE
+TECHNIQUE
+
+I. EQUIPMENT OF THE PAINTER
+
+
+Where our painters have chosen wood or canvas as a ground, the Chinese
+have employed silk or paper. While our art recognizes that drawing itself,
+quite apart from painting, is a sufficient objective, drawing and painting
+have always been closely intermingled in the Far East. While the mediums
+used in Europe for painting in color, distemper, tempera and oil, led to
+an exact study of form, the colors employed by the Orientals--at times
+brilliant, at times subdued with an almost studied restraint--preserved a
+singular fluidity and lent themselves to undefined evanescences which gave
+them a surprising charm.
+
+The early paintings were generally done on cotton, coarse silk or paper.
+In the eighth century, under the T'ang dynasty, the use of finer silk
+began. The dressing was removed with boiling water, the silk was then
+sized and smoothed with a paddle. The use of silken fabric of the finest
+weave, prepared with a thick sizing, became general during the Sung
+dynasty. Papers were made of vegetable fibres, principally of bamboo.
+Being prepared, as was the silk, with a sizing of alum, they became
+practically indestructible. Upon these silks and papers the painter
+worked with brush and Chinese ink,[1] color being introduced with more
+or less freedom or restraint.
+
+The brushes are of different types. Each position of the brush conforms
+to a specific quality of the line, either sharp and precise or broad and
+quivering, the ink spreading in strong touches or thinning to delicate
+shades.
+
+The colors are simple, of mineral or vegetable origin. Chinese painters
+have always avoided mixing colors so far as possible. From malachite they
+obtained several shades of green, from cinnabar or sulphide of mercury, a
+number of reds. They knew also how to combine mercury, sulphur and potash
+to produce vermilion. From peroxide of mercury they drew coloring powders
+which furnished shades ranging from brick red to orange yellow. During the
+T'ang dynasty coral was ground to secure a special red, while white was
+extracted from burnt oyster shells. White lead was later substituted for
+this lime white. Carmine lake they obtained from madder, yellows from
+the sap of the rattan, blues from indigo. To these must be added the
+different shades of Chinese ink and lastly, gold in leaf and in powder.
+
+  [1] Chinese ink is a very different composition from the ink of
+  Western countries. It is a solid made of soot obtained by burning
+  certain plants, which is then combined with glue or oil and moulded
+  into a cake and dried. Other ingredients may be added to produce sheen
+  or a dead finish. It improves with age if properly kept. The cake is
+  moistened and rubbed on a slab, and the ink thus obtained must be used
+  in a special way and with special care to produce the full
+  effect.--TRANSLATOR.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE I. SCULPTURED STONES OF THE HAN DYNASTY
+  Second to Third Centuries. Rubbings taken by the Chavannes Expedition.]
+
+The brush-stroke in the painting of the Far East is of supreme importance.
+We know that this could not be otherwise if we recall that the characters
+in Chinese writing are ideographs, not actually _written_, but rather
+_drawn_. The stroke is not a mere formal, lifeless sign. It is an
+expression in which is reflected the beauty of the thought that inspired
+it as well as the quality of the soul of him who gives it form. In
+writing, as in painting, it reveals to us the character and the conception
+of its author. Placed at the service of certain philosophical ideas, which
+will be set forth later on, this technique was bound to lead to a special
+code of Aesthetics. The painter seeks to suggest with an unbroken line the
+fundamental character of a form. His endeavor, in this respect, is to
+simplify the objective images of the world to the extreme, replacing them
+with ideal images, which prolonged meditation shall have freed from every
+non-essential. It may therefore be readily understood how the brush-stroke
+becomes so personal a thing, that in itself it serves to reveal the hand
+of the master. There is no Chinese book treating of painting which does
+not discuss and lay stress upon the value of its aesthetic code.
+
+
+
+
+II. REPRESENTATION OF FORMS
+
+
+It has often been said that in Chinese painting, as in Japanese painting,
+perspective is ignored. Nothing is further from the truth. This error
+arises from the fact that we have confused one system of perspective with
+perspective as a whole. There are as many systems of perspective as there
+are conventional laws for the representation of space.
+
+The practice of drawing and painting offers the student the following
+problem in descriptive geometry: _to represent the three dimensions of
+space by means of a plane surface of two dimensions_. The Egyptians and
+Assyrians solved this problem by throwing down vertical objects upon one
+plane, which demands a great effort of abstraction on the part of the
+observer. European perspective, built up in the fifteenth century upon
+the remains of the geometric knowledge of the Greeks, is based on the
+monocular theory used by the latter. In this system, it is assumed that
+the picture is viewed with the eye fixed on a single point. Therefore
+the conditions of foreshortening--or distorting the actual dimensions
+according to the angle from which they are seen--are governed by placing
+in harmony the distance of the eye from the scheme of the picture, the
+height of the eye in relation to the objects to be depicted, and the
+relative position of these objects with reference to the surface employed.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE II. PORTION OF A SCROLL BY KU K'AI-CHIH
+  British Museum, London.]
+
+But, in assuming that the picture is viewed with the eye fixed on a single
+point, we put ourselves in conditions which are not those of nature. The
+European painter must therefore compromise with the exigencies of
+binocular vision, modify the too abrupt fading of forms and, in fine,
+evade over-exact principles. Thus he arrives at a _perspective de
+sentiment_, which is the one used by our masters.
+
+Chinese perspective was formulated long before that of the Europeans and
+its origins are therefore different. It was evolved in an age when the
+method of superimposing different registers to indicate different planes
+was still being practiced in bas-reliefs. The succession of planes, one
+above the other, when codified, led to a system that was totally different
+from our monocular perspective. It resulted in a perspective as seen from
+a height. No account is taken of the habitual height of the eye in
+relation to the picture. The line of the horizon is placed very high,
+parallel lines, instead of joining at the horizon, remain parallel, and
+the different planes range one above the other in such a way that the
+glance embraces a vast space. Under these conditions, the picture becomes
+either high and narrow--a hanging picture--to show the successive planes,
+or broad in the form of a scroll, unrolling to reveal an endless
+panorama. These are the two forms best known under their Japanese names
+of _kakemono_ and _makimono_.[2]
+
+But the Chinese painter must attenuate the forms where they are parallel,
+give a natural appearance to their position on different levels and
+consider the degree of their reduction demanded by the various planes.
+Even he must compromise with binocular vision and arrive at a _perspective
+de sentiment_ which, like our own, while scientifically false, is
+artistically true. To this linear perspective is added moreover an
+atmospheric perspective.
+
+Having elected from a very early time to paint in monochrome, Chinese
+painters were led by the nature of this medium to seek to express
+atmospheric perspective by means of tone values and harmony of shading
+instead of by color. Thus they were familiar with chiaroscuro before the
+European painters. Wang Wei established the principles of atmospheric
+perspective in the eighth century. He explains how tints are graded, how
+the increasing thickness of layers of air deprives distant objects of
+their true coloring, substituting a bluish tinge, and how forms become
+indistinct in proportion as their distance from the observer increases.
+His testimony in this respect is similar to that of Leonardo da Vinci in
+his "Treatise on Painting."
+
+  [2] The Chinese terms are _Li Chou_ for a vertical painting and
+  _Hêng P'i_ for a horizontal painting.--TRANSLATOR.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE III. KWANYIN. EIGHTH TO TENTH CENTURIES
+  Painting brought from Tun-huang by the Pelliot Expedition.
+  The Louvre, Paris.]
+
+
+
+
+III. DIVISION OF SUBJECTS
+
+
+The Chinese divide the subjects of painting into four principal classes,
+as follows:
+
+          Landscape.
+          Man and Objects.
+          Flowers and Birds.
+          Plants and Insects.
+
+Nowhere do we see a predominant place assigned to the drawing or painting
+of the human figure. This alone is sufficient to mark the wide difference
+between Chinese and European painting.
+
+The exact name for _Landscape_ is translated by the words _mountain and
+water picture_. They recall the ancient conception of Creation on which
+the Oriental system of the world is founded. The mountain exemplifies the
+teeming life of the earth. It is threaded by veins wherein waters
+continuously flow. Cascades, brooks and torrents are the outward evidence
+of this inner travail. By its own superabundance of life, it brings forth
+clouds and arrays itself in mists, thus being a manifestation of the two
+principles which rule the life of the universe.
+
+The second class, _Man and Objects_, must be understood principally as
+concerning man, his works, his belongings, and, in a general sense, all
+things created by the hand of man, in combination with landscape. This was
+the convention in early times when the first painters whose artistic
+purpose can be formulated with certainty, portrayed the history of the
+legendary beings of Taoism,--the genii and fairies dwelling amidst an
+imaginary Nature. The records tell us, to be sure, that the early masters
+painted portraits, but it was at a later period that _Man and Objects_
+composed a class distinct from _Landscape_, a period responsible for those
+ancestral portraits painted after death, which are almost always
+attributable to ordinary artisans. Earlier they endeavored to apply to
+figure painting the methods, technique and laws established for an
+ensemble in which the thought of nature predominated. Special rules
+bearing on this subject are sometimes found of a very early date but there
+is no indication that they were collected into a definite system until the
+end of the seventeenth century. Up to the present time our only knowledge
+of their content is through a small treatise published at the beginning of
+the nineteenth century.
+
+The third class, _Flowers and Birds_, deals with those paintings wherein
+the Chinese gave rein to their fancy for painting the bird in conjunction
+with the plant life associated with its home and habits. The bird is
+treated with a full understanding of its life, and flowers are studied
+with such a comprehension of their essential structure that a botanist
+can readily detect the characteristics typical of a species, despite the
+simplifications which an artist always imposes on the complexity of forms.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE IV. PALACE OF KIU CHENG-KUNG BY LI CHAO-TAO
+  T'ang Period. Collection of V. Goloubew.]
+
+This general class is subdivided. The epidendrum, the iris, the orchis
+and the chrysanthemum became special studies each of which had its own
+masters, both from the standpoint of painting itself, and of the
+application of the aesthetic rules which govern this art. The bamboo and
+the plum tree are also allied to this class. Under the influence of
+philosophic and symbolic ideas they furnished a special category of
+subjects to the imagination of the painter and form a division apart which
+has its own laws and methods, regarding which the Chinese treatises on
+Aesthetics inform us fully.
+
+Finally, the fourth class, _Plants and Insects_, is based upon the same
+conception as that of _Flowers and Birds_. The insect is represented with
+the plant which is his habitat when in the stage of caterpillar and larva,
+or flying above the flowers and plants upon which he subsists on reaching
+the stage of butterfly and insect. Certain books add to this fourth class
+a subdivision comprising fishes.
+
+Lastly we must note that in the Far East, as in Europe, there is a special
+class to be taken into consideration, _Religious paintings_. In China,
+this refers almost exclusively to Buddhist paintings.
+
+
+
+
+IV. INSPIRATION
+
+
+The aesthetic conceptions of the Far East have been deeply influenced by a
+special philosophy of nature. The Chinese consider the relation of the two
+principles, male and female, the _yang_ and the _yin_, as the source of
+the universe. Detached from the primordial unity, they give birth to the
+forms of this world by ever varying degrees of combination. Heaven
+corresponds to the male principle, earth to the female principle.
+Everything upon the earth, beings, plants, animals or man is formed by the
+mingling of _yang_ and _yin_. While the mountain, enveloped in mists,
+recalls the union of these two principles, the legend of forces thus
+revealed by no means pauses here. Fabulous or real, the animals and plants
+habitually seen in Chinese paintings express a like conception.
+
+The dragon is the ancestor of everything that bears feathers or scales. He
+represents the element of water, the waters of the earth, the mists of the
+air, the heavenly principle. He is seen breaking through the clouds like
+some monstrous apparition, unveiling for an instant the greatness of a
+mystery barely discerned. The tiger is the symbol of the earthly
+principle, a personification of quadrupeds as distinct from birds and
+reptiles. His ferocious form lurks in the tempest. Defying the hurricane
+which bends the bamboos and uproots trees, he challenges the furies of
+nature that are hostile to the expression of the universal soul. The
+bamboo is the symbol of wisdom, the pine is the emblem of will-power and
+life. The plum tree in flower is a harmonious combination of the two
+principles. It symbolizes virginal purity.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE V. PORTRAIT OF LÜ TUNG-PING BY T'ÊNG CH'ANG-YU
+  T'ang Period. Collection of August Jaccaci. Lent to the Metropolitan
+  Museum, New York.]
+
+Thus is built up a complete system of allusions similar to the allegories
+of our own classics but superior in that they never degenerate into frozen
+symbols, but on the contrary keep in close touch with nature, investing
+her with a vibrant life, in which human consciousness vanishes making way
+for the dawning consciousness of infinitude.
+
+Buddhism goes still further. It does not even believe in the reality of
+the world. In this belief, forms are but transitory, the universe an
+illusion forever flowing into an unending future. Outside of the supreme
+repose, in the six worlds of desire,[3] the things that are susceptible to
+pain and death pursue their evolution. Souls travel this closed cycle
+under the most diverse forms, from hell to the gods, advancing or
+retreating, in accordance with the good deeds or errors committed in
+previous existences. A stone, a plant, an insect, a demon, or a god are
+only illusory forms, each encompassing an identical soul on its way to
+deliverance, as it is caught at different stages of its long calvary and
+imprisoned through original sin and the instinctive desire for life.
+Whence we see emerging a new feeling of charity which embraces all beings.
+Their moral character is felt to be the same as that of man, their goal is
+the same, and in the vast world of illusion each seeks to fulfill the same
+destiny.
+
+  [3] These are: the worlds of animals, of man, of gods or _dêvas_, of
+  giants or _asuras_, of _prêtas_ or wandering spirits, and of hells.
+  Freedom from perpetual transmigration in these six worlds is attained
+  only through the extinction of desire.
+
+Behind the changes of the universe the Buddhist perceives the primal
+substance that pervades all creation. There results from this an intimacy
+with things which exists in no other creed. From inert matter to the most
+highly organized being, all creation is thus endowed with a sense of
+kinship that is destined to make a tender and stirring appeal in the
+artist's interpretation of nature.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PART TWO
+THE EVOLUTION OF CHINESE PAINTING
+
+I. ORIGINS
+
+
+The origins of painting in China are mingled with the origins of writing.
+Written characters are, in fact, derived from pictography or picture
+writing, those in use at the present time being only developed and
+conventionalized forms of primitive drawings. The early books and
+dictionaries give us definite information regarding this evolution. But
+while history bears witness to this ancient connection, we do not come
+into contact with actual evidence until the third century of our era,
+through the bas-reliefs of the Han dynasty, and in the fourth century
+through the paintings of Ku K'ai-chih. Here we find by no means the origin
+of an evolution but, on the contrary, the last traces of an expiring
+tradition.
+
+
+
+
+II. BEFORE THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM
+
+
+The bas-reliefs of the Han dynasty are almost all comprised in the
+sculptured stone slabs embellishing mortuary chambers and of these the
+artistic merit is most unequal.[4] Their technique is primitive. It
+consists in making the contours of figures by cutting away the stone in
+grooves with softened angles, leaving the figure in silhouette. Engraved
+lines complete the drawing.
+
+The subjects are sometimes mythical and sometimes legendary. There are
+representations of divinities, fabulous animals, scenes of war and of the
+chase and processions of people bearing tribute. At times the great
+compositions display imposing spectacles, a luxurious and refined array.
+Now and then attempts at pictorial perspective are joined to some
+unrelated scene.
+
+All this is in direct conflict with the technique of bas-reliefs and leads
+to the surmise that the models were drawn by painters and copied with
+more or less skill by makers of funeral monuments.
+
+  [4] These bas-reliefs have been studied by M. Chavannes in "La
+  sculpture sur pierre en Chine au temps des deux dynasties Han," Paris,
+  1893; also in "Mission archéologique en Chine," Paris, 1910. Rubbings
+  taken from the sculptured slabs are reproduced here in full.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE VI. PAINTING BY AN UNKNOWN ARTIST
+  T'ang Period. Collection of R. Petrucci.]
+
+This impression is confirmed if certain carved slabs are compared with a
+painting by Ku K'ai-chih, of which we can judge by means of a copy made in
+the Sung period.[5] One of the scenes of this long scroll leaves no
+possible misapprehension as to the pictorial origin of the Han
+bas-reliefs. Its subject, a river god on a chariot drawn by dragons, is
+similar in composition to the models used by the artisans of the third
+century.
+
+We have, however, better testimony than a copy made at a later period. The
+British Museum, in London, is the owner of a painting attributed to Ku
+K'ai-chih. The reasons impelling us to believe in its authenticity are
+weighty, almost indisputable.[6][B] We therefore accept it here and will
+endeavor to define the work of one of the greatest painters of China in
+the fourth and the beginning of the fifth century.
+
+  [5] This painting formed part of the collection of the ex-viceroy Tuan
+  Fang, killed in 1911, during the revolution. It was published in 1911
+  by the Japanese archeologist, Mr. Taki.
+
+  [6] These reasons are set forth in a work which Mr. Laurence Binyon is
+  preparing, to accompany a reproduction engraved by Japanese artists
+  for the British Museum.
+
+  [B] The preceding footnote refers to a work published in 1913 by the
+  Trustees of the British Museum, containing a reproduction of the
+  painting in its entirety and giving a full description.--TRANSLATOR.
+
+The painted scenes are inspired by a work of the third century containing
+admonitions addressed to the ladies of the imperial palace. The striking
+characteristics of these compositions are the lightness and delicacy of
+style, the poetry of the attitudes and the supreme elegance of the forms.
+Heavy black tresses frame the ivory faces with refined and subtle charm.
+The voluptuous caprice of garments in long floating folds, the extreme
+perfection of the figures and the grace of gestures make this painting a
+thing of unique beauty. Only through the cultivation of centuries could
+such spiritual insight be attained.
+
+If the copy from the collection of Tuan Fang recalls the bas-reliefs of
+the Han period, the painting in the British Museum is related to the
+bas-reliefs of Long-men, which date from the seventh century and of which
+M. Chavannes has published photographs. Therefore we may say that the
+style of Ku K'ai-chih exemplifies the distinctive features of Chinese
+painting at a period extending from the third to the seventh centuries.[7]
+
+  [7] A copy of an engraving on stone of the year 1095, representing
+  "Confucius sitting amidst his disciples" and another representing
+  "Confucius walking, followed by one of his disciples," dated 1118,
+  have been published by M. de Chavannes ("Mission archéologique en
+  Chine," Nos. 869 and 871). The latter is considered as having been
+  undoubtedly executed after a painting by Ku K'ai-chih.
+
+It should also be noted that toward the end of the fifth or the beginning
+of the sixth century, the painter and critic Hsieh Ho formulated the
+Six Canons[8] upon which the far-eastern code of Aesthetics is founded.
+These Canons introduce philosophical conceptions and technical knowledge
+which also presuppose long cultivation, for it is only after rules have
+been brought to reality in a work of art that they are formulated into a
+code. Therefore when Buddhism appeared in China it found there a native
+art whose value was proved beyond question by a long succession of
+masterpieces. After having exhausted every manifestation of strength and
+vigor, this art had arrived at expressions of extreme refinement and
+profound and appealing charm, closely verging on the disquieting dreams of
+decadence.
+
+  [8] Interpretations of the Six Canons by five authorities are
+  accessible in a very convenient form for comparison in Mr. Laurence
+  Binyon's "Flight of the Dragon," p. 12.--TRANSLATOR.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE VII. GEESE
+  Sung Period. British Museum, London.]
+
+
+
+
+III. THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM
+
+
+Chinese books state that between the fourth and the eighth centuries "the
+art of painting _man and things_ underwent a vital change." By this they
+alluded to the intervention of Buddhist art, which made its appearance in
+China toward the fifth century in the form of the Graeco-Indian art of
+Gandhara, already modified by its transit across Eastern Turkestan. This
+by no means indicates that purely Indian origins might not be found for
+it. At Sanchi, as well as in Central India and at Ajantâ such
+characteristics are preserved. But the Greek dynasties which had settled
+in northwestern India in the train of Alexander, had carried with them the
+canons of Hellenistic art. The technique and methods of this art were
+placed at the service of the new religion. They gave to Buddhist
+art--which was just beginning to appear in the Gandharian provinces--its
+outward form, its type of figures, its range of personages and the greater
+part of its ornamentation.[9]
+
+  [9] See Foucher, "L'Art gréco-bouddique du Gandhara." Paris, Leroux.
+
+Buddhism found the expiring Hellenistic formula which had been swept
+beyond its borders, ready at hand at the very moment the new religion was
+gathering itself together for that prodigious journey which, traversing
+the entire Far East, was to lead it to the shores of the Pacific. Once
+outside of India, it came into contact with Sassanian Persia and Bactria.
+With Hellenistic influences were mingled confused elements springing from
+the scattered civilizations which had reigned over the Near East. Thence
+it spread to the byways of Eastern Turkestan.
+
+We know today, thanks to excavations of the German expeditions of
+Grünwedel and von Lecoq, the two English expeditions of Sir Aurel Stein
+and the French expedition of M. Pelliot, that in that long chain of oases
+filled with busy cities, Buddhist art was gradually formed into the
+likeness under which it was to appear as a finished product in the Far
+East. Here it developed magnificently. The enormous frescoes of Murtuq
+display imposing arrangements of those figures of Buddhas and Bôdhisatvas
+which were to remain unchanged in the plastic formulas of China and Japan.
+Meanwhile conflicting influences continued to be felt. Sometimes the
+Indian types prevailed, as at Khotan, at others there were Semitic types
+and elements originating in Asia Minor, such as were found at Miran, and
+at length, as at Tun-huang, types that were almost entirely Chinese
+appeared.
+
+The paintings brought from Tun-huang by the Stein and Pelliot expeditions
+enable us to realize the nature of the characteristics which contact with
+China imposed upon Buddhist art. It had no choice but to combine with the
+tendencies revealed in the painting of Ku K'ai-chih. The painter trained
+in the school of Hellenistic technique drew with the brush. He delighted
+in the rhythmic movement of the line and the display of a transcendent
+harmony and elegance of proportion such as are seen in the frescoes of
+Eastern Turkestan. Perhaps through contact with China--herself searching
+for new expressions--but probably through a combination of the two
+influences, Buddhist painting, at the opening of the T'ang dynasty, gives
+us heavier types in which compact and powerful figures take on a new
+character.
+
+From then on we perceive the nature of the great change to which the early
+books refer. Chinese painting had already known the genii and fairies of
+Taoism, the Rishi or wizards living in mountain solitudes, the Immortals
+dwelling in distant isles beyond the sea. It now knew gods wrapped in the
+ecstatic contemplation of Nirvana, with smiling mouth and half-closed
+eyes, revealing mystic symbols in a broad and apostolic gesture. It had
+more life-like figures, attendants, benign and malignant, terrifying
+demons. Before these impassive gods, in a fervor of devotion it bent the
+figures of donors, men and women, sometimes veritable portraits. With even
+greater breadth it portrayed the disciples of Sakyamuni, those anchorites
+and hermits who under the name of Lohan[10] have entered into Chinese
+Buddhist legend. Indian priests with harsh, strongly marked features and
+wrinkled faces, preachers of a foreign race, disfigured by scourging or
+else the calm full visage of the ecstatic in contemplation,--such are the
+types that appeared. Chinese painters took up the new subjects and treated
+them with a freedom, an ease, and a vitality which at once added an
+admirable chapter to the history of art.
+
+  [10] Indian _Arhat_; Japanese _Rakan_.--TRANSLATOR.
+
+
+
+
+IV. THE T'ANG PERIOD--SEVENTH TO TENTH CENTURIES
+
+
+The T'ang dynasty was the really vital period of Chinese Buddhism. Among
+the painters who gave it its highest expression Wu Tao-tzÅ­ holds first
+place. His memory dwells in history as that of one of the greatest masters
+in China and legend has still further enhanced the might of his genius. It
+is highly probable that his work is entirely destroyed, but by the aid of
+copies, incised stones and wood engravings of the twelfth century, an idea
+of the painter's conception can be formed. He seems to have been the
+creator of a Chinese type of Kwanyin, the Buddhist incarnation of mercy
+and charity. Drapery covers the high drawn hair. She is attired in the
+harmonious folds of a plain and ample garment and expresses supreme
+authority, the sublimity of divine love.
+
+If to these fragments of an immense plastic production is added the
+analysis furnished by the written records, we can define with some degree
+of certitude the place occupied by Wu Tao-tzÅ­ in the history of Chinese
+painting. The books state that the lines from his brush fairly vibrated;
+all united in marvelling at the spirituality emanating from forms thus
+defined. He adhered almost exclusively to the use of powerful ink-lines
+and denied himself the use of any color, whether scattered or prominent,
+which would have robbed his painting of the austerity which was the source
+of its surpassing feeling. But in order to appreciate the full value of
+the new ideas introduced by Wu into Chinese painting, it is necessary to
+understand the exact nature of the technique that was in practice up to
+the seventh and eighth centuries, at the opening of the T'ang dynasty.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE VIII. WHITE EAGLE. SUNG PERIOD
+  Collection of R. Petrucci.]
+
+At that time there prevailed the analytic, painstaking, detailed and very
+considered drawing that is common to all periods preceding great
+constructive work. This technique admitted the use of two fundamental
+methods: one called _double contour_, the other _contour_ or _single
+contour_. The method of _double contour_ was applied chiefly to the
+drawing of plant life in landscape. It consisted in outlining leaves or
+branches by means of two lines of ink placed in apposition. The space thus
+enclosed was filled with color. Any peculiarities of formation, knots in
+wood and veins in leaves were added subsequently. The name of _single
+contour_ was applied to drawings wherein a single ink line outlined the
+object, the space enclosed being then filled with color.
+
+If the application of these analytic methods was sometimes carried to the
+extreme of delicacy it never became labored. Throughout its entire
+evolution the art of the T'ang period is characterized by a sense of the
+magnificent. Once the study of forms was exhausted, this type of work was
+bound to be superceded. Wu Tao-tzÅ­ profited by the work of his
+predecessors. Combining in a single stroke of the brush, vigor and an
+eclectic character of line, with values and fluidity of tone, he brought
+to a supreme unity the two great principles by which things are made
+manifest in all the magic of their essential structure. But it must be
+understood that this patient investigation of forms was not limited to
+preparing the way for a single master. The logical outcome was an
+independent movement to which the origin of modern Chinese painting can be
+traced.
+
+"Painting has two branches," the books say, "that of the North and that of
+the South; the separation occurred in the T'ang period." These terms
+_Northern School_ and _Southern School_ must not be taken literally. They
+serve merely to characterize styles which, in the eighth century,
+liberated themselves from methods demanding such close study and exact
+definition of forms. The style of the Northern School is strong, vehement
+and bold; the style of the Southern School is melancholy and dreamy. The
+ideal of Northern China, impregnated with barbarian elements, is brought
+into contrast with that of Southern China, heir to an already ancient
+civilization, and under the spell of Taoist legends and the bewildered
+dreams of its philosophers.[11]
+
+  [11] These divisions of Northern and Southern Schools do not
+  correspond, as might be imagined, to geographical limitations.
+  Painters of the South worked in the style of the North and painters of
+  the North likewise used the Southern style. Moreover the same master
+  was able to employ one or the other according to the inspiration of
+  the moment. These works were produced for a receptive people capable
+  of understanding both styles.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE IX. HORSEMAN FOLLOWED BY TWO ATTENDANTS
+  Sung Period. Collection of A. Stoclet.]
+
+Li Ssu-hsün and his son Li Chao-tao (eighth century) are considered to be
+the founders of the Northern School. The paintings attributed to them show
+the character which the Northern style preserved up to the Ming period and
+which was to be emphasized to the point of brutality at the hands of
+certain masters in the Yüan period. At the outset, in its brilliancy and
+precision, the Northern style held to a certain refinement of line; later
+the line is drawn with a firm and powerful brush and strong colors are
+applied almost pure.
+
+In direct contrast the Southern style is made up of half-tints, with a
+feeling of reserve and intentional restraint, which gives it, with equal
+power, at times a more appealing charm. The lines are pliant, immersed in
+shading, color is suggested in a subtle fashion and, in contrast to the
+almost brutal emphasis of the North, it finds expression in chiaroscuro
+and concealed harmonies.
+
+The foundation of the Southern School is attributed to a great landscape
+painter of the eighth century, Wang Wei. Nothing could better determine
+his tendencies than monochrome[12] painting in Chinese ink. According to
+the records, this was first practiced by him. It constitutes what in
+China, as well as in Japan, is called the _literary man's painting_ and
+is, in reality, quite closely related to calligraphy. The variety of
+shadings and relative colors of objects depend entirely upon the tones of
+ink washes. Wang Wei seems to have treated monochrome mainly from the
+standpoint of chiaroscuro, in his search for an atmospheric perspective
+which should be both fluid and ethereal. It appears that the accentuation
+of lines according to rule that is seen later on, where forms are
+synthetized--sometimes to an excessive degree--was only a derivation of
+the work of Wang Wei and caused by the intrusion of calligraphic
+virtuosity into the domain of painting.
+
+  [12] "Monochrome is a starved and lifeless term to express the
+  marvellous range and subtlety of tones of which the preparation of
+  black soot known as Chinese ink is capable." Laurence Binyon in "The
+  Flight of the Dragon."--TRANSLATOR.
+
+When we arrive at Wang Wei, landscape is treated as a special subject and
+with its own resources. It was he who discovered the principles which
+govern the fading of colors and forms in the distance, and who formulated
+the laws of atmospheric perspective. Paintings in his style are all
+executed in a predominating color which the Chinese call _luo-ts'ing_, a
+mineral color of varying shades ranging from a malachite green to a
+lapis-lazuli blue. It will be seen why _luo-ts'ing_ gave its name to the
+style of Wang Wei.
+
+By means of bluish tints he painted the distant expanse of landscape.
+Mountains forming screens in the backgrounds and masses of trees lost in
+the distance, are all indicated by the azure tints which intervening
+layers of air give to remote objects. But as the foreground is approached,
+rightful colors begin to prevail and the azure tints are subtly graded,
+passing into a fresh and brilliant green amongst wooded declivities, and
+into the natural hue in the foliage of trees. Often heavy mists, spreading
+at the foot of high mountains, veil the outlines and still further
+emphasize the feeling of limitless space.[13]
+
+  [13] I have not seen nor do I know of any paintings which can be said
+  with certainty to be from the hand of Wang Wei. But from the records
+  as well as from works directly inspired by him, an idea of his style
+  and technique can be formed. Ancient paintings in _luo-ts'ing_ are
+  found in Japan as well as in China. The British Museum of London has a
+  scroll painted by Chao Mêng-fu, in the manner of Wang Wei, dated 1309.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE X. LANDSCAPE IN THE STYLE OF HSIA KUEI
+  Sung Period. Collection of Martin White.]
+
+But when a master has carried his study of the fading of colors and of
+their relative values thus far, he must have considered not only the
+element of color itself, but also the collective tones which color is
+capable of expressing. From this to monochrome painting in Chinese ink is
+but a step; historical testimony shows that Wang Wei took this step. By
+the simple opposition of black and white, and through tone values and
+gradations of shades, he endeavored to create the same feeling of
+atmosphere and space which he had been able to express with _luo-ts'ing_.
+No original picture remains to inform us to what extent he succeeded, but
+by means of monochrome paintings of the Sung period which owe their
+inspiration to him, the importance of the reform accomplished, and the
+tendencies manifested in those lost works of art may be divined.
+
+Another master whose work can be defined with sufficient accuracy to cite
+as an illustration of a different aspect of the history of painting during
+the T'ang period, is Han Kan, who lived in the middle of the eighth
+century and who is celebrated as a painter of horses.
+
+The sculptured stones of the Han dynasty, especially the admirable
+bas-reliefs of the tomb of Chao-ling, representing the favorite coursers
+of the emperor T'ai-tsung, show the manner in which artists, from the
+third to the seventh centuries, were capable of studying and delineating
+the postures of the horse. It is therefore not surprising to find a great
+animal painter in the eighth century. Beyond question he was not the
+first. The written records have preserved the names of several of his
+predecessors and while the honor of having been the great founder of a
+school was attributed to him, it is possible that this refers only to an
+artistic movement bearing his name, of which he was not the sole
+representative.
+
+But the work of Han Kan and the unknown artists grouped around him,
+proclaims a powerful tradition, a well grounded school of animal painters
+which had attained the highest eminence. It was destined to exert a
+strong influence upon painters of horses in the Yüan epoch and even when,
+later on, this great tradition is seen disappearing, cloying and insipid,
+amidst the mannerisms of the Ming period, it will still retain sufficient
+power to carry thus far a reflection of the vigor and vitality attained in
+the great periods.
+
+The painting of _Flowers and Birds_, and _Plants and Insects_ appears to
+have been already established at this time. The flowers and plants are
+drawn according to the methods of _double contour_ and _single contour_,
+worked over and brought out with that intensity of analysis to which
+allusion has been made. The bird is caught in its most subtle movement,
+the insect studied in its essential structure.
+
+Thus we see that Chinese painting had extended its investigations in every
+direction and had solved the problems found along its path. It had
+absorbed foreign influences, altered its conception of the divine and
+found a new type of figure. It had endowed landscape painting with all the
+resources of atmospheric perspective and had established the two essential
+styles of the North and the South. The painter was master of the visible;
+his thought dominated form and was able to express itself with freedom.
+
+
+
+
+V. THE SUNG PERIOD--TENTH TO THIRTEENTH CENTURIES
+
+
+The T'ang period had been the golden age of Chinese poetry. It had
+witnessed an extraordinary outburst of religious fervor, and the
+overwhelming domination of Buddhism. It had, moreover, triumphantly
+re-established the unity of the empire and to the pride of intellectual
+activity it could add the pride of might and dominion. But the same cannot
+be said for the Sung period. From a political standpoint its history is
+one of cumulative disaster. Ancient China retreated by degrees before the
+thrusts of the barbarians, until the great thunderbolt of Genghis Khan's
+conquest, reverberating with formidable echoes throughout all Asia,
+announced the approaching downfall of culture in the red dawn of a new
+era.
+
+The Sung culture, totally different from that of the T'ang period, was,
+however, swept forward to its culmination. It would seem as if, under the
+menace of the barbarians, the mind had set for its goal the development of
+ideas embryonic in earlier work, formulating them in haste and arresting
+them finally in perfect yet sad images, in which the heights attained were
+haunted by the shadow of impending ruin.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XI. LANDSCAPE BY MA LIN
+  Sung Period. Collection of R. Petrucci.]
+
+The dynasty opened with a classical reaction against new ideas and
+witnessed a return to Confucian philosophy, with its conception of the
+State. But centuries of history had not rolled by without effect. In the
+tenth and eleventh centuries the ancient writings were no longer
+understood with their original meaning. A whole series of philosophers, of
+whom the last is Chu Hsi (thirteenth century), had formulated a composite
+doctrine resulting in what might be called an official philosophy, which
+has dominated to the present day. Some bold spirits, however, opposed this
+reactionary codification, struggling in vain to give a positive and firm
+structure to the doomed empire. Their influence appears to have been
+considerable. Just as the old heterodox philosophy was being stifled by
+the dry and colorless metaphysics of the conservatives, it was awakened to
+new life by the painters, who gave it a stirring interpretation in their
+work.
+
+The period of technical research was past. At first, with care and
+patience, forms had been determined by drawing. Color had remained a thing
+apart, regarded as a work of illumination and quite distinct from drawing.
+Then study was extended still further. Color came to be viewed in the
+light of shades and tones and became one of the means for the expression
+of form; it became the very drawing itself,--that which reveals the basic
+structure.
+
+Wang Wei represents the moment when art, emancipating itself from problems
+already solved, had conquered every medium of expression. Such is the
+tradition which he bequeathed to the Sung artists, who were destined to
+add thereto such supreme masterpieces.
+
+The Sung painters were haunted by the old philosophical beliefs as to the
+formation of the universe. Beyond the actual surroundings they dimly
+perceived a magic world made up of perfect forms. Appearances were but the
+visible covering of the two great principles whose combination engendered
+life. They believed that, in painting, they did more than to reproduce the
+external form of things. They labored with the conviction that they were
+wresting the soul from objects, in order to transfer it to the painted
+silk. Thus they created something new, an imaginary world more beautiful
+than the real world, wherein the intimate relation of beings and things
+was disclosed,--a world pervaded by pure spirit and one which was revealed
+only to those whose thought was sufficiently enlightened, and whose
+sympathies were sufficiently broad, to understand and to be stirred.
+
+The painters of the line of Wang Wei during the Sung period, devoted
+themselves chiefly to the development of painting in monochrome. They
+pursued the study of relations of tones and values of shading up to the
+limit of extreme delicacy, and if they mingled color at all with their
+subtle evocations, it was with a feeling of unequalled restraint. They
+dwelt for the most part in intimacy with Nature. Fleeing from the cares
+of court and city, they retired into mountain solitudes, meditating for
+long periods before taking up the brush to paint. Thus they portrayed
+those mountains enveloped in mists, wherein was revealed the harmony of
+the two principles which control the universe. From the depths of valleys
+misty vapors arose and cedars and gigantic pines reared their majestic
+forms, while, on the threshold of a thatched cabin upon some rocky
+plateau, a hermit deep in meditation contemplated the vast expanse of a
+landscape of august grandeur.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XII. MONGOL HORSEMAN RETURNING FROM THE HUNT
+  By Chao Mêng-fu. Yüan Period. Doucet Collection.]
+
+Sometimes, turning to plant forms, they painted the bamboo in black and
+white. A single masterly stroke sufficed to draw the cylindrical stalk
+from one joint to another, or the pointed leaves which are so quivering
+with life that we seem to hear the plaintive voice of the wind "combed,"
+as the Chinese writings express it, "by the reeds." Or again, when a
+flower was the subject, they suggested it with a simplicity that
+presupposes a scientifically exact study of forms. It was by no means the
+splendid image which they sought to grasp but the soul itself; at one time
+the flower barely open in all its enchanting freshness, at another the
+softened petals drooping in languid fashion, revealing a splendor still
+present but soon to fade; at times the dew moistening the leaves, the snow
+shrouding them with its purity, or the slow monotonous rain beneath which
+they drip, motionless. These paintings are always instinct with deep
+poetic feeling.
+
+At the hands of the Sung painters the school of landscape and monochrome
+technique attained a level which will never be exceeded. The masters of
+this period are numerous and are frequently represented by works of almost
+certain authenticity. It seems useless to assemble here names which will
+convey no meaning to the European reader. It will suffice to illustrate by
+a few great figures the three centuries of history during which Chinese
+landscape painting reached its culminating point.
+
+Tung Yüan and Chü Jan are considered by the critics as having founded a
+special school in the great tradition of Wang Wei. Their paintings were
+quiet in coloring and were executed with broad strokes in an impressionist
+style. These works must be viewed from a distance to see their apparent
+violence merge into extreme elegance. They furnish a complete
+demonstration of the laws of atmospheric perspective, with its feeling of
+distance and infinite space, in which forms are immersed. Here we find
+evidence that these painters were the first to attempt the arrangement of
+lines according to rule, which led ultimately to calligraphic painting.
+
+Among the heads of schools cited in the Chinese writings Ma Yüan and Hsia
+Kuei of the Sung dynasty must be placed in a class by themselves. Both of
+these masters lived at the end of the twelfth and the beginning of the
+thirteenth centuries. Their style can be described with accuracy since
+original examples are extant--both by themselves and by their
+disciples--in which their characteristics are fully revealed.
+
+Ma Yüan is classed with the Southern School by reason of his restraint in
+the use of color, his greatness of conception and his technical treatment
+of forms. But he brings to his work a virility in which the influence of
+the Northern School is plainly discerned. He has a broad stroke and a
+masterful manner which place his works in the front rank of all Chinese
+painting. His mountainous backgrounds rear themselves with fierce energy.
+His old pines, with branches wreathed in vines, would suffice alone to
+define his style, so freely do they express the force of plant life and
+the proud defiance of the aged tree. He loved the mountain solitudes to
+which he gave a new imagery, so authoritative and so perfect that it
+served to create a school.
+
+The influence of Ma Yüan was felt by his brother and by his son, Ma Lin.
+Although the death of the latter occurred under the Mongolian dynasty, he
+was an exponent of Sung art. The fierce energy of the old master gives way
+to a somewhat more melancholy and gentle quality in his son. There is the
+same restraint in the handling of the brush, the same reserve in the use
+of color, but the landscape stretches out into deep and dreamy vistas that
+are indescribably poetic. The melancholy of autumn, the sadness of flights
+of birds that circle in the evening light, the feeling of seclusion and
+silence, such are the things in which this poetic spirit finds its joy,
+true heir of the master mind whose genius found expression in the wild
+aspects of nature.
+
+The school of Ma dominated the entire subsequent period and his influence
+extended as far as Korea, where traces of it were still to be found as
+late as the fifteenth century. As the history of Korean painting becomes
+better known, we shall be able to say with more accuracy what it owes to
+other Chinese masters; but in so far as those mentioned are concerned,
+their influence appears to have been sufficiently strong to impress a
+certain type on fragmentary works from Korea which have become known to us
+recently.
+
+We are far from being as well informed regarding Hsia Kuei, but we have
+that which is worth more than written records, a few paintings preserved
+in Japanese collections, which it seems legitimate to attribute to him
+without reservation. It is readily seen why his name is always linked with
+that of Ma Yüan. His work shows the same energy and power and discloses an
+ideal which is similar to that of his confrère. He seems to have
+penetrated even further than Ma Yüan along the path of daring
+simplifications, and to have approached at times the calligraphic style.
+He painted both landscape and figures and was skilled in obtaining strange
+effects, as if of color, through his use of monochrome.
+
+Another painter whose name dominates the history of this time and whose
+work serves to characterize a special aspect is Li Lung-mien. It is
+naturally difficult to prove that all the works attributed to him are
+authentic. However, collections in Japanese temples or privately owned,
+possess paintings which passed as his at a very early date and in which at
+least we can recognize his style. In reviewing the centuries of history,
+it is interesting to note that the work of Li Lung-mien is not without
+similarity, in certain of its elements, to the paintings of Ku K'ai-chih.
+His line is delicate and flexible and he draws his outlines with the same
+subtlety, the same grace and the same instinct for harmonious curves and
+an extraordinary rhythm.
+
+The tradition which arose in a period antedating the T'ang epoch was
+therefore still unbroken in the Sung period, and I am sure that proofs of
+this will increase in number as our information becomes more accurate. New
+evidence furnished by the paintings found at Tun-huang and certain
+frescoes at Murtuq has recently shown that the type of Buddhist
+hermit--the Lohan meditating in solitude--whose inception had, until these
+discoveries, been attributed to Li Lung-mien, in reality dated much
+further back and originated in the Buddhist art of Eastern Turkestan,
+perhaps even in India. From those regions are derived the magnificent
+subjects of which Li Lung-mien made use to express meditation. Sometimes
+there are emaciated faces, withered bodies with protruding tendons that
+outline deep hollows, and again rotund and peaceful figures meditating in
+tranquil seclusion. From the written records as well as in his works,
+there is every evidence that he was one of those who revived Buddhist
+painting. No matter what models he chose to follow, he always gave them a
+stress and a peculiar distinction, while from the standpoint of pure art
+he had the ability to portray them with finished elegance and majestic
+dignity.
+
+Li Lung-mien was not content to paint Buddhist figures only. He painted
+landscape also, and in his youth he had painted horses. A great critic of
+the Sung period said of him that "his soul entered into communion with all
+things, his spirit penetrated the mysteries and the secrets of nature."
+This critic added that one day he saw Li Lung-mien painting a Buddhist
+divinity. The words of the god fairly leapt from the lines; it seemed as
+if the brush of the master summoned them one by one into being. Like all
+the masters of his time, Li Lung-mien sought to free the spirit from its
+outward semblance. Beyond the material, he perceived the immaterial force
+which animates the world. As a landscape painter his conception of Nature
+was broad and majestic. His graceful and harmonious line recalls the
+happiest moments in the history of plastic art, and he challenges
+comparison with a facile genius like Raphael. But he includes the whole
+realm of nature in his subjects, and in his work we find traces, expressed
+with greater breadth, but with quite as keen an insight, of an ancient
+and noble art, such as was found almost extinct in the work of Ku
+K'ai-chih.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XIII. PIGEONS BY CH'IEN HSÃœAN
+  Yüan Period. Collection of R. Petrucci.]
+
+We cannot leave the Sung painters without devoting some attention to Mi
+Fei and his son. The two Mi's, indeed, accomplished a far-reaching reform
+in Chinese technique; they enriched painting with a new imagery and
+founded a school which, like that of Ma, exerted an influence on later
+periods and was strongly felt in Korea.
+
+In addition to being a great painter, Mi Fei was a great calligraphist.
+This is apparent however little one may have seen of work in his style. He
+possesses in the highest degree what the Chinese describe as the "handling
+of flowing ink." He used the technique of monochrome almost exclusively,
+and so closely related tone values to the line, or rather to the
+brush-stroke, that it is difficult to decide whether he paints rather than
+draws, or draws rather than paints. Properly speaking, he does not employ
+the line at all but works by masses, by broad, heavily inked touches,
+without pausing to emphasize the deep warm blacks provided by Chinese ink.
+His manner recalls certain drawings by Rembrandt, also produced by strong
+inking, which evoke a strange and magical effect of light. Such was the
+spirit in which Mi Fei treated landscape. This technique marks his style
+and gives it an individuality that is indisputable. The vehemence with
+which he attacks forms, the rapidity of his brush-stroke, the way in which
+things spring from such energy, call to mind pictures by European
+masters, painted in full color, and it may be said of the paintings of Mi
+Fei that they are fairly _colored_ by their tremendous vitality, if the
+quality of the materials he employed permits the use of such a term.
+Therefore Mi Fei and his son are responsible for a new technique, a
+strongly individual work, and the creation of a style which marks the
+highest achievement in monochrome. The trend which impelled them was,
+however, general. Carried to its extreme it led to the style of painting
+called calligraphic, of which there has been occasion to speak several
+times.
+
+Calligraphic painting, or the _literary style_, has its origin in the
+studies of Wang Wei when, renouncing the aid of colour, he strove by
+harmony of shading and by tone values, to reproduce the vast reaches of
+space and all the shifting subtlety of atmospheric perspective. The
+exclusive use of Chinese ink necessitated special studies since thus
+calligraphy was directly approached. The different styles of writing are
+almost drawing in themselves. Each style of writing has its own rules for
+dissecting the written character and making the stroke. Now, as is known,
+the Chinese painters attached supreme importance to the line and to the
+brush-stroke. This was due in part to their equipment and in part to the
+fact that the amateurs of art were prepared by their classical studies to
+appreciate the strength or the delicacy of a line judged for itself, quite
+independently of the forms represented. We must also bear in mind that
+all of the Chinese painters were scholars, belonging to the class of the
+literati.[14] Writers, poets, statesmen, soldiers, Buddhist or Taoist
+priests, and philosophers have all furnished the greatest names in art.
+Under such conditions the technical relationship between the line of the
+painter and that of the calligraphist was closer, since painter and
+calligraphist were frequently united in one and the same person. Thence
+came the early tendency to use monochrome and to represent forms in the
+abstract, rendering them more and more as mere themes, thus reducing the
+subject to a few simple calligraphic strokes.
+
+  [14] The literati, or lettered class, were the aristocracy in what
+  was the most democratic of absolute monarchies. No matter how humble
+  his   origin, anyone of the male sex was eligible to compete in the
+  examinations which were based upon literary knowledge and memory of
+  the classics. Proficiency in handwriting was a natural result. The
+  successful candidate might aspire to any post in the empire, as
+  official positions were bestowed through literary merit. During three
+  days and two nights at the time of examination the candidate was not
+  allowed to leave his tiny box-like cell, lacking even space to lie
+  down. Cases of death during the examinations were not infrequent. The
+  examination halls in Peking are now destroyed and those in Nanking
+  with 20,000 cells are crumbling away.--TRANSLATOR.
+
+It is difficult for a European to follow the thought of the Chinese
+painters in these daring simplifications. Sometimes they are carried to
+such an extreme as to leave us with a feeling of perplexity. Often however
+they give rise to mighty conceptions and paintings whose essential
+character impresses us as a unique product of genius. Calligraphic
+painting reached its highest level during the Sung and Yüan periods. It
+was so closely allied to painting that the Emperor Hui Tsung, who ascended
+the throne in 1100, founded the Imperial Academy of Calligraphy and
+Painting in the first year of his reign. Hui Tsung was himself a painter.
+The books credit him with especial mastery in the representation of birds
+of prey, eagles, falcons and hawks, which seems to be sufficient reason
+for deliberately attributing to him every painting of a bird of prey, even
+when there is evidence that it was painted two or three centuries later
+than his time. Perhaps before long we shall find authentic paintings by
+Hui Tsung. A painting belonging to the Musée Guimet, which comes from the
+collection of Tuan Fang, is the one which by its annotations bears the
+greatest guaranty of authenticity, but it is a representation of a figure
+painting of the T'ang dynasty and gives us no information as to the manner
+in which Hui Tsung painted eagles. However, certain paintings from his
+collections have come down to us. Whether or not by the imperial hand they
+proclaim a virile art, an instinct for the grandiose and a majestic
+character which are the qualities of which the eagle is a symbol.
+
+The foundation of the Academy of Calligraphy and Painting had results
+quite other than those hoped for by its founder. It became imbued with the
+evils of formalism. It was established in the imperial capital in court
+surroundings, in other words, in an atmosphere from which true artists
+depart with all possible speed. It suffered inevitably through the
+influences of a taste, refined it is true, but which already inclined
+toward mannerisms and preciosity. Conventions were established, subjects
+became stereotyped, the taste for brilliant colors developed and, even
+before the end of the Sung period, there was a marked division between
+academic and national art. Pedantry and affectation began to take the
+place of boldness and strength.
+
+Doubtless this tendency would have developed still further but for a
+series of disasters and the menace of a new dynasty looming on the horizon
+of Central Asia, which was already resounding with the clash of Mongol
+arms.
+
+
+
+
+VI. THE YÃœAN PERIOD--THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES
+
+
+From the standpoint of civilization the Mongolian dynasty of Yüan brought
+nothing to China. On the contrary, the foreign elements were absorbed by
+the ancient culture for, in the final summing-up, the mind will always be
+stronger than weapons. From the standpoint of painting, however, this
+period has marked individuality.
+
+The Sung period had been distinctly dominated by the ideals of Southern
+China. Philosophical inspiration had proven too strong to permit the style
+of the Northern School to assert absolute sway. In this we must make an
+exception of Buddhist painting, which,--save in the work of a few chance
+painters of religious subjects--continues the traditions of the T'ang
+period, preserving the original character of its coloring. It is true that
+there were masterpieces to the credit of the Northern School but it had by
+no means kept to the style of vivid illumination which marked its
+inception.[15] It had yielded to the influence of the Southern style,
+was simplified by this contact and took on the austerity and proportion of
+the South. It would seem as if the painters hastened to add their
+testimony before the philosophy of the ancient sages should disappear.
+They strove to give the world perfect images in which the great principles
+of the universe could be felt vibrating. The only suitable medium for such
+expression was the technique of the Southern School which they followed
+with more or less fidelity.
+
+  [15] It should be borne in mind that the author uses the term
+  illumination in the sense of color applied within a distinct and
+  limiting outline. This is illustrated in the definitions of single and
+  double contour.--TRANSLATOR.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XIV. BAMBOOS IN MONOCHROME BY WU CHÊN
+  Yüan Period. Musée Guimet.]
+
+Southern China was at that time the scene of awakened faculties. Shaken to
+its foundations by the mystic movement--both Taoist and Buddhist--of the
+T'ang period, the Confucian doctrine had lost ground but had not yet
+congealed into the rigid official code of a Chu Hsi. While heterodox
+beliefs still prevailed, all were free to borrow their prophetic and
+poetic meaning.
+
+When the Mongols came into power, they only carried to completion the work
+of conservation begun by the Sung emperors. In their contact with China
+they resembled timid pupils quite as much as conquerors. Once emperor of
+China, the Mongol Kublai Khan could not but remember his purely Chinese
+education. Moreover it was quite the Tartar custom to extend their
+conquests to administrative organization, by establishing a hierarchy of
+functionaries. The conception of a supreme and autocratic State, paternal
+in its absolutism, intervening even to the details of private life in
+order to assure the happiness of the people,--this idea, dear to the
+literary conservators of the Confucian School during the Sung period, was
+also too similar to the Tartar ideal to be denied immediate adoption.
+Heterodox doctrines were formally banished from schools. Rejected with
+scorn as being corrupt and dangerous, there remained of these doctrines
+only such residuum as might be found in the independent thought of
+artists, who were more difficult to control. The magnificent movement of
+the Sung period began to abate; it produced its last master pieces and
+gradually waned, until under Ming rule it was to die out completely.
+
+The Yüan epoch, therefore, appears in the light of a transition period
+connecting the fifteenth century of Ming with the thirteenth century of
+Sung. From the point of view which interests us, it did nothing but
+complete a work which had been carried on with energy and success by
+adherents in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It strove to reduce
+China to a severely regulated State in which all great movements and
+impulses should be under strict control. It succeeded. It succeeded so
+well, indeed, that the Europeans who came to know China in the seventeenth
+century and who rediscovered it so unnecessarily in the nineteenth
+century, believed it to have been motionless for two thousand years. There
+is no need to lay stress here upon the absurdity of this prevalent
+opinion. It has been seen in the past and will be seen in modern times,
+that the inner travail, the evolution and the diversity are by no means
+arrested. Like the nations of Europe, China has had its evolution; the
+causes were analagous, its destiny the same. This is especially felt in
+the history of its painting. When the potent inspiration of the Southern
+School began to wane, the style of the North took the upper hand for
+obvious reasons.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XV. PAINTINGS OF THE YÃœAN OR EARLY MING PERIOD
+  Style of the Northern School. Collection of R. Petrucci.]
