1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811
812
813
814
815
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
824
825
826
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
853
854
855
856
857
858
859
860
861
862
863
864
865
866
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879
880
881
882
883
884
885
886
887
888
889
890
891
892
893
894
895
896
897
898
899
900
901
902
903
904
905
906
907
908
909
910
911
912
913
914
915
916
917
918
919
920
921
922
923
924
925
926
927
928
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
939
940
941
942
943
944
945
946
947
948
949
950
951
952
953
954
955
956
957
958
959
960
961
962
963
964
965
966
967
968
969
970
971
972
973
974
975
976
977
978
979
980
981
982
983
984
985
986
987
988
989
990
991
992
993
994
995
996
997
998
999
1000
1001
1002
1003
1004
1005
1006
1007
1008
1009
1010
1011
1012
1013
1014
1015
1016
1017
1018
1019
1020
1021
1022
1023
1024
1025
1026
1027
1028
1029
1030
1031
1032
1033
1034
1035
1036
1037
1038
1039
1040
1041
1042
1043
1044
1045
1046
1047
1048
1049
1050
1051
1052
1053
1054
1055
1056
1057
1058
1059
1060
1061
1062
1063
1064
1065
1066
1067
1068
1069
1070
1071
1072
1073
1074
1075
1076
1077
1078
1079
1080
1081
1082
1083
1084
1085
1086
1087
1088
1089
1090
1091
1092
1093
1094
1095
1096
1097
1098
1099
1100
1101
1102
1103
1104
1105
1106
1107
1108
1109
1110
1111
1112
1113
1114
1115
1116
1117
1118
1119
1120
1121
1122
1123
1124
1125
1126
1127
1128
1129
1130
1131
1132
1133
1134
1135
1136
1137
1138
1139
1140
1141
1142
1143
1144
1145
1146
1147
1148
1149
1150
1151
1152
1153
1154
1155
1156
1157
1158
1159
1160
1161
1162
1163
1164
1165
1166
1167
1168
1169
1170
1171
1172
1173
1174
1175
1176
1177
1178
1179
1180
1181
1182
1183
1184
1185
1186
1187
1188
1189
1190
1191
1192
1193
1194
1195
1196
1197
1198
1199
1200
1201
1202
1203
1204
1205
1206
1207
1208
1209
1210
1211
1212
1213
1214
1215
1216
1217
1218
1219
1220
1221
1222
1223
1224
1225
1226
1227
1228
1229
1230
1231
1232
1233
1234
1235
1236
1237
1238
1239
1240
1241
1242
1243
1244
1245
1246
1247
1248
1249
1250
1251
1252
1253
1254
1255
1256
1257
1258
1259
1260
1261
1262
1263
1264
1265
1266
1267
1268
1269
1270
1271
1272
1273
1274
1275
1276
1277
1278
1279
1280
1281
1282
1283
1284
1285
1286
1287
1288
1289
1290
1291
1292
1293
1294
1295
1296
1297
1298
1299
1300
1301
1302
1303
1304
1305
1306
1307
1308
1309
1310
1311
1312
1313
1314
1315
1316
1317
1318
1319
1320
1321
1322
1323
1324
1325
1326
1327
1328
1329
1330
1331
1332
1333
1334
1335
1336
1337
1338
1339
1340
1341
1342
1343
1344
1345
1346
1347
1348
1349
1350
1351
1352
1353
1354
1355
1356
1357
1358
1359
1360
1361
1362
1363
1364
1365
1366
1367
1368
1369
1370
1371
1372
1373
1374
1375
1376
1377
1378
1379
1380
1381
1382
1383
1384
1385
1386
1387
1388
1389
1390
1391
1392
1393
1394
1395
1396
1397
1398
1399
1400
1401
1402
1403
1404
1405
1406
1407
1408
1409
1410
1411
1412
1413
1414
1415
1416
1417
1418
1419
1420
1421
1422
1423
1424
1425
1426
1427
1428
1429
1430
1431
1432
1433
1434
1435
1436
1437
1438
1439
1440
1441
1442
1443
1444
1445
1446
1447
1448
1449
1450
1451
1452
1453
1454
1455
1456
1457
1458
1459
1460
1461
1462
1463
1464
1465
1466
1467
1468
1469
1470
1471
1472
1473
1474
1475
1476
1477
1478
1479
1480
1481
1482
1483
1484
1485
1486
1487
1488
1489
1490
1491
1492
1493
1494
1495
1496
1497
1498
1499
1500
1501
1502
1503
1504
1505
1506
1507
1508
1509
1510
1511
1512
1513
1514
1515
1516
1517
1518
1519
1520
1521
1522
1523
1524
1525
1526
1527
1528
1529
1530
1531
1532
1533
1534
1535
1536
1537
1538
1539
1540
1541
1542
1543
1544
1545
1546
1547
1548
1549
1550
1551
1552
1553
1554
1555
1556
1557
1558
1559
1560
1561
1562
1563
1564
1565
1566
1567
1568
1569
1570
1571
1572
1573
1574
1575
1576
1577
1578
1579
1580
1581
1582
1583
1584
1585
1586
1587
1588
1589
1590
1591
1592
1593
1594
1595
1596
1597
1598
1599
1600
1601
1602
1603
1604
1605
1606
1607
1608
1609
1610
1611
1612
1613
1614
1615
1616
1617
1618
1619
1620
1621
1622
1623
1624
1625
1626
1627
1628
1629
1630
1631
1632
1633
1634
1635
1636
1637
1638
1639
1640
1641
1642
1643
1644
1645
1646
1647
1648
1649
1650
1651
1652
1653
1654
1655
1656
1657
1658
1659
1660
1661
1662
1663
1664
1665
1666
1667
1668
1669
1670
1671
1672
1673
1674
1675
1676
1677
1678
1679
1680
1681
1682
1683
1684
1685
1686
1687
1688
1689
1690
1691
1692
1693
1694
1695
1696
1697
1698
1699
1700
1701
1702
1703
1704
1705
1706
1707
1708
1709
1710
1711
1712
1713
1714
1715
1716
1717
1718
1719
1720
1721
1722
1723
1724
1725
1726
1727
1728
1729
1730
1731
1732
1733
1734
1735
1736
1737
1738
1739
1740
1741
1742
1743
1744
1745
1746
1747
1748
1749
1750
1751
1752
1753
1754
1755
1756
1757
1758
1759
1760
1761
1762
1763
1764
1765
1766
1767
1768
1769
1770
1771
1772
1773
1774
1775
1776
1777
1778
1779
1780
1781
1782
1783
1784
1785
1786
1787
1788
1789
1790
1791
1792
1793
1794
1795
1796
1797
1798
1799
1800
1801
1802
1803
1804
1805
1806
1807
1808
1809
1810
1811
1812
1813
1814
1815
1816
1817
1818
1819
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844
1845
1846
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1855
1856
1857
1858
1859
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030
2031
2032
2033
2034
2035
2036
2037
2038
2039
2040
2041
2042
2043
2044
2045
2046
2047
2048
2049
2050
2051
2052
2053
2054
2055
2056
2057
2058
2059
2060
2061
2062
2063
2064
2065
2066
2067
2068
2069
2070
2071
2072
2073
2074
2075
2076
2077
2078
2079
2080
2081
2082
2083
2084
2085
2086
2087
2088
2089
2090
2091
2092
2093
2094
2095
2096
2097
2098
2099
2100
2101
2102
2103
2104
2105
2106
2107
2108
2109
2110
2111
2112
2113
2114
2115
2116
2117
2118
2119
2120
2121
2122
2123
2124
2125
2126
2127
2128
2129
2130
2131
2132
2133
2134
2135
2136
2137
2138
2139
2140
2141
2142
2143
2144
2145
2146
2147
2148
2149
2150
2151
2152
2153
2154
2155
2156
2157
2158
2159
2160
2161
2162
2163
2164
2165
2166
2167
2168
2169
2170
2171
2172
2173
2174
2175
2176
2177
2178
2179
2180
2181
2182
2183
2184
2185
2186
2187
2188
2189
2190
2191
2192
2193
2194
2195
2196
2197
2198
2199
2200
2201
2202
2203
2204
2205
2206
2207
2208
2209
2210
2211
2212
2213
2214
2215
2216
2217
2218
2219
2220
2221
2222
2223
2224
2225
2226
2227
2228
2229
2230
2231
2232
2233
2234
2235
2236
2237
2238
2239
2240
2241
2242
2243
2244
2245
2246
2247
2248
2249
2250
2251
2252
2253
2254
2255
2256
2257
2258
2259
2260
2261
2262
2263
2264
2265
2266
2267
2268
2269
2270
2271
2272
2273
2274
2275
2276
2277
2278
2279
2280
2281
2282
2283
2284
2285
2286
2287
2288
2289
2290
2291
2292
2293
2294
2295
2296
2297
2298
2299
2300
2301
2302
2303
2304
2305
2306
2307
2308
2309
2310
2311
2312
2313
2314
2315
2316
2317
2318
2319
2320
2321
2322
2323
2324
2325
2326
2327
2328
2329
2330
2331
2332
2333
2334
2335
2336
2337
2338
2339
2340
2341
2342
2343
2344
2345
2346
2347
2348
2349
2350
2351
2352
2353
2354
2355
2356
2357
2358
2359
2360
2361
2362
2363
2364
2365
2366
2367
2368
2369
2370
2371
2372
2373
2374
2375
2376
2377
2378
2379
2380
2381
2382
2383
2384
2385
2386
2387
2388
2389
2390
2391
2392
2393
2394
2395
2396
2397
2398
2399
2400
2401
2402
2403
2404
2405
2406
2407
2408
2409
2410
2411
2412
2413
2414
2415
2416
2417
2418
2419
2420
2421
2422
2423
2424
2425
2426
2427
2428
2429
2430
2431
2432
2433
2434
2435
2436
2437
2438
2439
2440
2441
2442
2443
2444
2445
2446
2447
2448
2449
2450
2451
2452
2453
2454
2455
2456
2457
2458
2459
2460
2461
2462
2463
2464
2465
2466
2467
2468
2469
2470
2471
2472
2473
2474
2475
2476
2477
2478
2479
2480
2481
2482
2483
2484
2485
2486
2487
2488
2489
2490
2491
2492
2493
2494
2495
2496
2497
2498
2499
2500
2501
2502
2503
2504
2505
2506
2507
2508
2509
2510
2511
2512
2513
2514
2515
2516
2517
2518
2519
2520
2521
2522
2523
2524
2525
2526
2527
2528
2529
2530
2531
2532
2533
2534
2535
2536
2537
2538
2539
2540
2541
2542
2543
2544
2545
2546
2547
2548
2549
2550
2551
2552
2553
2554
2555
2556
2557
2558
2559
2560
2561
2562
2563
2564
2565
2566
2567
2568
2569
2570
2571
2572
2573
2574
2575
2576
2577
2578
2579
2580
2581
2582
2583
2584
2585
2586
2587
2588
2589
2590
2591
2592
2593
2594
2595
2596
2597
2598
2599
2600
2601
2602
2603
2604
2605
2606
2607
2608
2609
2610
2611
2612
2613
2614
2615
2616
2617
2618
2619
2620
2621
2622
2623
2624
2625
2626
2627
2628
2629
2630
2631
2632
2633
2634
2635
2636
2637
2638
2639
2640
2641
2642
2643
2644
2645
2646
2647
2648
2649
2650
2651
2652
2653
2654
2655
2656
2657
2658
2659
2660
2661
2662
2663
2664
2665
2666
2667
2668
2669
2670
2671
2672
2673
2674
2675
2676
2677
2678
2679
2680
2681
2682
2683
2684
2685
2686
2687
2688
2689
2690
2691
2692
2693
2694
2695
2696
2697
2698
2699
2700
2701
2702
2703
2704
2705
2706
2707
2708
2709
2710
2711
2712
2713
2714
2715
2716
2717
2718
2719
2720
2721
2722
2723
2724
2725
2726
2727
2728
2729
2730
2731
2732
2733
2734
2735
2736
2737
2738
2739
2740
2741
2742
2743
2744
2745
2746
2747
2748
2749
2750
2751
2752
2753
2754
2755
2756
2757
2758
2759
2760
2761
2762
2763
2764
2765
2766
2767
2768
2769
2770
2771
2772
2773
2774
2775
2776
2777
2778
2779
2780
2781
2782
2783
2784
2785
2786
2787
2788
2789
2790
2791
2792
2793
2794
2795
2796
2797
2798
2799
2800
2801
2802
2803
2804
2805
2806
2807
2808
2809
2810
2811
2812
2813
2814
2815
2816
2817
2818
2819
2820
2821
2822
2823
2824
2825
2826
2827
2828
2829
2830
2831
2832
2833
2834
2835
2836
2837
2838
2839
2840
2841
2842
2843
2844
2845
2846
2847
2848
2849
2850
2851
2852
2853
2854
2855
2856
2857
2858
2859
2860
2861
2862
2863
2864
2865
2866
2867
2868
2869
2870
2871
2872
2873
2874
2875
2876
2877
2878
2879
2880
2881
2882
2883
2884
2885
2886
2887
2888
2889
2890
2891
2892
2893
2894
2895
2896
2897
2898
2899
2900
2901
2902
2903
2904
2905
2906
2907
2908
2909
2910
2911
2912
2913
2914
2915
2916
2917
2918
2919
2920
2921
2922
2923
2924
2925
2926
2927
2928
2929
2930
2931
2932
2933
2934
2935
2936
2937
2938
2939
2940
2941
2942
2943
2944
2945
2946
2947
2948
2949
2950
2951
2952
2953
2954
2955
2956
2957
2958
2959
2960
2961
2962
2963
2964
2965
2966
2967
2968
2969
2970
2971
2972
2973
2974
2975
2976
2977
2978
2979
2980
2981
2982
2983
2984
2985
2986
2987
2988
2989
2990
2991
2992
2993
2994
2995
2996
2997
2998
2999
3000
3001
3002
3003
3004
3005
3006
3007
3008
3009
3010
3011
3012
3013
3014
3015
3016
3017
3018
3019
3020
3021
3022
3023
3024
3025
3026
3027
3028
3029
3030
3031
3032
3033
3034
3035
3036
3037
3038
3039
3040
3041
3042
3043
3044
3045
3046
3047
3048
3049
3050
3051
3052
3053
3054
3055
3056
3057
3058
3059
3060
3061
3062
3063
3064
3065
3066
3067
3068
3069
3070
3071
3072
3073
3074
3075
3076
3077
3078
3079
3080
3081
3082
3083
3084
3085
3086
3087
3088
3089
3090
3091
3092
3093
3094
3095
3096
3097
3098
3099
3100
3101
3102
3103
3104
3105
3106
3107
3108
3109
3110
3111
3112
3113
3114
3115
3116
3117
3118
3119
3120
3121
3122
3123
3124
3125
3126
3127
3128
3129
3130
3131
3132
3133
3134
3135
3136
3137
3138
3139
3140
3141
3142
3143
3144
3145
3146
3147
3148
3149
3150
3151
3152
3153
3154
3155
3156
3157
3158
3159
3160
3161
3162
3163
3164
3165
3166
3167
3168
3169
3170
3171
3172
3173
3174
3175
3176
3177
3178
3179
3180
3181
3182
3183
3184
3185
3186
3187
3188
3189
3190
3191
3192
3193
3194
3195
3196
3197
3198
3199
3200
3201
3202
3203
3204
3205
3206
3207
3208
3209
3210
3211
3212
3213
3214
3215
3216
3217
3218
3219
3220
3221
3222
3223
3224
3225
3226
3227
3228
3229
3230
3231
3232
3233
3234
3235
3236
3237
3238
3239
3240
3241
3242
3243
3244
3245
3246
3247
3248
3249
3250
3251
3252
3253
3254
3255
3256
3257
3258
3259
3260
3261
3262
3263
3264
3265
3266
3267
3268
3269
3270
3271
3272
3273
3274
3275
3276
3277
3278
3279
3280
3281
3282
3283
3284
3285
3286
3287
3288
3289
3290
3291
3292
3293
3294
3295
3296
3297
3298
3299
3300
3301
3302
3303
3304
3305
3306
3307
3308
3309
3310
3311
3312
3313
3314
3315
3316
3317
3318
3319
3320
3321
3322
3323
3324
3325
3326
3327
3328
3329
3330
3331
3332
3333
3334
3335
3336
3337
3338
3339
3340
3341
3342
3343
3344
3345
3346
3347
3348
3349
3350
3351
3352
3353
3354
3355
3356
3357
3358
3359
3360
3361
3362
3363
3364
3365
3366
3367
3368
3369
3370
3371
3372
3373
3374
3375
3376
3377
3378
3379
3380
3381
3382
3383
3384
3385
3386
3387
3388
3389
3390
3391
3392
3393
3394
3395
3396
3397
3398
3399
3400
3401
3402
3403
3404
3405
3406
3407
3408
3409
3410
3411
3412
3413
3414
3415
3416
3417
3418
3419
3420
3421
3422
3423
3424
3425
3426
3427
3428
3429
3430
3431
3432
3433
3434
3435
3436
3437
3438
3439
3440
3441
3442
3443
3444
3445
3446
3447
3448
3449
3450
3451
3452
3453
3454
3455
3456
3457
3458
3459
3460
3461
3462
3463
3464
3465
3466
3467
3468
3469
3470
3471
3472
3473
3474
3475
3476
3477
3478
3479
3480
3481
3482
3483
3484
3485
3486
3487
3488
3489
3490
3491
3492
3493
3494
3495
3496
3497
3498
3499
3500
3501
3502
3503
3504
3505
3506
3507
3508
3509
3510
3511
3512
3513
3514
3515
3516
3517
3518
3519
3520
3521
3522
3523
3524
3525
3526
3527
3528
3529
3530
3531
3532
3533
3534
3535
3536
3537
3538
3539
3540
3541
3542
3543
3544
3545
3546
3547
3548
3549
3550
3551
3552
3553
3554
3555
3556
3557
3558
3559
3560
3561
3562
3563
3564
3565
3566
3567
3568
3569
3570
3571
3572
3573
3574
3575
3576
3577
3578
3579
3580
3581
3582
3583
3584
3585
3586
3587
3588
3589
3590
3591
3592
3593
3594
3595
3596
3597
3598
3599
3600
3601
3602
3603
3604
3605
3606
3607
3608
3609
3610
3611
3612
3613
3614
3615
3616
3617
3618
3619
3620
3621
3622
3623
3624
3625
3626
3627
3628
3629
3630
3631
3632
3633
3634
3635
3636
3637
3638
3639
3640
3641
3642
3643
3644
3645
3646
3647
3648
3649
3650
3651
3652
3653
3654
3655
3656
3657
3658
3659
3660
3661
3662
3663
3664
3665
3666
3667
3668
3669
3670
3671
3672
3673
3674
3675
3676
3677
3678
3679
3680
3681
3682
3683
3684
3685
3686
3687
3688
3689
3690
3691
3692
3693
3694
3695
3696
3697
3698
3699
3700
3701
3702
3703
3704
3705
3706
3707
3708
3709
3710
3711
3712
3713
3714
3715
3716
3717
3718
3719
3720
3721
3722
3723
3724
3725
3726
3727
3728
3729
3730
3731
3732
3733
3734
3735
3736
3737
3738
3739
3740
3741
3742
3743
3744
3745
3746
3747
3748
3749
3750
3751
3752
3753
3754
3755
3756
3757
3758
3759
3760
3761
3762
3763
3764
3765
3766
3767
3768
3769
3770
3771
3772
3773
3774
3775
3776
3777
3778
3779
3780
3781
3782
3783
3784
3785
3786
3787
3788
3789
3790
3791
3792
3793
3794
3795
3796
3797
3798
3799
3800
3801
3802
3803
3804
3805
3806
3807
3808
3809
3810
3811
3812
3813
3814
3815
3816
3817
3818
3819
3820
3821
3822
3823
3824
3825
3826
3827
3828
3829
3830
3831
3832
3833
3834
3835
3836
3837
3838
3839
3840
3841
3842
3843
3844
3845
3846
3847
3848
3849
3850
3851
3852
3853
3854
3855
3856
3857
3858
3859
3860
3861
3862
3863
3864
3865
3866
3867
3868
3869
3870
3871
3872
3873
3874
3875
3876
3877
3878
3879
3880
3881
3882
3883
3884
3885
3886
3887
3888
3889
3890
3891
3892
3893
3894
3895
3896
3897
3898
3899
3900
3901
3902
3903
3904
3905
3906
3907
3908
3909
3910
3911
3912
3913
3914
3915
3916
3917
3918
3919
3920
3921
3922
3923
3924
3925
3926
3927
3928
3929
3930
3931
3932
3933
3934
3935
3936
3937
3938
3939
3940
3941
3942
3943
3944
3945
3946
3947
3948
3949
3950
3951
3952
3953
3954
3955
3956
3957
3958
3959
3960
3961
3962
3963
3964
3965
3966
3967
3968
3969
3970
3971
3972
3973
3974
3975
3976
3977
3978
3979
3980
3981
3982
3983
3984
3985
3986
3987
3988
3989
3990
3991
3992
3993
3994
3995
3996
3997
3998
3999
4000
4001
4002
4003
4004
4005
4006
4007
4008
4009
4010
4011
4012
4013
4014
4015
4016
4017
4018
4019
4020
4021
4022
4023
4024
4025
4026
4027
4028
4029
4030
4031
4032
4033
4034
4035
4036
4037
4038
4039
4040
4041
4042
4043
4044
4045
4046
4047
4048
4049
4050
4051
4052
4053
4054
4055
4056
4057
4058
4059
4060
4061
4062
4063
4064
4065
4066
4067
4068
4069
4070
4071
4072
4073
4074
4075
4076
4077
4078
4079
4080
4081
4082
4083
4084
4085
4086
4087
4088
4089
4090
4091
4092
4093
4094
4095
4096
4097
4098
4099
4100
4101
4102
4103
4104
4105
4106
4107
4108
4109
4110
4111
4112
4113
4114
4115
4116
4117
4118
4119
4120
4121
4122
4123
4124
4125
4126
4127
4128
4129
4130
4131
4132
4133
4134
4135
4136
4137
4138
4139
4140
4141
4142
4143
4144
4145
4146
4147
4148
4149
4150
4151
4152
4153
4154
4155
4156
4157
4158
4159
4160
4161
4162
4163
4164
4165
4166
4167
4168
4169
4170
4171
4172
4173
4174
4175
4176
4177
4178
4179
4180
4181
4182
4183
4184
4185
4186
4187
4188
4189
4190
4191
4192
4193
4194
4195
4196
4197
4198
4199
4200
4201
4202
4203
4204
4205
4206
4207
4208
4209
4210
4211
4212
4213
4214
4215
4216
4217
4218
4219
4220
4221
4222
4223
4224
4225
4226
4227
4228
4229
4230
4231
4232
4233
4234
4235
4236
4237
4238
4239
4240
4241
4242
4243
4244
4245
4246
4247
4248
4249
4250
4251
4252
4253
4254
4255
4256
4257
4258
4259
4260
4261
4262
4263
4264
4265
4266
4267
4268
4269
4270
4271
4272
4273
4274
4275
4276
4277
4278
4279
4280
4281
4282
4283
4284
4285
4286
4287
4288
4289
4290
4291
4292
4293
4294
4295
4296
4297
4298
4299
4300
4301
4302
4303
4304
4305
4306
4307
4308
4309
4310
4311
4312
4313
4314
4315
4316
4317
4318
4319
4320
4321
4322
4323
4324
4325
4326
4327
4328
4329
4330
4331
4332
4333
4334
4335
4336
4337
4338
4339
4340
4341
4342
4343
4344
4345
4346
4347
4348
4349
4350
4351
4352
4353
4354
4355
4356
4357
4358
4359
4360
4361
4362
4363
4364
4365
4366
4367
4368
4369
4370
4371
4372
4373
4374
4375
4376
4377
4378
4379
4380
4381
4382
4383
4384
4385
4386
4387
4388
4389
4390
4391
4392
4393
4394
4395
4396
4397
4398
4399
4400
4401
4402
4403
4404
4405
4406
4407
4408
4409
4410
4411
4412
4413
4414
4415
4416
4417
4418
4419
4420
4421
4422
4423
4424
4425
4426
4427
4428
4429
4430
4431
4432
4433
4434
4435
4436
4437
4438
4439
4440
4441
4442
4443
4444
4445
4446
4447
4448
4449
4450
4451
4452
4453
4454
4455
4456
4457
4458
4459
4460
4461
4462
4463
4464
4465
4466
4467
4468
4469
4470
4471
4472
4473
4474
4475
4476
4477
4478
4479
4480
4481
4482
4483
4484
4485
4486
4487
4488
4489
4490
4491
4492
4493
4494
4495
4496
4497
4498
4499
4500
4501
4502
4503
4504
4505
4506
4507
4508
4509
4510
4511
4512
4513
4514
4515
4516
4517
4518
4519
4520
4521
4522
4523
4524
4525
4526
4527
4528
4529
4530
4531
4532
4533
4534
4535
4536
4537
4538
4539
4540
4541
4542
4543
4544
4545
4546
4547
4548
4549
4550
4551
4552
4553
4554
4555
4556
4557
4558
4559
4560
4561
4562
4563
4564
4565
4566
4567
4568
4569
4570
4571
4572
4573
4574
4575
4576
4577
4578
4579
4580
4581
4582
4583
4584
4585
4586
4587
4588
4589
4590
4591
4592
4593
4594
4595
4596
4597
4598
4599
4600
4601
4602
4603
4604
4605
4606
4607
4608
4609
4610
4611
4612
4613
4614
4615
4616
4617
4618
4619
4620
4621
4622
4623
4624
4625
4626
4627
4628
4629
4630
4631
4632
4633
4634
4635
4636
4637
4638
4639
4640
4641
4642
4643
4644
4645
4646
4647
4648
4649
4650
4651
4652
4653
4654
4655
4656
4657
4658
4659
4660
4661
4662
4663
4664
4665
4666
4667
4668
4669
4670
4671
4672
4673
4674
4675
4676
4677
4678
4679
4680
4681
4682
4683
4684
4685
4686
4687
4688
4689
4690
4691
4692
4693
4694
4695
4696
4697
4698
4699
4700
4701
4702
4703
4704
4705
4706
4707
4708
4709
4710
4711
4712
4713
4714
4715
4716
4717
4718
4719
4720
4721
4722
4723
4724
4725
4726
4727
4728
4729
4730
4731
4732
4733
4734
4735
4736
4737
4738
4739
4740
4741
4742
4743
4744
4745
4746
4747
4748
4749
4750
4751
4752
4753
4754
4755
4756
4757
4758
4759
4760
4761
4762
4763
4764
4765
4766
4767
4768
4769
4770
4771
4772
4773
4774
4775
4776
4777
4778
4779
4780
4781
4782
4783
4784
4785
4786
4787
4788
4789
4790
4791
4792
4793
4794
4795
4796
4797
4798
4799
4800
4801
4802
4803
4804
4805
4806
4807
4808
4809
4810
4811
4812
4813
4814
4815
4816
4817
4818
4819
4820
4821
4822
4823
4824
4825
4826
4827
4828
4829
4830
4831
4832
4833
4834
4835
4836
4837
4838
4839
4840
4841
4842
4843
4844
4845
4846
4847
4848
4849
4850
4851
4852
4853
4854
4855
4856
4857
4858
4859
4860
4861
4862
4863
4864
4865
4866
4867
4868
4869
4870
4871
4872
4873
4874
4875
4876
4877
4878
4879
4880
4881
4882
4883
4884
4885
4886
4887
4888
4889
4890
4891
4892
4893
4894
4895
4896
4897
4898
4899
4900
4901
4902
4903
4904
4905
4906
4907
4908
4909
4910
4911
4912
4913
4914
4915
4916
4917
4918
4919
4920
4921
4922
4923
4924
4925
4926
4927
4928
4929
4930
4931
4932
4933
4934
4935
4936
4937
4938
4939
4940
4941
4942
4943
4944
4945
4946
4947
4948
4949
4950
4951
4952
4953
4954
4955
4956
4957
4958
4959
4960
4961
4962
4963
4964
4965
4966
4967
4968
4969
4970
4971
4972
4973
4974
4975
4976
4977
4978
4979
4980
4981
4982
4983
4984
4985
4986
4987
4988
4989
4990
4991
4992
4993
4994
4995
4996
4997
4998
4999
5000
5001
5002
5003
5004
5005
5006
5007
5008
5009
5010
5011
5012
5013
5014
5015
5016
5017
5018
5019
5020
5021
5022
5023
5024
5025
5026
5027
5028
5029
5030
5031
5032
5033
5034
5035
5036
5037
5038
5039
5040
5041
5042
5043
5044
5045
5046
5047
5048
5049
5050
5051
5052
5053
5054
5055
5056
5057
5058
5059
5060
5061
5062
5063
5064
5065
5066
5067
5068
5069
5070
5071
5072
5073
5074
5075
5076
5077
5078
5079
5080
5081
5082
5083
5084
5085
5086
5087
5088
5089
5090
5091
5092
5093
5094
5095
5096
5097
5098
5099
5100
5101
5102
5103
5104
5105
5106
5107
5108
5109
5110
5111
5112
5113
5114
5115
5116
5117
5118
5119
5120
5121
5122
5123
5124
5125
5126
5127
5128
5129
5130
5131
5132
5133
5134
5135
5136
5137
5138
5139
5140
5141
5142
5143
5144
5145
5146
5147
5148
5149
5150
5151
5152
5153
5154
5155
5156
5157
5158
5159
5160
5161
5162
5163
5164
5165
5166
5167
5168
5169
5170
5171
5172
5173
5174
5175
5176
5177
5178
5179
5180
5181
5182
5183
5184
5185
5186
5187
5188
5189
5190
5191
5192
5193
5194
5195
5196
5197
5198
5199
5200
5201
5202
5203
5204
5205
5206
5207
5208
5209
5210
5211
5212
5213
5214
5215
5216
5217
5218
5219
5220
5221
5222
5223
5224
5225
5226
5227
5228
5229
5230
5231
5232
5233
5234
5235
5236
5237
5238
5239
5240
5241
5242
5243
5244
5245
5246
5247
5248
5249
5250
5251
5252
5253
5254
5255
5256
5257
5258
5259
5260
5261
5262
5263
5264
5265
5266
5267
5268
5269
5270
5271
5272
5273
5274
5275
5276
5277
5278
5279
5280
5281
5282
5283
5284
5285
5286
5287
5288
5289
5290
5291
5292
5293
5294
5295
5296
5297
5298
5299
5300
5301
5302
5303
5304
5305
5306
5307
5308
5309
5310
5311
5312
5313
5314
5315
5316
5317
5318
5319
5320
5321
5322
5323
5324
5325
5326
5327
5328
5329
5330
5331
5332
5333
5334
5335
5336
5337
5338
5339
5340
5341
5342
5343
5344
5345
5346
5347
5348
5349
5350
5351
5352
5353
5354
5355
5356
5357
5358
5359
5360
5361
5362
5363
5364
5365
5366
5367
5368
5369
5370
5371
5372
5373
5374
5375
5376
5377
5378
5379
5380
5381
5382
5383
5384
5385
5386
5387
5388
5389
5390
5391
5392
5393
5394
5395
5396
5397
5398
5399
5400
5401
5402
5403
5404
5405
5406
5407
5408
5409
5410
5411
5412
5413
5414
5415
5416
5417
5418
5419
5420
5421
5422
5423
5424
5425
5426
5427
5428
5429
5430
5431
5432
5433
5434
5435
5436
5437
5438
5439
5440
5441
5442
5443
5444
5445
5446
5447
5448
5449
5450
5451
5452
5453
5454
5455
5456
5457
5458
5459
5460
5461
5462
5463
5464
5465
5466
5467
5468
5469
5470
5471
5472
5473
5474
5475
5476
5477
5478
5479
5480
5481
5482
5483
5484
5485
5486
5487
5488
5489
5490
5491
5492
5493
5494
5495
5496
5497
5498
5499
5500
5501
5502
5503
5504
5505
5506
5507
5508
5509
5510
5511
5512
5513
5514
5515
5516
5517
5518
5519
5520
5521
5522
5523
5524
5525
5526
5527
5528
5529
5530
5531
5532
5533
5534
5535
5536
5537
5538
5539
5540
5541
5542
5543
5544
5545
5546
5547
5548
5549
5550
5551
5552
5553
5554
5555
5556
5557
5558
5559
5560
5561
5562
5563
5564
5565
5566
5567
5568
5569
5570
5571
5572
5573
5574
5575
5576
5577
5578
5579
5580
5581
5582
5583
5584
5585
5586
5587
5588
5589
5590
5591
5592
5593
5594
5595
5596
5597
5598
5599
5600
5601
5602
5603
5604
5605
5606
5607
5608
5609
5610
5611
5612
5613
5614
5615
5616
5617
5618
5619
5620
5621
5622
5623
5624
5625
5626
5627
5628
5629
5630
5631
5632
5633
5634
5635
5636
5637
5638
5639
5640
5641
5642
5643
5644
5645
5646
5647
5648
5649
5650
5651
5652
5653
5654
5655
5656
5657
5658
5659
5660
5661
5662
5663
5664
5665
5666
5667
5668
5669
5670
5671
5672
5673
5674
5675
5676
5677
5678
5679
5680
5681
5682
5683
5684
5685
5686
5687
5688
5689
5690
5691
5692
5693
5694
5695
5696
5697
5698
5699
5700
5701
5702
5703
5704
5705
5706
5707
5708
5709
5710
5711
5712
5713
5714
5715
5716
5717
5718
5719
5720
5721
5722
5723
5724
5725
5726
5727
5728
5729
5730
5731
5732
5733
5734
5735
5736
5737
5738
5739
5740
5741
5742
5743
5744
5745
5746
5747
5748
5749
5750
5751
5752
5753
5754
5755
5756
5757
5758
5759
5760
5761
5762
5763
5764
5765
5766
5767
5768
5769
5770
5771
5772
5773
5774
5775
5776
5777
5778
5779
5780
5781
5782
5783
5784
5785
5786
5787
5788
5789
5790
5791
5792
5793
5794
5795
5796
5797
5798
5799
5800
5801
5802
5803
5804
5805
5806
5807
5808
5809
5810
5811
5812
5813
5814
5815
5816
5817
5818
5819
5820
5821
5822
5823
5824
5825
5826
5827
5828
5829
5830
5831
5832
5833
5834
5835
5836
5837
5838
5839
5840
5841
5842
5843
5844
5845
5846
5847
5848
5849
5850
5851
5852
5853
5854
5855
5856
5857
5858
5859
5860
5861
5862
5863
5864
5865
5866
5867
5868
5869
5870
5871
5872
5873
5874
5875
5876
5877
5878
5879
5880
5881
5882
5883
5884
5885
5886
5887
5888
5889
5890
5891
5892
5893
5894
5895
5896
5897
5898
5899
5900
5901
5902
5903
5904
5905
5906
5907
5908
5909
5910
5911
5912
5913
5914
5915
5916
5917
5918
5919
5920
5921
5922
5923
5924
5925
5926
5927
5928
5929
5930
5931
5932
5933
5934
5935
5936
5937
5938
5939
5940
5941
5942
5943
5944
5945
5946
5947
5948
5949
5950
5951
5952
5953
5954
5955
5956
5957
5958
5959
5960
5961
5962
5963
5964
5965
5966
5967
5968
5969
5970
5971
5972
5973
5974
5975
5976
5977
5978
5979
5980
5981
5982
5983
5984
5985
5986
5987
5988
5989
5990
5991
5992
5993
5994
5995
5996
5997
5998
5999
6000
6001
6002
6003
6004
6005
6006
6007
6008
6009
6010
6011
6012
6013
6014
6015
6016
6017
6018
6019
6020
6021
6022
6023
6024
6025
6026
6027
6028
6029
6030
6031
6032
6033
6034
6035
6036
6037
6038
6039
6040
6041
6042
6043
6044
6045
6046
6047
6048
6049
6050
6051
6052
6053
6054
6055
6056
6057
6058
6059
6060
6061
6062
6063
6064
6065
6066
6067
6068
6069
6070
6071
6072
6073
6074
6075
6076
6077
6078
6079
6080
6081
6082
6083
6084
6085
6086
6087
6088
6089
6090
6091
6092
6093
6094
6095
6096
6097
6098
6099
6100
6101
6102
6103
6104
6105
6106
6107
6108
6109
6110
6111
6112
6113
6114
6115
6116
6117
6118
6119
6120
6121
6122
6123
6124
6125
6126
6127
6128
6129
6130
6131
6132
6133
6134
6135
6136
6137
6138
6139
6140
6141
6142
6143
6144
6145
6146
6147
6148
6149
6150
6151
6152
6153
6154
6155
6156
6157
6158
6159
6160
6161
6162
6163
6164
6165
6166
6167
6168
6169
6170
6171
6172
6173
6174
6175
6176
6177
6178
6179
6180
6181
6182
6183
6184
6185
6186
6187
6188
6189
6190
6191
6192
6193
6194
6195
6196
6197
6198
6199
6200
6201
6202
6203
6204
6205
6206
6207
6208
6209
6210
6211
6212
6213
6214
6215
6216
6217
6218
6219
6220
6221
6222
6223
6224
6225
6226
6227
6228
6229
6230
6231
6232
6233
6234
6235
6236
6237
6238
6239
6240
6241
6242
6243
6244
6245
6246
6247
6248
6249
6250
6251
6252
6253
6254
6255
6256
6257
6258
6259
6260
6261
6262
6263
6264
6265
6266
6267
6268
6269
6270
6271
6272
6273
6274
6275
6276
6277
6278
6279
6280
6281
6282
6283
6284
6285
6286
6287
6288
6289
6290
6291
6292
6293
6294
6295
6296
6297
6298
6299
6300
6301
6302
6303
6304
6305
6306
6307
6308
6309
6310
6311
6312
6313
6314
6315
6316
6317
6318
6319
6320
6321
6322
6323
6324
6325
6326
6327
6328
6329
6330
6331
6332
6333
6334
6335
6336
6337
6338
6339
6340
6341
6342
6343
6344
6345
6346
6347
6348
6349
6350
6351
6352
6353
6354
6355
6356
6357
6358
6359
6360
6361
6362
6363
6364
6365
6366
6367
6368
6369
6370
6371
6372
6373
6374
6375
6376
6377
6378
6379
6380
6381
6382
6383
6384
6385
6386
6387
6388
6389
6390
6391
6392
6393
6394
6395
6396
6397
6398
6399
6400
6401
6402
6403
6404
6405
6406
6407
6408
6409
6410
6411
6412
6413
6414
6415
6416
6417
6418
6419
6420
6421
6422
6423
6424
6425
6426
6427
6428
6429
6430
6431
6432
6433
6434
6435
6436
6437
6438
6439
6440
6441
6442
6443
6444
6445
6446
6447
6448
6449
6450
6451
6452
6453
6454
6455
6456
6457
6458
6459
6460
6461
6462
6463
6464
6465
6466
6467
6468
6469
6470
6471
6472
6473
6474
6475
6476
6477
6478
6479
6480
6481
6482
6483
6484
6485
6486
6487
6488
6489
6490
6491
6492
6493
6494
6495
6496
6497
6498
6499
6500
6501
6502
6503
6504
6505
6506
6507
6508
6509
6510
6511
6512
6513
6514
6515
6516
6517
6518
6519
6520
6521
6522
6523
6524
6525
6526
6527
6528
6529
6530
6531
6532
6533
6534
6535
6536
6537
6538
6539
6540
6541
6542
6543
6544
6545
6546
6547
6548
6549
6550
6551
6552
6553
6554
6555
6556
6557
6558
6559
6560
6561
6562
6563
6564
6565
6566
6567
6568
6569
6570
6571
6572
6573
6574
6575
6576
6577
6578
6579
6580
6581
6582
6583
6584
6585
6586
6587
6588
6589
6590
6591
6592
6593
6594
6595
6596
6597
6598
6599
6600
6601
6602
6603
6604
6605
6606
6607
6608
6609
6610
6611
6612
6613
6614
6615
6616
6617
6618
6619
6620
6621
6622
6623
6624
6625
6626
6627
6628
6629
6630
6631
6632
6633
6634
6635
6636
6637
6638
6639
6640
6641
6642
6643
6644
6645
6646
6647
6648
6649
6650
6651
6652
6653
6654
6655
6656
6657
6658
6659
6660
6661
6662
6663
6664
6665
6666
6667
6668
6669
6670
6671
6672
6673
6674
6675
6676
6677
6678
6679
6680
6681
6682
6683
6684
6685
6686
6687
6688
6689
6690
6691
6692
6693
6694
6695
6696
6697
6698
6699
6700
6701
6702
6703
6704
6705
6706
6707
6708
6709
6710
6711
6712
6713
6714
6715
6716
6717
6718
6719
6720