+
+Partially civilized barbarians occupied the highest places in the State.
+They were the controlling party at the imperial court and had usurped the
+place of the old society, refined, subtle and perhaps too studied, which
+formed the environment of the last Sung emperors. Despite their naïve
+efforts and good will, these barbarians could not fathom an art so
+austere, enlightened and balanced. They were utterly ignorant of such a
+masterly conception of nature as was evoked in Chinese painting.
+Monochrome to them was dull. They could admire on trust, but they could
+not understand. On the other hand, the Northern style with its bold
+assurance, strong coloring and drawing positive almost to the point of
+seeming sculptural, was more akin to their mental outlook. There at least
+they found something which recalled those rugs on which they appear to
+have exhausted their artistic resources. In a word, they were more
+accustomed to the Northern style and had brought with them from the
+Northern regions their own artists, both Chinese and barbarian.
+
+The Northern temperament, reflective, strong and positive, now began to
+assume mastery over the bewildered reveries of the Southern nature. Things
+are seen to change. Even the masters who continue the Sung tradition
+infuse a somewhat more robust quality into their works, but, in so doing,
+they lose a certain stirring depth which gave the work of their
+predecessors such an exceptional character. Caught between these two
+tendencies, Yüan painting takes on new traits, which are perhaps more
+accessible to European mentality because they are more simple and direct.
+These observations apply to the general evolution of Chinese painting from
+the end of the thirteenth to the end of the fourteenth centuries. We must
+now consider it more in detail, citing by way of illustration a few of the
+painters who expressed the spirit of the time.
+
+At its inception the Yüan dynasty had inherited the last masters of the
+Sung period, among them two artists who are recognized as of the first
+rank. Chao Mêng-fu--known also under the appellation of Tzŭ-ang--was
+born in 1254. He was a descendant of the first Sung emperor and held an
+hereditary post which he resigned at the time the Yüan dynasty came into
+power. He retired into private life until 1286, then when called back to
+court as a high functionary, he became a supporter of the new dynasty.
+Chao Mêng-fu painted landscape as well as figures, flowers and the bamboo,
+but he is most celebrated for his horses. Numberless paintings of
+horses are attributed to this master; needless to say the great majority
+of these are not by his hand.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XVI. PORTRAIT OF A PRIEST
+  Yüan or Early Ming Period. Collection of H. Rivière.]
+
+As a landscape painter he seems to have worked in the style of the
+Southern School, with a fine, simple line in which may still be seen
+traces of the ancient tradition that extends back to Ku K'ai-chih. This
+characteristic line is found in the paintings of men and horses where the
+hand of Chao Mêng-fu is distinguishable. He bequeaths it to the large
+school which he founded, and, through his pupils, it becomes the
+inheritance of his imitators in the Ming period. It is more than probable
+that almost all of the paintings by his pupils, bearing the signature
+TzÅ­-ang, are attributed to the master, while his own paintings are
+ascribed to Han Kan, painter of horses in the T'ang period. However, among
+the numerous works attributed to Chao Mêng-fu, there are a few in which we
+recognize the vibrant and flexible line which is seen in his landscapes.
+These paintings bear the signature of TzÅ­-ang, in all probability a
+false one, but the work of art itself will always be of greater value in
+determining its authenticity than the most impressive of inscriptions. If
+the technique and the quality of the line are sufficiently similar to
+warrant attributing to the same hand the landscape in the British Museum,
+and any particular painting of horses, this may be regarded as sufficient
+evidence on which to base our own opinion as to his style.
+
+Amongst his grooms and mounted soldiers, Chao Mêng-fu painted the
+different races which the wave of Mongolian invasion had swept into China:
+Chinese from the central provinces, Tartars, Mongols with fur caps,
+Moslems of a Semitic type from Turkestan, with white turbans and heavy
+earrings. Whether his subject was the little Tartar horse from the
+Mongolian plains or the beautiful steeds of ancient Transoxiana, always
+brought as tribute by way of Khotan to the Chinese court, he gave the life
+of the horse a singular beauty, portraying him in an equally happy manner
+whether in the act of racing or in the attitudes of repose. In his mind
+still dwelt the vision of Sung ideals, which proclaimed the hidden soul of
+things and valued spirituality and life in a painting. Although we see
+marked evidence of the Southern style in his work, his paintings are more
+strongly colored than are those of that school. The influence of the Yüan
+period begins to make itself felt. It brings out values in colored
+pigment, emphasizes its violence and paves the way for a new tradition.
+
+Chao Mêng-fu has been compared by Chinese critics to his great predecessor
+Han Kan. The writings, however, are unanimous in stating that,
+notwithstanding his undeniable mastery, he lacked something of the vigor
+of the earlier master. When we attempt to compare the two styles through
+the aid of paintings of the T'ang period, wherein a reflection of the
+great animal painter may be sought, the writings appear to be confirmed
+in attributing a more positive and forceful character to the work of Han
+Kan or the unknown group of painters around him. But Chao Mêng-fu seems to
+have possessed in a higher degree the feeling of movement and life, and to
+have been less hampered in his choice of poses. Centuries of study and of
+observation had intervened between the great animal painter of the T'ang
+epoch and his worthy rival of a later period.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XVII. HORSE
+  Painting by an unknown artist. Yüan or Early Ming Period.
+  Doucet Collection.]
+
+Like Chao Mêng-fu, Ch'ien Hsüan, or Ch'ien Shun-chü, retired from public
+life at the downfall of the Sung dynasty. He was a member of a group of
+the faithful over which Chao presided, but, more decided than the latter
+in his opposition to the new dynasty, he was indignant at his confrère's
+defection and refused to follow his example. He lived in retirement,
+devoting himself to painting and to poetry up to the time of his death. He
+also continued the Sung tradition under the Yüan dynasty to which, as a
+matter of fact, he belonged only during the second part of his life. He
+painted figures, landscape, flowers and birds. His delicate line is not
+lacking in strength, and he seems to have been especially endowed with a
+sense of form which approached greatness in its simplicity. Whether the
+subject is a young prince or a pigeon perched on the summit of a rock from
+which chrysanthemums are springing, the same dignified and tranquil
+nobility is asserted with ease. He still used the quiet and restrained
+coloring of the Sung period and prolonged, without impairing it, the
+great tradition that a century and a half could not quite efface.
+
+Of Yen Hui we know almost nothing; the books state briefly that he painted
+Buddhist figures, birds and flowers, and that he was past master in the
+painting of demons. Nothing is known of the date of his birth or if, by
+his age and training, he could be classed in the Sung period, but several
+admirable paintings by him are extant which serve to show how Sung art was
+still interpreted by exceptional masters in the Yüan period. His line is
+strong, broader, fuller and more abrupt than that of Chao Mêng-fu or
+Ch'ien Shun-chü. The quivering vitality that emanates from his pictures is
+thrilling. Whether the subject is a peony heavy with dew, whose drooping
+petals presage the approaching end, or a Buddhist monk patching his
+mantle, the fleeting moment is seized with such intuitive power that
+prolonged contemplation of the painting creates the impression that it is
+suddenly about to come to life. There is something sturdier, more
+startling, less dreamy in these great painters who continue the traditions
+of Sung art; their work alone demonstrated that tradition could be revived
+and that ancient China, under the Mongolian dynasty, was still preserving
+its creative spirit and advancing resolutely into fertile fields.
+
+In Huang Kung-wang and Ni Tsan, we approach a different order of things.
+Lines began to take on a classical character, to be divided into a
+series of different types, which painters adopted according to their
+temperament and requirements, and finally became impersonal and academic.
+Both of these painters, nevertheless, were under the spell of early
+influences extending back to the T'ang artists. Through study of these old
+masters they returned to the use of a full and sometimes vivid color, but
+kept a profound love of nature, and a fresh and original vision, by which
+they still perpetuated the inspiration of Sung painting in a new form.
+With these painters, however, new features appeared. Reds and purples
+became dominant notes amidst rich greens which set them off and enhanced
+their brilliancy. The vision of landscape itself is somewhat more
+realistic and less subtle. In all of these essentials Ni Tsan, who died in
+1374, brings us nearer to the Ming period.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XVIII. VISIT TO THE EMPEROR BY THE IMMORTALS FROM
+  ON HIGH Ming Period. British Museum, London.]
+
+Simultaneously, though quite apart, marked tendencies of a different
+character were evident. The old masters of the T'ang period had again
+returned to favor. The vivid illumination and color distinct from drawing,
+in these firm and vigorous works appealed to the untutored barbarian. On
+the other hand, the studies of the Sung period had not been fruitless;
+therefore when, under these influences, the use of color was resumed, the
+painters profited by what the practice of monochrome had taught meanwhile.
+In the Yüan period appear those paintings which are attacked directly with
+a dripping brush without preliminary drawing, the forms being modeled in
+the color itself. The Chinese called this painting "without bones," in
+other words, deprived of the assistance of line. This procedure was first
+used by a painter of the Sung period, but it did not take root definitely
+until the time when the practice of using Chinese ink as a medium to
+express tones had taught painters how to model forms in color itself,
+making the structure depend upon color.
+
+Seen as a whole, the Yüan period witnessed the assembling, the
+concentration, so to speak, of the ardent but scattered inspirations of
+the great masters of the preceding school. It produced splendid
+compositions in which the golden age of Chinese painting continued to be
+manifest. Masters arose and if, in spite of all, they mark a reaction
+toward the Northern style, seeking rich and vivid color, they give us a
+vision of beauty that is equal to the work of their predecessors.
+
+Meanwhile grave signs of decadence were apparent. Composition became
+overladen and complex and began to lose something of the noble simplicity,
+greatness and supreme charm of the old masters. It was evident that the
+Yüan painters were working under the eye of the barbarians. They yielded
+to the taste of the latter for anecdote, for surmounting difficulties and
+for sentimental detail. Thus far there were only scarcely perceptible
+shadows and momentary weaknesses, warning signs of decadence; but when
+such signs are evident, decadence is at hand, and that which the virility
+of the barbarians had preserved was to be lost through the creed-bound
+dignity of an academic China, which was imprisoned in a rigid system of
+rules.
+
+
+
+
+VII. THE MING PERIOD--FOURTEENTH TO SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES
+
+
+The Ming dynasty came into power on the wings of national feeling. China
+rallied her forces and expelled the foreign tyrants. Without doubt the
+nation cherished the illusion of rebuilding itself upon the model of the
+past, and the first emperors of the dynasty believed that the empire could
+be re-established upon an unshakable foundation. But the Ming dynasty, in
+reality, was but the heir and follower of Yüan. The latter itself had been
+only a connecting link. It had changed nothing, but had tended rather to
+absorb into the Chinese system the Northern barbarians, who up to that
+time had been foreigners. It had unwittingly achieved unity for China,
+despite itself and against its own inclination. In the administration of
+the empire, it had finished the program of conservation which the Sung
+dynasty, through impotence, had been unable to carry to completion.
+
+The Ming dynasty inherited the work of the Mongols and consolidated it. It
+survived under their reign and under that of the Ch'ing rulers until the
+final disintegration, of which we have but recently seen the results.
+The peaceful ideals of the Ming dynasty, the marked predominance of
+Confucianism as a code of ethics, with certain modifications by Chu Hsi,
+combined to form an ensemble that was apparently perfect and which made it
+possible to have faith in the excellence of the principles laid down by
+the monarchy. Thus a school was formed which had its own philosophy,
+manners and ideals, all of them cold, stiff and without spontaneity. It
+was an over-perfect machine which went like clockwork. The world was
+judged with a narrow and somewhat stupid self-confidence. The ideal dwelt
+in the word of Confucian writings, divorced from their true meaning, and
+so badly interpreted that they ceased to be understood aright. The
+meticulous, bureaucratic and hieratic administration of the Tartars was a
+perfect system of government. The machine was still new and worked well,
+whence arose a false impression of permanence which added still further to
+the complacency of the conservative mind. An art was necessary to this
+China. She had it. It was academic painting.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XIX. EGRETS BY LIN LIANG
+  Ming Period. Collection of Mrs. John D. Rockefeller, Junior.]
+
+Side by side with this and yet apart, other influences were at work.
+Notwithstanding the prohibition of books on heterodox philosophies in
+schools, accompanied by the widespread decadence of Buddhism, and the
+complete downfall of Taoism owing to gross practices in popular magic, and
+despite the disdain of the official world, another element in China was
+preserving the spirit of the past, the restless spirit that craved
+novelty. In all probability its obscure workings did not appear
+immediately upon the surface, concealed as they were by the strictly
+prescribed screen of official China. They were sufficiently strong,
+however, to give rise to an art which differed essentially from academic
+art, and which numbered masters who were comparable with those of the
+past. In spite of adverse circumstances and the weight under which these
+movements were buried, they made themselves felt in violent upheavals.
+First let us draw a picture of the decadence of an art and later we shall
+return to activity and life.
+
+Official painting in the Ming period rapidly stiffened into convention. To
+understand how it took shape, we must go back to the time of Hui Tsung and
+observe the method of recruiting talent in the Academy which he founded.
+
+That painting was allied to philosophic and poetic thought is already
+known. It was always a refined diversion of poets and painters to unite in
+a quest for the beautiful. The poet wrote verses and the painter painted a
+picture suggesting, sometimes remotely, the thought enshrined in the poem.
+Such were the conditions upon which Hui Tsung instituted examinations,
+following which the doors of the Academy were open to the victor. He gave,
+for example, as subject for a competition a verse saying, "The bamboos
+envelop the inn beyond the bridge," which suggested a landscape with
+flowing water, a rustic bridge thrown across the stream, a cluster of
+bamboos on the bank, a "winehouse" half hidden in the verdure. All the
+competitors, the records say, set to work drawing with minute care the inn
+which they made the essential feature of the picture. Only one implied its
+presence by showing, above a dense cluster of bamboos, the little banner
+which in China denotes the presence of a "winehouse." Two verses of
+another poem in which allusion was made to the red flowers of spring were
+interpreted by the representation of a beautiful young girl dressed in
+red, leaning on a balustrade, for according to Chinese ideas, the thoughts
+of young men in spring turn there, as elsewhere, toward thoughts of love.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XX. FLOWERS AND INSECTS
+  Ming Period. Collection of R. Petrucci.]
+
+We have here an example of the subtle allusions, at times profoundly
+poetic, with which Chinese painting abounds. But these things retain their
+value and charm only in so far as they depend on a free play of mind or
+upon personal, living sentiments. As accepted conventions regulated in an
+academic competition, repeated with sustained effort and without
+enthusiasm, their rigid monotony becomes intolerable. Such was the
+ultimate fate of that ability to express by half meanings, to suggest
+without directly stating, to which the Sung painters attached so great an
+importance. The day it was understood that a little banner fluttering over
+bamboos indicated the presence of a "winehouse" in a sylvan retreat, or
+that a young girl dressed in red symbolized the crimson blooming of a
+garden pink in springtime, banners and young girls dressed in red were
+seen in paintings innumerable to the point of satiety.
+
+Thus were established those dry conventions of a somewhat stupid erudition
+which were so much the fashion in the academic painting of the Ming and
+the Ch'ing periods, and whose great success repressed the artistic
+aspirations of a people. Under these influences was rapidly assembled a
+complete arsenal of allegories, allusions and symbols that gave birth to
+an art which was possibly very learned, but which was inartistic to the
+last degree. An academician of the Ming period would have thought himself
+disgraced if he had not proven by complicated compositions the extent of
+his knowledge of things of this character. Art was no longer anything but
+a kind of puzzle. Furthermore, the decadence of eye and hand followed that
+of the mind, and there next appeared a taste for brilliant colors,
+overladen compositions, and fine and meticulous lines, culminating in an
+unbearable nicety. The work of the Academy is summed up in these words.
+
+Let us turn aside from an art that is inert. It robbed things of the
+creative spirit that animated them. We shall now see what was achieved by
+those who followed in the steps of the old masters.
+
+The fifteenth century in China witnessed a continuance of the style
+prevalent during the Sung and Yüan periods. Chou Chih-mien, for example,
+was true to that profound feeling for form, that delicacy of coloring,
+and rhythm in composition which were the endowment of the greatest
+masters. Shên Chou belonged entirely to the Yüan school, and to prove that
+the old ideals were not dead, we have in the fifteenth century the
+magnificent group of painters of the plum tree, with Lu Fu and Wang
+Yüan-chang at their head.
+
+As before stated, a special philosophy was associated with this tree and
+its flowers. The white petals scattered on vigorous branches had long
+typified an inner soul, whose purity was the very likeness of virtue and
+of tenderness. Chung Jen, who in the eleventh century wrote a treatise on
+the painting of the plum tree, explains in his chapter on "the derivation
+of forms" that it is a symbol, a concentrated form, a likeness of the
+universe. The great fundamental principles mingle harmoniously within it;
+they express themselves in its shape and reveal themselves through its
+beauty. Similar to this was the philosophy associated with the bamboo,
+which endured up to the fifteenth century. The subtle monochromes of Lu Fu
+show branches of flowering plum swaying in the breeze. In the great works
+of Wang Yüan-chang trunks of old trees, still bearing hardy blossoms,
+stand proudly in the magical radiance of the moon. Vibration and power,
+grandeur and majesty, such are the qualities which were still sought
+amidst the severe conditions imposed by the use of black and white. Here
+we feel that the creative force is not yet spent. We find it equally
+fresh and vigorous in the ink bamboos of Wên Chêng-ming in the sixteenth
+century.
+
+In landscape, however, new elements appear which mark a decline. I have
+already laid stress on the overladen composition which developed in the
+Yüan epoch. This was still more noticeable in the Ming period. When
+pictorial art has had a long series of masters, a certain eclecticism is
+infallibly produced. This leads to the rejection of the direct study of
+nature, in favor of viewing it only through the eyes of the old masters.
+This phenomenon appeared in China as well as in Europe. The landscape
+painters of the Ming period studied the technique of the T'ang and the
+Sung epochs and codified their system of lines, arranging them in series
+according to types and schools; in short, they drew from these a
+ready-made technique by which they were controlled. Turning from nature
+they yielded to imagination. They delighted in painting fanciful
+landscapes and were inclined toward images that were more external and
+less inspired than in the past. Their works, however, were invested with
+great charm, and the impossible disposition of their clustering peaks and
+oddly cleft rocks cannot but appeal to the imagination.
+
+In these overladen compositions the unity of the picture is lost. We are
+no longer in the presence of a simple and forceful idea, but behold a
+thousand incidents, a thousand little details, exquisite in themselves,
+but which require a search. It is a new conception of landscape. We may
+possibly prefer the gripping formula of Sung and Yüan art, but we are
+forced to acknowledge that this later work has great charm and extreme
+refinement.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XXI. LANDSCAPE
+  Ming Period. Bouasse-Lebel Collection.]
+
+To this general trend was added a new taste in color, which became
+brilliant and complex like the composition itself, harmonious and graceful
+in the paintings of the masters and always charming in the work of
+painters of the second rank; but this was the herald of a blatant and
+vulgar manner which gradually gained ground until it came to be generally
+adopted by the artisans of the Ch'ing period.
+
+While landscape under the Ming painters was assuming a different guise,
+and, forgetful of the observances of the past, was beguiling the mind by
+its charm and delicacy, a new type of figure was also developing. Here we
+must pause for a moment.
+
+We have seen that figures were treated before landscape by the painters of
+periods preceding the T'ang dynasty. This early tradition had submitted to
+the influence of Buddhist art and, while certain of its elements were
+revived in the work of a few masters, there is no doubt that figure
+painting from the seventh and eighth centuries on, was absolutely
+revolutionized. The inevitable result was a new type in the sixteenth
+century. Painters studied the line for itself, determined its proportions,
+and analyzed features and drapery. As far as our present knowledge
+extends, their observations were not collected and codified until the end
+of the nineteenth century, but the assembled writings testify that the
+result of their studies was expressed along the lines indicated from the
+end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth centuries. Their
+ideal was totally different from that of the old masters. The figure
+treated for itself with but few accessories became the sole aim of the
+painter. He endeavored to show the charm of a woman's face, the dainty and
+elegant gestures, the supple and voluptuous gait, and he grasped the
+characteristics and peculiarities of a man's figure by means of an
+intensified drawing. At times, the influence of analysis was so objective
+that it resulted in a painting closely approaching European standards. The
+taste expressed in landscape was likewise evident in figures. There were
+brilliant and harmonious colors, a charm which became exquisite in the
+coquettish and vivacious faces of women with ivory skin and brilliant
+eyes, of graceful movements, and with long, slender, delicate hands,
+incarnations of the fairies of ancient legend or historic beauties whose
+memory still lived.
+
+In a word, the philosophical inspiration to which the Sung dynasty owed
+its glory was discarded to make way for the painting of everyday life, a
+realistic representation of the world and its activities, which in Japan
+gave rise to the Ukioyoyé school, and in China recruited a series of
+painters of the first rank outside the limits of academic tradition.
+
+It would be interesting to study the influence of this movement of the
+China of the time of Ming upon the originators of the Ukioyoyé in Japan.
+It is certain that the movement on the continent preceded similar
+manifestations in the island empire by a century, and it is also certain
+that the Japanese empire was directly influenced by the China of the Ming
+period. Chinese painters were established in Japan as early as the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. There is one of whose family name we
+are ignorant and who is known only under the appellation of Ju-sue,--in
+Japanese Josetsu. He left China, where the domination of official art
+stood in the way of an independent career, carried the traditions of Sung
+and Yüan art to Japan, gathered pupils about him there, and had the glory
+of being the founder of that magnificent school of which Sesshiu is the
+leading exponent. There is only one small painting which can be attributed
+to Ju-sue with certainty. This is preserved in a Japanese temple.
+Unfortunately it is a work of small importance which, notwithstanding its
+intrinsic value, by no means furnishes sufficient information to enable us
+to pronounce on the authenticity of several other works which are said to
+be by his hand. We find in the latter an extremely individual art, in
+accordance with early traditions, but with the addition of something
+fanciful and unexpected which gives this painter marked distinction.
+Having worked outside of China, however, his influence was not felt in the
+evolution of Chinese painting.
+
+In the seventeenth century Ming art came in contact with the art of the
+Europeans. The methods and rules of the Italian ateliers of the end of the
+Renaissance were brought to China by missionary painters whose talent was
+of a secondary order. The system of monocular perspective and modeling,
+strongly accentuated by the opposition of light and shade, made a forcible
+impression on the Chinese mind. Indications of this are found in the
+Chinese books on art. But the technical methods were too different and the
+systems too much at variance to meet on any common ground. Notwithstanding
+its effect upon certain painters, the influence of European painting was
+on the whole negligible. Father Matteo Ricci worked at the end of the Ming
+period under the Chinese name of Li Ma-tu and Father Castiglione, at the
+beginning of the Ch'ing dynasty, used the name of Lang Chü-ning, but,
+although the former continued to use European methods, while the latter
+adopted the Chinese procedure, these were only isolated efforts submerged
+in the great wave of Asiatic evolution.
+
+
+
+
+VIII. THE CH'ING PERIOD--SEVENTEENTH TO TWENTIETH CENTURIES
+
+
+The Ch'ing or Manchu dynasty, whose downfall we have recently witnessed,
+brought no new vigor to China. Barbarians once again invaded the aged and
+enfeebled empire usurping the methods, history and organization of the
+preceding periods. The change in China at the end of the seventeenth
+century was only dynastic. The evolution of Ming tendencies continued, and
+despite the reorganization undertaken by Kang Hsi and maintained by his
+two successors, the excessive requirements of the old system, which had
+been formulated during the Sung epoch and definitely established in the
+Yüan and Ming periods, were so exacting that irremediable decadence was
+inevitable. Thenceforward no great changes in the realm of painting need
+be expected. It only continued its logical evolution.
+
+It is necessary, nevertheless, to lay stress on the value of Chinese
+painting from the seventeenth to the twentieth century, for an opinion is
+current that, while there might still be something of value under the Ming
+dynasty, nothing good was produced under the Ch'ing. It is undeniable that
+marked signs of decadence are seen in the latter period, but by the side
+of some inferior works, others exist which maintain the vitality of the
+past and the hope of a renaissance.
+
+In refutation of such hasty and ill informed opinion, it is sufficient to
+recall a number of paintings, signed and dated, of the eighteenth and
+nineteenth centuries, which dealers or collectors calmly attribute to the
+eleventh and twelfth.
+
+Chinese painting at the end of the seventeenth and the beginning of the
+eighteenth century was still full of vitality. The taste for brilliant
+color gradually diminished, and the composition became broader and more
+noble at the hands of certain painters, in whom is seen the revival of the
+vigorous race of yore. This was the time when Yün Shou-p'ing, more
+commonly known under the name of Nan-t'ien, painted landscape and flowers
+with the restraint and power of the old style, and when Shen Nan-p'ing set
+out for Japan to found a modern Chinese school which was to rival the
+Ukioyoyé in importance and activity. About them was grouped a large
+following, foretelling fresh developments.
+
+No support was given to this movement by the new government, which was
+infatuated with the academic style of the earlier reigns and becoming more
+and more ignorant as the last years of the nineteenth century approached.
+In the eighteenth century a comparatively large number of Chinese painters
+settled in Japan, where they continued the traditions of Ming art. The
+observation of a Nan-t'ien or of a Shen Nan-p'ing was keen and
+painstaking, but the objectivity and realism now coming to the fore, were
+conspicuous in their works. No longer was it the world of pure substance
+and abstract principle that was sought, but the real, everyday world, the
+world of objective forms studied for themselves, living their own life, on
+the threshold of which the spirit halted, no longer guided by the old
+philosophies.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XXII. BEAUTY INHALING THE FRAGRANCE OF A PEONY
+  Ming Period. Collection of V. Goloubew.]
+
+This character was maintained up to the nineteenth century. It is seen in
+the painting of flowers and landscape as well as in figure painting. These
+traits are equally apparent in an iris by Nan t'ien and a personage by
+Huang Yin-piao. The latter, working in the middle of the eighteenth
+century, evoked the personages of Buddhist and Taoist legend with a
+skillful brush, but his daring simplifications were more akin to
+virtuosity than to that deep reflection and freedom from non-essentials
+which were the glory of the early masters. Herein are discerned the
+elements of decadence, which are wont to assume precisely this aspect of a
+mastery over difficulties. For such ends genuine research and the true
+grasp of form were gradually abandoned.
+
+Calligraphy and the literary style were not overlooked, but they were
+carried to a point of abstraction that is beyond the province of art. A
+personage was represented by lines which formed characters in handwriting
+and which, in drawing the figure, at the same time wrote a sentence.
+Doubtless that is a proof of marvelous skill. I agree in assigning such
+masterpieces to the realm of calligraphy but refuse to admit them to the
+domain of painting.
+
+This applies as well to the so-called _thumb nail painting_ held in high
+repute under the last dynasty. In this the brush is abandoned and the line
+is drawn by the finger dipped in ink or color. The painting is done on
+modern paper of a special kind which partially absorbs the paint, in the
+manner of blotting paper; this results in weak lines, and ink and color
+schemes devoid of firmness, in short, in a lack of virility which places
+such works, notwithstanding their virtuosity, in the category of artisan
+achievements. These works are numerous in the modern period and constitute
+what so many regard as Chinese painting. One cannot be too careful in
+discarding them.
+
+During every period decorative paintings, religious paintings and
+ancestral paintings made after death, were executed in China by artisans,
+ordinary workmen at the service of whosoever might engage them. Such work
+should not be consulted in studying the styles of great periods or the
+higher manifestations of an art. These paintings were the first to leave
+China and find their way to Europe. There is no reason for analyzing them
+here.
+
+To sum up, Chinese painting of the last two centuries still numbers
+masters of the first rank. This alone indicates that the sacred fire is by
+no means extinct. Who shall say what future awaits it amidst the
+profound changes of today? After a period of indecision which lasted for
+twenty-five years, Japan has found herself anew and is seeking to revive
+her artistic traditions. It is to be hoped that China will, at all costs,
+avoid the same mistakes and that she will not be unmindful, as was her
+neighbor, of the history of the old masters.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XXIII. HALT OF THE IMPERIAL HUNT
+  Ming Period. Sixteenth Century. Collection of R. Petrucci.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+This brief survey has shown how the distinctive features of China's
+artistic activity were distributed. Though subjected to varying
+influences, this evolution possesses a unity which is quite as complete as
+is that of our Western art. In the beginning there were studies, of which
+we know only through written records. But the relationship existing
+between writing and painting from the dawn of historic time, permits us to
+carry our studies of primitive periods very far back, even earlier than
+the times of the sculptured works. We thus witness the gradual development
+of that philosophical ideal which has dominated the entire history of
+Chinese painting, forcing it to search for abstract form, and which
+averted for so long the advent of triviality and decadence.
+
+The goal sought by Chinese thought had already been reached in painting
+when, in the third and fourth centuries, we are vouchsafed a glimpse of
+it. It is a vision of a high order, in which the subtle intellectuality
+corresponds to a society of refinement whose desires have already assumed
+extreme proportions. Like Byzantium, heir to Hellenistic art, the China
+of the Han dynasty and of Ku K'ai-chih was already progressing toward bold
+conventions and soft harmonies, in which could be felt both the pride of
+an intelligence which imposed its will upon Nature, and the weariness
+following its sustained effort.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XXIV. PAINTING BY CHANG CHENG
+  Eighteenth Century. Collection of M. Worch.]
+
+This refinement, arising from the exhaustion of a world which even thus
+retained a certain primitive ruggedness, was succeeded by a stupendous
+movement which followed in the wake of the preaching of Buddhism. With the
+new gods we see the first appearance of definite and long-continued
+foreign influences. Civilization was transformed and took on new life.
+Then, as in the days of the great forerunners of the Florentine
+Renaissance, there appeared a whole group of artists, prepared by the art,
+at once crude and refined, of an earlier people. This group set resolutely
+to work at the close study of forms, ascertaining the laws of their
+structure and the conditions of the environment which produced them. The
+period in which the work of Li Ssŭ-hsün, Li Chao-tao and Wang Wei was
+produced may be likened to the fifteenth century in Florence with
+Pisanello, Verocchio, Ghirlandajo and Masaccio. Similar conditions gave
+birth to a movement that is directly comparable with the Italian movement
+for, no matter how varied the outward appearances due to differences of
+race and civilization, the fundamentals of art are the same everywhere and
+pertain to the same mental attitudes.
+
+The great leaders in periods preceding the T'ang dynasty paved the way to
+the culmination which took place in the Sung period, and thus the fruit of
+that prolonged activity is seen ripening between the tenth and the
+thirteenth centuries. Through the gropings of the primitive period, the
+heterodox philosophies and the mystic stirrings of Buddhism, Eastern
+thought had arrived at an unquestionably noble comprehension of existence.
+The impersonal mystery of the universe, its mighty principle, its manifold
+manifestations and the secret which unveils itself in the innermost soul
+of things are the conceptions which form the inspiration of Chinese
+painting. These lofty thoughts are the source of that spirituality which
+declares itself therein with such nobility. The religion to which they are
+due will seem perhaps, to certain people, to be broader and less trammeled
+than our own. There is no doubt that the entire Far East was under the
+spell of its grandeur.
+
+Up to this point art had sounded every depth and attained the highest
+summits of human achievement. Thenceforward it concerned itself with
+varying manifestations which were only the different modes of a formula
+that was still flexible, until the time when--the great inspirations of
+the past forgotten--there appear signs of a spirit on the quest for
+realism, emerging from the ancient tradition. This is the distinctive note
+in the evolution of Chinese painting under the last two dynasties. It
+would seem as if, even in this guise, a universal need of the mind is
+being satisfied, a need which we, too, have known after experiencing a
+chilling academicism, and when modern culture had overthrown the ancient
+idols. Chinese painters have thus completed a round analogous to that
+traveled by our own artists.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XXV. TIGER IN A PINE FOREST
+  Eighteenth to Nineteenth Centuries. Collection of V. Goloubew.]
+
+For the Far East as for Europe, the problem now presented is that of a
+revival. Bent beneath the weight of the prestige of the past, too learned
+in the last word of culture, modern art is seeking to find itself, groping
+blindly, full of promising but unfinished works. The time has come when
+there are signs throughout the world of a desire for a universal
+civilization, by the reconciling of ancient divergencies. Europe and the
+Far East bring into contrast the most vigorous traditions in history.
+Henceforward there is interest for both civilizations in studying and in
+coming to understand a foreign ideal. Though incomplete, these pages will
+perhaps help to show that such a mutual comprehension is not impossible
+and that, if egotistic prejudices are overcome, apparent dissimilarities
+will be resolved into a profound identity. Thus will arise the elements of
+a new culture. In coming to understand a mood which so fully reflects an
+unknown world, the European mind will discover principles which will make
+it rise superior to itself. May this broad comprehension of human thought
+lead Europe to estimate with greater justice a civilization numbering its
+years by thousands, and to refrain from thwarting the fulfillment of its
+destiny.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+  An Introduction to the Study of Chinese Pictorial Art. Herbert A.
+      Giles, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Chinese in the University of
+      Cambridge. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. London, Bernard
+      Quaritch. 1918.
+
+  Painting in the Far East. Laurence Binyon. Second Edition, revised.
+      London, Edward Arnold. 1913.
+
+  The Flight of the Dragon. Laurence Binyon. Wisdom of the East Series.
+      London, John Murray. 1911.
+
+  Epochs of Chinese and Japanese Art. Ernest F. Fenollosa. 2 volumes. F.
+      A. Stokes and Co., New York. 1912.
+
+  Scraps from a Collector's Note Book. F. Hirth. Leiden, New York. 1905.
+
+  Chinese Art. Stephen W. Bushell, C.M.G., B.Sc., M.D. Victoria and
+      Albert Museum Handbook. 2 volumes. London. 1910.
+
+  Chinese Painting. Mrs. Francis Ayscough. The _Mentor_ of Dec. 2, 1918,
+      Serial No. 168. New York.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INDEX OF PAINTERS AND PERIODS
+
+
+The following summary furnishes additional information regarding the
+painters to whom reference has been made. Those to whom the subject is not
+familiar will find this of assistance in placing in their proper
+historical order the different trends which have been indicated elsewhere.
+They will also find dates useful in comparing, if so desired, the artistic
+evolution of China with that of Europe. This, however, is only an outline.
+The names of some great masters are omitted, for I have no wish to
+overload the margin of a statement which should be kept clear and
+convenient of access. I trust nevertheless that these few notes in concise
+form will be of use in connection with the preceding text.
+
+
+I. BEFORE THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM
+
+  The _Bas-reliefs_ of the second Han dynasty belong to the second and
+      third centuries of the Christian era.
+
+  _Ku K'ai-chih_, also called _Chang-k'ang_ and _Hu-tou_, was born in
+      Wu-hsi in the province of Kiang-su. He lived at the end of the
+      fourth and beginning of the fifth century. His style, resembling
+      that of the Han period, informs us as to the character of painting
+      from the second to the fifth century. It is such as to indicate a
+      long antecedent period of cultivation and development.
+
+  _Hsieh Ho_ (479-502), painter of the figure. He wrote a small book
+      setting forth the Six Canons or Requirements of painting. This work
+      informs us regarding the philosophy of art in China of the fifth
+      century.
+
+
+II. THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM
+
+It is difficult to set an exact date for the first contact of Buddhist
+with Chinese art. It may be assumed that the influence of Buddhist art
+began to be felt noticeably in China in the fifth century. In the seventh
+and eighth centuries it was so widespread as to be definitely established.
+
+
+III. THE T'ANG DYNASTY
+
+A.D. 618-905
+
+  _Wu Tao-tzŭ_, also called _Wu Tao-yüan_. Born in Honan toward the
+      end of the eighth century. His influence was felt in Japanese art
+      as well as in that of China. He painted landscape, figures and
+      Buddhist subjects.
+
+  _Li Ssŭ-hsün_ (651-715 or 720) is considered as the founder of the
+      Northern School. He appears to have felt the influence which
+      Buddhist art brought in its train.
+
+  _Li Chao-tao_, son of Li Ssŭ-hsün, lived at the end of the seventh
+      and beginning of the eighth centuries. He is said to have varied
+      from his father's style and even surpassed it.
+
+  _Wang Wei_, also called _Wang Mo-k'i_ (699-759), poet, painter and
+      critic. The great reformer of Chinese landscape painting.
+      Considered as the founder of the Southern School and the originator
+      of monochrome painting in Chinese ink.
+
+  _Han Kan_, renowned in the period _t'ien-pao_ (742-759). According to
+      tradition he was a pupil of Wang Wei. His school possessed in the
+      highest degree knowledge of the form, characteristics and movements
+      of the horse.
+
+
+IV. THE SUNG DYNASTY
+
+A.D. 960-1260
+
+  _Tung Yüan._ Tenth century. Landscape painter. He worked in both the
+      Northern and Southern styles.
+
+  _Chü Jan_, Buddhist monk. Tenth century. He was at first influenced by
+      the work of Tung Yüan, but later created an individual style.
+
+  _Ma Yüan._ End of the twelfth and beginning of the thirteenth century.
+      Member of the Academy of Painting. He was the author of a strong
+      and vigorous style which characterized the school founded by him.
+
+  _Hsia Kuei_ served in the college at Han-Lin in the reign of the
+      Emperor Ning Tsung (1195-1224). He was considered a master of
+      chiaroscuro and atmospheric perspective.
+
+  _Ma Lin_, son of Ma Yüan. Thirteenth century. His work shows that he
+      painted even more in the tradition of the Southern School than his
+      father and uncle.
+
+  _Li Lung-mien_ or _Li Kung-lin_. Born at Chou in Ngan-huei. He held
+      public offices, which he resigned in 1100 to retire to the mountain
+      of Lung-mien, where he died in 1106. Noted for his calligraphy as
+      well as for his painting. At one time in his life, under religious
+      influences, he painted a great number of Buddhist figures.
+
+  _Mi Fei_ or _Mi Yüan-chang_ or _Mi Nan-kung_ (1051-1107).
+      Calligraphist, painter and critic. He used strong inking in a style
+      in which the simplification of monochrome is carried to the
+      extreme. He had a son, _Mi Yu-Jen_, who painted in his father's
+      style and lived to an advanced age.
+
+  _Hui Tsung_, emperor, poet, painter and calligraphist. Born in 1082,
+      ascended the throne in 1100, lost his throne in 1125 and died in
+      captivity in 1135. In the first year of his reign he founded the
+      Academy of Calligraphy and Painting. He made a large collection of
+      valuable paintings and rare objects of art which was scattered at
+      the plundering of his capital by the Tartars in 1225.
+
+
+V. YÃœAN DYNASTY
+
+A.D. 1260-1368
+
+  _Chao Mêng-fu_, also called _Tsŭ-ang_. Born in 1254. Man of
+      letters, painter and calligraphist. He was a great landscape
+      painter and in the first rank as a painter of horses.
+
+  _Ch'ien Hsüan_, also called _Ch'ien Shun-chü_, lived at the end of the
+      thirteenth and beginning of the fourteenth century. He painted
+      figures, landscape, flowers and birds. He employed the style and
+      methods of the Sung dynasty.
+
+  _Yen Hui_ lived in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. His
+      paintings were numerous and indicate a master of the first order.
+      He painted many Buddhist and Taoist subjects.
+
+  _Huang Kung-wang._ Fourteenth century. At first influenced by the style
+      of Tung Yüan and Chü Jan, he later acquired an individual style and
+      was one of the great founders of schools in the Yüan period.
+
+  _Ni Tsan_, also called Yün-lin (1301-1374). Man of letters,
+      calligraphist, collector of books and paintings. He is considered
+      to be one of the greatest painters of his time.
+
+
+VI. THE MING DYNASTY
+
+A.D. 1368-1644
+
+  _Chou Chih-mien_ lived in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. His
+      subjects were principally birds and flowers.
+
+  _Shên Chou_, also called _Shên Ki-nan_ or _Shên K'i_ (1427-1507).
+      Landscape painter. His composition is at times overladen, as is
+      often seen in Ming art.
+
+  _Lu Fu_ lived in the fifteenth century. He made a special study of the
+      plum tree in monochrome. He is comparable to the great Sung
+      masters.
+
+  _Wang Yüan-chang._ Died in 1407 at the age of 73. He painted the bamboo
+      and plum tree in monochrome. He carried on the Sung tradition,
+      with which he was directly connected, and was the founder of a
+      school.
+
+  _Wên Chêng-ming_ (1480-1559), painter, poet and calligraphist. He is
+      often compared with Chao Mêng-fu.
+
+  _Ju-sue._ Known only under this appellation. He lived in the fifteenth
+      century and went to Japan, where his influence was marked.
+      (Japanese _Josetsu_.)
+
+
+VII. THE CH'ING DYNASTY
+
+1644-1912
+
+  _Yün Chou-p'ing_, appellation _Nan-t'ien_, true name _Yün Ko_
+      (1633-1690). He studied at first under the influence of Wang
+      Shu-ming and Siu Hi. He painted figures, flowers and landscape.
+
+  _Shen Nan-p'ing_ lived in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. He
+      was called to Japan in 1720 and founded there the school of
+      Ming-Ch'ing or the modern Chinese school.
+
+  _Huang Yin-piau_ or _Huang-shên_. At the height of his career between
+      1727 and 1746. He painted landscape and, toward the end of his
+      life, legendary figures of Buddhism and Taoism with a technique
+      that was skillful but often precise and somewhat weak.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Chinese Painters, by
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Chinese Painters, by Raphael Petrucci
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Chinese Painters
+       A Critical Study
+
+Author: Raphael Petrucci
+
+Commentator: Laurence Binyon
+
+Translator: Frances Seaver
+
+Release Date: August 9, 2007 [EBook #22288]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHINESE PAINTERS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Dave Morgan, Anne Storer and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:  1. There is one instance each of
+                        Huang Yin-Piau and Huang Yin-Piao, and
+                        Yün Shou-p'ing and Yün Chou-p'ing
+                        so they have been left as printed.
+                     2. In this text the breve has been rendered as [)u]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+CHINESE PAINTERS
+
+
+
+
+CHINESE PAINTERS
+A CRITICAL STUDY
+
+BY
+RAPHAEL PETRUCCI
+
+TRANSLATED BY
+FRANCES SEAVER
+
+WITH A BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE BY
+LAURENCE BINYON
+OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM
+
+AND WITH TWENTY-FIVE ILLUSTRATIONS IN DUOTONE
+
+NEW YORK
+BRENTANO'S
+PUBLISHERS
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY
+BRENTANO'S
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+THE · PLIMPTON · PRESS
+NORWOOD · MASS · U·S·A
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+A translator can have but one aim--to present the thought of the author
+faithfully. In this case an added responsibility is involved, since one
+who had so much to give to the world has been taken in his prime. M.
+Petrucci has written at length of art in the Far East in his exhaustive
+work _La Philosophie de la Nature dans l'Art d'Extrême Orient_ and
+elsewhere, and has demonstrated the wide scope of his thought and
+learning. The form and style in _Peintres Chinois_ are the result of much
+condensation of material and have thus presented problems in translation,
+to which earnest thought has been given.
+
+In deference to the author's wish the margin has not been overladen and
+only a short tribute, by one able to speak of him from personal knowledge,
+has been included, together with a few footnotes and a short bibliography
+of works of reference indispensable to the student who will pursue this
+absorbing study. The translator takes this opportunity to make grateful
+acknowledgement of her debt to the authors named, who have made such
+valuable information available, and to those friends who have read the
+manuscript and made many helpful suggestions.
+
+                                              FRANCES SEAVER
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
+
+
+In Raphael Petrucci, who died early in 1917, the world has lost one of the
+ablest and most devoted students and interpreters of the art of the Far
+East. He was only forty-five years of age, in the prime of his powers,
+brimming with energy and full of enterprises that promised richly. Though
+he did not die in the field, he was none the less a victim of the war. He
+had exhausted himself by his labours with the Belgian ambulances at La
+Panne, for Belgium was his adopted country. He had a house in Brussels,
+filled with a collection of Chinese and Japanese art, and a little cottage
+near the coast just over the borders of Holland. He came of the great and
+ancient Sienese family of the Petrucci, but his mother was French and he
+spent much of his earlier life in Paris, before settling in Brussels and
+marrying one of the daughters of the painter Verwée. He had also spent
+some time in Russia. In Brussels he was attached to the Institut Solvay.
+
+He was a man of science, a student of and writer on sociology and biology.
+He lectured on art and had a knowledge of the art of the world which few
+men in Europe rivalled. He wrote a philosophic novel, _La Porte de l'Amour
+et de la Mort_, which has run through several editions. He published a
+book on Michelangelo's poetry. At the same time he was a scientific
+engineer. When war broke out Petrucci was on his way home from Italy,
+where he had been engaged, I believe, on some large engineering project
+and he only got out of Switzerland into France by the last train which
+left Basle. He came to England for a time, looking after a number of
+Belgian refugees, including some very distinguished artists. At the end of
+1914 he was engaged by the India office to do some valuable work in London
+on the collection of Chinese and Tibetan paintings brought back from
+Tun-huang by Sir Aurel Stein. He then worked at La Panne for the Belgian
+army hospital (he had had a medical training in his youth), went to
+Provence for a rest, fell ill and died in Paris after an operation.
+
+Raphael Petrucci was a man who seemed to reincarnate the boundless
+curiosity and the various ability of the men of the Italian Renaissance.
+But for some years before his death he had concentrated his powers chiefly
+on the study of Oriental art, of the Chinese language, and of Buddhist
+iconography. His most important work in this line is _La Philosophie de la
+Nature dans l'Art d'Extrême Orient_, a sumptuously printed folio published
+by Laurens in Paris, with illustrations by the _Kokka_ Company, and
+written with as much charm as insight. Petrucci's knowledge of Chinese
+gave him an authority in interpreting Chinese art which writers on the
+subject have rarely combined with so much understanding of art in
+general, though as a connoisseur he was sometimes over-sanguine. His
+translation from a classic of Chinese art-criticism, originally published
+in a learned magazine, has lately appeared in book form. With his friend,
+Professor Chavannes, whose death, also in the prime of life, we have had
+to deplore still more recently, Petrucci edited the first volume of the
+splendid series _Ars Asiatica_. The present work, intended for the general
+reader and lover of art, illustrates his gift for luminous condensation
+and the happy treatment of a large theme.
+
+A man of winning manners, a most generous and loyal friend, Petrucci wore
+his manifold learning lightly; with immense energy and force of character,
+he was simple and warm-hearted and interested in the small things as well
+as the great things of life.
+
+                                              LAURENCE BINYON
+
+BRITISH MUSEUM
+October, 1919
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CONTENTS
+                                                             PAGE
+
+PREFACE BY THE TRANSLATOR                                       5
+
+BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE BY LAURENCE BINYON                            7
+
+INTRODUCTION                                                   15
+
+
+PART ONE. TECHNIQUE
+
+   I. EQUIPMENT OF THE PAINTER                                 21
+
+  II. REPRESENTATION OF FORMS                                  26
+
+ III. DIVISION OF SUBJECTS                                     33
+
+  IV. INSPIRATION                                              38
+
+
+PART TWO. THE EVOLUTION OF CHINESE PAINTING
+
+   I. ORIGINS                                                  45
+
+  II. BEFORE THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM                      46
+
+ III. THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM                             54
+
+  IV. THE T'ANG PERIOD--7TH TO 10TH CENTURIES                  58
+
+   V. THE SUNG PERIOD--10TH TO 13TH CENTURIES                  72
+
+  VI. THE YÜAN PERIOD--13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES                 92
+
+ VII. THE MING PERIOD--14TH TO 17TH CENTURIES                 114
+
+VIII. THE CH'ING PERIOD--17TH TO 20TH CENTURIES               131
+
+CONCLUSION                                                    140
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                  149
+
+INDEX OF PAINTERS AND PERIODS                                 151
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+                                                             PAGE
+
+    I. Sculptured stones of the Han dynasty. Second to
+          third centuries. Rubbings taken by the
+          Chavannes expedition                                 23
+
+   II. Portion of a scroll by Ku K'ai-chih. British
+          Museum, London                                       27
+
+  III. Kwanyin. Eighth to tenth centuries. Painting
+          brought from Tun-huang by the Pelliot expedition.
+          The Louvre, Paris                                    31
+
+   IV. Palace of Kiu Cheng-kung by Li Chao-tao. T'ang
+          period. Collection of V. Goloubew                    34
+
+    V. Portrait of Lü Tung-ping by T'êng Ch'ang-yu.
+          T'ang period. Collection of August Jaccaci.
+          Lent to the Metropolitan Museum, New York.[A]        39
+
+   VI. Painting by an unknown artist. T'ang period.
+          Collection of R. Petrucci                            47
+
+  VII. Geese. Sung period. British Museum, London              51
+
+ VIII. White Eagle. Sung period. Collection of R. Petrucci     59
+
+   IX. Horseman followed by two attendants. Sung
+          period. Collection of A. Stoclet                     63
+
+    X. Landscape in the style of Hsia Kuei. Sung period.
+          Collection of Martin White                           67
+
+   XI. Landscape by Ma Lin. Sung period. Collection
+          of R. Petrucci                                       73
+
+  XII. Mongol horseman returning from the Hunt, by Chao
+          Mêng-fu. Yüan period. Doucet collection              77
+
+ XIII. Pigeons by Ch'ien Hsüan. Yüan period. Collection
+          of R. Petrucci                                       85
+
+  XIV. Bamboos in monochrome by Wu Chên. Yüan
+          period. Musée Guimet                                 93
+
+   XV. Paintings of the Yüan or early Ming period. Style
+          of the Northern School. Collection of R. Petrucci    97
+
+  XVI. Portrait of a priest. Yüan or early Ming period.
+          Collection of H. Rivière                            101
+
+ XVII. Horse. Painting by an unknown artist. Yüan or
+          early Ming period. Doucet collection                105
+
+XVIII. Visit to the Emperor by the Immortals from on
+          high. Ming period. British Museum, London           109
+
+XIX. Egrets by Lin Liang. Ming period. Collection of
+          Mrs. John D. Rockefeller, Junior                    115
+
+XX. Flowers and Insects. Ming period. Collection of
+          R. Petrucci                                         119
+
+XXI. Landscape. Ming period. Bouasse-Lebel collection         125
+
+XXII. Beauty inhaling the fragrance of a peony. Ming
+          period. Collection of V. Goloubew                   133
+
+XXIII. Halt of the Imperial Hunt. Ming period. Sixteenth
+          century. Collection of R. Petrucci                  137
+
+XXIV. Painting by Chang Cheng. Eighteenth century.
+          Collection of M. Worch                              141
+
+XXV. Tiger in a Pine Forest. Eighteenth to nineteenth
+          centuries. Collection of V. Goloubew                145
+
+  [A] Now owned by Mr. and Mrs. Robert Woods Bliss.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+Whatever its outward expression, human thought remains essentially
+unchanged and, throughout all of its manifestations, is fundamentally the
+same. Varying phases are but accidents and underneath the divers wrappings
+of historic periods or different civilizations, the heart as well as the
+mind of man has been moved by the same desires.
+
+Art possesses a unity like that of nature. It is profound and stirring,
+precisely because it blends and perpetuates feeling and intelligence by
+means of outward expressions. Of all human achievements art is the most
+vital, the one that is dowered with eternal youth, for it awakens in the
+soul emotions which neither time nor civilization has ever radically
+altered. Therefore, in commencing the study of an art of strange
+appearance, what we must seek primarily is the exact nature of the
+complexity of ideas and feelings upon which it is based. Such is the
+task presented to us, and since the problem which we here approach is
+the general study of Chinese painting, we must prepare ourselves first
+to master the peculiarities of its appearance and technique, in order
+to understand later on the motives which inspired it.
+
+While the first part of this study will carry us far from our habitual
+modes of thought, the second part will bring us back into a domain which
+our own philosophies, sciences and arts have already made familiar.
+Admittedly, Chinese painting is governed by distinctive ideas. Born of a
+civilization vastly different from our own, it may at times appear in a
+guise that seems incomprehensible. It would be astonishing, however, if
+Western intelligence were unable to grasp an aesthetic code of a magnitude
+which is too great to be ignored.
+
+The progress of history and of criticism has given us the opportunity to
+reach a comprehension of the most peculiar formulas. Our culture is
+sufficiently broad to allow us to perceive the beauty of an Egyptian
+fresco or an Assyrian bas-relief as well as of a Byzantine mosaic or a
+painting of the Renaissance. We have therefore no excuse for remaining
+inaccessible to the art of the Far East and we have surely all the mental
+vigor that is requisite in order to accustom ourselves to the foreign
+nature of its presentation. It is in the realm of painting that this
+foreign element is most noticeable. This is due partly to a special
+technique and partly to the nature of the doctrines which serve as its
+inspiration.
+
+It behooves us then to acquaint ourselves with these new aspects of the
+human soul. That is the justification for this little book. It forms an
+introduction in which gaps are shown without attempt at concealment and
+is presented in all modesty.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PART ONE
+TECHNIQUE
+
+I. EQUIPMENT OF THE PAINTER
+
+
+Where our painters have chosen wood or canvas as a ground, the Chinese
+have employed silk or paper. While our art recognizes that drawing itself,
+quite apart from painting, is a sufficient objective, drawing and painting
+have always been closely intermingled in the Far East. While the mediums
+used in Europe for painting in color, distemper, tempera and oil, led to
+an exact study of form, the colors employed by the Orientals--at times
+brilliant, at times subdued with an almost studied restraint--preserved a
+singular fluidity and lent themselves to undefined evanescences which gave
+them a surprising charm.
+
+The early paintings were generally done on cotton, coarse silk or paper.
+In the eighth century, under the T'ang dynasty, the use of finer silk
+began. The dressing was removed with boiling water, the silk was then
+sized and smoothed with a paddle. The use of silken fabric of the finest
+weave, prepared with a thick sizing, became general during the Sung
+dynasty. Papers were made of vegetable fibres, principally of bamboo.
+Being prepared, as was the silk, with a sizing of alum, they became
+practically indestructible. Upon these silks and papers the painter
+worked with brush and Chinese ink,[1] color being introduced with more
+or less freedom or restraint.
+
+The brushes are of different types. Each position of the brush conforms
+to a specific quality of the line, either sharp and precise or broad and
+quivering, the ink spreading in strong touches or thinning to delicate
+shades.
+
+The colors are simple, of mineral or vegetable origin. Chinese painters
+have always avoided mixing colors so far as possible. From malachite they
+obtained several shades of green, from cinnabar or sulphide of mercury, a
+number of reds. They knew also how to combine mercury, sulphur and potash
+to produce vermilion. From peroxide of mercury they drew coloring powders
+which furnished shades ranging from brick red to orange yellow. During the
+T'ang dynasty coral was ground to secure a special red, while white was
+extracted from burnt oyster shells. White lead was later substituted for
+this lime white. Carmine lake they obtained from madder, yellows from
+the sap of the rattan, blues from indigo. To these must be added the
+different shades of Chinese ink and lastly, gold in leaf and in powder.
+
+  [1] Chinese ink is a very different composition from the ink of
+  Western countries. It is a solid made of soot obtained by burning
+  certain plants, which is then combined with glue or oil and moulded
+  into a cake and dried. Other ingredients may be added to produce sheen
+  or a dead finish. It improves with age if properly kept. The cake is
+  moistened and rubbed on a slab, and the ink thus obtained must be used
+  in a special way and with special care to produce the full
+  effect.--TRANSLATOR.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE I. SCULPTURED STONES OF THE HAN DYNASTY
+  Second to Third Centuries. Rubbings taken by the Chavannes Expedition.]
+
+The brush-stroke in the painting of the Far East is of supreme importance.
+We know that this could not be otherwise if we recall that the characters
+in Chinese writing are ideographs, not actually _written_, but rather
+_drawn_. The stroke is not a mere formal, lifeless sign. It is an
+expression in which is reflected the beauty of the thought that inspired
+it as well as the quality of the soul of him who gives it form. In
+writing, as in painting, it reveals to us the character and the conception
+of its author. Placed at the service of certain philosophical ideas, which
+will be set forth later on, this technique was bound to lead to a special
+code of Aesthetics. The painter seeks to suggest with an unbroken line the
+fundamental character of a form. His endeavor, in this respect, is to
+simplify the objective images of the world to the extreme, replacing them
+with ideal images, which prolonged meditation shall have freed from every
+non-essential. It may therefore be readily understood how the brush-stroke
+becomes so personal a thing, that in itself it serves to reveal the hand
+of the master. There is no Chinese book treating of painting which does
+not discuss and lay stress upon the value of its aesthetic code.
+
+
+
+
+II. REPRESENTATION OF FORMS
+
+
+It has often been said that in Chinese painting, as in Japanese painting,
+perspective is ignored. Nothing is further from the truth. This error
+arises from the fact that we have confused one system of perspective with
+perspective as a whole. There are as many systems of perspective as there
+are conventional laws for the representation of space.
+
+The practice of drawing and painting offers the student the following
+problem in descriptive geometry: _to represent the three dimensions of
+space by means of a plane surface of two dimensions_. The Egyptians and
+Assyrians solved this problem by throwing down vertical objects upon one
+plane, which demands a great effort of abstraction on the part of the
+observer. European perspective, built up in the fifteenth century upon
+the remains of the geometric knowledge of the Greeks, is based on the
+monocular theory used by the latter. In this system, it is assumed that
+the picture is viewed with the eye fixed on a single point. Therefore
+the conditions of foreshortening--or distorting the actual dimensions
+according to the angle from which they are seen--are governed by placing
+in harmony the distance of the eye from the scheme of the picture, the
+height of the eye in relation to the objects to be depicted, and the
+relative position of these objects with reference to the surface employed.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE II. PORTION OF A SCROLL BY KU K'AI-CHIH
+  British Museum, London.]
+
+But, in assuming that the picture is viewed with the eye fixed on a single
+point, we put ourselves in conditions which are not those of nature. The
+European painter must therefore compromise with the exigencies of
+binocular vision, modify the too abrupt fading of forms and, in fine,
+evade over-exact principles. Thus he arrives at a _perspective de
+sentiment_, which is the one used by our masters.
+
+Chinese perspective was formulated long before that of the Europeans and
+its origins are therefore different. It was evolved in an age when the
+method of superimposing different registers to indicate different planes
+was still being practiced in bas-reliefs. The succession of planes, one
+above the other, when codified, led to a system that was totally different
+from our monocular perspective. It resulted in a perspective as seen from
+a height. No account is taken of the habitual height of the eye in
+relation to the picture. The line of the horizon is placed very high,
+parallel lines, instead of joining at the horizon, remain parallel, and
+the different planes range one above the other in such a way that the
+glance embraces a vast space. Under these conditions, the picture becomes
+either high and narrow--a hanging picture--to show the successive planes,
+or broad in the form of a scroll, unrolling to reveal an endless
+panorama. These are the two forms best known under their Japanese names
+of _kakemono_ and _makimono_.[2]
+
+But the Chinese painter must attenuate the forms where they are parallel,
+give a natural appearance to their position on different levels and
+consider the degree of their reduction demanded by the various planes.
+Even he must compromise with binocular vision and arrive at a _perspective
+de sentiment_ which, like our own, while scientifically false, is
+artistically true. To this linear perspective is added moreover an
+atmospheric perspective.
+
+Having elected from a very early time to paint in monochrome, Chinese
+painters were led by the nature of this medium to seek to express
+atmospheric perspective by means of tone values and harmony of shading
+instead of by color. Thus they were familiar with chiaroscuro before the
+European painters. Wang Wei established the principles of atmospheric
+perspective in the eighth century. He explains how tints are graded, how
+the increasing thickness of layers of air deprives distant objects of
+their true coloring, substituting a bluish tinge, and how forms become
+indistinct in proportion as their distance from the observer increases.
+His testimony in this respect is similar to that of Leonardo da Vinci in
+his "Treatise on Painting."
+
+  [2] The Chinese terms are _Li Chou_ for a vertical painting and
+  _Hêng P'i_ for a horizontal painting.--TRANSLATOR.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE III. KWANYIN. EIGHTH TO TENTH CENTURIES
+  Painting brought from Tun-huang by the Pelliot Expedition.
+  The Louvre, Paris.]
+
+
+
+
+III. DIVISION OF SUBJECTS
+
+
+The Chinese divide the subjects of painting into four principal classes,
+as follows:
+
+          Landscape.
+          Man and Objects.
+          Flowers and Birds.
+          Plants and Insects.
+
+Nowhere do we see a predominant place assigned to the drawing or painting
+of the human figure. This alone is sufficient to mark the wide difference
+between Chinese and European painting.
+
+The exact name for _Landscape_ is translated by the words _mountain and
+water picture_. They recall the ancient conception of Creation on which
+the Oriental system of the world is founded. The mountain exemplifies the
+teeming life of the earth. It is threaded by veins wherein waters
+continuously flow. Cascades, brooks and torrents are the outward evidence
+of this inner travail. By its own superabundance of life, it brings forth
+clouds and arrays itself in mists, thus being a manifestation of the two
+principles which rule the life of the universe.
+
+The second class, _Man and Objects_, must be understood principally as
+concerning man, his works, his belongings, and, in a general sense, all
+things created by the hand of man, in combination with landscape. This was
+the convention in early times when the first painters whose artistic
+purpose can be formulated with certainty, portrayed the history of the
+legendary beings of Taoism,--the genii and fairies dwelling amidst an
+imaginary Nature. The records tell us, to be sure, that the early masters
+painted portraits, but it was at a later period that _Man and Objects_
+composed a class distinct from _Landscape_, a period responsible for those
+ancestral portraits painted after death, which are almost always
+attributable to ordinary artisans. Earlier they endeavored to apply to
+figure painting the methods, technique and laws established for an
+ensemble in which the thought of nature predominated. Special rules
+bearing on this subject are sometimes found of a very early date but there
+is no indication that they were collected into a definite system until the
+end of the seventeenth century. Up to the present time our only knowledge
+of their content is through a small treatise published at the beginning of
+the nineteenth century.
+
+The third class, _Flowers and Birds_, deals with those paintings wherein
+the Chinese gave rein to their fancy for painting the bird in conjunction
+with the plant life associated with its home and habits. The bird is
+treated with a full understanding of its life, and flowers are studied
+with such a comprehension of their essential structure that a botanist
+can readily detect the characteristics typical of a species, despite the
+simplifications which an artist always imposes on the complexity of forms.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE IV. PALACE OF KIU CHENG-KUNG BY LI CHAO-TAO
+  T'ang Period. Collection of V. Goloubew.]
+
+This general class is subdivided. The epidendrum, the iris, the orchis
+and the chrysanthemum became special studies each of which had its own
+masters, both from the standpoint of painting itself, and of the
+application of the aesthetic rules which govern this art. The bamboo and
+the plum tree are also allied to this class. Under the influence of
+philosophic and symbolic ideas they furnished a special category of
+subjects to the imagination of the painter and form a division apart which
+has its own laws and methods, regarding which the Chinese treatises on
+Aesthetics inform us fully.
+
+Finally, the fourth class, _Plants and Insects_, is based upon the same
+conception as that of _Flowers and Birds_. The insect is represented with
+the plant which is his habitat when in the stage of caterpillar and larva,
+or flying above the flowers and plants upon which he subsists on reaching
+the stage of butterfly and insect. Certain books add to this fourth class
+a subdivision comprising fishes.
+
+Lastly we must note that in the Far East, as in Europe, there is a special
+class to be taken into consideration, _Religious paintings_. In China,
+this refers almost exclusively to Buddhist paintings.
+
+
+
+
+IV. INSPIRATION
+
+
+The aesthetic conceptions of the Far East have been deeply influenced by a
+special philosophy of nature. The Chinese consider the relation of the two
+principles, male and female, the _yang_ and the _yin_, as the source of
+the universe. Detached from the primordial unity, they give birth to the
+forms of this world by ever varying degrees of combination. Heaven
+corresponds to the male principle, earth to the female principle.
+Everything upon the earth, beings, plants, animals or man is formed by the
+mingling of _yang_ and _yin_. While the mountain, enveloped in mists,
+recalls the union of these two principles, the legend of forces thus
+revealed by no means pauses here. Fabulous or real, the animals and plants
+habitually seen in Chinese paintings express a like conception.
+
+The dragon is the ancestor of everything that bears feathers or scales. He
+represents the element of water, the waters of the earth, the mists of the
+air, the heavenly principle. He is seen breaking through the clouds like
+some monstrous apparition, unveiling for an instant the greatness of a
+mystery barely discerned. The tiger is the symbol of the earthly
+principle, a personification of quadrupeds as distinct from birds and
+reptiles. His ferocious form lurks in the tempest. Defying the hurricane
+which bends the bamboos and uproots trees, he challenges the furies of
+nature that are hostile to the expression of the universal soul. The
+bamboo is the symbol of wisdom, the pine is the emblem of will-power and
+life. The plum tree in flower is a harmonious combination of the two
+principles. It symbolizes virginal purity.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE V. PORTRAIT OF LÜ TUNG-PING BY T'ÊNG CH'ANG-YU
+  T'ang Period. Collection of August Jaccaci. Lent to the Metropolitan
+  Museum, New York.]
+
+Thus is built up a complete system of allusions similar to the allegories
+of our own classics but superior in that they never degenerate into frozen
+symbols, but on the contrary keep in close touch with nature, investing
+her with a vibrant life, in which human consciousness vanishes making way
+for the dawning consciousness of infinitude.
+
+Buddhism goes still further. It does not even believe in the reality of
+the world. In this belief, forms are but transitory, the universe an
+illusion forever flowing into an unending future. Outside of the supreme
+repose, in the six worlds of desire,[3] the things that are susceptible to
+pain and death pursue their evolution. Souls travel this closed cycle
+under the most diverse forms, from hell to the gods, advancing or
+retreating, in accordance with the good deeds or errors committed in
+previous existences. A stone, a plant, an insect, a demon, or a god are
+only illusory forms, each encompassing an identical soul on its way to
+deliverance, as it is caught at different stages of its long calvary and
+imprisoned through original sin and the instinctive desire for life.
+Whence we see emerging a new feeling of charity which embraces all beings.
+Their moral character is felt to be the same as that of man, their goal is
+the same, and in the vast world of illusion each seeks to fulfill the same
+destiny.
+
+  [3] These are: the worlds of animals, of man, of gods or _dêvas_, of
+  giants or _asuras_, of _prêtas_ or wandering spirits, and of hells.
+  Freedom from perpetual transmigration in these six worlds is attained
+  only through the extinction of desire.
+
+Behind the changes of the universe the Buddhist perceives the primal
+substance that pervades all creation. There results from this an intimacy
+with things which exists in no other creed. From inert matter to the most
+highly organized being, all creation is thus endowed with a sense of
+kinship that is destined to make a tender and stirring appeal in the
+artist's interpretation of nature.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PART TWO
+THE EVOLUTION OF CHINESE PAINTING
+
+I. ORIGINS
+
+
+The origins of painting in China are mingled with the origins of writing.
+Written characters are, in fact, derived from pictography or picture
+writing, those in use at the present time being only developed and
+conventionalized forms of primitive drawings. The early books and
+dictionaries give us definite information regarding this evolution. But
+while history bears witness to this ancient connection, we do not come
+into contact with actual evidence until the third century of our era,
+through the bas-reliefs of the Han dynasty, and in the fourth century
+through the paintings of Ku K'ai-chih. Here we find by no means the origin
+of an evolution but, on the contrary, the last traces of an expiring
+tradition.
+
+
+
+
+II. BEFORE THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM
+
+
+The bas-reliefs of the Han dynasty are almost all comprised in the
+sculptured stone slabs embellishing mortuary chambers and of these the
+artistic merit is most unequal.[4] Their technique is primitive. It
+consists in making the contours of figures by cutting away the stone in
+grooves with softened angles, leaving the figure in silhouette. Engraved
+lines complete the drawing.
+
+The subjects are sometimes mythical and sometimes legendary. There are
+representations of divinities, fabulous animals, scenes of war and of the
+chase and processions of people bearing tribute. At times the great
+compositions display imposing spectacles, a luxurious and refined array.
+Now and then attempts at pictorial perspective are joined to some
+unrelated scene.
+
+All this is in direct conflict with the technique of bas-reliefs and leads
+to the surmise that the models were drawn by painters and copied with
+more or less skill by makers of funeral monuments.
+
+  [4] These bas-reliefs have been studied by M. Chavannes in "La
+  sculpture sur pierre en Chine au temps des deux dynasties Han," Paris,
+  1893; also in "Mission archéologique en Chine," Paris, 1910. Rubbings
+  taken from the sculptured slabs are reproduced here in full.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE VI. PAINTING BY AN UNKNOWN ARTIST
+  T'ang Period. Collection of R. Petrucci.]
+
+This impression is confirmed if certain carved slabs are compared with a
+painting by Ku K'ai-chih, of which we can judge by means of a copy made in
+the Sung period.[5] One of the scenes of this long scroll leaves no
+possible misapprehension as to the pictorial origin of the Han
+bas-reliefs. Its subject, a river god on a chariot drawn by dragons, is
+similar in composition to the models used by the artisans of the third
+century.
+
+We have, however, better testimony than a copy made at a later period. The
+British Museum, in London, is the owner of a painting attributed to Ku
+K'ai-chih. The reasons impelling us to believe in its authenticity are
+weighty, almost indisputable.[6][B] We therefore accept it here and will
+endeavor to define the work of one of the greatest painters of China in
+the fourth and the beginning of the fifth century.
+
+  [5] This painting formed part of the collection of the ex-viceroy Tuan
+  Fang, killed in 1911, during the revolution. It was published in 1911
+  by the Japanese archeologist, Mr. Taki.
+
+  [6] These reasons are set forth in a work which Mr. Laurence Binyon is
+  preparing, to accompany a reproduction engraved by Japanese artists
+  for the British Museum.
+
+  [B] The preceding footnote refers to a work published in 1913 by the
+  Trustees of the British Museum, containing a reproduction of the
+  painting in its entirety and giving a full description.--TRANSLATOR.
+
+The painted scenes are inspired by a work of the third century containing
+admonitions addressed to the ladies of the imperial palace. The striking
+characteristics of these compositions are the lightness and delicacy of
+style, the poetry of the attitudes and the supreme elegance of the forms.
+Heavy black tresses frame the ivory faces with refined and subtle charm.
+The voluptuous caprice of garments in long floating folds, the extreme
+perfection of the figures and the grace of gestures make this painting a
+thing of unique beauty. Only through the cultivation of centuries could
+such spiritual insight be attained.
+
+If the copy from the collection of Tuan Fang recalls the bas-reliefs of
+the Han period, the painting in the British Museum is related to the
+bas-reliefs of Long-men, which date from the seventh century and of which
+M. Chavannes has published photographs. Therefore we may say that the
+style of Ku K'ai-chih exemplifies the distinctive features of Chinese
+painting at a period extending from the third to the seventh centuries.[7]
+
+  [7] A copy of an engraving on stone of the year 1095, representing
+  "Confucius sitting amidst his disciples" and another representing
+  "Confucius walking, followed by one of his disciples," dated 1118,
+  have been published by M. de Chavannes ("Mission archéologique en
+  Chine," Nos. 869 and 871). The latter is considered as having been
+  undoubtedly executed after a painting by Ku K'ai-chih.
+
+It should also be noted that toward the end of the fifth or the beginning
+of the sixth century, the painter and critic Hsieh Ho formulated the
+Six Canons[8] upon which the far-eastern code of Aesthetics is founded.
+These Canons introduce philosophical conceptions and technical knowledge
+which also presuppose long cultivation, for it is only after rules have
+been brought to reality in a work of art that they are formulated into a
+code. Therefore when Buddhism appeared in China it found there a native
+art whose value was proved beyond question by a long succession of
+masterpieces. After having exhausted every manifestation of strength and
+vigor, this art had arrived at expressions of extreme refinement and
+profound and appealing charm, closely verging on the disquieting dreams of
+decadence.
+
+  [8] Interpretations of the Six Canons by five authorities are
+  accessible in a very convenient form for comparison in Mr. Laurence
+  Binyon's "Flight of the Dragon," p. 12.--TRANSLATOR.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE VII. GEESE
+  Sung Period. British Museum, London.]
+
+
+
+
+III. THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM
+
+
+Chinese books state that between the fourth and the eighth centuries "the
+art of painting _man and things_ underwent a vital change." By this they
+alluded to the intervention of Buddhist art, which made its appearance in
+China toward the fifth century in the form of the Graeco-Indian art of
+Gandhara, already modified by its transit across Eastern Turkestan. This
+by no means indicates that purely Indian origins might not be found for
+it. At Sanchi, as well as in Central India and at Ajantâ such
+characteristics are preserved. But the Greek dynasties which had settled
+in northwestern India in the train of Alexander, had carried with them the
+canons of Hellenistic art. The technique and methods of this art were
+placed at the service of the new religion. They gave to Buddhist
+art--which was just beginning to appear in the Gandharian provinces--its
+outward form, its type of figures, its range of personages and the greater
+part of its ornamentation.[9]
+
+  [9] See Foucher, "L'Art gréco-bouddique du Gandhara." Paris, Leroux.
+
+Buddhism found the expiring Hellenistic formula which had been swept
+beyond its borders, ready at hand at the very moment the new religion was
+gathering itself together for that prodigious journey which, traversing
+the entire Far East, was to lead it to the shores of the Pacific. Once
+outside of India, it came into contact with Sassanian Persia and Bactria.
+With Hellenistic influences were mingled confused elements springing from
+the scattered civilizations which had reigned over the Near East. Thence
+it spread to the byways of Eastern Turkestan.
+
+We know today, thanks to excavations of the German expeditions of
+Grünwedel and von Lecoq, the two English expeditions of Sir Aurel Stein
+and the French expedition of M. Pelliot, that in that long chain of oases
+filled with busy cities, Buddhist art was gradually formed into the
+likeness under which it was to appear as a finished product in the Far
+East. Here it developed magnificently. The enormous frescoes of Murtuq
+display imposing arrangements of those figures of Buddhas and Bôdhisatvas
+which were to remain unchanged in the plastic formulas of China and Japan.
+Meanwhile conflicting influences continued to be felt. Sometimes the
+Indian types prevailed, as at Khotan, at others there were Semitic types
+and elements originating in Asia Minor, such as were found at Miran, and
+at length, as at Tun-huang, types that were almost entirely Chinese
+appeared.
+
+The paintings brought from Tun-huang by the Stein and Pelliot expeditions
+enable us to realize the nature of the characteristics which contact with
+China imposed upon Buddhist art. It had no choice but to combine with the
+tendencies revealed in the painting of Ku K'ai-chih. The painter trained
+in the school of Hellenistic technique drew with the brush. He delighted
+in the rhythmic movement of the line and the display of a transcendent
+harmony and elegance of proportion such as are seen in the frescoes of
+Eastern Turkestan. Perhaps through contact with China--herself searching
+for new expressions--but probably through a combination of the two
+influences, Buddhist painting, at the opening of the T'ang dynasty, gives
+us heavier types in which compact and powerful figures take on a new
+character.
+
+From then on we perceive the nature of the great change to which the early
+books refer. Chinese painting had already known the genii and fairies of
+Taoism, the Rishi or wizards living in mountain solitudes, the Immortals
+dwelling in distant isles beyond the sea. It now knew gods wrapped in the
+ecstatic contemplation of Nirvana, with smiling mouth and half-closed
+eyes, revealing mystic symbols in a broad and apostolic gesture. It had
+more life-like figures, attendants, benign and malignant, terrifying
+demons. Before these impassive gods, in a fervor of devotion it bent the
+figures of donors, men and women, sometimes veritable portraits. With even
+greater breadth it portrayed the disciples of Sakyamuni, those anchorites
+and hermits who under the name of Lohan[10] have entered into Chinese
+Buddhist legend. Indian priests with harsh, strongly marked features and
+wrinkled faces, preachers of a foreign race, disfigured by scourging or
+else the calm full visage of the ecstatic in contemplation,--such are the
+types that appeared. Chinese painters took up the new subjects and treated
+them with a freedom, an ease, and a vitality which at once added an
+admirable chapter to the history of art.
+
+  [10] Indian _Arhat_; Japanese _Rakan_.--TRANSLATOR.
+
+
+
+
+IV. THE T'ANG PERIOD--SEVENTH TO TENTH CENTURIES
+
+
+The T'ang dynasty was the really vital period of Chinese Buddhism. Among
+the painters who gave it its highest expression Wu Tao-tz[)u] holds first
+place. His memory dwells in history as that of one of the greatest masters
+in China and legend has still further enhanced the might of his genius. It
+is highly probable that his work is entirely destroyed, but by the aid of
+copies, incised stones and wood engravings of the twelfth century, an idea
+of the painter's conception can be formed. He seems to have been the
+creator of a Chinese type of Kwanyin, the Buddhist incarnation of mercy
+and charity. Drapery covers the high drawn hair. She is attired in the
+harmonious folds of a plain and ample garment and expresses supreme
+authority, the sublimity of divine love.
+
+If to these fragments of an immense plastic production is added the
+analysis furnished by the written records, we can define with some degree
+of certitude the place occupied by Wu Tao-tz[)u] in the history of Chinese
+painting. The books state that the lines from his brush fairly vibrated;
+all united in marvelling at the spirituality emanating from forms thus
+defined. He adhered almost exclusively to the use of powerful ink-lines
+and denied himself the use of any color, whether scattered or prominent,
+which would have robbed his painting of the austerity which was the source
+of its surpassing feeling. But in order to appreciate the full value of
+the new ideas introduced by Wu into Chinese painting, it is necessary to
+understand the exact nature of the technique that was in practice up to
+the seventh and eighth centuries, at the opening of the T'ang dynasty.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE VIII. WHITE EAGLE. SUNG PERIOD
+  Collection of R. Petrucci.]
+
+At that time there prevailed the analytic, painstaking, detailed and very
+considered drawing that is common to all periods preceding great
+constructive work. This technique admitted the use of two fundamental
+methods: one called _double contour_, the other _contour_ or _single
+contour_. The method of _double contour_ was applied chiefly to the
+drawing of plant life in landscape. It consisted in outlining leaves or
+branches by means of two lines of ink placed in apposition. The space thus
+enclosed was filled with color. Any peculiarities of formation, knots in
+wood and veins in leaves were added subsequently. The name of _single
+contour_ was applied to drawings wherein a single ink line outlined the
+object, the space enclosed being then filled with color.
+
+If the application of these analytic methods was sometimes carried to the
+extreme of delicacy it never became labored. Throughout its entire
+evolution the art of the T'ang period is characterized by a sense of the
+magnificent. Once the study of forms was exhausted, this type of work was
+bound to be superceded. Wu Tao-tz[)u] profited by the work of his
+predecessors. Combining in a single stroke of the brush, vigor and an
+eclectic character of line, with values and fluidity of tone, he brought
+to a supreme unity the two great principles by which things are made
+manifest in all the magic of their essential structure. But it must be
+understood that this patient investigation of forms was not limited to
+preparing the way for a single master. The logical outcome was an
+independent movement to which the origin of modern Chinese painting can be
+traced.
+
+"Painting has two branches," the books say, "that of the North and that of
+the South; the separation occurred in the T'ang period." These terms
+_Northern School_ and _Southern School_ must not be taken literally. They
+serve merely to characterize styles which, in the eighth century,
+liberated themselves from methods demanding such close study and exact
+definition of forms. The style of the Northern School is strong, vehement
+and bold; the style of the Southern School is melancholy and dreamy. The
+ideal of Northern China, impregnated with barbarian elements, is brought
+into contrast with that of Southern China, heir to an already ancient
+civilization, and under the spell of Taoist legends and the bewildered
+dreams of its philosophers.[11]
+
+  [11] These divisions of Northern and Southern Schools do not
+  correspond, as might be imagined, to geographical limitations.
+  Painters of the South worked in the style of the North and painters of
+  the North likewise used the Southern style. Moreover the same master
+  was able to employ one or the other according to the inspiration of
+  the moment. These works were produced for a receptive people capable
+  of understanding both styles.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE IX. HORSEMAN FOLLOWED BY TWO ATTENDANTS
+  Sung Period. Collection of A. Stoclet.]
+
+Li Ssu-hsün and his son Li Chao-tao (eighth century) are considered to be
+the founders of the Northern School. The paintings attributed to them show
+the character which the Northern style preserved up to the Ming period and
+which was to be emphasized to the point of brutality at the hands of
+certain masters in the Yüan period. At the outset, in its brilliancy and
+precision, the Northern style held to a certain refinement of line; later
+the line is drawn with a firm and powerful brush and strong colors are
+applied almost pure.
+
+In direct contrast the Southern style is made up of half-tints, with a
+feeling of reserve and intentional restraint, which gives it, with equal
+power, at times a more appealing charm. The lines are pliant, immersed in
+shading, color is suggested in a subtle fashion and, in contrast to the
+almost brutal emphasis of the North, it finds expression in chiaroscuro
+and concealed harmonies.
+
+The foundation of the Southern School is attributed to a great landscape
+painter of the eighth century, Wang Wei. Nothing could better determine
+his tendencies than monochrome[12] painting in Chinese ink. According to
+the records, this was first practiced by him. It constitutes what in
+China, as well as in Japan, is called the _literary man's painting_ and
+is, in reality, quite closely related to calligraphy. The variety of
+shadings and relative colors of objects depend entirely upon the tones of
+ink washes. Wang Wei seems to have treated monochrome mainly from the
+standpoint of chiaroscuro, in his search for an atmospheric perspective
+which should be both fluid and ethereal. It appears that the accentuation
+of lines according to rule that is seen later on, where forms are
+synthetized--sometimes to an excessive degree--was only a derivation of
+the work of Wang Wei and caused by the intrusion of calligraphic
+virtuosity into the domain of painting.
+
+  [12] "Monochrome is a starved and lifeless term to express the
+  marvellous range and subtlety of tones of which the preparation of
+  black soot known as Chinese ink is capable." Laurence Binyon in "The
+  Flight of the Dragon."--TRANSLATOR.
+
+When we arrive at Wang Wei, landscape is treated as a special subject and
+with its own resources. It was he who discovered the principles which
+govern the fading of colors and forms in the distance, and who formulated
+the laws of atmospheric perspective. Paintings in his style are all
+executed in a predominating color which the Chinese call _luo-ts'ing_, a
+mineral color of varying shades ranging from a malachite green to a
+lapis-lazuli blue. It will be seen why _luo-ts'ing_ gave its name to the
+style of Wang Wei.
+
+By means of bluish tints he painted the distant expanse of landscape.
+Mountains forming screens in the backgrounds and masses of trees lost in
+the distance, are all indicated by the azure tints which intervening
+layers of air give to remote objects. But as the foreground is approached,
+rightful colors begin to prevail and the azure tints are subtly graded,
+passing into a fresh and brilliant green amongst wooded declivities, and
+into the natural hue in the foliage of trees. Often heavy mists, spreading
+at the foot of high mountains, veil the outlines and still further
+emphasize the feeling of limitless space.[13]
+
+  [13] I have not seen nor do I know of any paintings which can be said
+  with certainty to be from the hand of Wang Wei. But from the records
+  as well as from works directly inspired by him, an idea of his style
+  and technique can be formed. Ancient paintings in _luo-ts'ing_ are
+  found in Japan as well as in China. The British Museum of London has a
+  scroll painted by Chao Mêng-fu, in the manner of Wang Wei, dated 1309.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE X. LANDSCAPE IN THE STYLE OF HSIA KUEI
+  Sung Period. Collection of Martin White.]
+
+But when a master has carried his study of the fading of colors and of
+their relative values thus far, he must have considered not only the
+element of color itself, but also the collective tones which color is
+capable of expressing. From this to monochrome painting in Chinese ink is
+but a step; historical testimony shows that Wang Wei took this step. By
+the simple opposition of black and white, and through tone values and
+gradations of shades, he endeavored to create the same feeling of
+atmosphere and space which he had been able to express with _luo-ts'ing_.
+No original picture remains to inform us to what extent he succeeded, but
+by means of monochrome paintings of the Sung period which owe their
+inspiration to him, the importance of the reform accomplished, and the
+tendencies manifested in those lost works of art may be divined.
+
+Another master whose work can be defined with sufficient accuracy to cite
+as an illustration of a different aspect of the history of painting during
+the T'ang period, is Han Kan, who lived in the middle of the eighth
+century and who is celebrated as a painter of horses.
+
+The sculptured stones of the Han dynasty, especially the admirable
+bas-reliefs of the tomb of Chao-ling, representing the favorite coursers
+of the emperor T'ai-tsung, show the manner in which artists, from the
+third to the seventh centuries, were capable of studying and delineating
+the postures of the horse. It is therefore not surprising to find a great
+animal painter in the eighth century. Beyond question he was not the
+first. The written records have preserved the names of several of his
+predecessors and while the honor of having been the great founder of a
+school was attributed to him, it is possible that this refers only to an
+artistic movement bearing his name, of which he was not the sole
+representative.
+
+But the work of Han Kan and the unknown artists grouped around him,
+proclaims a powerful tradition, a well grounded school of animal painters
+which had attained the highest eminence. It was destined to exert a
+strong influence upon painters of horses in the Yüan epoch and even when,
+later on, this great tradition is seen disappearing, cloying and insipid,
+amidst the mannerisms of the Ming period, it will still retain sufficient
+power to carry thus far a reflection of the vigor and vitality attained in
+the great periods.
+
+The painting of _Flowers and Birds_, and _Plants and Insects_ appears to
+have been already established at this time. The flowers and plants are
+drawn according to the methods of _double contour_ and _single contour_,
+worked over and brought out with that intensity of analysis to which
+allusion has been made. The bird is caught in its most subtle movement,
+the insect studied in its essential structure.
+
+Thus we see that Chinese painting had extended its investigations in every
+direction and had solved the problems found along its path. It had
+absorbed foreign influences, altered its conception of the divine and
+found a new type of figure. It had endowed landscape painting with all the
+resources of atmospheric perspective and had established the two essential
+styles of the North and the South. The painter was master of the visible;
+his thought dominated form and was able to express itself with freedom.
+
+
+
+
+V. THE SUNG PERIOD--TENTH TO THIRTEENTH CENTURIES
+
+
+The T'ang period had been the golden age of Chinese poetry. It had
+witnessed an extraordinary outburst of religious fervor, and the
+overwhelming domination of Buddhism. It had, moreover, triumphantly
+re-established the unity of the empire and to the pride of intellectual
+activity it could add the pride of might and dominion. But the same cannot
+be said for the Sung period. From a political standpoint its history is
+one of cumulative disaster. Ancient China retreated by degrees before the
+thrusts of the barbarians, until the great thunderbolt of Genghis Khan's
+conquest, reverberating with formidable echoes throughout all Asia,
+announced the approaching downfall of culture in the red dawn of a new
+era.
+
+The Sung culture, totally different from that of the T'ang period, was,
+however, swept forward to its culmination. It would seem as if, under the
+menace of the barbarians, the mind had set for its goal the development of
+ideas embryonic in earlier work, formulating them in haste and arresting
+them finally in perfect yet sad images, in which the heights attained were
+haunted by the shadow of impending ruin.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XI. LANDSCAPE BY MA LIN
+  Sung Period. Collection of R. Petrucci.]
+
+The dynasty opened with a classical reaction against new ideas and
+witnessed a return to Confucian philosophy, with its conception of the
+State. But centuries of history had not rolled by without effect. In the
+tenth and eleventh centuries the ancient writings were no longer
+understood with their original meaning. A whole series of philosophers, of
+whom the last is Chu Hsi (thirteenth century), had formulated a composite
+doctrine resulting in what might be called an official philosophy, which
+has dominated to the present day. Some bold spirits, however, opposed this
+reactionary codification, struggling in vain to give a positive and firm
+structure to the doomed empire. Their influence appears to have been
+considerable. Just as the old heterodox philosophy was being stifled by
+the dry and colorless metaphysics of the conservatives, it was awakened to
+new life by the painters, who gave it a stirring interpretation in their
+work.
+
+The period of technical research was past. At first, with care and
+patience, forms had been determined by drawing. Color had remained a thing
+apart, regarded as a work of illumination and quite distinct from drawing.
+Then study was extended still further. Color came to be viewed in the
+light of shades and tones and became one of the means for the expression
+of form; it became the very drawing itself,--that which reveals the basic
+structure.
+
+Wang Wei represents the moment when art, emancipating itself from problems
+already solved, had conquered every medium of expression. Such is the
+tradition which he bequeathed to the Sung artists, who were destined to
+add thereto such supreme masterpieces.
+
+The Sung painters were haunted by the old philosophical beliefs as to the
+formation of the universe. Beyond the actual surroundings they dimly
+perceived a magic world made up of perfect forms. Appearances were but the
+visible covering of the two great principles whose combination engendered
+life. They believed that, in painting, they did more than to reproduce the
+external form of things. They labored with the conviction that they were
+wresting the soul from objects, in order to transfer it to the painted
+silk. Thus they created something new, an imaginary world more beautiful
+than the real world, wherein the intimate relation of beings and things
+was disclosed,--a world pervaded by pure spirit and one which was revealed
+only to those whose thought was sufficiently enlightened, and whose
+sympathies were sufficiently broad, to understand and to be stirred.
+
+The painters of the line of Wang Wei during the Sung period, devoted
+themselves chiefly to the development of painting in monochrome. They
+pursued the study of relations of tones and values of shading up to the
+limit of extreme delicacy, and if they mingled color at all with their
+subtle evocations, it was with a feeling of unequalled restraint. They
+dwelt for the most part in intimacy with Nature. Fleeing from the cares
+of court and city, they retired into mountain solitudes, meditating for
+long periods before taking up the brush to paint. Thus they portrayed
+those mountains enveloped in mists, wherein was revealed the harmony of
+the two principles which control the universe. From the depths of valleys
+misty vapors arose and cedars and gigantic pines reared their majestic
+forms, while, on the threshold of a thatched cabin upon some rocky
+plateau, a hermit deep in meditation contemplated the vast expanse of a
+landscape of august grandeur.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XII. MONGOL HORSEMAN RETURNING FROM THE HUNT
+  By Chao Mêng-fu. Yüan Period. Doucet Collection.]
+
+Sometimes, turning to plant forms, they painted the bamboo in black and
+white. A single masterly stroke sufficed to draw the cylindrical stalk
+from one joint to another, or the pointed leaves which are so quivering
+with life that we seem to hear the plaintive voice of the wind "combed,"
+as the Chinese writings express it, "by the reeds." Or again, when a
+flower was the subject, they suggested it with a simplicity that
+presupposes a scientifically exact study of forms. It was by no means the
+splendid image which they sought to grasp but the soul itself; at one time
+the flower barely open in all its enchanting freshness, at another the
+softened petals drooping in languid fashion, revealing a splendor still
+present but soon to fade; at times the dew moistening the leaves, the snow
+shrouding them with its purity, or the slow monotonous rain beneath which
+they drip, motionless. These paintings are always instinct with deep
+poetic feeling.
+
+At the hands of the Sung painters the school of landscape and monochrome
+technique attained a level which will never be exceeded. The masters of
+this period are numerous and are frequently represented by works of almost
+certain authenticity. It seems useless to assemble here names which will
+convey no meaning to the European reader. It will suffice to illustrate by
+a few great figures the three centuries of history during which Chinese
+landscape painting reached its culminating point.
+
+Tung Yüan and Chü Jan are considered by the critics as having founded a
+special school in the great tradition of Wang Wei. Their paintings were
+quiet in coloring and were executed with broad strokes in an impressionist
+style. These works must be viewed from a distance to see their apparent
+violence merge into extreme elegance. They furnish a complete
+demonstration of the laws of atmospheric perspective, with its feeling of
+distance and infinite space, in which forms are immersed. Here we find
+evidence that these painters were the first to attempt the arrangement of
+lines according to rule, which led ultimately to calligraphic painting.
+
+Among the heads of schools cited in the Chinese writings Ma Yüan and Hsia
+Kuei of the Sung dynasty must be placed in a class by themselves. Both of
+these masters lived at the end of the twelfth and the beginning of the
+thirteenth centuries. Their style can be described with accuracy since
+original examples are extant--both by themselves and by their
+disciples--in which their characteristics are fully revealed.
+
+Ma Yüan is classed with the Southern School by reason of his restraint in
+the use of color, his greatness of conception and his technical treatment
+of forms. But he brings to his work a virility in which the influence of
+the Northern School is plainly discerned. He has a broad stroke and a
+masterful manner which place his works in the front rank of all Chinese
+painting. His mountainous backgrounds rear themselves with fierce energy.
+His old pines, with branches wreathed in vines, would suffice alone to
+define his style, so freely do they express the force of plant life and
+the proud defiance of the aged tree. He loved the mountain solitudes to
+which he gave a new imagery, so authoritative and so perfect that it
+served to create a school.
+
+The influence of Ma Yüan was felt by his brother and by his son, Ma Lin.
+Although the death of the latter occurred under the Mongolian dynasty, he
+was an exponent of Sung art. The fierce energy of the old master gives way
+to a somewhat more melancholy and gentle quality in his son. There is the
+same restraint in the handling of the brush, the same reserve in the use
+of color, but the landscape stretches out into deep and dreamy vistas that
+are indescribably poetic. The melancholy of autumn, the sadness of flights
+of birds that circle in the evening light, the feeling of seclusion and
+silence, such are the things in which this poetic spirit finds its joy,
+true heir of the master mind whose genius found expression in the wild
+aspects of nature.
+
+The school of Ma dominated the entire subsequent period and his influence
+extended as far as Korea, where traces of it were still to be found as
+late as the fifteenth century. As the history of Korean painting becomes
+better known, we shall be able to say with more accuracy what it owes to
+other Chinese masters; but in so far as those mentioned are concerned,
+their influence appears to have been sufficiently strong to impress a
+certain type on fragmentary works from Korea which have become known to us
+recently.
+
+We are far from being as well informed regarding Hsia Kuei, but we have
+that which is worth more than written records, a few paintings preserved
+in Japanese collections, which it seems legitimate to attribute to him
+without reservation. It is readily seen why his name is always linked with
+that of Ma Yüan. His work shows the same energy and power and discloses an
+ideal which is similar to that of his confrère. He seems to have
+penetrated even further than Ma Yüan along the path of daring
+simplifications, and to have approached at times the calligraphic style.
+He painted both landscape and figures and was skilled in obtaining strange
+effects, as if of color, through his use of monochrome.
+
+Another painter whose name dominates the history of this time and whose
+work serves to characterize a special aspect is Li Lung-mien. It is
+naturally difficult to prove that all the works attributed to him are
+authentic. However, collections in Japanese temples or privately owned,
+possess paintings which passed as his at a very early date and in which at
+least we can recognize his style. In reviewing the centuries of history,
+it is interesting to note that the work of Li Lung-mien is not without
+similarity, in certain of its elements, to the paintings of Ku K'ai-chih.
+His line is delicate and flexible and he draws his outlines with the same
+subtlety, the same grace and the same instinct for harmonious curves and
+an extraordinary rhythm.
+
+The tradition which arose in a period antedating the T'ang epoch was
+therefore still unbroken in the Sung period, and I am sure that proofs of
+this will increase in number as our information becomes more accurate. New
+evidence furnished by the paintings found at Tun-huang and certain
+frescoes at Murtuq has recently shown that the type of Buddhist
+hermit--the Lohan meditating in solitude--whose inception had, until these
+discoveries, been attributed to Li Lung-mien, in reality dated much
+further back and originated in the Buddhist art of Eastern Turkestan,
+perhaps even in India. From those regions are derived the magnificent
+subjects of which Li Lung-mien made use to express meditation. Sometimes
+there are emaciated faces, withered bodies with protruding tendons that
+outline deep hollows, and again rotund and peaceful figures meditating in
+tranquil seclusion. From the written records as well as in his works,
+there is every evidence that he was one of those who revived Buddhist
+painting. No matter what models he chose to follow, he always gave them a
+stress and a peculiar distinction, while from the standpoint of pure art
+he had the ability to portray them with finished elegance and majestic
+dignity.
+
+Li Lung-mien was not content to paint Buddhist figures only. He painted
+landscape also, and in his youth he had painted horses. A great critic of
+the Sung period said of him that "his soul entered into communion with all
+things, his spirit penetrated the mysteries and the secrets of nature."
+This critic added that one day he saw Li Lung-mien painting a Buddhist
+divinity. The words of the god fairly leapt from the lines; it seemed as
+if the brush of the master summoned them one by one into being. Like all
+the masters of his time, Li Lung-mien sought to free the spirit from its
+outward semblance. Beyond the material, he perceived the immaterial force
+which animates the world. As a landscape painter his conception of Nature
+was broad and majestic. His graceful and harmonious line recalls the
+happiest moments in the history of plastic art, and he challenges
+comparison with a facile genius like Raphael. But he includes the whole
+realm of nature in his subjects, and in his work we find traces, expressed
+with greater breadth, but with quite as keen an insight, of an ancient
+and noble art, such as was found almost extinct in the work of Ku
+K'ai-chih.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XIII. PIGEONS BY CH'IEN HSÜAN
+  Yüan Period. Collection of R. Petrucci.]
+
+We cannot leave the Sung painters without devoting some attention to Mi
+Fei and his son. The two Mi's, indeed, accomplished a far-reaching reform
+in Chinese technique; they enriched painting with a new imagery and
+founded a school which, like that of Ma, exerted an influence on later
+periods and was strongly felt in Korea.
+
+In addition to being a great painter, Mi Fei was a great calligraphist.
+This is apparent however little one may have seen of work in his style. He
+possesses in the highest degree what the Chinese describe as the "handling
+of flowing ink." He used the technique of monochrome almost exclusively,
+and so closely related tone values to the line, or rather to the
+brush-stroke, that it is difficult to decide whether he paints rather than
+draws, or draws rather than paints. Properly speaking, he does not employ
+the line at all but works by masses, by broad, heavily inked touches,
+without pausing to emphasize the deep warm blacks provided by Chinese ink.
+His manner recalls certain drawings by Rembrandt, also produced by strong
+inking, which evoke a strange and magical effect of light. Such was the
+spirit in which Mi Fei treated landscape. This technique marks his style
+and gives it an individuality that is indisputable. The vehemence with
+which he attacks forms, the rapidity of his brush-stroke, the way in which
+things spring from such energy, call to mind pictures by European
+masters, painted in full color, and it may be said of the paintings of Mi
+Fei that they are fairly _colored_ by their tremendous vitality, if the
+quality of the materials he employed permits the use of such a term.
+Therefore Mi Fei and his son are responsible for a new technique, a
+strongly individual work, and the creation of a style which marks the
+highest achievement in monochrome. The trend which impelled them was,
+however, general. Carried to its extreme it led to the style of painting
+called calligraphic, of which there has been occasion to speak several
+times.
+
+Calligraphic painting, or the _literary style_, has its origin in the
+studies of Wang Wei when, renouncing the aid of colour, he strove by
+harmony of shading and by tone values, to reproduce the vast reaches of
+space and all the shifting subtlety of atmospheric perspective. The
+exclusive use of Chinese ink necessitated special studies since thus
+calligraphy was directly approached. The different styles of writing are
+almost drawing in themselves. Each style of writing has its own rules for
+dissecting the written character and making the stroke. Now, as is known,
+the Chinese painters attached supreme importance to the line and to the
+brush-stroke. This was due in part to their equipment and in part to the
+fact that the amateurs of art were prepared by their classical studies to
+appreciate the strength or the delicacy of a line judged for itself, quite
+independently of the forms represented. We must also bear in mind that
+all of the Chinese painters were scholars, belonging to the class of the
+literati.[14] Writers, poets, statesmen, soldiers, Buddhist or Taoist
+priests, and philosophers have all furnished the greatest names in art.
+Under such conditions the technical relationship between the line of the
+painter and that of the calligraphist was closer, since painter and
+calligraphist were frequently united in one and the same person. Thence
+came the early tendency to use monochrome and to represent forms in the
+abstract, rendering them more and more as mere themes, thus reducing the
+subject to a few simple calligraphic strokes.
+
+  [14] The literati, or lettered class, were the aristocracy in what
+  was the most democratic of absolute monarchies. No matter how humble
+  his   origin, anyone of the male sex was eligible to compete in the
+  examinations which were based upon literary knowledge and memory of
+  the classics. Proficiency in handwriting was a natural result. The
+  successful candidate might aspire to any post in the empire, as
+  official positions were bestowed through literary merit. During three
+  days and two nights at the time of examination the candidate was not
+  allowed to leave his tiny box-like cell, lacking even space to lie
+  down. Cases of death during the examinations were not infrequent. The
+  examination halls in Peking are now destroyed and those in Nanking
+  with 20,000 cells are crumbling away.--TRANSLATOR.
+
+It is difficult for a European to follow the thought of the Chinese
+painters in these daring simplifications. Sometimes they are carried to
+such an extreme as to leave us with a feeling of perplexity. Often however
+they give rise to mighty conceptions and paintings whose essential
+character impresses us as a unique product of genius. Calligraphic
+painting reached its highest level during the Sung and Yüan periods. It
+was so closely allied to painting that the Emperor Hui Tsung, who ascended
+the throne in 1100, founded the Imperial Academy of Calligraphy and
+Painting in the first year of his reign. Hui Tsung was himself a painter.
+The books credit him with especial mastery in the representation of birds
+of prey, eagles, falcons and hawks, which seems to be sufficient reason
+for deliberately attributing to him every painting of a bird of prey, even
+when there is evidence that it was painted two or three centuries later
+than his time. Perhaps before long we shall find authentic paintings by
+Hui Tsung. A painting belonging to the Musée Guimet, which comes from the
+collection of Tuan Fang, is the one which by its annotations bears the
+greatest guaranty of authenticity, but it is a representation of a figure
+painting of the T'ang dynasty and gives us no information as to the manner
+in which Hui Tsung painted eagles. However, certain paintings from his
+collections have come down to us. Whether or not by the imperial hand they
+proclaim a virile art, an instinct for the grandiose and a majestic
+character which are the qualities of which the eagle is a symbol.
+
+The foundation of the Academy of Calligraphy and Painting had results
+quite other than those hoped for by its founder. It became imbued with the
+evils of formalism. It was established in the imperial capital in court
+surroundings, in other words, in an atmosphere from which true artists
+depart with all possible speed. It suffered inevitably through the
+influences of a taste, refined it is true, but which already inclined
+toward mannerisms and preciosity. Conventions were established, subjects
+became stereotyped, the taste for brilliant colors developed and, even
+before the end of the Sung period, there was a marked division between
+academic and national art. Pedantry and affectation began to take the
+place of boldness and strength.
+
+Doubtless this tendency would have developed still further but for a
+series of disasters and the menace of a new dynasty looming on the horizon
+of Central Asia, which was already resounding with the clash of Mongol
+arms.
+
+
+
+
+VI. THE YÜAN PERIOD--THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES
+
+
+From the standpoint of civilization the Mongolian dynasty of Yüan brought
+nothing to China. On the contrary, the foreign elements were absorbed by
+the ancient culture for, in the final summing-up, the mind will always be
+stronger than weapons. From the standpoint of painting, however, this
+period has marked individuality.
+
+The Sung period had been distinctly dominated by the ideals of Southern
+China. Philosophical inspiration had proven too strong to permit the style
+of the Northern School to assert absolute sway. In this we must make an
+exception of Buddhist painting, which,--save in the work of a few chance
+painters of religious subjects--continues the traditions of the T'ang
+period, preserving the original character of its coloring. It is true that
+there were masterpieces to the credit of the Northern School but it had by
+no means kept to the style of vivid illumination which marked its
+inception.[15] It had yielded to the influence of the Southern style,
+was simplified by this contact and took on the austerity and proportion of
+the South. It would seem as if the painters hastened to add their
+testimony before the philosophy of the ancient sages should disappear.
+They strove to give the world perfect images in which the great principles
+of the universe could be felt vibrating. The only suitable medium for such
+expression was the technique of the Southern School which they followed
+with more or less fidelity.
+
+  [15] It should be borne in mind that the author uses the term
+  illumination in the sense of color applied within a distinct and
+  limiting outline. This is illustrated in the definitions of single and
+  double contour.--TRANSLATOR.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XIV. BAMBOOS IN MONOCHROME BY WU CHÊN
+  Yüan Period. Musée Guimet.]
+
+Southern China was at that time the scene of awakened faculties. Shaken to
+its foundations by the mystic movement--both Taoist and Buddhist--of the
+T'ang period, the Confucian doctrine had lost ground but had not yet
+congealed into the rigid official code of a Chu Hsi. While heterodox
+beliefs still prevailed, all were free to borrow their prophetic and
+poetic meaning.
+
+When the Mongols came into power, they only carried to completion the work
+of conservation begun by the Sung emperors. In their contact with China
+they resembled timid pupils quite as much as conquerors. Once emperor of
+China, the Mongol Kublai Khan could not but remember his purely Chinese
+education. Moreover it was quite the Tartar custom to extend their
+conquests to administrative organization, by establishing a hierarchy of
+functionaries. The conception of a supreme and autocratic State, paternal
+in its absolutism, intervening even to the details of private life in
+order to assure the happiness of the people,--this idea, dear to the
+literary conservators of the Confucian School during the Sung period, was
+also too similar to the Tartar ideal to be denied immediate adoption.
+Heterodox doctrines were formally banished from schools. Rejected with
+scorn as being corrupt and dangerous, there remained of these doctrines
+only such residuum as might be found in the independent thought of
+artists, who were more difficult to control. The magnificent movement of
+the Sung period began to abate; it produced its last master pieces and
+gradually waned, until under Ming rule it was to die out completely.
+
+The Yüan epoch, therefore, appears in the light of a transition period
+connecting the fifteenth century of Ming with the thirteenth century of
+Sung. From the point of view which interests us, it did nothing but
+complete a work which had been carried on with energy and success by
+adherents in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It strove to reduce
+China to a severely regulated State in which all great movements and
+impulses should be under strict control. It succeeded. It succeeded so
+well, indeed, that the Europeans who came to know China in the seventeenth
+century and who rediscovered it so unnecessarily in the nineteenth
+century, believed it to have been motionless for two thousand years. There
+is no need to lay stress here upon the absurdity of this prevalent
+opinion. It has been seen in the past and will be seen in modern times,
+that the inner travail, the evolution and the diversity are by no means
+arrested. Like the nations of Europe, China has had its evolution; the
+causes were analagous, its destiny the same. This is especially felt in
+the history of its painting. When the potent inspiration of the Southern
+School began to wane, the style of the North took the upper hand for
+obvious reasons.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XV. PAINTINGS OF THE YÜAN OR EARLY MING PERIOD
+  Style of the Northern School. Collection of R. Petrucci.]
+
+Partially civilized barbarians occupied the highest places in the State.
+They were the controlling party at the imperial court and had usurped the
+place of the old society, refined, subtle and perhaps too studied, which
+formed the environment of the last Sung emperors. Despite their naïve
+efforts and good will, these barbarians could not fathom an art so
+austere, enlightened and balanced. They were utterly ignorant of such a
+masterly conception of nature as was evoked in Chinese painting.
+Monochrome to them was dull. They could admire on trust, but they could
+not understand. On the other hand, the Northern style with its bold
+assurance, strong coloring and drawing positive almost to the point of
+seeming sculptural, was more akin to their mental outlook. There at least
+they found something which recalled those rugs on which they appear to
+have exhausted their artistic resources. In a word, they were more
+accustomed to the Northern style and had brought with them from the
+Northern regions their own artists, both Chinese and barbarian.