6721
6722
6723
6724
6725
6726
6727
6728
6729
6730
6731
6732
6733
6734
6735
6736
6737
6738
6739
6740
6741
6742
6743
6744
6745
6746
6747
6748
6749
6750
6751
6752
6753
6754
6755
6756
6757
6758
6759
6760
6761
6762
6763
6764
6765
6766
6767
6768
6769
6770
6771
6772
6773
6774
6775
6776
6777
6778
6779
6780
6781
6782
6783
6784
6785
6786
6787
6788
6789
6790
6791
6792
6793
6794
6795
6796
6797
6798
6799
6800
6801
6802
6803
6804
6805
6806
6807
6808
6809
6810
6811
6812
6813
6814
6815
6816
6817
6818
6819
6820
6821
6822
6823
6824
6825
6826
6827
6828
6829
6830
6831
6832
6833
6834
6835
6836
6837
6838
6839
6840
6841
6842
6843
6844
6845
6846
6847
6848
6849
6850
6851
6852
6853
6854
6855
6856
6857
6858
6859
6860
6861
6862
6863
6864
6865
6866
6867
6868
6869
6870
6871
6872
6873
6874
6875
6876
6877
6878
6879
6880
6881
6882
6883
6884
6885
6886
6887
6888
6889
6890
6891
6892
6893
6894
6895
6896
6897
6898
6899
6900
6901
6902
6903
6904
6905
6906
6907
6908
6909
6910
6911
6912
6913
6914
6915
6916
6917
6918
6919
6920
6921
6922
6923
6924
6925
6926
6927
6928
6929
6930
6931
6932
6933
6934
6935
6936
6937
6938
6939
6940
6941
6942
6943
6944
6945
6946
6947
6948
6949
6950
6951
6952
6953
6954
6955
6956
6957
6958
6959
6960
6961
6962
6963
6964
6965
6966
6967
6968
6969
6970
6971
6972
6973
6974
6975
6976
6977
6978
6979
6980
6981
6982
6983
6984
6985
6986
6987
6988
6989
6990
6991
6992
6993
6994
6995
6996
6997
6998
6999
7000
7001
7002
7003
7004
7005
7006
7007
7008
7009
7010
7011
7012
7013
7014
7015
7016
7017
7018
7019
7020
7021
7022
7023
7024
7025
7026
7027
7028
7029
7030
7031
7032
7033
7034
7035
7036
7037
7038
7039
7040
7041
7042
7043
7044
7045
7046
7047
7048
7049
7050
7051
7052
7053
7054
7055
7056
7057
7058
7059
7060
7061
7062
7063
7064
7065
7066
7067
7068
7069
7070
7071
7072
7073
7074
7075
7076
7077
7078
7079
7080
7081
7082
7083
7084
7085
7086
7087
7088
7089
7090
7091
7092
7093
7094
7095
7096
7097
7098
7099
7100
7101
7102
7103
7104
7105
7106
7107
7108
7109
7110
7111
7112
7113
7114
7115
7116
7117
7118
7119
7120
7121
7122
7123
7124
7125
7126
7127
7128
7129
7130
7131
7132
7133
7134
7135
7136
7137
7138
7139
7140
7141
7142
7143
7144
7145
7146
7147
7148
7149
7150
7151
7152
7153
7154
7155
7156
7157
7158
7159
7160
7161
7162
7163
7164
7165
7166
7167
7168
7169
7170
7171
7172
7173
7174
7175
7176
7177
7178
7179
7180
7181
7182
7183
7184
7185
7186
7187
7188
7189
7190
7191
7192
7193
7194
7195
7196
7197
7198
7199
7200
7201
7202
7203
7204
7205
7206
7207
7208
7209
7210
7211
7212
7213
7214
7215
7216
7217
7218
7219
7220
7221
7222
7223
7224
7225
7226
7227
7228
7229
7230
7231
7232
7233
7234
7235
7236
7237
7238
7239
7240
7241
7242
7243
7244
7245
7246
7247
7248
7249
7250
7251
7252
7253
7254
7255
7256
7257
7258
7259
7260
7261
7262
7263
7264
7265
7266
7267
7268
7269
7270
7271
7272
7273
7274
7275
7276
7277
7278
7279
7280
7281
7282
7283
7284
7285
7286
7287
7288
7289
7290
7291
7292
7293
7294
7295
7296
7297
7298
7299
7300
7301
7302
7303
7304
7305
7306
7307
7308
7309
7310
7311
7312
7313
7314
7315
7316
7317
7318
7319
7320
7321
7322
7323
7324
7325
7326
7327
7328
7329
7330
7331
7332
7333
7334
7335
7336
7337
7338
7339
7340
7341
7342
7343
7344
7345
7346
7347
7348
7349
7350
7351
7352
7353
7354
7355
7356
7357
7358
7359
7360
7361
7362
7363
7364
7365
7366
7367
7368
7369
7370
7371
7372
7373
7374
7375
7376
7377
7378
7379
7380
7381
7382
7383
7384
7385
7386
7387
7388
7389
7390
7391
7392
7393
7394
7395
7396
7397
7398
7399
7400
7401
7402
7403
7404
7405
7406
7407
7408
7409
7410
7411
7412
7413
7414
7415
7416
7417
7418
7419
7420
7421
7422
7423
7424
7425
7426
7427
7428
7429
7430
7431
7432
7433
7434
7435
7436
7437
7438
7439
7440
7441
7442
7443
7444
7445
7446
7447
7448
7449
7450
7451
7452
7453
7454
7455
7456
7457
7458
7459
7460
7461
7462
7463
7464
7465
7466
7467
7468
7469
7470
7471
7472
7473
7474
7475
7476
7477
7478
7479
7480
7481
7482
7483
7484
7485
7486
7487
7488
7489
7490
7491
7492
7493
7494
7495
7496
7497
7498
7499
7500
7501
7502
7503
7504
7505
7506
7507
7508
7509
7510
7511
7512
7513
7514
7515
7516
7517
7518
7519
7520
7521
7522
7523
7524
7525
7526
7527
7528
7529
7530
7531
7532
7533
7534
7535
7536
7537
7538
7539
7540
7541
7542
7543
7544
7545
7546
7547
7548
7549
7550
7551
7552
7553
7554
7555
7556
7557
7558
7559
7560
7561
7562
7563
7564
7565
7566
7567
7568
7569
7570
7571
7572
7573
7574
7575
7576
7577
7578
7579
7580
7581
7582
7583
7584
7585
7586
7587
7588
7589
7590
7591
7592
7593
7594
7595
7596
7597
7598
7599
7600
7601
7602
7603
7604
7605
7606
7607
7608
7609
7610
7611
7612
7613
7614
7615
7616
7617
7618
7619
7620
7621
7622
7623
7624
7625
7626
7627
7628
7629
7630
7631
7632
7633
7634
7635
7636
7637
7638
7639
7640
7641
7642
7643
7644
7645
7646
7647
7648
7649
7650
7651
7652
7653
7654
7655
7656
7657
7658
7659
7660
7661
7662
7663
7664
7665
7666
7667
7668
7669
7670
7671
7672
7673
7674
7675
7676
7677
7678
7679
7680
7681
7682
7683
7684
7685
7686
7687
7688
7689
7690
7691
7692
7693
7694
7695
7696
7697
7698
7699
7700
7701
7702
7703
7704
7705
7706
7707
7708
7709
7710
7711
7712
7713
7714
7715
7716
7717
7718
7719
7720
7721
7722
7723
7724
7725
7726
7727
7728
7729
7730
7731
7732
7733
7734
7735
7736
7737
7738
7739
7740
7741
7742
7743
7744
7745
7746
7747
7748
7749
7750
7751
7752
7753
7754
7755
7756
7757
7758
7759
7760
7761
7762
7763
7764
7765
7766
7767
7768
7769
7770
7771
7772
7773
7774
7775
7776
7777
7778
7779
7780
7781
7782
7783
7784
7785
7786
7787
7788
7789
7790
7791
7792
7793
7794
7795
7796
7797
7798
7799
7800
7801
7802
7803
7804
7805
7806
7807
7808
7809
7810
7811
7812
7813
7814
7815
7816
7817
7818
7819
7820
7821
7822
7823
7824
7825
7826
7827
7828
7829
7830
7831
7832
7833
7834
7835
7836
7837
7838
7839
7840
7841
7842
7843
7844
7845
7846
7847
7848
7849
7850
7851
7852
7853
7854
7855
7856
7857
7858
7859
7860
7861
7862
7863
7864
7865
7866
7867
7868
7869
7870
7871
7872
7873
7874
7875
7876
7877
7878
7879
7880
7881
7882
7883
7884
7885
7886
7887
7888
7889
7890
7891
7892
7893
7894
7895
7896
7897
7898
7899
7900
7901
7902
7903
7904
7905
7906
7907
7908
7909
7910
7911
7912
7913
7914
7915
7916
7917
7918
7919
7920
7921
7922
7923
7924
7925
7926
7927
7928
7929
7930
7931
7932
7933
7934
7935
7936
7937
7938
7939
7940
7941
7942
7943
7944
7945
7946
7947
7948
7949
7950
7951
7952
7953
7954
7955
7956
7957
7958
7959
7960
7961
7962
7963
7964
7965
7966
7967
7968
7969
7970
7971
7972
7973
7974
7975
7976
7977
7978
7979
7980
7981
7982
7983
7984
7985
7986
7987
7988
7989
7990
7991
7992
7993
7994
7995
7996
7997
7998
7999
8000
8001
8002
8003
8004
8005
8006
8007
8008
8009
8010
8011
8012
8013
8014
8015
8016
8017
8018
8019
8020
8021
8022
8023
8024
8025
8026
8027
8028
8029
8030
8031
8032
8033
8034
8035
8036
8037
8038
8039
8040
8041
8042
8043
8044
8045
8046
8047
8048
8049
8050
8051
8052
8053
8054
8055
8056
8057
8058
8059
8060
8061
8062
8063
8064
8065
8066
8067
8068
8069
8070
8071
8072
8073
8074
8075
8076
8077
8078
8079
8080
8081
8082
8083
8084
8085
8086
8087
8088
8089
8090
8091
8092
8093
8094
8095
8096
8097
8098
8099
8100
8101
8102
8103
8104
8105
8106
8107
8108
8109
8110
8111
8112
8113
8114
8115
8116
8117
8118
8119
8120
8121
8122
8123
8124
8125
8126
8127
8128
8129
8130
8131
8132
8133
8134
8135
8136
8137
8138
8139
8140
8141
8142
8143
8144
8145
8146
8147
8148
8149
8150
8151
8152
8153
8154
8155
8156
8157
8158
8159
8160
8161
8162
8163
8164
8165
8166
8167
8168
8169
8170
8171
8172
8173
8174
8175
8176
8177
8178
8179
8180
8181
8182
8183
8184
8185
8186
8187
8188
8189
8190
8191
8192
8193
8194
8195
8196
8197
8198
8199
8200
8201
8202
8203
8204
8205
8206
8207
8208
8209
8210
8211
8212
8213
8214
8215
8216
8217
8218
8219
8220
8221
8222
8223
8224
8225
8226
8227
8228
8229
8230
8231
8232
8233
8234
8235
8236
8237
8238
8239
8240
8241
8242
8243
8244
8245
8246
8247
8248
8249
8250
8251
8252
8253
8254
8255
8256
8257
8258
8259
8260
8261
8262
8263
8264
8265
8266
8267
8268
8269
8270
8271
8272
8273
8274
8275
8276
8277
8278
8279
8280
8281
8282
8283
8284
8285
8286
8287
8288
8289
8290
8291
8292
8293
8294
8295
8296
8297
8298
8299
8300
8301
8302
8303
8304
8305
8306
8307
8308
8309
8310
8311
8312
8313
8314
8315
8316
8317
8318
8319
8320
8321
8322
8323
8324
8325
8326
8327
8328
8329
8330
8331
8332
8333
8334
8335
8336
8337
8338
8339
8340
8341
8342
8343
8344
8345
8346
8347
8348
8349
8350
8351
8352
8353
8354
8355
8356
8357
8358
8359
8360
8361
8362
8363
8364
8365
8366
8367
8368
8369
8370
8371
8372
8373
8374
8375
8376
8377
8378
8379
8380
8381
8382
8383
8384
8385
8386
8387
8388
8389
8390
8391
8392
8393
8394
8395
8396
8397
8398
8399
8400
8401
8402
8403
8404
8405
8406
8407
8408
8409
8410
8411
8412
8413
8414
8415
8416
8417
8418
8419
8420
8421
8422
8423
8424
8425
8426
8427
8428
8429
8430
8431
8432
8433
8434
8435
8436
8437
8438
8439
8440
8441
8442
8443
8444
8445
8446
8447
8448
8449
8450
8451
8452
8453
8454
8455
8456
8457
8458
8459
8460
8461
8462
8463
8464
8465
8466
8467
8468
8469
8470
8471
8472
8473
8474
8475
8476
8477
8478
8479
8480
8481
8482
8483
8484
8485
8486
8487
8488
8489
8490
8491
8492
8493
8494
8495
8496
8497
8498
8499
8500
8501
8502
8503
8504
8505
8506
8507
8508
8509
8510
8511
8512
8513
8514
8515
8516
8517
8518
8519
8520
8521
8522
8523
8524
8525
8526
8527
8528
8529
8530
8531
8532
8533
8534
8535
8536
8537
8538
8539
8540
8541
8542
8543
8544
8545
8546
8547
8548
8549
8550
8551
8552
8553
8554
8555
8556
8557
8558
8559
8560
8561
8562
8563
8564
8565
8566
8567
8568
8569
8570
8571
8572
8573
8574
8575
8576
8577
8578
8579
8580
8581
8582
8583
8584
8585
8586
8587
8588
8589
8590
8591
8592
8593
8594
8595
8596
8597
8598
8599
8600
8601
8602
8603
8604
8605
8606
8607
8608
8609
8610
8611
8612
8613
8614
8615
8616
8617
8618
8619
8620
8621
8622
8623
8624
8625
8626
8627
8628
8629
8630
8631
8632
8633
8634
8635
8636
8637
8638
8639
8640
8641
8642
8643
8644
8645
8646
8647
8648
8649
8650
8651
8652
8653
8654
8655
8656
8657
8658
8659
8660
8661
8662
8663
8664
8665
8666
8667
8668
8669
8670
8671
8672
8673
8674
8675
8676
8677
8678
8679
8680
8681
8682
8683
8684
8685
8686
8687
8688
8689
8690
8691
8692
8693
8694
8695
8696
8697
8698
8699
8700
8701
8702
8703
8704
8705
8706
8707
8708
8709
8710
8711
8712
8713
8714
8715
8716
8717
8718
8719
8720
8721
8722
8723
8724
8725
8726
8727
8728
8729
8730
8731
8732
8733
8734
8735
8736
8737
8738
8739
8740
8741
8742
8743
8744
8745
8746
8747
8748
8749
8750
8751
8752
8753
8754
8755
8756
8757
8758
8759
8760
8761
8762
8763
8764
8765
8766
8767
8768
8769
8770
8771
8772
8773
8774
8775
8776
8777
8778
8779
8780
8781
8782
8783
8784
8785
8786
8787
8788
8789
8790
8791
8792
8793
8794
8795
8796
8797
8798
8799
8800
8801
8802
8803
8804
8805
8806
8807
8808
8809
8810
8811
8812
8813
8814
8815
8816
8817
8818
8819
8820
8821
8822
8823
8824
8825
8826
8827
8828
8829
8830
8831
8832
8833
8834
8835
8836
8837
8838
8839
8840
8841
8842
8843
8844
8845
8846
8847
8848
8849
8850
8851
8852
8853
8854
8855
8856
8857
8858
8859
8860
8861
8862
8863
8864
8865
8866
8867
8868
8869
8870
8871
8872
8873
8874
8875
8876
8877
8878
8879
8880
8881
8882
8883
8884
8885
8886
8887
8888
8889
8890
8891
8892
8893
8894
8895
8896
8897
8898
8899
8900
8901
8902
8903
8904
8905
8906
8907
8908
8909
8910
8911
8912
8913
8914
8915
8916
8917
8918
8919
8920
8921
8922
8923
8924
8925
8926
8927
8928
8929
8930
8931
8932
8933
8934
8935
8936
8937
8938
8939
8940
8941
8942
8943
8944
8945
8946
8947
8948
8949
8950
8951
8952
8953
8954
8955
8956
8957
8958
8959
8960
8961
8962
8963
8964
8965
8966
8967
8968
8969
8970
8971
8972
8973
8974
8975
8976
8977
8978
8979
8980
8981
8982
8983
8984
8985
8986
8987
8988
8989
8990
8991
8992
8993
8994
8995
8996
8997
8998
8999
9000
9001
9002
9003
9004
9005
9006
9007
9008
9009
9010
9011
9012
9013
9014
9015
9016
9017
9018
9019
9020
9021
9022
9023
9024
9025
9026
9027
9028
9029
9030
9031
9032
9033
9034
9035
9036
9037
9038
9039
9040
9041
9042
9043
9044
9045
9046
9047
9048
9049
9050
9051
9052
9053
9054
9055
9056
9057
9058
9059
9060
9061
9062
9063
9064
9065
9066
9067
9068
9069
9070
9071
9072
9073
9074
9075
9076
9077
9078
9079
9080
9081
9082
9083
9084
9085
9086
9087
9088
9089
9090
9091
9092
9093
9094
9095
9096
9097
9098
9099
9100
9101
9102
9103
9104
9105
9106
9107
9108
9109
9110
9111
9112
9113
9114
9115
9116
9117
9118
9119
9120
9121
9122
9123
9124
9125
9126
9127
9128
9129
9130
9131
9132
9133
9134
9135
9136
9137
9138
9139
9140
9141
9142
9143
9144
9145
9146
9147
9148
9149
9150
9151
9152
9153
9154
9155
9156
9157
9158
9159
9160
9161
9162
9163
9164
9165
9166
9167
9168
9169
9170
9171
9172
9173
9174
9175
9176
9177
9178
9179
9180
9181
9182
9183
9184
9185
9186
9187
9188
9189
9190
9191
9192
9193
9194
9195
9196
9197
9198
9199
9200
9201
9202
9203
9204
9205
9206
9207
9208
9209
9210
9211
9212
9213
9214
9215
9216
9217
9218
9219
9220
9221
9222
9223
9224
9225
9226
9227
9228
9229
9230
9231
9232
9233
9234
9235
9236
9237
9238
9239
9240
9241
9242
9243
9244
9245
9246
9247
9248
9249
9250
9251
9252
9253
9254
9255
9256
9257
9258
9259
9260
9261
9262
9263
9264
9265
9266
9267
9268
9269
9270
9271
9272
9273
9274
9275
9276
9277
9278
9279
9280
9281
9282
9283
9284
9285
9286
9287
9288
9289
9290
9291
9292
9293
9294
9295
9296
9297
9298
9299
9300
9301
9302
9303
9304
9305
9306
9307
9308
9309
9310
9311
9312
9313
9314
9315
9316
9317
9318
9319
9320
9321
9322
9323
9324
9325
9326
9327
9328
9329
9330
9331
9332
9333
9334
9335
9336
9337
9338
9339
9340
9341
9342
9343
9344
9345
9346
9347
9348
9349
9350
9351
9352
9353
9354
9355
9356
9357
9358
9359
9360
9361
9362
9363
9364
9365
9366
9367
9368
9369
9370
9371
9372
9373
9374
9375
9376
9377
9378
9379
9380
9381
9382
9383
9384
9385
9386
9387
9388
9389
9390
9391
9392
9393
9394
9395
9396
9397
9398
9399
9400
9401
9402
9403
9404
9405
9406
9407
9408
9409
9410
9411
9412
9413
9414
9415
9416
9417
9418
9419
9420
9421
9422
9423
9424
9425
9426
9427
9428
9429
9430
9431
9432
9433
9434
9435
9436
9437
9438
9439
9440
9441
9442
9443
9444
9445
9446
9447
9448
9449
9450
9451
9452
9453
9454
9455
9456
9457
9458
9459
9460
9461
9462
9463
9464
9465
9466
9467
9468
9469
9470
9471
9472
9473
9474
9475
9476
9477
9478
9479
9480
9481
9482
9483
9484
9485
9486
9487
9488
9489
9490
9491
9492
9493
9494
9495
9496
9497
9498
9499
9500
9501
9502
9503
9504
9505
9506
9507
9508
9509
9510
9511
9512
9513
9514
9515
9516
9517
9518
9519
9520
9521
9522
9523
9524
9525
9526
9527
9528
9529
9530
9531
9532
9533
9534
9535
9536
9537
9538
9539
9540
9541
9542
9543
9544
9545
9546
9547
9548
9549
9550
9551
9552
9553
9554
9555
9556
9557
9558
9559
9560
9561
9562
9563
9564
9565
9566
9567
9568
9569
9570
9571
9572
9573
9574
9575
9576
9577
9578
9579
9580
9581
9582
9583
9584
9585
9586
9587
9588
9589
9590
9591
9592
9593
9594
9595
9596
9597
9598
9599
9600
9601
9602
9603
9604
9605
9606
9607
9608
9609
9610
9611
9612
9613
9614
9615
9616
9617
9618
9619
9620
9621
9622
9623
9624
9625
9626
9627
9628
9629
9630
9631
9632
9633
9634
9635
9636
9637
9638
9639
9640
9641
9642
9643
9644
9645
9646
9647
9648
9649
9650
9651
9652
9653
9654
9655
9656
9657
9658
9659
9660
9661
9662
9663
9664
9665
9666
9667
9668
9669
9670
9671
9672
9673
9674
9675
9676
9677
9678
9679
9680
9681
9682
9683
9684
9685
9686
9687
9688
9689
9690
9691
9692
9693
9694
9695
9696
9697
9698
9699
9700
9701
9702
9703
9704
9705
9706
9707
9708
9709
9710
9711
9712
9713
9714
9715
9716
9717
9718
9719
9720
9721
9722
9723
9724
9725
9726
9727
9728
9729
9730
9731
9732
9733
9734
9735
9736
9737
9738
9739
9740
9741
9742
9743
9744
9745
9746
9747
9748
9749
9750
9751
9752
9753
9754
9755
9756
9757
9758
9759
9760
9761
9762
9763
9764
9765
9766
9767
9768
9769
9770
9771
9772
9773
9774
9775
9776
9777
9778
9779
9780
9781
9782
9783
9784
9785
9786
9787
9788
9789
9790
9791
9792
9793
9794
9795
9796
9797
9798
9799
9800
9801
9802
9803
9804
9805
9806
9807
9808
9809
9810
9811
9812
9813
9814
9815
9816
9817
9818
9819
9820
9821
9822
9823
9824
9825
9826
9827
9828
9829
9830
9831
9832
9833
9834
9835
9836
9837
9838
9839
9840
9841
9842
9843
9844
9845
9846
9847
9848
9849
9850
9851
9852
9853
9854
9855
9856
9857
9858
9859
9860
9861
9862
9863
9864
9865
9866
9867
9868
9869
9870
9871
9872
9873
9874
9875
9876
9877
9878
9879
9880
9881
9882
9883
9884
9885
9886
9887
9888
9889
9890
9891
9892
9893
9894
9895
9896
9897
9898
9899
9900
9901
9902
9903
9904
9905
9906
9907
9908
9909
9910
9911
9912
9913
9914
9915
9916
9917
9918
9919
9920
9921
9922
9923
9924
9925
9926
9927
9928
9929
9930
9931
9932
9933
9934
9935
9936
9937
9938
9939
9940
9941
9942
9943
9944
9945
9946
9947
9948
9949
9950
9951
9952
9953
9954
9955
9956
9957
9958
9959
9960
9961
9962
9963
9964
9965
9966
9967
9968
9969
9970
9971
9972
9973
9974
9975
9976
9977
9978
9979
9980
9981
9982
9983
9984
9985
9986
9987
9988
9989
9990
9991
9992
9993
9994
9995
9996
9997
9998
9999
10000
10001
10002
10003
10004
10005
10006
10007
10008
10009
10010
10011
10012
10013
10014
10015
10016
10017
10018
10019
10020
10021
10022
10023
10024
10025
10026
10027
10028
10029
10030
10031
10032
10033
10034
10035
10036
10037
10038
10039
10040
10041
10042
10043
10044
10045
10046
10047
10048
10049
10050
10051
10052
10053
10054
10055
10056
10057
10058
10059
10060
10061
10062
10063
10064
10065
10066
10067
10068
10069
10070
10071
10072
10073
10074
10075
10076
10077
10078
10079
10080
10081
10082
10083
10084
10085
10086
10087
10088
10089
10090
10091
10092
10093
10094
10095
10096
10097
10098
10099
10100
10101
10102
10103
10104
10105
10106
10107
10108
10109
10110
10111
10112
10113
10114
10115
10116
10117
10118
10119
10120
10121
10122
10123
10124
10125
10126
10127
10128
10129
10130
10131
10132
10133
10134
10135
10136
10137
10138
10139
10140
10141
10142
10143
10144
10145
10146
10147
10148
10149
10150
10151
10152
10153
10154
10155
10156
10157
10158
10159
10160
10161
10162
10163
10164
10165
10166
10167
10168
10169
10170
10171
10172
10173
10174
10175
10176
10177
10178
10179
10180
10181
10182
10183
10184
10185
10186
10187
10188
10189
10190
10191
10192
10193
10194
10195
10196
10197
10198
10199
10200
10201
10202
10203
10204
10205
10206
10207
10208
10209
10210
10211
10212
10213
10214
10215
10216
10217
10218
10219
10220
10221
10222
10223
10224
10225
10226
10227
10228
10229
10230
10231
10232
10233
10234
10235
10236
10237
10238
10239
10240
10241
10242
10243
10244
10245
10246
10247
10248
10249
10250
10251
10252
10253
10254
10255
10256
10257
10258
10259
10260
10261
10262
10263
10264
10265
10266
10267
10268
10269
10270
10271
10272
10273
10274
10275
10276
10277
10278
10279
10280
10281
10282
10283
10284
10285
10286
10287
10288
10289
10290
10291
10292
10293
10294
10295
10296
10297
10298
10299
10300
10301
10302
10303
10304
10305
10306
10307
10308
10309
10310
10311
10312
10313
10314
10315
10316
10317
10318
10319
10320
10321
10322
10323
10324
10325
10326
10327
10328
10329
10330
10331
10332
10333
10334
10335
10336
10337
10338
10339
10340
10341
10342
10343
10344
10345
10346
10347
10348
10349
10350
10351
10352
10353
10354
10355
10356
10357
10358
10359
10360
10361
10362
10363
10364
10365
10366
10367
10368
10369
10370
10371
10372
10373
10374
10375
10376
10377
10378
10379
10380
10381
10382
10383
10384
10385
10386
10387
10388
10389
10390
10391
10392
10393
10394
10395
10396
10397
10398
10399
10400
10401
10402
10403
10404
10405
10406
10407
10408
10409
10410
10411
10412
10413
10414
10415
10416
10417
10418
10419
10420
10421
10422
10423
10424
10425
10426
10427
10428
10429
10430
10431
10432
10433
10434
10435
10436
10437
10438
10439
10440
10441
10442
10443
10444
10445
10446
10447
10448
10449
10450
10451
10452
10453
10454
10455
10456
10457
10458
10459
10460
10461
10462
10463
10464
10465
10466
10467
10468
10469
10470
10471
10472
10473
10474
10475
10476
10477
10478
10479
10480
10481
10482
10483
10484
10485
10486
10487
10488
10489
10490
10491
10492
10493
10494
10495
10496
10497
10498
10499
10500
10501
10502
10503
10504
10505
10506
10507
10508
10509
10510
10511
10512
10513
10514
10515
10516
10517
10518
10519
10520
10521
10522
10523
10524
10525
10526
10527
10528
10529
10530
10531
10532
10533
10534
10535
10536
10537
10538
10539
10540
10541
10542
10543
10544
10545
10546
10547
10548
10549
10550
10551
10552
10553
10554
10555
10556
10557
10558
10559
10560
10561
10562
10563
10564
10565
10566
10567
10568
10569
10570
10571
10572
10573
10574
10575
10576
10577
10578
10579
10580
10581
10582
10583
10584
10585
10586
10587
10588
10589
10590
10591
10592
10593
10594
10595
10596
10597
10598
10599
10600
10601
10602
10603
10604
10605
10606
10607
10608
10609
10610
10611
10612
10613
10614
10615
10616
10617
10618
10619
10620
10621
10622
10623
10624
10625
10626
10627
10628
10629
10630
10631
10632
10633
10634
10635
10636
10637
10638
10639
10640
10641
10642
10643
10644
10645
10646
10647
10648
10649
10650
10651
10652
10653
10654
10655
10656
10657
10658
10659
10660
10661
10662
10663
10664
10665
10666
10667
10668
10669
10670
10671
10672
10673
10674
10675
10676
10677
10678
10679
10680
10681
10682
10683
10684
10685
10686
10687
10688
10689
10690
10691
10692
10693
10694
10695
10696
10697
10698
10699
10700
10701
10702
10703
10704
10705
10706
10707
10708
10709
10710
10711
10712
10713
10714
10715
10716
10717
10718
10719
10720
10721
10722
10723
10724
10725
10726
10727
10728
10729
10730
10731
10732
10733
10734
10735
10736
10737
10738
10739
10740
10741
10742
10743
10744
10745
10746
10747
10748
10749
10750
10751
10752
10753
10754
10755
10756
10757
10758
10759
10760
10761
10762
10763
10764
10765
10766
10767
10768
10769
10770
10771
10772
10773
10774
10775
10776
10777
10778
10779
10780
10781
10782
10783
10784
10785
10786
10787
10788
10789
10790
10791
10792
10793
10794
10795
10796
10797
10798
10799
10800
10801
10802
10803
10804
10805
10806
10807
10808
10809
10810
10811
10812
10813
10814
10815
10816
10817
10818
10819
10820
10821
10822
10823
10824
10825
10826
10827
10828
10829
10830
10831
10832
10833
10834
10835
10836
10837
10838
10839
10840
10841
10842
10843
10844
10845
10846
10847
10848
10849
10850
10851
10852
10853
10854
10855
10856
10857
10858
10859
10860
10861
10862
10863
10864
10865
10866
10867
10868
10869
10870
10871
10872
10873
10874
10875
10876
10877
10878
10879
10880
10881
10882
10883
10884
10885
10886
10887
10888
10889
10890
10891
10892
10893
10894
10895
10896
10897
10898
10899
10900
10901
10902
10903
10904
10905
10906
10907
10908
10909
10910
10911
10912
10913
10914
10915
10916
10917
10918
10919
10920
10921
10922
10923
10924
10925
10926
10927
10928
10929
10930
10931
10932
10933
10934
10935
10936
10937
10938
10939
10940
10941
10942
10943
10944
10945
10946
10947
10948
10949
10950
10951
10952
10953
10954
10955
10956
10957
10958
10959
10960
10961
10962
10963
10964
10965
10966
10967
10968
10969
10970
10971
10972
10973
10974
10975
10976
10977
10978
10979
10980
10981
10982
10983
10984
10985
10986
10987
10988
10989
10990
10991
10992
10993
10994
10995
10996
10997
10998
10999
11000
11001
11002
11003
11004
11005
11006
11007
11008
11009
11010
11011
11012
11013
11014
11015
11016
11017
11018
11019
11020
11021
11022
11023
11024
11025
11026
11027
11028
11029
11030
11031
11032
11033
11034
11035
11036
11037
11038
11039
11040
11041
11042
11043
11044
11045
11046
11047
11048
11049
11050
11051
11052
11053
11054
11055
11056
11057
11058
11059
11060
11061
11062
11063
11064
11065
11066
11067
11068
11069
11070
11071
11072
11073
11074
11075
11076
11077
11078
11079
11080
11081
11082
11083
11084
11085
11086
11087
11088
11089
11090
11091
11092
11093
11094
11095
11096
11097
11098
11099
11100
11101
11102
11103
11104
11105
11106
11107
11108
11109
11110
11111
11112
11113
11114
11115
11116
11117
11118
11119
11120
11121
11122
11123
11124
11125
11126
11127
11128
11129
11130
11131
11132
11133
11134
11135
11136
11137
11138
11139
11140
11141
11142
11143
11144
11145
11146
11147
11148
11149
11150
11151
11152
11153
11154
11155
11156
11157
11158
11159
11160
11161
11162
11163
11164
11165
11166
11167
11168
11169
11170
11171
11172
11173
11174
11175
11176
11177
11178
11179
11180
11181
11182
|
<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN">
<html>
<head>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1">
<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Key to the Knowledge of Church History (Ancient), by John Henry Blunt</title>
<style type="text/css">
BODY { color: Black;
background: White;
margin-right: 5%;
margin-left: 10%;
font-size: medium;
font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;
text-align: justify }
P {text-indent: 4% }
P.noindent {text-indent: 0% }
P.poem {text-indent: 0%;
margin-left: 10%;
font-size: small }
P.letter {font-size: small ;
margin-left: 10% ;
margin-right: 10% }
P.salutation {font-size: small ;
text-indent: 0%;
margin-left: 10% ;
margin-right: 10% }
P.closing {font-size: small ;
text-indent: 0%;
margin-left: 10% ;
margin-right: 10% }
P.footnote {font-size: small ;
text-indent: 0% ;
margin-left: 0% ;
margin-right: 0% }
P.transnote {font-size: small ;
text-indent: 0% ;
margin-left: 0% ;
margin-right: 0% }
P.index {font-size: medium ;
text-indent: -5% ;
margin-top: 0%;
margin-bottom: 0%;
margin-left: 5% ;
margin-right: 0% }
P.intro {font-size: medium ;
text-indent: -5% ;
margin-left: 5% ;
margin-right: 0% }
P.dedication {text-indent: 0%;
margin-left: 15%;
text-align: justify }
P.published {font-size: small ;
text-indent: 0% ;
margin-left: 15% }
P.quote {font-size: small ;
text-indent: 4% ;
margin-left: 0% ;
margin-right: 0% }
P.report {font-size: small ;
text-indent: 4% ;
margin-left: 0% ;
margin-right: 0% }
P.report2 {font-size: small ;
text-indent: 4% ;
margin-left: 10% ;
margin-right: 10% }
P.finis { text-align: center ;
text-indent: 0% ;
margin-left: 0% ;
margin-right: 0% }
H3.h3left { margin-left: 0%;
margin-right: 1%;
margin-bottom: .5% ;
margin-top: 0;
float: left ;
clear: left ;
text-align: center }
H3.h3right { margin-left: 1%;
margin-right: 0 ;
margin-bottom: .5% ;
margin-top: 0;
float: right ;
clear: right ;
text-align: center }
H3.h3center { margin-left: 0;
margin-right: 0 ;
margin-bottom: .5% ;
margin-top: 0;
float: none ;
clear: both ;
text-align: center }
H4.h4left { margin-left: 0%;
margin-right: 1%;
margin-bottom: .5% ;
margin-top: 0;
float: left ;
clear: left ;
text-align: center }
H4.h4right { margin-left: 1%;
margin-right: 0 ;
margin-bottom: .5% ;
margin-top: 0;
float: right ;
clear: right ;
text-align: center }
H4.h4center { margin-left: 0;
margin-right: 0 ;
margin-bottom: .5% ;
margin-top: 0;
float: none ;
clear: both ;
text-align: center }
H5.h5left { margin-left: 0%;
margin-right: 1%;
margin-bottom: .5% ;
margin-top: 0;
float: left ;
clear: left ;
text-align: center }
H5.h5right { margin-left: 1%;
margin-right: 0 ;
margin-bottom: .5% ;
margin-top: 0;
float: right ;
clear: right ;
text-align: center }
H5.h5center { margin-left: 0;
margin-right: 0 ;
margin-bottom: .5% ;
margin-top: 0;
float: none ;
clear: both ;
text-align: center }
IMG.imgleft { float: left;
clear: left;
margin-left: 0;
margin-bottom: 0;
margin-top: 1%;
margin-right: 1%;
padding: 0;
text-align: center }
IMG.imgright {float: right;
clear: right;
margin-left: 1%;
margin-bottom: 0;
margin-top: 1%;
margin-right: 0;
padding: 0;
text-align: center }
IMG.imgcenter { margin-left: auto;
margin-bottom: 0;
margin-top: 1%;
margin-right: auto; }
.pagenum { position: absolute;
left: 1%;
font-size: 95%;
text-align: left;
text-indent: 0;
font-style: normal;
font-weight: normal;
font-variant: normal; }
.sidenote { left: 0%;
font-size: 70%;
text-align: left;
text-indent: 0%;
width: 17%;
float: left;
clear: left;
padding-left: 0%;
padding-right: 2%;
padding-top: 2%;
padding-bottom: 2%;
font-style: normal;
font-weight: normal;
font-variant: normal; }
hr.full { width: 100%;
height: 5px; }
a:link { color:blue;
text-decoration:none; }
link { color:blue;
text-decoration:none; }
a:visited { color:blue;
text-decoration:none; }
a:hover { color:red;
text-decoration: underline; }
pre { font-size: 75%; }
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h1 align="center">The Project Gutenberg eBook, A Key to the Knowledge of Church History
(Ancient), by John Henry Blunt</h1>
<pre>
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
<p>Title: A Key to the Knowledge of Church History (Ancient)</p>
<p>Author: John Henry Blunt</p>
<p>Release Date: July 7, 2007 [eBook #22017]</p>
<p>Language: English</p>
<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A KEY TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF CHURCH HISTORY (ANCIENT)***</p>
<br><br><center><h3>E-text prepared by Al Haines</h3></center><br><br>
<p> </p>
<table border=0 bgcolor="ccccff" cellpadding=10>
<tr>
<td align="center">
<b>Transcriber's Notes:</b>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
Page numbers in this book are indicated in the left margin by numbers enclosed
in curly braces, e.g. {99}. They have been located where page
breaks occurred in the original book. For its Index, a page
number has been placed only at the start of that section.<br>
<br>
In the original book, its various chapters' subsections were
denoted with the "section" symbol (§).
In this e-text, that symbol has been replaced with the word
"SECTION". Where two of these symbols were together, they
have been replaced with the word "SECTIONS".<br>
<br>
In the original book, footnotes in a chapter were numbered
from 1 to 9. If a chapter had more than 9 footnotes, the
numbering sequence was repeated, resulting in several footnotes
with the same number. In this e-book, all footnotes have been
re-numbered sequentially from 1. Footnotes have been moved to
the end of their respective chapters.<br>
<br>
The original book had many side-notes in its pages' left or
right margin areas. Some of these sidenotes were at the
beginning of a paragraph, and in this e-text, are placed to
precede their host paragraph. Some were placed elsewhere
alongside a paragraph, in relation to what the sidenote
referred to inside the paragraph. These have been placed
into the paragraph near where they were in the original book.
Some sidenotes were split into two or more parts, distributed
down the margin of their host paragraph. Occasionally, such
multi-part sidenotes had sections in adjacent paragraphs. If
all parts of such sidenotes were within a single paragraph,
they were treated as separate sidenotes, unless that
meant the splitting of sentences, in which case they were
amalgamated into a single sidenote and positioned near where
their first section was. If a multi-part sidenote had
sections in adjacent paragraphs, those sections were treated
as if they belonged to their host paragraph. Sidenotes inside
paragraphs are always placed between sentences. All sidenotes
have been enclosed in square brackets, and preceded with
"Sidenote:".
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p> </p>
<hr class="full" noshade>
<p> </p>
<p> </p>
<p> </p>
<H1 ALIGN="center">
A KEY
</H1>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
To the Knowledge of
</H3>
<H1 ALIGN="center">
CHURCH HISTORY
</H1>
<H2 ALIGN="center">
[Ancient]
</H2>
<BR><BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
EDITED BY
<BR>
JOHN HENRY BLUNT, M.A.
</H3>
<BR>
<H4 ALIGN="center">
EDITOR OF
<BR>
"THE DICTIONARY OF THEOLOGY,"
<BR>
"THE ANNOTATED BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER;"
<BR><BR>
AUTHOR OF
<BR>
"HOUSEHOLD THEOLOGY," ETC. ETC.
</H4>
<BR><BR>
<H4 ALIGN="center">
<I>"This Gospel of the Kingdom shall be<BR>
preached in all the world for a witness<BR>
unto all nations.</I>"—St. Matt. xxiv. 14<BR>
</H4>
<BR>
<H5 ALIGN="center">
RIVINGTONS
<BR>
WATERLOO PLACE, LONDON
<BR>
Oxford, and Cambridge
<BR>
MDCCCLXXVII
<BR>
[<I>New Edition</I>]
</H5>
<BR><BR><BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
PREFACE
</H3>
<P>
This Volume offers to the reader a short and condensed account of the
origin, growth, and condition of the Church in all parts of the world,
from the time of our Lord down to the end of the fifteenth century, the
narrative being compressed into as small a compass as is consistent
with a readable form.
</P>
<P>
In such a work the reader will not, of course, expect to find any full
and detailed account of so vast a subject as Pre-Reformation Church
History. Its object is rather to sketch out the historical truth about
each Church, and to indicate the general principles on which further
inquiry may be conducted by those who have the opportunity of making it.
</P>
<P>
It is hoped that those whose circumstances do not admit of an extended
study of the subject will find in the following pages a clear, though
condensed, view of the periods and Churches treated of; and that those
whose reading is of a less limited range will be put in possession of
certain definite lines of thought, by which they may be guided in
reading the statements of more elaborate histories.
</P>
<P>
It may be added, that the writer's stand-point throughout has been that
of a loyal attachment to the Church of England, as the authorized
exponent and upholder of Catholic doctrine for English people.
</P>
<P CLASS="noindent">
M. F. B. P.
<BR>
<I>July</I>, 1869.
</P>
<BR><BR><BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
CONTENTS
</H3>
<BR>
<TABLE ALIGN="center" WIDTH="100%">
<TR>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top" WIDTH="10%">
CHAPTER
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top" WIDTH="80%">
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top" WIDTH="10%">
PAGE
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
I.
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
<A HREF="#chap01">THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH AMONG THE JEWS </A>
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
1
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
II.
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
<A HREF="#chap02">THE FOUNDATION OF THE CHURCH AMONG THE HEATHEN </A>
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
25
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
III.
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
<A HREF="#chap03">THE EXTENSION OF THE CHURCH THROUGHOUT THE WORLD </A>
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
30
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
IV.
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
<A HREF="#chap04">FINAL SETTLEMENT OF THE CHURCH BY ST. JOHN </A>
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
45
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
V.
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
<A HREF="#chap05">THE PRIMITIVE CHURCH </A>
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
57
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
VI.
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
<A HREF="#chap06">THE CHURCH UNDER THE ROMAN EMPIRE</A>
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
66
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
VII.
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
<A HREF="#chap07">THE EARLY HISTORY OF PARTICULAR CHURCHES </A>
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
73
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
VIII.
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
<A HREF="#chap08">THE INROADS OF MAHOMETANISM </A>
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
88
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
IX.
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
<A HREF="#chap09">THE DIVISION BETWEEN EAST AND WEST </A>
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
94
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
X.
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
<A HREF="#chap10">THE CHURCH OF THE MIDDLE AGES</A>
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
100
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
XI.
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
<A HREF="#chap11">THE MEDIAEVAL HISTORY OF CONTINENTAL CHURCHES</A>
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
120
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
XII.
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
<A HREF="#chap12">THE MEDIAEVAL CHURCH IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND </A>
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
142
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
<A HREF="#chap13">INDEX</A>
</TD>
<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
155
</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
<BR><BR><BR>
<A NAME="chap01"></A>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P1"></A>1}</SPAN>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
CHAPTER I
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
The foundation of the Church among the Jews
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
A.D. 33-A.D. 38
</H3>
<P>
Before entering upon an account of the Foundation
and After-History of the Christian Church,
it may be well to consider what that Church really is.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 1. <I>Definition of the Church.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Twofold nature of the Church.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Church may be regarded in a twofold aspect, as
an external Corporation, and as a spiritual Body.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
1. An external Kingdom.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
In the first light it is a Kingdom, in the world, though
not of the world, extending through
different and widely-separated countries,
often seemingly divided by outward circumstances, but,
in reality, having all its parts subject to the same
Invisible King, governed by laws which He has given,
and by means of those whom He has appointed to be
His representatives on earth.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
2. A spiritual Body.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
In its spiritual sense the Church is the One Mystical
Body of Christ, of which men are made
members by Holy Baptism, and in which
they are nourished and built up by the Holy Eucharist,
and the other means of grace. These means of grace
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P2"></A>2}</SPAN>
are dispensed by Priests, who receive authority and
power to execute their ministerial functions from
Bishops, successors of the Apostles, and are
assisted in their ministry by the inferior order of
Deacons.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Future destiny of the Church.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The members of this Mystical Body, after passing
through their appointed probation in this
world, and being built up more and more,
if they continue faithful, into Christ their Head, are
removed to join the Church at rest in Paradise.
There they await the Resurrection and Final
Judgment, after which the "Church Militant here on
earth" will become the Church Triumphant in Heaven.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The Church exists through and by the Incarnation, applied to each individual in Holy Baptism, and the Holy Eucharist.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The existence of the Church is the consequence and
fruit of the Incarnation and Death of her
Divine Head; the spiritual life of all her
members being derived from their union
with our Blessed Lord's Sacred Humanity, whereby
they are also made "partakers of the
Divine Nature[1]," their birth-sin being at
the same time washed away by the Virtue
of His Cleansing Blood. This Life, once begun, is
kept up in faithful Christians by believing
and persevering use of the Mystical Food
provided for its sustenance in their souls—the Blessed
Body and Precious Blood thus given to them being a
continual extension of the Incarnation; whilst their
actual sins are forgiven by the absolving Word of the
Priest, and the Pleading of the One Sacrifice,
unceasingly presented in Heaven, and constantly shown forth
and mystically offered on the Altars of the Church on
earth.
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P3"></A>3}</SPAN>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Foreshadowings of the Church and the Redeemer's sacrifice under the Patriarchal
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
From the time of the Fall and the merciful Promise
of a Redeemer, "the Seed of the woman,"
there is also a foreshadowing of the Church
as the appointed way by which mankind
should lay hold on the salvation thus
provided for them.
The Patriarchs were priests in their
own tribes, for which they continually
offered up sacrifices to Almighty God; and
to this patriarchal system succeeded the Mosaical
Dispensation with an elaborate ceremonial, each minute
detail of which was laid down by direct revelation from
God Himself.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and Mosaic dispensations.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
In this system of Divine Worship given to Moses,
sacrifices of animals still held the most
prominent place, typifying as they did the
great Oblation to come, and perhaps conveying a
certain Sacramental grace to the devout offerers and
partakers of them. To these perpetual sacrifices, offered
morning by morning and evening by evening, there
was also joined a continual round of praise and
thanksgiving.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Much of the Jewish ritual absorbed in the Christian Church.
</SPAN>
When our Blessed Lord came "to fulfil the
Law," this Jewish ritual was in a great
measure engrafted into the worship of the
Christian Church. The Passover feast,
as well as animal sacrifices and the feeding
on them, were done away, and replaced by the
"Unbloody Sacrifice" and Sacramental Communion of the
Gospel covenant, whilst circumcision and ceremonial
purifications disappeared to make room for the "true
Circumcision of the Spirit," and the regenerating
streams of Holy Baptism. But the "Hours of Prayer"
and Praise were still retained, "the singers arrayed in
white" became the white-robed choirs of the Christian
Church, and the threefold order of the Christian
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P4"></A>4}</SPAN>
ministry represented the High Priest, Priests, and
Levites of the old dispensation.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Jewish Worship a preparation for Christian Worship.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
We must not be led to think that the Jewish Worship
was contrary to the Mind of God,
for He Himself appointed it. It was,
without doubt, a part of the great Scheme
of Redemption—a preparation for the
Gospel, the means ordained by the Divine Wisdom for
keeping up in men's minds the future Coming of the
Messiah. But when the Great Deliverer was indeed
come, there was no further need for the types and
shadows of the Law, and they disappeared to make
way for the "substance" of the Gospel.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The Church Militant a preparation for the Church Triumphant.
</SPAN>
So when the
number of the elect shall be accomplished,
and the Church Militant changed into the
Church Triumphant, her Worship and
her Sacraments will have their full fruition
in the Marriage Supper of the Lamb, and the
unceasing adoration of the redeemed in the Heavenly
Temple.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 2. <I>Our Lord's Work in the Foundation of the Church.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Our Lord prepared for the Foundation of His Church by instituting Holy Baptism and the Holy Eucharist, and by appointing the twelve Apostles.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Our Blessed Lord's Ministry was spent in making
preparations for the foundation of His
Church. At His first entrance on that
Ministry, He "sanctified Water to the
mystical washing away of sin;" at the
close of it, He blessed the elements of
Bread and Wine, and made them the
channels of His constant Presence with His Church,
"a perpetual memory of His Precious
Death" before God.
He also appointed
human instruments, who, in His Name
and by His Authority, should carry out
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P5"></A>5}</SPAN>
this mighty work, and be the foundation-stones of the
new spiritual building, bonded together and firmly
established in Him the "Chief Corner Stone." "The
wall of the City had twelve foundations, and in them
the names of the twelve Apostles of the Lamb[2]."
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The Apostles taught and trained by our Lord's Example and Teaching.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Apostles were solemnly set apart by our Lord
after a night of watching and prayer[3], and
from that time became His constant
companions, witnessing His mighty works,
listening to the words of Heavenly
Wisdom which fell from His Sacred Lips,
and thus experiencing, under the guidance of the Head
of the Church Himself, such a training as might best
fit them for their superhuman labours[4].
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Special instructions given them, and not understood until after the Day of Pentecost.
</SPAN>
A large portion of what is now stored up in the Holy
Gospel for the instruction of the whole
body of Christians,
was in the first instance
spoken to the Apostles with a special view to their
Apostolic vocation; to them it was "given to know
the Mysteries of the Kingdom of Heaven." Doubtless
much of what they were thus taught
remained unexplained "Mysteries" to them
until the Coming of the Holy Ghost on
the Day of Pentecost to "guide them into
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P6"></A>6}</SPAN>
all Truth," and especially to instruct them in the real
meaning of what had before seemed to be "hard
sayings" in their Master's Teaching.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
This Teaching continued after the Resurrection.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Again, after our Blessed Lord's Passion and
Resurrection, we read that He was "seen of
them forty days, speaking of the things
pertaining to the Kingdom of God[5]," i.e. to
the Church, the Kingdom which, by
the agency of the Twelve Apostles, He was about to
establish in this world. No record is left us as to what
these "things" were of which He spake to them; but
we cannot doubt that the Words of Divine Wisdom
would remain deeply engraven on their hearts, and be
a treasure of strength and counsel in the trials and
perplexities of the untried path which lay before them,
the Holy Spirit "bringing to their remembrance" any
sayings of the Saviour which human frailty might
have hindered them from remembering[6].
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A commission given to the Apostles for all their official acts,
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Apostles received from the Great High Priest
before His Ascension, a commission to
execute the various functions of the priestly
office, to baptize[7], to teach[8], to consecrate
and offer the Holy Eucharist[9], and to
absolve[10]; besides a general and comprehensive promise
that all their official acts should be confirmed by Him,
in the words, "Lo, I am with you alway, even unto
the end of the world[11]."
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
but not exerted till after Pentecost.
</SPAN>
We do not, however, find that
this commission was acted on by the
Apostles before the day of Pentecost; the
Saviour's will was, that it should, so to
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P7"></A>7}</SPAN>
speak, lie dormant until the seal of the Holy Spirit
was impressed upon it. During the days of expectation
which followed our Lord's Ascension, we read that the
holy company who were gathered together in the
"upper room," "continued with one accord in prayer
and supplication[12];" but we have no mention of any
celebration of the Holy Eucharist, whilst immediately
after the Descent of the Holy Ghost we are told of
their daily continuance in "the Breaking of the Bread[13]."
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 3. <I>The Day of Pentecost.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 33. Participation of the Blessed Trinity in the works of Creation, the Incarnation, and the Foundation of the Church.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
As the Three Holy Persons of the Ever-blessed Trinity
had shared in the work of the First
Creation of the world, the Father speaking by
the Eternal Word, and the Holy Spirit
brooding over what before was lifeless:
and as in the work of the Incarnation the
Father had sent the Son to take upon Him our human
nature through the operation of the
Holy Ghost: so, in the Foundation of the Church,
the Power of the Holy Spirit co-operated
no less than the Will of the Father and the Life-giving
Grace of the Son.
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P8"></A>8}</SPAN>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The waiting at Jerusalem.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Apostles had received from their ascending
Lord a command to await in the City of
Jerusalem this "Power from on High,"
which was to be sent upon them[14]. We can easily see
the fitness of this injunction, when we remember that
they were about to become the founders of the New
Jerusalem, the true "City of God" in which the many
"glorious things spoken[15]" by the Old Testament
Prophets were to have their performance to a certain
extent even in this life, but fully and perfectly in the
Life to come.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Matthias chosen.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Immediately after our Lord's Ascension the Apostles,
under the immediate guidance of Almighty
God, made choice by lot of St. Matthias
to fill up the vacancy in the Apostolic Body caused by
the apostasy of Judas, and then awaited in prayer and
worship the promised Coming of the
Comforter.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The coming of the Holy Ghost.
</SPAN>
After ten days of expectation, on
the morning of the Jewish Feast of
Pentecost, the Promise was fulfilled: with the sound "of a
rushing mighty Wind," with the brightness of "cloven
tongues like as of fire," the Holy Spirit descended
"and sat upon each of" the Apostles[16]. Thus they were
inspired and enlightened with Power and Knowledge,
and all the other sevenfold gifts of the Paraclete[17] in
fuller measure than had ever been vouchsafed to the
Prophets and Teachers of old, as well as with
miraculous endowments, that so they might be enabled to
carry out the Commission entrusted to them by their
Master.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The gift of Tongues.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
One effect of this wonderful Visitation was
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P9"></A>9}</SPAN>
immediately and strikingly apparent to all who stood by, for
on these twelve unlearned men of lowly
birth was bestowed the power of speaking
fluently and intelligibly in languages of which, before,
they had been altogether ignorant.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The people come together.
</SPAN>
The fame of this
great wonder soon spread amongst the
multitude of foreign Jews who were then
gathered together at Jerusalem to keep the Feast of
Pentecost; many of them were probably at that very
time in the Temple, of which the "upper room" is
thought to have formed a part, and they quickly came
around the Apostles, anxious to judge for themselves of
the truth of what had been told them.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Their amazement.
</SPAN>
Very great was their astonishment at what
they heard. It seems as if words are multiplied in the
Sacred Narrative to impress us with a sense of their
awe and wonder. It is said that they "were
confounded" or "troubled in mind," that "they were all
amazed and marvelled;" and again, that "they were
all amazed, and were in doubt" at this startling
exhibition of the "Power" of God[18].
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Though some refused to believe.
</SPAN>
Some indeed "mocked,"
despising the work of the Spirit, as they
had before despised the work of the Son;
but many opened their hearts to the softening
influence, and of them it may truly be said that
"the fear of the Lord" was "the beginning of wisdom."
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P10"></A>10}</SPAN>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 4. <I>St. Peter's First Sermon, and its Results.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 33. Conversion of the 3000.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
And now at once the converting power of the Church
was exercised. St. Peter, the chief of the
Apostles, took the lead, as he had
already done in the election of St. Matthias,
and preached to the impressed and eager
multitude that first Christian sermon, which was
followed by the conversion and baptism of "about 3000
souls[19]."
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The promise of St. Peter fulfilled.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Thus was fulfilled, in one sense at least, the promise
of Christ to St. Peter: "Upon this rock
I will build My Church[20];" and he, who
first of the Twelve had faith to confess
the Godhead of our Blessed Lord, was rewarded by
being the first to whom it was given to draw men
into that Church, which in His Human Nature Christ
had purchased for Himself.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Further results of St. Peter's sermon.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
In estimating the importance of the results which
were brought about by St. Peter's sermon,
we must not only take into account the
actual number of those who were at once
added to the disciples, large as that number was, but
we must also remember that many of these converts
came from far distant countries, whither, on their
departure from Jerusalem, they would carry the tidings
of the Faith which they had embraced. Hence they
in their turn became forerunners of our Lord and of
His Church, preparing the hearts of those amongst
whom they dwelt to listen to the proclamation of the
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P11"></A>11}</SPAN>
Gospel, when, in God's appointed season, it should be
preached to them.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 3. <I>The First Beginnings of Persecution.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 33. Growth of the Church.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Church now steadily grew in influence and
numbers; "The Lord added to the
Church daily such as should be" [or
"were being"] "saved[21];" and on the
occasion of a second sermon, preached by St. Peter
after the healing of the lame man "at the Beautiful
Gate of the Temple," "about five thousand" were
converted[22].
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Beginnings of persecution.
</SPAN>
The opposition of the Jewish rulers was
powerless to check the ever-advancing
tide; and this <I>first beginning of persecution</I>,
by calling forth from the whole Church an earnest
act of worship and supplication, was the occasion of
"great power" and "great grace" being given to
enable her to do and bear all for the sake of her Lord[23].
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Conversion of St. Barnabas.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Immediately afterwards we read of the conversion
of St. Barnabas, the first convert
mentioned by name, a Levite, and apparently
a man of wealth and position[24]; and then we are told
of the awe and reverence produced in the minds of
the people of Jerusalem, and the neighbouring country,
by the abundant exercise of the Apostolic
power of working miracles[25].
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The gift of working miracles.
</SPAN>
This great working
gift of the Holy Ghost, bestowed, like the
Gift of Tongues, on the Day of Pentecost, had similar
results. Fear was followed by faith, and
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P12"></A>12}</SPAN>
"multitudes both of men and women" were added to the
Church.
</P>
<P>
Persecution once more followed, this time with greater
severity; the Apostles were imprisoned through the
influence of the sect of the Sadducees, and, being set
free by a miracle, were called before the Sanhedrim
and scourged, only escaping death by the wise and
merciful interposition of the Pharisee Gamaliel.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 6. <I>Worship and Discipline of the Infant Church.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 33.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Before going farther into the History of the Church,
we may pause to consider the account
given us in Holy Scripture of Christian
Worship and Discipline in the time immediately
following the Day of Pentecost. The same chapter
which contains the narrative of the Descent of the
Holy Ghost, has also a short epitome of the daily life
of the Apostles and their converts, during that brief
interval of undisturbed peace which preceded the
beginning of the bitter conflict between the Church
and the world.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Holy Baptism. Apostolic Doctrine.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
First we read of Holy Baptism as the source of the
Christian Life[26], and then of steadfast
continuance in the one Faith as taught
by the Apostles, who were, so to speak, a
kind of living Gospel to their converts.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Oral teaching.
</SPAN>
None of the Books of the New Testament were as yet
written, so that all instruction being oral,
faithful must most fully have sought
"the Law" of the Saviour at the "mouth" of His
twelve chosen servants, who had listened to His
gracious words, and had been themselves taught by
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P13"></A>13}</SPAN>
Him Who is Wisdom.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Value of tradition.
</SPAN>
The Apostles' Creed is a
mighty instance of this <I>traditional</I>
teaching, which has come down even to our
own days; and many points of Church government,
and discipline, and ritual, merely hinted at, or not
even referred to in the writings of the New Testament,
were preserved to the Church by means of spoken
tradition. St. Paul several times mentions these
oral traditions, and in one instance speaks of them
to his converts as equally binding with the written
words contained in his Epistles[27]. The substance of
such important traditions became ingrained into the
system and belief of the Church, and it was thus of
comparatively little importance that their exact words
were forgotten.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Apostolic fellowship. Faith and love towards God
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
To oneness of "doctrine" belonged also oneness of
"fellowship." There was as yet "no
schism in the Body;" and this inward
Faith and Love found their outward
expression both towards God and towards
man. Towards God in "the Breaking of the Bread,"
the Daily Sacrifice and Thank-offering of the Holy
Eucharist "at home[28]," i.e. in their own upper room,
the first Christian Church, as well as in their constant
attendance on the daily "Prayers" and praises still
offered up in the Temple. Of the conduct of the
first Christians towards each other we are told twice
over, immediately after the Outpouring of the Day
of Pentecost, and again after that increase of
"boldness," which was granted to the earnest cry of the
Church on the approach of persecution[29].
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P14"></A>14}</SPAN>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and towards man.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Both these accounts speak to us of their full
realization of the doctrine of the Communion
of Saints. They "were together;" they
"were of one heart and of one soul:" the need of one
was the need of all; each felt his brother's wants, as
if he himself suffered; and so great was the liberality
of those who had "possessions and goods," that there
was not "any among them that lacked." "They had
all things common," as to the daily use of God's
worldly gifts.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The Holy Eucharist as a Sacrifice
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Holy Eucharist was to the Church then, as it
is still, the chief act and centre of Divine
worship. In this new Sacrifice the
Apostles showed forth and pleaded before God,
the One Sufficient Sacrifice, which they themselves
had seen "once offered," with unspeakable sufferings,
and all-prevailing Blood-shedding upon the Cross of
Calvary.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and a means of union with Christ.
</SPAN>
In it they adored Him, Whom they now
acknowledged with every faculty of their souls to be
indeed their "Lord" and their "God;"
in it they found again the Real and
continual, though invisible, Presence of
the Master and Friend for Whose sake they had
forsaken all earthly ties; and by it they were brought
into closer union with Him, than when of old they had
walked and talked with Him beside the Galilean Sea,
or beneath the olive-trees of Gethsemane; for now,
they were indeed "nourished and cherished" by Him
and made more and more "members of His Body,
of His flesh, and of His bones[30]."
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Thankfulness of the first converts.
</SPAN>
What wonder, then, that we read of the
"gladness and singleness of heart" of the
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P15"></A>15}</SPAN>
Apostles and their converts thus living in the constant
joy and presence of their Lord, and that "praising
God" is mentioned as one of their distinguishing
marks:—
</P>
<P CLASS="poem">
"By 'Deo gratias,' as they pass'd,<BR>
The faithful folk were surest known;<BR>
That watchword for the daily strife<BR>
Might well their thoughts and tongues employ,<BR>
Who made the Church transform their life,<BR>
And the great Offering crown their joy[31]."<BR>
</P>
<BR>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Continued attendance of the Apostles on the Temple Services.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
We may here remark the many indications which
are given us throughout the Book of Acts,
that the Apostles, who were themselves
Jews, did not, even after the Foundation
of the Christian Church, oppose or neglect
Jewish ordinances and worship, so long and so far as
the union of the two dispensations was practicable.
In this they followed the example of their Divine
Master, Who, from His Circumcision upwards, paid
obedience to that Law which He came to fulfil, and
Who was a constant attendant at the services of the
Temple and of the Synagogues. There was no violent
rending away from the old Faith, until God, in His
wisdom and justice, saw fit to ordain the destruction
of the guilty city Jerusalem, and the overthrow of the
Jewish Temple, and Altar, and Priesthood, none of
which had then any further purpose to serve in the
Divine plan for the redemption of mankind.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
In the cases of St. Peter and St. John,
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Thus we read of St. Peter and St. John going up to
the Temple to worship at the ninth hour
of prayer[32], and of their afterwards preaching
to the people in that part of the
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P16"></A>16}</SPAN>
Temple called Solomon's porch[33], of the daily
preaching of the Gospel by the Apostles in the Temple[34],
and of their constant resort to the Jewish Synagogues
during their stay in such places as possessed them[35].
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and of St. Paul.
</SPAN>
Even five and twenty years after the day
of Pentecost we find that the very tumult
which resulted in St. Paul's apprehension and
consequent journey as a prisoner to Rome, was
immediately excited by his having "entered into the
Temple[36]," in performance of one of the ceremonies of the
Mosaic Law.