+
+The Northern temperament, reflective, strong and positive, now began to
+assume mastery over the bewildered reveries of the Southern nature. Things
+are seen to change. Even the masters who continue the Sung tradition
+infuse a somewhat more robust quality into their works, but, in so doing,
+they lose a certain stirring depth which gave the work of their
+predecessors such an exceptional character. Caught between these two
+tendencies, Yüan painting takes on new traits, which are perhaps more
+accessible to European mentality because they are more simple and direct.
+These observations apply to the general evolution of Chinese painting from
+the end of the thirteenth to the end of the fourteenth centuries. We must
+now consider it more in detail, citing by way of illustration a few of the
+painters who expressed the spirit of the time.
+
+At its inception the Yüan dynasty had inherited the last masters of the
+Sung period, among them two artists who are recognized as of the first
+rank. Chao Mêng-fu--known also under the appellation of Tzu[)u]-ang--was
+born in 1254. He was a descendant of the first Sung emperor and held an
+hereditary post which he resigned at the time the Yüan dynasty came into
+power. He retired into private life until 1286, then when called back to
+court as a high functionary, he became a supporter of the new dynasty.
+Chao Mêng-fu painted landscape as well as figures, flowers and the bamboo,
+but he is most celebrated for his horses. Numberless paintings of
+horses are attributed to this master; needless to say the great majority
+of these are not by his hand.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XVI. PORTRAIT OF A PRIEST
+  Yüan or Early Ming Period. Collection of H. Rivière.]
+
+As a landscape painter he seems to have worked in the style of the
+Southern School, with a fine, simple line in which may still be seen
+traces of the ancient tradition that extends back to Ku K'ai-chih. This
+characteristic line is found in the paintings of men and horses where the
+hand of Chao Mêng-fu is distinguishable. He bequeaths it to the large
+school which he founded, and, through his pupils, it becomes the
+inheritance of his imitators in the Ming period. It is more than probable
+that almost all of the paintings by his pupils, bearing the signature
+Tz[)u]-ang, are attributed to the master, while his own paintings are
+ascribed to Han Kan, painter of horses in the T'ang period. However, among
+the numerous works attributed to Chao Mêng-fu, there are a few in which we
+recognize the vibrant and flexible line which is seen in his landscapes.
+These paintings bear the signature of Tz[)u]-ang, in all probability a
+false one, but the work of art itself will always be of greater value in
+determining its authenticity than the most impressive of inscriptions. If
+the technique and the quality of the line are sufficiently similar to
+warrant attributing to the same hand the landscape in the British Museum,
+and any particular painting of horses, this may be regarded as sufficient
+evidence on which to base our own opinion as to his style.
+
+Amongst his grooms and mounted soldiers, Chao Mêng-fu painted the
+different races which the wave of Mongolian invasion had swept into China:
+Chinese from the central provinces, Tartars, Mongols with fur caps,
+Moslems of a Semitic type from Turkestan, with white turbans and heavy
+earrings. Whether his subject was the little Tartar horse from the
+Mongolian plains or the beautiful steeds of ancient Transoxiana, always
+brought as tribute by way of Khotan to the Chinese court, he gave the life
+of the horse a singular beauty, portraying him in an equally happy manner
+whether in the act of racing or in the attitudes of repose. In his mind
+still dwelt the vision of Sung ideals, which proclaimed the hidden soul of
+things and valued spirituality and life in a painting. Although we see
+marked evidence of the Southern style in his work, his paintings are more
+strongly colored than are those of that school. The influence of the Yüan
+period begins to make itself felt. It brings out values in colored
+pigment, emphasizes its violence and paves the way for a new tradition.
+
+Chao Mêng-fu has been compared by Chinese critics to his great predecessor
+Han Kan. The writings, however, are unanimous in stating that,
+notwithstanding his undeniable mastery, he lacked something of the vigor
+of the earlier master. When we attempt to compare the two styles through
+the aid of paintings of the T'ang period, wherein a reflection of the
+great animal painter may be sought, the writings appear to be confirmed
+in attributing a more positive and forceful character to the work of Han
+Kan or the unknown group of painters around him. But Chao Mêng-fu seems to
+have possessed in a higher degree the feeling of movement and life, and to
+have been less hampered in his choice of poses. Centuries of study and of
+observation had intervened between the great animal painter of the T'ang
+epoch and his worthy rival of a later period.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XVII. HORSE
+  Painting by an unknown artist. Yüan or Early Ming Period.
+  Doucet Collection.]
+
+Like Chao Mêng-fu, Ch'ien Hsüan, or Ch'ien Shun-chü, retired from public
+life at the downfall of the Sung dynasty. He was a member of a group of
+the faithful over which Chao presided, but, more decided than the latter
+in his opposition to the new dynasty, he was indignant at his confrère's
+defection and refused to follow his example. He lived in retirement,
+devoting himself to painting and to poetry up to the time of his death. He
+also continued the Sung tradition under the Yüan dynasty to which, as a
+matter of fact, he belonged only during the second part of his life. He
+painted figures, landscape, flowers and birds. His delicate line is not
+lacking in strength, and he seems to have been especially endowed with a
+sense of form which approached greatness in its simplicity. Whether the
+subject is a young prince or a pigeon perched on the summit of a rock from
+which chrysanthemums are springing, the same dignified and tranquil
+nobility is asserted with ease. He still used the quiet and restrained
+coloring of the Sung period and prolonged, without impairing it, the
+great tradition that a century and a half could not quite efface.
+
+Of Yen Hui we know almost nothing; the books state briefly that he painted
+Buddhist figures, birds and flowers, and that he was past master in the
+painting of demons. Nothing is known of the date of his birth or if, by
+his age and training, he could be classed in the Sung period, but several
+admirable paintings by him are extant which serve to show how Sung art was
+still interpreted by exceptional masters in the Yüan period. His line is
+strong, broader, fuller and more abrupt than that of Chao Mêng-fu or
+Ch'ien Shun-chü. The quivering vitality that emanates from his pictures is
+thrilling. Whether the subject is a peony heavy with dew, whose drooping
+petals presage the approaching end, or a Buddhist monk patching his
+mantle, the fleeting moment is seized with such intuitive power that
+prolonged contemplation of the painting creates the impression that it is
+suddenly about to come to life. There is something sturdier, more
+startling, less dreamy in these great painters who continue the traditions
+of Sung art; their work alone demonstrated that tradition could be revived
+and that ancient China, under the Mongolian dynasty, was still preserving
+its creative spirit and advancing resolutely into fertile fields.
+
+In Huang Kung-wang and Ni Tsan, we approach a different order of things.
+Lines began to take on a classical character, to be divided into a
+series of different types, which painters adopted according to their
+temperament and requirements, and finally became impersonal and academic.
+Both of these painters, nevertheless, were under the spell of early
+influences extending back to the T'ang artists. Through study of these old
+masters they returned to the use of a full and sometimes vivid color, but
+kept a profound love of nature, and a fresh and original vision, by which
+they still perpetuated the inspiration of Sung painting in a new form.
+With these painters, however, new features appeared. Reds and purples
+became dominant notes amidst rich greens which set them off and enhanced
+their brilliancy. The vision of landscape itself is somewhat more
+realistic and less subtle. In all of these essentials Ni Tsan, who died in
+1374, brings us nearer to the Ming period.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XVIII. VISIT TO THE EMPEROR BY THE IMMORTALS FROM
+  ON HIGH Ming Period. British Museum, London.]
+
+Simultaneously, though quite apart, marked tendencies of a different
+character were evident. The old masters of the T'ang period had again
+returned to favor. The vivid illumination and color distinct from drawing,
+in these firm and vigorous works appealed to the untutored barbarian. On
+the other hand, the studies of the Sung period had not been fruitless;
+therefore when, under these influences, the use of color was resumed, the
+painters profited by what the practice of monochrome had taught meanwhile.
+In the Yüan period appear those paintings which are attacked directly with
+a dripping brush without preliminary drawing, the forms being modeled in
+the color itself. The Chinese called this painting "without bones," in
+other words, deprived of the assistance of line. This procedure was first
+used by a painter of the Sung period, but it did not take root definitely
+until the time when the practice of using Chinese ink as a medium to
+express tones had taught painters how to model forms in color itself,
+making the structure depend upon color.
+
+Seen as a whole, the Yüan period witnessed the assembling, the
+concentration, so to speak, of the ardent but scattered inspirations of
+the great masters of the preceding school. It produced splendid
+compositions in which the golden age of Chinese painting continued to be
+manifest. Masters arose and if, in spite of all, they mark a reaction
+toward the Northern style, seeking rich and vivid color, they give us a
+vision of beauty that is equal to the work of their predecessors.
+
+Meanwhile grave signs of decadence were apparent. Composition became
+overladen and complex and began to lose something of the noble simplicity,
+greatness and supreme charm of the old masters. It was evident that the
+Yüan painters were working under the eye of the barbarians. They yielded
+to the taste of the latter for anecdote, for surmounting difficulties and
+for sentimental detail. Thus far there were only scarcely perceptible
+shadows and momentary weaknesses, warning signs of decadence; but when
+such signs are evident, decadence is at hand, and that which the virility
+of the barbarians had preserved was to be lost through the creed-bound
+dignity of an academic China, which was imprisoned in a rigid system of
+rules.
+
+
+
+
+VII. THE MING PERIOD--FOURTEENTH TO SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES
+
+
+The Ming dynasty came into power on the wings of national feeling. China
+rallied her forces and expelled the foreign tyrants. Without doubt the
+nation cherished the illusion of rebuilding itself upon the model of the
+past, and the first emperors of the dynasty believed that the empire could
+be re-established upon an unshakable foundation. But the Ming dynasty, in
+reality, was but the heir and follower of Yüan. The latter itself had been
+only a connecting link. It had changed nothing, but had tended rather to
+absorb into the Chinese system the Northern barbarians, who up to that
+time had been foreigners. It had unwittingly achieved unity for China,
+despite itself and against its own inclination. In the administration of
+the empire, it had finished the program of conservation which the Sung
+dynasty, through impotence, had been unable to carry to completion.
+
+The Ming dynasty inherited the work of the Mongols and consolidated it. It
+survived under their reign and under that of the Ch'ing rulers until the
+final disintegration, of which we have but recently seen the results.
+The peaceful ideals of the Ming dynasty, the marked predominance of
+Confucianism as a code of ethics, with certain modifications by Chu Hsi,
+combined to form an ensemble that was apparently perfect and which made it
+possible to have faith in the excellence of the principles laid down by
+the monarchy. Thus a school was formed which had its own philosophy,
+manners and ideals, all of them cold, stiff and without spontaneity. It
+was an over-perfect machine which went like clockwork. The world was
+judged with a narrow and somewhat stupid self-confidence. The ideal dwelt
+in the word of Confucian writings, divorced from their true meaning, and
+so badly interpreted that they ceased to be understood aright. The
+meticulous, bureaucratic and hieratic administration of the Tartars was a
+perfect system of government. The machine was still new and worked well,
+whence arose a false impression of permanence which added still further to
+the complacency of the conservative mind. An art was necessary to this
+China. She had it. It was academic painting.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XIX. EGRETS BY LIN LIANG
+  Ming Period. Collection of Mrs. John D. Rockefeller, Junior.]
+
+Side by side with this and yet apart, other influences were at work.
+Notwithstanding the prohibition of books on heterodox philosophies in
+schools, accompanied by the widespread decadence of Buddhism, and the
+complete downfall of Taoism owing to gross practices in popular magic, and
+despite the disdain of the official world, another element in China was
+preserving the spirit of the past, the restless spirit that craved
+novelty. In all probability its obscure workings did not appear
+immediately upon the surface, concealed as they were by the strictly
+prescribed screen of official China. They were sufficiently strong,
+however, to give rise to an art which differed essentially from academic
+art, and which numbered masters who were comparable with those of the
+past. In spite of adverse circumstances and the weight under which these
+movements were buried, they made themselves felt in violent upheavals.
+First let us draw a picture of the decadence of an art and later we shall
+return to activity and life.
+
+Official painting in the Ming period rapidly stiffened into convention. To
+understand how it took shape, we must go back to the time of Hui Tsung and
+observe the method of recruiting talent in the Academy which he founded.
+
+That painting was allied to philosophic and poetic thought is already
+known. It was always a refined diversion of poets and painters to unite in
+a quest for the beautiful. The poet wrote verses and the painter painted a
+picture suggesting, sometimes remotely, the thought enshrined in the poem.
+Such were the conditions upon which Hui Tsung instituted examinations,
+following which the doors of the Academy were open to the victor. He gave,
+for example, as subject for a competition a verse saying, "The bamboos
+envelop the inn beyond the bridge," which suggested a landscape with
+flowing water, a rustic bridge thrown across the stream, a cluster of
+bamboos on the bank, a "winehouse" half hidden in the verdure. All the
+competitors, the records say, set to work drawing with minute care the inn
+which they made the essential feature of the picture. Only one implied its
+presence by showing, above a dense cluster of bamboos, the little banner
+which in China denotes the presence of a "winehouse." Two verses of
+another poem in which allusion was made to the red flowers of spring were
+interpreted by the representation of a beautiful young girl dressed in
+red, leaning on a balustrade, for according to Chinese ideas, the thoughts
+of young men in spring turn there, as elsewhere, toward thoughts of love.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XX. FLOWERS AND INSECTS
+  Ming Period. Collection of R. Petrucci.]
+
+We have here an example of the subtle allusions, at times profoundly
+poetic, with which Chinese painting abounds. But these things retain their
+value and charm only in so far as they depend on a free play of mind or
+upon personal, living sentiments. As accepted conventions regulated in an
+academic competition, repeated with sustained effort and without
+enthusiasm, their rigid monotony becomes intolerable. Such was the
+ultimate fate of that ability to express by half meanings, to suggest
+without directly stating, to which the Sung painters attached so great an
+importance. The day it was understood that a little banner fluttering over
+bamboos indicated the presence of a "winehouse" in a sylvan retreat, or
+that a young girl dressed in red symbolized the crimson blooming of a
+garden pink in springtime, banners and young girls dressed in red were
+seen in paintings innumerable to the point of satiety.
+
+Thus were established those dry conventions of a somewhat stupid erudition
+which were so much the fashion in the academic painting of the Ming and
+the Ch'ing periods, and whose great success repressed the artistic
+aspirations of a people. Under these influences was rapidly assembled a
+complete arsenal of allegories, allusions and symbols that gave birth to
+an art which was possibly very learned, but which was inartistic to the
+last degree. An academician of the Ming period would have thought himself
+disgraced if he had not proven by complicated compositions the extent of
+his knowledge of things of this character. Art was no longer anything but
+a kind of puzzle. Furthermore, the decadence of eye and hand followed that
+of the mind, and there next appeared a taste for brilliant colors,
+overladen compositions, and fine and meticulous lines, culminating in an
+unbearable nicety. The work of the Academy is summed up in these words.
+
+Let us turn aside from an art that is inert. It robbed things of the
+creative spirit that animated them. We shall now see what was achieved by
+those who followed in the steps of the old masters.
+
+The fifteenth century in China witnessed a continuance of the style
+prevalent during the Sung and Yüan periods. Chou Chih-mien, for example,
+was true to that profound feeling for form, that delicacy of coloring,
+and rhythm in composition which were the endowment of the greatest
+masters. Shên Chou belonged entirely to the Yüan school, and to prove that
+the old ideals were not dead, we have in the fifteenth century the
+magnificent group of painters of the plum tree, with Lu Fu and Wang
+Yüan-chang at their head.
+
+As before stated, a special philosophy was associated with this tree and
+its flowers. The white petals scattered on vigorous branches had long
+typified an inner soul, whose purity was the very likeness of virtue and
+of tenderness. Chung Jen, who in the eleventh century wrote a treatise on
+the painting of the plum tree, explains in his chapter on "the derivation
+of forms" that it is a symbol, a concentrated form, a likeness of the
+universe. The great fundamental principles mingle harmoniously within it;
+they express themselves in its shape and reveal themselves through its
+beauty. Similar to this was the philosophy associated with the bamboo,
+which endured up to the fifteenth century. The subtle monochromes of Lu Fu
+show branches of flowering plum swaying in the breeze. In the great works
+of Wang Yüan-chang trunks of old trees, still bearing hardy blossoms,
+stand proudly in the magical radiance of the moon. Vibration and power,
+grandeur and majesty, such are the qualities which were still sought
+amidst the severe conditions imposed by the use of black and white. Here
+we feel that the creative force is not yet spent. We find it equally
+fresh and vigorous in the ink bamboos of Wên Chêng-ming in the sixteenth
+century.
+
+In landscape, however, new elements appear which mark a decline. I have
+already laid stress on the overladen composition which developed in the
+Yüan epoch. This was still more noticeable in the Ming period. When
+pictorial art has had a long series of masters, a certain eclecticism is
+infallibly produced. This leads to the rejection of the direct study of
+nature, in favor of viewing it only through the eyes of the old masters.
+This phenomenon appeared in China as well as in Europe. The landscape
+painters of the Ming period studied the technique of the T'ang and the
+Sung epochs and codified their system of lines, arranging them in series
+according to types and schools; in short, they drew from these a
+ready-made technique by which they were controlled. Turning from nature
+they yielded to imagination. They delighted in painting fanciful
+landscapes and were inclined toward images that were more external and
+less inspired than in the past. Their works, however, were invested with
+great charm, and the impossible disposition of their clustering peaks and
+oddly cleft rocks cannot but appeal to the imagination.
+
+In these overladen compositions the unity of the picture is lost. We are
+no longer in the presence of a simple and forceful idea, but behold a
+thousand incidents, a thousand little details, exquisite in themselves,
+but which require a search. It is a new conception of landscape. We may
+possibly prefer the gripping formula of Sung and Yüan art, but we are
+forced to acknowledge that this later work has great charm and extreme
+refinement.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XXI. LANDSCAPE
+  Ming Period. Bouasse-Lebel Collection.]
+
+To this general trend was added a new taste in color, which became
+brilliant and complex like the composition itself, harmonious and graceful
+in the paintings of the masters and always charming in the work of
+painters of the second rank; but this was the herald of a blatant and
+vulgar manner which gradually gained ground until it came to be generally
+adopted by the artisans of the Ch'ing period.
+
+While landscape under the Ming painters was assuming a different guise,
+and, forgetful of the observances of the past, was beguiling the mind by
+its charm and delicacy, a new type of figure was also developing. Here we
+must pause for a moment.
+
+We have seen that figures were treated before landscape by the painters of
+periods preceding the T'ang dynasty. This early tradition had submitted to
+the influence of Buddhist art and, while certain of its elements were
+revived in the work of a few masters, there is no doubt that figure
+painting from the seventh and eighth centuries on, was absolutely
+revolutionized. The inevitable result was a new type in the sixteenth
+century. Painters studied the line for itself, determined its proportions,
+and analyzed features and drapery. As far as our present knowledge
+extends, their observations were not collected and codified until the end
+of the nineteenth century, but the assembled writings testify that the
+result of their studies was expressed along the lines indicated from the
+end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth centuries. Their
+ideal was totally different from that of the old masters. The figure
+treated for itself with but few accessories became the sole aim of the
+painter. He endeavored to show the charm of a woman's face, the dainty and
+elegant gestures, the supple and voluptuous gait, and he grasped the
+characteristics and peculiarities of a man's figure by means of an
+intensified drawing. At times, the influence of analysis was so objective
+that it resulted in a painting closely approaching European standards. The
+taste expressed in landscape was likewise evident in figures. There were
+brilliant and harmonious colors, a charm which became exquisite in the
+coquettish and vivacious faces of women with ivory skin and brilliant
+eyes, of graceful movements, and with long, slender, delicate hands,
+incarnations of the fairies of ancient legend or historic beauties whose
+memory still lived.
+
+In a word, the philosophical inspiration to which the Sung dynasty owed
+its glory was discarded to make way for the painting of everyday life, a
+realistic representation of the world and its activities, which in Japan
+gave rise to the Ukioyoyé school, and in China recruited a series of
+painters of the first rank outside the limits of academic tradition.
+
+It would be interesting to study the influence of this movement of the
+China of the time of Ming upon the originators of the Ukioyoyé in Japan.
+It is certain that the movement on the continent preceded similar
+manifestations in the island empire by a century, and it is also certain
+that the Japanese empire was directly influenced by the China of the Ming
+period. Chinese painters were established in Japan as early as the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. There is one of whose family name we
+are ignorant and who is known only under the appellation of Ju-sue,--in
+Japanese Josetsu. He left China, where the domination of official art
+stood in the way of an independent career, carried the traditions of Sung
+and Yüan art to Japan, gathered pupils about him there, and had the glory
+of being the founder of that magnificent school of which Sesshiu is the
+leading exponent. There is only one small painting which can be attributed
+to Ju-sue with certainty. This is preserved in a Japanese temple.
+Unfortunately it is a work of small importance which, notwithstanding its
+intrinsic value, by no means furnishes sufficient information to enable us
+to pronounce on the authenticity of several other works which are said to
+be by his hand. We find in the latter an extremely individual art, in
+accordance with early traditions, but with the addition of something
+fanciful and unexpected which gives this painter marked distinction.
+Having worked outside of China, however, his influence was not felt in the
+evolution of Chinese painting.
+
+In the seventeenth century Ming art came in contact with the art of the
+Europeans. The methods and rules of the Italian ateliers of the end of the
+Renaissance were brought to China by missionary painters whose talent was
+of a secondary order. The system of monocular perspective and modeling,
+strongly accentuated by the opposition of light and shade, made a forcible
+impression on the Chinese mind. Indications of this are found in the
+Chinese books on art. But the technical methods were too different and the
+systems too much at variance to meet on any common ground. Notwithstanding
+its effect upon certain painters, the influence of European painting was
+on the whole negligible. Father Matteo Ricci worked at the end of the Ming
+period under the Chinese name of Li Ma-tu and Father Castiglione, at the
+beginning of the Ch'ing dynasty, used the name of Lang Chü-ning, but,
+although the former continued to use European methods, while the latter
+adopted the Chinese procedure, these were only isolated efforts submerged
+in the great wave of Asiatic evolution.
+
+
+
+
+VIII. THE CH'ING PERIOD--SEVENTEENTH TO TWENTIETH CENTURIES
+
+
+The Ch'ing or Manchu dynasty, whose downfall we have recently witnessed,
+brought no new vigor to China. Barbarians once again invaded the aged and
+enfeebled empire usurping the methods, history and organization of the
+preceding periods. The change in China at the end of the seventeenth
+century was only dynastic. The evolution of Ming tendencies continued, and
+despite the reorganization undertaken by Kang Hsi and maintained by his
+two successors, the excessive requirements of the old system, which had
+been formulated during the Sung epoch and definitely established in the
+Yüan and Ming periods, were so exacting that irremediable decadence was
+inevitable. Thenceforward no great changes in the realm of painting need
+be expected. It only continued its logical evolution.
+
+It is necessary, nevertheless, to lay stress on the value of Chinese
+painting from the seventeenth to the twentieth century, for an opinion is
+current that, while there might still be something of value under the Ming
+dynasty, nothing good was produced under the Ch'ing. It is undeniable that
+marked signs of decadence are seen in the latter period, but by the side
+of some inferior works, others exist which maintain the vitality of the
+past and the hope of a renaissance.
+
+In refutation of such hasty and ill informed opinion, it is sufficient to
+recall a number of paintings, signed and dated, of the eighteenth and
+nineteenth centuries, which dealers or collectors calmly attribute to the
+eleventh and twelfth.
+
+Chinese painting at the end of the seventeenth and the beginning of the
+eighteenth century was still full of vitality. The taste for brilliant
+color gradually diminished, and the composition became broader and more
+noble at the hands of certain painters, in whom is seen the revival of the
+vigorous race of yore. This was the time when Yün Shou-p'ing, more
+commonly known under the name of Nan-t'ien, painted landscape and flowers
+with the restraint and power of the old style, and when Shen Nan-p'ing set
+out for Japan to found a modern Chinese school which was to rival the
+Ukioyoyé in importance and activity. About them was grouped a large
+following, foretelling fresh developments.
+
+No support was given to this movement by the new government, which was
+infatuated with the academic style of the earlier reigns and becoming more
+and more ignorant as the last years of the nineteenth century approached.
+In the eighteenth century a comparatively large number of Chinese painters
+settled in Japan, where they continued the traditions of Ming art. The
+observation of a Nan-t'ien or of a Shen Nan-p'ing was keen and
+painstaking, but the objectivity and realism now coming to the fore, were
+conspicuous in their works. No longer was it the world of pure substance
+and abstract principle that was sought, but the real, everyday world, the
+world of objective forms studied for themselves, living their own life, on
+the threshold of which the spirit halted, no longer guided by the old
+philosophies.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XXII. BEAUTY INHALING THE FRAGRANCE OF A PEONY
+  Ming Period. Collection of V. Goloubew.]
+
+This character was maintained up to the nineteenth century. It is seen in
+the painting of flowers and landscape as well as in figure painting. These
+traits are equally apparent in an iris by Nan t'ien and a personage by
+Huang Yin-piao. The latter, working in the middle of the eighteenth
+century, evoked the personages of Buddhist and Taoist legend with a
+skillful brush, but his daring simplifications were more akin to
+virtuosity than to that deep reflection and freedom from non-essentials
+which were the glory of the early masters. Herein are discerned the
+elements of decadence, which are wont to assume precisely this aspect of a
+mastery over difficulties. For such ends genuine research and the true
+grasp of form were gradually abandoned.
+
+Calligraphy and the literary style were not overlooked, but they were
+carried to a point of abstraction that is beyond the province of art. A
+personage was represented by lines which formed characters in handwriting
+and which, in drawing the figure, at the same time wrote a sentence.
+Doubtless that is a proof of marvelous skill. I agree in assigning such
+masterpieces to the realm of calligraphy but refuse to admit them to the
+domain of painting.
+
+This applies as well to the so-called _thumb nail painting_ held in high
+repute under the last dynasty. In this the brush is abandoned and the line
+is drawn by the finger dipped in ink or color. The painting is done on
+modern paper of a special kind which partially absorbs the paint, in the
+manner of blotting paper; this results in weak lines, and ink and color
+schemes devoid of firmness, in short, in a lack of virility which places
+such works, notwithstanding their virtuosity, in the category of artisan
+achievements. These works are numerous in the modern period and constitute
+what so many regard as Chinese painting. One cannot be too careful in
+discarding them.
+
+During every period decorative paintings, religious paintings and
+ancestral paintings made after death, were executed in China by artisans,
+ordinary workmen at the service of whosoever might engage them. Such work
+should not be consulted in studying the styles of great periods or the
+higher manifestations of an art. These paintings were the first to leave
+China and find their way to Europe. There is no reason for analyzing them
+here.
+
+To sum up, Chinese painting of the last two centuries still numbers
+masters of the first rank. This alone indicates that the sacred fire is by
+no means extinct. Who shall say what future awaits it amidst the
+profound changes of today? After a period of indecision which lasted for
+twenty-five years, Japan has found herself anew and is seeking to revive
+her artistic traditions. It is to be hoped that China will, at all costs,
+avoid the same mistakes and that she will not be unmindful, as was her
+neighbor, of the history of the old masters.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XXIII. HALT OF THE IMPERIAL HUNT
+  Ming Period. Sixteenth Century. Collection of R. Petrucci.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+This brief survey has shown how the distinctive features of China's
+artistic activity were distributed. Though subjected to varying
+influences, this evolution possesses a unity which is quite as complete as
+is that of our Western art. In the beginning there were studies, of which
+we know only through written records. But the relationship existing
+between writing and painting from the dawn of historic time, permits us to
+carry our studies of primitive periods very far back, even earlier than
+the times of the sculptured works. We thus witness the gradual development
+of that philosophical ideal which has dominated the entire history of
+Chinese painting, forcing it to search for abstract form, and which
+averted for so long the advent of triviality and decadence.
+
+The goal sought by Chinese thought had already been reached in painting
+when, in the third and fourth centuries, we are vouchsafed a glimpse of
+it. It is a vision of a high order, in which the subtle intellectuality
+corresponds to a society of refinement whose desires have already assumed
+extreme proportions. Like Byzantium, heir to Hellenistic art, the China
+of the Han dynasty and of Ku K'ai-chih was already progressing toward bold
+conventions and soft harmonies, in which could be felt both the pride of
+an intelligence which imposed its will upon Nature, and the weariness
+following its sustained effort.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XXIV. PAINTING BY CHANG CHENG
+  Eighteenth Century. Collection of M. Worch.]
+
+This refinement, arising from the exhaustion of a world which even thus
+retained a certain primitive ruggedness, was succeeded by a stupendous
+movement which followed in the wake of the preaching of Buddhism. With the
+new gods we see the first appearance of definite and long-continued
+foreign influences. Civilization was transformed and took on new life.
+Then, as in the days of the great forerunners of the Florentine
+Renaissance, there appeared a whole group of artists, prepared by the art,
+at once crude and refined, of an earlier people. This group set resolutely
+to work at the close study of forms, ascertaining the laws of their
+structure and the conditions of the environment which produced them. The
+period in which the work of Li Ss[)u]-hsün, Li Chao-tao and Wang Wei was
+produced may be likened to the fifteenth century in Florence with
+Pisanello, Verocchio, Ghirlandajo and Masaccio. Similar conditions gave
+birth to a movement that is directly comparable with the Italian movement
+for, no matter how varied the outward appearances due to differences of
+race and civilization, the fundamentals of art are the same everywhere and
+pertain to the same mental attitudes.
+
+The great leaders in periods preceding the T'ang dynasty paved the way to
+the culmination which took place in the Sung period, and thus the fruit of
+that prolonged activity is seen ripening between the tenth and the
+thirteenth centuries. Through the gropings of the primitive period, the
+heterodox philosophies and the mystic stirrings of Buddhism, Eastern
+thought had arrived at an unquestionably noble comprehension of existence.
+The impersonal mystery of the universe, its mighty principle, its manifold
+manifestations and the secret which unveils itself in the innermost soul
+of things are the conceptions which form the inspiration of Chinese
+painting. These lofty thoughts are the source of that spirituality which
+declares itself therein with such nobility. The religion to which they are
+due will seem perhaps, to certain people, to be broader and less trammeled
+than our own. There is no doubt that the entire Far East was under the
+spell of its grandeur.
+
+Up to this point art had sounded every depth and attained the highest
+summits of human achievement. Thenceforward it concerned itself with
+varying manifestations which were only the different modes of a formula
+that was still flexible, until the time when--the great inspirations of
+the past forgotten--there appear signs of a spirit on the quest for
+realism, emerging from the ancient tradition. This is the distinctive note
+in the evolution of Chinese painting under the last two dynasties. It
+would seem as if, even in this guise, a universal need of the mind is
+being satisfied, a need which we, too, have known after experiencing a
+chilling academicism, and when modern culture had overthrown the ancient
+idols. Chinese painters have thus completed a round analogous to that
+traveled by our own artists.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XXV. TIGER IN A PINE FOREST
+  Eighteenth to Nineteenth Centuries. Collection of V. Goloubew.]
+
+For the Far East as for Europe, the problem now presented is that of a
+revival. Bent beneath the weight of the prestige of the past, too learned
+in the last word of culture, modern art is seeking to find itself, groping
+blindly, full of promising but unfinished works. The time has come when
+there are signs throughout the world of a desire for a universal
+civilization, by the reconciling of ancient divergencies. Europe and the
+Far East bring into contrast the most vigorous traditions in history.
+Henceforward there is interest for both civilizations in studying and in
+coming to understand a foreign ideal. Though incomplete, these pages will
+perhaps help to show that such a mutual comprehension is not impossible
+and that, if egotistic prejudices are overcome, apparent dissimilarities
+will be resolved into a profound identity. Thus will arise the elements of
+a new culture. In coming to understand a mood which so fully reflects an
+unknown world, the European mind will discover principles which will make
+it rise superior to itself. May this broad comprehension of human thought
+lead Europe to estimate with greater justice a civilization numbering its
+years by thousands, and to refrain from thwarting the fulfillment of its
+destiny.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+  An Introduction to the Study of Chinese Pictorial Art. Herbert A.
+      Giles, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Chinese in the University of
+      Cambridge. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. London, Bernard
+      Quaritch. 1918.
+
+  Painting in the Far East. Laurence Binyon. Second Edition, revised.
+      London, Edward Arnold. 1913.
+
+  The Flight of the Dragon. Laurence Binyon. Wisdom of the East Series.
+      London, John Murray. 1911.
+
+  Epochs of Chinese and Japanese Art. Ernest F. Fenollosa. 2 volumes. F.
+      A. Stokes and Co., New York. 1912.
+
+  Scraps from a Collector's Note Book. F. Hirth. Leiden, New York. 1905.
+
+  Chinese Art. Stephen W. Bushell, C.M.G., B.Sc., M.D. Victoria and
+      Albert Museum Handbook. 2 volumes. London. 1910.
+
+  Chinese Painting. Mrs. Francis Ayscough. The _Mentor_ of Dec. 2, 1918,
+      Serial No. 168. New York.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INDEX OF PAINTERS AND PERIODS
+
+
+The following summary furnishes additional information regarding the
+painters to whom reference has been made. Those to whom the subject is not
+familiar will find this of assistance in placing in their proper
+historical order the different trends which have been indicated elsewhere.
+They will also find dates useful in comparing, if so desired, the artistic
+evolution of China with that of Europe. This, however, is only an outline.
+The names of some great masters are omitted, for I have no wish to
+overload the margin of a statement which should be kept clear and
+convenient of access. I trust nevertheless that these few notes in concise
+form will be of use in connection with the preceding text.
+
+
+I. BEFORE THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM
+
+  The _Bas-reliefs_ of the second Han dynasty belong to the second and
+      third centuries of the Christian era.
+
+  _Ku K'ai-chih_, also called _Chang-k'ang_ and _Hu-tou_, was born in
+      Wu-hsi in the province of Kiang-su. He lived at the end of the
+      fourth and beginning of the fifth century. His style, resembling
+      that of the Han period, informs us as to the character of painting
+      from the second to the fifth century. It is such as to indicate a
+      long antecedent period of cultivation and development.
+
+  _Hsieh Ho_ (479-502), painter of the figure. He wrote a small book
+      setting forth the Six Canons or Requirements of painting. This work
+      informs us regarding the philosophy of art in China of the fifth
+      century.
+
+
+II. THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM
+
+It is difficult to set an exact date for the first contact of Buddhist
+with Chinese art. It may be assumed that the influence of Buddhist art
+began to be felt noticeably in China in the fifth century. In the seventh
+and eighth centuries it was so widespread as to be definitely established.
+
+
+III. THE T'ANG DYNASTY
+
+A.D. 618-905
+
+  _Wu Tao-tz[)u]_, also called _Wu Tao-yüan_. Born in Honan toward the
+      end of the eighth century. His influence was felt in Japanese art
+      as well as in that of China. He painted landscape, figures and
+      Buddhist subjects.
+
+  _Li Ss[)u]-hsün_ (651-715 or 720) is considered as the founder of the
+      Northern School. He appears to have felt the influence which
+      Buddhist art brought in its train.
+
+  _Li Chao-tao_, son of Li Ss[)u]-hsün, lived at the end of the seventh
+      and beginning of the eighth centuries. He is said to have varied
+      from his father's style and even surpassed it.
+
+  _Wang Wei_, also called _Wang Mo-k'i_ (699-759), poet, painter and
+      critic. The great reformer of Chinese landscape painting.
+      Considered as the founder of the Southern School and the originator
+      of monochrome painting in Chinese ink.
+
+  _Han Kan_, renowned in the period _t'ien-pao_ (742-759). According to
+      tradition he was a pupil of Wang Wei. His school possessed in the
+      highest degree knowledge of the form, characteristics and movements
+      of the horse.
+
+
+IV. THE SUNG DYNASTY
+
+A.D. 960-1260
+
+  _Tung Yüan._ Tenth century. Landscape painter. He worked in both the
+      Northern and Southern styles.
+
+  _Chü Jan_, Buddhist monk. Tenth century. He was at first influenced by
+      the work of Tung Yüan, but later created an individual style.
+
+  _Ma Yüan._ End of the twelfth and beginning of the thirteenth century.
+      Member of the Academy of Painting. He was the author of a strong
+      and vigorous style which characterized the school founded by him.
+
+  _Hsia Kuei_ served in the college at Han-Lin in the reign of the
+      Emperor Ning Tsung (1195-1224). He was considered a master of
+      chiaroscuro and atmospheric perspective.
+
+  _Ma Lin_, son of Ma Yüan. Thirteenth century. His work shows that he
+      painted even more in the tradition of the Southern School than his
+      father and uncle.
+
+  _Li Lung-mien_ or _Li Kung-lin_. Born at Chou in Ngan-huei. He held
+      public offices, which he resigned in 1100 to retire to the mountain
+      of Lung-mien, where he died in 1106. Noted for his calligraphy as
+      well as for his painting. At one time in his life, under religious
+      influences, he painted a great number of Buddhist figures.
+
+  _Mi Fei_ or _Mi Yüan-chang_ or _Mi Nan-kung_ (1051-1107).
+      Calligraphist, painter and critic. He used strong inking in a style
+      in which the simplification of monochrome is carried to the
+      extreme. He had a son, _Mi Yu-Jen_, who painted in his father's
+      style and lived to an advanced age.
+
+  _Hui Tsung_, emperor, poet, painter and calligraphist. Born in 1082,
+      ascended the throne in 1100, lost his throne in 1125 and died in
+      captivity in 1135. In the first year of his reign he founded the
+      Academy of Calligraphy and Painting. He made a large collection of
+      valuable paintings and rare objects of art which was scattered at
+      the plundering of his capital by the Tartars in 1225.
+
+
+V. YÜAN DYNASTY
+
+A.D. 1260-1368
+
+  _Chao Mêng-fu_, also called _Ts[)u]-ang_. Born in 1254. Man of
+      letters, painter and calligraphist. He was a great landscape
+      painter and in the first rank as a painter of horses.
+
+  _Ch'ien Hsüan_, also called _Ch'ien Shun-chü_, lived at the end of the
+      thirteenth and beginning of the fourteenth century. He painted
+      figures, landscape, flowers and birds. He employed the style and
+      methods of the Sung dynasty.
+
+  _Yen Hui_ lived in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. His
+      paintings were numerous and indicate a master of the first order.
+      He painted many Buddhist and Taoist subjects.
+
+  _Huang Kung-wang._ Fourteenth century. At first influenced by the style
+      of Tung Yüan and Chü Jan, he later acquired an individual style and
+      was one of the great founders of schools in the Yüan period.
+
+  _Ni Tsan_, also called Yün-lin (1301-1374). Man of letters,
+      calligraphist, collector of books and paintings. He is considered
+      to be one of the greatest painters of his time.
+
+
+VI. THE MING DYNASTY
+
+A.D. 1368-1644
+
+  _Chou Chih-mien_ lived in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. His
+      subjects were principally birds and flowers.
+
+  _Shên Chou_, also called _Shên Ki-nan_ or _Shên K'i_ (1427-1507).
+      Landscape painter. His composition is at times overladen, as is
+      often seen in Ming art.
+
+  _Lu Fu_ lived in the fifteenth century. He made a special study of the
+      plum tree in monochrome. He is comparable to the great Sung
+      masters.
+
+  _Wang Yüan-chang._ Died in 1407 at the age of 73. He painted the bamboo
+      and plum tree in monochrome. He carried on the Sung tradition,
+      with which he was directly connected, and was the founder of a
+      school.
+
+  _Wên Chêng-ming_ (1480-1559), painter, poet and calligraphist. He is
+      often compared with Chao Mêng-fu.
+
+  _Ju-sue._ Known only under this appellation. He lived in the fifteenth
+      century and went to Japan, where his influence was marked.
+      (Japanese _Josetsu_.)
+
+
+VII. THE CH'ING DYNASTY
+
+1644-1912
+
+  _Yün Chou-p'ing_, appellation _Nan-t'ien_, true name _Yün Ko_
+      (1633-1690). He studied at first under the influence of Wang
+      Shu-ming and Siu Hi. He painted figures, flowers and landscape.
+
+  _Shen Nan-p'ing_ lived in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. He
+      was called to Japan in 1720 and founded there the school of
+      Ming-Ch'ing or the modern Chinese school.
+
+  _Huang Yin-piau_ or _Huang-shên_. At the height of his career between
+      1727 and 1746. He painted landscape and, toward the end of his
+      life, legendary figures of Buddhism and Taoism with a technique
+      that was skillful but often precise and somewhat weak.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Chinese Painters, by Raphael Petrucci
+
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+    <title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Chinese Painters, by Raphael Petrucci.</title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Chinese Painters, by Raphael Petrucci
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Chinese Painters
+       A Critical Study
+
+Author: Raphael Petrucci
+
+Commentator: Laurence Binyon
+
+Translator: Frances Seaver
+
+Release Date: August 9, 2007 [EBook #22288]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHINESE PAINTERS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Dave Morgan, Anne Storer and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<p>Transcriber&#8217;s Note: There is one instance each of:
+Huang Yin-Piau and Huang Yin-Piao, and
+Y&uuml;n Shou-p&#8217;ing and Y&uuml;n Chou-p&#8217;ing
+so they have been left as printed.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 95%;' />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 598px;">
+<img src="images/imgcover.jpg" width="598" height="450" alt="Cover" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 1]</span></p>
+<h2>CHINESE PAINTERS</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 3]</span></p>
+
+<h1>CHINESE PAINTERS</h1>
+<h2>A CRITICAL STUDY</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><strong>BY</strong></p>
+<h2>RAPHAEL PETRUCCI</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center">TRANSLATED BY</p>
+<h2>FRANCES SEAVER</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center">WITH A BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE BY</p>
+<h2>LAURENCE BINYON</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">of the british museum</span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><strong>AND WITH TWENTY-FIVE ILLUSTRATIONS IN DUOTONE</strong></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><strong>NEW YORK</strong></p>
+<h2>BRENTANO&#8217;S</h2>
+<p class="center"><strong>PUBLISHERS</strong></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 4]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center">COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY<br />
+BRENTANO&#8217;S<br />
+<em>All rights reserved</em></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center">THE &middot; PLIMPTON &middot; PRESS<br />
+NORWOOD &middot; MASS &middot; U&middot;S&middot;A</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>A translator can have but one aim&mdash;to present the thought of the author
+faithfully. In this case an added responsibility is involved, since one
+who had so much to give to the world has been taken in his prime. M.
+Petrucci has written at length of art in the Far East in his exhaustive
+work <em>La Philosophie de la Nature dans l&#8217;Art d&#8217;Extr&ecirc;me Orient</em> and
+elsewhere, and has demonstrated the wide scope of his thought and
+learning. The form and style in <em>Peintres Chinois</em> are the result of much
+condensation of material and have thus presented problems in translation,
+to which earnest thought has been given.</p>
+
+<p>In deference to the author&#8217;s wish the margin has not been overladen and
+only a short tribute, by one able to speak of him from personal knowledge,
+has been included, together with a few footnotes and a short bibliography
+of works of reference indispensable to the student who will pursue this
+absorbing study. The translator takes this opportunity to make grateful
+acknowledgement of her debt to the authors named, who have made such
+valuable information available, and to those friends who have read the
+manuscript and made many helpful suggestions.</p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 22em;" class="smcap">Frances Seaver</span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
+<h2>BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE</h2>
+
+
+<p>In Raphael Petrucci, who died early in 1917, the world has lost one of the
+ablest and most devoted students and interpreters of the art of the Far
+East. He was only forty-five years of age, in the prime of his powers,
+brimming with energy and full of enterprises that promised richly. Though
+he did not die in the field, he was none the less a victim of the war. He
+had exhausted himself by his labours with the Belgian ambulances at La
+Panne, for Belgium was his adopted country. He had a house in Brussels,
+filled with a collection of Chinese and Japanese art, and a little cottage
+near the coast just over the borders of Holland. He came of the great and
+ancient Sienese family of the Petrucci, but his mother was French and he
+spent much of his earlier life in Paris, before settling in Brussels and
+marrying one of the daughters of the painter Verw&eacute;e. He had also spent
+some time in Russia. In Brussels he was attached to the Institut Solvay.</p>
+
+<p>He was a man of science, a student of and writer on sociology and biology.
+He lectured on art and had a knowledge of the art of the world which few
+men in Europe rivalled. He wrote a philosophic novel, <em>La Porte de l&#8217;Amour
+et de la Mort</em>, which has run through<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 8]</span>
+several editions. He published a book on Michelangelo&#8217;s poetry. At the same
+time he was a scientific engineer. When war broke out Petrucci was on his way
+home from Italy, where he had been engaged, I believe, on some large engineering
+project and he only got out of Switzerland into France by the last train which
+left Basle. He came to England for a time, looking after a number of
+Belgian refugees, including some very distinguished artists. At the end of
+1914 he was engaged by the India office to do some valuable work in London
+on the collection of Chinese and Tibetan paintings brought back from
+Tun-huang by Sir Aurel Stein. He then worked at La Panne for the Belgian
+army hospital (he had had a medical training in his youth), went to
+Provence for a rest, fell ill and died in Paris after an operation.</p>
+
+<p>Raphael Petrucci was a man who seemed to reincarnate the boundless
+curiosity and the various ability of the men of the Italian Renaissance.
+But for some years before his death he had concentrated his powers chiefly
+on the study of Oriental art, of the Chinese language, and of Buddhist
+iconography. His most important work in this line is <em>La Philosophie de la
+Nature dans l&#8217;Art d&#8217;Extr&ecirc;me Orient</em>, a sumptuously printed folio published
+by Laurens in Paris, with illustrations by the <em>Kokka</em> Company, and
+written with as much charm as insight. Petrucci&#8217;s knowledge of Chinese
+gave him an authority in interpreting Chinese art which writers on the
+subject have rarely combined<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 9]</span> with so much
+understanding of art in general, though as a connoisseur he was sometimes over-sanguine.
+His translation from a classic of Chinese art-criticism, originally published
+in a learned magazine, has lately appeared in book form. With his friend,
+Professor Chavannes, whose death, also in the prime of life, we have had
+to deplore still more recently, Petrucci edited the first volume of the
+splendid series <em>Ars Asiatica</em>. The present work, intended for the general
+reader and lover of art, illustrates his gift for luminous condensation
+and the happy treatment of a large theme.</p>
+
+<p>A man of winning manners, a most generous and loyal friend, Petrucci wore
+his manifold learning lightly; with immense energy and force of character,
+he was simple and warm-hearted and interested in the small things as well
+as the great things of life.</p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 22em;" class="smcap">Laurence Binyon</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">British Museum</span><br />
+October, 1919</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 11]</span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="14" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>  <td class="tdp1"></td>  <td align='right'></td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'></td>  <td align='right'>PAGE</td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Preface by the Translator</span></td>
+      <td align='right'><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Biographical Note by Laurence Binyon</span></td>
+      <td align='right'><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td>
+      <td align='right'><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<h3>PART ONE. TECHNIQUE</h3>
+
+<div class='center'>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="14" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>  <td align='right'></td>  <td class="tdp"></td>  <td align='right'></td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>I.</td>
+      <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Equipment of the Painter</span></td>
+      <td align='right'><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>II.</td>
+      <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Representation of Forms</span></td>
+      <td align='right'><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>III.</td>
+      <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Division of Subjects</span></td>
+      <td align='right'><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>IV.</td>
+      <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Inspiration</span></td>
+      <td align='right'><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td>  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<h3>PART TWO. THE EVOLUTION OF CHINESE PAINTING</h3>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="14" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>  <td align='right'></td>  <td class="tdp"></td>  <td align='right'></td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>I.</td>
+      <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Origins</span></td>
+      <td align='right'><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>II.</td>
+      <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Before the Intervention of Buddhism</span></td>
+      <td align='right'><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>III.</td>
+      <td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Intervention of Buddhism</span></td>
+      <td align='right'><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>IV.</td>
+      <td align='left'><span class="smcap">The T&#8217;ang Period&mdash;7th to 10th Centuries</span></td>
+      <td align='right'><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>V.</td>
+      <td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Sung Period&mdash;10th to 13th Centuries</span></td>
+      <td align='right'><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>VI.</td>
+      <td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Y&uuml;an Period&mdash;13th and 14th Centuries</span></td>
+      <td align='right'><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>VII.</td>
+      <td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Ming Period&mdash;14th to 17th Centuries</span></td>
+      <td align='right'><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>VIII.</td>
+      <td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Ch&#8217;ing Period&mdash;17th to 20th Centuries</span></td>
+      <td align='right'><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'></td>
+      <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Conclusion</span></td>
+      <td align='right'><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'></td>
+      <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span></td>
+      <td align='right'><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'></td>
+      <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Index of Painters and Periods</span></td>
+      <td align='right'><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td>  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 13]</span></p>
+<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="14" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>  <td align='right'></td>  <td align='left'></td>  <td align='right'>PAGE</td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>I.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Sculptured stones of the Han dynasty. Second to
+  third centuries.<br />Rubbings taken by the Chavannes expedition</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image23">23</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>II.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Portion of a scroll by Ku K&#8217;ai-chih.<br />
+  British Museum, London</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image27">27</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>III.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Kwanyin. Eighth to tenth centuries. Painting brought from Tun-huang<br />
+  by the Pelliot expedition. The Louvre, Paris</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image31">31</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>IV.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Palace of Kiu Cheng-kung by Li Chao-tao. T&#8217;ang period.<br />
+  Collection of V. Goloubew</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image34">34</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>V.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Portrait of L&uuml; Tung-ping by T&#8217;&ecirc;ng Ch&#8217;ang-yu. T&#8217;ang period.<br />
+  Collection of August Jaccaci. Lent to the Metropolitan Museum, New York.
+  <a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image39">39</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>VI.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Painting by an unknown artist. T&#8217;ang period.<br />
+  Collection of R. Petrucci</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image47">47</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>VII.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Geese. Sung period.<br />
+  British Museum, London</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image51">51</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>VIII.</td>
+  <td align='left'>White Eagle. Sung period.<br />
+  Collection of R. Petrucci</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image59">59</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>IX.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Horseman followed by two attendants. Sung period.<br />
+  Collection of A. Stoclet</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image63">63</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>X.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Landscape in the style of Hsia Kuei. Sung period.<br />
+  Collection of Martin White</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image67">67</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>XI.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Landscape by Ma Lin. Sung period.<br />
+  Collection of R. Petrucci</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image73">73</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>XII.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Mongol horseman returning from the Hunt, by Chao
+  M&ecirc;ng-fu. Y&uuml;an period.<br />
+  Doucet collection</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image77">77</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>XIII.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Pigeons by Ch&#8217;ien Hs&uuml;an. Y&uuml;an period.<br />
+  Collection of R. Petrucci</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image85">85</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>XIV.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Bamboos in monochrome by Wu Ch&ecirc;n. Y&uuml;an period.<br />
+  Mus&eacute;e Guimet</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image93">93</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>XV.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Paintings of the Y&uuml;an or early Ming period. Style
+  of the Northern School.<br />
+  Collection of R. Petrucci</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image97">97</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>XVI.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Portrait of a priest. Y&uuml;an or early Ming period.<br />
+  Collection of H. Rivi&egrave;re</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image101">101</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>XVII.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Horse. Painting by an unknown artist. Y&uuml;an or
+  early Ming period.<br />
+  Doucet collection</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image105">105</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>XVIII.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Visit to the Emperor by the Immortals from on
+  high. Ming period.<br />
+  British Museum, London</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image109">109</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>XIX.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Egrets by Lin Liang. Ming period.<br />
+  Collection of Mrs. John D. Rockefeller, Junior</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image115">115</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>XX.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Flowers and Insects. Ming period.<br />
+  Collection of R. Petrucci</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image119">119</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>XXI.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Landscape. Ming period.<br />
+  Bouasse-Lebel collection</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image125">125</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>XXII.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Beauty inhaling the fragrance of a peony. Ming period.<br />
+  Collection of V. Goloubew</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image133">133</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>XXIII.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Halt of the Imperial Hunt. Ming period. Sixteenth century.<br />
+  Collection of R. Petrucci</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image137">137</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>XXIV.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Painting by Chang Cheng. Eighteenth century.<br />
+  Collection of M. Worch</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image141">141</a></td>
+  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>XXV.</td>
+  <td align='left'>Tiger in a Pine Forest. Eighteenth to nineteenth centuries.<br />
+  Collection of V. Goloubew</td>
+  <td align='right'><a href="#image145">145</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+
+
+<p>Whatever its outward expression, human thought remains essentially
+unchanged and, throughout all of its manifestations, is fundamentally the
+same. Varying phases are but accidents and underneath the divers wrappings
+of historic periods or different civilizations, the heart as well as the
+mind of man has been moved by the same desires.</p>
+
+<p>Art possesses a unity like that of nature. It is profound and stirring,
+precisely because it blends and perpetuates feeling and intelligence by
+means of outward expressions. Of all human achievements art is the most
+vital, the one that is dowered with eternal youth, for it awakens in the
+soul emotions which neither time nor civilization has ever radically
+altered. Therefore, in commencing the study of an art of strange
+appearance, what we must seek primarily is the exact nature of the
+complexity of ideas and feelings upon which it is based. Such is the
+task presented to us, and since the problem which we here approach is
+the general study of Chinese<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 16]</span> painting,
+we must prepare ourselves first to master the peculiarities of its appearance
+and technique, in order to understand later on the motives which inspired it.</p>
+
+<p>While the first part of this study will carry us far from our habitual
+modes of thought, the second part will bring us back into a domain which
+our own philosophies, sciences and arts have already made familiar.