</P>
<P>
</P>
<P>
Section 7. <I>The First Schism and the Appointment of the
Diaconate.</I>
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A. D. 33. The first deadly sin in the Church.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Great and deadly sin had already made its way into
Christ's fold, and been cast out from the
midst of it by a fearful judgment. Ananias
and Sapphira had "lied unto God,"
and been struck dead for their impiety; and the
"great fear" excited by this first display of the judicial
powers of the Church had been followed by another
influx of conversions; for "multitudes were added to
the Lord[37]."
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 34. The first schism.
</SPAN>
And now came the first
division in the body, "a murmuring of
the Grecians against the Hebrews[38]."
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Distinction between "Grecians" (or Hellenists) and "Hebrews."
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
By the "Grecians" are meant those Jews of foreign
birth and education who had adopted
Greek customs and the Greek language
so entirely, that some even of their most
learned men did not understand Hebrew
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P17"></A>17}</SPAN>
but read the Scriptures of the Old Testament in the
Septuagint Version. They were much despised by
the stricter and more narrow-minded "Hebrews," the
natives of Palestine, or Syro-Chaldaic Jews; and the
rivalries of these two Jewish sects were carried even
into the bosom of Christ's Church.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Complaint of the "Grecians."
</SPAN>
The Grecians, or "<I>Hellenists</I>" complained
that their widows were neglected in the
daily distribution of alms; perhaps grounding their
complaint on the fact that the Twelve were all
Hebrews.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Deacons ordained.
</SPAN>
And the Apostles commanded that "seven
men of honest report" should be chosen from the body
of believers, and presented to them, that
they might be ordained by Imposition of
Hands to minister to the bodily wants of the poor
and aged. This was the first institution of the Order
of Deacons[39], the lowest of the three holy offices which
were to be continually handed down and
perpetuated in the Church. Thus did the Apostles begin
to impart to others such a portion of the
ministerial grace, of which they themselves had been at
first the sole recipients, as might enable those whom
they ordained to aid them, in a subordinate degree,
in the work of building up the mystical Body of Christ.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Increasing conversions.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
This fresh proof of the vitality of the Church through
the active, living Presence of her Divine Head, was
followed by a new feature in the still
increasing conversions to her fold. It
was no longer the poor and the unlearned only, or
chiefly, who listened to the teaching of the Apostles,
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P18"></A>18}</SPAN>
"a great company of the Priests were obedient to the
Faith[40]," while, on the other hand, a
growing and more bitter spirit of persecution
was soon to develope itself.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 8. <I>The Martyrdom of St. Stephen.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 34. The Seven Deacons.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
St. Stephen, the foremost and saintliest of the Seven
Deacons, and St. Philip, the second in
order, are the only two of whom we have
any further mention in the Book of Acts;
but it is believed that the last named, Nicolas of
Antioch, was the author of the heresy of the
Nicolaitanes, which our Blessed Lord twice over tells us
that He hates[41]. Nicolas seems in this way to be
a sad reflection of the awful example set by the traitor
Judas, the last reckoned Apostle.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Their functions.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
It is clear that the ministrations of the first Deacons
were not of necessity confined to the
"serving of tables," which was the primary
occasion of their appointment. St. Philip both preached
and baptized[42]; and St. Stephen brought down upon
himself the hatred and malice of the Jews by the
boldness and power of his preaching. Both preaching and
baptizing do still, under certain restrictions, "appertain
to the office of a Deacon[43]."
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Probably all Hellenists.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Judging from the names of the Seven Deacons, there
seems good reason for supposing that
they were all or most of them Grecians or
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P19"></A>19}</SPAN>
Hellenists. St. Stephen was undoubtedly a Hellenist,
and his early training made him a ready instrument
for the work to which the Holy Ghost had called him.
Freed by education from many of the associations and
feelings which bound his Hebrew brethren to the Holy
City and the Temple, he could realize more plainly
than they could do, the future of the Christian Church
apart from both these, and boldly
proclaimed his convictions.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Stephen's preaching rouses Hebrew prejudices.
</SPAN>
By this conduct
he aroused all the deeply-rooted
prejudices and exclusive pride of the Jewish
mind, even amongst those who, like himself, were
Hellenists, and to whom he seems more particularly to
have addressed himself. Up to this time, what
opposition there was to the teaching of the Apostles, seems to
have come chiefly from the unbelieving sect of the
Sadducees[44]; for the people had espoused the cause of the
Christian teachers[45], and the Pharisees had
advocated lenient conduct towards those
who confessed, as they themselves did, a
belief in the Resurrection[46].
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The Pharisees join with the Saducees in opposition to the Church.
</SPAN>
But now all
was altered; priests and people, Sadducees and
Pharisees, were alike vehement against those who ventured
to assert that the "Holy Place and the Law" should
ever give way to a Holier than they; and foremost
amongst the persecutors was the fiery, earnest,
intellectual man who was afterwards the holy Apostle
Paul[47].
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Stephen's speech a direct Inspiration.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The defence of the heavenly-minded Deacon before
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P20"></A>20}</SPAN>
his malicious and bloodthirsty enemies must be looked
upon as a direct Inspiration of the Holy
Ghost, a fulfilment of our Blessed Lord's
promise to His Church[48],
and a Divine
commentary on Old Testament History, showing that
God's mercies were not restrained to any particular
place or country, and upbraiding the Jews with their
abuse of their many privileges and their rejection of
the Saviour. But the words of this first Christian
"Apology against Judaism" fell for the time on
unheeding ears; and its only present apparent result
was the violent and yet triumphant death
of him who had been chosen to utter it.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
His blessed martyrdom.
</SPAN>
Beneath the stoning of the enraged multitude, the
First Martyr "fell asleep," blessed in his last moments
with a foretaste of the Beatific Vision[49].
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 9. <I>Results of St. Stephen's Martyrdom.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 34. Good brought out of evil for the Church.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
We may here pause to recollect how God had all along
been bringing forth good out of seeming
evil, in what concerned His Church. The
first <I>dawnings of persecution</I> drew down
increased "boldness" in answer to thankful
prayer; the first great necessity for exercising the
<I>judicial office</I> of the Church was followed by "great
fear" and multiplied conversions, as well as by the first
miracles of healing wrought in the Church; the first
<I>schism</I> was the occasion of the origin of the Order of
Deacons, directly after which event we hear of "a great
company of the priests being obedient to the Faith,"
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P21"></A>21}</SPAN>
the first <I>martyrdom</I> helped to bring about the
conversion of the chief persecutor; and now the first <I>general
persecution</I> which came upon the Church was to have
for its result a far more widely-spread diffusion of the
knowledge of the Kingdom of God than had before
taken place.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Extension of the Church according to our Lord's promise.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
This extension of the Church was in exact accordance
with our Lord's words to His Apostles
just before His Ascension, that they should
be witnesses unto Him "in Jerusalem, and
in all Judea, and in Samaria, and unto the
uttermost parts of the earth." Jerusalem was already
"filled with" their "doctrine," and now the disciples
were "scattered abroad throughout the regions of Judea
and Samaria," and "went every where preaching the
Word[50]."
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Still confined to Jews, and Samaritans, or to proselytes.
</SPAN>
Still it would seem that they confined their
preaching to such as were either Hebrews,
or Grecians, i.e. foreigners more or less
professing Judaism[51]; or, as in the case of
the Samaritans, to such as were of mixed
Jewish descent, and clung to the Law of Moses, though
with manifold corruptions; or, again, to proselytes like
the Ethiopian eunuch. The Apostles, we read,
continued at Jerusalem, doubtless by God's command and
under His special protection.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Conversion of Samaria.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The conversion of the despised city of Samaria was
effected by the instrumentality of the
Deacon St. Philip[52], whose preaching and
miracles were followed by the baptism of large
numbers of the people, and, amongst them, of one Simon
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P22"></A>22}</SPAN>
of Gittum, better known as Simon Magus (i.e. the
magician, or sorcerer), who had claimed supernatural
powers, and given himself out to be an emanation from
the Deity, or even God Himself.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Peter and St. John sent to confirm.
</SPAN>
St. Philip, as a
Deacon, could not complete the gift begun in Holy
Baptism, and St. Peter and St. John were
sent down by the Apostles from Jerusalem,
that they might confirm the Samaritan
converts by prayer and the Imposition of Hands.
Confirmation in those early days of the Church was wont
to be accompanied by a bestowal of miraculous gifts of
the Holy Ghost; and the wondrous signs following
upon this, the first Confirmation mentioned in God's
history of His Church, led the still
unbelieving Simon to long for the ability to
confer similar powers.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The unbelief of Simon Magus.
</SPAN>
He dared to offer
money to the Apostles with this view, and drew from
St. Peter such a reproof as for a time pierced through
even the heart which had hardened by an abuse of
holy things. But this penitence was of short duration.
He became the author in the Church of a deadly heresy
called Gnosticism, mixing up what he had learnt of the
doctrines of Christianity with heathen philosophy and
sinful living, and making pretence of being endowed
with miraculous gifts.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
His end.
</SPAN>
This first heretic
is said to have perished miserably whilst
endeavouring to fly through the air at Rome[53], St. Peter
praying at the same time that he might no longer be
suffered to hinder the salvation of souls.
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P23"></A>23}</SPAN>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The Gospel preached in Antioch.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Another important result of the Sauline persecution
was the preaching of the Gospel in the
important city of Antioch by the
Greek-speaking Jews who sought refuge there[54],
and who addressed themselves to their Hellenist
countrymen. It was in this city, the third in rank in the
Roman Empire, and afterwards the mother of Gentile
Christendom, that the first branch of the Church
speaking Greek as its original tongue, was now
beginning to have its foundation; and it was also here
that the disciples were first called by the honourable
name of Christians[55].
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 10. <I>The Conversion of St. Paul.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 34.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
It has been said "that, to combine the ceremonial
shortcoming of the eunuch with the
imperfect faith of the Samaritan, is to arrive
at the admission of the Gentiles[56]." Preparation had been
made in both these instances for the carrying out of
the Divine scheme by means of St. Philip, whose
fellow-Deacon had gladly laid down his life in witnessing to
the truth of it; and now God's great instrument for the
conversion of the gentile world was to appear.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Conversion of Saul.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The furious persecutor Saul was struck to the earth
by the sight and voice of the Lord, whose
disciples at Damascus he was bent upon
ill-using; and his miraculous conversion was followed
by his baptism and the devotion of all his powers
to the promulgation of that "Faith which once he
destroyed."
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P24"></A>24}</SPAN>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
His fitness for his mission.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
It is not hard to perceive in St. Paul a peculiar
fitness for the work to which God called him.
His zeal and self-devotion, deep affections,
and warm sympathies, were joined to clearness of
judgment and great intellectual powers; whilst, from the
circumstances of his birth and education, he had much
in common with both Hebrew and Hellenist Jews.
Though born in the Greek city of Tarsus, where he
came in contact with the classical ideas and learning
of which traces appear in his writings, his father was a
Hebrew, and sent him to finish his education at
Jerusalem under the care of the learned Pharisee Gamaliel.
Thus he became zealous in the Law; and hence his
deep tenderness for his brethren of the seed of Israel,
and his thorough insight into their feelings and
prejudices, were united to an acquaintance with gentile ways
of life, classic learning, and foreign modes of thought.
</P>
<P>
With St. Paul's conversion came a time of peace
and increase to the Church, during which
St. Peter's first Apostolic journey took
place, undertaken with the especial view of strengthening,
by the Laying on of Hands and by Apostolic
preaching and counsel, those who, throughout Judea
and Samaria, had been regenerated and made "saints"
by Holy Baptism[57].
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[1] 2 St. Peter i. 4.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[2] Rev. xxi. 14.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[3] St. Luke vi. 12-16.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[4] "Apostle" is derived from the Greek word
"Apostolos," i.e. "one sent." The
Apostles were "sent" by Christ,
the Great High Priest and Chief Pastor of the Church, Who
comprehended in Himself the whole of the Christian
Ministry, whilst the Apostolic Office comprehended all that
could be delegated to man. This comprehensive Apostolic
Office was afterwards broken up into the three Orders
of—1. Deacons; 2. Priests and Bishops in one; 3. Bishops.
After the special work of Bishops was defined (see chap. iv.),
Priests were Priests only, and not Bishops, unless they had
special consecration to the higher office.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[5] Acts i. 3.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[6] St. John xiv. 26.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[7] St. Matt. xxviii. 19.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[8] St. Matt. xxviii. 20.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[9] St. Luke xxii. 19, 20.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[10] St. John xx. 21, 22.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[11] St. Matt. xxviii. 20.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[12] Acts i. 13, 14.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[13] Acts ii. 42, 46. It is said (St. John iv. 2) that "the
disciples of Jesus baptized;" but this baptism, like that of
St. John Baptist, was a "baptism of <I>repentance</I>," not of
<I>Regeneration</I>—a <I>preparation</I> for the Gospel, not a
<I>consequence</I> of it. So the preaching of the Apostles, spoken
of in St. Matt. x. 7, was (like the Baptist's preaching) an
announcement that "the Kingdom of Heaven" was <I>not
come</I>; but "at hand," and an exhortation to make ready
for it.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[14] St. Luke xxiv. 49.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[15] Ps. lxxxvii. 3.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[16] Acts ii. 1-3.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[17] Isa. xi. 2, 3.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[18] Acts ii. 1-13.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[19] Acts ii. 14-41.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[20] St. Matt. xvi. 18.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[21] Acts ii. 47.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[22] Acts iii.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[23] Acts iv.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[24] Acts iv. 36, 37.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[25] Acts v. 12-16.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[26] Acts ii. 41-47.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[27] 2 Thess. ii. 15. See also ch. iii. 6. 1 Cor. xi. 2.
"Ordinances," margin "Traditions."
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[28] Acts ii. 46 (margin).
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[29] Acts iv. 31-37.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[30] Eph. v. 29, 30.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[31] Poems by Prof. Bright..
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[32] Acts iii. 1.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[33] Acts iii. 11.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[34] Acts v. 42.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[35] Acts xiii. 5. 14; xiv. 1; xvii. 1, 2; xviii. 4.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[36] Acts xxi. 26-33.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[37] Acts v. 1-14.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[38] Acts vi. 1, &c.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[39] Deacon, from "Diaconos," a Greek word, meaning
a ministering attendant.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[40] Acts vi. 7.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[41] Rev. ii. 6. 15.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[42] Acts viii. 5. 38.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[43] See Office for "Making of Deacons," Book of Common Prayer.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[44] Cp. Acts iv. 1, 2, 5, 6, and Acts v. 17.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[45] Acts ii. 47; iv. 21; v. 13. 26.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[46] Acts v. 34-40.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[47] It seems not unlikely that Saul of Tarsus in Cilicia was
one "of them of Cilicia" mentioned in Acts vi. 9.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[48] St. Luke xii. 11, 12.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[49] Acts vii. 56.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[50] Acts viii. 1. 4.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[51] Acts xi. 19, 20.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[52] It may be, that the recollection of our Saviour's visit to
the neighbouring city of Sychar, or Sichem [St. John iv.],
would help to influence the Samaritans.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[53] From the rather indistinct account of Simon's death, it
seems probable that he became a victim to such a temptation
as the "Cast Thyself down," which was set before our Lord.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[54] Acts xi. 19, 20.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[55] Acts xi. 26.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[56] See "Some Account of the Church in the Apostolic
Age," by the late Professor Shirley, p. 27.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[57] Acts ix. 32.
</P>
<BR><BR><BR>
<A NAME="chap02"></A>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P25"></A>25}</SPAN>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
CHAPTER II
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
The Foundation of the Church among the Heathen
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
A.D. 38-45
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 38
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
During St. Peter's journey, the course of God's
good Providence led him to the sea-port town of
Joppa, on the borders of Samaria and Judaea, and there
we read that "he tarried many days," a
measure of time which is supposed to be
equivalent to three years. At the expiration of this
time an event occurred which had a deep and lasting
influence on the life of the Church of Christ.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Further fulfilment of the promise to St. Peter.
</SPAN>
Hitherto
no Gentiles had been admitted into her fold; but now
it was to be given to St. Peter first to
unlock to them the door of union with
Christ through His Human Nature; for to
him had first been committed the Power
of the Keys, as a reward for his adoring confession of
Christ's Divinity[1].
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 1. <I>The Conversion of Cornelius.</I>
</H3>
<P>
A Roman soldier quartered at the great stronghold of
Caesarea was honoured by being the occasion of the
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P26"></A>26}</SPAN>
gathering in of the first heathen converts.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 41. Conversion of the gentile Cornelius.
</SPAN>
This centurion was not a proselyte, but a Gentile,
one however who feared and served God
according to the light given him through
reason and natural religion. He was
commanded by an angel from God to send to Joppa
for St. Peter to show him the way of salvation, whilst
another express revelation prepared the holy Apostle
for a step so contrary to all his most cherished habits
and prejudices.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Descent of the Holy Ghost on gentile converts.
</SPAN>
Taught by God Himself no longer to
consider or treat the Gentiles as "common or unclean,"
St. Peter obeyed the summons of Cornelius; and, even
whilst he was preaching to him and the many gentile
friends he had gathered, the Holy Ghost
descended visibly upon them as upon the
Apostles on the Day of Pentecost. The
Gift of Tongues accompanied what we
may almost call a second Foundation of the Church;
and we may readily believe that those Christianized
Jews who had accompanied the Apostle from Joppa
were "astonished" at this indication of what was in
store for the Gentiles in the Kingdom of God.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Holy Baptism not superseded.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
It is worthy of remark, that notwithstanding this
direct and extraordinary outpouring of the Holy
Ghost—but once before, and never since, vouchsafed to any
child of Adam—yet it was not considered
by St. Peter to do away with the
necessity for Holy Baptism. "He commanded
them to be baptized[2]."
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P27"></A>27}</SPAN>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 2. <I>The Apostolic church in Jerusalem.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 41. Jerusalem still the centre of the Church.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Up to this time, and for long afterwards, Jerusalem
continued to be the centre of the Church
of Christ. Within her walls was the home
of the Apostles during the intervals between
their missions to the Christian converts in
the neighbouring towns; and, as a natural consequence,
it was here that the first Councils or Synods of the
Church were held.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The Hebrews wish to impose circumcision.
</SPAN>
Here, too, were the head-quarters
of those disciples who not only clung to the Mosaic
law themselves, but wished to impose
circumcision and the other precepts of the
Old Dispensation on gentile converts.
They yielded indeed to St. Peter's plea of special and
Divine direction, when summoned to Jerusalem to
answer for having eaten with men uncircumcised; nay,
they even rejoiced in the prospect of the gathering in
of the Gentiles; but they had yet to learn the temporary
nature of the Ceremonial Law, and to realize that in
Christ circumcision and uncircumcision were equally
valueless.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. James the Less, Bishop of Jerusalem.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The government of the Church in Jerusalem was
conferred on St. James the Less, perhaps
on account of his being "the Lord's
brother;" and he remained in the Holy
City as its Bishop, when, about twelve years after the
Day of Pentecost, the other Apostles were for the first
time dispersed beyond the borders of Palestine, over
the face of the known world. The immediate occasion
of this dispersion was the persecution by Herod
Agrippa, which resulted in the martyrdom of St. James
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P28"></A>28}</SPAN>
the Great[3] and the temporary imprisonment and
miraculous deliverance of St. Peter (A.D. 44), a deliverance
granted to the earnest prayers of the Church.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 3. <I>The Apostolic Church in Antioch.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 42. St. Barnabas at Antioch.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
We have no account in the Book of Acts of the
Foundation (in the strict sense of the word) of
the Church in Antioch. We read of
St. Barnabas being sent thither from
Jerusalem to visit and teach the converts amongst the
Greek-speaking Jews, he being all the more fitted for
this office by his connexion with Cyprus, whence came
some of those who had first spread the knowledge of
the Gospel in Antioch. But St. Barnabas was not yet
of the number of the Apostles, the Foundations of the
Church (as neither was St. Paul, whom he lovingly
sought out and brought from Tarsus to aid in his
work); and consequently we do not read that the
"laying on of hands" formed any part of their
ministrations.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Peter believed to be the founder of the Church in Antioch.
</SPAN>
There is, however, a very ancient tradition
which tells us that St. Peter visited
Antioch and founded the Church in that
distant city whilst on his way to the still
more distant Rome, after his miraculous
escape from Herod's prison (A.D. 44); and in the
ancient Church of England Feb. 22 was observed in
commemoration of "St. Peter's Throne at Antioch," that
is, of his episcopal rule there.
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P29"></A>29}</SPAN>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Obstacles to the conversion of the gentiles.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
It was some years before the conversion of Cornelius
and his gentile household was followed by any
extended proclamation of the good tidings of the Gospel
to the heathen world. It was not God's
Will that all obstacles should be at once
cleared away from the onward path of the
Church; and the question of the relation in which the
heathen were to stand to the Law of Moses after their
conversion to Christianity, presented many difficulties.
St. Peter and the other Apostles seem to have waited
patiently until God should vouchsafe to show them how
these difficulties might best be overcome; and on the
Church in the large gentile city of Antioch it first
devolved to send forth missionaries to the heathen.
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[1] St. Matt. xvi. 16-19.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[2] Acts x. 48. It does not seem to have been the usual
custom of the Apostles to administer Holy Baptism
themselves. See 1 Cor. i. 14-17.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[3] In reference to the martyrdom of St. James, we may
remember the prophecy of his Divine Master (St. Matt. xx. 23).
"James tasted the <I>first</I> draught of Christ's cup of
suffering; and his brother John had the <I>longest</I> draught of
it."—Wordsworth on Acts xii. 2.
</P>
<BR><BR><BR>
<A NAME="chap03"></A>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P30"></A>30}</SPAN>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
CHAPTER III
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
The Extension of the Church throughout the World
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
A.D. 45-70
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 1. <I>The First Mission to the Gentiles.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 45.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Paul and St. Barnabas sent to preach to the heathen.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
It would seem that in the special Eucharistic
offerings and Lenten discipline mentioned by St. Luke[1],
the Church in Antioch was seeking guidance of her
Divine Head as to her duties with respect
to the gentile world in the midst of which
she was placed; and that the command of the Holy
Ghost to consecrate St. Paul and St. Barnabas
as Apostles to the heathen was an
answer to her cry.
</P>
<P>
We are not told whose "hands" were "laid" on the
two newly-made Apostles in the solemn Consecration
Service which followed, but it is likely that St. Peter
was at that time at Antioch, and also that the Church
in that city was already governed by a Bishop of its own.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
They complete the Apostolic number.
</SPAN>
It may here be remarked that the
number of the Apostles was now
completed. Those whom they ordained to be
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P31"></A>31}</SPAN>
Bishops or Overseers in the Church of God, as
St. Timothy at Ephesus, and St. Titus at
Crete, though they received in the "laying
on of hands" power to execute such of the
highest offices of the Apostolic function as were to be
perpetually continued to the Church, yet were not fully
Apostles.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Difference between Bishops and Apostles.
</SPAN>
They had grace given to them to confirm,
to ordain, and to communicate the power of ordaining
to others, but they were not endowed with the
extraordinary and supernatural gifts bestowed by the Holy
Ghost for the Foundation of the Church; nor did they
receive the same direct and outward call as was
vouchsafed to the Twelve by our Lord Himself, and to
St. Paul and St. Barnabas by the special appointment of
the Holy Spirit. They were not to <I>found</I> the Church,
but to <I>build up</I> on its Apostolic foundations.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Mission to Cyprus.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The first missionary journey of St. Paul and
St. Barnabas was to Cyprus, the native
country of the latter. Here the preaching of
the Gospel, begun in the Jewish synagogue[2], was
continued before the heathen proconsul Sergius Paulus;
and through it and the judicial blindness inflicted by
St. Paul on the false prophet Elymas, the gentile ruler
was won to Christ.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Paul, the chief Apostle of the Gentiles.
</SPAN>
St. Paul had now
begun to take the lead as the chief Apostle
of the Gentiles; it was he who, at Antioch
in Pisidia, preached that sermon to the
Jews which they would not heed, but which
found acceptance with the heathen whom
they despised.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Missionary journey through Asia Minor.
</SPAN>
The Jews persecuted and blasphemed,
but the Gentiles believed; and, in the account given
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P32"></A>32}</SPAN>
us of the labours of the Apostles here and at Iconium,
we are reminded of the multitude of conversions and
of the gladness of heart of the converted in the first
days after the great Day of Pentecost[3].
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 46.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
At Lystra the Apostles found themselves for the first
time in the midst of a thoroughly heathen
population, without any admixture of Jews;
but here also they did not hesitate to preach the first
Christian "Apology against Heathenism," and to
display the miraculous powers with which the Holy Ghost
had gifted them.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The Apostles confirm and ordain.
</SPAN>
Their Jewish persecutors followed
them and drove them to Derbe, the farthest limit of
their journey; and from thence they retraced their
steps, visiting each place where they had
preached the Gospel, "confirming" their
numerous converts, and "ordaining"
Elders or Presbyters to have the care of those who were
thus admitted to the full communion of the Church.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 2. <I>The Ministry of the Apostolic Church.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 46. Ordination of priests.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
This[4] is the first mention we have of the ordination of
Elders, or Presbyters (or Priests[5], as we are
most in the habit of calling them), though
the fact of the existence of such officers
has already been hinted at[6] as well-known and recognized.
Thus we see that, as when at first "the number
of the disciples was multiplied," the Apostles delegated
part of their work to the Order of Deacons, so
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P33"></A>33}</SPAN>
afterwards, when the Church continued to grow and
increase, they provided for her needs by instituting the
Order of the Priesthood, conferring on others, in God's
Name and by His Authority, a larger portion of the
ministerial grace they had themselves received from Him.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Functions of the Priesthood.
</SPAN>
The distinguishing Grace given to those who
were called to the Office of Elder or
Presbyter by the "laying on of hands," was,
as it still is, the power of consecrating and
offering the Holy Eucharist, that so, according to
St. Paul's words to the Elders of Ephesus, they may
"feed the Church of God[7]," not as in the case of the
Deacons, with "the meat that perisheth," but with "the
Bread of God, which cometh down from Heaven."
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Consecration of Bishops
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Of the Ordination of Bishops[8], apart from the
Apostolate, we have no mention in the Book of
the Acts; but that the Apostles did ordain
successors to themselves, so far as their office was to
be perpetual in the Church, we have ample proofs in
the Epistles of St. Paul to St. Timothy and St. Titus.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Their functions.
</SPAN>
To both these holy men, Bishops or Overseers of the
Church in Ephesus and Crete respectively, St. Paul
gives injunctions as to their duties,
particularly in ordaining Elders or Priests,
the distinguishing work of a Bishop[9].
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 3. <I>The First Council of the Church.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 46-51.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
For a "long time" after the return of St. Paul and
St. Barnabas to Antioch, with the news
that God had, through their
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P34"></A>34}</SPAN>
instrumentality, "opened the Door of Faith to the Gentiles,"
the Church in that city seems to have continued to
flourish in peace and prosperity.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Difficulties as to the observance of Jewish rites.
</SPAN>
But difficulties
with regard to the observance or
non-observance by the Gentile converts
of the rite of circumcision and other
precepts of the Mosaic law, arose to disturb this quiet.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 52. Hebrew Jews go to Antioch.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Hellenist clergy in Antioch, less wedded to
Judaism, had apparently received into communion,
without doubt or question, those amongst the heathen
around the city who had been added to the number of
the faithful by Holy Baptism; but when tidings of this
freedom of communion reached the more severely
Hebrew Christians at Jerusalem, certain
Hebrew Jews of them hurried to Antioch, anxious to
bring the converts there under the yoke
of the law. Though unauthorized in this mission by
the rulers of the Church in Jerusalem[10], they urged with
such persistency the necessity of circumcision for the
salvation of all, that the opposition of St. Paul and
St. Barnabas only raised "no small dissension and
disputation," and it was agreed that the advice of the
Apostles and Presbyters at Jerusalem should be sought
on this important question.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Paul and St. Barnabas go to Jerusalem.
</SPAN>
St. Paul and St. Barnabas then, "and certain others
with them" (amongst whom was Titus, an
uncircumcised Gentile convert[11]), went up
to Jerusalem, where at this time happened to be
St. Peter and St. John, as well as St. James, the Bishop of
that Church[12].
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P35"></A>35}</SPAN>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The First Council.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Apostles and Elders, under the presidency of
St. James[13], met together in the First
Council of the Church, a large body of
the laity being also present, not indeed to take part in
the discussion, but to hear it, and to receive and
acknowledge the decision arrived at[14].
</P>
<P>
St. Peter, who had first been commissioned to carry
the tidings of the Gospel to the Gentiles, boldly
proclaimed the sufficiency of "the Grace of the Lord
Jesus Christ" for their salvation[15], and St. James, who
was probably himself a very strict observer of the
Jewish law, yet did not hesitate to declare that it had
no binding force on those who were not Jews by birth.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. James presides as Bishop of Jerusalem. Decree of the Council.
</SPAN>
He, as President of the Council, proposed
the decree to which the rest agreed, and
which was in substance, that the Gentile
Christians should be commanded so far to respect
Jewish prejudices as to "abstain from
meats offered to idols, and from blood,
and from things strangled," whilst they were also
enjoined to keep themselves from the sin of "fornication,"
into which the Gentile world was so deeply sunk.
</P>
<P>
The decrees of the Council did not enter into or
provide any solution of the minor difficulties connected
with the intercourse between Jews and Gentiles in the
Church of Christ. Doubtless "it seemed good to the
Holy Ghost" that these questions should be left to be
solved by time and experience and the general
exercise of His Gift of Wisdom.
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P36"></A>36}</SPAN>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Claim for Divine Authority. Guidance of the Holy Spirit vouchsafed to General Councils.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
We can hardly fail to be struck by the confident
language in which the First Council of the
Church claims for its decisions the full
weight of Divine Authority; and though
it differed from later Catholic Councils in that it was
presided over by inspired men, yet we may well believe
that to those General Councils which really deserved
the name, the Holy Spirit vouchsafed such
a special measure of His guiding Power,
as might suffice to preserve their decisions
from error, and enable them to hand down
unblemished the deposit of Truth which Christ left
with His Church.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 4. <I>St. Paul's Second Apostolic Journey.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 53. St. Peter's probable visit to Antioch.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
St. Paul and St. Barnabas bore back to the Church
in Antioch the decree of the Council at
Jerusalem, and it was probably about this
time that St. Peter paid to Antioch the
visit of which we read in the Epistle to
the Galatians[16], when his fear of "them
which were of the circumcision," led him to shrink
from continuing to eat and drink with the Gentiles, and
drew down St. Paul's stern rebuke.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Separation of St. Paul and St. Barnabas.
</SPAN>
The difference of
opinion about St. Mark soon after
separated the two Apostles, whose labours
amongst the heathen had been till now
carried on together, and St. Paul began his missionary
travels without an Apostolic companion[17]. He went
first through Syria and his native country Cilicia,
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P37"></A>37}</SPAN>
"confirming" the baptized, and then to the scene of
his first contact with actual heathendom at Derbe and
Lystra. St. Paul's course of conduct with regard to
the circumcision of St. Timothy, a native of Lystra,
shows us clearly how fully his mind had grasped all
the bearings of the question between Jews and Gentiles[18].
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Paul's indifference to circumcision in itself.
</SPAN>
Circumcision and uncircumcision were
alike matters of indifference to him, in no
way affecting salvation, excepting so far
as they might tend to the edification of
others. He did not blame those converted Jews who
still thought it needful to observe the Mosaic law, but
he resisted to the uttermost all attempts to make that
law binding on the Gentiles, and would not sanction
any thing which might seem to imply that the
Life-giving ordinances of the Gospel were not sufficient for
every need. St. Timothy, uncircumcised, would have
obtained no hearing from Jews for the Gospel he
preached, and therefore he was circumcised as a
measure of Christian expediency.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Paul crosses over to Europe. St. Luke joins him.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
After founding Churches in the semi-barbarous
regions of Phrygia and Galatia, St. Paul was led by the
express direction of the Holy Spirit to an
altogether new field of labour, and it is
here, just on the eve of St. Paul's departure
from Asia for the continent of Europe, that
St. Luke joins the Apostolic company.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Jewish influences give way to Greece and Rome.
</SPAN>
The Church was now spreading far westward
and coming into closer contact with the philosophy of
Greece and the power of Rome, whilst
Jewish influences shrank into insignificance.
There was no synagogue in the large
and important Roman colony of Philippi,
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P38"></A>38}</SPAN>
and only women seem to have resorted to the place of
prayer outside the walls of the city, whilst at
Thessalonica, where the one synagogue for the whole district
was situated, the accusation of the Jews against the
preachers of the Gospel was no longer of a religious,
but of a political nature.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Opposition to the Gospel political.
</SPAN>
"These all do
contrary to the decrees of Caesar[19]." In
same way the malice of the rulers of
the Jews against the Divine Head of the Church had
found vent in assertions of His plotting to destroy the
Temple, or to make Himself a King, according as the
Jewish populace or the Roman governor was to be
stirred up against Him[20].
</P>
<P>
But if Jewish prejudices no longer offered the same
formidable opposition to the soldiers of the Cross, as
before in Palestine and the neighbouring countries, the
Apostle and his fellow-labourers had now to encounter
fresh enemies not less deadly.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Vice and superstition mixed with intellectual unbelief.
</SPAN>
In the highly civilized
cities of Greece they encountered on the
one hand the full tide of heathenism with
all its degrading vices and superstitions,
and on the other, Pagan philosophy with
its hard sceptical temper and intellectual pride.
Influences such as these may account for the comparatively
small results which seem to have followed the preaching
of St. Paul at Philippi, Thessalonica[21], and Berea, and
the prominence given to women as being more easily
touched by the good tidings of the Gospel.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Open conflict with Satan.
</SPAN>
At Philippi is noticeable the conflict between the
visible power of Satan and the Power of
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P39"></A>39}</SPAN>
One stronger than he, in the casting out by St. Paul of
the evil spirit of Python from the soothsaying woman.
This was an earnest of the final issue of that great
contest between the kingdom of Satan and the
Kingdom of God, which was now beginning in the very
strongholds of darkness, and is to continue to the end
of time.
</P>
<P>
We may also remark the first mention of the title
and rights of a Roman citizen claimed by St. Paul
for himself and St. Silas after their illegal imprisonment.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 54. Athenians little inclined to believe.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
At Athens St. Paul came in contact with the most
intellectual and philosophical minds of
heathendom; but heathen philosophy
made the Athenians very little inclined to
accept the supernatural mysteries of the
Christian Faith. They listened indeed with eager
curiosity to the "new thing" which the great Apostle
proclaimed "in the midst of Mars' Hill;" and yet when
their intellectual pride was required to bow itself down,
to acknowledge something more than a Neology, and
to believe in the supernaturalism of the Resurrection,
they only "mocked" the teacher. St. Paul, therefore,
departed from the city where his cultivated mind had
been stirred at the sight of so many great intellects
"wholly given to idolatry[22]."