+Admittedly, Chinese painting is governed by distinctive ideas. Born of a
+civilization vastly different from our own, it may at times appear in a
+guise that seems incomprehensible. It would be astonishing, however, if
+Western intelligence were unable to grasp an aesthetic code of a magnitude
+which is too great to be ignored.</p>
+
+<p>The progress of history and of criticism has given us the opportunity to
+reach a comprehension of the most peculiar formulas. Our culture is
+sufficiently broad to allow us to perceive the beauty of an Egyptian
+fresco or an Assyrian bas-relief as well as of a Byzantine mosaic or a
+painting of the Renaissance. We have therefore no excuse for remaining
+inaccessible to the art of the Far East and we have surely all the mental
+vigor that is requisite in order to accustom ourselves to the foreign
+nature of its presentation. It is in the realm of painting that this
+foreign element is most noticeable. This is due partly to a special
+technique and partly to the nature of the doctrines which serve as its
+inspiration.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 17]</span>It behooves us then to acquaint
+ourselves with these new aspects of the human soul. That is the justification
+for this little book. It forms an introduction in which gaps are shown without
+attempt at concealment and is presented in all modesty.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 19]</span></p>
+<h2>PART ONE<br />TECHNIQUE</h2>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p>
+<h2>I. EQUIPMENT OF THE PAINTER</h2>
+
+
+<p>Where our painters have chosen wood or canvas as a ground, the Chinese
+have employed silk or paper. While our art recognizes that drawing itself,
+quite apart from painting, is a sufficient objective, drawing and painting
+have always been closely intermingled in the Far East. While the mediums
+used in Europe for painting in color, distemper, tempera and oil, led to
+an exact study of form, the colors employed by the Orientals&mdash;at times
+brilliant, at times subdued with an almost studied restraint&mdash;preserved a
+singular fluidity and lent themselves to undefined evanescences which gave
+them a surprising charm.</p>
+
+<p>The early paintings were generally done on cotton, coarse silk or paper.
+In the eighth century, under the T&#8217;ang dynasty, the use of finer silk
+began. The dressing was removed with boiling water, the silk was then
+sized and smoothed with a paddle. The use of silken fabric of the finest
+weave, prepared with a thick sizing, became general during the Sung
+dynasty. Papers were made of vegetable fibres, principally of bamboo.
+Being prepared, as was the silk, with a sizing of alum, they became
+practically <span class='pagenum'>[Pg 22]</span>indestructible. Upon these
+silks and papers the painter worked with brush and Chinese ink,
+<a name="FNanchor_1_2" id="FNanchor_1_2"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_1_2" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> color being introduced with more
+or less freedom or restraint.</p>
+
+<p>The brushes are of different types. Each position of the brush conforms
+to a specific quality of the line, either sharp and precise or broad and
+quivering, the ink spreading in strong touches or thinning to delicate
+shades.</p>
+
+<p>The colors are simple, of mineral or vegetable origin. Chinese painters
+have always avoided mixing colors so far as possible. From malachite they
+obtained several shades of green, from cinnabar or sulphide of mercury, a
+number of reds. They knew also how to combine mercury, sulphur and potash
+to produce vermilion. From peroxide of mercury they drew coloring powders
+which furnished shades ranging from brick red to orange yellow. During the
+T&#8217;ang dynasty coral was ground to secure a special red, while white was
+extracted from burnt oyster shells. White lead was later substituted for
+this lime white. Carmine lake they obtained from madder, yellows from
+the sap of the rattan, blues from indigo. To these must<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 25]</span>
+be added the different shades of Chinese ink and lastly, gold in leaf and in powder.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image23" id="image23"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/img023.jpg">
+<img src="images/img023_th.jpg" width="400" height="274" alt="Plate I" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE I. SCULPTURED STONES OF THE HAN DYNASTY<br />
+Second to Third Centuries. Rubbings taken by the Chavannes Expedition.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The brush-stroke in the painting of the Far East is of supreme importance.
+We know that this could not be otherwise if we recall that the characters
+in Chinese writing are ideographs, not actually <em>written</em>, but rather
+<em>drawn</em>. The stroke is not a mere formal, lifeless sign. It is an
+expression in which is reflected the beauty of the thought that inspired
+it as well as the quality of the soul of him who gives it form. In
+writing, as in painting, it reveals to us the character and the conception
+of its author. Placed at the service of certain philosophical ideas, which
+will be set forth later on, this technique was bound to lead to a special
+code of Aesthetics. The painter seeks to suggest with an unbroken line the
+fundamental character of a form. His endeavor, in this respect, is to
+simplify the objective images of the world to the extreme, replacing them
+with ideal images, which prolonged meditation shall have freed from every
+non-essential. It may therefore be readily understood how the brush-stroke
+becomes so personal a thing, that in itself it serves to reveal the hand
+of the master. There is no Chinese book treating of painting which does
+not discuss and lay stress upon the value of its aesthetic code.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p>
+<h2>II. REPRESENTATION OF FORMS</h2>
+
+
+<p>It has often been said that in Chinese painting, as in Japanese painting,
+perspective is ignored. Nothing is further from the truth. This error
+arises from the fact that we have confused one system of perspective with
+perspective as a whole. There are as many systems of perspective as there
+are conventional laws for the representation of space.</p>
+
+<p>The practice of drawing and painting offers the student the following
+problem in descriptive geometry: <em>to represent the three dimensions of
+space by means of a plane surface of two dimensions</em>. The Egyptians and
+Assyrians solved this problem by throwing down vertical objects upon one
+plane, which demands a great effort of abstraction on the part of the
+observer. European perspective, built up in the fifteenth century upon
+the remains of the geometric knowledge of the Greeks, is based on the
+monocular theory used by the latter. In this system, it is assumed that
+the picture is viewed with the eye fixed on a single point. Therefore
+the conditions of foreshortening&mdash;or distorting the actual dimensions
+according to the angle from which they are seen&mdash;are governed by placing
+in harmony the distance of the eye from the scheme of the<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 29]</span>
+picture, the height of the eye in relation to the objects to be depicted, and the
+relative position of these objects with reference to the surface employed.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image27" id="image27"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/img027.jpg">
+<img src="images/img027_th.jpg" width="400" height="260" alt="Plate II" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE II. PORTION OF A SCROLL BY KU K&#8217;AI-CHIH<br />
+British Museum, London.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>But, in assuming that the picture is viewed with the eye fixed on a single
+point, we put ourselves in conditions which are not those of nature. The
+European painter must therefore compromise with the exigencies of
+binocular vision, modify the too abrupt fading of forms and, in fine,
+evade over-exact principles. Thus he arrives at a <em>perspective de
+sentiment</em>, which is the one used by our masters.</p>
+
+<p>Chinese perspective was formulated long before that of the Europeans and
+its origins are therefore different. It was evolved in an age when the
+method of superimposing different registers to indicate different planes
+was still being practiced in bas-reliefs. The succession of planes, one
+above the other, when codified, led to a system that was totally different
+from our monocular perspective. It resulted in a perspective as seen from
+a height. No account is taken of the habitual height of the eye in
+relation to the picture. The line of the horizon is placed very high,
+parallel lines, instead of joining at the horizon, remain parallel, and
+the different planes range one above the other in such a way that the
+glance embraces a vast space. Under these conditions, the picture becomes
+either high and narrow&mdash;a hanging picture&mdash;to show the successive planes,
+or broad in the form of a scroll, unrolling to reveal an endless<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 30]</span>
+panorama. These are the two forms best known under their Japanese names
+of <em>kakemono</em> and <em>makimono</em>.
+<a name="FNanchor_2_3" id="FNanchor_2_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_3" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>But the Chinese painter must attenuate the forms where they are parallel,
+give a natural appearance to their position on different levels and
+consider the degree of their reduction demanded by the various planes.
+Even he must compromise with binocular vision and arrive at a <em>perspective
+de sentiment</em> which, like our own, while scientifically false, is
+artistically true. To this linear perspective is added moreover an
+atmospheric perspective.</p>
+
+<p>Having elected from a very early time to paint in monochrome, Chinese
+painters were led by the nature of this medium to seek to express
+atmospheric perspective by means of tone values and harmony of shading
+instead of by color. Thus they were familiar with chiaroscuro before the
+European painters. Wang Wei established the principles of atmospheric
+perspective in the eighth century. He explains how tints are graded, how
+the increasing thickness of layers of air deprives distant objects of
+their true coloring, substituting a bluish tinge, and how forms become
+indistinct in proportion as their distance from the observer increases.
+His testimony in this respect is similar to that of Leonardo da Vinci in
+his &ldquo;Treatise on Painting.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image31" id="image31"></a><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 31]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 175px;">
+<a href="images/img031.jpg">
+<img src="images/img031_th.jpg" width="175" height="400" alt="Plate III" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE III. KWANYIN. EIGHTH TO TENTH CENTURIES<br />
+Painting brought from Tun-huang by the Pelliot Expedition. The Louvre, Paris.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p>
+<h2>III. DIVISION OF SUBJECTS</h2>
+
+
+<p>The Chinese divide the subjects of painting into four principal classes,
+as follows:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 12em;">Landscape.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 12em;">Man and Objects.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 12em;">Flowers and Birds.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 12em;">Plants and Insects.</span></p>
+
+<p>Nowhere do we see a predominant place assigned to the drawing or painting
+of the human figure. This alone is sufficient to mark the wide difference
+between Chinese and European painting.</p>
+
+<p>The exact name for <em>Landscape</em> is translated by the words <em>mountain and
+water picture</em>. They recall the ancient conception of Creation on which
+the Oriental system of the world is founded. The mountain exemplifies the
+teeming life of the earth. It is threaded by veins wherein waters
+continuously flow. Cascades, brooks and torrents are the outward evidence
+of this inner travail. By its own superabundance of life, it brings forth
+clouds and arrays itself in mists, thus being a manifestation of the two
+principles which rule the life of the universe.</p>
+
+<p>The second class, <em>Man and Objects</em>, must be understood principally as
+concerning man, his works, his<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 34]</span> belongings,
+and, in a general sense, all things created by the hand of man, in combination
+with landscape. This was the convention in early times when the first painters
+whose artistic purpose can be formulated with certainty, portrayed the history of the
+legendary beings of Taoism,&mdash;the genii and fairies dwelling amidst an
+imaginary Nature. The records tell us, to be sure, that the early masters
+painted portraits, but it was at a later period that <em>Man and Objects</em>
+composed a class distinct from <em>Landscape</em>, a period responsible for those
+ancestral portraits painted after death, which are almost always
+attributable to ordinary artisans. Earlier they endeavored to apply to
+figure painting the methods, technique and laws established for an
+ensemble in which the thought of nature predominated. Special rules
+bearing on this subject are sometimes found of a very early date but there
+is no indication that they were collected into a definite system until the
+end of the seventeenth century. Up to the present time our only knowledge
+of their content is through a small treatise published at the beginning of
+the nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The third class, <em>Flowers and Birds</em>, deals with those paintings wherein
+the Chinese gave rein to their fancy for painting the bird in conjunction
+with the plant life associated with its home and habits. The bird is
+treated with a full understanding of its life, and flowers are studied
+with such a comprehension of their essential structure that a botanist
+can readily<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 37]</span> detect the characteristics typical
+of a species, despite the simplifications which an artist always imposes on the
+complexity of forms.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image34" id="image34"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 327px;">
+<a href="images/img034.jpg">
+<img src="images/img034_th.jpg" width="327" height="400" alt="Plate IV" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE IV. PALACE OF KIU CHENG-KUNG BY LI CHAO-TAO<br />
+T&#8217;ang Period. Collection of V. Goloubew.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>This general class is subdivided. The epidendrum, the iris, the orchis
+and the chrysanthemum became special studies each of which had its own
+masters, both from the standpoint of painting itself, and of the
+application of the aesthetic rules which govern this art. The bamboo and
+the plum tree are also allied to this class. Under the influence of
+philosophic and symbolic ideas they furnished a special category of
+subjects to the imagination of the painter and form a division apart which
+has its own laws and methods, regarding which the Chinese treatises on
+Aesthetics inform us fully.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, the fourth class, <em>Plants and Insects</em>, is based upon the same
+conception as that of <em>Flowers and Birds</em>. The insect is represented with
+the plant which is his habitat when in the stage of caterpillar and larva,
+or flying above the flowers and plants upon which he subsists on reaching
+the stage of butterfly and insect. Certain books add to this fourth class
+a subdivision comprising fishes.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly we must note that in the Far East, as in Europe, there is a special
+class to be taken into consideration, <em>Religious paintings</em>. In China,
+this refers almost exclusively to Buddhist paintings.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p>
+<h2>IV. INSPIRATION</h2>
+
+
+<p>The aesthetic conceptions of the Far East have been deeply influenced by a
+special philosophy of nature. The Chinese consider the relation of the two
+principles, male and female, the <em>yang</em> and the <em>yin</em>, as the source of
+the universe. Detached from the primordial unity, they give birth to the
+forms of this world by ever varying degrees of combination. Heaven
+corresponds to the male principle, earth to the female principle.
+Everything upon the earth, beings, plants, animals or man is formed by the
+mingling of <em>yang</em> and <em>yin</em>. While the mountain, enveloped in mists,
+recalls the union of these two principles, the legend of forces thus
+revealed by no means pauses here. Fabulous or real, the animals and plants
+habitually seen in Chinese paintings express a like conception.</p>
+
+<p>The dragon is the ancestor of everything that bears feathers or scales. He
+represents the element of water, the waters of the earth, the mists of the
+air, the heavenly principle. He is seen breaking through the clouds like
+some monstrous apparition, unveiling for an instant the greatness of a
+mystery barely discerned. The tiger is the symbol of the earthly
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 41]</span>principle, a personification of quadrupeds
+as distinct from birds and reptiles. His ferocious form lurks in the tempest.
+Defying the hurricane which bends the bamboos and uproots trees, he challenges
+the furies of nature that are hostile to the expression of the universal soul. The
+bamboo is the symbol of wisdom, the pine is the emblem of will-power and
+life. The plum tree in flower is a harmonious combination of the two
+principles. It symbolizes virginal purity.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image39" id="image39"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 170px;">
+<a href="images/img039.jpg">
+<img src="images/img039_th.jpg" width="170" height="400" alt="Plate V" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE V. PORTRAIT OF L&Uuml; TUNG-PING BY T&#8217;&Ecirc;NG CH&#8217;ANG-YU<br />
+T&#8217;ang Period. Collection of August Jaccaci. Lent to the Metropolitan Museum, New
+York.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Thus is built up a complete system of allusions similar to the allegories
+of our own classics but superior in that they never degenerate into frozen
+symbols, but on the contrary keep in close touch with nature, investing
+her with a vibrant life, in which human consciousness vanishes making way
+for the dawning consciousness of infinitude.</p>
+
+<p>Buddhism goes still further. It does not even believe in the reality of
+the world. In this belief, forms are but transitory, the universe an
+illusion forever flowing into an unending future. Outside of the supreme
+repose, in the six worlds of desire,<a name="FNanchor_3_4" id="FNanchor_3_4"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_3_4" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> the things that are susceptible to
+pain and death pursue their evolution. Souls travel this closed cycle
+under the most diverse forms, from hell to the gods, advancing or
+retreating, in accordance with the good deeds or errors<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 42]</span>
+committed in previous existences. A stone, a plant, an insect, a demon, or a god are
+only illusory forms, each encompassing an identical soul on its way to
+deliverance, as it is caught at different stages of its long calvary and
+imprisoned through original sin and the instinctive desire for life.
+Whence we see emerging a new feeling of charity which embraces all beings.
+Their moral character is felt to be the same as that of man, their goal is
+the same, and in the vast world of illusion each seeks to fulfill the same
+destiny.</p>
+
+<p>Behind the changes of the universe the Buddhist perceives the primal
+substance that pervades all creation. There results from this an intimacy
+with things which exists in no other creed. From inert matter to the most
+highly organized being, all creation is thus endowed with a sense of
+kinship that is destined to make a tender and stirring appeal in the
+artist&#8217;s interpretation of nature.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 43]</span></p>
+<h2>PART TWO<br />
+THE EVOLUTION OF CHINESE PAINTING</h2>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p>
+<h2>I. ORIGINS</h2>
+
+
+<p>The origins of painting in China are mingled with the origins of writing.
+Written characters are, in fact, derived from pictography or picture
+writing, those in use at the present time being only developed and
+conventionalized forms of primitive drawings. The early books and
+dictionaries give us definite information regarding this evolution. But
+while history bears witness to this ancient connection, we do not come
+into contact with actual evidence until the third century of our era,
+through the bas-reliefs of the Han dynasty, and in the fourth century
+through the paintings of Ku K&#8217;ai-chih. Here we find by no means the origin
+of an evolution but, on the contrary, the last traces of an expiring
+tradition.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p>
+<h2>II. BEFORE THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM</h2>
+
+
+<p>The bas-reliefs of the Han dynasty are almost all comprised in the
+sculptured stone slabs embellishing mortuary chambers and of these the
+artistic merit is most unequal.<a name="FNanchor_4_5" id="FNanchor_4_5"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_4_5" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> Their technique is primitive. It
+consists in making the contours of figures by cutting away the stone in
+grooves with softened angles, leaving the figure in silhouette. Engraved
+lines complete the drawing.</p>
+
+<p>The subjects are sometimes mythical and sometimes legendary. There are
+representations of divinities, fabulous animals, scenes of war and of the
+chase and processions of people bearing tribute. At times the great
+compositions display imposing spectacles, a luxurious and refined array.
+Now and then attempts at pictorial perspective are joined to some
+unrelated scene.</p>
+
+<p>All this is in direct conflict with the technique of bas-reliefs and leads
+to the surmise that the models<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 49]</span> were drawn
+by painters and copied with more or less skill by makers of funeral monuments.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image47" id="image47"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 194px;">
+<a href="images/img047.jpg">
+<img src="images/img047_th.jpg" width="194" height="400" alt="Plate VI" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE VI. PAINTING BY AN UNKNOWN ARTIST<br />
+T&#8217;ang Period. Collection of R. Petrucci.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>This impression is confirmed if certain carved slabs are compared with a
+painting by Ku K&#8217;ai-chih, of which we can judge by means of a copy made in
+the Sung period.<a name="FNanchor_5_6" id="FNanchor_5_6"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_5_6" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> One of the scenes of this long scroll
+leaves no possible misapprehension as to the pictorial origin of the Han
+bas-reliefs. Its subject, a river god on a chariot drawn by dragons, is
+similar in composition to the models used by the artisans of the third
+century.</p>
+
+<p>We have, however, better testimony than a copy made at a later period. The
+British Museum, in London, is the owner of a painting attributed to Ku
+K&#8217;ai-chih. The reasons impelling us to believe in its authenticity are
+weighty, almost indisputable.<a name="FNanchor_6_7" id="FNanchor_6_7"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_6_7" class="fnanchor">[6]</a><a name="FNanchor_B_8" id="FNanchor_B_8"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_B_8" class="fnanchor">[B]</a> We therefore accept it here and will
+endeavor to define the work of one of the greatest painters of China in
+the fourth and the beginning of the fifth century.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 50]</span>The painted scenes are inspired by
+a work of the third century containing admonitions addressed to the ladies
+of the imperial palace. The striking characteristics of these compositions
+are the lightness and delicacy of style, the poetry of the attitudes and the
+supreme elegance of the forms. Heavy black tresses frame the ivory faces with
+refined and subtle charm. The voluptuous caprice of garments in long floating
+folds, the extreme perfection of the figures and the grace of gestures make this
+painting a thing of unique beauty. Only through the cultivation of centuries could
+such spiritual insight be attained.</p>
+
+<p>If the copy from the collection of Tuan Fang recalls the bas-reliefs of
+the Han period, the painting in the British Museum is related to the
+bas-reliefs of Long-men, which date from the seventh century and of which
+M. Chavannes has published photographs. Therefore we may say that the
+style of Ku K&#8217;ai-chih exemplifies the distinctive features of Chinese
+painting at a period extending from the third to the seventh centuries.
+<a name="FNanchor_7_9" id="FNanchor_7_9"></a> <a href="#Footnote_7_9" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
+
+<p>It should also be noted that toward the end of the fifth or the beginning
+of the sixth century, the painter<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 53]</span> and critic
+Hsieh Ho formulated the Six Canons<a name="FNanchor_8_10" id="FNanchor_8_10"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_8_10" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> upon which the far-eastern code
+of Aesthetics is founded. These Canons introduce philosophical conceptions and
+technical knowledge which also presuppose long cultivation, for it is only after
+rules have been brought to reality in a work of art that they are formulated into a
+code. Therefore when Buddhism appeared in China it found there a native
+art whose value was proved beyond question by a long succession of
+masterpieces. After having exhausted every manifestation of strength and
+vigor, this art had arrived at expressions of extreme refinement and
+profound and appealing charm, closely verging on the disquieting dreams of
+decadence.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image51" id="image51"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 177px;">
+<a href="images/img051.jpg">
+<img src="images/img051_th.jpg" width="177" height="400" alt="Plate VII" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE VII. GEESE<br />Sung Period. British Museum, London.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p>
+<h2>III. THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM</h2>
+
+
+<p>Chinese books state that between the fourth and the eighth centuries &ldquo;the
+art of painting <em>man and things</em> underwent a vital change.&rdquo; By this they
+alluded to the intervention of Buddhist art, which made its appearance in
+China toward the fifth century in the form of the Graeco-Indian art of
+Gandhara, already modified by its transit across Eastern Turkestan. This
+by no means indicates that purely Indian origins might not be found for
+it. At Sanchi, as well as in Central India and at Ajant&acirc; such
+characteristics are preserved. But the Greek dynasties which had settled
+in northwestern India in the train of Alexander, had carried with them the
+canons of Hellenistic art. The technique and methods of this art were
+placed at the service of the new religion. They gave to Buddhist
+art&mdash;which was just beginning to appear in the Gandharian provinces&mdash;its
+outward form, its type of figures, its range of personages and the greater
+part of its ornamentation.<a name="FNanchor_9_11" id="FNanchor_9_11"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_9_11" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 55]</span>Buddhism found the expiring Hellenistic
+formula which had been swept beyond its borders, ready at hand at the very moment
+the new religion was gathering itself together for that prodigious journey which,
+traversing the entire Far East, was to lead it to the shores of the Pacific. Once
+outside of India, it came into contact with Sassanian Persia and Bactria.
+With Hellenistic influences were mingled confused elements springing from
+the scattered civilizations which had reigned over the Near East. Thence
+it spread to the byways of Eastern Turkestan.</p>
+
+<p>We know today, thanks to excavations of the German expeditions of
+Gr&uuml;nwedel and von Lecoq, the two English expeditions of Sir Aurel Stein
+and the French expedition of M. Pelliot, that in that long chain of oases
+filled with busy cities, Buddhist art was gradually formed into the
+likeness under which it was to appear as a finished product in the Far
+East. Here it developed magnificently. The enormous frescoes of Murtuq
+display imposing arrangements of those figures of Buddhas and B&ocirc;dhisatvas
+which were to remain unchanged in the plastic formulas of China and Japan.
+Meanwhile conflicting influences continued to be felt. Sometimes the
+Indian types prevailed, as at Khotan, at others there were Semitic types
+and elements originating in Asia Minor, such as were found at Miran, and
+at length, as at Tun-huang, types that were almost entirely Chinese
+appeared.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 56]</span>The paintings brought from Tun-huang
+by the Stein and Pelliot expeditions enable us to realize the nature of the
+characteristics which contact with China imposed upon Buddhist art. It had
+no choice but to combine with the tendencies revealed in the painting of
+Ku K&#8217;ai-chih. The painter trained in the school of Hellenistic technique drew
+with the brush. He delighted in the rhythmic movement of the line and the display
+of a transcendent harmony and elegance of proportion such as are seen in the
+frescoes of Eastern Turkestan. Perhaps through contact with China&mdash;herself
+searching for new expressions&mdash;but probably through a combination of the two
+influences, Buddhist painting, at the opening of the T&#8217;ang dynasty, gives
+us heavier types in which compact and powerful figures take on a new
+character.</p>
+
+<p>From then on we perceive the nature of the great change to which the early
+books refer. Chinese painting had already known the genii and fairies of
+Taoism, the Rishi or wizards living in mountain solitudes, the Immortals
+dwelling in distant isles beyond the sea. It now knew gods wrapped in the
+ecstatic contemplation of Nirvana, with smiling mouth and half-closed
+eyes, revealing mystic symbols in a broad and apostolic gesture. It had
+more life-like figures, attendants, benign and malignant, terrifying
+demons. Before these impassive gods, in a fervor of devotion it bent the
+figures of donors, men and women, sometimes veritable portraits. With even
+greater breadth<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 57]</span> it portrayed the disciples of
+Sakyamuni, those anchorites and hermits who under the name of Lohan
+<a name="FNanchor_10_12" id="FNanchor_10_12"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_10_12" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> have entered into Chinese
+Buddhist legend. Indian priests with harsh, strongly marked features and
+wrinkled faces, preachers of a foreign race, disfigured by scourging or
+else the calm full visage of the ecstatic in contemplation,&mdash;such are the
+types that appeared. Chinese painters took up the new subjects and treated
+them with a freedom, an ease, and a vitality which at once added an
+admirable chapter to the history of art.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p>
+<h2>IV. THE T&#8217;ANG PERIOD&mdash;SEVENTH TO TENTH CENTURIES</h2>
+
+
+<p>The T&#8217;ang dynasty was the really vital period of Chinese Buddhism. Among
+the painters who gave it its highest expression Wu Tao-tz&#365; holds first
+place. His memory dwells in history as that of one of the greatest masters
+in China and legend has still further enhanced the might of his genius. It
+is highly probable that his work is entirely destroyed, but by the aid of
+copies, incised stones and wood engravings of the twelfth century, an idea
+of the painter&#8217;s conception can be formed. He seems to have been the
+creator of a Chinese type of Kwanyin, the Buddhist incarnation of mercy
+and charity. Drapery covers the high drawn hair. She is attired in the
+harmonious folds of a plain and ample garment and expresses supreme
+authority, the sublimity of divine love.</p>
+
+<p>If to these fragments of an immense plastic production is added the
+analysis furnished by the written records, we can define with some degree
+of certitude the place occupied by Wu Tao-tz&#365; in the history of Chinese
+painting. The books state that the lines from his brush fairly vibrated;
+all united in marvelling at the spirituality emanating from forms thus
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 61]</span> defined. He adhered almost exclusively
+to the use of powerful ink-lines and denied himself the use of any color,
+whether scattered or prominent, which would have robbed his painting of the
+austerity which was the source of its surpassing feeling. But in order to
+appreciate the full value of the new ideas introduced by Wu into Chinese painting,
+it is necessary to understand the exact nature of the technique that was in
+practice up to the seventh and eighth centuries, at the opening of the T&#8217;ang dynasty.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image59" id="image59"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 191px;">
+<a href="images/img059.jpg">
+<img src="images/img059_th.jpg" width="191" height="400" alt="Plate VIII" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE VIII. WHITE EAGLE. SUNG PERIOD<br />
+Collection of R. Petrucci.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>At that time there prevailed the analytic, painstaking, detailed and very
+considered drawing that is common to all periods preceding great
+constructive work. This technique admitted the use of two fundamental
+methods: one called <em>double contour</em>, the other <em>contour</em> or <em>single
+contour</em>. The method of <em>double contour</em> was applied chiefly to the
+drawing of plant life in landscape. It consisted in outlining leaves or
+branches by means of two lines of ink placed in apposition. The space thus
+enclosed was filled with color. Any peculiarities of formation, knots in
+wood and veins in leaves were added subsequently. The name of <em>single
+contour</em> was applied to drawings wherein a single ink line outlined the
+object, the space enclosed being then filled with color.</p>
+
+<p>If the application of these analytic methods was sometimes carried to the
+extreme of delicacy it never became labored. Throughout its entire
+evolution the art of the T&#8217;ang period is characterized by a
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 62]</span> sense of the
+magnificent. Once the study of forms was exhausted, this type of work was
+bound to be superceded. Wu Tao-tz&#365; profited by the work of his
+predecessors. Combining in a single stroke of the brush, vigor and an
+eclectic character of line, with values and fluidity of tone, he brought
+to a supreme unity the two great principles by which things are made
+manifest in all the magic of their essential structure. But it must be
+understood that this patient investigation of forms was not limited to
+preparing the way for a single master. The logical outcome was an
+independent movement to which the origin of modern Chinese painting can be
+traced.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Painting has two branches,&rdquo; the books say, &ldquo;that of the North and that of
+the South; the separation occurred in the T&#8217;ang period.&rdquo; These terms
+<em>Northern School</em> and <em>Southern School</em> must not be taken literally. They
+serve merely to characterize styles which, in the eighth century,
+liberated themselves from methods demanding such close study and exact
+definition of forms. The style of the Northern School is strong, vehement
+and bold; the style of the Southern School is melancholy and dreamy. The
+ideal of Northern China, impregnated with barbarian elements, is brought
+into contrast with that of Southern China, heir to an already ancient
+civilization, and under the spell of Taoist legends and the bewildered
+dreams of its philosophers.<a name="FNanchor_11_13" id="FNanchor_11_13"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_11_13" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image63" id="image63"></a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 63]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/img063.jpg">
+<img src="images/img063_th.jpg" width="400" height="253" alt="Plate IX" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE IX. HORSEMAN FOLLOWED BY TWO ATTENDANTS<br />
+Sung Period. Collection of A. Stoclet.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 65]</span>Li Ssu-hs&uuml;n and his son
+Li Chao-tao (eighth century) are considered to be
+the founders of the Northern School. The paintings attributed to them show
+the character which the Northern style preserved up to the Ming period and
+which was to be emphasized to the point of brutality at the hands of
+certain masters in the Y&uuml;an period. At the outset, in its brilliancy and
+precision, the Northern style held to a certain refinement of line; later
+the line is drawn with a firm and powerful brush and strong colors are
+applied almost pure.</p>
+
+<p>In direct contrast the Southern style is made up of half-tints, with a
+feeling of reserve and intentional restraint, which gives it, with equal
+power, at times a more appealing charm. The lines are pliant, immersed in
+shading, color is suggested in a subtle fashion and, in contrast to the
+almost brutal emphasis of the North, it finds expression in chiaroscuro
+and concealed harmonies.</p>
+
+<p>The foundation of the Southern School is attributed to a great landscape
+painter of the eighth century, Wang Wei. Nothing could better determine
+his tendencies than monochrome<a name="FNanchor_12_14" id="FNanchor_12_14"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_12_14" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> painting in Chinese ink.
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 66]</span>According to
+the records, this was first practiced by him. It constitutes what in
+China, as well as in Japan, is called the <em>literary man&#8217;s painting</em> and
+is, in reality, quite closely related to calligraphy. The variety of
+shadings and relative colors of objects depend entirely upon the tones of
+ink washes. Wang Wei seems to have treated monochrome mainly from the
+standpoint of chiaroscuro, in his search for an atmospheric perspective
+which should be both fluid and ethereal. It appears that the accentuation
+of lines according to rule that is seen later on, where forms are
+synthetized&mdash;sometimes to an excessive degree&mdash;was only a derivation of
+the work of Wang Wei and caused by the intrusion of calligraphic
+virtuosity into the domain of painting.</p>
+
+<p>When we arrive at Wang Wei, landscape is treated as a special subject and
+with its own resources. It was he who discovered the principles which
+govern the fading of colors and forms in the distance, and who formulated
+the laws of atmospheric perspective. Paintings in his style are all
+executed in a predominating color which the Chinese call <em>luo-ts&#8217;ing</em>, a
+mineral color of varying shades ranging from a malachite green to a
+lapis-lazuli blue. It will be seen why <em>luo-ts&#8217;ing</em> gave its name to the
+style of Wang Wei.</p>
+
+<p>By means of bluish tints he painted the distant<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 69]</span>
+expanse of landscape. Mountains forming screens in the backgrounds and masses of trees
+lost in the distance, are all indicated by the azure tints which intervening
+layers of air give to remote objects. But as the foreground is approached,
+rightful colors begin to prevail and the azure tints are subtly graded,
+passing into a fresh and brilliant green amongst wooded declivities, and
+into the natural hue in the foliage of trees. Often heavy mists, spreading
+at the foot of high mountains, veil the outlines and still further
+emphasize the feeling of limitless space.<a name="FNanchor_13_15" id="FNanchor_13_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_15" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image67" id="image67"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 195px;">
+<a href="images/img067.jpg">
+<img src="images/img067_th.jpg" width="195" height="400" alt="Plate X" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE X. LANDSCAPE IN THE STYLE OF HSIA KUEI<br />
+Sung Period. Collection of Martin White.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>But when a master has carried his study of the fading of colors and of
+their relative values thus far, he must have considered not only the
+element of color itself, but also the collective tones which color is
+capable of expressing. From this to monochrome painting in Chinese ink is
+but a step; historical testimony shows that Wang Wei took this step. By
+the simple opposition of black and white, and through tone values and
+gradations of shades, he endeavored to create the same feeling of
+atmosphere and space which he had been able to express with <em>luo-ts&#8217;ing</em>.
+No original picture remains to inform us to what extent
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 70]</span> he succeeded, but
+by means of monochrome paintings of the Sung period which owe their
+inspiration to him, the importance of the reform accomplished, and the
+tendencies manifested in those lost works of art may be divined.</p>
+
+<p>Another master whose work can be defined with sufficient accuracy to cite
+as an illustration of a different aspect of the history of painting during
+the T&#8217;ang period, is Han Kan, who lived in the middle of the eighth
+century and who is celebrated as a painter of horses.</p>
+
+<p>The sculptured stones of the Han dynasty, especially the admirable
+bas-reliefs of the tomb of Chao-ling, representing the favorite coursers
+of the emperor T&#8217;ai-tsung, show the manner in which artists, from the
+third to the seventh centuries, were capable of studying and delineating
+the postures of the horse. It is therefore not surprising to find a great
+animal painter in the eighth century. Beyond question he was not the
+first. The written records have preserved the names of several of his
+predecessors and while the honor of having been the great founder of a
+school was attributed to him, it is possible that this refers only to an
+artistic movement bearing his name, of which he was not the sole
+representative.</p>
+
+<p>But the work of Han Kan and the unknown artists grouped around him,
+proclaims a powerful tradition, a well grounded school of animal painters
+which had attained the highest eminence. It was
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 71]</span> destined to exert a
+strong influence upon painters of horses in the Y&uuml;an epoch and even when,
+later on, this great tradition is seen disappearing, cloying and insipid,
+amidst the mannerisms of the Ming period, it will still retain sufficient
+power to carry thus far a reflection of the vigor and vitality attained in
+the great periods.</p>
+
+<p>The painting of <em>Flowers and Birds</em>, and <em>Plants and Insects</em> appears to
+have been already established at this time. The flowers and plants are
+drawn according to the methods of <em>double contour</em> and <em>single contour</em>,
+worked over and brought out with that intensity of analysis to which
+allusion has been made. The bird is caught in its most subtle movement,
+the insect studied in its essential structure.</p>
+
+<p>Thus we see that Chinese painting had extended its investigations in every
+direction and had solved the problems found along its path. It had
+absorbed foreign influences, altered its conception of the divine and
+found a new type of figure. It had endowed landscape painting with all the
+resources of atmospheric perspective and had established the two essential
+styles of the North and the South. The painter was master of the visible;
+his thought dominated form and was able to express itself with freedom.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p>
+<h2>V. THE SUNG PERIOD&mdash;TENTH TO THIRTEENTH CENTURIES</h2>
+
+
+<p>The T&#8217;ang period had been the golden age of Chinese poetry. It had
+witnessed an extraordinary outburst of religious fervor, and the
+overwhelming domination of Buddhism. It had, moreover, triumphantly
+re-established the unity of the empire and to the pride of intellectual
+activity it could add the pride of might and dominion. But the same cannot
+be said for the Sung period. From a political standpoint its history is
+one of cumulative disaster. Ancient China retreated by degrees before the
+thrusts of the barbarians, until the great thunderbolt of Genghis Khan&#8217;s
+conquest, reverberating with formidable echoes throughout all Asia,
+announced the approaching downfall of culture in the red dawn of a new
+era.</p>
+
+<p>The Sung culture, totally different from that of the T&#8217;ang period, was,
+however, swept forward to its culmination. It would seem as if, under the
+menace of the barbarians, the mind had set for its goal the development of
+ideas embryonic in earlier work, formulating them in haste and arresting
+them finally in perfect yet sad images, in which the heights attained were
+haunted by the shadow of impending ruin.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image73" id="image73"></a><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 73]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 196px;">
+<a href="images/img073.jpg">
+<img src="images/img073_th.jpg" width="196" height="400" alt="Plate XI" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE XI. LANDSCAPE BY MA LIN<br />
+Sung Period. Collection of R. Petrucci.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 75]</span>The dynasty opened with a classical
+reaction against new ideas and witnessed a return to Confucian philosophy,
+with its conception of the State. But centuries of history had not rolled
+by without effect. In the tenth and eleventh centuries the ancient writings
+were no longer understood with their original meaning. A whole series of
+philosophers, of whom the last is Chu Hsi (thirteenth century), had formulated
+a composite doctrine resulting in what might be called an official philosophy,
+which has dominated to the present day. Some bold spirits, however, opposed this
+reactionary codification, struggling in vain to give a positive and firm
+structure to the doomed empire. Their influence appears to have been
+considerable. Just as the old heterodox philosophy was being stifled by
+the dry and colorless metaphysics of the conservatives, it was awakened to
+new life by the painters, who gave it a stirring interpretation in their
+work.</p>
+
+<p>The period of technical research was past. At first, with care and
+patience, forms had been determined by drawing. Color had remained a thing
+apart, regarded as a work of illumination and quite distinct from drawing.
+Then study was extended still further. Color came to be viewed in the
+light of shades and tones and became one of the means for the expression
+of form; it became the very drawing itself,&mdash;that which reveals the basic
+structure.</p>
+
+<p>Wang Wei represents the moment when art, emancipating itself from problems
+already solved, had<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 76]</span>
+conquered every medium of expression. Such is the
+tradition which he bequeathed to the Sung artists, who were destined to
+add thereto such supreme masterpieces.</p>
+
+<p>The Sung painters were haunted by the old philosophical beliefs as to the
+formation of the universe. Beyond the actual surroundings they dimly
+perceived a magic world made up of perfect forms. Appearances were but the
+visible covering of the two great principles whose combination engendered
+life. They believed that, in painting, they did more than to reproduce the
+external form of things. They labored with the conviction that they were
+wresting the soul from objects, in order to transfer it to the painted
+silk. Thus they created something new, an imaginary world more beautiful
+than the real world, wherein the intimate relation of beings and things
+was disclosed,&mdash;a world pervaded by pure spirit and one which was revealed
+only to those whose thought was sufficiently enlightened, and whose
+sympathies were sufficiently broad, to understand and to be stirred.</p>
+
+<p>The painters of the line of Wang Wei during the Sung period, devoted
+themselves chiefly to the development of painting in monochrome. They
+pursued the study of relations of tones and values of shading up to the
+limit of extreme delicacy, and if they mingled color at all with their
+subtle evocations, it was with a feeling of unequalled restraint. They
+dwelt for the most part in intimacy with Nature.
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 79]</span>Fleeing from the cares
+of court and city, they retired into mountain solitudes, meditating for
+long periods before taking up the brush to paint. Thus they portrayed
+those mountains enveloped in mists, wherein was revealed the harmony of
+the two principles which control the universe. From the depths of valleys
+misty vapors arose and cedars and gigantic pines reared their majestic
+forms, while, on the threshold of a thatched cabin upon some rocky
+plateau, a hermit deep in meditation contemplated the vast expanse of a
+landscape of august grandeur.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image77" id="image77"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 261px;">
+<a href="images/img077.jpg">
+<img src="images/img077_th.jpg" width="261" height="400" alt="Plate XII" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE XII. MONGOL HORSEMAN RETURNING FROM THE HUNT<br />
+By Chao M&ecirc;ng-fu. Y&uuml;an Period. Doucet Collection.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes, turning to plant forms, they painted the bamboo in black and
+white. A single masterly stroke sufficed to draw the cylindrical stalk
+from one joint to another, or the pointed leaves which are so quivering
+with life that we seem to hear the plaintive voice of the wind &ldquo;combed,&rdquo;
+as the Chinese writings express it, &ldquo;by the reeds.&rdquo; Or again, when a
+flower was the subject, they suggested it with a simplicity that
+presupposes a scientifically exact study of forms. It was by no means the
+splendid image which they sought to grasp but the soul itself; at one time
+the flower barely open in all its enchanting freshness, at another the
+softened petals drooping in languid fashion, revealing a splendor still
+present but soon to fade; at times the dew moistening the leaves, the snow
+shrouding them with its purity, or the slow monotonous rain beneath which
+they drip, motionless. These paintings are always instinct with deep
+poetic feeling.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 80]</span>At the hands of the Sung painters the
+school of landscape and monochrome technique attained a level which will never
+be exceeded. The masters of this period are numerous and are frequently
+represented by works of almost certain authenticity. It seems useless to assemble
+here names which will convey no meaning to the European reader. It will suffice to
+illustrate by a few great figures the three centuries of history during which Chinese
+landscape painting reached its culminating point.</p>
+
+<p>Tung Y&uuml;an and Ch&uuml; Jan are considered by the critics as having founded a
+special school in the great tradition of Wang Wei. Their paintings were
+quiet in coloring and were executed with broad strokes in an impressionist
+style. These works must be viewed from a distance to see their apparent
+violence merge into extreme elegance. They furnish a complete
+demonstration of the laws of atmospheric perspective, with its feeling of
+distance and infinite space, in which forms are immersed. Here we find
+evidence that these painters were the first to attempt the arrangement of
+lines according to rule, which led ultimately to calligraphic painting.</p>
+
+<p>Among the heads of schools cited in the Chinese writings Ma Y&uuml;an and Hsia
+Kuei of the Sung dynasty must be placed in a class by themselves. Both of
+these masters lived at the end of the twelfth and the beginning of the
+thirteenth centuries. Their style can be described with accuracy since
+original examples<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 81]</span> are extant&mdash;both by
+themselves and by their disciples&mdash;in which their characteristics are fully revealed.</p>
+
+<p>Ma Y&uuml;an is classed with the Southern School by reason of his restraint in
+the use of color, his greatness of conception and his technical treatment
+of forms. But he brings to his work a virility in which the influence of
+the Northern School is plainly discerned. He has a broad stroke and a
+masterful manner which place his works in the front rank of all Chinese
+painting. His mountainous backgrounds rear themselves with fierce energy.
+His old pines, with branches wreathed in vines, would suffice alone to
+define his style, so freely do they express the force of plant life and
+the proud defiance of the aged tree. He loved the mountain solitudes to
+which he gave a new imagery, so authoritative and so perfect that it
+served to create a school.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of Ma Y&uuml;an was felt by his brother and by his son, Ma Lin.
+Although the death of the latter occurred under the Mongolian dynasty, he
+was an exponent of Sung art. The fierce energy of the old master gives way
+to a somewhat more melancholy and gentle quality in his son. There is the
+same restraint in the handling of the brush, the same reserve in the use
+of color, but the landscape stretches out into deep and dreamy vistas that
+are indescribably poetic. The melancholy of autumn, the sadness of flights
+of birds that circle in the evening light, the<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 82]</span>
+feeling of seclusion and silence, such are the things in which this poetic spirit
+finds its joy, true heir of the master mind whose genius found expression in
+the wild aspects of nature.</p>
+
+<p>The school of Ma dominated the entire subsequent period and his influence
+extended as far as Korea, where traces of it were still to be found as
+late as the fifteenth century. As the history of Korean painting becomes
+better known, we shall be able to say with more accuracy what it owes to
+other Chinese masters; but in so far as those mentioned are concerned,
+their influence appears to have been sufficiently strong to impress a
+certain type on fragmentary works from Korea which have become known to us
+recently.</p>
+
+<p>We are far from being as well informed regarding Hsia Kuei, but we have
+that which is worth more than written records, a few paintings preserved
+in Japanese collections, which it seems legitimate to attribute to him
+without reservation. It is readily seen why his name is always linked with
+that of Ma Y&uuml;an. His work shows the same energy and power and discloses an
+ideal which is similar to that of his confr&egrave;re. He seems to have
+penetrated even further than Ma Y&uuml;an along the path of daring
+simplifications, and to have approached at times the calligraphic style.
+He painted both landscape and figures and was skilled in obtaining strange
+effects, as if of color, through his use of monochrome.</p>
+
+<p>Another painter whose name dominates the history<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 83]</span>
+of this time and whose work serves to characterize a special aspect is Li Lung-mien.
+It is naturally difficult to prove that all the works attributed to him are
+authentic. However, collections in Japanese temples or privately owned,
+possess paintings which passed as his at a very early date and in which at
+least we can recognize his style. In reviewing the centuries of history,
+it is interesting to note that the work of Li Lung-mien is not without
+similarity, in certain of its elements, to the paintings of Ku K&#8217;ai-chih.
+His line is delicate and flexible and he draws his outlines with the same
+subtlety, the same grace and the same instinct for harmonious curves and
+an extraordinary rhythm.</p>
+
+<p>The tradition which arose in a period antedating the T&#8217;ang epoch was
+therefore still unbroken in the Sung period, and I am sure that proofs of
+this will increase in number as our information becomes more accurate. New
+evidence furnished by the paintings found at Tun-huang and certain
+frescoes at Murtuq has recently shown that the type of Buddhist
+hermit&mdash;the Lohan meditating in solitude&mdash;whose inception had, until these
+discoveries, been attributed to Li Lung-mien, in reality dated much
+further back and originated in the Buddhist art of Eastern Turkestan,
+perhaps even in India. From those regions are derived the magnificent
+subjects of which Li Lung-mien made use to express meditation. Sometimes
+there are emaciated faces, withered bodies with protruding tendons that
+outline deep hollows, and again rotund and peaceful
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 84]</span> figures meditating in
+tranquil seclusion. From the written records as well as in his works,
+there is every evidence that he was one of those who revived Buddhist
+painting. No matter what models he chose to follow, he always gave them a
+stress and a peculiar distinction, while from the standpoint of pure art
+he had the ability to portray them with finished elegance and majestic
+dignity.</p>
+
+<p>Li Lung-mien was not content to paint Buddhist figures only. He painted
+landscape also, and in his youth he had painted horses. A great critic of
+the Sung period said of him that &ldquo;his soul entered into communion with all
+things, his spirit penetrated the mysteries and the secrets of nature.&rdquo;
+This critic added that one day he saw Li Lung-mien painting a Buddhist
+divinity. The words of the god fairly leapt from the lines; it seemed as
+if the brush of the master summoned them one by one into being. Like all
+the masters of his time, Li Lung-mien sought to free the spirit from its
+outward semblance. Beyond the material, he perceived the immaterial force
+which animates the world. As a landscape painter his conception of Nature
+was broad and majestic. His graceful and harmonious line recalls the
+happiest moments in the history of plastic art, and he challenges
+comparison with a facile genius like Raphael. But he includes the whole
+realm of nature in his subjects, and in his work we find traces, expressed
+with greater breadth, but with quite as keen an insight, of an ancient
+and noble art, such as was found almost extinct in the work of Ku
+K&#8217;ai-chih.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image85" id="image85"></a><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 85]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 193px;">
+<a href="images/img085.jpg">
+<img src="images/img085_th.jpg" width="193" height="400" alt="Plate XIII" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE XIII. PIGEONS BY CH&#8217;IEN HS&Uuml;AN<br />
+Y&uuml;an Period. Collection of R. Petrucci.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 87]</span>We cannot leave the Sung painters
+without devoting some attention to Mi Fei and his son. The two Mi&#8217;s, indeed,
+accomplished a far-reaching reform in Chinese technique; they enriched painting
+with a new imagery and founded a school which, like that of Ma, exerted an influence
+on later periods and was strongly felt in Korea.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to being a great painter, Mi Fei was a great calligraphist.
+This is apparent however little one may have seen of work in his style. He
+possesses in the highest degree what the Chinese describe as the &ldquo;handling
+of flowing ink.&rdquo; He used the technique of monochrome almost exclusively,
+and so closely related tone values to the line, or rather to the
+brush-stroke, that it is difficult to decide whether he paints rather than
+draws, or draws rather than paints. Properly speaking, he does not employ
+the line at all but works by masses, by broad, heavily inked touches,
+without pausing to emphasize the deep warm blacks provided by Chinese ink.
+His manner recalls certain drawings by Rembrandt, also produced by strong
+inking, which evoke a strange and magical effect of light. Such was the
+spirit in which Mi Fei treated landscape. This technique marks his style
+and gives it an individuality that is indisputable. The vehemence with
+which he attacks forms, the rapidity of his brush-stroke, the way in which
+things spring from<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 88]</span> such energy, call to
+mind pictures by European masters, painted in full color, and it may be said
+of the paintings of Mi Fei that they are fairly <em>colored</em> by their tremendous
+vitality, if the quality of the materials he employed permits the use of such a term.
+Therefore Mi Fei and his son are responsible for a new technique, a
+strongly individual work, and the creation of a style which marks the
+highest achievement in monochrome. The trend which impelled them was,
+however, general. Carried to its extreme it led to the style of painting
+called calligraphic, of which there has been occasion to speak several
+times.</p>
+
+<p>Calligraphic painting, or the <em>literary style</em>, has its origin in the
+studies of Wang Wei when, renouncing the aid of colour, he strove by
+harmony of shading and by tone values, to reproduce the vast reaches of
+space and all the shifting subtlety of atmospheric perspective. The
+exclusive use of Chinese ink necessitated special studies since thus
+calligraphy was directly approached. The different styles of writing are
+almost drawing in themselves. Each style of writing has its own rules for
+dissecting the written character and making the stroke. Now, as is known,
+the Chinese painters attached supreme importance to the line and to the
+brush-stroke. This was due in part to their equipment and in part to the
+fact that the amateurs of art were prepared by their classical studies to
+appreciate the strength or the delicacy of a line judged for itself, quite
+independently of the forms represented.<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 89]</span>
+We must also bear in mind that all of the Chinese painters were scholars,
+belonging to the class of the literati.<a name="FNanchor_14_16" id="FNanchor_14_16"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_14_16" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> Writers, poets, statesmen,
+soldiers, Buddhist or Taoist priests, and philosophers have all furnished the
+greatest names in art. Under such conditions the technical relationship between
+the line of the painter and that of the calligraphist was closer, since painter and
+calligraphist were frequently united in one and the same person. Thence
+came the early tendency to use monochrome and to represent forms in the
+abstract, rendering them more and more as mere themes, thus reducing the
+subject to a few simple calligraphic strokes.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult for a European to follow the thought of the Chinese
+painters in these daring simplifications. Sometimes they are carried to
+such an extreme as to leave us with a feeling of perplexity. Often however
+they give rise to mighty conceptions and<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 90]</span>
+paintings whose essential character impresses us as a unique product of genius.
+Calligraphic painting reached its highest level during the Sung and Y&uuml;an
+periods. It was so closely allied to painting that the Emperor Hui Tsung, who ascended
+the throne in 1100, founded the Imperial Academy of Calligraphy and
+Painting in the first year of his reign. Hui Tsung was himself a painter.
+The books credit him with especial mastery in the representation of birds
+of prey, eagles, falcons and hawks, which seems to be sufficient reason
+for deliberately attributing to him every painting of a bird of prey, even
+when there is evidence that it was painted two or three centuries later
+than his time. Perhaps before long we shall find authentic paintings by
+Hui Tsung. A painting belonging to the Mus&eacute;e Guimet, which comes from the
+collection of Tuan Fang, is the one which by its annotations bears the
+greatest guaranty of authenticity, but it is a representation of a figure
+painting of the T&#8217;ang dynasty and gives us no information as to the manner
+in which Hui Tsung painted eagles. However, certain paintings from his
+collections have come down to us. Whether or not by the imperial hand they
+proclaim a virile art, an instinct for the grandiose and a majestic
+character which are the qualities of which the eagle is a symbol.</p>
+
+<p>The foundation of the Academy of Calligraphy and Painting had results
+quite other than those hoped for by its founder. It became imbued with the
+evils of<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 91]</span> formalism. It was established
+in the imperial capital in court surroundings, in other words, in an atmosphere
+from which true artists depart with all possible speed. It suffered inevitably
+through the influences of a taste, refined it is true, but which already inclined
+toward mannerisms and preciosity. Conventions were established, subjects
+became stereotyped, the taste for brilliant colors developed and, even
+before the end of the Sung period, there was a marked division between
+academic and national art. Pedantry and affectation began to take the
+place of boldness and strength.</p>
+
+<p>Doubtless this tendency would have developed still further but for a
+series of disasters and the menace of a new dynasty looming on the horizon
+of Central Asia, which was already resounding with the clash of Mongol
+arms.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p>
+<h2>VI. THE Y&Uuml;AN PERIOD&mdash;THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES</h2>
+
+
+<p>From the standpoint of civilization the Mongolian dynasty of Y&uuml;an brought
+nothing to China. On the contrary, the foreign elements were absorbed by
+the ancient culture for, in the final summing-up, the mind will always be
+stronger than weapons. From the standpoint of painting, however, this
+period has marked individuality.</p>
+
+<p>The Sung period had been distinctly dominated by the ideals of Southern
+China. Philosophical inspiration had proven too strong to permit the style
+of the Northern School to assert absolute sway. In this we must make an
+exception of Buddhist painting, which,&mdash;save in the work of a few chance
+painters of religious subjects&mdash;continues the traditions of the T&#8217;ang
+period, preserving the original character of its coloring. It is true that
+there were masterpieces to the credit of the Northern School but it had by
+no means kept to the style of vivid illumination which marked its
+inception.<a name="FNanchor_15_17" id="FNanchor_15_17"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_15_17" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> It had yielded to the influence
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 95]</span> of the Southern style,
+was simplified by this contact and took on the austerity and proportion of
+the South. It would seem as if the painters hastened to add their
+testimony before the philosophy of the ancient sages should disappear.
+They strove to give the world perfect images in which the great principles
+of the universe could be felt vibrating. The only suitable medium for such
+expression was the technique of the Southern School which they followed
+with more or less fidelity.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image93" id="image93"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/img093.jpg">
+<img src="images/img093_th.jpg" width="400" height="279" alt="Plate XIV" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE XIV. BAMBOOS IN MONOCHROME BY WU CH&Ecirc;N<br />
+Y&uuml;an Period. Mus&eacute;e Guimet.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Southern China was at that time the scene of awakened faculties. Shaken to
+its foundations by the mystic movement&mdash;both Taoist and Buddhist&mdash;of the
+T&#8217;ang period, the Confucian doctrine had lost ground but had not yet
+congealed into the rigid official code of a Chu Hsi. While heterodox
+beliefs still prevailed, all were free to borrow their prophetic and
+poetic meaning.</p>
+
+<p>When the Mongols came into power, they only carried to completion the work
+of conservation begun by the Sung emperors. In their contact with China
+they resembled timid pupils quite as much as conquerors. Once emperor of
+China, the Mongol Kublai Khan could not but remember his purely Chinese
+education. Moreover it was quite the Tartar custom to extend their
+conquests to administrative organization, by establishing a hierarchy of
+functionaries. The conception of a supreme and autocratic State, paternal
+in its absolutism, intervening<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 96]</span>
+even to the details of private life in order to assure the happiness
+of the people,&mdash;this idea, dear to the literary conservators of
+the Confucian School during the Sung period, was also too similar to the
+Tartar ideal to be denied immediate adoption. Heterodox doctrines were formally
+banished from schools. Rejected with scorn as being corrupt and dangerous,
+there remained of these doctrines only such residuum as might be found in the
+independent thought of artists, who were more difficult to control.
+The magnificent movement of the Sung period began to abate; it produced its
+last master pieces and gradually waned, until under Ming rule it was to die out
+completely.</p>
+
+<p>The Y&uuml;an epoch, therefore, appears in the light of a transition period
+connecting the fifteenth century of Ming with the thirteenth century of
+Sung. From the point of view which interests us, it did nothing but
+complete a work which had been carried on with energy and success by
+adherents in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It strove to reduce
+China to a severely regulated State in which all great movements and
+impulses should be under strict control. It succeeded. It succeeded so
+well, indeed, that the Europeans who came to know China in the seventeenth
+century and who rediscovered it so unnecessarily in the nineteenth
+century, believed it to have been motionless for two thousand years. There
+is no need to lay stress here upon the absurdity of this prevalent
+opinion. It has been seen in the past and will be seen in modern
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 99]</span> times, that the inner travail, the
+evolution and the diversity are by no means arrested. Like the nations
+of Europe, China has had its evolution; the causes were analagous, its
+destiny the same. This is especially felt in the history of its painting.
+When the potent inspiration of the Southern School began to wane, the style
+of the North took the upper hand for obvious reasons.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image97" id="image97"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 393px;">
+<a href="images/img097.jpg">
+<img src="images/img097_th.jpg" width="393" height="450" alt="Plate XV" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE XV. PAINTINGS OF THE Y&Uuml;AN OR EARLY MING PERIOD<br />
+Style of the Northern School. Collection of R. Petrucci.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Partially civilized barbarians occupied the highest places in the State.
+They were the controlling party at the imperial court and had usurped the
+place of the old society, refined, subtle and perhaps too studied, which
+formed the environment of the last Sung emperors. Despite their na&iuml;ve
+efforts and good will, these barbarians could not fathom an art so
+austere, enlightened and balanced. They were utterly ignorant of such a
+masterly conception of nature as was evoked in Chinese painting.
+Monochrome to them was dull. They could admire on trust, but they could
+not understand. On the other hand, the Northern style with its bold
+assurance, strong coloring and drawing positive almost to the point of
+seeming sculptural, was more akin to their mental outlook. There at least
+they found something which recalled those rugs on which they appear to
+have exhausted their artistic resources. In a word, they were more
+accustomed to the Northern style and had brought with them from the
+Northern regions their own artists, both Chinese and barbarian.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 100]</span>The Northern temperament, reflective,
+strong and positive, now began to assume mastery over the bewildered reveries
+of the Southern nature. Things are seen to change. Even the masters who continue
+the Sung tradition infuse a somewhat more robust quality into their works, but,
+in so doing, they lose a certain stirring depth which gave the work of their
+predecessors such an exceptional character. Caught between these two
+tendencies, Y&uuml;an painting takes on new traits, which are perhaps more
+accessible to European mentality because they are more simple and direct.
+These observations apply to the general evolution of Chinese painting from
+the end of the thirteenth to the end of the fourteenth centuries. We must
+now consider it more in detail, citing by way of illustration a few of the
+painters who expressed the spirit of the time.</p>
+
+<p>At its inception the Y&uuml;an dynasty had inherited the last masters of the
+Sung period, among them two artists who are recognized as of the first
+rank. Chao M&ecirc;ng-fu&mdash;known also under the appellation of Tzu&#365;-ang&mdash;was
+born in 1254. He was a descendant of the first Sung emperor and held an
+hereditary post which he resigned at the time the Y&uuml;an dynasty came into
+power. He retired into private life until 1286, then when called back to
+court as a high functionary, he became a supporter of the new dynasty.
+Chao M&ecirc;ng-fu painted landscape as well as figures, flowers and the bamboo,
+but he is most celebrated for his horses. Numberless paintings of
+horses are attributed to this master; needless to say the great majority
+of these are not by his hand.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image101" id="image101"></a><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 101]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/img101.jpg">
+<img src="images/img101_th.jpg" width="400" height="339" alt="Plate XVI" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE XVI. PORTRAIT OF A PRIEST<br />Y&uuml;an or Early Ming Period.
+Collection of H. Rivi&egrave;re.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 103]</span>As a landscape painter he seems to
+have worked in the style of the Southern School, with a fine, simple line
+in which may still be seen traces of the ancient tradition that extends back
+to Ku K&#8217;ai-chih. This characteristic line is found in the paintings of men
+and horses where the hand of Chao M&ecirc;ng-fu is distinguishable. He bequeaths
+it to the large school which he founded, and, through his pupils, it becomes the
+inheritance of his imitators in the Ming period. It is more than probable
+that almost all of the paintings by his pupils, bearing the signature
+Tz&#365;-ang, are attributed to the master, while his own paintings are
+ascribed to Han Kan, painter of horses in the T&#8217;ang period. However, among
+the numerous works attributed to Chao M&ecirc;ng-fu, there are a few in which we
+recognize the vibrant and flexible line which is seen in his landscapes.
+These paintings bear the signature of Tz&#365;-ang, in all probability a
+false one, but the work of art itself will always be of greater value in
+determining its authenticity than the most impressive of inscriptions. If
+the technique and the quality of the line are sufficiently similar to
+warrant attributing to the same hand the landscape in the British Museum,
+and any particular painting of horses, this may be regarded as sufficient
+evidence on which to base our own opinion as to his style.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 104]</span>Amongst his grooms and mounted soldiers,
+Chao M&ecirc;ng-fu painted the different races which the wave of Mongolian invasion
+had swept into China: Chinese from the central provinces, Tartars, Mongols with fur
+caps, Moslems of a Semitic type from Turkestan, with white turbans and heavy
+earrings. Whether his subject was the little Tartar horse from the
+Mongolian plains or the beautiful steeds of ancient Transoxiana, always
+brought as tribute by way of Khotan to the Chinese court, he gave the life
+of the horse a singular beauty, portraying him in an equally happy manner
+whether in the act of racing or in the attitudes of repose. In his mind
+still dwelt the vision of Sung ideals, which proclaimed the hidden soul of
+things and valued spirituality and life in a painting. Although we see
+marked evidence of the Southern style in his work, his paintings are more
+strongly colored than are those of that school. The influence of the Y&uuml;an
+period begins to make itself felt. It brings out values in colored
+pigment, emphasizes its violence and paves the way for a new tradition.</p>
+
+<p>Chao M&ecirc;ng-fu has been compared by Chinese critics to his great predecessor
+Han Kan. The writings, however, are unanimous in stating that,
+notwithstanding his undeniable mastery, he lacked something of the vigor
+of the earlier master. When we attempt to compare the two styles through
+the aid of paintings of the T&#8217;ang period, wherein a reflection of the
+great animal painter may be sought, the writings appear
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 107]</span> to be confirmed
+in attributing a more positive and forceful character to the work of Han
+Kan or the unknown group of painters around him. But Chao M&ecirc;ng-fu seems to
+have possessed in a higher degree the feeling of movement and life, and to
+have been less hampered in his choice of poses. Centuries of study and of
+observation had intervened between the great animal painter of the T&#8217;ang
+epoch and his worthy rival of a later period.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image105" id="image105"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/img105.jpg">
+<img src="images/img105_th.jpg" width="400" height="348" alt="Plate XVII" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE XVII. HORSE<br />Painting by an unknown artist. Y&uuml;an or
+Early Ming Period. Doucet Collection.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Like Chao M&ecirc;ng-fu, Ch&#8217;ien Hs&uuml;an, or Ch&#8217;ien Shun-ch&uuml;, retired from public
+life at the downfall of the Sung dynasty. He was a member of a group of
+the faithful over which Chao presided, but, more decided than the latter
+in his opposition to the new dynasty, he was indignant at his confr&egrave;re&#8217;s
+defection and refused to follow his example. He lived in retirement,
+devoting himself to painting and to poetry up to the time of his death. He
+also continued the Sung tradition under the Y&uuml;an dynasty to which, as a
+matter of fact, he belonged only during the second part of his life. He
+painted figures, landscape, flowers and birds. His delicate line is not
+lacking in strength, and he seems to have been especially endowed with a
+sense of form which approached greatness in its simplicity. Whether the
+subject is a young prince or a pigeon perched on the summit of a rock from
+which chrysanthemums are springing, the same dignified and tranquil
+nobility is asserted with ease. He still used the quiet and restrained
+coloring of the Sung<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 108]</span> period and prolonged,
+without impairing it, the great tradition that a century and a half could not
+quite efface.</p>
+
+<p>Of Yen Hui we know almost nothing; the books state briefly that he painted
+Buddhist figures, birds and flowers, and that he was past master in the
+painting of demons. Nothing is known of the date of his birth or if, by
+his age and training, he could be classed in the Sung period, but several
+admirable paintings by him are extant which serve to show how Sung art was
+still interpreted by exceptional masters in the Y&uuml;an period. His line is
+strong, broader, fuller and more abrupt than that of Chao M&ecirc;ng-fu or
+Ch&#8217;ien Shun-ch&uuml;. The quivering vitality that emanates from his pictures is
+thrilling. Whether the subject is a peony heavy with dew, whose drooping
+petals presage the approaching end, or a Buddhist monk patching his
+mantle, the fleeting moment is seized with such intuitive power that
+prolonged contemplation of the painting creates the impression that it is
+suddenly about to come to life. There is something sturdier, more
+startling, less dreamy in these great painters who continue the traditions
+of Sung art; their work alone demonstrated that tradition could be revived
+and that ancient China, under the Mongolian dynasty, was still preserving
+its creative spirit and advancing resolutely into fertile fields.</p>
+
+<p>In Huang Kung-wang and Ni Tsan, we approach a different order of things.
+Lines began to take on<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 111]</span>
+a classical character, to be divided into a
+series of different types, which painters adopted according to their
+temperament and requirements, and finally became impersonal and academic.
+Both of these painters, nevertheless, were under the spell of early
+influences extending back to the T&#8217;ang artists. Through study of these old
+masters they returned to the use of a full and sometimes vivid color, but
+kept a profound love of nature, and a fresh and original vision, by which
+they still perpetuated the inspiration of Sung painting in a new form.
+With these painters, however, new features appeared. Reds and purples
+became dominant notes amidst rich greens which set them off and enhanced
+their brilliancy. The vision of landscape itself is somewhat more
+realistic and less subtle. In all of these essentials Ni Tsan, who died in
+1374, brings us nearer to the Ming period.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image109" id="image109"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a href="images/img109.jpg">
+<img src="images/img109_th.jpg" width="500" height="249" alt="Plate XVIII" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE XVIII. VISIT TO THE EMPEROR BY THE IMMORTALS FROM ON
+HIGH<br />Ming Period. British Museum, London.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Simultaneously, though quite apart, marked tendencies of a different
+character were evident. The old masters of the T&#8217;ang period had again
+returned to favor. The vivid illumination and color distinct from drawing,
+in these firm and vigorous works appealed to the untutored barbarian. On
+the other hand, the studies of the Sung period had not been fruitless;
+therefore when, under these influences, the use of color was resumed, the
+painters profited by what the practice of monochrome had taught meanwhile.
+In the Y&uuml;an period appear those paintings which are attacked directly with
+a dripping brush without <span class='pagenum'>[Pg 112]</span>preliminary drawing,
+the forms being modeled in the color itself. The Chinese called this painting
+&ldquo;without bones,&rdquo; in other words, deprived of the assistance of line. This
+procedure was first used by a painter of the Sung period, but it did not take root
+definitely until the time when the practice of using Chinese ink as a medium to
+express tones had taught painters how to model forms in color itself,
+making the structure depend upon color.</p>
+
+<p>Seen as a whole, the Y&uuml;an period witnessed the assembling, the
+concentration, so to speak, of the ardent but scattered inspirations of
+the great masters of the preceding school. It produced splendid
+compositions in which the golden age of Chinese painting continued to be
+manifest. Masters arose and if, in spite of all, they mark a reaction
+toward the Northern style, seeking rich and vivid color, they give us a
+vision of beauty that is equal to the work of their predecessors.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile grave signs of decadence were apparent. Composition became
+overladen and complex and began to lose something of the noble simplicity,
+greatness and supreme charm of the old masters. It was evident that the
+Y&uuml;an painters were working under the eye of the barbarians. They yielded
+to the taste of the latter for anecdote, for surmounting difficulties and
+for sentimental detail. Thus far there were only scarcely perceptible
+shadows and momentary weaknesses, warning signs of decadence; but when
+such<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 113]</span> signs are evident, decadence
+is at hand, and that which the virility of the barbarians had preserved
+was to be lost through the creed-bound dignity of an academic China, which
+was imprisoned in a rigid system of rules.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p>
+<h2>VII. THE MING PERIOD&mdash;FOURTEENTH TO SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES</h2>
+
+
+<p>The Ming dynasty came into power on the wings of national feeling. China
+rallied her forces and expelled the foreign tyrants. Without doubt the
+nation cherished the illusion of rebuilding itself upon the model of the
+past, and the first emperors of the dynasty believed that the empire could
+be re-established upon an unshakable foundation. But the Ming dynasty, in
+reality, was but the heir and follower of Y&uuml;an. The latter itself had been
+only a connecting link. It had changed nothing, but had tended rather to
+absorb into the Chinese system the Northern barbarians, who up to that
+time had been foreigners. It had unwittingly achieved unity for China,
+despite itself and against its own inclination. In the administration of
+the empire, it had finished the program of conservation which the Sung
+dynasty, through impotence, had been unable to carry to completion.</p>
+
+<p>The Ming dynasty inherited the work of the Mongols and consolidated it. It
+survived under their reign and under that of the Ch&#8217;ing rulers until the
+final disintegration, of which we have but recently<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 117]</span>
+seen the results. The peaceful ideals of the Ming dynasty, the marked predominance of
+Confucianism as a code of ethics, with certain modifications by Chu Hsi,
+combined to form an ensemble that was apparently perfect and which made it
+possible to have faith in the excellence of the principles laid down by
+the monarchy. Thus a school was formed which had its own philosophy,
+manners and ideals, all of them cold, stiff and without spontaneity. It
+was an over-perfect machine which went like clockwork. The world was
+judged with a narrow and somewhat stupid self-confidence. The ideal dwelt
+in the word of Confucian writings, divorced from their true meaning, and
+so badly interpreted that they ceased to be understood aright. The
+meticulous, bureaucratic and hieratic administration of the Tartars was a
+perfect system of government. The machine was still new and worked well,
+whence arose a false impression of permanence which added still further to
+the complacency of the conservative mind. An art was necessary to this
+China. She had it. It was academic painting.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image115" id="image115"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 180px;">
+<a href="images/img115.jpg">
+<img src="images/img115_th.jpg" width="180" height="400" alt="Plate XIX" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE XIX. EGRETS BY LIN LIANG<br />Ming Period. Collection of
+Mrs. John D. Rockefeller, Junior.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Side by side with this and yet apart, other influences were at work.
+Notwithstanding the prohibition of books on heterodox philosophies in
+schools, accompanied by the widespread decadence of Buddhism, and the
+complete downfall of Taoism owing to gross practices in popular magic, and
+despite the disdain of the official world, another element in China was
+preserving<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 118]</span> the spirit of the past, the
+restless spirit that craved novelty. In all probability its obscure workings
+did not appear immediately upon the surface, concealed as they were by the strictly
+prescribed screen of official China. They were sufficiently strong,
+however, to give rise to an art which differed essentially from academic
+art, and which numbered masters who were comparable with those of the
+past. In spite of adverse circumstances and the weight under which these
+movements were buried, they made themselves felt in violent upheavals.
+First let us draw a picture of the decadence of an art and later we shall
+return to activity and life.</p>
+
+<p>Official painting in the Ming period rapidly stiffened into convention. To
+understand how it took shape, we must go back to the time of Hui Tsung and
+observe the method of recruiting talent in the Academy which he founded.</p>
+
+<p>That painting was allied to philosophic and poetic thought is already
+known. It was always a refined diversion of poets and painters to unite in
+a quest for the beautiful. The poet wrote verses and the painter painted a
+picture suggesting, sometimes remotely, the thought enshrined in the poem.
+Such were the conditions upon which Hui Tsung instituted examinations,
+following which the doors of the Academy were open to the victor. He gave,
+for example, as subject for a competition a verse saying, &ldquo;The bamboos
+envelop the inn beyond the bridge,&rdquo; which<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 121]</span>
+suggested a landscape with flowing water, a rustic bridge thrown across the stream,
+a cluster of bamboos on the bank, a &ldquo;winehouse&rdquo; half hidden in the verdure. All the
+competitors, the records say, set to work drawing with minute care the inn
+which they made the essential feature of the picture. Only one implied its
+presence by showing, above a dense cluster of bamboos, the little banner
+which in China denotes the presence of a &ldquo;winehouse.&rdquo; Two verses of
+another poem in which allusion was made to the red flowers of spring were
+interpreted by the representation of a beautiful young girl dressed in
+red, leaning on a balustrade, for according to Chinese ideas, the thoughts
+of young men in spring turn there, as elsewhere, toward thoughts of love.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image119" id="image119"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 324px;">
+<a href="images/img119.jpg">
+<img src="images/img119_th.jpg" width="324" height="400" alt="Plate XX" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE XX. FLOWERS AND INSECTS<br />
+Ming Period. Collection of R. Petrucci.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>We have here an example of the subtle allusions, at times profoundly
+poetic, with which Chinese painting abounds. But these things retain their
+value and charm only in so far as they depend on a free play of mind or
+upon personal, living sentiments. As accepted conventions regulated in an
+academic competition, repeated with sustained effort and without
+enthusiasm, their rigid monotony becomes intolerable. Such was the
+ultimate fate of that ability to express by half meanings, to suggest
+without directly stating, to which the Sung painters attached so great an
+importance. The day it was understood that a little banner fluttering over
+bamboos indicated the presence of a &ldquo;winehouse&rdquo; in a sylvan retreat, or
+that<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 122]</span> a young girl dressed in red symbolized
+the crimson blooming of a garden pink in springtime, banners and young girls
+dressed in red were seen in paintings innumerable to the point of satiety.</p>
+
+<p>Thus were established those dry conventions of a somewhat stupid erudition
+which were so much the fashion in the academic painting of the Ming and
+the Ch&#8217;ing periods, and whose great success repressed the artistic
+aspirations of a people. Under these influences was rapidly assembled a
+complete arsenal of allegories, allusions and symbols that gave birth to
+an art which was possibly very learned, but which was inartistic to the
+last degree. An academician of the Ming period would have thought himself
+disgraced if he had not proven by complicated compositions the extent of
+his knowledge of things of this character. Art was no longer anything but
+a kind of puzzle. Furthermore, the decadence of eye and hand followed that
+of the mind, and there next appeared a taste for brilliant colors,
+overladen compositions, and fine and meticulous lines, culminating in an
+unbearable nicety. The work of the Academy is summed up in these words.</p>
+
+<p>Let us turn aside from an art that is inert. It robbed things of the
+creative spirit that animated them. We shall now see what was achieved by
+those who followed in the steps of the old masters.</p>
+
+<p>The fifteenth century in China witnessed a continuance of the style
+prevalent during the Sung and Y&uuml;an periods. Chou Chih-mien, for example,
+was true<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 123]</span> to that profound feeling for form,
+that delicacy of coloring, and rhythm in composition which were the endowment of
+the greatest masters. Sh&ecirc;n Chou belonged entirely to the Y&uuml;an school,
+and to prove that the old ideals were not dead, we have in the fifteenth century the
+magnificent group of painters of the plum tree, with Lu Fu and Wang
+Y&uuml;an-chang at their head.</p>
+
+<p>As before stated, a special philosophy was associated with this tree and
+its flowers. The white petals scattered on vigorous branches had long
+typified an inner soul, whose purity was the very likeness of virtue and
+of tenderness. Chung Jen, who in the eleventh century wrote a treatise on
+the painting of the plum tree, explains in his chapter on &ldquo;the derivation
+of forms&rdquo; that it is a symbol, a concentrated form, a likeness of the
+universe. The great fundamental principles mingle harmoniously within it;
+they express themselves in its shape and reveal themselves through its
+beauty. Similar to this was the philosophy associated with the bamboo,
+which endured up to the fifteenth century. The subtle monochromes of Lu Fu
+show branches of flowering plum swaying in the breeze. In the great works
+of Wang Y&uuml;an-chang trunks of old trees, still bearing hardy blossoms,
+stand proudly in the magical radiance of the moon. Vibration and power,
+grandeur and majesty, such are the qualities which were still sought
+amidst the severe conditions imposed by the use of black and white. Here
+we feel<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 124]</span> that the creative force is not
+yet spent. We find it equally fresh and vigorous in the ink bamboos of W&ecirc;n
+Ch&ecirc;ng-ming in the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>In landscape, however, new elements appear which mark a decline. I have
+already laid stress on the overladen composition which developed in the
+Y&uuml;an epoch. This was still more noticeable in the Ming period. When
+pictorial art has had a long series of masters, a certain eclecticism is
+infallibly produced. This leads to the rejection of the direct study of
+nature, in favor of viewing it only through the eyes of the old masters.
+This phenomenon appeared in China as well as in Europe. The landscape
+painters of the Ming period studied the technique of the T&#8217;ang and the
+Sung epochs and codified their system of lines, arranging them in series
+according to types and schools; in short, they drew from these a
+ready-made technique by which they were controlled. Turning from nature
+they yielded to imagination. They delighted in painting fanciful
+landscapes and were inclined toward images that were more external and
+less inspired than in the past. Their works, however, were invested with
+great charm, and the impossible disposition of their clustering peaks and
+oddly cleft rocks cannot but appeal to the imagination.</p>
+
+<p>In these overladen compositions the unity of the picture is lost. We are
+no longer in the presence of a simple and forceful idea, but behold a
+thousand <span class='pagenum'>[Pg 127]</span>incidents, a thousand little
+details, exquisite in themselves, but which require a search. It is a new
+conception of landscape. We may possibly prefer the gripping formula of Sung
+and Y&uuml;an art, but we are forced to acknowledge that this later work has
+great charm and extreme refinement.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image125" id="image125"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 234px;">
+<a href="images/img125.jpg">
+<img src="images/img125_th.jpg" width="234" height="400" alt="Plate XXI" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE XXI. LANDSCAPE<br />Ming Period. Bouasse-Lebel Collection.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>To this general trend was added a new taste in color, which became
+brilliant and complex like the composition itself, harmonious and graceful
+in the paintings of the masters and always charming in the work of
+painters of the second rank; but this was the herald of a blatant and
+vulgar manner which gradually gained ground until it came to be generally
+adopted by the artisans of the Ch&#8217;ing period.</p>
+
+<p>While landscape under the Ming painters was assuming a different guise,
+and, forgetful of the observances of the past, was beguiling the mind by
+its charm and delicacy, a new type of figure was also developing. Here we
+must pause for a moment.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen that figures were treated before landscape by the painters of
+periods preceding the T&#8217;ang dynasty. This early tradition had submitted to
+the influence of Buddhist art and, while certain of its elements were
+revived in the work of a few masters, there is no doubt that figure
+painting from the seventh and eighth centuries on, was absolutely
+revolutionized. The inevitable result was a new type in the sixteenth
+century. Painters studied the line for itself, determined its proportions,
+and analyzed features<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 128]</span> and drapery.
+As far as our present knowledge extends, their observations were not collected
+and codified until the end of the nineteenth century, but the assembled writings
+testify that the result of their studies was expressed along the lines indicated
+from the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth centuries. Their
+ideal was totally different from that of the old masters. The figure
+treated for itself with but few accessories became the sole aim of the
+painter. He endeavored to show the charm of a woman&#8217;s face, the dainty and
+elegant gestures, the supple and voluptuous gait, and he grasped the
+characteristics and peculiarities of a man&#8217;s figure by means of an
+intensified drawing. At times, the influence of analysis was so objective
+that it resulted in a painting closely approaching European standards. The
+taste expressed in landscape was likewise evident in figures. There were
+brilliant and harmonious colors, a charm which became exquisite in the
+coquettish and vivacious faces of women with ivory skin and brilliant
+eyes, of graceful movements, and with long, slender, delicate hands,
+incarnations of the fairies of ancient legend or historic beauties whose
+memory still lived.</p>
+
+<p>In a word, the philosophical inspiration to which the Sung dynasty owed
+its glory was discarded to make way for the painting of everyday life, a
+realistic representation of the world and its activities, which in Japan
+gave rise to the Ukioyoy&eacute; school, and in China
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 129]</span> recruited a series of
+painters of the first rank outside the limits of academic tradition.</p>
+
+<p>It would be interesting to study the influence of this movement of the
+China of the time of Ming upon the originators of the Ukioyoy&eacute; in Japan.
+It is certain that the movement on the continent preceded similar
+manifestations in the island empire by a century, and it is also certain
+that the Japanese empire was directly influenced by the China of the Ming
+period. Chinese painters were established in Japan as early as the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. There is one of whose family name we
+are ignorant and who is known only under the appellation of Ju-sue,&mdash;in
+Japanese Josetsu. He left China, where the domination of official art
+stood in the way of an independent career, carried the traditions of Sung
+and Y&uuml;an art to Japan, gathered pupils about him there, and had the glory
+of being the founder of that magnificent school of which Sesshiu is the
+leading exponent. There is only one small painting which can be attributed
+to Ju-sue with certainty. This is preserved in a Japanese temple.
+Unfortunately it is a work of small importance which, notwithstanding its
+intrinsic value, by no means furnishes sufficient information to enable us
+to pronounce on the authenticity of several other works which are said to
+be by his hand. We find in the latter an extremely individual art, in
+accordance with early traditions, but with the addition of something
+fanciful and unexpected which gives this painter
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 130]</span> marked distinction.
+Having worked outside of China, however, his influence was not felt in the
+evolution of Chinese painting.</p>
+
+<p>In the seventeenth century Ming art came in contact with the art of the
+Europeans. The methods and rules of the Italian ateliers of the end of the
+Renaissance were brought to China by missionary painters whose talent was
+of a secondary order. The system of monocular perspective and modeling,
+strongly accentuated by the opposition of light and shade, made a forcible
+impression on the Chinese mind. Indications of this are found in the
+Chinese books on art. But the technical methods were too different and the
+systems too much at variance to meet on any common ground. Notwithstanding
+its effect upon certain painters, the influence of European painting was
+on the whole negligible. Father Matteo Ricci worked at the end of the Ming
+period under the Chinese name of Li Ma-tu and Father Castiglione, at the
+beginning of the Ch&#8217;ing dynasty, used the name of Lang Ch&uuml;-ning, but,
+although the former continued to use European methods, while the latter
+adopted the Chinese procedure, these were only isolated efforts submerged
+in the great wave of Asiatic evolution.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p>
+<h2>VIII. THE CH&#8217;ING PERIOD&mdash;SEVENTEENTH TO TWENTIETH CENTURIES</h2>
+
+
+<p>The Ch&#8217;ing or Manchu dynasty, whose downfall we have recently witnessed,
+brought no new vigor to China. Barbarians once again invaded the aged and
+enfeebled empire usurping the methods, history and organization of the
+preceding periods. The change in China at the end of the seventeenth
+century was only dynastic. The evolution of Ming tendencies continued, and
+despite the reorganization undertaken by Kang Hsi and maintained by his
+two successors, the excessive requirements of the old system, which had
+been formulated during the Sung epoch and definitely established in the
+Y&uuml;an and Ming periods, were so exacting that irremediable decadence was
+inevitable. Thenceforward no great changes in the realm of painting need
+be expected. It only continued its logical evolution.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary, nevertheless, to lay stress on the value of Chinese
+painting from the seventeenth to the twentieth century, for an opinion is
+current that, while there might still be something of value under the Ming
+dynasty, nothing good was produced under the Ch&#8217;ing. It is undeniable that
+marked signs of<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 132]</span> decadence are seen in
+the latter period, but by the side of some inferior works, others exist
+which maintain the vitality of the past and the hope of a renaissance.</p>
+
+<p>In refutation of such hasty and ill informed opinion, it is sufficient to
+recall a number of paintings, signed and dated, of the eighteenth and
+nineteenth centuries, which dealers or collectors calmly attribute to the
+eleventh and twelfth.</p>
+
+<p>Chinese painting at the end of the seventeenth and the beginning of the
+eighteenth century was still full of vitality. The taste for brilliant
+color gradually diminished, and the composition became broader and more
+noble at the hands of certain painters, in whom is seen the revival of the
+vigorous race of yore. This was the time when Y&uuml;n Shou-p&#8217;ing, more
+commonly known under the name of Nan-t&#8217;ien, painted landscape and flowers
+with the restraint and power of the old style, and when Shen Nan-p&#8217;ing set
+out for Japan to found a modern Chinese school which was to rival the
+Ukioyoy&eacute; in importance and activity. About them was grouped a large
+following, foretelling fresh developments.</p>
+
+<p>No support was given to this movement by the new government, which was
+infatuated with the academic style of the earlier reigns and becoming more
+and more ignorant as the last years of the nineteenth century approached.
+In the eighteenth century a comparatively large number of Chinese painters
+settled in Japan, where they continued the traditions of Ming
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 135]</span> art. The
+observation of a Nan-t&#8217;ien or of a Shen Nan-p&#8217;ing was keen and
+painstaking, but the objectivity and realism now coming to the fore, were
+conspicuous in their works. No longer was it the world of pure substance
+and abstract principle that was sought, but the real, everyday world, the
+world of objective forms studied for themselves, living their own life, on
+the threshold of which the spirit halted, no longer guided by the old
+philosophies.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image133" id="image133"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 338px;">
+<a href="images/img133.jpg">
+<img src="images/img133_th.jpg" width="338" height="400" alt="Plate XXII" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE XXII. BEAUTY INHALING THE FRAGRANCE OF A PEONY<br />
+Ming Period. Collection of V. Goloubew.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>This character was maintained up to the nineteenth century. It is seen in
+the painting of flowers and landscape as well as in figure painting. These
+traits are equally apparent in an iris by Nan t&#8217;ien and a personage by
+Huang Yin-piao. The latter, working in the middle of the eighteenth
+century, evoked the personages of Buddhist and Taoist legend with a
+skillful brush, but his daring simplifications were more akin to
+virtuosity than to that deep reflection and freedom from non-essentials
+which were the glory of the early masters. Herein are discerned the
+elements of decadence, which are wont to assume precisely this aspect of a
+mastery over difficulties. For such ends genuine research and the true
+grasp of form were gradually abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>Calligraphy and the literary style were not overlooked, but they were
+carried to a point of abstraction that is beyond the province of art. A
+personage was represented by lines which formed characters in handwriting
+and which, in drawing the figure, at the same
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 136]</span> time wrote a sentence.
+Doubtless that is a proof of marvelous skill. I agree in assigning such
+masterpieces to the realm of calligraphy but refuse to admit them to the
+domain of painting.</p>
+
+<p>This applies as well to the so-called <em>thumb nail painting</em> held in high
+repute under the last dynasty. In this the brush is abandoned and the line
+is drawn by the finger dipped in ink or color. The painting is done on
+modern paper of a special kind which partially absorbs the paint, in the
+manner of blotting paper; this results in weak lines, and ink and color
+schemes devoid of firmness, in short, in a lack of virility which places
+such works, notwithstanding their virtuosity, in the category of artisan
+achievements. These works are numerous in the modern period and constitute
+what so many regard as Chinese painting. One cannot be too careful in
+discarding them.</p>
+
+<p>During every period decorative paintings, religious paintings and
+ancestral paintings made after death, were executed in China by artisans,
+ordinary workmen at the service of whosoever might engage them. Such work
+should not be consulted in studying the styles of great periods or the
+higher manifestations of an art. These paintings were the first to leave
+China and find their way to Europe. There is no reason for analyzing them
+here.</p>
+
+<p>To sum up, Chinese painting of the last two centuries still numbers
+masters of the first rank. This alone indicates that the sacred fire is by
+no means<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 139]</span> extinct. Who shall say what
+future awaits it amidst the profound changes of today? After a period of
+indecision which lasted for twenty-five years, Japan has found herself anew
+and is seeking to revive her artistic traditions. It is to be hoped that China
+will, at all costs, avoid the same mistakes and that she will not be unmindful,
+as was her neighbor, of the history of the old masters.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image137" id="image137"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 390px;">
+<a href="images/img137.jpg">
+<img src="images/img137_th.jpg" width="390" height="400" alt="Plate XXIII" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE XXIII. HALT OF THE IMPERIAL HUNT<br />
+Ming Period. Sixteenth Century. Collection of R. Petrucci.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONCLUSION</h2>
+
+
+<p>This brief survey has shown how the distinctive features of China&#8217;s
+artistic activity were distributed. Though subjected to varying
+influences, this evolution possesses a unity which is quite as complete as
+is that of our Western art. In the beginning there were studies, of which
+we know only through written records. But the relationship existing
+between writing and painting from the dawn of historic time, permits us to
+carry our studies of primitive periods very far back, even earlier than
+the times of the sculptured works. We thus witness the gradual development
+of that philosophical ideal which has dominated the entire history of
+Chinese painting, forcing it to search for abstract form, and which
+averted for so long the advent of triviality and decadence.</p>
+
+<p>The goal sought by Chinese thought had already been reached in painting
+when, in the third and fourth centuries, we are vouchsafed a glimpse of
+it. It is a vision of a high order, in which the subtle intellectuality
+corresponds to a society of refinement whose desires have already assumed
+extreme proportions. Like Byzantium, heir to Hellenistic art, the China
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 143]</span>
+of the Han dynasty and of Ku K&#8217;ai-chih was already progressing toward bold
+conventions and soft harmonies, in which could be felt both the pride of
+an intelligence which imposed its will upon Nature, and the weariness
+following its sustained effort.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image141" id="image141"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 225px;">
+<a href="images/img141.jpg">
+<img src="images/img141_th.jpg" width="225" height="400" alt="Plate XXIV" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE XXIV. PAINTING BY CHANG CHENG<br />
+Eighteenth Century. Collection of M. Worch.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>This refinement, arising from the exhaustion of a world which even thus
+retained a certain primitive ruggedness, was succeeded by a stupendous
+movement which followed in the wake of the preaching of Buddhism. With the
+new gods we see the first appearance of definite and long-continued
+foreign influences. Civilization was transformed and took on new life.
+Then, as in the days of the great forerunners of the Florentine
+Renaissance, there appeared a whole group of artists, prepared by the art,
+at once crude and refined, of an earlier people. This group set resolutely
+to work at the close study of forms, ascertaining the laws of their
+structure and the conditions of the environment which produced them. The
+period in which the work of Li Ss&#365;-hs&uuml;n, Li Chao-tao and Wang Wei was
+produced may be likened to the fifteenth century in Florence with
+Pisanello, Verocchio, Ghirlandajo and Masaccio. Similar conditions gave
+birth to a movement that is directly comparable with the Italian movement
+for, no matter how varied the outward appearances due to differences of
+race and civilization, the fundamentals of art are the same everywhere and
+pertain to the same mental attitudes.</p>
+
+<p>The great leaders in periods preceding the T&#8217;ang
+<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 144]</span> dynasty paved the way to
+the culmination which took place in the Sung period, and thus the fruit of
+that prolonged activity is seen ripening between the tenth and the
+thirteenth centuries. Through the gropings of the primitive period, the
+heterodox philosophies and the mystic stirrings of Buddhism, Eastern
+thought had arrived at an unquestionably noble comprehension of existence.
+The impersonal mystery of the universe, its mighty principle, its manifold
+manifestations and the secret which unveils itself in the innermost soul
+of things are the conceptions which form the inspiration of Chinese
+painting. These lofty thoughts are the source of that spirituality which
+declares itself therein with such nobility. The religion to which they are
+due will seem perhaps, to certain people, to be broader and less trammeled
+than our own. There is no doubt that the entire Far East was under the
+spell of its grandeur.</p>
+
+<p>Up to this point art had sounded every depth and attained the highest
+summits of human achievement. Thenceforward it concerned itself with
+varying manifestations which were only the different modes of a formula
+that was still flexible, until the time when&mdash;the great inspirations of
+the past forgotten&mdash;there appear signs of a spirit on the quest for
+realism, emerging from the ancient tradition. This is the distinctive note
+in the evolution of Chinese painting under the last two dynasties. It
+would seem as if, even in this guise, a universal need of the mind is
+being satisfied,<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 147]</span> a need which we, too,
+have known after experiencing a chilling academicism, and when modern culture
+had overthrown the ancient idols. Chinese painters have thus completed a round
+analogous to that traveled by our own artists.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="image145" id="image145"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 230px;">
+<a href="images/img145.jpg">
+<img src="images/img145_th.jpg" width="230" height="400" alt="Plate XXV" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">PLATE XXV. TIGER IN A PINE FOREST<br />
+Eighteenth to Nineteenth Centuries. Collection of V. Goloubew.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>For the Far East as for Europe, the problem now presented is that of a
+revival. Bent beneath the weight of the prestige of the past, too learned
+in the last word of culture, modern art is seeking to find itself, groping
+blindly, full of promising but unfinished works. The time has come when
+there are signs throughout the world of a desire for a universal
+civilization, by the reconciling of ancient divergencies. Europe and the
+Far East bring into contrast the most vigorous traditions in history.
+Henceforward there is interest for both civilizations in studying and in
+coming to understand a foreign ideal. Though incomplete, these pages will
+perhaps help to show that such a mutual comprehension is not impossible
+and that, if egotistic prejudices are overcome, apparent dissimilarities
+will be resolved into a profound identity. Thus will arise the elements of
+a new culture. In coming to understand a mood which so fully reflects an
+unknown world, the European mind will discover principles which will make
+it rise superior to itself. May this broad comprehension of human thought
+lead Europe to estimate with greater justice a civilization numbering its
+years by thousands, and to refrain from thwarting the fulfillment of its
+destiny.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p>
+<h2>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 22%; text-indent: -2em; margin-right: 20%;">
+An Introduction to the Study of Chinese Pictorial Art. Herbert A.
+Giles, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Chinese in the University of
+Cambridge. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. London, Bernard
+Quaritch. 1918.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 22%; text-indent: -2em; margin-right: 20%;">
+Painting in the Far East. Laurence Binyon. Second Edition, revised.
+London, Edward Arnold. 1913.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 22%; text-indent: -2em; margin-right: 20%;">
+The Flight of the Dragon. Laurence Binyon. Wisdom of the East Series.
+London, John Murray. 1911.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 22%; text-indent: -2em; margin-right: 20%;">
+Epochs of Chinese and Japanese Art. Ernest F. Fenollosa. 2 volumes. F.
+A. Stokes and Co., New York. 1912.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 22%; text-indent: -2em; margin-right: 20%;">
+Scraps from a Collector&#8217;s Note Book. F. Hirth. Leiden, New York. 1905.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 22%; text-indent: -2em; margin-right: 20%;">
+Chinese Art. Stephen W. Bushell, C.M.G., B.Sc., M.D. Victoria and
+Albert Museum Handbook. 2 volumes. London. 1910.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 22%; text-indent: -2em; margin-right: 20%;">
+Chinese Painting. Mrs. Francis Ayscough. The <em>Mentor</em> of Dec. 2, 1918,
+Serial No. 168. New York.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INDEX OF PAINTERS AND PERIODS</h2>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 19%; margin-right: 20%;">
+The following summary furnishes additional information regarding the
+painters to whom reference has been made. Those to whom the subject is not
+familiar will find this of assistance in placing in their proper
+historical order the different trends which have been indicated elsewhere.
+They will also find dates useful in comparing, if so desired, the artistic
+evolution of China with that of Europe. This, however, is only an outline.
+The names of some great masters are omitted, for I have no wish to
+overload the margin of a statement which should be kept clear and
+convenient of access. I trust nevertheless that these few notes in concise
+form will be of use in connection with the preceding text.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><strong>I. BEFORE THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM</strong></p>
+
+<p class="index">
+The <em>Bas-reliefs</em> of the second Han dynasty belong to the second and
+third centuries of the Christian era.</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Ku K&#8217;ai-chih</em>, also called <em>Chang-k&#8217;ang</em> and <em>Hu-tou</em>, was born in
+Wu-hsi in the province of Kiang-su. He lived at the end of the
+fourth and beginning of the fifth century. His style, resembling
+that of the Han period, informs us as to the character of painting
+from the second to the fifth century. It is such as to indicate a
+long antecedent period of cultivation and development.</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Hsieh Ho</em> (479-502), painter of the figure. He wrote a small book
+setting forth the Six Canons or Requirements of painting. This work
+informs us regarding the philosophy of art in China of the fifth
+century.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 152]</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><strong>II. THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM</strong></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 19%; margin-right: 20%;">
+It is difficult to set an exact date for the first contact of Buddhist
+with Chinese art. It may be assumed that the influence of Buddhist art
+began to be felt noticeably in China in the fifth century. In the seventh
+and eighth centuries it was so widespread as to be definitely established.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><strong>III. THE T&#8217;ANG DYNASTY<br />
+<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 618-905</strong></p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Wu Tao-tz&#365;</em>, also called <em>Wu Tao-y&uuml;an</em>. Born in Honan toward the
+end of the eighth century. His influence was felt in Japanese art
+as well as in that of China. He painted landscape, figures and
+Buddhist subjects.</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Li Ss&#365;-hs&uuml;n</em> (651-715 or 720) is considered as the founder of the
+Northern School. He appears to have felt the influence which
+Buddhist art brought in its train.</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Li Chao-tao</em>, son of Li Ss&#365;-hs&uuml;n, lived at the end of the seventh
+and beginning of the eighth centuries. He is said to have varied
+from his father&#8217;s style and even surpassed it.</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Wang Wei</em>, also called <em>Wang Mo-k&#8217;i</em> (699-759), poet, painter and
+critic. The great reformer of Chinese landscape painting.
+Considered as the founder of the Southern School and the originator
+of monochrome painting in Chinese ink.</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Han Kan</em>, renowned in the period <em>t&#8217;ien-pao</em> (742-759). According to
+tradition he was a pupil of Wang Wei. His school possessed in the
+highest degree knowledge of the form, characteristics and movements
+of the horse.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><strong>IV. THE SUNG DYNASTY<br />
+<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 960-1260</strong></p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Tung Y&uuml;an.</em> Tenth century. Landscape painter. He worked in both the
+Northern and Southern styles.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 153]</span></p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Ch&uuml; Jan</em>, Buddhist monk. Tenth century. He was at first influenced by
+the work of Tung Y&uuml;an, but later created an individual style.</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Ma Y&uuml;an.</em> End of the twelfth and beginning of the thirteenth century.
+Member of the Academy of Painting. He was the author of a strong
+and vigorous style which characterized the school founded by him.</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Hsia Kuei</em> served in the college at Han-Lin in the reign of the
+Emperor Ning Tsung (1195-1224). He was considered a master of
+chiaroscuro and atmospheric perspective.</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Ma Lin</em>, son of Ma Y&uuml;an. Thirteenth century. His work shows that he
+painted even more in the tradition of the Southern School than his
+father and uncle.</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Li Lung-mien</em> or <em>Li Kung-lin</em>. Born at Chou in Ngan-huei. He held
+public offices, which he resigned in 1100 to retire to the mountain
+of Lung-mien, where he died in 1106. Noted for his calligraphy as
+well as for his painting. At one time in his life, under religious
+influences, he painted a great number of Buddhist figures.</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Mi Fei</em> or <em>Mi Y&uuml;an-chang</em> or <em>Mi Nan-kung</em> (1051-1107).
+Calligraphist, painter and critic. He used strong inking in a style
+in which the simplification of monochrome is carried to the
+extreme. He had a son, <em>Mi Yu-Jen</em>, who painted in his father&#8217;s
+style and lived to an advanced age.</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Hui Tsung</em>, emperor, poet, painter and calligraphist. Born in 1082,
+ascended the throne in 1100, lost his throne in 1125 and died in
+captivity in 1135. In the first year of his reign he founded the
+Academy of Calligraphy and Painting. He made a large collection of
+valuable paintings and rare objects of art which was scattered at
+the plundering of his capital by the Tartars in 1225.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 154]</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><strong>V. Y&Uuml;AN DYNASTY<br />
+<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1260-1368</strong></p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Chao M&ecirc;ng-fu</em>, also called <em>Ts&#365;-ang</em>. Born in 1254. Man of
+letters, painter and calligraphist. He was a great landscape
+painter and in the first rank as a painter of horses.</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Ch&#8217;ien Hs&uuml;an</em>, also called <em>Ch&#8217;ien Shun-ch&uuml;</em>, lived at the end
+of the thirteenth and beginning of the fourteenth century. He painted
+figures, landscape, flowers and birds. He employed the style and
+methods of the Sung dynasty.</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Yen Hui</em> lived in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. His
+paintings were numerous and indicate a master of the first order.
+He painted many Buddhist and Taoist subjects.</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Huang Kung-wang.</em> Fourteenth century. At first influenced by the style
+of Tung Y&uuml;an and Ch&uuml; Jan, he later acquired an individual style and
+was one of the great founders of schools in the Y&uuml;an period.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Ni Tsan</em>, also called Y&uuml;n-lin (1301-1374). Man of letters,
+calligraphist, collector of books and paintings. He is considered
+to be one of the greatest painters of his time.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><strong>VI. THE MING DYNASTY<br />
+<span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 1368-1644</strong></p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Chou Chih-mien</em> lived in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. His
+subjects were principally birds and flowers.</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Sh&ecirc;n Chou</em>, also called <em>Sh&ecirc;n Ki-nan</em> or
+<em>Sh&ecirc;n K&#8217;i</em> (1427-1507). Landscape painter. His composition is
+at times overladen, as is often seen in Ming art.</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Lu Fu</em> lived in the fifteenth century. He made a special study of the
+plum tree in monochrome. He is comparable to the great Sung
+masters.</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Wang Y&uuml;an-chang.</em> Died in 1407 at the age of 73. He painted the bamboo
+and plum tree in monochrome. He carried on<span class='pagenum'>[Pg 155]</span>
+the Sung tradition, with which he was directly connected, and was the founder of a
+school.</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>W&ecirc;n Ch&ecirc;ng-ming</em> (1480-1559), painter, poet and calligraphist. He is
+often compared with Chao M&ecirc;ng-fu.</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Ju-sue.</em> Known only under this appellation. He lived in the fifteenth
+century and went to Japan, where his influence was marked.
+(Japanese <em>Josetsu</em>.)</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><strong>VII. THE CH&#8217;ING DYNASTY<br />
+1644-1912</strong></p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Y&uuml;n Chou-p&#8217;ing</em>, appellation <em>Nan-t&#8217;ien</em>, true name <em>Y&uuml;n Ko</em>
+(1633-1690). He studied at first under the influence of Wang
+Shu-ming and Siu Hi. He painted figures, flowers and landscape.</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Shen Nan-p&#8217;ing</em> lived in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. He
+was called to Japan in 1720 and founded there the school of
+Ming-Ch&#8217;ing or the modern Chinese school.</p>
+
+<p class="index">
+<em>Huang Yin-piau</em> or <em>Huang-sh&ecirc;n</em>. At the height of his career between
+1727 and 1746. He painted landscape and, toward the end of his
+life, legendary figures of Buddhism and Taoism with a technique
+that was skillful but often precise and somewhat weak.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a>
+Now owned by Mr. and Mrs. Robert Woods Bliss.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_2" id="Footnote_1_2"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_1_2"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>
+Chinese ink is a very different composition from the ink of
+Western countries. It is a solid made of soot obtained by burning certain
+plants, which is then combined with glue or oil and moulded into a cake
+and dried. Other ingredients may be added to produce sheen or a dead
+finish. It improves with age if properly kept. The cake is moistened and
+rubbed on a slab, and the ink thus obtained must be used in a special way
+and with special care to produce the full effect.&mdash;
+<span class="smcap">Translator</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_3" id="Footnote_2_3"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_2_3"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The Chinese terms are
+<em>Li Chou</em> for a vertical painting and <em>H&ecirc;ng P&#8217;i</em> for a horizontal
+painting.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Translator</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_4" id="Footnote_3_4"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_3_4"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> These are: the worlds
+of animals, of man, of gods or <em>d&ecirc;vas</em>, of giants or <em>asuras</em>, of
+<em>pr&ecirc;tas</em> or wandering spirits, and of hells. Freedom from perpetual
+transmigration in these six worlds is attained only through the extinction of desire.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_5" id="Footnote_4_5"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_4_5"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> These bas-reliefs have
+been studied by M. Chavannes in &ldquo;La sculpture sur pierre en Chine au temps des deux
+dynasties Han,&rdquo; Paris, 1893; also in &ldquo;Mission arch&eacute;ologique en Chine,&rdquo; Paris,
+1910. Rubbings taken from the sculptured slabs are reproduced here in full.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_6" id="Footnote_5_6"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_5_6"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> This painting formed part
+of the collection of the ex-viceroy Tuan Fang, killed in 1911, during the revolution.
+It was published in 1911 by the Japanese archeologist, Mr. Taki.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_7" id="Footnote_6_7"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_6_7"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> These reasons are set forth
+in a work which Mr. Laurence Binyon is preparing, to accompany a reproduction engraved
+by Japanese artists for the British Museum.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_8" id="Footnote_B_8"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_B_8"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> The preceding footnote
+refers to a work published in 1913 by the Trustees of the British Museum, containing
+a reproduction of the painting in its entirety and giving a full description.&mdash;
+<span class="smcap">Translator</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_9" id="Footnote_7_9"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_7_9"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> A copy of an engraving on
+stone of the year 1095, representing &ldquo;Confucius sitting amidst his disciples&rdquo; and
+another representing &ldquo;Confucius walking, followed by one of his disciples,&rdquo; dated
+1118, have been published by M. de Chavannes (&ldquo;Mission arch&eacute;ologique en
+Chine,&rdquo; Nos. 869 and 871). The latter is considered as having been
+undoubtedly executed after a painting by Ku K&#8217;ai-chih.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_10" id="Footnote_8_10"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_8_10"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Interpretations of the
+Six Canons by five authorities are accessible in a very convenient form for comparison
+in Mr. Laurence Binyon&#8217;s &ldquo;Flight of the Dragon,&rdquo; p. 12.&mdash;
+<span class="smcap">Translator</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_11" id="Footnote_9_11"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_9_11"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> See Foucher,
+&ldquo;L&#8217;Art gr&eacute;co-bouddique du Gandhara.&rdquo; Paris, Leroux.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_12" id="Footnote_10_12"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_10_12"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Indian <em>Arhat</em>;
+Japanese <em>Rakan</em>.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Translator</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_13" id="Footnote_11_13"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_11_13"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> These divisions of
+Northern and Southern Schools do not correspond, as might be imagined, to geographical
+limitations. Painters of the South worked in the style of the North and painters of
+the North likewise used the Southern style. Moreover the same master was able to
+employ one or the other according to the inspiration of the moment. These
+works were produced for a receptive people capable of understanding both
+styles.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_14" id="Footnote_12_14"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_12_14"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> &ldquo;Monochrome is a starved
+and lifeless term to express the marvellous range and subtlety of tones of which the
+preparation of black soot known as Chinese ink is capable.&rdquo; Laurence Binyon in &ldquo;The
+Flight of the Dragon.&rdquo;&mdash;<span class="smcap">Translator</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_15" id="Footnote_13_15"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_13_15"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> I have not seen nor do
+I know of any paintings which can be said with certainty to be from the hand of Wang
+Wei. But from the records as well as from works directly inspired by him, an idea of
+his style and technique can be formed. Ancient paintings in <em>luo-ts&#8217;ing</em> are found
+in Japan as well as in China. The British Museum of London has a scroll
+painted by Chao M&ecirc;ng-fu, in the manner of Wang Wei, dated 1309.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_16" id="Footnote_14_16"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_14_16"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> The literati,
+or lettered class, were the aristocracy in what was the most democratic of
+absolute monarchies. No matter how humble his origin, anyone of the male sex
+was eligible to compete in the examinations which were based upon literary
+knowledge and memory of the classics. Proficiency in handwriting was a natural
+result. The successful candidate might aspire to any post in the empire, as
+official positions were bestowed through literary merit. During three days and
+two nights at the time of examination the candidate was not allowed to leave his
+tiny box-like cell, lacking even space to lie down. Cases of death during the
+examinations were not infrequent. The examination halls in Peking are now
+destroyed and those in Nanking with 20,000 cells are crumbling
+away.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Translator</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_17" id="Footnote_15_17"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_15_17"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> It should be borne
+in mind that the author uses the term illumination in the sense of color applied
+within a distinct and limiting outline. This is illustrated in the definitions of
+single and double contour.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Translator</span>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Chinese Painters, by Raphael Petrucci
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Chinese Painters, by Raphael Petrucci
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Chinese Painters
+       A Critical Study
+
+Author: Raphael Petrucci
+
+Commentator: Laurence Binyon
+
+Translator: Frances Seaver
+
+Release Date: August 9, 2007 [EBook #22288]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHINESE PAINTERS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Dave Morgan, Anne Storer and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:  1. There is one instance each of
+                        Huang Yin-Piau and Huang Yin-Piao, and
+                        Yuen Shou-p'ing and Yuen Chou-p'ing
+                        so they have been left as printed.