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Athens afterwards a Bishopric.
</SPAN>
But yet his visit was not
without its fruits; and Dionysius, a member of the
great Council of the Areopagus, is
believed to have been the first Bishop of the
Church in Athens[23].
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P40"></A>40}</SPAN>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Corinth the centre of the Church in Greece.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
From Athens St. Paul went to Corinth, and it was
in this luxurious and profligate city that
he founded a Church which became the
centre of Christianity in Greece.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Paul turns from the Jews.
</SPAN>
The obstinate unbelief and blasphemous opposition of
the Corinthian Jews caused St. Paul, for the first
time, to withdraw himself entirely from
the services of the synagogue; but he
continued at Corinth a year and six months, being
protected, according to God's special promise to him,
from all the machinations of his Jewish enemies.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Opposes the errors of Greek philosophy.
</SPAN>
This lengthened stay was probably occasioned not only by
the presence of "much people" who were to be
converted to Christ, but also by the necessity of
strengthening the Corinthian converts against the subtleties of
the heathen philosophy by which they
were surrounded, and with which St. Paul
was well fitted to cope by his early education.
The errors of Gnosticism seem also to have
penetrated at this time as far as Corinth.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 55. A.D. 56.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
After leaving Corinth, St. Paul paid a hasty visit to
Ephesus, and then, for the last time,
returned to Antioch.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 5. <I>St. Paul's Third Apostolic Journey.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 56.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Ephesus the centre of the Church in Asia Minor.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The next journey of the great Apostle of the Gentiles
led him first through Galatia and Phrygia,
"strengthening" the Churches he had
already founded, and then brought him to the rich and
important maritime city of Ephesus,
destined to be a third great centre of the
Gentile Church, and to hold in Asia Minor
the same position as did Corinth in Greece
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P41"></A>41}</SPAN>
and Antioch in Syria. Here again St. Paul was forced
to withdraw altogether from the Jewish synagogue, after
three months of earnest preaching and teaching.
</P>
<P>
Ephesus was the great seat of the worship of the
heathen goddess Diana, or Artemis, and was also full
of those who practised "magical arts" or sorceries, so
that its inhabitants were doubly enslaved by the Evil
One. But the kingdom of darkness could not stand
against the Kingdom of Light.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Great power given to the Church. A.D. 57. A.D. 58.
</SPAN>
Great as was the power
of Satan, still more mighty was the Power
which the Lord Jesus gave to His Church.
"Special miracles" were wrought in the
place of "lying wonders;" the Jewish
exorcists were confounded, and the sincerity of the
Christian converts was proved by the costly sacrifice
of their once-prized books of magic. "So mightily
grew the Word of God and prevailed[24]."
</P>
<P>
St. Paul passed between two and three years at
Ephesus, during which time he is supposed to have founded
the Church in Crete, leaving St. Titus as its
Bishop, whilst Ephesus was placed under
the episcopal charge of St. Timothy. But
eventually the riot excited by Demetrius drove the
Apostle from that city.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 59. A.D. 60.
</SPAN>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
His visitation charge to the Elders of Ephesus.
</SPAN>
On his return to
the neighbouring city of Miletus, after his
journey through Greece and Macedonia, we read of
his sending to Ephesus for the clergy of
that place, and delivering to them a solemn
charge respecting their duties to the flock
which God had entrusted to their care[25].
</P>
<P>
It is during St. Paul's long sojourn at Ephesus that
we have the first indication of his intention to visit the
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P42"></A>42}</SPAN>
remoter regions of the West, and more particularly its
capital, imperial Rome[26]. He probably at that time
expected to see its wonders under different
circumstances than those of a prisoner, though before he
finished his homeward journey to Jerusalem, he had
supernatural warnings of what was coming upon him[27]
from the malice of his Jewish enemies.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 6. <I>St. Paul at Rome.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 60.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The anxiety which St. Paul ever felt to avoid giving
unnecessary offence to his fellow-countrymen,
and his readiness to follow the
precepts of Judaism when they did not interfere with the
liberty of Christianity, were, in God's good Providence,
the indirect means of his being sent to
preach the glad tidings of salvation, not in
Rome only, but in still more distant countries.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Paul goes to Rome. A.D. 63-65.
</SPAN>
It will
not be necessary to enter into the particulars which drew
upon St. Paul the unjust indignation of the Jews, and
induced him to appeal from their persecutions and the
popularity-seeking of Festus to the justice of the
emperor: we need only remember that the conclusion of
the Book of the Acts shows him to us a prisoner "in
his own hired house" at Rome, and there
preaching and teaching "with all confidence,"
first, as ever, to the Jews, and afterwards to
the Gentiles.
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P43"></A>43}</SPAN>
<P>
Section 7. <I>Extent of the Labours of the Apostles.</I>
</P>
<P>
We are told but little in Holy Scripture as to the
particulars of the Apostles' work in founding the Church
of God, except in the case of St. Paul, and we are not
allowed to trace even his labours to their end.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Preaching of the Apostles in all known countries.
</SPAN>
From other sources we learn that the twelve
visited almost every known country of the
world, so as to give to each separate race
of men then existing an opportunity of
refusing or accepting the offer of the salvation of which
they were the ministers and stewards. We are also
told that all, except St. John and perhaps St. Matthew,
crowned their life of toil in the service of their Lord by
a martyr's death. St. Peter and St. Paul both suffered
at Rome in the First Persecution under Nero, and
most likely on the same day, A.D. 67.
</P>
<P>
The following Table[28] will show the probable field of
the labours of each Apostle, so far as the record of it
has come down to us:—
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P44"></A>44}</SPAN>
<PRE STYLE="font-family: Courier New; font-size: 10pt">
Supposed Fields of Apostolic Labour.
Name of Churches. By whom Founded.
Palestine and Syria All the Apostles.
Mesopotamia (Turkey in Asia) St. Peter and St. Jude.
Persia St. Bartholomew and St. Jude
India St. Bartholomew and St. Thomas.
Thrace (Turkey in Europe) St. Andrew. The flourishing
Church of Constantinople
afterwards sprang up on this
field of his labours.
Scythia (Russia) St. Andrew.
North Africa (Egypt and St. Simon Zelotes. St. Mark
Algeria) specially connected with
Alexandria.
Ethiopia (Central Africa). St. Matthew.
Arabia. St. Paul.
Asia Minor (Turkey in Asia) St. Paul and St. John.
Macedonia (Turkey in Europe) St. Paul
Greece St. Paul.
Italy St. Peter and St. Paul.
Spain St. Paul.
Gaul (France) and Britain St. Paul and St. Joseph of
Arimathea.
</PRE>
<BR>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[1] Acts xiii. 2.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[2] The <I>first</I> offers of salvation continued to be made to the
Jews, even after the recognition by the Church of her mission
to the Gentiles.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[3] Acts xiii. 48, 49, 52; xiv. 1.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[4] Acts xiv. 23.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[5] "presbyter," afterwards shortened into "Prester" and
"Priest," is derived from the Greek word "Presbyteros,"
"an Elder."
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[6] Acts xi. 30.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[7] Acts xx. 28.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[8] The word "Bishop" is derived from the Greek
"Episcopos," and signifies an overseer.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[9] 1 Tim. v. 1, 19, 22. 2 Tim. i. 6. Titus i. 5; ii. 15.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[10] Acts xv. 24.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[11] Gal. ii. 3.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[12] Gal. ii. 9.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[13] St. James, as Bishop of the Diocese, taking precedence
in this instance even of St. Peter.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[14] Compare Acts xv. 6. 12.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[15] This is the last mention of St. Peter in the Book of Acts.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[16] Gal. ii. 11-14.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[17] Acts xv. 36-41. The last mention of St. Barnabas in
the Book of Acts.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[18] Compare Acts xvi. 3; and Gal. ii. 3, 4.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[19] Acts xvii. 7. Comp. Acts vi. 11.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[20] Comp. St. Mark xiv. 58; and St. Luke xxiii. 2.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[21] Both Philippi and Thessalonica eventually became the
seats of flourishing Christian Churches, to whom St. Paul
wrote Epistles.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[22] Acts xvii. 16-33.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[23] There are some reasons for thinking that men of
cultivated minds and high social position were preferred for
Bishops in the early as well as in later ages of the Church.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[24] Acts xix. 1-20.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[25] Acts xx. 17-35.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[26] Acts xix. 21.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[27] Acts xx. 23; xxi. 11.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[28] From Blunt's "Household Theology."
</P>
<BR><BR><BR>
<A NAME="chap04"></A>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P45"></A>45}</SPAN>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
CHAPTER IV
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Final Settlement of the Church by St. John
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
A.D. 67-100
</H3>
<P>
It seems probable that most of the Apostles had
entered into rest before the Destruction of
Jerusalem, A.D. 70, and that St. John the Divine was the
only one of the Apostolic body who long survived that
event.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Peter began to found the Church, St. John completed its foundation.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
To St. Peter, one of the "pillars" of the Church, it
had been given to begin the great work
of laying the foundation of the Mystical
Temple of God; to St. John, the other of
the two, was allotted the task of perfecting
what had been begun, so that a
sure and steady basis should not be wanting on
which the New Jerusalem might rise through time to
eternity[1].
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P46"></A>46}</SPAN>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 1. <I>Second Council at Jerusalem.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
A.D. 67.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Purposes of the Second Council.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
There is good reason for believing[2] that after the
martyrdoms of St. Peter, St. Paul, and
St. James, the first Bishop of Jerusalem,
and about the time of the invasion of the Holy City by
Vespasian, a Second Council of such of
the Apostles as still survived was held for
the purpose of electing a successor to the
See of Jerusalem, and definitely settling the future
government of the Church.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Bishops only rarely appointed at first,
</SPAN>
Bishops had already been
consecrated in certain cases, as at Ephesus, Crete, and
Rome; but during the time that the Apostles
were still engaged in founding and
governing the different branches of the
great Christian community, the appointment of Bishops
(in the sense of heads of the Church) seems to have
been the exception rather than the rule.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
but now everywhere to replace the Apostles.
</SPAN>
A new era
was, however, now coming upon the Church; her
Founders were gradually being withdrawn from her,
and it was necessary that she should receive such a
complete and permanent organization as would enable
her to transmit to succeeding ages the
saving grace of which the Apostles had
been the first channels, that so what had
been founded through their instrumentality
might be continued and extended through the
ministry of others.
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P47"></A>47}</SPAN>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The establishment of the Apostolical Succession the special work of St. John,
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
This work of organization was fitly entrusted to
St. John, who for so many years was left
upon earth to "tarry" for the Lord, on
Whose Breast he had leaned, and Whose
teaching had filled his soul with adoring
love, and with those depths of spiritual
knowledge which are stored up for us in the
"Theological Gospel."
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and the necessary consequence of his teaching.
</SPAN>
It seems natural that he to whom
it was given most fully to "enlighten" the Church
respecting the Blessed Mysteries of the
Incarnation and of the Two Holy Sacraments,
should also be charged with the
care of providing for the continual transmission
of the sacramental grace of the Incarnation
through the "laying on of hands," and that he who
saw and recorded the glorious ritual belonging to the
Heavenly Altar, should organize that system by which
Priests might be perpetually raised up to show forth
the same Offering in the Church below.
</P>
<P>
Thus, though up to the time of St. Paul's martyrdom
(A.D. 67) Episcopal rule, as distinct from Apostolic,
would seem to have been exceptional, before the death
of St. John (A.D. 100), government by the Bishops had
undoubtedly become the recognized rule and system of
the Church.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 2. <I>Development of the Church.</I>
</H3>
<P>
Before entering into any details respecting the final
settlement by St. John of the Order, Discipline, and
Worship of the Church, it may be well to remind
ourselves that the Mystical Body of Christ only gradually
attained her full shape and constitution, following, like
God's other works, His law of growth and
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P48"></A>48}</SPAN>
development, and adapting herself, according to her Lord's
designs for her, to the needs of her members.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Development in the minds of the Apostles as to the work of the Church.
</SPAN>
There is no reason to suppose that the Apostles,
even after the Day of Pentecost, had clear
ideas of the destiny which was in store on
earth for the Church which they were
engaged in founding. The gathering in of
the Gentiles, the existence of the Church entirely apart
from the Temple and its services, the place she was to
occupy in the long reach of years before the Day of
Judgment[3], all these were only made known to them
by the course of events and the teaching of experience,
conjointly with, as well as subordinate to, the general
guidance of the Holy Spirit. So, too, as regards doctrine.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
As to doctrine.
</SPAN>
We cannot for a moment doubt
that the Apostles, who had been taught
by the Incarnate Truth Himself, and inspired by the
Holy Ghost, held firmly "all the Articles of the
Christian Faith;" but we may also believe that their insight
into these verities would be deepened, and their
expression of them become clearer, as adoring meditation
and the Teaching of the Comforter brought more and
more to their remembrance the Words and Works of
their Lord, and unbelieving cavils forced them more
and more fully "to give a reason of the Hope that"
was in them[4]. The same thing may be noticed
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P49"></A>49}</SPAN>
respecting the Faith of the Church.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Development of the teaching of the Church.
</SPAN>
Held firmly in
its fulness from the beginning, it was
yet only gradually set forth in Creeds,
Liturgies, and Definitions of Faith,
according as the love and belief of Christians required
expression, or the errors of heretics drew forth clearer
teaching on the truths they attacked.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Reserve in the teaching of the Church.
</SPAN>
To this we may
add, that the early Church was very careful to keep
the knowledge of the deep mysteries of
the Faith from those who were not Christians.
It was only after their initiation by
Holy Baptism that those who had, as Catechumens,
been instructed in the rudiments of Christian doctrine,
were admitted to a full knowledge of the belief and
practice of the Church, especially as regarded the Holy
Eucharist, which was very commonly spoken of under
the name of the Holy Mysteries.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 3. <I>St. John at Ephesus[5].</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. John's work at Ephesus.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
About the time that Jerusalem was besieged by the
armies of Vespasian (A.D. 67), St. John
withdrew to Ephesus (whence for a while
he was banished to Patmos by the Emperor Domitian[6]);
and from this city he travelled about through
the neighbouring country, organizing, amongst others,
those Seven Churches of Asia Minor, to whose Angels
or Bishops he was bidden to write the Seven Epistles
contained in the Apocalypse.
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P50"></A>50}</SPAN>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Fitness of Ephesus as a centre of organization,
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Here in Ephesus, the eye of Asia, the great
mercantile seaport of the then known world,
his influence could most easily make
itself felt amongst the far-off members of
the Christian body, which by this time
had extended throughout the whole Roman empire.
All the civilized world was then subject to the sway
of Rome, except India and China; and it may be that
even these two latter countries were not excluded from
the influence of the Gospel. It is not, of course, meant
that Christianity was the recognized religion of all or
any of the Roman provinces; but that in each of
them the Church had a corporate existence, and was
a living power, drawing into herself here one, and
there another of the souls who were brought into
contact with her, and really, though gradually,
spreading through and leavening the earth.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and of orthodox teaching.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Again, at Ephesus St. John could best combat and
confute, both by his words and writings,
the subtle and deadly heresies which were
especially rife there. "False Christs," such as Simon
Magus, the first heretic, Menander, Dositheus, and
others, no longer troubled the Infant Church with
their blasphemous impostures, but in their stead false
teachers had arisen, seeking to "draw away disciples
after them" into the more subtle error of misbelief
about our Lord and His Incarnation.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Errors of the Corinthians.
</SPAN>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The Docetae, and other variations of Gnosticism.
</SPAN>
Thus the Jew
Corinthus taught that Christ was a mere
man, born like other men, though united
to Divinity from His Baptism to His Crucifixion;
whilst to the errors of the Corinthians
the Docetae added that the Body in
which our Blessed Saviour suffered, was only a
phantom, and a body but in appearance; both these heresies,
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P51"></A>51}</SPAN>
and others of a similar nature,
appear to have been
variations of that Gnosticism to which
St. Paul refers in his Epistles, as "science"
(or gnosis) "falsely so called[7]," and which
was long a source of danger and trouble to the
Church. Gnosticism may be traced back to that
Simon Magus, with whom St. John first came in
contact at Samaria, and in all its varied distortions of the
great Catholic doctrine of the Incarnation, through an
admixture of Jewish and heathen error, there was
always an unvarying denial of our Lord's Divinity.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. John's universal patriarchate.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
For about a third of a century St. John continued
to exercise a kind of universal patriarchate
over the Church, being regarded, we
cannot doubt, with almost unbounded
reverence and affection by all its members, and perhaps
first presenting that idea of one visible earthly head of
the Church, which afterwards found its expression in
the popedom.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 4. <I>St. John's Writings.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. John's writings close the Canon.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Gospel, Epistles, and Revelation of St. John,
written as they were at a long interval
after the rest of the New Testament, and
closing the Canon of Sacred Scripture,
may be usefully referred to, as giving us some idea of
the appearance of the Church when its government
and theology were finally settled.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
How his Gospel differs from the other three.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
St. John's Gospel differs from those of the other
three Evangelists in having been written
for men who from their infancy had
grown up in the Faith of Christ, and who
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P52"></A>52}</SPAN>
were thus more ready to enter into and profit by
deep sacramental doctrine; whilst at the same time
the dangerous heresies which were beguiling souls
from the truth, called for more detailed and dogmatic
teaching than had at first been needed.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Dwells on our Lord's Divinity,
</SPAN>
Hence in place of an account of our
Lord's Human Birth, St. John sets forth His Eternal
Godhead and wonderful Incarnation, leaving no space
for unbelief or cavil, when he proclaims for the
instruction of the Church, that "the Word was God,"
and yet that He also "was made Flesh."
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and on the two Sacraments.
</SPAN>
Again, the
last Gospel does not bring before us the
Institution of the two great Sacraments
of the Christian Covenant; though it, and
it alone, does record the teaching of our Blessed Lord
Himself with regard to the New Birth in Holy
Baptism, and the constant Nourishment of the renewed
life in the Holy Eucharist.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The Epistles correct heresies.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Having established the Faith in His Gospel, St. John
in his Epistles sternly censures heresy and
schism, thus witnessing to the end of time
that the charity of the Church must never
lead her to countenance false doctrine.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The Apocalypse sets forth Discipline and Worship.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
We may look to the Book of the Revelation for some
light as to the discipline and worship of
the Church of St. John's days. We have
there in the mention of the Seven Angels
or Bishops, each ruling over his own
Church and answerable for its growth in holiness, a
confirmation of the fact that episcopacy was now fully
<I>organized</I> as the one form of Church government which
had replaced the extinct hierarchy of the former
dispensation. Nor does it seem unreasonable to
believe that St. John's vision of the Worship of Heaven
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P53"></A>53}</SPAN>
was intended to supply to the Christian Church a
model to be copied so far as circumstances should
permit in the courts of the Lord's House on earth,
much as the elaborate system of Temple Worship,
which was entirely swept away with the destruction of
Jerusalem, had been in all things ordered "according
to the pattern" which the Lord had "showed" first to
Moses and afterwards to David. That the Primitive
Church did thus consider the Heavenly Ritual set
forth in the Apocalypse as the ideal of worship on
earth, is proved by the accounts which have come
down to us of the arrangement of Churches and the
manner of celebrating the Holy Eucharist in early times.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Arrangement of Churches in primitive times.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
"The form and arrangement of Churches in primitive
times was derived, in its main features,
from the Temple at Jerusalem. Beyond
the porch was the narthex, answering to
the court of the Gentiles, and appropriated to the
unbaptized and to penitents. Beyond the narthex was
the nave, answering to the court of the Jews, and
appropriated to the body of worshippers. At the upper
end of the nave was the choir, answering to the Holy
Place, for all who were ministerially engaged in Divine
Service. Beyond the choir was the Berna or Chancel,
answering to the Holy of Holies, used only for the
celebration of the Holy Eucharist, and separated from
the choir by a closed screen, resembling the organ
screen of our cathedrals, which was called the
Iconostasis. As early as the time of Gregory Nazianzen, in
the fourth century, this screen is compared to the
division between the present and the eternal world,
and the sanctuary behind it was ever regarded with
the greatest possible reverence as the most sacred
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P54"></A>54}</SPAN>
place to which man could have access while in the
body; the veiled door, which formed the only direct
exit from it into the choir and nave, being only opened
at the time when the Blessed Sacrament was
administered to the people there assembled[3]. The
opening of this door, then, brought into view the Altar
and the Divine Mysteries which were being celebrated there.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Its resemblance to what the Apocalypse tells us of Heaven.
</SPAN>
And when St. John looked through the door
that had been opened in Heaven, what he
saw is thus described: 'And behold a
Throne was set in Heaven … and round
about the Throne were four and twenty
seats; and upon the seats I saw four and twenty elders
sitting, clothed in white raiment; and they had on
their heads crowns of gold … and there were seven
lamps of fire burning before the Throne … and
before the Throne there was a sea of glass like unto
crystal.' Here is exactly represented an arrangement
of the altar familiar to the whole Eastern Church and
to the early Church of England, in which it occupies
the centre of an apse in front of the seats of the Bishop
and Clergy, which are placed in the curved part of the
wall. And, although there is no reason to think that
the font ever stood near the altar, yet nothing appears
more likely than that the 'sea of glass like unto
crystal' mystically represents that laver of regeneration
through which alone the altar can be spiritually
approached. Another striking characteristic of the
ancient Church was the extreme reverence which was
shown to the Book of the Gospels, which was always
placed upon the altar and surmounted by a cross. So
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P55"></A>55}</SPAN>
'in the midst of the Throne, and round about the
Throne,' St. John saw those four living creatures which
have been universally interpreted to represent the four
Evangelists or the four Gospels, their position seeming
to signify that the Gospel is ever attendant upon the
altar, penetrating, pervading, and embracing the highest
mystery of Divine Worship, giving 'glory and honour
and thanks to Him that sat on the Throne, who liveth
for ever and ever.' In the succeeding chapter St. John
beholds Him for whom this altar is prepared. 'I
beheld, and lo, in the midst of the Throne, and of the
four living creatures, and in the midst of the elders,
stood a Lamb as It had been slain, having seven horns
and seven eyes, which are the seven spirits of God sent
forth into all the earth.' It cannot be doubted that
this is our Blessed Lord in that Human Nature on
which the <I>septiformis gratia</I> was poured without
measure; and that His appearance in the form of 'the
Lamb that was slain to receive power, and riches, and
wisdom, and strength, and honour, and glory, and
blessing,' represents the mystery of His prevailing
Sacrifice and continual Intercession. But around this
living Sacrifice there is gathered all the homage of an
elaborate ritual. They who worship Him have 'every
one of them harps' to offer Him the praise of
instrumental music; they have 'golden vials full of incense,
which are the prayers of saints,' even as the angel
afterwards had 'given unto him much incense, that he
should offer it with the prayers of the saints upon the
golden altar which was before the Throne;' they sing
a new song, mingling the praises of 'the best member
that they have' with that of their instrumental music;
and they fall down before the Lamb with the lowliest
gesture of their bodies in humble adoration. Let it
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P56"></A>56}</SPAN>
also be remembered that one of the Anthems here sung
by the Choirs of Heaven is that sacred song, 'Holy,
Holy, Holy, Lord God Almighty, which was, and is,
and is to come;' the Eucharistic use of which is
traceable in every age of the Church[9]."
</P>
<P>
The ritual of the early Church naturally gathered
round the Holy Eucharist as the central act of worship
in which the Lord was most especially present, and
therefore to be most especially honoured. From the
first days of the Church this had been the one
distinctively Christian service; and now that the Temple
services had ceased, it became more apparently even
than before, the fulfilment and continuation of the
sacrifices of the elder dispensations[10]: whilst it was also
the Memorial of the Sacrifice of the Cross and the
Representation on earth of the continual offering-up
of "the Lamb as It had been slain," before the Throne
of God in Heaven.
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[1] St. Peter and St. John had been specially trained by
their Divine Master for their special work. They with
St. James, the first Apostolic martyr, had witnessed His
Transfiguration, His Agony, His raising of Jairus's daughter,
and had been admitted into more intimate communion with
Him than the other Apostles.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[2] From passages in the works of St. Irenaeus and Eusebius.
See "Some Account of the Church in the Apostolic Age,"
by Professor Shirley, pp. 136-140.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[3] The Apostles appear to have believed at first that our
Lord's Ascension would be very speedily followed by His
triumphal return to Judgment, and the glorification of His
faithful people.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[4] On this point we may remember that St. John, who saw
deepest into the Divine Life, did not write his Gospel till
near the end of his earthly labours, almost sixty years after
the Day of Pentecost.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[5] Ephesus is known to this day by the name of Aya-soluk,
from Agios Theologos, or holy Divine, the title given to
St. John.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[6] Or perhaps by Nero, as some ancient writers say. Nero's
full name was Nero Claudius Domitianus, which may have
caused this confusion.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[7] 1 Tim. vi. 20.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[8] As St. Chrysostom says, "When thou beholdest the
curtains drawn up, then imagine that the heavens are let
down from above, and that the Angels are descending."
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[9] Annotated Book of Common Prayer, Ritual
Introduction, pp. xlix, 1.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[10] We are told that St. John adopted the vestments of the
High Priest of the old covenant, and especially "the plate
of the holy crown," with its inscription, "Holiness to the
Lord," thus exhibiting very forcibly the continuity of the
two priesthoods.
</P>
<BR><BR><BR>
<A NAME="chap05"></A>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P57"></A>57}</SPAN>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
CHAPTER V
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
The Primitive Church
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
A.D. 100-A.D. 312
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Persecution increases round the Church.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
We have already had occasion to notice the
beginnings of the persecution which the Church was
to undergo for the sake of her Head and
Spouse, not only those of a local and
unorganized character, which are spoken of
in the Book of Acts, but also some of a more cruel
and systematic nature under the Roman Emperors
Nero and Domitian. From the death of the last of
the Apostles to the conversion of the Emperor
Constantine, A.D. 312, the Church passed through a
succession of fierce trials, in which her members were
called to undergo similar sufferings to those which had
been borne by the holy Apostles St. Peter, St. Paul,
and St. John, and their fellow-martyrs[1].
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 1. <I>Causes of Persecution.</I>
</H3>
<P>
In considering the causes which led to the
persecution of the Church by the heathen around her, we
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P58"></A>58}</SPAN>
must, of course, place first as the root and ground of
all, the malice of Satan, and his hatred of
God, and of the means appointed by God
for saving souls.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Satan's enmity the great cause of persecution.
</SPAN>
The Kingdom of God
and the kingdom of Satan must ever be at war, and
the fierce and varied sufferings inflicted by the cruel
heathen on all who bore the name of Christ were so
many assaults of the great adversary seeking to
overthrow the Church in an open and deadly struggle. But
the life-giving Presence of her Incarnate Lord, and
"the patience and the faith of the Saints," were
mightier weapons than "all the fiery darts of the
Wicked," and "the gates of Hell" were not suffered to
"prevail against her."
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Other minor causes.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
There were, however, other and secondary causes
which led to the persecution of the Church.
The Romans were not usually intolerant
of religions which they did not themselves profess;
their worship of their own false gods had come to be
a form, as far as the educated classes were concerned,
and what belief they had was given to philosophy
rather than religion. Hence they were not unwilling
that the nations they conquered should keep to their
own respective creeds and religious ceremonies, so long
as they did not interfere with Roman authority. But the
religion of Christ required more than this. It could
not be confined to any one country, nor be content
with bare toleration, nor rank itself with the many
forms of Pagan misbelief. It claimed to be the only
True Religion, the only Way of Salvation, before which
the superstitions of the ignorant, and the philosophy
of the learned must alike give way. It made its way
even into "Caesar's household." Besides this,
Christians, owing to the nationality of the First Founders
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P59"></A>59}</SPAN>
of the Church, were often confounded with, and called
by the same name as the Jews, who had a bad repute
under the empire for rebellious and seditious conduct,
and we know how, even in the days of St. Paul, the
charge of sedition had begun to be most unjustly
fastened upon the followers of the Meek and Lowly
Jesus. This charge of disaffection to the powers of the
state received an additional and plausible colouring
from the fact that the consciences of the faithful
members of the Church would not suffer them to pay, what
they and the heathen around them considered to be
Divine honour, to the emperor or the heathen deities, by
sacrificing a few grains of incense when required thus
to show their loyalty to their ruler and his faith. Over
and over again was this burning of incense made a
test by which to discover Christians or to try their
steadfastness, and over and over again was its rejection
followed by agonizing tortures and a cruel death.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Nero's persecution.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The persecution in the reign of Nero is immediately
traceable to the accusation brought against
the Christians by the emperor, that they
had caused the terrible fire at Rome, which there seems
little doubt was in reality the result of his own wanton
wickedness, whilst that under Domitian appears to have
been connected with the conversion of some of the
members of his own family, his cousin Flavius Clemens
being the first martyr sacrificed in it.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 2. <I>Number and Duration of Persecutions.</I>
</H3>
<P>
The following table[2] will show how the early days of
the Church were divided between times of persecution
and intervals of rest.
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P60"></A>60}</SPAN>
<PRE STYLE="font-family: Courier New; font-size: 10pt">
<I>Chronological Table of Persecutions and Intervals of Rest.</I>
A.D.
64-68. Persecution under Nero. Martyrdom of
St. Peter and St. Paul.
68-95. Time of peace.
95-96. Persecution under Domitian. Banishment of
St. John.
96-104. Time of peace.
104-117. Persecution under Trajan. Martyrdom of
St. Ignatius.
117-161. Time of peace. Apologies of Aristides,
Quadratus, and Justin Martyr.
161-180. Persecution under Marcus Aurelius. Martyrdom
of St. Polycarp, and the martyrs of Lyons.
180-200. Time of peace.
200-211. Persecution under Severus. Martyrdom of
St. Perpetua and others in Africa.
211-250. Time of peace, excepting--
235-237. Partial persecution under Maximinus.
250-253. Persecution under Decius. Martyrdom of
St. Fabian.
253-257 Time of peace. Disputes concerning the <I>lapsed</I>.
257-260. Persecution under Valerian. Martyrdom of
St. Cyprian.
260-303. Time of peace, excepting--
262. Persecution in the East under Macrianus.
275. Persecution threatened by Aurelian.
303-313. Persecution under Dioclesian, Galerius, and
Maximinus.
</PRE>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P61"></A>61}</SPAN>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 3. <I>Nature and Extent of Persecutions.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Terrors of persecution.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Words can hardly be found strong enough to express
the many and varied tortures which were
inflicted on the Christians of the Primitive
Church by their heathen countrymen. Death itself
seemed too slight a punishment in the eyes of these
cruel persecutors, unless it was preceded and
accompanied by the most painful and trying circumstances.
It was by crucifixion, and devouring beasts, and
lingering fiery torments that the great multitude of those
early martyrs received their crown. Racked and
scorched, lacerated and torn limb from limb, agonized
in body, mocked at and insulted, they were objects of
pity even to the heathen themselves. Persecuting
malice spared neither sex nor age, station nor
character; the old man and the tender child, the patrician
and the slave, the bishop and his flock, all shed their
blood for Him Who had died for them, rather than
deny their Lord.
</P>
<P>
We have no possible means of estimating the number
of this vast "cloud of witnesses," but authentic
accounts have come down to us which prove that some
places were almost depopulated by the multitude of
martyrdoms; and when we remember the length of
time over which the persecutions extended, the
blood-thirsty rage of the persecutors, and the firm
perseverance with which the immensely large majority of
Christians kept the Faith to the end, we may form some
idea as to the "multitude" of this noble army of
martyrs "which no man could number."
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Persecution did not check the growth of the Church,
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
So widely did the Church spread during the age
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P62"></A>62}</SPAN>
of persecution, in the face of all the fierce opposition
of her enemies, that it was found at times
to be impossible to carry out in their
fulness the cruel laws against Christians,
on account of the numbers of those who were ready to
brave all for the sake of Christ. As has been often
said, "The blood of the martyrs was the seed of the Church."
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
nor revive decaying heathenism,
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Paganism was gradually dying away in the Roman
world, notwithstanding all the craft and
power of Satan, whilst no number of
martyrdoms seemed to check the growth of
the Body of Christ. Vain and short-sighted, indeed,
was the boast of the Emperor Dioclesian during the
last and most bitter of all the persecutions, that he
had blotted out the very name of Christian. No
sooner had the conversion of Constantine brought rest
to the Church, than she rose again from her seeming
ruins, ready and able to spread more and more through
"the kingdoms of this world," that they might
"become the kingdoms of Christ."
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and thus helped to prove the Divine origin of the Church.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
We may well believe that no institution of human
appointment could have stood firm against
such terrible and reiterated shocks.
Nothing less than a Divine Foundation, and
a strength not of this world could have borne the
Church through the ages of persecution, not only
without loss of all vital principle, but even with actual
invigoration and extension of it.
</P>
<BR>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P63"></A>63}</SPAN>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 4. <I>Effects of Persecution on the Worship and
Discipline of the Church.</I>
</H3>
<P>
The fierce trials of the age of persecution were not
without their influence on the inner life of the Church,
both as regarded Worship and Discipline.
</P>
<P>
The cruel oppressions to which they were constantly
liable, drove Christians to conceal their Faith from the
eyes of the heathen world whenever such concealment
did not involve any denial of their Lord, or any
faithless compliance with idolatrous customs.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Seeking martyrdom forbidden.
</SPAN>
Indeed, it was a law of the Church that
martyrdom was not to be unnecessarily
sought after, and the wisdom of this provision was
more than once shown by the failure under torture of
those who had presumptuously brought upon
themselves the sufferings they had not strength to bear, and
which did not come to them in the course of God's
Providence.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Holy Rites and Books kept hidden.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The strictest secrecy was enjoined upon Christians
as to the religious Rites and sacred Books
of the Church, and we read of many
martyrs who suffered for refusing to satisfy the
curiosity of their Pagan judges respecting Christian
worship, or for persisting in withholding from them
the Christian writings.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Church ritual temporarily checked.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Another natural effect of persecution was to check
for a time the development of the ritual
of the Church, and to render necessary
the use of the simplest and most essential
forms even in the celebration of the Holy Eucharist.
The immense subterranean excavations at Rome,
known by the name of the Catacombs, are an abiding
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P64"></A>64}</SPAN>
proof to us of the straits to which the primitive
martyrs and their companions were reduced, when these
sand-galleries were at once their Church and their
burying-place, and in some instances the scene of their
martyrdom also.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Church discipline very severe
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The discipline of the Church was made extremely
strict by the lengthened continuance of
severe persecution. In those days when
so many gave proof of the strength and
reality of their Faith by their persevering endurance
of unspeakable agonies, any shrinking back was looked
upon as very unworthy cowardice, and as an almost
hopeless fall, to be hindered if possible by the merciful
severity of the Church as shown in warnings and
punishments. Even those who had so far succumbed
to trial as to give up the Sacred Books were called
"Traditores," and considered as very criminal; those
who had consented to pay Divine honours to the
emperors or to the heathen gods, fell under still more
severe censure, whilst such Christians as led sinful and
immoral lives were considered most worthy of blame
and punishment. Very heavy penances were laid upon
all who thus fell away, in proportion to their guilt, before
they were again admitted to the Communion of the
Church; and in some extreme cases the punishment
was life-long, and only allowed to be relaxed when the
penitent was actually in danger of death.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
for a time.
</SPAN>
But this very severe discipline was temporary in
its nature, as was the danger to the Church
which called it forth, and was somewhat modified by
the Letters of Peace which martyrs and confessors were
allowed to give to excommunicated persons, authorizing
their readmission to Church privileges.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Church government modified also for a time.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
A temporary modification in the government of the
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P65"></A>65}</SPAN>
Church was also brought about by these times of
suffering. Bishops, under the pressure of
persecution, were sometimes forced to leave
their flocks, or were first tortured and
then banished, and their places had to be
filled as far as they could be by the presbyters, with
the advice of the distant Bishop; whilst at Rome, in
the middle of the third century, there was a year's
vacancy in the see after the martyrdom of Fabian, on
account of the impossibility of bringing neighbouring
Bishops into the midst of a storm which was raging
with especial fury against the rulers of the Church.
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[1] St. John was a martyr in will, though not in deed, being
miraculously preserved from injury in the caldron of boiling
oil, into which he was plunged by order of Nero or Domitian.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[2] From Dr. Steere's "Account of the Persecutions of the
Early Church under the Roman Emperors."
</P>
<BR><BR><BR>
<A NAME="chap06"></A>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P66"></A>66}</SPAN>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
CHAPTER VI
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
The Church under the Roman Empire
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
A.D. 312-A.D. 680
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Persecution arrested by conversion of Constantine.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Outward triumph of the Church.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The conversion of the Emperor Constantine to the
Faith worked a great change in the condition of
the Christian Church. Even so early as the year 312,
when the appearance to him of the
luminous Cross in the sky was followed by
victory over his enemies, Constantine
began to issue edicts of toleration in
favour of the Christians; and from the time of his sole
supremacy, A.D. 324, Christianity and not
Paganism became the acknowledged
religion of the Roman empire.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 1. <I>The altered Outward Circumstances of the Church.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Consequent change in discipline and ritual.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Such a change in the outward circumstances of the
Church could not but produce a
corresponding alteration in its discipline and
mode of worship. The Kingdom of God
on earth became a great power visible to
the eyes of men, no longer hid like the leaven, but
overshadowing the earth like the mustard-tree; and the
power and influence of Imperial Rome were employed
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P67"></A>67}</SPAN>
in spreading the Faith instead of seeking to exterminate
it. Christians were not now forced to shun the notice
of their fellow-men; banished Priests and Bishops
came back to their flocks; heathen temples were
converted into Churches, and new Churches were built
with great splendour. The vast resources of Roman
wealth and refinement were employed to render the
Worship of Almighty God costly and magnificent, and
the ritual of the Church was probably more fully
developed and brought more into harmony with the
prophetic vision of St. John than circumstances had ever
before allowed.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The first Christian city.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
In Constantinople, built by the Emperor Constantine
on the ruins of Byzantium, we have the
first instance of a city which, from the
time of its foundation, was entirely Christian.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Endowment of the Church.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Church was now no longer dependent on the
alms of private Christians; the revenues
which had formerly been devoted by the
state to the maintenance of the heathen temples and
their ministers, were transferred to the support of
Christian Churches and their Clergy, and to the relief
of the poor. Christian schools were also founded and
endowed by the emperors; and learning, as well as
wealth, was thus brought in contact with the Faith.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Church honoured by the world.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Christian Rome soon became a great instrument in
God's hands for extending the influence of the Church
even amongst little-known and uncivilized nations; and
as persecution ceased to try the earnestness of those
who embraced the religion of Christ, and the name of
Christian came to be treated with respect instead of
with scorn, the Church began to assume a
position somewhat like that which she
holds in our own day.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Discipline relaxed.
</SPAN>
The profession of
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P68"></A>68}</SPAN>
Christianity under these circumstances was naturally
more of a matter of course with many of those who
had grown up under its shadow, than when, in earlier
times, such a profession was likely to involve loss and
suffering, and even death itself, and
discipline was gradually and necessarily
relaxed from the severity needful in the days of
persecution.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 2. <I>Internal Trials of the Church.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Heresy gathers strength in prosperity,
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Church being thus firmly settled and delivered
from outer enemies, was now to find
troubles within. Even from the days of
St. John the Divine heresies respecting
the Person of our Blessed Lord had been rife; but these
open denials of the Divinity of the Great Head of the
Church had been successfully opposed without their
leaving behind them any very lasting trace.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and is of a more dangerous nature.
</SPAN>
Errors of
a more subtle class followed, amounting
in reality to unbelief in our Saviour's
Godhead, but expressing that unbelief by
assailing the teaching of the Church respecting His
nature as Very God or as Very Man.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Arianism.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
This species of error culminated in the heresy of
Arius, who denied that the Second Person
of the Holy Trinity was co-equal,
co-eternal, and of One Substance with the Father, and
whose false teaching was more widely listened to and
followed than that of any of his predecessors in misbelief.
Arianism, and various forms of error consequent upon
it, long afflicted the Church, especially in the East,
and the Emperor Constantine himself seems at one
time to have had a leaning towards the theories of Arius.
</P>
<BR>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P69"></A>69}</SPAN>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 3. <I>The General Councils.</I>
</h3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The remedy provided for heresy.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The full tide of the Arian heresy was, however, not
suffered to come upon the Church without
a barrier being raised up by God to stem
the torrent. The Emperor Constantine
was providentially guided to call together a Council of
Bishops from every part of the world, to decide what
was and always had been the Faith of the Church
respecting the Nature of our Blessed Lord. This is the
first instance of what are known by the name of General
Councils of the Church. Other councils, called
provincial synods, had indeed been frequently held from
the earliest times; but they were of a much more
limited and partial character, and their decrees were
binding only on the province in which they were held,
and not on the Church at large.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Nature of General Councils.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
General Councils were called together by the Christian
emperors, and, from the nature of their
constitution, were not possible until all or
nearly all the Christian world was governed
by a ruler professing the Faith of Christ; nor has such
a general synod been held since the breaking up of the
universal empire of Rome helped to overthrow the
external unity of the Church[1].
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Their number.
</SPAN>
Four General Councils are officially
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P70"></A>70}</SPAN>
acknowledged by the Church of England as binding on her
members, and to these are commonly added two, held
somewhat later at Constantinople.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
I. Council.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
I. The First General Council was called together by
Constantine the Great, A.D. 325. It was
held at Nicaea in Bithynia, and was
attended by 318 Bishops. The great work of this Council
was the positive and explicit assertion of what the Church
had always implicitly believed concerning the Nature
of our Divine Lord, and His Oneness with the Father.
It was at this Nicene Council that the great St. Athanasius,
then only a deacon, first distinguished himself
by his opposition to the heresies of Arius. The teaching
of the Council was embodied in the creed which is
known to us as the Nicene Creed[2], and which was
signed by all the assembled Bishops with only two
exceptions, these being probably personal friends of
Arius. Besides the condemnation of Arius, the Council
settled the time of keeping Easter, and passed twenty
Canons which were confirmed by the Emperor.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
II. Council.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
II. The Second General Council was held at
Constantinople, A.D. 381, in the reign of
Theodosius the Great. It was summoned
principally to condemn the heresy of Macedonius, who
had been Patriarch of Constantinople, and who had
added to the Arian heresy a denial of the Divinity of
God the Holy Ghost. At this Council 150 Bishops
were present, and it is especially remarkable for having
completed the Creed of Nicaea[3], which is hence also
called the Creed of Constantinople.
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P71"></A>71}</SPAN>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
III. Council.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
III. The Third General Council was summoned by
the Emperor Theodosius the Younger,
A.D. 431, and met at Ephesus. It was
held to consider the heresy of Nestorius, Patriarch of
Constantinople, who taught that the Blessed Virgin
was the Mother of our Lord's Human Nature only, and
that, therefore, the title of Theotokos, or "Mother of
God," ought not to be given her. This assertion was,
in fact, only a refinement of Arianism, implying as it
did that our Saviour had not always been God as well
as Man, and it was accordingly condemned by the
Council, Nestorius being at the same time deposed
from his see.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
IV. Council.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
IV. The Fourth General Council met at Chalcedon
during the reign of the Emperor Marcian,
A.D. 451. Six hundred and thirty Bishops
assembled at it and condemned the false teaching of
Eutyches, who asserted that our Blessed Lord was God
only, and not Man also.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
V. Council.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
V. The Fifth General Council was summoned at
Constantinople by the Emperor Justinian,
A.D. 533, and was attended by 165
Bishops. In it the decisions of the Four First Councils
were confirmed, especially against the Nestorians.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
VI. Council.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
VI. The Sixth General Council was also held at
Constantinople, A.D. 680, by command of
the Emperor Constantine Pogonatus, and
condemned a development of Eutychianism.
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P72"></A>72}</SPAN>
<PRE STYLE="font-family: Courier New; font-size: 10pt">
<I>Table of Councils.</I>
Where held. Date. Emperor. Object.
I. Nicaea 325 Constantine Against the Arians.
the Great
II. Constantinople 38l Theodosius Against the
the Great Macedonians.
III. Ephesus 431 Theodosius Against the
the Younger Nestorians.
IV. Chalcedon 451 Marcian Against the
Eutychians.
V. Constantinople 553 Justinian Against a
development of
Nestorianism.
VI. Constantinople 680 Constantine Against a
Pogonatus development
of Eutychianism.
</PRE>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 4. <I>Intellectual Development in the Church.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Christian learning developed in peace.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
This portion of the History of the Church, comprising
as it does the first period in which the master-minds
within her fold were left free by the cessation of
outward persecution to resist the increasing
attacks of heresy, may be looked upon as
offering to our view the greatest intellectual
development which the Church has
experienced since the times of the Apostles.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The Fathers.
</SPAN>
Learned and
eloquent men abounded, "mighty in the
Scriptures" and "steadfast in the Faith,"
and their commentaries and sermons have come down
to us as an abiding heritage and a continual witness to
the teaching of the Church in early times. St. Athanasius,
St. Ambrose, St. Chrysostom, and St. Augustine,
are but a few out of many whose writings are still held
in honour by our own as well as by every other branch
of the Catholic Church.
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[1] A General Council is the highest possible way in which
the voice of the Church can be heard. But its authority is
much increased by the fact that to become really a <I>general</I>
Council its decrees must be generally received by the
Christian world. This was the case with the first six General
Councils, but has not been entirely so with any similar
gatherings of later ages.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[2] That part of the Creed which follows the words, "I
believe in the Holy Ghost," was added later.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[3] The subsequent addition in the clause, "Who proceedeth
from the Father and the Son," will be noticed later.
</P>
<BR><BR><BR>
<A NAME="chap07"></A>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P73"></A>73}</SPAN>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
CHAPTER VII
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
The Early History of Particular Churches.
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
A.D. 67-A.D. 500
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 1. <I>The Church of England.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Paul's visit to England.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The CHURCH OF ENGLAND is believed, with good
reason, to owe its foundation to the Apostle
St. Paul, who probably came to this country
after his first imprisonment at Rome. The writings of
Tertullian, and others in the second and third centuries
speak of Christianity as having spread as far as the
islands of Britain, and a British king named Lucius is
known to have embraced the Faith about the middle
of the second century.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Martyrdom of St. Alban.
</SPAN>
The Diocletian persecution
made itself felt amongst the British Christians, the
conversion of the proto-martyr St. Alban
(A.D. 303) being followed by that of a large
number of his countrymen, many of whom also suffered
for their faith.
</P>
<P>
The persecution ceased (A.D. 305) under the influence
of Constantius, who, before his accession to the
imperial dignity, had been viceroy in Britain. His son
and successor Constantine was, if not born in England,
at any rate of English parentage on the side of his
mother Helen, better known as the Saint and Empress
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P74"></A>74}</SPAN>
Helena.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
English bishops at Councils.
</SPAN>
Three English Bishops, those of York,
Lincoln, and London, attended the Council
summoned by Constantine at Arles, A.D. 314,
a proof that at this time the Church
of England was thoroughly organized and settled.
English Bishops were also present at the Councils of
Sardica, A.D. 347, and of Ariminium, A.D. 359.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
English Church depressed by Saxon invasion.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
When the Romans abandoned Britain early in the
fifth century, the Saxons took advantage of the defenceless
state of the inhabitants to settle in the island, at
first as colonists and afterwards as conquerors. The
intermingling of these fierce heathens with
the Christian population had a depressing
influence on the Church; and the Bishops
and Clergy, belonging as they did to the weaker and
conquered portion of the community, seem to have
been unable to do much towards the conversion of the
invaders.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Diminution and retreat of Clergy.
</SPAN>
Gradually, as the Saxons became more and
more powerful in the island, the number of Bishops
and Clergy in the accessible portions of
of England grew smaller and smaller; and
such as remained were at last compelled
to take refuge with their brethren, who had retired to
the mountain fastnesses, rather than live in slavery.
Hence the records of the Church of England in the
sixth century are chiefly confined to those dioceses
which were situated in what we call Wales, or in other
mountainous districts.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 2. <I>The Church of Ireland.</I>
</H3>
<P>
The CHURCH OF IRELAND is said by some to have
been first founded in the Apostolic age, but this seems
doubtful. The first certain information which we have
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P75"></A>75}</SPAN>
respecting the presence of Christianity in the island, is
that in A.D. 431, a Bishop named Palladius was sent
thither on a mission by Pope Celestine. He appears,
however, not to have met with much success, and he
soon left the country and died, probably in Scotland.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Patrick the Apostle of Ireland.
</SPAN>
A few years later, about A.D. 440, the
celebrated St. Patrick began his mission in
Ireland. He is generally considered to
have been a native of North Britain, who, at the age of
sixteen, was taken prisoner by pirates, and carried as a
slave to Ireland. On regaining his liberty, he resolved
to devote his life to the conversion of the country of
his captivity; and having been consecrated Bishop, he
returned to Ireland, and spent fifty years as a missionary
in that hitherto heathen land. At the time of his death,
A.D. 493, the Church was firmly rooted in Ireland, and
possessed a native priesthood and a native Episcopate.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Late development of dioceses and parishes in Ireland.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
It may, however, be mentioned, that neither the
diocesan nor the parochial systems were
developed in Ireland until a very late
period, whilst, from the very large number
of Bishops existing there in early times,
we are led to infer that in Ireland, as before in the
earliest ages of the Church, each missionary was
invested with episcopal powers, and that the office of
priest, separate from that of Bishop, was at first almost
unknown. Gradually there sprang up Cathedral
chapters, whose members acted as curates to the Bishop,
and to this succeeded the parochial system.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 3. <I>The Church of Scotland.</I>
</H3>
<P>
The CHURCH OF SCOTLAND may, perhaps, like the
Church of England, trace its foundation to the labours
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P76"></A>76}</SPAN>
of St. Paul, and seems to be included in Tertullian's
mention of the far-off limits to which Christianity had
reached in his days.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Ninian the first authenticated missionary in Scotland.
</SPAN>
Little is, however, known of very
early Church history in Scotland until the beginning of
the fifth century, when St. Ninian, who is
said to have been the son of a British
chief, preached to the Southern Picts,
A.D. 412-A.D. 432. We have already
seen that St. Patrick, the Apostle of Ireland, was a
Scotchman, and the fruits of the benefits thus conferred
on the one country were reaped by the other in the
next century, when St. Columba went from Ireland
and founded the celebrated monastery of Iona in one of
the isles of the Hebrides.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Intercourse between Irish and Scotch Churches.
</SPAN>
Iona, like the Irish
monasteries of the same period, sent out many
missionaries, and the monks of the two
countries appear to have kept up friendly
communications with each other.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 4. <I>Continental Churches.</I>
</H3>
<P>
The CHURCH OF ITALY, as we have already seen
(pp. 42, 43), was founded by the joint labours of St. Peter
and St. Paul, but the circumstances of its foundation
were very different from those of the Churches of our
own islands.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Difficulties encountered by the Church in Italy from high civilization
</SPAN>
Christianity in Italy had to
make its way amongst a highly civilized
people, a nation of deep thinkers and
philosophers, whose opposition to the
truths of the Gospel was a far more subtle thing than
the rude ignorance of barbarians.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and political power.
</SPAN>
Besides this, the
infant Church in Italy was brought face to face with
the might of the Roman emperors who
were at that time the rulers of the known
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P77"></A>77}</SPAN>
world; and though their persecution of their Christian
subjects extended more or less to all parts of the
empire, yet Italy was the chief battle-field on which the
first great contest between the Church and the world
was fought. Hence the history of the early Church of
Italy is a history of alternating persecutions and times
of peace[1], during which Christianity was constantly
taking deeper root and spreading more widely through
the country, until the conversion of Constantine, A.D. 312,
led to the establishment and endowment of the Church.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Decay of the Roman empire.
</SPAN>
As the Church was growing stronger and
taking deeper root, the worn-out Roman
empire was gradually decaying and fading away, and,
practically, it came to an end with the division of East
and West, A.D. 395.
</P>
<P>
Resistance to the inroads of the barbarians was no
longer possible. Rome was sacked successively by
different nations of Central Europe, and at length the
kingdom of the Goths in Italy was established under
Theodoric, A.D. 493.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Arianism of barbarian conquerors.
</SPAN>
These rude nations, though
professing Christianity, had received with it
the heretical doctrines of Anus, owing to
their teachers having belonged to those
eastern portions of Europe, which, from their nearness
to Asia, were most infected with this heresy.
</P>
<P>
The CHURCH OF FRANCE was probably founded by
St. Paul, but we have no certain account of its early
history.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Asiatic origin of Early French Bishops,
</SPAN>
"Trophimus the Ephesian" is
believed to have been the first Bishop of
Arles, and Pothinus, another Greek Asiatic,
occupied the see of Lyons at the time of
the persecution under Marcus Aurelius, A.D. 161-A.D. 180,
during which he suffered martyrdom. His
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P78"></A>78}</SPAN>
successor was St. Irenaeus, a native, probably, of Smyrna,
who was martyred under Severus, A.D. 202. This
long-continued connexion with the Churches of Asia Minor
left its traces on the liturgy and customs of the Church
of France, and through it of Britain and Ireland, these
latter Churches adhering to the Eastern mode of
computing Easter even after the Western reckoning
had been adopted in France.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and of French Liturgy.
</SPAN>
The liturgy used in
France, as well as in Britain and Spain,
is known to have been founded on that
used in Ephesus and in the other Asiatic cities, which
was almost certainly that used by St. John himself.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Intercourse between English and French Churches.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
A Council was summoned by Constantine, A.D. 314,
at the French city of Arles, and one French Bishop at
least was present at the great Nicaean Council, A.D. 323.
About a century later (A.D. 429), St. Germanus,
Bishop of Auxerre, and St. Lupus,
Bishop of Troyes, were sent over to Britain
to assist in combating the errors of
Pelagius, the neighbour Churches of England and France
maintaining apparently very friendly relations. Many
of the barbarian tribes who overran France in the
beginning of the fifth century, though professing
Christianity, were deeply infected with the Arian heresy.
The Franks, however, who were heathens at their first
entrance into the country, embraced the orthodox
faith, and eventually became masters of the kingdom
under Clovis, A.D. 486.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Paul and St. James in Spain.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The CHURCH OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL traces its
foundation to St. Paul, who speaks of his
intended visit to Spain, Rom. xv. 24; and
there is also a tradition that St. James the
Great preached the Gospel here. This Church, too,
is spoken of by St. Irenaeus, and again by Tertullian.
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P79"></A>79}</SPAN>
Its first known martyr was St. Fructuosus, A.D. 259,
and its first Council that of Elvira, about A.D. 300. The
names of nineteen Spanish Bishops are mentioned as
present at it. The Council of Nice, A.D. 325, was under
the presidency of Hosius, the Bishop of the Spanish
diocese of Cordova.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Arianism of Visigoths.
</SPAN>
About A.D. 470, the
Visigoths, who were Arians, passed over
from France into Spain, and were only gradually
converted to the Catholic Faith.
</P>
<P>
We must look to a later period (see Chapter XI.) for
the foundation of other Churches of the West in
Northern and Central Europe, that is to say, the
SCANDINAVIAN CHURCHES, including NORWAY,
SWEDEN, and DENMARK, as well as those contained
in the large extent of country to which we often give
the comprehensive name of Germany.
</P>
<P>
The Churches now comprehended in EUROPEAN
TURKEY and GREECE were, as we have already seen
(pp. 37 to 40), the fruits of the labours of St. Paul,
and, like the Church of Rome, had wealth and
learning to encounter instead of poverty and ignorance.
The Book of Acts records very fully the earliest
history of these Churches, and a large proportion of
St. Paul's Epistles are addressed to them.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Liability of the Greeks to heresy.
</SPAN>
The theorizing and philosophical tendencies
of the Greeks made them very liable
be led away by heretical teachers, and we
find that the Church in Greece, from St. Paul's time
downwards, was continually disturbed by the presence
of those who taught or listened to "some new thing." Hence
all the General Councils, summoned for the
authoritative settlement of the faith of the Church, were
held either in Greece, or in that part of Asia which
had been colonized by Greeks. Arianism in particular,
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P80"></A>80}</SPAN>
for a long period, caused the most violent dissensions
throughout the Eastern world, and these were the
occasion of that first Great Council of Nicaea which, though
not actually held in Greece, was only separated from
it by the narrow strait of the Bosphorus.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Origin of jealousies between Rome and Constantinople.
</SPAN>
The building
of Constantinople, A.D. 330, gave a Christian
capital to Greece, and, indeed, to the
whole of the Eastern Roman empire; and
from this time may be dated the jealousies
and struggles for supremacy which took place between
the Church in Italy and the Church in Greece, and
resulted eventually in the Great schism between East
and West[2].
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Andrew in Russia.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The CHURCH OF RUSSIA is believed to have been
founded by the Apostle St. Andrew,
who extended his labours northwards from
Thrace (which now forms part of Turkey in Europe), to
that portion of Scythia lying north of the Black Sea,
and now constituting the southern part of European
Russia. The bulk of the present Russian empire was,
however, converted at a much later period.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 5. <I>The Church in Africa.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Simon Zelotes and St. Mark in Africa.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The first evangelizing of North Africa, including what
we now know as Egypt, Algeria, and
Morocco, is ascribed to St. Simon
Zelotes and St. Mark, the latter of whom
founded the CHURCH OF ALEXANDRIA, of which he
became the first Bishop. Christianity appears to have
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P81"></A>81}</SPAN>
made very rapid progress in Africa, since, in the fifth
century, the Church numbered more than four hundred
African Bishops.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Patriarchate of Alexandria.
</SPAN>
Alexandria, from its
wealth and importance, as well as from its
reputation for learning, was looked up to by the other
African Churches, and its Bishops were acknowledged
as patriarchs throughout the Christianized portion of
the continent.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Its school.
</SPAN>
The Alexandrian school
of philosophy was very famous, and was
at one time presided over by the Christian philosopher
Clement of Alexandria, who died about A.D. 216. His
pupil Origen was, for a while, at the head of the same
college, and employed his vast learning both before
and after his ordination, in comparing the extant
copies of the Old Testament Scriptures, in order to
bring the text of the original languages to a state
of the greatest possible correctness. He died A.D. 253.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Heresies at Alexandria.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Church of Alexandria was much distracted by
inward troubles. In A.D. 306, the schism
of Meletius led many astray, and amongst
them the too notorious Arius, who began to publish
in Alexandria the heresy since known by his name,
about the year A.D. 320.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Athanasius and Arius.
</SPAN>
St. Athanasius,
who became Patriarch of Alexandria,
A.D. 326, was the chief instrument raised up by God
for combating the errors of Arius, a work which he
carried on unflinchingly both before and after his
elevation to the episcopal throne, though his defence
of the orthodox faith brought upon him long and severe
persecution, including an exile of twenty years from his
diocese. The Arian heresy, though checked, was
however not exterminated, and long remained a source
of trouble and weakness to the whole Church.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Cyril and Nestorius.
</SPAN>
St. Cyril,
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P82"></A>82}</SPAN>
who afterwards succeeded to the patriarchate of
Alexandria, A.D. 412, was also called upon
to defend Catholic truth against the errors
of Nestorius, whilst his successor, Dioscorus, openly
embraced the false teaching of Eutyches, and denied
the Manhood, as Arius and Nestorius had before denied
the Divinity, of our Blessed Lord. The evil example
of the patriarch was followed by a large proportion of
African Christians, who refused to receive the decrees
of the Council of Chalcedon, A.D. 431, or to submit to
Catholic Bishops.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Cyprian. St. Augustine.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Two other well-known names which adorn the
records of the Church in North Africa may be mentioned:
St. Cyprian, a native of Carthage, and
afterwards Bishop of that city, who
suffered martyrdom, A.D. 258, and St. Augustine,
a native of Numidia (or what we now
call Algeria), who was educated at Carthage, was
consecrated Bishop of Hippo, A.D. 393, and died A.D. 430. He
left behind him a great number of writings, the influence
of which has been largely felt by the Church of England.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Matthew in Ethiopia.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The CHURCH OF ETHIOPIA, now represented by
Abyssinia, was planted by St. Matthew,
the way having, perhaps, been prepared
by that "man of Ethiopia," the eunuch "under Candace,
queen of the Ethiopians," of whom we read in Acts
viii. 27-39. Little is clearly known of the early Christian
history of this region; but the Ethiopian Church
appears to have come under the patriarchal rule of the
Bishop of Alexandria towards the beginning of the
fourth century. Though keeping clear of Arianism,
the Ethiopian Christians became deeply tinged with
the Eutychian heresy, by which Dioscorus and his
successors were unhappily led away.
</P>
<BR>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P83"></A>83}</SPAN>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 6. <I>The Eastern Church.</I>
</H3>
<P>
Of the Churches now comprehended in Turkey in
Asia, the foundation and early history of PALESTINE,
as represented by the CHURCH IN JERUSALEM, and of
SYRIA, as represented by the CHURCH IN ANTIOCH,
have been already related (Chapters I. and II.).
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Death of St. James.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
St. James the Less, first Bishop of Jerusalem, was
martyred A.D. 63, and succeeded by Simeon,
the son of Cleopas, in whose episcopate
the destruction of Jerusalem took place, A.D. 70.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Flight to Pella.
</SPAN>
The Christians, in obedience to the prophetic teaching
of their Divine Master, had already fled for safety to
Pella, whence they afterwards returned to
take up their abode amongst the ruins of
the Holy City. In A.D. 132, a rebellious outbreak of
the Jews, under the leadership of Barchochebas, drew
down on them a severe chastisement from the Emperor
Hadrian, and the Jewish Christians suffered much from
being confounded with their rebellious countrymen.
The ruins of the ancient city were completely destroyed,
whilst no Jew was allowed to enter the new city of
Aelia Capitolina, which was built on its site.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Extinction of Judaism in Church of Jerusalem.
</SPAN>
The Jewish Christians now entirely gave up
all profession of Judaism, and the first Judaism in
<I>Gentile</I> Bishop of Jerusalem was appointed
A.D. 135.
</P>
<P>
Julian the Apostate (A.D. 361-A.D. 363) presumptuously
attempted to rebuild Jerusalem, but his attempt
was frustrated by a miraculous interposition, a failure
which had already been predicted by St. Cyril, the then
Bishop of Jerusalem.
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P84"></A>84}</SPAN>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Double Episcopate at Antioch.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The CHURCH IN ANTIOCH having been probably
founded by St. Peter, that Apostle is believed to have
left behind him two Bishops in the city,
the one Evodius, having the episcopal
care of the Jewish converts, whilst Ignatius
was placed in charge of the Gentile Christians; but,
on the death of Evodius, A.D. 70, Ignatius
became sole Bishop.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Ignatius.
</SPAN>
This holy man is
said to have been the child whom our Lord took in His
arms and set in the midst of His disciples. He was
intimate with some or all of the Apostles, especially
with St. John, and was martyred by being thrown to
wild beasts at Rome, A.D. 107. The synods held at
Antioch were very numerous, and far larger than any
others, approaching almost in size and importance to
General Councils.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. John Chrysostom.
</SPAN>
It was at Antioch that the
celebrated and eloquent St. John Chrysostom
was born about A.D. 347: he became
Bishop of Constantinople, and died A.D. 407, after
undergoing persecutions which almost amounted to a
martyrdom.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Paul and St. John in Asia Minor.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
We have already seen (pp. 31, 32) that the
CHURCHES OF ASIA MINOR owe their
foundation chiefly to St. Paul, whilst their
perfect organization and development was
entrusted to St. John the Divine (pp. 49 to 51).
The Seven Churches of the Apocalypse seem to have
been in a special manner the charge of the latter
Apostle, Ephesus, the chief of them, being the home of
his later earthly years, and the scene of his decease
and burial.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The "Angels" of the Seven Churches.
</SPAN>
St. Timothy, the first Bishop of Ephesus,
had been succeeded probably by Onesimus;
St. Polycarp (martyred A.D. 167)
had the episcopal charge of Smyrna;
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P85"></A>85}</SPAN>
Archippus, it is believed, had followed Epaphras at
Laodicea. The names of the other "Angels" spoken
of in the Apocalypse have not come down to us, but
there is no doubt that at the time when the seven
inspired Epistles were addressed to these Churches, there
was in each of them a firmly established episcopacy,
and that this form of government was followed by all
other Churches throughout the world. There is little
that needs recording of the history of these Churches
of Asia Minor, unless we except the Great Council of
Ephesus, held in that city, A.D. 431, to condemn the
heresy of Nestorius (p. 71).
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Bartholomew in Armenia.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The CHURCH OF ARMENIA, now included in Asiatic
Turkey, is believed to have been first
founded by St. Bartholomew. The country
is said to have been further evangelized
by a mission sent by St. Gregory the Illuminator in the
third century. It is known that, in the following
century, a flourishing Church existed there.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Several Apostles in Parthia.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The CHURCH OF PARTHIA, or PERSIA, embraced
the country lying between the Tigris and the Indus,
with Mesopotamia and Chaldea; what we now call
Persia, Cabul, and Belochistan; as well as part of Arabia
and Turkey; and is said to have been planted by
St. Peter, St. Bartholomew, St. Jude,
St. Matthew, and St. Thomas. The inhabitants
of this region were of different races: Greek
colonists; many Jews, the residue of the Babylonish
Captivity; Arabs, and ancient Persians. Till the fourth
century the Parthian Church appears to have flourished
in peace. It was beyond the jurisdiction of the
persecuting emperors of Rome, and the Parthian monarchs,
though not Christians themselves, protected or tolerated
their Christian subjects.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Persecution there.
</SPAN>
Two Bishops were sent from
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P86"></A>86}</SPAN>
Parthia to the Council of Nicaea, A.D. 323, but shortly
afterwards, A.D. 330, persecution broke
out, occasioned apparently by the jealousy
felt by the king towards the now Christian emperors
of Rome, and the intercourse kept up between the
fellow Christians of the two empires. Sixteen thousand
martyrs are said to have shed their blood for their
Faith, and amongst them was St. Simeon, the Patriarch
of the Church, and Bishop of Seleucia. Another
persecution took place in the beginning of the fifth century,
and shortly afterwards Persian Christianity became
strongly infected with the errors of Nestorius, the
Shahs apparently favouring the heresy on account
of its having been discouraged by the Roman emperors.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Uncertainty as to the first conversion of Arabia.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
There is no record of the actual founding of the
CHURCH IN ARABIA. We know, from Gal. i. 17, that
St. Paul "went into Arabia" soon after his conversion,
but there is no mention of his having preached the
Gospel there at that time, when indeed he
was not yet called to be an Apostle; and
the Arabia to which he went was probably
the northern portion stretching up to the
east of Syria, almost to Damascus itself. The Apostle
of the Gentiles may probably have revisited this
country at a later period; but, at any rate, we know that
Christianity was firmly established there early in the
third century, and that Origen made two several
journeys thither between A.D. 220 and A.D. 248, to combat
heresies which troubled the Arabian Church. The
Bishop of Bostra, or Bozrah, was present at the Council
of Antioch, A.D. 269.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Nestorianism and Eutychianism in Arabia.
</SPAN>
In the fifth century
the errors of Nestorius, and, a little later,
of Eutyches, made great inroads amongst
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P87"></A>87}</SPAN>
the Christians of Arabia, several even of the Bishops
being led away by them.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Thomas and St. Bartholomew in India.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
There is an ancient tradition that St. Thomas and
St. Bartholomew laid the foundations of
the CHURCH IN INDIA, but very little is
known of its early history. Pantaenus is
said to have been sent as a missionary
from Alexandria to India towards the end of the second
century, though it is a matter in dispute whether by
India in this case we are to understand the country
now known under that name, or Ethiopia, or Arabia Felix.
</P>
<P>
There are still Christians in India who reverence
St. Thomas as their founder, and use a liturgy which
goes by his name. Nestorianism spread to India in
the fifth century.
</P>
<P>
The Church is believed to have been planted in
CHINA by St. Thomas and St. Bartholomew, and the
Chinese are mentioned by Arnobius in the fourth
century amongst those nations which had received the
Gospel. It does not seem, however, that Christianity
existed for any length of time in this country.
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[1] See Chap. V.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[2] In speaking of the Greek Church of the present day,
we usually understand the whole body of orthodox Eastern
Christians, and not merely those dwelling in Greece itself.
</P>
<BR><BR><BR>
<A NAME="chap08"></A>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P88"></A>88}</SPAN>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
CHAPTER VIII
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
The Inroads of Mahometanism
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
A.D. 609-A.D. 732
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Arianism prepares the way for Mahometanism.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The various heresies, and especially the heresy of
Arius, which had so widely troubled the peace of
the Eastern Church, though they were not suffered by
God's Mercy to cause a lasting schism, yet left behind
them a certain weakness resulting in the decay of many
of the Churches of the East, and finally in
their overthrow by the false faith of the
impostor Mahomet. The present state of
the Churches of Ephesus, Sardis, and
Laodicea, if viewed in the light shed upon it by the
prophetic Epistles of St. John the Divine, may serve to
show us how God withdraws His Blessing from a
Church no less surely than from an individual Christian,
when His Grace is obstinately rejected and despised.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 1. <I>Mahomet.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Mahomet's birth,
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The false prophet Mahomet was born A.D. 569, of the
chief family in the Arabian tribe of the
Koreish; but it was not till after he had
amassed a large fortune, partly by diligence in trade
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P89"></A>89}</SPAN>
and partly by a wealthy marriage, that, at the age of
forty, A.D. 609, he declared himself to be a
prophet.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and claim to be a prophet and reformer.