+                     2. In this text the breve has been rendered as [)u]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+CHINESE PAINTERS
+
+
+
+
+CHINESE PAINTERS
+A CRITICAL STUDY
+
+BY
+RAPHAEL PETRUCCI
+
+TRANSLATED BY
+FRANCES SEAVER
+
+WITH A BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE BY
+LAURENCE BINYON
+OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM
+
+AND WITH TWENTY-FIVE ILLUSTRATIONS IN DUOTONE
+
+NEW YORK
+BRENTANO'S
+PUBLISHERS
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY
+BRENTANO'S
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+THE . PLIMPTON . PRESS
+NORWOOD . MASS . U.S.A
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+A translator can have but one aim--to present the thought of the author
+faithfully. In this case an added responsibility is involved, since one
+who had so much to give to the world has been taken in his prime. M.
+Petrucci has written at length of art in the Far East in his exhaustive
+work _La Philosophie de la Nature dans l'Art d'Extreme Orient_ and
+elsewhere, and has demonstrated the wide scope of his thought and
+learning. The form and style in _Peintres Chinois_ are the result of much
+condensation of material and have thus presented problems in translation,
+to which earnest thought has been given.
+
+In deference to the author's wish the margin has not been overladen and
+only a short tribute, by one able to speak of him from personal knowledge,
+has been included, together with a few footnotes and a short bibliography
+of works of reference indispensable to the student who will pursue this
+absorbing study. The translator takes this opportunity to make grateful
+acknowledgement of her debt to the authors named, who have made such
+valuable information available, and to those friends who have read the
+manuscript and made many helpful suggestions.
+
+                                              FRANCES SEAVER
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
+
+
+In Raphael Petrucci, who died early in 1917, the world has lost one of the
+ablest and most devoted students and interpreters of the art of the Far
+East. He was only forty-five years of age, in the prime of his powers,
+brimming with energy and full of enterprises that promised richly. Though
+he did not die in the field, he was none the less a victim of the war. He
+had exhausted himself by his labours with the Belgian ambulances at La
+Panne, for Belgium was his adopted country. He had a house in Brussels,
+filled with a collection of Chinese and Japanese art, and a little cottage
+near the coast just over the borders of Holland. He came of the great and
+ancient Sienese family of the Petrucci, but his mother was French and he
+spent much of his earlier life in Paris, before settling in Brussels and
+marrying one of the daughters of the painter Verwee. He had also spent
+some time in Russia. In Brussels he was attached to the Institut Solvay.
+
+He was a man of science, a student of and writer on sociology and biology.
+He lectured on art and had a knowledge of the art of the world which few
+men in Europe rivalled. He wrote a philosophic novel, _La Porte de l'Amour
+et de la Mort_, which has run through several editions. He published a
+book on Michelangelo's poetry. At the same time he was a scientific
+engineer. When war broke out Petrucci was on his way home from Italy,
+where he had been engaged, I believe, on some large engineering project
+and he only got out of Switzerland into France by the last train which
+left Basle. He came to England for a time, looking after a number of
+Belgian refugees, including some very distinguished artists. At the end of
+1914 he was engaged by the India office to do some valuable work in London
+on the collection of Chinese and Tibetan paintings brought back from
+Tun-huang by Sir Aurel Stein. He then worked at La Panne for the Belgian
+army hospital (he had had a medical training in his youth), went to
+Provence for a rest, fell ill and died in Paris after an operation.
+
+Raphael Petrucci was a man who seemed to reincarnate the boundless
+curiosity and the various ability of the men of the Italian Renaissance.
+But for some years before his death he had concentrated his powers chiefly
+on the study of Oriental art, of the Chinese language, and of Buddhist
+iconography. His most important work in this line is _La Philosophie de la
+Nature dans l'Art d'Extreme Orient_, a sumptuously printed folio published
+by Laurens in Paris, with illustrations by the _Kokka_ Company, and
+written with as much charm as insight. Petrucci's knowledge of Chinese
+gave him an authority in interpreting Chinese art which writers on the
+subject have rarely combined with so much understanding of art in
+general, though as a connoisseur he was sometimes over-sanguine. His
+translation from a classic of Chinese art-criticism, originally published
+in a learned magazine, has lately appeared in book form. With his friend,
+Professor Chavannes, whose death, also in the prime of life, we have had
+to deplore still more recently, Petrucci edited the first volume of the
+splendid series _Ars Asiatica_. The present work, intended for the general
+reader and lover of art, illustrates his gift for luminous condensation
+and the happy treatment of a large theme.
+
+A man of winning manners, a most generous and loyal friend, Petrucci wore
+his manifold learning lightly; with immense energy and force of character,
+he was simple and warm-hearted and interested in the small things as well
+as the great things of life.
+
+                                              LAURENCE BINYON
+
+BRITISH MUSEUM
+October, 1919
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CONTENTS
+                                                             PAGE
+
+PREFACE BY THE TRANSLATOR                                       5
+
+BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE BY LAURENCE BINYON                            7
+
+INTRODUCTION                                                   15
+
+
+PART ONE. TECHNIQUE
+
+   I. EQUIPMENT OF THE PAINTER                                 21
+
+  II. REPRESENTATION OF FORMS                                  26
+
+ III. DIVISION OF SUBJECTS                                     33
+
+  IV. INSPIRATION                                              38
+
+
+PART TWO. THE EVOLUTION OF CHINESE PAINTING
+
+   I. ORIGINS                                                  45
+
+  II. BEFORE THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM                      46
+
+ III. THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM                             54
+
+  IV. THE T'ANG PERIOD--7TH TO 10TH CENTURIES                  58
+
+   V. THE SUNG PERIOD--10TH TO 13TH CENTURIES                  72
+
+  VI. THE YUeAN PERIOD--13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES                 92
+
+ VII. THE MING PERIOD--14TH TO 17TH CENTURIES                 114
+
+VIII. THE CH'ING PERIOD--17TH TO 20TH CENTURIES               131
+
+CONCLUSION                                                    140
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                  149
+
+INDEX OF PAINTERS AND PERIODS                                 151
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+                                                             PAGE
+
+    I. Sculptured stones of the Han dynasty. Second to
+          third centuries. Rubbings taken by the
+          Chavannes expedition                                 23
+
+   II. Portion of a scroll by Ku K'ai-chih. British
+          Museum, London                                       27
+
+  III. Kwanyin. Eighth to tenth centuries. Painting
+          brought from Tun-huang by the Pelliot expedition.
+          The Louvre, Paris                                    31
+
+   IV. Palace of Kiu Cheng-kung by Li Chao-tao. T'ang
+          period. Collection of V. Goloubew                    34
+
+    V. Portrait of Lue Tung-ping by T'eng Ch'ang-yu.
+          T'ang period. Collection of August Jaccaci.
+          Lent to the Metropolitan Museum, New York.[A]        39
+
+   VI. Painting by an unknown artist. T'ang period.
+          Collection of R. Petrucci                            47
+
+  VII. Geese. Sung period. British Museum, London              51
+
+ VIII. White Eagle. Sung period. Collection of R. Petrucci     59
+
+   IX. Horseman followed by two attendants. Sung
+          period. Collection of A. Stoclet                     63
+
+    X. Landscape in the style of Hsia Kuei. Sung period.
+          Collection of Martin White                           67
+
+   XI. Landscape by Ma Lin. Sung period. Collection
+          of R. Petrucci                                       73
+
+  XII. Mongol horseman returning from the Hunt, by Chao
+          Meng-fu. Yuean period. Doucet collection              77
+
+ XIII. Pigeons by Ch'ien Hsuean. Yuean period. Collection
+          of R. Petrucci                                       85
+
+  XIV. Bamboos in monochrome by Wu Chen. Yuean
+          period. Musee Guimet                                 93
+
+   XV. Paintings of the Yuean or early Ming period. Style
+          of the Northern School. Collection of R. Petrucci    97
+
+  XVI. Portrait of a priest. Yuean or early Ming period.
+          Collection of H. Riviere                            101
+
+ XVII. Horse. Painting by an unknown artist. Yuean or
+          early Ming period. Doucet collection                105
+
+XVIII. Visit to the Emperor by the Immortals from on
+          high. Ming period. British Museum, London           109
+
+XIX. Egrets by Lin Liang. Ming period. Collection of
+          Mrs. John D. Rockefeller, Junior                    115
+
+XX. Flowers and Insects. Ming period. Collection of
+          R. Petrucci                                         119
+
+XXI. Landscape. Ming period. Bouasse-Lebel collection         125
+
+XXII. Beauty inhaling the fragrance of a peony. Ming
+          period. Collection of V. Goloubew                   133
+
+XXIII. Halt of the Imperial Hunt. Ming period. Sixteenth
+          century. Collection of R. Petrucci                  137
+
+XXIV. Painting by Chang Cheng. Eighteenth century.
+          Collection of M. Worch                              141
+
+XXV. Tiger in a Pine Forest. Eighteenth to nineteenth
+          centuries. Collection of V. Goloubew                145
+
+  [A] Now owned by Mr. and Mrs. Robert Woods Bliss.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+Whatever its outward expression, human thought remains essentially
+unchanged and, throughout all of its manifestations, is fundamentally the
+same. Varying phases are but accidents and underneath the divers wrappings
+of historic periods or different civilizations, the heart as well as the
+mind of man has been moved by the same desires.
+
+Art possesses a unity like that of nature. It is profound and stirring,
+precisely because it blends and perpetuates feeling and intelligence by
+means of outward expressions. Of all human achievements art is the most
+vital, the one that is dowered with eternal youth, for it awakens in the
+soul emotions which neither time nor civilization has ever radically
+altered. Therefore, in commencing the study of an art of strange
+appearance, what we must seek primarily is the exact nature of the
+complexity of ideas and feelings upon which it is based. Such is the
+task presented to us, and since the problem which we here approach is
+the general study of Chinese painting, we must prepare ourselves first
+to master the peculiarities of its appearance and technique, in order
+to understand later on the motives which inspired it.
+
+While the first part of this study will carry us far from our habitual
+modes of thought, the second part will bring us back into a domain which
+our own philosophies, sciences and arts have already made familiar.
+Admittedly, Chinese painting is governed by distinctive ideas. Born of a
+civilization vastly different from our own, it may at times appear in a
+guise that seems incomprehensible. It would be astonishing, however, if
+Western intelligence were unable to grasp an aesthetic code of a magnitude
+which is too great to be ignored.
+
+The progress of history and of criticism has given us the opportunity to
+reach a comprehension of the most peculiar formulas. Our culture is
+sufficiently broad to allow us to perceive the beauty of an Egyptian
+fresco or an Assyrian bas-relief as well as of a Byzantine mosaic or a
+painting of the Renaissance. We have therefore no excuse for remaining
+inaccessible to the art of the Far East and we have surely all the mental
+vigor that is requisite in order to accustom ourselves to the foreign
+nature of its presentation. It is in the realm of painting that this
+foreign element is most noticeable. This is due partly to a special
+technique and partly to the nature of the doctrines which serve as its
+inspiration.
+
+It behooves us then to acquaint ourselves with these new aspects of the
+human soul. That is the justification for this little book. It forms an
+introduction in which gaps are shown without attempt at concealment and
+is presented in all modesty.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PART ONE
+TECHNIQUE
+
+I. EQUIPMENT OF THE PAINTER
+
+
+Where our painters have chosen wood or canvas as a ground, the Chinese
+have employed silk or paper. While our art recognizes that drawing itself,
+quite apart from painting, is a sufficient objective, drawing and painting
+have always been closely intermingled in the Far East. While the mediums
+used in Europe for painting in color, distemper, tempera and oil, led to
+an exact study of form, the colors employed by the Orientals--at times
+brilliant, at times subdued with an almost studied restraint--preserved a
+singular fluidity and lent themselves to undefined evanescences which gave
+them a surprising charm.
+
+The early paintings were generally done on cotton, coarse silk or paper.
+In the eighth century, under the T'ang dynasty, the use of finer silk
+began. The dressing was removed with boiling water, the silk was then
+sized and smoothed with a paddle. The use of silken fabric of the finest
+weave, prepared with a thick sizing, became general during the Sung
+dynasty. Papers were made of vegetable fibres, principally of bamboo.
+Being prepared, as was the silk, with a sizing of alum, they became
+practically indestructible. Upon these silks and papers the painter
+worked with brush and Chinese ink,[1] color being introduced with more
+or less freedom or restraint.
+
+The brushes are of different types. Each position of the brush conforms
+to a specific quality of the line, either sharp and precise or broad and
+quivering, the ink spreading in strong touches or thinning to delicate
+shades.
+
+The colors are simple, of mineral or vegetable origin. Chinese painters
+have always avoided mixing colors so far as possible. From malachite they
+obtained several shades of green, from cinnabar or sulphide of mercury, a
+number of reds. They knew also how to combine mercury, sulphur and potash
+to produce vermilion. From peroxide of mercury they drew coloring powders
+which furnished shades ranging from brick red to orange yellow. During the
+T'ang dynasty coral was ground to secure a special red, while white was
+extracted from burnt oyster shells. White lead was later substituted for
+this lime white. Carmine lake they obtained from madder, yellows from
+the sap of the rattan, blues from indigo. To these must be added the
+different shades of Chinese ink and lastly, gold in leaf and in powder.
+
+  [1] Chinese ink is a very different composition from the ink of
+  Western countries. It is a solid made of soot obtained by burning
+  certain plants, which is then combined with glue or oil and moulded
+  into a cake and dried. Other ingredients may be added to produce sheen
+  or a dead finish. It improves with age if properly kept. The cake is
+  moistened and rubbed on a slab, and the ink thus obtained must be used
+  in a special way and with special care to produce the full
+  effect.--TRANSLATOR.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE I. SCULPTURED STONES OF THE HAN DYNASTY
+  Second to Third Centuries. Rubbings taken by the Chavannes Expedition.]
+
+The brush-stroke in the painting of the Far East is of supreme importance.
+We know that this could not be otherwise if we recall that the characters
+in Chinese writing are ideographs, not actually _written_, but rather
+_drawn_. The stroke is not a mere formal, lifeless sign. It is an
+expression in which is reflected the beauty of the thought that inspired
+it as well as the quality of the soul of him who gives it form. In
+writing, as in painting, it reveals to us the character and the conception
+of its author. Placed at the service of certain philosophical ideas, which
+will be set forth later on, this technique was bound to lead to a special
+code of Aesthetics. The painter seeks to suggest with an unbroken line the
+fundamental character of a form. His endeavor, in this respect, is to
+simplify the objective images of the world to the extreme, replacing them
+with ideal images, which prolonged meditation shall have freed from every
+non-essential. It may therefore be readily understood how the brush-stroke
+becomes so personal a thing, that in itself it serves to reveal the hand
+of the master. There is no Chinese book treating of painting which does
+not discuss and lay stress upon the value of its aesthetic code.
+
+
+
+
+II. REPRESENTATION OF FORMS
+
+
+It has often been said that in Chinese painting, as in Japanese painting,
+perspective is ignored. Nothing is further from the truth. This error
+arises from the fact that we have confused one system of perspective with
+perspective as a whole. There are as many systems of perspective as there
+are conventional laws for the representation of space.
+
+The practice of drawing and painting offers the student the following
+problem in descriptive geometry: _to represent the three dimensions of
+space by means of a plane surface of two dimensions_. The Egyptians and
+Assyrians solved this problem by throwing down vertical objects upon one
+plane, which demands a great effort of abstraction on the part of the
+observer. European perspective, built up in the fifteenth century upon
+the remains of the geometric knowledge of the Greeks, is based on the
+monocular theory used by the latter. In this system, it is assumed that
+the picture is viewed with the eye fixed on a single point. Therefore
+the conditions of foreshortening--or distorting the actual dimensions
+according to the angle from which they are seen--are governed by placing
+in harmony the distance of the eye from the scheme of the picture, the
+height of the eye in relation to the objects to be depicted, and the
+relative position of these objects with reference to the surface employed.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE II. PORTION OF A SCROLL BY KU K'AI-CHIH
+  British Museum, London.]
+
+But, in assuming that the picture is viewed with the eye fixed on a single
+point, we put ourselves in conditions which are not those of nature. The
+European painter must therefore compromise with the exigencies of
+binocular vision, modify the too abrupt fading of forms and, in fine,
+evade over-exact principles. Thus he arrives at a _perspective de
+sentiment_, which is the one used by our masters.
+
+Chinese perspective was formulated long before that of the Europeans and
+its origins are therefore different. It was evolved in an age when the
+method of superimposing different registers to indicate different planes
+was still being practiced in bas-reliefs. The succession of planes, one
+above the other, when codified, led to a system that was totally different
+from our monocular perspective. It resulted in a perspective as seen from
+a height. No account is taken of the habitual height of the eye in
+relation to the picture. The line of the horizon is placed very high,
+parallel lines, instead of joining at the horizon, remain parallel, and
+the different planes range one above the other in such a way that the
+glance embraces a vast space. Under these conditions, the picture becomes
+either high and narrow--a hanging picture--to show the successive planes,
+or broad in the form of a scroll, unrolling to reveal an endless
+panorama. These are the two forms best known under their Japanese names
+of _kakemono_ and _makimono_.[2]
+
+But the Chinese painter must attenuate the forms where they are parallel,
+give a natural appearance to their position on different levels and
+consider the degree of their reduction demanded by the various planes.
+Even he must compromise with binocular vision and arrive at a _perspective
+de sentiment_ which, like our own, while scientifically false, is
+artistically true. To this linear perspective is added moreover an
+atmospheric perspective.
+
+Having elected from a very early time to paint in monochrome, Chinese
+painters were led by the nature of this medium to seek to express
+atmospheric perspective by means of tone values and harmony of shading
+instead of by color. Thus they were familiar with chiaroscuro before the
+European painters. Wang Wei established the principles of atmospheric
+perspective in the eighth century. He explains how tints are graded, how
+the increasing thickness of layers of air deprives distant objects of
+their true coloring, substituting a bluish tinge, and how forms become
+indistinct in proportion as their distance from the observer increases.
+His testimony in this respect is similar to that of Leonardo da Vinci in
+his "Treatise on Painting."
+
+  [2] The Chinese terms are _Li Chou_ for a vertical painting and
+  _Heng P'i_ for a horizontal painting.--TRANSLATOR.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE III. KWANYIN. EIGHTH TO TENTH CENTURIES
+  Painting brought from Tun-huang by the Pelliot Expedition.
+  The Louvre, Paris.]
+
+
+
+
+III. DIVISION OF SUBJECTS
+
+
+The Chinese divide the subjects of painting into four principal classes,
+as follows:
+
+          Landscape.
+          Man and Objects.
+          Flowers and Birds.
+          Plants and Insects.
+
+Nowhere do we see a predominant place assigned to the drawing or painting
+of the human figure. This alone is sufficient to mark the wide difference
+between Chinese and European painting.
+
+The exact name for _Landscape_ is translated by the words _mountain and
+water picture_. They recall the ancient conception of Creation on which
+the Oriental system of the world is founded. The mountain exemplifies the
+teeming life of the earth. It is threaded by veins wherein waters
+continuously flow. Cascades, brooks and torrents are the outward evidence
+of this inner travail. By its own superabundance of life, it brings forth
+clouds and arrays itself in mists, thus being a manifestation of the two
+principles which rule the life of the universe.
+
+The second class, _Man and Objects_, must be understood principally as
+concerning man, his works, his belongings, and, in a general sense, all
+things created by the hand of man, in combination with landscape. This was
+the convention in early times when the first painters whose artistic
+purpose can be formulated with certainty, portrayed the history of the
+legendary beings of Taoism,--the genii and fairies dwelling amidst an
+imaginary Nature. The records tell us, to be sure, that the early masters
+painted portraits, but it was at a later period that _Man and Objects_
+composed a class distinct from _Landscape_, a period responsible for those
+ancestral portraits painted after death, which are almost always
+attributable to ordinary artisans. Earlier they endeavored to apply to
+figure painting the methods, technique and laws established for an
+ensemble in which the thought of nature predominated. Special rules
+bearing on this subject are sometimes found of a very early date but there
+is no indication that they were collected into a definite system until the
+end of the seventeenth century. Up to the present time our only knowledge
+of their content is through a small treatise published at the beginning of
+the nineteenth century.
+
+The third class, _Flowers and Birds_, deals with those paintings wherein
+the Chinese gave rein to their fancy for painting the bird in conjunction
+with the plant life associated with its home and habits. The bird is
+treated with a full understanding of its life, and flowers are studied
+with such a comprehension of their essential structure that a botanist
+can readily detect the characteristics typical of a species, despite the
+simplifications which an artist always imposes on the complexity of forms.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE IV. PALACE OF KIU CHENG-KUNG BY LI CHAO-TAO
+  T'ang Period. Collection of V. Goloubew.]
+
+This general class is subdivided. The epidendrum, the iris, the orchis
+and the chrysanthemum became special studies each of which had its own
+masters, both from the standpoint of painting itself, and of the
+application of the aesthetic rules which govern this art. The bamboo and
+the plum tree are also allied to this class. Under the influence of
+philosophic and symbolic ideas they furnished a special category of
+subjects to the imagination of the painter and form a division apart which
+has its own laws and methods, regarding which the Chinese treatises on
+Aesthetics inform us fully.
+
+Finally, the fourth class, _Plants and Insects_, is based upon the same
+conception as that of _Flowers and Birds_. The insect is represented with
+the plant which is his habitat when in the stage of caterpillar and larva,
+or flying above the flowers and plants upon which he subsists on reaching
+the stage of butterfly and insect. Certain books add to this fourth class
+a subdivision comprising fishes.
+
+Lastly we must note that in the Far East, as in Europe, there is a special
+class to be taken into consideration, _Religious paintings_. In China,
+this refers almost exclusively to Buddhist paintings.
+
+
+
+
+IV. INSPIRATION
+
+
+The aesthetic conceptions of the Far East have been deeply influenced by a
+special philosophy of nature. The Chinese consider the relation of the two
+principles, male and female, the _yang_ and the _yin_, as the source of
+the universe. Detached from the primordial unity, they give birth to the
+forms of this world by ever varying degrees of combination. Heaven
+corresponds to the male principle, earth to the female principle.
+Everything upon the earth, beings, plants, animals or man is formed by the
+mingling of _yang_ and _yin_. While the mountain, enveloped in mists,
+recalls the union of these two principles, the legend of forces thus
+revealed by no means pauses here. Fabulous or real, the animals and plants
+habitually seen in Chinese paintings express a like conception.
+
+The dragon is the ancestor of everything that bears feathers or scales. He
+represents the element of water, the waters of the earth, the mists of the
+air, the heavenly principle. He is seen breaking through the clouds like
+some monstrous apparition, unveiling for an instant the greatness of a
+mystery barely discerned. The tiger is the symbol of the earthly
+principle, a personification of quadrupeds as distinct from birds and
+reptiles. His ferocious form lurks in the tempest. Defying the hurricane
+which bends the bamboos and uproots trees, he challenges the furies of
+nature that are hostile to the expression of the universal soul. The
+bamboo is the symbol of wisdom, the pine is the emblem of will-power and
+life. The plum tree in flower is a harmonious combination of the two
+principles. It symbolizes virginal purity.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE V. PORTRAIT OF LUe TUNG-PING BY T'ENG CH'ANG-YU
+  T'ang Period. Collection of August Jaccaci. Lent to the Metropolitan
+  Museum, New York.]
+
+Thus is built up a complete system of allusions similar to the allegories
+of our own classics but superior in that they never degenerate into frozen
+symbols, but on the contrary keep in close touch with nature, investing
+her with a vibrant life, in which human consciousness vanishes making way
+for the dawning consciousness of infinitude.
+
+Buddhism goes still further. It does not even believe in the reality of
+the world. In this belief, forms are but transitory, the universe an
+illusion forever flowing into an unending future. Outside of the supreme
+repose, in the six worlds of desire,[3] the things that are susceptible to
+pain and death pursue their evolution. Souls travel this closed cycle
+under the most diverse forms, from hell to the gods, advancing or
+retreating, in accordance with the good deeds or errors committed in
+previous existences. A stone, a plant, an insect, a demon, or a god are
+only illusory forms, each encompassing an identical soul on its way to
+deliverance, as it is caught at different stages of its long calvary and
+imprisoned through original sin and the instinctive desire for life.
+Whence we see emerging a new feeling of charity which embraces all beings.
+Their moral character is felt to be the same as that of man, their goal is
+the same, and in the vast world of illusion each seeks to fulfill the same
+destiny.
+
+  [3] These are: the worlds of animals, of man, of gods or _devas_, of
+  giants or _asuras_, of _pretas_ or wandering spirits, and of hells.
+  Freedom from perpetual transmigration in these six worlds is attained
+  only through the extinction of desire.
+
+Behind the changes of the universe the Buddhist perceives the primal
+substance that pervades all creation. There results from this an intimacy
+with things which exists in no other creed. From inert matter to the most
+highly organized being, all creation is thus endowed with a sense of
+kinship that is destined to make a tender and stirring appeal in the
+artist's interpretation of nature.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PART TWO
+THE EVOLUTION OF CHINESE PAINTING
+
+I. ORIGINS
+
+
+The origins of painting in China are mingled with the origins of writing.
+Written characters are, in fact, derived from pictography or picture
+writing, those in use at the present time being only developed and
+conventionalized forms of primitive drawings. The early books and
+dictionaries give us definite information regarding this evolution. But
+while history bears witness to this ancient connection, we do not come
+into contact with actual evidence until the third century of our era,
+through the bas-reliefs of the Han dynasty, and in the fourth century
+through the paintings of Ku K'ai-chih. Here we find by no means the origin
+of an evolution but, on the contrary, the last traces of an expiring
+tradition.
+
+
+
+
+II. BEFORE THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM
+
+
+The bas-reliefs of the Han dynasty are almost all comprised in the
+sculptured stone slabs embellishing mortuary chambers and of these the
+artistic merit is most unequal.[4] Their technique is primitive. It
+consists in making the contours of figures by cutting away the stone in
+grooves with softened angles, leaving the figure in silhouette. Engraved
+lines complete the drawing.
+
+The subjects are sometimes mythical and sometimes legendary. There are
+representations of divinities, fabulous animals, scenes of war and of the
+chase and processions of people bearing tribute. At times the great
+compositions display imposing spectacles, a luxurious and refined array.
+Now and then attempts at pictorial perspective are joined to some
+unrelated scene.
+
+All this is in direct conflict with the technique of bas-reliefs and leads
+to the surmise that the models were drawn by painters and copied with
+more or less skill by makers of funeral monuments.
+
+  [4] These bas-reliefs have been studied by M. Chavannes in "La
+  sculpture sur pierre en Chine au temps des deux dynasties Han," Paris,
+  1893; also in "Mission archeologique en Chine," Paris, 1910. Rubbings
+  taken from the sculptured slabs are reproduced here in full.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE VI. PAINTING BY AN UNKNOWN ARTIST
+  T'ang Period. Collection of R. Petrucci.]
+
+This impression is confirmed if certain carved slabs are compared with a
+painting by Ku K'ai-chih, of which we can judge by means of a copy made in
+the Sung period.[5] One of the scenes of this long scroll leaves no
+possible misapprehension as to the pictorial origin of the Han
+bas-reliefs. Its subject, a river god on a chariot drawn by dragons, is
+similar in composition to the models used by the artisans of the third
+century.
+
+We have, however, better testimony than a copy made at a later period. The
+British Museum, in London, is the owner of a painting attributed to Ku
+K'ai-chih. The reasons impelling us to believe in its authenticity are
+weighty, almost indisputable.[6][B] We therefore accept it here and will
+endeavor to define the work of one of the greatest painters of China in
+the fourth and the beginning of the fifth century.
+
+  [5] This painting formed part of the collection of the ex-viceroy Tuan
+  Fang, killed in 1911, during the revolution. It was published in 1911
+  by the Japanese archeologist, Mr. Taki.
+
+  [6] These reasons are set forth in a work which Mr. Laurence Binyon is
+  preparing, to accompany a reproduction engraved by Japanese artists
+  for the British Museum.
+
+  [B] The preceding footnote refers to a work published in 1913 by the
+  Trustees of the British Museum, containing a reproduction of the
+  painting in its entirety and giving a full description.--TRANSLATOR.
+
+The painted scenes are inspired by a work of the third century containing
+admonitions addressed to the ladies of the imperial palace. The striking
+characteristics of these compositions are the lightness and delicacy of
+style, the poetry of the attitudes and the supreme elegance of the forms.
+Heavy black tresses frame the ivory faces with refined and subtle charm.
+The voluptuous caprice of garments in long floating folds, the extreme
+perfection of the figures and the grace of gestures make this painting a
+thing of unique beauty. Only through the cultivation of centuries could
+such spiritual insight be attained.
+
+If the copy from the collection of Tuan Fang recalls the bas-reliefs of
+the Han period, the painting in the British Museum is related to the
+bas-reliefs of Long-men, which date from the seventh century and of which
+M. Chavannes has published photographs. Therefore we may say that the
+style of Ku K'ai-chih exemplifies the distinctive features of Chinese
+painting at a period extending from the third to the seventh centuries.[7]
+
+  [7] A copy of an engraving on stone of the year 1095, representing
+  "Confucius sitting amidst his disciples" and another representing
+  "Confucius walking, followed by one of his disciples," dated 1118,
+  have been published by M. de Chavannes ("Mission archeologique en
+  Chine," Nos. 869 and 871). The latter is considered as having been
+  undoubtedly executed after a painting by Ku K'ai-chih.
+
+It should also be noted that toward the end of the fifth or the beginning
+of the sixth century, the painter and critic Hsieh Ho formulated the
+Six Canons[8] upon which the far-eastern code of Aesthetics is founded.
+These Canons introduce philosophical conceptions and technical knowledge
+which also presuppose long cultivation, for it is only after rules have
+been brought to reality in a work of art that they are formulated into a
+code. Therefore when Buddhism appeared in China it found there a native
+art whose value was proved beyond question by a long succession of
+masterpieces. After having exhausted every manifestation of strength and
+vigor, this art had arrived at expressions of extreme refinement and
+profound and appealing charm, closely verging on the disquieting dreams of
+decadence.
+
+  [8] Interpretations of the Six Canons by five authorities are
+  accessible in a very convenient form for comparison in Mr. Laurence
+  Binyon's "Flight of the Dragon," p. 12.--TRANSLATOR.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE VII. GEESE
+  Sung Period. British Museum, London.]
+
+
+
+
+III. THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM
+
+
+Chinese books state that between the fourth and the eighth centuries "the
+art of painting _man and things_ underwent a vital change." By this they
+alluded to the intervention of Buddhist art, which made its appearance in
+China toward the fifth century in the form of the Graeco-Indian art of
+Gandhara, already modified by its transit across Eastern Turkestan. This
+by no means indicates that purely Indian origins might not be found for
+it. At Sanchi, as well as in Central India and at Ajanta such
+characteristics are preserved. But the Greek dynasties which had settled
+in northwestern India in the train of Alexander, had carried with them the
+canons of Hellenistic art. The technique and methods of this art were
+placed at the service of the new religion. They gave to Buddhist
+art--which was just beginning to appear in the Gandharian provinces--its
+outward form, its type of figures, its range of personages and the greater
+part of its ornamentation.[9]
+
+  [9] See Foucher, "L'Art greco-bouddique du Gandhara." Paris, Leroux.
+
+Buddhism found the expiring Hellenistic formula which had been swept
+beyond its borders, ready at hand at the very moment the new religion was
+gathering itself together for that prodigious journey which, traversing
+the entire Far East, was to lead it to the shores of the Pacific. Once
+outside of India, it came into contact with Sassanian Persia and Bactria.
+With Hellenistic influences were mingled confused elements springing from
+the scattered civilizations which had reigned over the Near East. Thence
+it spread to the byways of Eastern Turkestan.
+
+We know today, thanks to excavations of the German expeditions of
+Gruenwedel and von Lecoq, the two English expeditions of Sir Aurel Stein
+and the French expedition of M. Pelliot, that in that long chain of oases
+filled with busy cities, Buddhist art was gradually formed into the
+likeness under which it was to appear as a finished product in the Far
+East. Here it developed magnificently. The enormous frescoes of Murtuq
+display imposing arrangements of those figures of Buddhas and Bodhisatvas
+which were to remain unchanged in the plastic formulas of China and Japan.
+Meanwhile conflicting influences continued to be felt. Sometimes the
+Indian types prevailed, as at Khotan, at others there were Semitic types
+and elements originating in Asia Minor, such as were found at Miran, and
+at length, as at Tun-huang, types that were almost entirely Chinese
+appeared.
+
+The paintings brought from Tun-huang by the Stein and Pelliot expeditions
+enable us to realize the nature of the characteristics which contact with
+China imposed upon Buddhist art. It had no choice but to combine with the
+tendencies revealed in the painting of Ku K'ai-chih. The painter trained
+in the school of Hellenistic technique drew with the brush. He delighted
+in the rhythmic movement of the line and the display of a transcendent
+harmony and elegance of proportion such as are seen in the frescoes of
+Eastern Turkestan. Perhaps through contact with China--herself searching
+for new expressions--but probably through a combination of the two
+influences, Buddhist painting, at the opening of the T'ang dynasty, gives
+us heavier types in which compact and powerful figures take on a new
+character.
+
+From then on we perceive the nature of the great change to which the early
+books refer. Chinese painting had already known the genii and fairies of
+Taoism, the Rishi or wizards living in mountain solitudes, the Immortals
+dwelling in distant isles beyond the sea. It now knew gods wrapped in the
+ecstatic contemplation of Nirvana, with smiling mouth and half-closed
+eyes, revealing mystic symbols in a broad and apostolic gesture. It had
+more life-like figures, attendants, benign and malignant, terrifying
+demons. Before these impassive gods, in a fervor of devotion it bent the
+figures of donors, men and women, sometimes veritable portraits. With even
+greater breadth it portrayed the disciples of Sakyamuni, those anchorites
+and hermits who under the name of Lohan[10] have entered into Chinese
+Buddhist legend. Indian priests with harsh, strongly marked features and
+wrinkled faces, preachers of a foreign race, disfigured by scourging or
+else the calm full visage of the ecstatic in contemplation,--such are the
+types that appeared. Chinese painters took up the new subjects and treated
+them with a freedom, an ease, and a vitality which at once added an
+admirable chapter to the history of art.
+
+  [10] Indian _Arhat_; Japanese _Rakan_.--TRANSLATOR.
+
+
+
+
+IV. THE T'ANG PERIOD--SEVENTH TO TENTH CENTURIES
+
+
+The T'ang dynasty was the really vital period of Chinese Buddhism. Among
+the painters who gave it its highest expression Wu Tao-tz[)u] holds first
+place. His memory dwells in history as that of one of the greatest masters
+in China and legend has still further enhanced the might of his genius. It
+is highly probable that his work is entirely destroyed, but by the aid of
+copies, incised stones and wood engravings of the twelfth century, an idea
+of the painter's conception can be formed. He seems to have been the
+creator of a Chinese type of Kwanyin, the Buddhist incarnation of mercy
+and charity. Drapery covers the high drawn hair. She is attired in the
+harmonious folds of a plain and ample garment and expresses supreme
+authority, the sublimity of divine love.
+
+If to these fragments of an immense plastic production is added the
+analysis furnished by the written records, we can define with some degree
+of certitude the place occupied by Wu Tao-tz[)u] in the history of Chinese
+painting. The books state that the lines from his brush fairly vibrated;
+all united in marvelling at the spirituality emanating from forms thus
+defined. He adhered almost exclusively to the use of powerful ink-lines
+and denied himself the use of any color, whether scattered or prominent,
+which would have robbed his painting of the austerity which was the source
+of its surpassing feeling. But in order to appreciate the full value of
+the new ideas introduced by Wu into Chinese painting, it is necessary to
+understand the exact nature of the technique that was in practice up to
+the seventh and eighth centuries, at the opening of the T'ang dynasty.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE VIII. WHITE EAGLE. SUNG PERIOD
+  Collection of R. Petrucci.]
+
+At that time there prevailed the analytic, painstaking, detailed and very
+considered drawing that is common to all periods preceding great
+constructive work. This technique admitted the use of two fundamental
+methods: one called _double contour_, the other _contour_ or _single
+contour_. The method of _double contour_ was applied chiefly to the
+drawing of plant life in landscape. It consisted in outlining leaves or
+branches by means of two lines of ink placed in apposition. The space thus
+enclosed was filled with color. Any peculiarities of formation, knots in
+wood and veins in leaves were added subsequently. The name of _single
+contour_ was applied to drawings wherein a single ink line outlined the
+object, the space enclosed being then filled with color.
+
+If the application of these analytic methods was sometimes carried to the
+extreme of delicacy it never became labored. Throughout its entire
+evolution the art of the T'ang period is characterized by a sense of the
+magnificent. Once the study of forms was exhausted, this type of work was
+bound to be superceded. Wu Tao-tz[)u] profited by the work of his
+predecessors. Combining in a single stroke of the brush, vigor and an
+eclectic character of line, with values and fluidity of tone, he brought
+to a supreme unity the two great principles by which things are made
+manifest in all the magic of their essential structure. But it must be
+understood that this patient investigation of forms was not limited to
+preparing the way for a single master. The logical outcome was an
+independent movement to which the origin of modern Chinese painting can be
+traced.
+
+"Painting has two branches," the books say, "that of the North and that of
+the South; the separation occurred in the T'ang period." These terms
+_Northern School_ and _Southern School_ must not be taken literally. They
+serve merely to characterize styles which, in the eighth century,
+liberated themselves from methods demanding such close study and exact
+definition of forms. The style of the Northern School is strong, vehement
+and bold; the style of the Southern School is melancholy and dreamy. The
+ideal of Northern China, impregnated with barbarian elements, is brought
+into contrast with that of Southern China, heir to an already ancient
+civilization, and under the spell of Taoist legends and the bewildered
+dreams of its philosophers.[11]
+
+  [11] These divisions of Northern and Southern Schools do not
+  correspond, as might be imagined, to geographical limitations.
+  Painters of the South worked in the style of the North and painters of
+  the North likewise used the Southern style. Moreover the same master
+  was able to employ one or the other according to the inspiration of
+  the moment. These works were produced for a receptive people capable
+  of understanding both styles.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE IX. HORSEMAN FOLLOWED BY TWO ATTENDANTS
+  Sung Period. Collection of A. Stoclet.]
+
+Li Ssu-hsuen and his son Li Chao-tao (eighth century) are considered to be
+the founders of the Northern School. The paintings attributed to them show
+the character which the Northern style preserved up to the Ming period and
+which was to be emphasized to the point of brutality at the hands of
+certain masters in the Yuean period. At the outset, in its brilliancy and
+precision, the Northern style held to a certain refinement of line; later
+the line is drawn with a firm and powerful brush and strong colors are
+applied almost pure.
+
+In direct contrast the Southern style is made up of half-tints, with a
+feeling of reserve and intentional restraint, which gives it, with equal
+power, at times a more appealing charm. The lines are pliant, immersed in
+shading, color is suggested in a subtle fashion and, in contrast to the
+almost brutal emphasis of the North, it finds expression in chiaroscuro
+and concealed harmonies.
+
+The foundation of the Southern School is attributed to a great landscape
+painter of the eighth century, Wang Wei. Nothing could better determine
+his tendencies than monochrome[12] painting in Chinese ink. According to
+the records, this was first practiced by him. It constitutes what in
+China, as well as in Japan, is called the _literary man's painting_ and
+is, in reality, quite closely related to calligraphy. The variety of
+shadings and relative colors of objects depend entirely upon the tones of
+ink washes. Wang Wei seems to have treated monochrome mainly from the
+standpoint of chiaroscuro, in his search for an atmospheric perspective
+which should be both fluid and ethereal. It appears that the accentuation
+of lines according to rule that is seen later on, where forms are
+synthetized--sometimes to an excessive degree--was only a derivation of
+the work of Wang Wei and caused by the intrusion of calligraphic
+virtuosity into the domain of painting.
+
+  [12] "Monochrome is a starved and lifeless term to express the
+  marvellous range and subtlety of tones of which the preparation of
+  black soot known as Chinese ink is capable." Laurence Binyon in "The
+  Flight of the Dragon."--TRANSLATOR.
+
+When we arrive at Wang Wei, landscape is treated as a special subject and
+with its own resources. It was he who discovered the principles which
+govern the fading of colors and forms in the distance, and who formulated
+the laws of atmospheric perspective. Paintings in his style are all
+executed in a predominating color which the Chinese call _luo-ts'ing_, a
+mineral color of varying shades ranging from a malachite green to a
+lapis-lazuli blue. It will be seen why _luo-ts'ing_ gave its name to the
+style of Wang Wei.
+
+By means of bluish tints he painted the distant expanse of landscape.
+Mountains forming screens in the backgrounds and masses of trees lost in
+the distance, are all indicated by the azure tints which intervening
+layers of air give to remote objects. But as the foreground is approached,
+rightful colors begin to prevail and the azure tints are subtly graded,
+passing into a fresh and brilliant green amongst wooded declivities, and
+into the natural hue in the foliage of trees. Often heavy mists, spreading
+at the foot of high mountains, veil the outlines and still further
+emphasize the feeling of limitless space.[13]
+
+  [13] I have not seen nor do I know of any paintings which can be said
+  with certainty to be from the hand of Wang Wei. But from the records
+  as well as from works directly inspired by him, an idea of his style
+  and technique can be formed. Ancient paintings in _luo-ts'ing_ are
+  found in Japan as well as in China. The British Museum of London has a
+  scroll painted by Chao Meng-fu, in the manner of Wang Wei, dated 1309.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE X. LANDSCAPE IN THE STYLE OF HSIA KUEI
+  Sung Period. Collection of Martin White.]
+
+But when a master has carried his study of the fading of colors and of
+their relative values thus far, he must have considered not only the
+element of color itself, but also the collective tones which color is
+capable of expressing. From this to monochrome painting in Chinese ink is
+but a step; historical testimony shows that Wang Wei took this step. By
+the simple opposition of black and white, and through tone values and
+gradations of shades, he endeavored to create the same feeling of
+atmosphere and space which he had been able to express with _luo-ts'ing_.
+No original picture remains to inform us to what extent he succeeded, but
+by means of monochrome paintings of the Sung period which owe their
+inspiration to him, the importance of the reform accomplished, and the
+tendencies manifested in those lost works of art may be divined.
+
+Another master whose work can be defined with sufficient accuracy to cite
+as an illustration of a different aspect of the history of painting during
+the T'ang period, is Han Kan, who lived in the middle of the eighth
+century and who is celebrated as a painter of horses.
+
+The sculptured stones of the Han dynasty, especially the admirable
+bas-reliefs of the tomb of Chao-ling, representing the favorite coursers
+of the emperor T'ai-tsung, show the manner in which artists, from the
+third to the seventh centuries, were capable of studying and delineating
+the postures of the horse. It is therefore not surprising to find a great
+animal painter in the eighth century. Beyond question he was not the
+first. The written records have preserved the names of several of his
+predecessors and while the honor of having been the great founder of a
+school was attributed to him, it is possible that this refers only to an
+artistic movement bearing his name, of which he was not the sole
+representative.
+
+But the work of Han Kan and the unknown artists grouped around him,
+proclaims a powerful tradition, a well grounded school of animal painters
+which had attained the highest eminence. It was destined to exert a
+strong influence upon painters of horses in the Yuean epoch and even when,
+later on, this great tradition is seen disappearing, cloying and insipid,
+amidst the mannerisms of the Ming period, it will still retain sufficient
+power to carry thus far a reflection of the vigor and vitality attained in
+the great periods.
+
+The painting of _Flowers and Birds_, and _Plants and Insects_ appears to
+have been already established at this time. The flowers and plants are
+drawn according to the methods of _double contour_ and _single contour_,
+worked over and brought out with that intensity of analysis to which
+allusion has been made. The bird is caught in its most subtle movement,
+the insect studied in its essential structure.
+
+Thus we see that Chinese painting had extended its investigations in every
+direction and had solved the problems found along its path. It had
+absorbed foreign influences, altered its conception of the divine and
+found a new type of figure. It had endowed landscape painting with all the
+resources of atmospheric perspective and had established the two essential
+styles of the North and the South. The painter was master of the visible;
+his thought dominated form and was able to express itself with freedom.
+
+
+
+
+V. THE SUNG PERIOD--TENTH TO THIRTEENTH CENTURIES
+
+
+The T'ang period had been the golden age of Chinese poetry. It had
+witnessed an extraordinary outburst of religious fervor, and the
+overwhelming domination of Buddhism. It had, moreover, triumphantly
+re-established the unity of the empire and to the pride of intellectual
+activity it could add the pride of might and dominion. But the same cannot
+be said for the Sung period. From a political standpoint its history is
+one of cumulative disaster. Ancient China retreated by degrees before the
+thrusts of the barbarians, until the great thunderbolt of Genghis Khan's
+conquest, reverberating with formidable echoes throughout all Asia,
+announced the approaching downfall of culture in the red dawn of a new
+era.
+
+The Sung culture, totally different from that of the T'ang period, was,
+however, swept forward to its culmination. It would seem as if, under the
+menace of the barbarians, the mind had set for its goal the development of
+ideas embryonic in earlier work, formulating them in haste and arresting
+them finally in perfect yet sad images, in which the heights attained were
+haunted by the shadow of impending ruin.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XI. LANDSCAPE BY MA LIN
+  Sung Period. Collection of R. Petrucci.]
+
+The dynasty opened with a classical reaction against new ideas and
+witnessed a return to Confucian philosophy, with its conception of the
+State. But centuries of history had not rolled by without effect. In the
+tenth and eleventh centuries the ancient writings were no longer
+understood with their original meaning. A whole series of philosophers, of
+whom the last is Chu Hsi (thirteenth century), had formulated a composite
+doctrine resulting in what might be called an official philosophy, which
+has dominated to the present day. Some bold spirits, however, opposed this
+reactionary codification, struggling in vain to give a positive and firm
+structure to the doomed empire. Their influence appears to have been
+considerable. Just as the old heterodox philosophy was being stifled by
+the dry and colorless metaphysics of the conservatives, it was awakened to
+new life by the painters, who gave it a stirring interpretation in their
+work.
+
+The period of technical research was past. At first, with care and
+patience, forms had been determined by drawing. Color had remained a thing
+apart, regarded as a work of illumination and quite distinct from drawing.
+Then study was extended still further. Color came to be viewed in the
+light of shades and tones and became one of the means for the expression
+of form; it became the very drawing itself,--that which reveals the basic
+structure.
+
+Wang Wei represents the moment when art, emancipating itself from problems
+already solved, had conquered every medium of expression. Such is the
+tradition which he bequeathed to the Sung artists, who were destined to
+add thereto such supreme masterpieces.
+
+The Sung painters were haunted by the old philosophical beliefs as to the
+formation of the universe. Beyond the actual surroundings they dimly
+perceived a magic world made up of perfect forms. Appearances were but the
+visible covering of the two great principles whose combination engendered
+life. They believed that, in painting, they did more than to reproduce the
+external form of things. They labored with the conviction that they were
+wresting the soul from objects, in order to transfer it to the painted
+silk. Thus they created something new, an imaginary world more beautiful
+than the real world, wherein the intimate relation of beings and things
+was disclosed,--a world pervaded by pure spirit and one which was revealed
+only to those whose thought was sufficiently enlightened, and whose
+sympathies were sufficiently broad, to understand and to be stirred.
+
+The painters of the line of Wang Wei during the Sung period, devoted
+themselves chiefly to the development of painting in monochrome. They
+pursued the study of relations of tones and values of shading up to the
+limit of extreme delicacy, and if they mingled color at all with their
+subtle evocations, it was with a feeling of unequalled restraint. They
+dwelt for the most part in intimacy with Nature. Fleeing from the cares
+of court and city, they retired into mountain solitudes, meditating for
+long periods before taking up the brush to paint. Thus they portrayed
+those mountains enveloped in mists, wherein was revealed the harmony of
+the two principles which control the universe. From the depths of valleys
+misty vapors arose and cedars and gigantic pines reared their majestic
+forms, while, on the threshold of a thatched cabin upon some rocky
+plateau, a hermit deep in meditation contemplated the vast expanse of a
+landscape of august grandeur.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XII. MONGOL HORSEMAN RETURNING FROM THE HUNT
+  By Chao Meng-fu. Yuean Period. Doucet Collection.]
+
+Sometimes, turning to plant forms, they painted the bamboo in black and
+white. A single masterly stroke sufficed to draw the cylindrical stalk
+from one joint to another, or the pointed leaves which are so quivering
+with life that we seem to hear the plaintive voice of the wind "combed,"
+as the Chinese writings express it, "by the reeds." Or again, when a
+flower was the subject, they suggested it with a simplicity that
+presupposes a scientifically exact study of forms. It was by no means the
+splendid image which they sought to grasp but the soul itself; at one time
+the flower barely open in all its enchanting freshness, at another the
+softened petals drooping in languid fashion, revealing a splendor still
+present but soon to fade; at times the dew moistening the leaves, the snow
+shrouding them with its purity, or the slow monotonous rain beneath which
+they drip, motionless. These paintings are always instinct with deep
+poetic feeling.
+
+At the hands of the Sung painters the school of landscape and monochrome
+technique attained a level which will never be exceeded. The masters of
+this period are numerous and are frequently represented by works of almost
+certain authenticity. It seems useless to assemble here names which will
+convey no meaning to the European reader. It will suffice to illustrate by
+a few great figures the three centuries of history during which Chinese
+landscape painting reached its culminating point.
+
+Tung Yuean and Chue Jan are considered by the critics as having founded a
+special school in the great tradition of Wang Wei. Their paintings were
+quiet in coloring and were executed with broad strokes in an impressionist
+style. These works must be viewed from a distance to see their apparent
+violence merge into extreme elegance. They furnish a complete
+demonstration of the laws of atmospheric perspective, with its feeling of
+distance and infinite space, in which forms are immersed. Here we find
+evidence that these painters were the first to attempt the arrangement of
+lines according to rule, which led ultimately to calligraphic painting.
+
+Among the heads of schools cited in the Chinese writings Ma Yuean and Hsia
+Kuei of the Sung dynasty must be placed in a class by themselves. Both of
+these masters lived at the end of the twelfth and the beginning of the
+thirteenth centuries. Their style can be described with accuracy since
+original examples are extant--both by themselves and by their
+disciples--in which their characteristics are fully revealed.
+
+Ma Yuean is classed with the Southern School by reason of his restraint in
+the use of color, his greatness of conception and his technical treatment
+of forms. But he brings to his work a virility in which the influence of
+the Northern School is plainly discerned. He has a broad stroke and a
+masterful manner which place his works in the front rank of all Chinese
+painting. His mountainous backgrounds rear themselves with fierce energy.
+His old pines, with branches wreathed in vines, would suffice alone to
+define his style, so freely do they express the force of plant life and
+the proud defiance of the aged tree. He loved the mountain solitudes to
+which he gave a new imagery, so authoritative and so perfect that it
+served to create a school.
+
+The influence of Ma Yuean was felt by his brother and by his son, Ma Lin.
+Although the death of the latter occurred under the Mongolian dynasty, he
+was an exponent of Sung art. The fierce energy of the old master gives way
+to a somewhat more melancholy and gentle quality in his son. There is the
+same restraint in the handling of the brush, the same reserve in the use
+of color, but the landscape stretches out into deep and dreamy vistas that
+are indescribably poetic. The melancholy of autumn, the sadness of flights
+of birds that circle in the evening light, the feeling of seclusion and
+silence, such are the things in which this poetic spirit finds its joy,
+true heir of the master mind whose genius found expression in the wild
+aspects of nature.
+
+The school of Ma dominated the entire subsequent period and his influence
+extended as far as Korea, where traces of it were still to be found as
+late as the fifteenth century. As the history of Korean painting becomes
+better known, we shall be able to say with more accuracy what it owes to
+other Chinese masters; but in so far as those mentioned are concerned,
+their influence appears to have been sufficiently strong to impress a
+certain type on fragmentary works from Korea which have become known to us
+recently.
+
+We are far from being as well informed regarding Hsia Kuei, but we have
+that which is worth more than written records, a few paintings preserved
+in Japanese collections, which it seems legitimate to attribute to him
+without reservation. It is readily seen why his name is always linked with
+that of Ma Yuean. His work shows the same energy and power and discloses an
+ideal which is similar to that of his confrere. He seems to have
+penetrated even further than Ma Yuean along the path of daring
+simplifications, and to have approached at times the calligraphic style.
+He painted both landscape and figures and was skilled in obtaining strange
+effects, as if of color, through his use of monochrome.
+
+Another painter whose name dominates the history of this time and whose
+work serves to characterize a special aspect is Li Lung-mien. It is
+naturally difficult to prove that all the works attributed to him are
+authentic. However, collections in Japanese temples or privately owned,
+possess paintings which passed as his at a very early date and in which at
+least we can recognize his style. In reviewing the centuries of history,
+it is interesting to note that the work of Li Lung-mien is not without
+similarity, in certain of its elements, to the paintings of Ku K'ai-chih.
+His line is delicate and flexible and he draws his outlines with the same
+subtlety, the same grace and the same instinct for harmonious curves and
+an extraordinary rhythm.
+
+The tradition which arose in a period antedating the T'ang epoch was
+therefore still unbroken in the Sung period, and I am sure that proofs of
+this will increase in number as our information becomes more accurate. New
+evidence furnished by the paintings found at Tun-huang and certain
+frescoes at Murtuq has recently shown that the type of Buddhist
+hermit--the Lohan meditating in solitude--whose inception had, until these
+discoveries, been attributed to Li Lung-mien, in reality dated much
+further back and originated in the Buddhist art of Eastern Turkestan,
+perhaps even in India. From those regions are derived the magnificent
+subjects of which Li Lung-mien made use to express meditation. Sometimes
+there are emaciated faces, withered bodies with protruding tendons that
+outline deep hollows, and again rotund and peaceful figures meditating in
+tranquil seclusion. From the written records as well as in his works,
+there is every evidence that he was one of those who revived Buddhist
+painting. No matter what models he chose to follow, he always gave them a
+stress and a peculiar distinction, while from the standpoint of pure art
+he had the ability to portray them with finished elegance and majestic
+dignity.
+
+Li Lung-mien was not content to paint Buddhist figures only. He painted
+landscape also, and in his youth he had painted horses. A great critic of
+the Sung period said of him that "his soul entered into communion with all
+things, his spirit penetrated the mysteries and the secrets of nature."
+This critic added that one day he saw Li Lung-mien painting a Buddhist
+divinity. The words of the god fairly leapt from the lines; it seemed as
+if the brush of the master summoned them one by one into being. Like all
+the masters of his time, Li Lung-mien sought to free the spirit from its
+outward semblance. Beyond the material, he perceived the immaterial force
+which animates the world. As a landscape painter his conception of Nature
+was broad and majestic. His graceful and harmonious line recalls the
+happiest moments in the history of plastic art, and he challenges
+comparison with a facile genius like Raphael. But he includes the whole
+realm of nature in his subjects, and in his work we find traces, expressed
+with greater breadth, but with quite as keen an insight, of an ancient
+and noble art, such as was found almost extinct in the work of Ku
+K'ai-chih.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XIII. PIGEONS BY CH'IEN HSUeAN
+  Yuean Period. Collection of R. Petrucci.]
+
+We cannot leave the Sung painters without devoting some attention to Mi
+Fei and his son. The two Mi's, indeed, accomplished a far-reaching reform
+in Chinese technique; they enriched painting with a new imagery and
+founded a school which, like that of Ma, exerted an influence on later
+periods and was strongly felt in Korea.
+
+In addition to being a great painter, Mi Fei was a great calligraphist.
+This is apparent however little one may have seen of work in his style. He
+possesses in the highest degree what the Chinese describe as the "handling
+of flowing ink." He used the technique of monochrome almost exclusively,
+and so closely related tone values to the line, or rather to the
+brush-stroke, that it is difficult to decide whether he paints rather than
+draws, or draws rather than paints. Properly speaking, he does not employ
+the line at all but works by masses, by broad, heavily inked touches,
+without pausing to emphasize the deep warm blacks provided by Chinese ink.
+His manner recalls certain drawings by Rembrandt, also produced by strong
+inking, which evoke a strange and magical effect of light. Such was the
+spirit in which Mi Fei treated landscape. This technique marks his style
+and gives it an individuality that is indisputable. The vehemence with
+which he attacks forms, the rapidity of his brush-stroke, the way in which
+things spring from such energy, call to mind pictures by European
+masters, painted in full color, and it may be said of the paintings of Mi
+Fei that they are fairly _colored_ by their tremendous vitality, if the
+quality of the materials he employed permits the use of such a term.
+Therefore Mi Fei and his son are responsible for a new technique, a
+strongly individual work, and the creation of a style which marks the
+highest achievement in monochrome. The trend which impelled them was,
+however, general. Carried to its extreme it led to the style of painting
+called calligraphic, of which there has been occasion to speak several
+times.
+
+Calligraphic painting, or the _literary style_, has its origin in the
+studies of Wang Wei when, renouncing the aid of colour, he strove by
+harmony of shading and by tone values, to reproduce the vast reaches of
+space and all the shifting subtlety of atmospheric perspective. The
+exclusive use of Chinese ink necessitated special studies since thus
+calligraphy was directly approached. The different styles of writing are
+almost drawing in themselves. Each style of writing has its own rules for
+dissecting the written character and making the stroke. Now, as is known,
+the Chinese painters attached supreme importance to the line and to the
+brush-stroke. This was due in part to their equipment and in part to the
+fact that the amateurs of art were prepared by their classical studies to
+appreciate the strength or the delicacy of a line judged for itself, quite
+independently of the forms represented. We must also bear in mind that
+all of the Chinese painters were scholars, belonging to the class of the
+literati.[14] Writers, poets, statesmen, soldiers, Buddhist or Taoist
+priests, and philosophers have all furnished the greatest names in art.
+Under such conditions the technical relationship between the line of the
+painter and that of the calligraphist was closer, since painter and
+calligraphist were frequently united in one and the same person. Thence
+came the early tendency to use monochrome and to represent forms in the
+abstract, rendering them more and more as mere themes, thus reducing the
+subject to a few simple calligraphic strokes.
+
+  [14] The literati, or lettered class, were the aristocracy in what
+  was the most democratic of absolute monarchies. No matter how humble
+  his   origin, anyone of the male sex was eligible to compete in the
+  examinations which were based upon literary knowledge and memory of
+  the classics. Proficiency in handwriting was a natural result. The
+  successful candidate might aspire to any post in the empire, as
+  official positions were bestowed through literary merit. During three
+  days and two nights at the time of examination the candidate was not
+  allowed to leave his tiny box-like cell, lacking even space to lie
+  down. Cases of death during the examinations were not infrequent. The
+  examination halls in Peking are now destroyed and those in Nanking
+  with 20,000 cells are crumbling away.--TRANSLATOR.
+
+It is difficult for a European to follow the thought of the Chinese
+painters in these daring simplifications. Sometimes they are carried to
+such an extreme as to leave us with a feeling of perplexity. Often however
+they give rise to mighty conceptions and paintings whose essential
+character impresses us as a unique product of genius. Calligraphic
+painting reached its highest level during the Sung and Yuean periods. It
+was so closely allied to painting that the Emperor Hui Tsung, who ascended
+the throne in 1100, founded the Imperial Academy of Calligraphy and
+Painting in the first year of his reign. Hui Tsung was himself a painter.
+The books credit him with especial mastery in the representation of birds
+of prey, eagles, falcons and hawks, which seems to be sufficient reason
+for deliberately attributing to him every painting of a bird of prey, even
+when there is evidence that it was painted two or three centuries later
+than his time. Perhaps before long we shall find authentic paintings by
+Hui Tsung. A painting belonging to the Musee Guimet, which comes from the
+collection of Tuan Fang, is the one which by its annotations bears the
+greatest guaranty of authenticity, but it is a representation of a figure
+painting of the T'ang dynasty and gives us no information as to the manner
+in which Hui Tsung painted eagles. However, certain paintings from his
+collections have come down to us. Whether or not by the imperial hand they
+proclaim a virile art, an instinct for the grandiose and a majestic
+character which are the qualities of which the eagle is a symbol.
+
+The foundation of the Academy of Calligraphy and Painting had results
+quite other than those hoped for by its founder. It became imbued with the
+evils of formalism. It was established in the imperial capital in court
+surroundings, in other words, in an atmosphere from which true artists
+depart with all possible speed. It suffered inevitably through the
+influences of a taste, refined it is true, but which already inclined
+toward mannerisms and preciosity. Conventions were established, subjects
+became stereotyped, the taste for brilliant colors developed and, even
+before the end of the Sung period, there was a marked division between
+academic and national art. Pedantry and affectation began to take the
+place of boldness and strength.
+
+Doubtless this tendency would have developed still further but for a
+series of disasters and the menace of a new dynasty looming on the horizon
+of Central Asia, which was already resounding with the clash of Mongol
+arms.
+
+
+
+
+VI. THE YUeAN PERIOD--THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES
+
+
+From the standpoint of civilization the Mongolian dynasty of Yuean brought
+nothing to China. On the contrary, the foreign elements were absorbed by
+the ancient culture for, in the final summing-up, the mind will always be
+stronger than weapons. From the standpoint of painting, however, this
+period has marked individuality.
+
+The Sung period had been distinctly dominated by the ideals of Southern
+China. Philosophical inspiration had proven too strong to permit the style
+of the Northern School to assert absolute sway. In this we must make an
+exception of Buddhist painting, which,--save in the work of a few chance
+painters of religious subjects--continues the traditions of the T'ang
+period, preserving the original character of its coloring. It is true that
+there were masterpieces to the credit of the Northern School but it had by
+no means kept to the style of vivid illumination which marked its
+inception.[15] It had yielded to the influence of the Southern style,
+was simplified by this contact and took on the austerity and proportion of
+the South. It would seem as if the painters hastened to add their
+testimony before the philosophy of the ancient sages should disappear.
+They strove to give the world perfect images in which the great principles
+of the universe could be felt vibrating. The only suitable medium for such
+expression was the technique of the Southern School which they followed
+with more or less fidelity.
+
+  [15] It should be borne in mind that the author uses the term
+  illumination in the sense of color applied within a distinct and
+  limiting outline. This is illustrated in the definitions of single and
+  double contour.--TRANSLATOR.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XIV. BAMBOOS IN MONOCHROME BY WU CHEN
+  Yuean Period. Musee Guimet.]
+
+Southern China was at that time the scene of awakened faculties. Shaken to
+its foundations by the mystic movement--both Taoist and Buddhist--of the
+T'ang period, the Confucian doctrine had lost ground but had not yet
+congealed into the rigid official code of a Chu Hsi. While heterodox
+beliefs still prevailed, all were free to borrow their prophetic and
+poetic meaning.
+
+When the Mongols came into power, they only carried to completion the work
+of conservation begun by the Sung emperors. In their contact with China
+they resembled timid pupils quite as much as conquerors. Once emperor of
+China, the Mongol Kublai Khan could not but remember his purely Chinese
+education. Moreover it was quite the Tartar custom to extend their
+conquests to administrative organization, by establishing a hierarchy of
+functionaries. The conception of a supreme and autocratic State, paternal
+in its absolutism, intervening even to the details of private life in
+order to assure the happiness of the people,--this idea, dear to the
+literary conservators of the Confucian School during the Sung period, was
+also too similar to the Tartar ideal to be denied immediate adoption.
+Heterodox doctrines were formally banished from schools. Rejected with
+scorn as being corrupt and dangerous, there remained of these doctrines
+only such residuum as might be found in the independent thought of
+artists, who were more difficult to control. The magnificent movement of
+the Sung period began to abate; it produced its last master pieces and
+gradually waned, until under Ming rule it was to die out completely.
+
+The Yuean epoch, therefore, appears in the light of a transition period
+connecting the fifteenth century of Ming with the thirteenth century of
+Sung. From the point of view which interests us, it did nothing but
+complete a work which had been carried on with energy and success by
+adherents in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It strove to reduce
+China to a severely regulated State in which all great movements and
+impulses should be under strict control. It succeeded. It succeeded so
+well, indeed, that the Europeans who came to know China in the seventeenth
+century and who rediscovered it so unnecessarily in the nineteenth
+century, believed it to have been motionless for two thousand years. There
+is no need to lay stress here upon the absurdity of this prevalent
+opinion. It has been seen in the past and will be seen in modern times,
+that the inner travail, the evolution and the diversity are by no means
+arrested. Like the nations of Europe, China has had its evolution; the
+causes were analagous, its destiny the same. This is especially felt in
+the history of its painting. When the potent inspiration of the Southern
+School began to wane, the style of the North took the upper hand for
+obvious reasons.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XV. PAINTINGS OF THE YUeAN OR EARLY MING PERIOD
+  Style of the Northern School. Collection of R. Petrucci.]
+
+Partially civilized barbarians occupied the highest places in the State.
+They were the controlling party at the imperial court and had usurped the
+place of the old society, refined, subtle and perhaps too studied, which
+formed the environment of the last Sung emperors. Despite their naive
+efforts and good will, these barbarians could not fathom an art so
+austere, enlightened and balanced. They were utterly ignorant of such a
+masterly conception of nature as was evoked in Chinese painting.
+Monochrome to them was dull. They could admire on trust, but they could
+not understand. On the other hand, the Northern style with its bold
+assurance, strong coloring and drawing positive almost to the point of
+seeming sculptural, was more akin to their mental outlook. There at least
+they found something which recalled those rugs on which they appear to
+have exhausted their artistic resources. In a word, they were more
+accustomed to the Northern style and had brought with them from the
+Northern regions their own artists, both Chinese and barbarian.
+
+The Northern temperament, reflective, strong and positive, now began to
+assume mastery over the bewildered reveries of the Southern nature. Things
+are seen to change. Even the masters who continue the Sung tradition
+infuse a somewhat more robust quality into their works, but, in so doing,
+they lose a certain stirring depth which gave the work of their
+predecessors such an exceptional character. Caught between these two
+tendencies, Yuean painting takes on new traits, which are perhaps more
+accessible to European mentality because they are more simple and direct.
+These observations apply to the general evolution of Chinese painting from
+the end of the thirteenth to the end of the fourteenth centuries. We must
+now consider it more in detail, citing by way of illustration a few of the
+painters who expressed the spirit of the time.
+
+At its inception the Yuean dynasty had inherited the last masters of the
+Sung period, among them two artists who are recognized as of the first
+rank. Chao Meng-fu--known also under the appellation of Tzu[)u]-ang--was
+born in 1254. He was a descendant of the first Sung emperor and held an
+hereditary post which he resigned at the time the Yuean dynasty came into
+power. He retired into private life until 1286, then when called back to
+court as a high functionary, he became a supporter of the new dynasty.
+Chao Meng-fu painted landscape as well as figures, flowers and the bamboo,
+but he is most celebrated for his horses. Numberless paintings of
+horses are attributed to this master; needless to say the great majority
+of these are not by his hand.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XVI. PORTRAIT OF A PRIEST
+  Yuean or Early Ming Period. Collection of H. Riviere.]
+
+As a landscape painter he seems to have worked in the style of the
+Southern School, with a fine, simple line in which may still be seen
+traces of the ancient tradition that extends back to Ku K'ai-chih. This
+characteristic line is found in the paintings of men and horses where the
+hand of Chao Meng-fu is distinguishable. He bequeaths it to the large
+school which he founded, and, through his pupils, it becomes the
+inheritance of his imitators in the Ming period. It is more than probable
+that almost all of the paintings by his pupils, bearing the signature
+Tz[)u]-ang, are attributed to the master, while his own paintings are
+ascribed to Han Kan, painter of horses in the T'ang period. However, among
+the numerous works attributed to Chao Meng-fu, there are a few in which we
+recognize the vibrant and flexible line which is seen in his landscapes.
+These paintings bear the signature of Tz[)u]-ang, in all probability a
+false one, but the work of art itself will always be of greater value in
+determining its authenticity than the most impressive of inscriptions. If
+the technique and the quality of the line are sufficiently similar to
+warrant attributing to the same hand the landscape in the British Museum,
+and any particular painting of horses, this may be regarded as sufficient
+evidence on which to base our own opinion as to his style.
+
+Amongst his grooms and mounted soldiers, Chao Meng-fu painted the
+different races which the wave of Mongolian invasion had swept into China:
+Chinese from the central provinces, Tartars, Mongols with fur caps,
+Moslems of a Semitic type from Turkestan, with white turbans and heavy
+earrings. Whether his subject was the little Tartar horse from the
+Mongolian plains or the beautiful steeds of ancient Transoxiana, always
+brought as tribute by way of Khotan to the Chinese court, he gave the life
+of the horse a singular beauty, portraying him in an equally happy manner
+whether in the act of racing or in the attitudes of repose. In his mind
+still dwelt the vision of Sung ideals, which proclaimed the hidden soul of
+things and valued spirituality and life in a painting. Although we see
+marked evidence of the Southern style in his work, his paintings are more
+strongly colored than are those of that school. The influence of the Yuean
+period begins to make itself felt. It brings out values in colored
+pigment, emphasizes its violence and paves the way for a new tradition.
+
+Chao Meng-fu has been compared by Chinese critics to his great predecessor
+Han Kan. The writings, however, are unanimous in stating that,
+notwithstanding his undeniable mastery, he lacked something of the vigor
+of the earlier master. When we attempt to compare the two styles through
+the aid of paintings of the T'ang period, wherein a reflection of the
+great animal painter may be sought, the writings appear to be confirmed
+in attributing a more positive and forceful character to the work of Han
+Kan or the unknown group of painters around him. But Chao Meng-fu seems to
+have possessed in a higher degree the feeling of movement and life, and to
+have been less hampered in his choice of poses. Centuries of study and of
+observation had intervened between the great animal painter of the T'ang
+epoch and his worthy rival of a later period.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XVII. HORSE
+  Painting by an unknown artist. Yuean or Early Ming Period.
+  Doucet Collection.]
+
+Like Chao Meng-fu, Ch'ien Hsuean, or Ch'ien Shun-chue, retired from public
+life at the downfall of the Sung dynasty. He was a member of a group of
+the faithful over which Chao presided, but, more decided than the latter
+in his opposition to the new dynasty, he was indignant at his confrere's
+defection and refused to follow his example. He lived in retirement,
+devoting himself to painting and to poetry up to the time of his death. He
+also continued the Sung tradition under the Yuean dynasty to which, as a
+matter of fact, he belonged only during the second part of his life. He
+painted figures, landscape, flowers and birds. His delicate line is not
+lacking in strength, and he seems to have been especially endowed with a
+sense of form which approached greatness in its simplicity. Whether the
+subject is a young prince or a pigeon perched on the summit of a rock from
+which chrysanthemums are springing, the same dignified and tranquil
+nobility is asserted with ease. He still used the quiet and restrained
+coloring of the Sung period and prolonged, without impairing it, the
+great tradition that a century and a half could not quite efface.
+
+Of Yen Hui we know almost nothing; the books state briefly that he painted
+Buddhist figures, birds and flowers, and that he was past master in the
+painting of demons. Nothing is known of the date of his birth or if, by
+his age and training, he could be classed in the Sung period, but several
+admirable paintings by him are extant which serve to show how Sung art was
+still interpreted by exceptional masters in the Yuean period. His line is
+strong, broader, fuller and more abrupt than that of Chao Meng-fu or
+Ch'ien Shun-chue. The quivering vitality that emanates from his pictures is
+thrilling. Whether the subject is a peony heavy with dew, whose drooping
+petals presage the approaching end, or a Buddhist monk patching his
+mantle, the fleeting moment is seized with such intuitive power that
+prolonged contemplation of the painting creates the impression that it is
+suddenly about to come to life. There is something sturdier, more
+startling, less dreamy in these great painters who continue the traditions
+of Sung art; their work alone demonstrated that tradition could be revived
+and that ancient China, under the Mongolian dynasty, was still preserving
+its creative spirit and advancing resolutely into fertile fields.
+
+In Huang Kung-wang and Ni Tsan, we approach a different order of things.
+Lines began to take on a classical character, to be divided into a
+series of different types, which painters adopted according to their
+temperament and requirements, and finally became impersonal and academic.
+Both of these painters, nevertheless, were under the spell of early
+influences extending back to the T'ang artists. Through study of these old
+masters they returned to the use of a full and sometimes vivid color, but
+kept a profound love of nature, and a fresh and original vision, by which
+they still perpetuated the inspiration of Sung painting in a new form.
+With these painters, however, new features appeared. Reds and purples
+became dominant notes amidst rich greens which set them off and enhanced
+their brilliancy. The vision of landscape itself is somewhat more
+realistic and less subtle. In all of these essentials Ni Tsan, who died in
+1374, brings us nearer to the Ming period.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XVIII. VISIT TO THE EMPEROR BY THE IMMORTALS FROM
+  ON HIGH Ming Period. British Museum, London.]
+
+Simultaneously, though quite apart, marked tendencies of a different
+character were evident. The old masters of the T'ang period had again
+returned to favor. The vivid illumination and color distinct from drawing,
+in these firm and vigorous works appealed to the untutored barbarian. On
+the other hand, the studies of the Sung period had not been fruitless;
+therefore when, under these influences, the use of color was resumed, the
+painters profited by what the practice of monochrome had taught meanwhile.
+In the Yuean period appear those paintings which are attacked directly with
+a dripping brush without preliminary drawing, the forms being modeled in
+the color itself. The Chinese called this painting "without bones," in
+other words, deprived of the assistance of line. This procedure was first
+used by a painter of the Sung period, but it did not take root definitely
+until the time when the practice of using Chinese ink as a medium to
+express tones had taught painters how to model forms in color itself,
+making the structure depend upon color.
+
+Seen as a whole, the Yuean period witnessed the assembling, the
+concentration, so to speak, of the ardent but scattered inspirations of
+the great masters of the preceding school. It produced splendid
+compositions in which the golden age of Chinese painting continued to be
+manifest. Masters arose and if, in spite of all, they mark a reaction
+toward the Northern style, seeking rich and vivid color, they give us a
+vision of beauty that is equal to the work of their predecessors.
+
+Meanwhile grave signs of decadence were apparent. Composition became
+overladen and complex and began to lose something of the noble simplicity,
+greatness and supreme charm of the old masters. It was evident that the
+Yuean painters were working under the eye of the barbarians. They yielded
+to the taste of the latter for anecdote, for surmounting difficulties and
+for sentimental detail. Thus far there were only scarcely perceptible
+shadows and momentary weaknesses, warning signs of decadence; but when
+such signs are evident, decadence is at hand, and that which the virility
+of the barbarians had preserved was to be lost through the creed-bound
+dignity of an academic China, which was imprisoned in a rigid system of
+rules.
+
+
+
+
+VII. THE MING PERIOD--FOURTEENTH TO SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES
+
+
+The Ming dynasty came into power on the wings of national feeling. China
+rallied her forces and expelled the foreign tyrants. Without doubt the
+nation cherished the illusion of rebuilding itself upon the model of the
+past, and the first emperors of the dynasty believed that the empire could
+be re-established upon an unshakable foundation. But the Ming dynasty, in
+reality, was but the heir and follower of Yuean. The latter itself had been
+only a connecting link. It had changed nothing, but had tended rather to
+absorb into the Chinese system the Northern barbarians, who up to that
+time had been foreigners. It had unwittingly achieved unity for China,
+despite itself and against its own inclination. In the administration of
+the empire, it had finished the program of conservation which the Sung
+dynasty, through impotence, had been unable to carry to completion.
+
+The Ming dynasty inherited the work of the Mongols and consolidated it. It
+survived under their reign and under that of the Ch'ing rulers until the
+final disintegration, of which we have but recently seen the results.
+The peaceful ideals of the Ming dynasty, the marked predominance of
+Confucianism as a code of ethics, with certain modifications by Chu Hsi,
+combined to form an ensemble that was apparently perfect and which made it
+possible to have faith in the excellence of the principles laid down by
+the monarchy. Thus a school was formed which had its own philosophy,
+manners and ideals, all of them cold, stiff and without spontaneity. It
+was an over-perfect machine which went like clockwork. The world was
+judged with a narrow and somewhat stupid self-confidence. The ideal dwelt
+in the word of Confucian writings, divorced from their true meaning, and
+so badly interpreted that they ceased to be understood aright. The
+meticulous, bureaucratic and hieratic administration of the Tartars was a
+perfect system of government. The machine was still new and worked well,
+whence arose a false impression of permanence which added still further to
+the complacency of the conservative mind. An art was necessary to this
+China. She had it. It was academic painting.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XIX. EGRETS BY LIN LIANG
+  Ming Period. Collection of Mrs. John D. Rockefeller, Junior.]
+
+Side by side with this and yet apart, other influences were at work.
+Notwithstanding the prohibition of books on heterodox philosophies in
+schools, accompanied by the widespread decadence of Buddhism, and the
+complete downfall of Taoism owing to gross practices in popular magic, and
+despite the disdain of the official world, another element in China was
+preserving the spirit of the past, the restless spirit that craved
+novelty. In all probability its obscure workings did not appear
+immediately upon the surface, concealed as they were by the strictly
+prescribed screen of official China. They were sufficiently strong,
+however, to give rise to an art which differed essentially from academic
+art, and which numbered masters who were comparable with those of the
+past. In spite of adverse circumstances and the weight under which these
+movements were buried, they made themselves felt in violent upheavals.
+First let us draw a picture of the decadence of an art and later we shall
+return to activity and life.
+
+Official painting in the Ming period rapidly stiffened into convention. To
+understand how it took shape, we must go back to the time of Hui Tsung and
+observe the method of recruiting talent in the Academy which he founded.
+
+That painting was allied to philosophic and poetic thought is already
+known. It was always a refined diversion of poets and painters to unite in
+a quest for the beautiful. The poet wrote verses and the painter painted a
+picture suggesting, sometimes remotely, the thought enshrined in the poem.
+Such were the conditions upon which Hui Tsung instituted examinations,
+following which the doors of the Academy were open to the victor. He gave,
+for example, as subject for a competition a verse saying, "The bamboos
+envelop the inn beyond the bridge," which suggested a landscape with
+flowing water, a rustic bridge thrown across the stream, a cluster of
+bamboos on the bank, a "winehouse" half hidden in the verdure. All the
+competitors, the records say, set to work drawing with minute care the inn
+which they made the essential feature of the picture. Only one implied its
+presence by showing, above a dense cluster of bamboos, the little banner
+which in China denotes the presence of a "winehouse." Two verses of
+another poem in which allusion was made to the red flowers of spring were
+interpreted by the representation of a beautiful young girl dressed in
+red, leaning on a balustrade, for according to Chinese ideas, the thoughts
+of young men in spring turn there, as elsewhere, toward thoughts of love.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XX. FLOWERS AND INSECTS
+  Ming Period. Collection of R. Petrucci.]
+
+We have here an example of the subtle allusions, at times profoundly
+poetic, with which Chinese painting abounds. But these things retain their
+value and charm only in so far as they depend on a free play of mind or
+upon personal, living sentiments. As accepted conventions regulated in an
+academic competition, repeated with sustained effort and without
+enthusiasm, their rigid monotony becomes intolerable. Such was the
+ultimate fate of that ability to express by half meanings, to suggest
+without directly stating, to which the Sung painters attached so great an
+importance. The day it was understood that a little banner fluttering over
+bamboos indicated the presence of a "winehouse" in a sylvan retreat, or
+that a young girl dressed in red symbolized the crimson blooming of a
+garden pink in springtime, banners and young girls dressed in red were
+seen in paintings innumerable to the point of satiety.
+
+Thus were established those dry conventions of a somewhat stupid erudition
+which were so much the fashion in the academic painting of the Ming and
+the Ch'ing periods, and whose great success repressed the artistic
+aspirations of a people. Under these influences was rapidly assembled a
+complete arsenal of allegories, allusions and symbols that gave birth to
+an art which was possibly very learned, but which was inartistic to the
+last degree. An academician of the Ming period would have thought himself
+disgraced if he had not proven by complicated compositions the extent of
+his knowledge of things of this character. Art was no longer anything but
+a kind of puzzle. Furthermore, the decadence of eye and hand followed that
+of the mind, and there next appeared a taste for brilliant colors,
+overladen compositions, and fine and meticulous lines, culminating in an
+unbearable nicety. The work of the Academy is summed up in these words.
+
+Let us turn aside from an art that is inert. It robbed things of the
+creative spirit that animated them. We shall now see what was achieved by
+those who followed in the steps of the old masters.
+
+The fifteenth century in China witnessed a continuance of the style
+prevalent during the Sung and Yuean periods. Chou Chih-mien, for example,
+was true to that profound feeling for form, that delicacy of coloring,
+and rhythm in composition which were the endowment of the greatest
+masters. Shen Chou belonged entirely to the Yuean school, and to prove that
+the old ideals were not dead, we have in the fifteenth century the
+magnificent group of painters of the plum tree, with Lu Fu and Wang
+Yuean-chang at their head.
+
+As before stated, a special philosophy was associated with this tree and
+its flowers. The white petals scattered on vigorous branches had long
+typified an inner soul, whose purity was the very likeness of virtue and
+of tenderness. Chung Jen, who in the eleventh century wrote a treatise on
+the painting of the plum tree, explains in his chapter on "the derivation
+of forms" that it is a symbol, a concentrated form, a likeness of the
+universe. The great fundamental principles mingle harmoniously within it;
+they express themselves in its shape and reveal themselves through its
+beauty. Similar to this was the philosophy associated with the bamboo,
+which endured up to the fifteenth century. The subtle monochromes of Lu Fu
+show branches of flowering plum swaying in the breeze. In the great works
+of Wang Yuean-chang trunks of old trees, still bearing hardy blossoms,
+stand proudly in the magical radiance of the moon. Vibration and power,
+grandeur and majesty, such are the qualities which were still sought
+amidst the severe conditions imposed by the use of black and white. Here
+we feel that the creative force is not yet spent. We find it equally
+fresh and vigorous in the ink bamboos of Wen Cheng-ming in the sixteenth
+century.
+
+In landscape, however, new elements appear which mark a decline. I have
+already laid stress on the overladen composition which developed in the
+Yuean epoch. This was still more noticeable in the Ming period. When
+pictorial art has had a long series of masters, a certain eclecticism is
+infallibly produced. This leads to the rejection of the direct study of
+nature, in favor of viewing it only through the eyes of the old masters.
+This phenomenon appeared in China as well as in Europe. The landscape
+painters of the Ming period studied the technique of the T'ang and the
+Sung epochs and codified their system of lines, arranging them in series
+according to types and schools; in short, they drew from these a
+ready-made technique by which they were controlled. Turning from nature
+they yielded to imagination. They delighted in painting fanciful
+landscapes and were inclined toward images that were more external and
+less inspired than in the past. Their works, however, were invested with
+great charm, and the impossible disposition of their clustering peaks and
+oddly cleft rocks cannot but appeal to the imagination.
+
+In these overladen compositions the unity of the picture is lost. We are
+no longer in the presence of a simple and forceful idea, but behold a
+thousand incidents, a thousand little details, exquisite in themselves,
+but which require a search. It is a new conception of landscape. We may
+possibly prefer the gripping formula of Sung and Yuean art, but we are
+forced to acknowledge that this later work has great charm and extreme
+refinement.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XXI. LANDSCAPE
+  Ming Period. Bouasse-Lebel Collection.]
+
+To this general trend was added a new taste in color, which became
+brilliant and complex like the composition itself, harmonious and graceful
+in the paintings of the masters and always charming in the work of
+painters of the second rank; but this was the herald of a blatant and
+vulgar manner which gradually gained ground until it came to be generally
+adopted by the artisans of the Ch'ing period.
+
+While landscape under the Ming painters was assuming a different guise,
+and, forgetful of the observances of the past, was beguiling the mind by
+its charm and delicacy, a new type of figure was also developing. Here we
+must pause for a moment.
+
+We have seen that figures were treated before landscape by the painters of
+periods preceding the T'ang dynasty. This early tradition had submitted to
+the influence of Buddhist art and, while certain of its elements were
+revived in the work of a few masters, there is no doubt that figure
+painting from the seventh and eighth centuries on, was absolutely
+revolutionized. The inevitable result was a new type in the sixteenth
+century. Painters studied the line for itself, determined its proportions,
+and analyzed features and drapery. As far as our present knowledge
+extends, their observations were not collected and codified until the end
+of the nineteenth century, but the assembled writings testify that the
+result of their studies was expressed along the lines indicated from the
+end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth centuries. Their
+ideal was totally different from that of the old masters. The figure
+treated for itself with but few accessories became the sole aim of the
+painter. He endeavored to show the charm of a woman's face, the dainty and
+elegant gestures, the supple and voluptuous gait, and he grasped the
+characteristics and peculiarities of a man's figure by means of an
+intensified drawing. At times, the influence of analysis was so objective
+that it resulted in a painting closely approaching European standards. The
+taste expressed in landscape was likewise evident in figures. There were
+brilliant and harmonious colors, a charm which became exquisite in the
+coquettish and vivacious faces of women with ivory skin and brilliant
+eyes, of graceful movements, and with long, slender, delicate hands,
+incarnations of the fairies of ancient legend or historic beauties whose
+memory still lived.
+
+In a word, the philosophical inspiration to which the Sung dynasty owed
+its glory was discarded to make way for the painting of everyday life, a
+realistic representation of the world and its activities, which in Japan
+gave rise to the Ukioyoye school, and in China recruited a series of
+painters of the first rank outside the limits of academic tradition.
+
+It would be interesting to study the influence of this movement of the
+China of the time of Ming upon the originators of the Ukioyoye in Japan.
+It is certain that the movement on the continent preceded similar
+manifestations in the island empire by a century, and it is also certain
+that the Japanese empire was directly influenced by the China of the Ming
+period. Chinese painters were established in Japan as early as the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. There is one of whose family name we
+are ignorant and who is known only under the appellation of Ju-sue,--in
+Japanese Josetsu. He left China, where the domination of official art
+stood in the way of an independent career, carried the traditions of Sung
+and Yuean art to Japan, gathered pupils about him there, and had the glory
+of being the founder of that magnificent school of which Sesshiu is the
+leading exponent. There is only one small painting which can be attributed
+to Ju-sue with certainty. This is preserved in a Japanese temple.
+Unfortunately it is a work of small importance which, notwithstanding its
+intrinsic value, by no means furnishes sufficient information to enable us
+to pronounce on the authenticity of several other works which are said to
+be by his hand. We find in the latter an extremely individual art, in
+accordance with early traditions, but with the addition of something
+fanciful and unexpected which gives this painter marked distinction.
+Having worked outside of China, however, his influence was not felt in the
+evolution of Chinese painting.
+
+In the seventeenth century Ming art came in contact with the art of the
+Europeans. The methods and rules of the Italian ateliers of the end of the
+Renaissance were brought to China by missionary painters whose talent was
+of a secondary order. The system of monocular perspective and modeling,
+strongly accentuated by the opposition of light and shade, made a forcible
+impression on the Chinese mind. Indications of this are found in the
+Chinese books on art. But the technical methods were too different and the
+systems too much at variance to meet on any common ground. Notwithstanding
+its effect upon certain painters, the influence of European painting was
+on the whole negligible. Father Matteo Ricci worked at the end of the Ming
+period under the Chinese name of Li Ma-tu and Father Castiglione, at the
+beginning of the Ch'ing dynasty, used the name of Lang Chue-ning, but,
+although the former continued to use European methods, while the latter
+adopted the Chinese procedure, these were only isolated efforts submerged
+in the great wave of Asiatic evolution.
+
+
+
+
+VIII. THE CH'ING PERIOD--SEVENTEENTH TO TWENTIETH CENTURIES
+
+
+The Ch'ing or Manchu dynasty, whose downfall we have recently witnessed,
+brought no new vigor to China. Barbarians once again invaded the aged and
+enfeebled empire usurping the methods, history and organization of the
+preceding periods. The change in China at the end of the seventeenth
+century was only dynastic. The evolution of Ming tendencies continued, and
+despite the reorganization undertaken by Kang Hsi and maintained by his
+two successors, the excessive requirements of the old system, which had
+been formulated during the Sung epoch and definitely established in the
+Yuean and Ming periods, were so exacting that irremediable decadence was
+inevitable. Thenceforward no great changes in the realm of painting need
+be expected. It only continued its logical evolution.
+
+It is necessary, nevertheless, to lay stress on the value of Chinese
+painting from the seventeenth to the twentieth century, for an opinion is
+current that, while there might still be something of value under the Ming
+dynasty, nothing good was produced under the Ch'ing. It is undeniable that
+marked signs of decadence are seen in the latter period, but by the side
+of some inferior works, others exist which maintain the vitality of the
+past and the hope of a renaissance.
+
+In refutation of such hasty and ill informed opinion, it is sufficient to
+recall a number of paintings, signed and dated, of the eighteenth and
+nineteenth centuries, which dealers or collectors calmly attribute to the
+eleventh and twelfth.
+
+Chinese painting at the end of the seventeenth and the beginning of the
+eighteenth century was still full of vitality. The taste for brilliant
+color gradually diminished, and the composition became broader and more
+noble at the hands of certain painters, in whom is seen the revival of the
+vigorous race of yore. This was the time when Yuen Shou-p'ing, more
+commonly known under the name of Nan-t'ien, painted landscape and flowers
+with the restraint and power of the old style, and when Shen Nan-p'ing set
+out for Japan to found a modern Chinese school which was to rival the
+Ukioyoye in importance and activity. About them was grouped a large
+following, foretelling fresh developments.
+
+No support was given to this movement by the new government, which was
+infatuated with the academic style of the earlier reigns and becoming more
+and more ignorant as the last years of the nineteenth century approached.
+In the eighteenth century a comparatively large number of Chinese painters
+settled in Japan, where they continued the traditions of Ming art. The
+observation of a Nan-t'ien or of a Shen Nan-p'ing was keen and
+painstaking, but the objectivity and realism now coming to the fore, were
+conspicuous in their works. No longer was it the world of pure substance
+and abstract principle that was sought, but the real, everyday world, the
+world of objective forms studied for themselves, living their own life, on
+the threshold of which the spirit halted, no longer guided by the old
+philosophies.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XXII. BEAUTY INHALING THE FRAGRANCE OF A PEONY
+  Ming Period. Collection of V. Goloubew.]
+
+This character was maintained up to the nineteenth century. It is seen in
+the painting of flowers and landscape as well as in figure painting. These
+traits are equally apparent in an iris by Nan t'ien and a personage by
+Huang Yin-piao. The latter, working in the middle of the eighteenth
+century, evoked the personages of Buddhist and Taoist legend with a
+skillful brush, but his daring simplifications were more akin to
+virtuosity than to that deep reflection and freedom from non-essentials
+which were the glory of the early masters. Herein are discerned the
+elements of decadence, which are wont to assume precisely this aspect of a
+mastery over difficulties. For such ends genuine research and the true
+grasp of form were gradually abandoned.
+
+Calligraphy and the literary style were not overlooked, but they were
+carried to a point of abstraction that is beyond the province of art. A
+personage was represented by lines which formed characters in handwriting
+and which, in drawing the figure, at the same time wrote a sentence.
+Doubtless that is a proof of marvelous skill. I agree in assigning such
+masterpieces to the realm of calligraphy but refuse to admit them to the
+domain of painting.
+
+This applies as well to the so-called _thumb nail painting_ held in high
+repute under the last dynasty. In this the brush is abandoned and the line
+is drawn by the finger dipped in ink or color. The painting is done on
+modern paper of a special kind which partially absorbs the paint, in the
+manner of blotting paper; this results in weak lines, and ink and color
+schemes devoid of firmness, in short, in a lack of virility which places
+such works, notwithstanding their virtuosity, in the category of artisan
+achievements. These works are numerous in the modern period and constitute
+what so many regard as Chinese painting. One cannot be too careful in
+discarding them.
+
+During every period decorative paintings, religious paintings and
+ancestral paintings made after death, were executed in China by artisans,
+ordinary workmen at the service of whosoever might engage them. Such work
+should not be consulted in studying the styles of great periods or the
+higher manifestations of an art. These paintings were the first to leave
+China and find their way to Europe. There is no reason for analyzing them
+here.
+
+To sum up, Chinese painting of the last two centuries still numbers
+masters of the first rank. This alone indicates that the sacred fire is by
+no means extinct. Who shall say what future awaits it amidst the
+profound changes of today? After a period of indecision which lasted for
+twenty-five years, Japan has found herself anew and is seeking to revive
+her artistic traditions. It is to be hoped that China will, at all costs,
+avoid the same mistakes and that she will not be unmindful, as was her
+neighbor, of the history of the old masters.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XXIII. HALT OF THE IMPERIAL HUNT
+  Ming Period. Sixteenth Century. Collection of R. Petrucci.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+This brief survey has shown how the distinctive features of China's
+artistic activity were distributed. Though subjected to varying
+influences, this evolution possesses a unity which is quite as complete as
+is that of our Western art. In the beginning there were studies, of which
+we know only through written records. But the relationship existing
+between writing and painting from the dawn of historic time, permits us to
+carry our studies of primitive periods very far back, even earlier than
+the times of the sculptured works. We thus witness the gradual development
+of that philosophical ideal which has dominated the entire history of
+Chinese painting, forcing it to search for abstract form, and which
+averted for so long the advent of triviality and decadence.
+
+The goal sought by Chinese thought had already been reached in painting
+when, in the third and fourth centuries, we are vouchsafed a glimpse of
+it. It is a vision of a high order, in which the subtle intellectuality
+corresponds to a society of refinement whose desires have already assumed
+extreme proportions. Like Byzantium, heir to Hellenistic art, the China
+of the Han dynasty and of Ku K'ai-chih was already progressing toward bold
+conventions and soft harmonies, in which could be felt both the pride of
+an intelligence which imposed its will upon Nature, and the weariness
+following its sustained effort.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XXIV. PAINTING BY CHANG CHENG
+  Eighteenth Century. Collection of M. Worch.]
+
+This refinement, arising from the exhaustion of a world which even thus
+retained a certain primitive ruggedness, was succeeded by a stupendous
+movement which followed in the wake of the preaching of Buddhism. With the
+new gods we see the first appearance of definite and long-continued
+foreign influences. Civilization was transformed and took on new life.
+Then, as in the days of the great forerunners of the Florentine
+Renaissance, there appeared a whole group of artists, prepared by the art,
+at once crude and refined, of an earlier people. This group set resolutely
+to work at the close study of forms, ascertaining the laws of their
+structure and the conditions of the environment which produced them. The
+period in which the work of Li Ss[)u]-hsuen, Li Chao-tao and Wang Wei was
+produced may be likened to the fifteenth century in Florence with
+Pisanello, Verocchio, Ghirlandajo and Masaccio. Similar conditions gave
+birth to a movement that is directly comparable with the Italian movement
+for, no matter how varied the outward appearances due to differences of
+race and civilization, the fundamentals of art are the same everywhere and
+pertain to the same mental attitudes.
+
+The great leaders in periods preceding the T'ang dynasty paved the way to
+the culmination which took place in the Sung period, and thus the fruit of
+that prolonged activity is seen ripening between the tenth and the
+thirteenth centuries. Through the gropings of the primitive period, the
+heterodox philosophies and the mystic stirrings of Buddhism, Eastern
+thought had arrived at an unquestionably noble comprehension of existence.
+The impersonal mystery of the universe, its mighty principle, its manifold
+manifestations and the secret which unveils itself in the innermost soul
+of things are the conceptions which form the inspiration of Chinese
+painting. These lofty thoughts are the source of that spirituality which
+declares itself therein with such nobility. The religion to which they are
+due will seem perhaps, to certain people, to be broader and less trammeled
+than our own. There is no doubt that the entire Far East was under the
+spell of its grandeur.
+
+Up to this point art had sounded every depth and attained the highest
+summits of human achievement. Thenceforward it concerned itself with
+varying manifestations which were only the different modes of a formula
+that was still flexible, until the time when--the great inspirations of
+the past forgotten--there appear signs of a spirit on the quest for
+realism, emerging from the ancient tradition. This is the distinctive note
+in the evolution of Chinese painting under the last two dynasties. It
+would seem as if, even in this guise, a universal need of the mind is
+being satisfied, a need which we, too, have known after experiencing a
+chilling academicism, and when modern culture had overthrown the ancient
+idols. Chinese painters have thus completed a round analogous to that
+traveled by our own artists.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE XXV. TIGER IN A PINE FOREST
+  Eighteenth to Nineteenth Centuries. Collection of V. Goloubew.]
+
+For the Far East as for Europe, the problem now presented is that of a
+revival. Bent beneath the weight of the prestige of the past, too learned
+in the last word of culture, modern art is seeking to find itself, groping
+blindly, full of promising but unfinished works. The time has come when
+there are signs throughout the world of a desire for a universal
+civilization, by the reconciling of ancient divergencies. Europe and the
+Far East bring into contrast the most vigorous traditions in history.
+Henceforward there is interest for both civilizations in studying and in
+coming to understand a foreign ideal. Though incomplete, these pages will
+perhaps help to show that such a mutual comprehension is not impossible
+and that, if egotistic prejudices are overcome, apparent dissimilarities
+will be resolved into a profound identity. Thus will arise the elements of
+a new culture. In coming to understand a mood which so fully reflects an
+unknown world, the European mind will discover principles which will make
+it rise superior to itself. May this broad comprehension of human thought
+lead Europe to estimate with greater justice a civilization numbering its
+years by thousands, and to refrain from thwarting the fulfillment of its
+destiny.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+  An Introduction to the Study of Chinese Pictorial Art. Herbert A.
+      Giles, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Chinese in the University of
+      Cambridge. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. London, Bernard
+      Quaritch. 1918.
+
+  Painting in the Far East. Laurence Binyon. Second Edition, revised.
+      London, Edward Arnold. 1913.
+
+  The Flight of the Dragon. Laurence Binyon. Wisdom of the East Series.
+      London, John Murray. 1911.
+
+  Epochs of Chinese and Japanese Art. Ernest F. Fenollosa. 2 volumes. F.
+      A. Stokes and Co., New York. 1912.
+
+  Scraps from a Collector's Note Book. F. Hirth. Leiden, New York. 1905.
+
+  Chinese Art. Stephen W. Bushell, C.M.G., B.Sc., M.D. Victoria and
+      Albert Museum Handbook. 2 volumes. London. 1910.
+
+  Chinese Painting. Mrs. Francis Ayscough. The _Mentor_ of Dec. 2, 1918,
+      Serial No. 168. New York.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INDEX OF PAINTERS AND PERIODS
+
+
+The following summary furnishes additional information regarding the
+painters to whom reference has been made. Those to whom the subject is not
+familiar will find this of assistance in placing in their proper
+historical order the different trends which have been indicated elsewhere.
+They will also find dates useful in comparing, if so desired, the artistic
+evolution of China with that of Europe. This, however, is only an outline.
+The names of some great masters are omitted, for I have no wish to
+overload the margin of a statement which should be kept clear and
+convenient of access. I trust nevertheless that these few notes in concise
+form will be of use in connection with the preceding text.
+
+
+I. BEFORE THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM
+
+  The _Bas-reliefs_ of the second Han dynasty belong to the second and
+      third centuries of the Christian era.
+
+  _Ku K'ai-chih_, also called _Chang-k'ang_ and _Hu-tou_, was born in
+      Wu-hsi in the province of Kiang-su. He lived at the end of the
+      fourth and beginning of the fifth century. His style, resembling
+      that of the Han period, informs us as to the character of painting
+      from the second to the fifth century. It is such as to indicate a
+      long antecedent period of cultivation and development.
+
+  _Hsieh Ho_ (479-502), painter of the figure. He wrote a small book
+      setting forth the Six Canons or Requirements of painting. This work
+      informs us regarding the philosophy of art in China of the fifth
+      century.
+
+
+II. THE INTERVENTION OF BUDDHISM
+
+It is difficult to set an exact date for the first contact of Buddhist
+with Chinese art. It may be assumed that the influence of Buddhist art
+began to be felt noticeably in China in the fifth century. In the seventh
+and eighth centuries it was so widespread as to be definitely established.
+
+
+III. THE T'ANG DYNASTY
+
+A.D. 618-905
+
+  _Wu Tao-tz[)u]_, also called _Wu Tao-yuean_. Born in Honan toward the
+      end of the eighth century. His influence was felt in Japanese art
+      as well as in that of China. He painted landscape, figures and
+      Buddhist subjects.
+
+  _Li Ss[)u]-hsuen_ (651-715 or 720) is considered as the founder of the
+      Northern School. He appears to have felt the influence which
+      Buddhist art brought in its train.
+
+  _Li Chao-tao_, son of Li Ss[)u]-hsuen, lived at the end of the seventh
+      and beginning of the eighth centuries. He is said to have varied
+      from his father's style and even surpassed it.
+
+  _Wang Wei_, also called _Wang Mo-k'i_ (699-759), poet, painter and
+      critic. The great reformer of Chinese landscape painting.
+      Considered as the founder of the Southern School and the originator
+      of monochrome painting in Chinese ink.
+
+  _Han Kan_, renowned in the period _t'ien-pao_ (742-759). According to
+      tradition he was a pupil of Wang Wei. His school possessed in the
+      highest degree knowledge of the form, characteristics and movements
+      of the horse.
+
+
+IV. THE SUNG DYNASTY
+
+A.D. 960-1260
+
+  _Tung Yuean._ Tenth century. Landscape painter. He worked in both the
+      Northern and Southern styles.
+
+  _Chue Jan_, Buddhist monk. Tenth century. He was at first influenced by
+      the work of Tung Yuean, but later created an individual style.
+
+  _Ma Yuean._ End of the twelfth and beginning of the thirteenth century.
+      Member of the Academy of Painting. He was the author of a strong
+      and vigorous style which characterized the school founded by him.
+
+  _Hsia Kuei_ served in the college at Han-Lin in the reign of the
+      Emperor Ning Tsung (1195-1224). He was considered a master of
+      chiaroscuro and atmospheric perspective.
+
+  _Ma Lin_, son of Ma Yuean. Thirteenth century. His work shows that he
+      painted even more in the tradition of the Southern School than his
+      father and uncle.
+
+  _Li Lung-mien_ or _Li Kung-lin_. Born at Chou in Ngan-huei. He held
+      public offices, which he resigned in 1100 to retire to the mountain
+      of Lung-mien, where he died in 1106. Noted for his calligraphy as
+      well as for his painting. At one time in his life, under religious
+      influences, he painted a great number of Buddhist figures.
+
+  _Mi Fei_ or _Mi Yuean-chang_ or _Mi Nan-kung_ (1051-1107).
+      Calligraphist, painter and critic. He used strong inking in a style
+      in which the simplification of monochrome is carried to the
+      extreme. He had a son, _Mi Yu-Jen_, who painted in his father's
+      style and lived to an advanced age.
+
+  _Hui Tsung_, emperor, poet, painter and calligraphist. Born in 1082,
+      ascended the throne in 1100, lost his throne in 1125 and died in
+      captivity in 1135. In the first year of his reign he founded the
+      Academy of Calligraphy and Painting. He made a large collection of
+      valuable paintings and rare objects of art which was scattered at
+      the plundering of his capital by the Tartars in 1225.
+
+
+V. YUeAN DYNASTY
+
+A.D. 1260-1368
+
+  _Chao Meng-fu_, also called _Ts[)u]-ang_. Born in 1254. Man of
+      letters, painter and calligraphist. He was a great landscape
+      painter and in the first rank as a painter of horses.
+
+  _Ch'ien Hsuean_, also called _Ch'ien Shun-chue_, lived at the end of the
+      thirteenth and beginning of the fourteenth century. He painted
+      figures, landscape, flowers and birds. He employed the style and
+      methods of the Sung dynasty.
+
+  _Yen Hui_ lived in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. His
+      paintings were numerous and indicate a master of the first order.
+      He painted many Buddhist and Taoist subjects.
+
+  _Huang Kung-wang._ Fourteenth century. At first influenced by the style
+      of Tung Yuean and Chue Jan, he later acquired an individual style and
+      was one of the great founders of schools in the Yuean period.
+
+  _Ni Tsan_, also called Yuen-lin (1301-1374). Man of letters,
+      calligraphist, collector of books and paintings. He is considered
+      to be one of the greatest painters of his time.
+
+
+VI. THE MING DYNASTY
+
+A.D. 1368-1644
+
+  _Chou Chih-mien_ lived in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. His
+      subjects were principally birds and flowers.
+
+  _Shen Chou_, also called _Shen Ki-nan_ or _Shen K'i_ (1427-1507).
+      Landscape painter. His composition is at times overladen, as is
+      often seen in Ming art.
+
+  _Lu Fu_ lived in the fifteenth century. He made a special study of the
+      plum tree in monochrome. He is comparable to the great Sung
+      masters.
+
+  _Wang Yuean-chang._ Died in 1407 at the age of 73. He painted the bamboo
+      and plum tree in monochrome. He carried on the Sung tradition,
+      with which he was directly connected, and was the founder of a
+      school.
+
+  _Wen Cheng-ming_ (1480-1559), painter, poet and calligraphist. He is
+      often compared with Chao Meng-fu.
+
+  _Ju-sue._ Known only under this appellation. He lived in the fifteenth
+      century and went to Japan, where his influence was marked.
+      (Japanese _Josetsu_.)
+
+
+VII. THE CH'ING DYNASTY
+
+1644-1912
+
+  _Yuen Chou-p'ing_, appellation _Nan-t'ien_, true name _Yuen Ko_
+      (1633-1690). He studied at first under the influence of Wang
+      Shu-ming and Siu Hi. He painted figures, flowers and landscape.
+
+  _Shen Nan-p'ing_ lived in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. He
+      was called to Japan in 1720 and founded there the school of
+      Ming-Ch'ing or the modern Chinese school.
+
+  _Huang Yin-piau_ or _Huang-shen_. At the height of his career between
+      1727 and 1746. He painted landscape and, toward the end of his
+      life, legendary figures of Buddhism and Taoism with a technique
+      that was skillful but often precise and somewhat weak.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Chinese Painters, by Raphael Petrucci
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