</SPAN>
This announcement was at first
confined to the members of his own immediate family,
till, at the end of four years, Mahomet proclaimed that
he had a mission from God to reform the
state of religion in his native city, Mecca,
and to put down the idolatry which prevailed there.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Flight to Medina.
</SPAN>
The opposition which the false prophet encountered
from his fellow-citizens did not hinder him from making
many converts to the religion he was beginning to
invent for himself and for them, until at length (A.D. 622)
an insurrection, caused by the preaching and success
of Mahomet, obliged him to fly for his life
from Mecca, and take refuge at Yatreb or Medina[1].
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Founds a new religion.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Here he was gladly received both by Jews and Arabs,
rival races, who divided the city between them. The
Jews were ready to welcome him as their expected
Messiah, whilst the Arabs had heard of his fame from
their brethren at Mecca; and Mahomet seems from
this time to have entirely laid aside the character of
a mere reformer, for that of the founder of
a new revelation. The Koran and the
Sword were now called in to aid in their respective
ways in extending the power of the ambitious adventurer.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Cruelty.
</SPAN>
Violence and bloodshed enforced
the pretended inspiration by which Mahomet
claimed to be acknowledged as <I>the</I> Prophet of God,
and the civil and religious head of the nation; and the
last ten years of his life present an almost unbroken
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P90"></A>90}</SPAN>
course of warfare, which too often degenerated into
simple robbery and murder.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and conquests of Mahomet.
</SPAN>
He made himself master of the whole of Arabia,
including the city of Mecca, where he destroyed the idols
against which he had in earlier days protested, and
then made an ineffectual attempt to take possession of
Palestine.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
His death.
</SPAN>
Mahomet died on June 8th,
A.D. 632, partly from the effects of poison,
which had been given to him some years before, and
partly from the consequences of a life of excess and
self-indulgence.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 2. <I>The Religion of Mahomet.</I>
</H3>
<P>
The false faith of which Mahomet was at once the
prophet and the founder, seems to have taken for its
basis the traditionary religion then prevalent amongst
the Arab tribes. These traditions were probably
compounded of dim remnants of the Truth which had been
revealed to Abraham and handed down through his
son Ishmael, and of a very corrupt form of Sabaeanism,
which included the worship of the heavenly bodies, as
well as of idols, and which had been the religion of
Terah and his fellow-countrymen.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Mixture of truth and error in Mahometanism.
</SPAN>
Upon this
foundation was engrafted a mixture of Persian
philosophy, and of such perversions of
Christianity and of Scriptural doctrine as
Mahomet could gather from a Persian
Jew and a Nestorian monk.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Opposition of the Koran to Christianity.
</SPAN>
The Koran, which
Mahomet pretended to have received from heaven by the
mouth of the archangel Gabriel, makes mention of
our Blessed Lord and of many of the facts of Old
Testament History, but its teaching is essentially
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P91"></A>91}</SPAN>
anti-Christian and blasphemous, inasmuch as it denies the
Divinity of Christ, and represents Him
as a Teacher and Prophet far inferior to
Mahomet himself. An intended contradiction
of the Christian doctrine of the Holy Trinity
is also conveyed in its opening sentence, which is the
Mahometan confession of faith,—"There is but one
God, and Mahomet is His prophet."
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Mahomet's Iconoclastic tendencies.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Mahomet's energetic opposition to idolatry was,
no doubt, a good feature in his religious
system, though, like that of the Iconoclasts[2],
it was carried to an extravagant
extent, and this agreement, with their undue fears and
prejudices on this head, seems to have been a sufficient
inducement to many unstable Christians to deny the
Lord, for Whose Honour they professed such deep
concern, and to give themselves up to an impostor who
was perhaps the nearest approach to Anti-Christ which
the world has yet seen.
</P>
<P>
Christian people are found even in these days who
do not hesitate to speak with some degree of favour of
the great apostasy of which Mahomet was the founder,
because of its opposition to idolatry, its recognition of
our Blessed Lord as a Prophet, the certain admixture
of truth contained in its grievous error, and the alleged
moral teaching and beauty of language of particular
passages in the Koran.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Moral effects of Mahometanism.
</SPAN>
Any such favour or tenderness
is, however, altogether out of place in
professed worshippers of Him Whom
Mahomet so grievously blasphemed, whilst the
grossly sensual and immoral lives led by the false
prophet and the large proportion of his followers down to
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P92"></A>92}</SPAN>
the present time, serve to show us that wrong belief
and wrong practice go hand in hand, and that whatever
show of morality there may be in some few of the
precepts of the Koran, it has no influence on the conduct
of those who profess to be guided by it.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 3. <I>The Spread of Mahometanism.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Mahometan conquests
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The work of conquest which Mahomet had begun was
continued by his successors. Abu Bekr,
the father of Mahomet's favourite wife,
was the first of the four Caliphs who pushed the power
of the Mahometan arms beyond the confines of Arabia,
and laid the foundations of the future
empire.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
of the Holy Land,
</SPAN>
Jerusalem was taken by Omar, the
next Caliph, in A.D. 637, and, with the exception of a
short interval during the Crusades, the Holy City has
ever since remained in the hands of the unbelievers.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Egypt,
</SPAN>
Omar made himself master of Egypt as
well as of Syria, and showed his savage
contempt for learning by burning the famous and
valuable collection of MSS. contained in the
Alexandrian library.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Persia, and North Africa.
</SPAN>
Under Othman, Persia
and the North of Africa were added to the
empire, and after the death of Ali, son-in-law to
Mahomet and fourth Caliph, the seat of government was
removed to Damascus.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Other portions of Asia and part of Europe.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Caliphs of Damascus carried on the same system
of warfare and bloodshed, took possession
of Asia Minor, of the Northern parts of
India, of Spain, and overran the South of
France, where, however, A.D. 732, the Mahometan troops
received such a check at Tours from the hands of
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P93"></A>93}</SPAN>
Charles Martel, as hindered them from extending their
conquests any farther in Western Europe.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Present extent of Mahometanism.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
At the present day Mahometanism is the professed
faith of the inhabitants of the Northern
half of Africa, of Turkey in Europe, of
Arabia, Persia, the Holy Land, Asia Minor,
and some parts of India, and its adherents number
ninety-six millions. We shall perhaps realize still more
strongly the havoc which this soul-destroying apostasy
has been suffered to work, if we remember that some
of the countries where it now reigns unchecked were
formerly the seats of flourishing Christian Churches,
the Church in Africa boasting of such great Saints as
St. Cyprian and St. Augustine, whilst Palestine and
Asia Minor witnessed the first foundation of the Church,
as well as its earliest settlement in the form it was
permanently to retain.
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[1] It is from this Hegira (or Flight) of Mahomet, July 16th,
A.D. 622, that Mahometans compute their time.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[2] See Chap. VIII.
</P>
<BR><BR><BR>
<A NAME="chap09"></A>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P94"></A>94}</SPAN>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
CHAPTER IX
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
The Division between East and West
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
A.D. 680-A.D. 1054
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Outward unity of the Church broken
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
So far we have contemplated the Church of Christ
as one in external communion, no less than by
the inner bonds of charity and of sacramental life; but
we now come to a period in which this
external unity began to be to a certain
extent dissolved, and that in great measure
by the same outward influences which had at first
secured its cohesion.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
with the breaking up of the Roman Empire.
</SPAN>
Heresies and schisms, especially
the great heresy of Arius, had indeed troubled the
Church and threatened to break the visible
union existing between its branches in
different countries; but it was not until
after the dissolution of the Roman empire
that the breach really came.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section I. <I>Jealousy between Rome and Constantinople.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Reasons for Roman ascendancy.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
During the flourishing days of the empire the city of
Rome had naturally been looked up to
with great reverence by all the other
Churches of the world. Its political
importance as the centre of government, the vast number
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P95"></A>95}</SPAN>
of its martyrs, its comparative freedom from heresy,
and its connexion with the lives and deaths of St. Peter
and St. Paul, all tended to give it a moral ascendancy
which was gradually claimed as a right. This,
however, did not take place without protests on the part of
other Bishops, nor even without very definite
disclaimers of any wish for or right to supreme authority
on the part of the Bishops of Rome themselves.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Ambition of an Eastern Patriarch.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Constantinople, as being the new Rome and capital
of the Eastern empire, was especially jealous of the
claims of the mother city, and one of her Patriarchs,
John the Faster, in the sixth century, first set the evil
example of assuming the title of
"Universal Bishop," a title which the Roman
Pontiffs have since taken and retained.
In proportion as the political division between East
and West became more complete, so also did the
tendency towards separation in ecclesiastical matters
increase.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Beginnings of disunion.
</SPAN>
Western dioceses, now peopled by the
barbarian nations who had overrun Europe,
still looked up to Rome as their centre
and head; whilst the Eastern Bishops, under the sway
of the decaying empire, clung to Constantinople.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Its crisis.
</SPAN>
The controversy respecting the use of Images, and that
about the Procession of the Holy Ghost
from the Son as well as from the Father,
were, however, the means of actually bringing about
the cessation of all outward communion between East
and West.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 2. <I>The Iconoclast (or Image-breaking) Controversy.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Dislike of images
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
There had been from very early times an extensive
though not universal feeling in the Church,
against the use of painting or sculpture in
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P96"></A>96}</SPAN>
Divine Worship. This feeling was occasioned partly
by dread of the idolatry still prevalent amongst the
heathen, and partly, especially in the East, where it
was strongest, by the remains of Judaism still lingering
in the Church of Christ.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
lost in the West, but retained in the East.
</SPAN>
As heathenism
died out, it was gradually felt in the West
that the strong reasons formerly existing against the
adornment of Churches with pictures and images had
passed away; but the Eastern Church,
with that dread of change which distinguishes
it to this day, clung as before to the old sentiment.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Image-breaking legislation
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
In the eighth century, Leo III., "the Isaurian," then
reigning at Constantinople, passed a decree
for the removal of all images and paintings
from Churches, and his violent conduct in the matter
occasioned such discontent in the West,
that Italy withdrew altogether from the
nominal allegiance she had hitherto paid
to the emperors, about A.D. 730.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
dissolved the link between Eastern and Western Empires.
</SPAN>
Other emperors were as fanatical in their Iconoclastic (or
image-breaking) prejudices as Leo, and their
extravagance excited a reaction in the other extreme in the
Western empire.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Reactionary decrees in the West.
</SPAN>
In A.D. 786, a Council,
which was held at Nicaea, not only
protested against the violent fanaticism of
the East, but sanctioned the veneration of images and
pictures to an extent which we find it hard to justify,
and which was, in fact, deemed unjustifiable by many
in the West, who yet wished for their retention as
decorations and aids to devotional feeling.
Charlemagne, under the influence of our English Alcuin,
opposed the decision of the Council, and held
provincial synods (especially one at Frankfort, A.D. 794)
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P97"></A>97}</SPAN>
to condemn what was, at any rate, very like image-worship.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Charitable supposition regarding them.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Probably dread of Judaism and Mahometanism, with
their hatred of our Blessed Lord and of
His Image, as well as of all sculpture, had
some influence on the decisions of the
council of A.D. 786, and we may reasonably hope
that it was not really intended to encourage any
worship or veneration contrary to the express law of God.
At any rate, the Iconoclast controversy aided very
strongly to put an end to all political union, and
with it to all public ecclesiastical intercourse, between
East and West; though the bonds of external
communion were not yet broken, and they were still one
both in faith and practice.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 3. <I>The Controversy respecting the Double Procession
of the Holy Ghost.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Western addition to the Nicene creed.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
We have seen[1] that the summary of Christian belief,
known to us as the Nicene Creed, was completed at
the Council of Constantinople, A.D. 381; but with this
exception, that the article defining the faith of the
Church concerning the Third Person of the
Ever-Blessed Trinity, asserted only that "the
Holy Ghost … proceedeth from the
Father," without the addition of the words
"<I>and the Son</I>;" and it was the controversy as to the
admission or non-admission of these words into the
Creed which caused the formal division between
Eastern and Western Christendom.
The question is said to have first arisen in the fifth
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P98"></A>98}</SPAN>
century; and gradually the words in dispute came to
be sung in the West during Divine Service.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Decrees against it.
</SPAN>
In the ninth century an appeal was made
on the subject to Pope Leo III., who decided in a
provincial Council that no such addition could lawfully be
made to the Creed, and ordered it to be engraved on
silver plates exactly as the Council of Constantinople
had left it. Towards the end of the same century
another Council was held at Constantinople, which also
decreed the disuse of the addition, and then the matter
dropped for about a hundred and fifty years.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Dispute stirred up again for political purposes.
</SPAN>
Its revival seems to have been chiefly owing to
political jealousies and to the struggle for
supremacy which was continually going
on between Rome and Constantinople.
We may be allowed to believe that the dispute was, in
reality, a question of mere words, and that the two
branches of the One Church did, and still do, hold the
"One Faith," although differing in their mode of
expressing it.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Actual schism in consequence.
</SPAN>
Still the ultra-conservatism which has
always distinguished the Eastern Church, and the
unyielding temper which has been no less conspicuous in
the Church of Rome, did in time bring about a formal
schism; and in A.D. 1053, the Pope
Leo IX. issued a sentence of excommunication
against the Patriarch of Constantinople
and all who adhered to him. In the following
year the Patriarch Michael Cerularius summoned a
synod at Constantinople, and retorted the excommunication
upon the Latins. Two attempts at reconciliation
were afterwards made, one in A.D. 1274, following the
close of the last Crusade, and another which, after
lengthened negotiations, came to an equally unsuccessful
termination at the Council of Florence, A.D. 1430.
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P99"></A>99}</SPAN>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Outward union never since restored.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Since that time the two great Branches of the One
Vine, whilst still drawing Life and Nourishment
from the same Divine Root of Jesse
by means of the same Holy Sacraments,
have yet abstained from all acts of outward
communion, and have failed to recognize in each other those
essential marks of Catholicity which God's Mercy
and Providence has preserved to them even in the
midst of all their respective defects of Charity, or their
errors in theory and practice.
</P>
<BR>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[1] Chap. VI., sec. 3.
</P>
<BR><BR><BR>
<A NAME="chap10"></A>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P100"></A>100}</SPAN>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
CHAPTER X
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
The Church of the Middle Ages
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
A.D. 900-A.D. 1500
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Foundation of the temporal power of the Popedom.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The temporal power of the Popes gradually
increased after the ninth century, when part
of the territory since known as the States of the
Church was bestowed on them by Pepin,
whose son, the famous Emperor
Charlemagne, confirmed the donation. The
change thus wrought in the position of
the Popes, who to their spiritual office of Bishop now
added the temporal one of sovereign, was productive of
a corresponding change in the claims they made upon
the submission of the rest of Christendom, and these
altered claims first assumed a definite form in the
eleventh century.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 1. <I>The Supremacy of the Popes.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Papal claims to spiritual supremacy.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Bishops of Rome had at first limited their ideas
of universal supremacy to spiritual things:
it was as Universal Bishop that they
desired to be honoured and obeyed, and
we have seen in the preceding chapter that a certain
priority seemed to accrue to them by force of
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P101"></A>101}</SPAN>
circumstances. Rome had come to be regarded as the
Mother of the Churches, much as Jerusalem was in the
first ages of Christianity, and appeals for advice and
help were at first voluntarily made to the learning and
piety of the Bishops of Rome.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Further claims to temporal authority.
</SPAN>
Later, instead of
advisers they claimed to be absolute judges in
ecclesiastical matters, and when the temporal possessions
of the Popedom made the chair of
St. Peter an object of ambition to covetous,
designing men, the character of Bishop
was too often merged in that of Prince, and spiritual
power ceased to satisfy those who thought it their duty
or their interest to enforce what was in fact an
Universal Sovereignty.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Plausibleness and actual advantages of Papal supremacy.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
It is not difficult to understand that the idea of one
Visible Head and Centre of Christendom
would appear to have much to recommend
it; nor even that the power of the Popes
was in reality the source of many blessings
in the lawless state in which European
society found itself for many centuries after the fall of
the Roman empire. An authority which could reduce
rebellious subjects to obedience, overawe refractory
nobles, or check the tyranny of an irresponsible
sovereign, could hardly fail to be productive of some good
effects when wielded by disinterested men, and with
singleness of purpose.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Its corruptions and dangers.
</SPAN>
But in the hands of worldly-minded
and ambitious prelates, such as
too many of the Popes undoubtedly were,
this usurped prerogative of interference in
the affairs of foreign states became an engine of
mighty evil, and in the course of time it was felt to be
such an intolerable yoke by the people of Europe that
continued submission to it became impossible.
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P102"></A>102}</SPAN>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
What the Reformation really was.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Reformation was in fact a casting off of an
unjustifiable usurpation in temporal as
well as in spiritual things, and a violent
reaction against that course of events
which, from the eighth century downwards, had been
tending to reduce the different sovereigns of Western
Christendom to the rank of vassals of the Roman See.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 2. <I>Some account of the Popes of the Middle Ages.</I>
</H3>
<P>
A clearer view of the rise and results of papal
supremacy may perhaps be gained by entering into a
somewhat more detailed account of such Popes as from
various causes occupy conspicuous places in the history
of the Roman Church.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Leo the Great, and the first "papal aggression."
</SPAN>
In order to do this effectually,
it will be necessary to go back a little farther than the
date at the head of the chapter, to the
time of St. Leo the Great (A.D. 440-A.D. 461),
whose claim to interfere between
St. Hilary, Bishop of Arles, and
Chelidonius, Bishop of Besançon, may be looked upon as
the first "papal aggression" of which history gives us
an example. Chelidonius had been deposed by a
General Council of the Church of France under the
presidency of Hilary, and so deeply did the French
Bishops resent the unjust attempts of Leo to set aside
their decision, that the Bishop of Rome found an
appeal to the secular power necessary for the purpose
of enforcing his claim to exercise jurisdiction over a
foreign Church. But even the authority of
Valentinian III., Emperor of the West, did not succeed in
obliging Hilary to cede the liberties of the Church of
France, and it is a significant fact that the Bishop of
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P103"></A>103}</SPAN>
Arles is reverenced as a saint by the whole Western
Church, although his sense of what was due to his
position as a member of the French episcopate would not
suffer him to yield his just rights, in order to obtain a
reconciliation with one so personally worthy of esteem
and honour as St. Leo.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Papal claims strengthened and extended by St. Gregory
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The good and wise St. Gregory the Great
(A.D. 590-A.D. 604), though he strenuously
disclaimed for himself, and denied to others,
the right of assuming the title of "Universal
Bishop," appears to have had very strong
ideas respecting the authority which he conceived
to belong to the successors of St. Peter, whilst his
talents and holiness gave him an extensive influence
over his contemporaries.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and Hadrian I.
</SPAN>
Succeeding Popes laid claim
to more extended powers, especially
Hadrian I. (A.D. 772-A.D. 793), who first
advanced the doctrine that the whole Christian Church
was subject to the see of Rome.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Rise of the temporal power of the Popes under Leo III.
</SPAN>
His successor, Leo
III. (A.D. 795-A.D. 816), having crowned
Charlemagne Emperor of the West, A.D. 800,
received from that monarch the
sovereignty of Rome, and thus became
a temporal prince as well as a Bishop, and about the
same time there began to appear certain forged canons
(or Church laws), professing to be ancient decrees
collected by St. Isidore of Seville, in the seventh
century, and having for their object to give primitive
sanction to Roman Supremacy.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
"Pseudo-Isidore" Decretals
</SPAN>
These "Pseudo-Isidore" Decretals, as they were
afterwards called, were frequently appealed
to, apparently in good faith, by subsequent Popes; and
their genuineness was generally believed in, almost
without question, until the time of the Reformation in
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P104"></A>104}</SPAN>
the sixteenth century. By about the middle of the
ninth century these decretals were made use of to
settle ecclesiastical questions, and Nicholas
I. (A.D. 858-A.D. 867) laid great stress upon them when the
liberties of the French Church were again defended by
Hincmar, Archbishop of Rheims, in a
very similar case to that in which
St. Hilary had offered opposition to St. Leo.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Hincmar's opposition to papal claims.
</SPAN>
Hincmar's zeal in opposing the usurpations of
the Roman see had some little success during the
episcopate of Hadrian II. (A.D. 867-A.D. 872), but its
effects passed away when John VIII. (A.D. 872-A.D. 882)
espoused the cause of Charles the Bald, and thus
enlisted the interests of the crown on his side.
</P>
<P>
The troubles and disorders consequent on the
breaking up of the great empire of Charlemagne, had had a
very injurious effect on morals and religion; and
unworthy persons, to whom the temporal possessions of
the Popes had by this time become an object of
ambition, took advantage of the depressed state of the
Church to seize upon the bishopric of
Rome either for themselves or for others
in whom they had an interest.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Unspirituality caused by temporal power.
</SPAN>
Hence the
history of the papacy during the next century and a
half is full of dreary records of corruption and
wickedness. The elevation of John XII. to the papal throne
at the age of eighteen (A.D. 955), and his evil life, called
forth the interference of the Emperor Otho the Great,
who deposed him and elected Leo VIII. (A.D. 963-A.D. 965)
in his stead.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Interference of Emperors of the West.
</SPAN>
From this time the emperors
frequently interfered to check the
continual disputes between Popes and
anti-Popes, which often ended in the murder
of one of the rivals. Silvester II. (Gerbert)
(A.D. 999-A.D. 1003),
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P105"></A>105}</SPAN>
who was made Pope through the influence
of Otho III., was prevented by death from carrying out
the reforms he meditated, and at length, in A.D. 1046,
the Emperor Henry III. was called upon to decide
between three claimants to the papal throne. He
settled the question by appointing a German, Clement
II. (A.D. 1046-A.D. 1047), after the synod of Sutri
had put aside the claims of the original disputants.
Henry thus took the election of the Popes entirely out
of the hands of the Clergy of Rome, with whom it had
hitherto nominally rested, and appropriated it to
himself.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
This interference unjustifiable.
</SPAN>
This was an undoubted usurpation
on the part of the secular power, though
Henry seems to have been in earnest in
his endeavours to check the simony which had been
so disgracefully prevalent in the papal elections, and
to appoint Bishops who might be worthy of their
position.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Hildebrand's influence.
</SPAN>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Overthrow of secular interference.
</SPAN>
Leo IX. (A.D. 1048-A.D. 1054) and his
successor, Victor II. (A.D. 1055-A.D. 1057),
aided and influenced by the famous
Hildebrand (afterwards Gregory VII.), succeeded in
effecting considerable reforms in religion and morals,
and were very zealous in discouraging simoniacal
appointments to offices in the Church, but a gradual
and increasing resistance was growing up against the
imperial encroachments, and after the
death of Henry, Pope Nicholas II. (A.D. 1059-A.D. 1061)
was enabled to obtain a
decree that the election of the Popes should, for
the future, rest with the Roman Cardinals,
subject to the consent of the Roman Clergy and people,
and with some vague reference to the emperor's wishes.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Hildebrand Pope.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
At length Hildebrand, the counsellor and support of
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P106"></A>106}</SPAN>
several preceding Popes, was himself called to the see
of Rome under the title of Gregory VII. (A.D. 1073-A.D. 1083),
and at once
devoted the energies of his powerful mind to the work
of reforming the Church.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
His reforms
</SPAN>
The two means on which he
chiefly relied for accomplishing his object
were the enforcing of celibacy on the
Clergy, and the abolition of simony, under which head
he included every species of lay investiture.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and their consequences.
</SPAN>
The prosecution of his plans soon brought him
into a violent dispute with the weak and
wicked Emperor Henry IV., who was as eager to
secure the right of bestowing upon Bishops the ring
and pastoral staff, as well as of their sole appointment,
and thus reduce them to the state of mere secular vassals,
as Gregory was by the same means to secure their
ecclesiastical obedience to the see of Rome, and their
total independence of any civil power.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Result of the contest.
</SPAN>
The contest
lasted till the death of Gregory in exile,
and was carried on by his successors, until
during the popedom of Calixtus II. (A.D. 1119-1124) a
compromise was agreed upon by which the emperor left
to each Church the free election of its Bishops, who
were to receive the ring and staff from the altar, and
the temporalties of their sees from the crown.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Wars between Rome and Germany.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
This arrangement did not, however, bring peace
between the Popes and the emperors, the
Popes siding with the Guelphs in the long
civil wars of the next two centuries, in
opposition to the Ghibelline emperors. Hadrian
IV. (A.D. 1154-A.D. 1159), or Nicholas Breakspear, the
only English Pope, found it expedient to seek the
assistance of the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa, to aid
him in quelling the insurrection headed by Arnold of
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P107"></A>107}</SPAN>
Brescia; but Alexander III. (A.D. 1159-A.D. 1181) came
into fresh collision with Frederic, who was at length
obliged to submit and beg for peace.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Climax of the papal power under Innocent III.
</SPAN>
The minority of Frederic II. was favourable
to the ambitious schemes of Pope Innocent
III. (A.D. 1198-A.D. 1216), and under him
the power of the popedom reached its greatest height.
He laid both England and France under an interdict,
placed on the imperial throne, and then deposed, Otho
IV., and took measures for the suppression of the
Albigenses, which eventually resolved themselves into
the dreaded Inquisition. The old strife was continued
by Gregory IX. (A.D. 1227-A.D. 1241), who excommunicated
Frederic II., and the sentence was renewed by
Innocent IV. (A.D. 1243-A.D. 1254). The treatment
of the emperor by these successive Popes was
something akin to a persecution, and was apparently
occasioned by a feeling of opposition to any authority
which conflicted with the claims of Rome, and by a
hatred of the Ghibelline race.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Decline of the temporal power of the Popes.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
From the death of Innocent IV. the excessive power
of the Popes may be said to decrease.
Gregory X. (A.D. 1271-A.D. 1276) and
the Emperor Rudolf of Hapsburg were
good, earnest-minded men, who put an end to the
long-standing feud between Rome and the empire, and
after a succession of short pontificates, Boniface
VIII. (A.D. 1294-A.D. 1303) usurped the papal throne in the
place of the "hermit Pope," Celestine V.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Interference of the King of France in papal affairs.
</SPAN>
Boniface
was a thoroughly bad and unscrupulous man, and at
last died in a fit of disappointed rage at being taken
prisoner by the troops of his equally
unscrupulous enemy, Philip IV. of France,
who had refused to acknowledge the
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P108"></A>108}</SPAN>
authority of the papal legate. Philip caused the
death of Benedict XI. (A.D. 1303-A.D. 1304), whose
honest goodness he feared, and then used his
influence to procure the election of Clement
V. (A.D. 1303-A.D. 1314), on condition of his pledging
himself to aid in the French king's schemes to plunder
and oppress the Church. Clement, having thus sold
himself, was not allowed to leave France, and the papal
court was fixed at Avignon. The Pope was now
completely at the mercy of Philip, who robbed the Church
at his will, and plundered and murdered the Knights
Templars with the connivance of Clement.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The Popes at Avignon.
</SPAN>
The sojourn of the Popes at Avignon
(A.D. 1305-A.D. 1376) was a great blow to the
temporal power of the papacy, and was often called by
the Italians the Seventy Years' Captivity. Meanwhile
the Popes were again plunged into contests with the
German emperors: Louis of Bavaria was
excommunicated, and his empire laid under an interdict, on
account of his refusal to accept his dominions from
John XXII. (A.D. 1316-A.D. 1334). The papal
authority in Italy had become almost nominal except
in Rome itself, and even there it was much weakened
by the rebellion under Rienzi, A.D. 1352. Pope
Innocent VI. (A.D. 1333-A.D. 1362), soon after his election,
sent a legate to Rome, with orders to reduce not only the
city itself to obedience, but all that was then included in
the States of the Church; and this having been
successfully accomplished, the Popes began to think of
returning to Rome.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The return to Rome.
</SPAN>
The court at Avignon had become
fearfully corrupt, and some of those who composed it,
and loved its evils, were ready to oppose any change;
but Urban V. (A.D. 1362-A.D. 1370), a really upright
man, spent some of his episcopate at Rome, and his
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P109"></A>109}</SPAN>
successor, Gregory XI. (A.D. 1370-A.D. 1378) removed
thither with his court two years before his
death. The Cardinals however still clung
to Avignon, and though, in compliance with the earnest
wishes of the Roman people, they elected an Italian
to be Pope under the name of Urban VI. (A.D. 1378-A.D. 1389),
yet they were so offended at his zealous but
indiscreet endeavours to reform the evils around him,
that they declared him deposed, and set up an
anti-Pope at Avignon.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The consequent schism.
</SPAN>
The schism thus begun
lasted nearly forty years (A.D. 1378-A.D. 1417),
England, Germany, North Italy, Poland, and
the Scandinavian kingdoms siding with the true Popes,
while France, Scotland, Spain, and South Italy held
with the anti-Popes.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Its results.
</SPAN>
The troubles and corruptions of
the Church now multiplied, Popes and
anti-Popes alike made the acquisition of power and
revenue their great object, and wickedness was left
unrebuked both in Clergy and laity. A great impulse
was given to the sale of indulgences or pardons, an
evil practice which brought in large sums of money to
the papal exchequer, and at the same time led to such
abuses as probably to become a principal proximate
cause of the Reformation.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Council of Pisa.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
At length there was an universal longing for the
cessation of the great schism in the
Western Church, and a Council was held
at Pisa, A.D. 1409, where it was agreed by the
Cardinals belonging to the two parties to depose both Pope and
anti-Pope, and to elect another who took the name of
Alexander V., with an understanding that he was at
once to reform and pacify the Church. But neither Pope
nor anti-Pope would resign, so that there were three
claimants instead of two, and very soon after his
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P110"></A>110}</SPAN>
election Alexander V. died. John XXIII. (A.D. 1410-A.D. 1415)
was elected in his place, but he proved to be
thoroughly devoid of principle, and the Council of Pisa
having proved unsuccessful in promoting unity or
reformation, another was convoked at Constance,
A.D. 1414, under the presidency of the Emperor
Sigismund I.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Council of Constance.
</SPAN>
This Council was attended
by the representatives of all the monarchs of the West,
as well as by a very large number of Bishops and Clergy,
and it was decreed that the three claimants to the papal
throne should be deposed. John XXIII. was thrown
into prison, and, after considerable delay, Martin
V. (A.D. 1417-A.D. 1431) was chosen to succeed him.
The Council shortly after broke up, without having
done any thing towards the much desired reformation
of the Church, although the English, French, and
German deputies had been very earnest in their
endeavours to advance some scheme of reform.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Council of Basle.
</SPAN>
Another Council met at Basle, A.D. 1431,
whence it was transferred by Pope
Eugenius IV. (A.D. 1431-A.D. 1447) first to Ferrara, and
afterwards (A.D. 1439) to Florence. This opportunity
was also lost in a dispute between the Council and the
Pope, and there seemed to be nothing more to hope
for from Councils as a means of reformation.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
State of the papacy at the end of the fifteen century.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Nor were the personal characters of the Popes who
filled the see of Rome during the
remainder of the century, such as to
encourage any expectation that their
influence would be employed to revive
religion, or to encourage holy living. Worldliness
and ambition, revenge and immorality, cast a deep
shadow over the records of the papacy at this time, until
the century closes with the reign of Alexander VI., or
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P111"></A>111}</SPAN>
Roderigo Borgia (A.D. 1492-A.D. 1503), who was
elected by bribery, and whose shameless vice and
cruelty brought greater scandals upon the Church than
any of his predecessors had done.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 3. <I>The Monastic Orders.</I>
</H3>
<P>
Monastic orders, though not by any means an invention
of the Middle Ages, may yet fairly be said to have
attained their height, both of prosperity and of
usefulness, during this period of Church History.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Early rise of monasticism.
</SPAN>
We may trace the origin of Christian monastic
life to very early times, when persecution
drove many Christians to a life of loneliness and
privation in desert places. The mode of life thus begun
from necessity was afterwards continued from choice,
and in the hope of more complete self-devotion to
God's service; and the solitary hermits and anchorites
of primitive ages became the forerunners of an elaborate
system of religious communities of men and women.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Later influences brought to bear on it.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
St. Basil, in the fourth century, brought monasticism
into a more definite form, and St. Athanasius
during the same century introduced
it into Europe from the East. In the
West the religious life spread and flourished under the
fostering care of such men as St. Augustine and
St. Gregory the Great, whilst by St. Benedict in the sixth
century it was developed into the famous Benedictine
rule, to which, with few exceptions, all the European
monasteries conformed, and which was the parent of
various minor orders or subdivisions[1].
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P112"></A>112}</SPAN>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Beneficial results of monasticism.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
It is not easy to estimate the vast amount of good
which the labours of the Benedictine
monks conferred on the Church of the
Middle Ages, good which has left many
traces to the present day. Not only did they provide
in a vast number of instances for the spiritual wants
of the parishes in and near which they lived, as
well as for the education of the young, both rich and
poor, but they were also the philosophers, the
authors, the artists, and the physicians, nay, even the
farmers and the mechanics of Mediaeval times. They
built cathedrals and churches, made roads and bridges,
copied books when writing stood in the place of
printing, and were in general the props and pioneers of
civilization. Amongst the very large number of men
who embraced the monastic life, it is no marvel that
some were not all they professed to be, or that
occasional causes for scandal arose, but the popular
idea of the universal corruption of the inhabitants of
the monasteries is unsupported by facts, and much
of what helped to give rise to this false notion is
traceable to the doings of the mendicant or preaching friars.
These begging orders were offshoots from the regulars,
and were but too often very unworthy representatives
of the parent stock[2].
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 4. <I>The Crusades.</I>
</H3>
<P>
Amongst the events which stand out most distinctly
in the history of the Church in the Middle Ages, the
long series of warlike expeditions known as the
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P113"></A>113}</SPAN>
Crusades bear a prominent part, stretching out as
they do from the end of the eleventh to nearly the end
of the thirteenth centuries.
</P>
<P>
The empire of the Arabs had died out, but they had
been succeeded in their schemes of conquest as well as
in their adherence to the false faith of Mahomet, by the
savage Turks, whose ferocity and hatred of Christianity
were especially displayed in the ill-treatment of those
Christians whose piety led them to visit the scenes of
our Blessed Lord's Life and Death.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Cause of the Crusades.
</SPAN>
The indignation
excited in Europe by the stories of
outrage and desecration which were from
time to time brought back by pilgrims to the Holy
Land, at length found an outlet and expression in the
First Crusade, which was preached, A.D. 1095, by Peter
the Hermit, with the sanction both of the Pope and the
Patriarch of Constantinople. This expedition resulted
in the taking of the Holy City by the armies of the
Cross (A.D. 1099), and the establishment in it of a
Christian sovereignty.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Their transient results.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The First Crusade was the only one which had any
real success, and even this was a transient
one, for less than ninety years afterwards
(A.D. 1187) Jerusalem was again taken by the Saracens,
and has never since been a Christian power. But though
the deliverance of the Holy Land from the yoke of the
infidels was not accomplished by the Crusades, and
though they caused much misery and bloodshed, and
were stained by much lawlessness and plunder, yet the
advance of the barbarous and anti-Christian influences
of Mahometanism was checked, the Churches of Europe
were saved from the soul-destroying apostasy which
had over-run so large a portion of Asia, and the Crescent
waned before the Cross.
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P114"></A>114}</SPAN>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Reasons for their ill-success.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Much of the ill success with which the Crusaders
met during several of these expeditions,
may be traced to jealousies and
heart-burnings between the different princes and
nobles who took part in them, whilst disagreements
on a larger scale were amongst the evil fruits of the
unhappy division between Eastern and Western
Christendom. Latin Christians appear in too many instances
to have made use of the opportunities afforded them to
injure and oppress their weaker brethren of the Greek
Church, even whilst marching against the common foe
of both, and the Fourth Crusade (A.D. 1203) was
actually diverted from its legitimate purpose in order
to conquer Constantinople, and establish a Latin
Emperor, as well as a Latin Patriarch within its walls.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Good directly brought about by them.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Still, whatever may have been the want of
single-mindedness on the part of many of the
professed soldiers of the Cross, whatever
the amount of failure with regard to the
immediate objects of the Crusades, it is clear that
much good was brought about through them by God's
Providence, not only in the check given to the
encroachments of the unbelievers, but also more indirectly
in the quenching of rising heresies, in the greater
purity of life which in many cases accompanied the
taking of the Cross, the weakening of the feudal
system, the impulse given to learning and civilization.
Earnestness and self-devotion such as were shown by
Godfrey de Bouillon, St. Louis of France, and no doubt
by many more amongst the Crusaders, were rewarded
and blessed, though not in what might have seemed at
first sight the only way of success.
</P>
<BR>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P115"></A>115}</SPAN>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 5. <I>State of Religions Relief and Practice during the
Middle Ages.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Popular idea of the Middle Ages,
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
There is a wide-spread notion that the Middle Ages
were also "Dark Ages," full of ignorance
and superstition, with hardly a ray of
knowledge or true religion to enlighten
the gloom, and also that the Church was the great
encourager of this state of things; indeed, that it was
mainly due to the influence of the monks and of the
Clergy generally.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
not founded in history.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
This belief is however quite unhistorical. No
doubt there was abundance of ignorance
as well as of superstition, its natural
consequence, but there are ample means of accounting for
both in the political condition of Europe at that time,
nor is it needful to blame the Church for what was in
fact due to the sins and errors of the world.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Real causes of ignorance and vice in the Middle Ages.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The confusion incident to the breaking up of the old
Roman empire, and the occupation of its
different provinces by less highly-civilized
nations, had been followed by other
disorders after the death of Charlemagne and
the partition of his dominions; and the constant state
of warfare and aggression in which most of the princes
of that time lived, was not calculated to leave their
subjects much leisure for intellectual culture. Besides
this, we must take into account the crushing influence
of the feudal system, which gave the nobles almost
absolute power over their serfs or dependants, thus
encouraging lawlessness on the one hand, and causing
degradation on the other. The scarcity and costliness
of books before the invention of printing was another
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P116"></A>116}</SPAN>
formidable obstacle to any universal spread of
education, all which causes tended to bring learning into
contempt amongst the restless barons and their
followers, restricting it chiefly to the Clergy and the
monks. Thus not only theology, but secular knowledge
besides, found a home in the Church, which was at
once the guardian and the channel of literature.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
No scarcity of the means of grace in Mediaeval times.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
There are also good grounds for believing that the
provision made by the Church for the
spiritual necessities of the people was not,
at any rate, less abundant than is the case
at the present day. Indeed, there is no
doubt that both Churches and Clergy, and
consequently opportunities for worship and instruction, were
far more in proportion to the number and needs of the
population than they can be said to be now in our own
country, even after the persevering and liberal efforts
of late years.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Difficulties respecting Services and Bibles on the vernacular,
</SPAN>
If it is objected that the want of free
access to the Holy Scriptures, and the use
of the Latin tongue in the public services
of the Church, were calculated largely to
outweigh any advantages which the people
of those days might possess, we may remember that
those comparatively few who could read were just those
who would have access to the necessarily rare copies
then existing of the Word of God, and that to them
also the Latin version would be more comprehensible
than any other. Again, with regard to Latin services,
it would have been difficult, if not impossible, to
translate the devotions of the Church into any of the
slowly-forming dialects of the different European nations;
whilst Latin was more universally spoken and
understood than French is now, and was probably
intelligible to a larger number of men and women during a
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P117"></A>117}</SPAN>
considerable portion of the Middle Ages than any one
of the other languages used.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
but the wish for them not wholly disregarded.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
As the various languages of Europe became gradually
developed, a desire naturally arose amongst
those who spoke them for services in the
vernacular; and this desire was not left
altogether ungratified even long before
the Reformation. Thus, in England, the Epistles and
Gospels and the Litany were translated into the native
language in the Services of the Church, and interlinear
translations were made of many portions of the
Mediaeval Prayer Books[3]. Neither must we imagine that
the translations of Holy Scripture put forth by the
Reformers, or even that earlier version to which Wickliffe
gave his name, were by any means the first efforts
made to produce the Holy Bible in the vernacular.
From Anglo-Saxon times downwards, we have traces
of Bibles translated for the use of those who preferred
such versions; and to the truth of this statement may
be quoted the testimony of John Foxe, the "martyrologist,"
who says, "If histories be well examined, we
shall find, both before the Conquest and after, as well
before John Wickliffe was born as since, the whole
body of the Scriptures by sundry men translated into
this our country tongue[4]."
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
State of learning in the Middle Ages.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Mediaeval Church was, in reality, a great
supporter of learning. Our two great
Universities of Oxford and Cambridge were
not less flourishing during the Middle
Ages than at present; and nearly all of the colleges and
halls at both Universities were founded in those days
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P118"></A>118}</SPAN>
of supposed darkness. Nor was this care for literature
confined to the Church in England; Universities of
equal note were to be found abroad at Paris, Pavia,
Bologna, Salamanca, and other places, whilst the
Schoolmen, or professors, who taught in these seats of
learning, and who numbered amongst themselves the
most acute thinkers and reasoners of the time, such as
St. Anselm, Peter Lombard, Albertus Magnus, and
St. Thomas Aquinas, were all attached to some Religious
Order. Enough of the results of their labours have
come down to our days to show us that it is neither
wise nor just to despise the mental work which they
accomplished, even though their conclusions may not
always be in accordance with our own.
</P>
<P>
It is not meant by what has been said above to infer
that the Mediaeval Church was altogether free from
blemishes, or to deny that these blemishes did, as time
went on, increase to an extent which rendered
reformation not only expedient but necessary.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The effects of Roman influence.
</SPAN>
We have already seen that the supremacy claimed
by the Popes over the whole Church was
productive of great, though, by God's good
Providence, not unmitigated, evil in a political point of
view; and much of the error in faith or practice on the
part of Christians of those days, seems traceable to the
tendency on the part of Rome to crystallize opinions
into dogmas, and then to impose those dogmas on
the Church. Thus the "Romish doctrine concerning
purgatory," and the mechanism of "pardons," or
indulgences, grew out of the floating belief held by such
holy men as St. Augustine, that the souls of the faithful
would undergo some more perfect purification after
death than is attainable in this world; while the elaborate
system of invocations of, and devotions to, the Blessed
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P119"></A>119}</SPAN>
Virgin Mary and the saints, were built up out of a not
only harmless but justifiable faith in the intercessions
of the Saints for the Church on earth, and the wish to
obtain a share in their prayers. So again, the denial
of the cup to the laity, which was justly felt by many
to be such a grievous privation, was the natural
consequence of the over-refinements of the Roman Church
respecting the doctrine of the Holy Eucharist[5].
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The right spirit in which to regard the Mediaeval Church.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
But whatever imperfections may have clung to the
Visible Church in the Middle Ages,
whether owing to external hindrances, or to
the human frailties of her members, we
have no right to doubt that she was still
the one great instrument in God's Hands for the
salvation of souls. Neither should we dwell so exclusively
on what is often an exaggerated estimate of the extent
and duration of these blemishes, as to ignore the zeal
and self-devotion which grudged neither expense nor
labour in the service of God and the adornment of His
House and Worship, the charity which truly "cared
for the poor," the faith and holiness which shone forth
in the public and private lives of such men as
St. Ferdinand of Spain, St. Louis of France, and Rudolf of
Hapsburg, Emperor of Germany, and were, doubtless,
not wanting in the case of countless numbers of their
fellow-Christians, whose names, little known and soon
forgotten on earth, are for ever written in God's Book
of Remembrance.
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[1] Especially the Cluniacs, founded by Berno, Abbot of
Clugny, A.D. 910, and the Cistercians, founded by Robert
of Citeaux, A.D. 1098, and rendered illustrious by St. Bernard,
afterwards Abbot of Clairvaux (A.D. 1113-A.D. 1153).
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[2] The order of Franciscan Friars was founded by St. Francis
of Assisi, A.D. 1207, and that of the Dominicans by St. Dominic
of Castile, A.D. 1215. They were originally intended
to supplement the real or supposed defects of the Clergy and
the regular orders, and to aid in the suppression of heresy.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[3] See "Key to the Prayer Book," pp. 1-8.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[4] See "Key to the Bible," pp. 18-23.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[5] The practice of communion in one kind made its way
very slowly, especially in England, where it was perhaps
never universal. A decree of the Council of Constance in
A.D. 1415 gave its first authoritative sanction.
</P>
<BR><BR><BR>
<A NAME="chap11"></A>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P120"></A>120}</SPAN>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
CHAPTER XI
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
The Mediaeval History of Continental Churches
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
A.D. 900-A.D. 1500
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
No Mediaeval Church history in Asia or Africa.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Before proceeding to the consideration of the
different European Churches in Mediaeval times,
it may be well to remark that from the year 500
the Christian history of Asia and Africa is
almost a blank. Arianism, partly
imported into Africa by the Vandals, who
crossed thither from Spain, and partly of
native growth, as well as the opposite error,
Eutychianism, took from the African Church all spiritual
life and vigour, so that the apostasy of Mahomet met
with no formidable obstacles when in the seventh
century it swept like a flood over what had been
Christian Africa. It is true that the Copts in Egypt
and the native Christians of Abyssinia appear to have
preserved the Apostolic Succession, but both these
Churches are in a state of great depression, and the
Faith they profess is mingled with much ignorance and
superstition, as well as with positive error.
</P>
<P>
A similar process took place in Asia. Arianism,
chiefly in its later development of Nestorianism, with
Eutychianism and other errors, ate out the heart of the
Church, faith grew weak, and love grew cold, and
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P121"></A>121}</SPAN>
Mahometanism once more triumphed almost
unchecked. Although the Churches of Asia are not
all utterly extinct, yet they share more or less in the
state of ignorance, superstition, and depression which
is a natural consequence of the serious errors with
which their profession of Christianity is intermixed,
as well as of the way in which the few despised
Christians are mingled with their richer and more
numerous Mahometan neighbours.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 1. <I>The Church of Italy.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Lombard kingdom in Italy.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The kingdom of the Goths in Italy was not of long
duration, and their successors and fellow-Arians, the
Lombards, only obtained possession of the
northern portion of the Peninsula, whilst
Rome and Southern Italy became once more
subject to the emperors of the East. Gregory the Great
(A.D. 390-A.D. 604) began the work of
converting the Lombards to the Catholic Faith, and in the
middle of the seventh century Arianism had
disappeared from Italy.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Renewal of the tie between East and West.
</SPAN>
The renewal of the connexion
between the Eastern and Western Empires,
and the attempt of the Emperor Justinian
to subject the see of Rome to that of
Constantinople, placed Gregory under the necessity
of vindicating the independence of the Church of Italy,
and of denying the right of any one Patriarch to
assume authority over another. St. Gregory's holiness
and learning, and the wisdom of his endeavours to
reform corruptions, were most beneficial to the Church
over which he ruled.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Its rupture.
</SPAN>
The Image-breaking
Controversy put an end to the nominal tie
between the Eastern emperors and the
Church of Italy (about A.D. 730), and almost the whole
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P122"></A>122}</SPAN>
of the peninsula soon after became part of the dominions
of Charlemagne. This great Emperor's influence was
used in Italy, as elsewhere, to foster the work of the
Church, which however suffered severely from the state
of lawlessness and confusion incident on the breaking
up of Charlemagne's empire after his death, A.D. 814.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Depression of the Church in Italy.
</SPAN>
The Church of Italy in the ninth century had also to
undergo the inroads of the Mahometans
in the South, and of the heathen Magyars
(or Hungarians) on the North, as well as
of the Northmen, who ravaged and pillaged the
churches and monasteries on the coasts. Other
depressing influences were to be found in the secularization
of the Bishops of Rome through the increase of their
temporal power, and the usurpation by the German
emperors of the right of election to the popedom, which
properly belonged to the Clergy of Rome.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Gregory VII.'s reforms.
</SPAN>
The corruptions which from these and other causes had
crept into the Church of Italy, drew towards them the
attention of the famous Hildebrand,
afterwards Pope Gregory VII. (A.D. 1073-A.D. 1085),
and his efforts at reformation were not
without a beneficial effect.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Heresies of the Albigenses
</SPAN>
Early in the twelfth century
the heretical sect of the Albigenses, whose
doctrines resembled those of the ancient
Manicheans, spread from the South of France into
Italy, where they received the name of Paterini.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and Waldenses.
</SPAN>
Both they and the kindred sect of the Waldenses
came under the notice of Innocent III. (A.D. 1198-A.D. 1216).
The Albigenses were exterminated
with circumstances of great cruelty[1], but the
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P123"></A>123}</SPAN>
Waldenses survive to the present day in the valleys of
Piedmont.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Evil effects of the residence at Avignon on the Italian Church.
</SPAN>
The seventy years' residence
of the Bishops of Rome at Avignon (A.D. 1305-A.D. 1376)
was felt by the Church
of Italy to be an injury and a great evil,
and in the forty years' schism which followed the
return of the chief pastor of the Italians to his own
episcopal city (A.D. 1378-A.D. 1417), only the kingdom
of the Two Sicilies sided with the anti-Popes.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Other depressing influences.
</SPAN>
Meanwhile the constant warfare between the
Guelphs and the Ghibellines in Italy, the
feuds between the different republics, the worldliness
and evil lives of too many of the Popes, and the luxury
and immorality which increased riches, consequent on
increased commerce, brought with them, had all tended
to a state of things in which the purifying influences of
the Church as "the salt of the earth" were sorely needed.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Desires for reformation.
</SPAN>
Longings for a reformation of men's lives
and morals were smouldering in many
breasts, and in the city of Florence these hidden
wishes were kindled into a flame by the zeal and
eloquence of the monk Girolamo Savonarola, who
however fell a victim to his zeal, A.D. 1498.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Liturgy of the Italian Church.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The ancient Liturgy of the Church of Italy was
derived from one bearing the name of
St. Peter, and revised by St. Gregory, A.D. 590.
This Roman or Gregorian Liturgy, though with
certain later additions, is still in use throughout Italy,
the only exception to this rule being the cathedral and
diocese of Milan, which still preserve a Liturgy known
as that of St. Ambrose, who was Bishop of Milan from
A.D. 374 to A.D. 397.
</P>
<BR>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P124"></A>124}</SPAN>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 2. <I>The Church of France.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Orthodoxy of the Franks.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Franks alone of all the barbarians who swept
over Europe at the time of the decay of
the Western Empire, were Catholic from
their first conversion to Christianity; and to this
circumstance the French kings owed their title of Eldest
Sons of the Church. It was by the influence of a French
princess, Bertha, the Christian wife of Ethelbert, king
of Kent, that St. Augustine and his companions were
favourably received in England; whilst another
princess of the same race, Ingunda, who married the
son of the Visigoth king of Spain, is said to have
brought about the conversion of her husband from
Arianism to the Catholic faith, by her own constancy
under persecution.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The Church under Charlemagne.
</SPAN>
During the reign of the Emperor
Charlemagne (A.D. 768-A.D. 814), the
French monasteries became seats of
learning, and amongst the learned men
who assisted the Emperor in his efforts for the religious
and intellectual improvement of his people, may be
mentioned the English Alcuin, who held an honourable
position at the French court as the instructor and
adviser of the monarch and his sons.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The French Liturgy.
</SPAN>
The Gallican Liturgy, a branch of the Primitive Liturgy
of Ephesus, was entirely disused by order
of Charlemagne, and the Roman service used in its
stead.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Conversion of the Northmen.
</SPAN>
From about A.D. 870 the Northmen, who had
long been a scourge to France, began to
settle down in that country, and were
gradually converted to the Christian Faith, their chief,
Rollo, marrying a Christian princess, A.D. 911, and
being baptized in the following year.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The Crusades.
</SPAN>
A French
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P125"></A>125}</SPAN>
hermit, Peter of Auvergne, was the instigator of the
First Crusade, which was preached by
him at Clermont, and joined by a large
number of French nobles, the command of the
expedition being given to Godfrey de Bouillon, Duke of
Lorraine. The system of Crusades thus inaugurated
for the defence of Christian pilgrims in the Holy
Land, and the winning back of the Holy Places
from the hands of the Mahometans, was turned to
a cruel and unjustifiable use in the thirteenth
century, when Innocent III. proclaimed a Crusade against
the Albigenses in the South of France, in which
multitudes of these unhappy and misguided men were
slaughtered.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Rupture between France and the Pope.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
During the reign of Philip IV. (A.D. 1285-A.D. 1314)
a collision took place for the first
time, between the Church and Kingdom
of France and the authority of the Pope.
Hitherto the disputes between the Popes and the
French monarchs had been on personal rather than on
political grounds, and had given no opportunity for
defining the exact limits of papal authority in France.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Comparative independence of French Church.
</SPAN>
But meanwhile the French Clergy had not lost their
feeling of nationality, and the kings of
France had been able to use much more
independent action in the appointment of
Bishops than was the case in other countries. Hence
the Bishops and Clergy joined with the king in
resisting the sentence of excommunication pronounced by
the Pope on Philip and his kingdom. Neither King
nor Pope appear to have been influenced by any
religious feeling in their contest, and after the miserable
death of Boniface VIII. (A.D. 1303), and the murder of
his successor, Philip's unprincipled interference in the
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P126"></A>126}</SPAN>
election of Clement V. was productive of great evils.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Evil results of the conduct of Philip IV.
</SPAN>
The cruel massacre of the Knights
Templars, the corruptions of the Papal Court
in France, and more indirectly the Great
Schism in which the Church of France espoused the
cause of the anti-Popes, may all be traced to the
conduct of Philip IV.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 3. <I>The Church of Spain and Portugal.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Conquest of Spain by the Moors.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Before the end of the sixth century, the Visigoths,
who had settled in what is now Spain and Portugal,
had been converted from Arianism to the Catholic
Faith. In A.D. 711 the Mahometan Moors
crossed over from Africa to the South of
Spain, and in A.D. 713 all the Peninsula,
except the small mountain district of Asturias, had
fallen into their hands. The more independent and
hardy amongst the Spanish Christians took refuge in
this inaccessible portion of the country, whilst others
dwelt amongst the Moors, and appear for a time to have
been allowed the exercise of their religion unmolested
by any systematic persecution.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Persecution of the Spanish Church.
</SPAN>
About A.D. 830, however,
the policy of the Moorish conquerors
underwent a change, and during the next
hundred years multitudes of Christians
in Spain suffered martyrdom for their faith.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The re-conquest of Spain by the Spaniards.
</SPAN>
After the
death of Hachem, the last Caliph of Cordova (A.D. 1031),
and the subdivision of his dominions,
the Christians of Asturias succeeded in
making head against their oppressors, and
gradually won back from them district after district,
until Ferdinand III. (A.D. 1214-A.D. 1252) succeeded in
reducing the Moorish possessions to the single province
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P127"></A>127}</SPAN>
of Grenada. This last remnant of Mahometan
dominion was wrested from the Moors A.D. 1492, and
Spain, as well as the separate kingdom of Portugal,
was once more entirely Christian.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Effect of national circumstances on Spanish Christianity.
</SPAN>
It is perhaps hardly
to be wondered at, that the continual
state of religious warfare in which Spain
was so long plunged should have given
a somewhat stern character to Spanish
Christianity. The Inquisition, when
introduced into Spain by the mistaken zeal of the good
Queen Isabella towards the end of the fifteenth century,
found a readier welcome than elsewhere, and gained
an additional tinge of severity in a country which had
been brought into such close contact with one of the
deadliest forms of unbelief.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
The Spanish Liturgy.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The original Liturgy of Spain was, like the ancient
Liturgy of France, a form of that used
at Ephesus. It received the name of
Mozarabic, from having been in use by Christians
living <I>in the midst of Arabs</I>, or Moors, and was not
discontinued in the Church of Spain until A.D. 1080,
when after much resistance on the part of the Spaniards
it was abolished by order of Alphonso VI., King of
Castille and Leon, under the influence of Pope Gregory
VII., and the Roman rite substituted throughout the
country.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 4. <I>The Church of Germany.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Conversion of Germany by French
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The large tract of country which is now comprehended
under the name of Germany was won to the Church
by a long series of missionary labours. In the
beginning of the seventh century Frankish
missionaries laid the foundations of a
Church in Bavaria and on the banks of
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P128"></A>128}</SPAN>
the Danube, thus paving the way for the conversion of
Southern Germany.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and British missionaries,
</SPAN>
Central Germany, then called
Franconia, was the scene of the labours
of Kilian, an Irish missionary (A.D. 630-A.D. 689),
whilst the English Bishops Wilfrith (A.D. 677)
and Willebrord (A.D. 692-A.D. 741), preached
with much success to the Frieslanders in the
Northwest of Germany, now included in Holland.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Labours of St. Boniface
</SPAN>
It is,
however, to a Devonshire clergyman, Winfrith, better
known as St. Boniface (A.D. 715-A.D. 755),
that the title of Apostle of Germany is
generally given, not only on account of his unwearied
missionary labours in still heathen districts, but also
on account of his success in organizing and
consolidating the different branches of the German Church.
He became Archbishop of Mentz, and Metropolitan,
and at last suffered martyrdom at the hands of some
heathen Frieslanders at the age of seventy-five.
</P>
<P>
The Emperor Charlemagne endeavoured to compel
the rude Saxons in the neighbourhood of the Baltic to
embrace the Christian faith; but eventually he was
induced to trust less to the force of arms for their
conversion, and more to the missionary work of the Church.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and of Willehad.
</SPAN>
Amongst the prominent members of this Saxon
mission, we find another English priest,
Willehad, a native of Northumbria, afterwards
Bishop of Bremen, who died A.D. 789.
</P>
<P>
The first attempts to plant the Church in Moravia
were made by German missionaries in the ninth
century.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Eastern missionaries in Moravia
</SPAN>
These do not appear, however, to have been very
successful, and about A.D. 860, two Greek
monks, Cyril and Methodius, entered
upon the same sphere of labour. Methodius
was afterwards consecrated Metropolitan of Pannonia
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P129"></A>129}</SPAN>
and Moravia by the Pope; but there was
considerable jealousy on the part of the Latinized Germans
towards their Eastern fellow-labourers, and eventually
the Moravian Church was subjected to the Bishops of
Bohemia.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and Bohemia.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The first Christian Duke of Bohemia was converted
about A.D. 871, whilst staying at the
Moravian court, probably by Methodius; but
the Church made very slow progress in Bohemia until
after the conquest of that country by Otho the Great
(A.D. 950), and the foundation of the Bishopric of
Prague by King Boleslav the Pious (A.D. 967-A.D. 999).
In Bohemia, as well as in Moravia, the influence of the
Greek missionaries made itself felt in the impress it
left upon the ritual and usages of the two Churches,
especially in the fact that the native Sclavonic language
was used in Divine Worship; but in the end German
influences prevailed in both countries, and the national
"use" gradually made way for the Latinized ritual
common in Germany.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Conversion of North Prussia,
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Until towards the middle of the tenth century, the
Church made but very small progress in the northern
portion of what is now the kingdom of
Prussia. These regions were then
occupied by a Sclavonic race called Wends, who yielded
an unwilling submission to the Western emperors, and
disliked Christianity as being the religion of their
conquerors. Between A.D. 964 and A.D. 968, several
bishoprics were founded in this country by Otho the
Great, and amongst them the metropolitan see of
Magdeburg. A revolt of the Wends frustrated for the
time the success of the emperor's plans, but in the next
century Gottschalk, who became king of the Wends
A.D. 1047, and was himself a Christian, did all in his
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P130"></A>130}</SPAN>
power to aid the missionary work of the Church among
his people. He was martyred by his subjects, A.D. 1066,
and heathenism triumphed once more. During the
twelfth century, the Wendish kingdom was dissolved,
and its territories divided amongst different German
princes, after which the Church gradually regained
and extended its hold on the country. The northern
Wends, who obstinately adhered to their Pagan superstitions,
were at last converted chiefly by the labours of
St. Vicelin, who became Bishop of Oldenburg, A.D. 1148.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
of Pomerania,
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The conversion of Pomerania was first attempted by
the Poles, who, on obtaining possession of
the country at the end of the tenth century,
founded a bishopric at Colberg, A.D. 1000. It was not,
however, until their more complete subjection to Poland
about a hundred years later, that any marked result
was obtained. Otho, Bishop of Bamberg, who placed
himself at the head of the Pomeranian mission A.D. 1124,
was at last enabled to overcome the fierce opposition
which the heathen natives offered to the work of
the Church, and by A.D. 1128 Christianity had gained
a firm footing amongst them.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
of Prussia Proper.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
From Pomerania the Church extended itself
eastward to Prussia Proper, about A.D. 1210.
Here, too, Christianity was very distasteful
to the natives, partly as being the religion of their
enemies the Poles. About A.D. 1230, the "Order of
Teutonic Knights" was instituted for the purpose of
subjugating Prussia; and, after a depopulating warfare
of fifty years' duration, the remaining inhabitants
embraced Christianity. Before the end of the thirteenth
century, the German element had quite superseded the
Sclavonic in Prussia, as well as in Pomerania, and in
what had formerly been the kingdom of the Wends.
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P131"></A>131}</SPAN>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Extent of Roman influence in Germany.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Church in Germany, taken as a whole, was very
much under Roman influence, partly,
perhaps, on account of the early connexion
between the emperors of the West and the
see of Rome, and partly from the constant
state of civil warfare into which Germany was plunged
from the twelfth to the fourteenth centuries. In these
contests the near neighbourhood of the Popes to the
Italian possessions of the Western Empire gave them a
hold on the affairs of Germany which they were not
slow to use, and the turbulent German nobles were
disinclined to resent an interference which was so often
exerted in their behalf against an unpopular sovereign.
The temporal power of the Popes was, however, much
weakened by the great Schism; and though the Church
of Germany acknowledged the true Pope, there was,
amongst its members, a very widespread sense of the
urgent need of some searching reformation. To this
feeling may be traced, not only the unhappily
disappointed expectations with which so many persons
looked to the Councils of Constance and Basle, but
also the unsound and exaggerated teaching of such
men as John Huss and Jerome of Prague.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 5. <I>The Church of Hungary.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Conversion of Hungary.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Hungarians or Magyars were descended from a
Tartar or Finnish tribe, who settled in Pannonia
towards the close of the ninth century, and thence
made fierce inroads on Italy and Germany. In
A.D. 948, two Hungarian chiefs were baptized
at Constantinople, and the daughter of
one of them afterwards marrying Geisa, Duke of
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P132"></A>132}</SPAN>
Hungary (A.D. 972-A.D. 997), Christian influences were,
by degrees, brought to bear upon the Hungarian people.
About the same time German missionaries began to
labour in Hungary, but it was not until the reign of
St. Stephen, the first King of Hungary (A.D. 997-A.D. 1038),
that the country was completely evangelized.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Hungary Latinized.
</SPAN>
Stephen did all in his power to aid the work of the
German missionaries; Hungary was divided into
dioceses, and the originally eastern origin
of the Hungarian Church, as well as the
Sclavonic origin of the people, forgotten under the
desire felt by the king to keep on a friendly footing with
the German emperors and the Popes.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Attacks of the Turks.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Church of Hungary suffered severely from the
invasion of the Mongul Tartars, A.D. 1241,
and when, about a century later, some of
these Tartars returned from Asia and settled in Europe
under the name of Turks, Hungary, owing to its
frontier situation, was constantly liable to their attacks.
During the fifteenth century, Hungarian bravery was
the great barrier that opposed the spread of
Mahometanism over Western Europe. Even after the fall
of Constantinople, the Turks vainly endeavoured to
make themselves masters of their Christian neighbours,
and found themselves obliged to retreat discomfited
from the siege of Belgrade, A.D. 1456.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 6. <I>The Church of Poland.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Conversion of Poland.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Church of Poland was founded about A.D. 966,
when a daughter of the Christian Duke of
Bohemia married Miecislav, Duke of
Poland, and introduced Christianity into her adopted
country.
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P133"></A>133}</SPAN>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Romanizing the church of Poland.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Polish Church at first bore traces of its Eastern
origin in its liturgy and ritual, but these
traces were removed by Casimir I. (A.D. 1040-A.D. 1058),
who, previous to his
accession, had been a monk in a French or German
monastery, and who made a point of bringing the
Church of his own country into uniformity with the
other Churches of the West.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 7. <I>The Scandinavian Churches.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Conversion of Denmark
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
About A.D. 822, a mission was sent from France to
Denmark under Ebbo, Archbishop of
Rheims, which resulted in the conversion
of Harold, King of Jutland, who was baptized at
Mayence, A.D. 826. At the request of Harold, a fresh
mission to Denmark was organized and headed by Anskar,
a monk of Corbey, near Amiens, who is often known
as the "Apostle of the North."
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and Sweden.
</SPAN>
From Denmark Anskar
made his way to Sweden, A.D. 831, where
he was favourably received by the king,
and a year or two later was consecrated Archbishop of
Hamburg, with jurisdiction over the whole northern
mission.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Slow advance and vicissitudes of the Church.
</SPAN>
At first the progress of the
Church, both in Denmark and Sweden,
was very slow and fluctuating, and the
ravages of the northern pirates, or Vikings, caused
great loss and suffering; but after some years, Anskar
was enabled to disarm the opposition of Eric the
heathen King of Denmark, and to make a favourable
impression upon the Swedish nobles. After his death
in A.D. 865, the Church in Denmark went through
many vicissitudes owing to irruptions of the Northmen
and other invaders, as well as to native opposition.
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P134"></A>134}</SPAN>
Svend, who reigned over Denmark A.D. 991-A.D. 1014,
though brought up a Christian, persecuted the Church
until his re-conversion during a victorious sojourn in
England.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
English missionaries in Denmark
</SPAN>
Svend's son and successor, Canute the
Great (A.D. 1014-A.D. 1033), was very zealous in his
endeavours to undo the evil effects of his father's
violence, and sent missionaries from
England, by whom the bulk of the Danish
nation were converted to Christianity.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and Sweden.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
In Sweden, too, the Church made but slow progress
after the death of Anskar, until, in the beginning of the
eleventh century, the King Olaf Skötkonung, having
been himself baptized about A.D. 1008, invited to
Sweden certain English clergymen, who laboured there
with great success. The first bishopric
in Sweden was placed at Skara in West
Gothland, and filled by Turgot, an Englishman.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Conversion of Norway, by English missionaries.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The knowledge of the Gospel was first brought, in
the tenth century, into Norway from
England by Hacon, who is said to have been
educated at the court of Athelstan, and who
endeavoured, with the aid of English priests, to
bring about the conversion of his subjects.
Hacon was, however, induced, by the bitter opposition
of his countrymen, to yield a weak compliance to their
idolatrous practices, and the Church languished and
almost died out until the reign of Olaf Trygovasön
(A.D. 993-A.D. 1000), who had been baptized in the
Scilly Isles during a piratical expedition. The labours
of the English missionaries were finally successful in
the reign of Olaf the Holy (A.D. 1017-A.D. 1033), who
was earnest in his efforts to further the work of the
Church. It may be remarked that Norwegian Bishops
were usually consecrated either in England or France,
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P135"></A>135}</SPAN>
though all the Scandinavian Churches were still
professedly dependent on the Archbishopric of Hamburg.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Conversion of Iceland,
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
In Iceland some traces of early Christianity,
probably the result of the labours of
Irish missionaries, were still remaining
when it was colonized by Norwegian settlers in the
ninth century; and towards the end of the tenth
century successive attempts were made by a Saxon
Bishop and by missionaries from Norway, to revive and
deepen these impressions. The opposition of the
heathen colonists was, however, of so determined a
character, that it was only by the gradual conversion of
the mother country, and the labours of new bands of
missionaries, chiefly English and Irish, that Paganism
was by degrees overcome.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Greenland,
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
From Iceland the Church made its way to Greenland,
another Norwegian colony, which was
converted mainly by the instrumentality
of an Icelandic missionary, in the first half of the
eleventh century; but this ancient Church died out in
the fifteenth century. About the same time Christianity
spread through the Norwegians to the Orkney,
Shetland, and Faroe Islands.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and Lapland.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Church was first planted amongst the Lapps by
Swedish missionaries in the thirteenth
century, but it was not until the sixteenth
and two following centuries that Christianity became
the religion of the country.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 8. <I>The Churches now comprehended in European
Turkey and Greece.</I>
</H3>
<P>
We look in vain in the history of the Church in
Eastern Europe for the missionary activity which
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P136"></A>136}</SPAN>
bears so prominent a place in the annals of Western
Christendom.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Lack of missionary zeal in the East.
</SPAN>
The minds of Eastern
Christians were still much occupied
by continued contests between the Catholic Faith and
developments of already condemned heresies, and to
these succeeded the scarcely less absorbing controversy
about Image-breaking. Nor was there in the East
the same pressing contact with Paganism, which made
it in the West a political necessity no less than a
religious duty at once to christianize and civilize the
ever advancing hordes of heathen barbarians.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Conversion of Bulgaria.
</SPAN>
The evangelization of Bulgaria was, however,
begun early in the ninth century, by the
carrying off of the Bishop of Adrianople and many of his
flock, in a victorious inroad of the Bulgarians, A.D. 811.
Half a century later the Bulgarian King Bogoris,
influenced by his sister, who had been brought up a
Christian at Constantinople, put himself and his
country under the tuition of the Greek patriarch
Photius. Soon after, becoming weary of his Eastern
instructors, he applied for aid to the Western Church,
and, in A.D. 867, the Pope Nicholas I. despatched two
Italian Bishops and other missionaries to Bulgaria.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Collision between Greek and Roman missionaries.
</SPAN>
This interference of the Roman
Church, in an already occupied field of
missionary labour, added considerably to
the jealousy between East and West, and helped to
bring about the eventual and lamentable schism.
Bogoris soon after returned to his allegiance to
Photius, insisted on the withdrawal of the Roman
Mission, and obtained a Greek Archbishop of Bulgaria
from Constantinople.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Peculiar position of the Eastern Church.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The state of external isolation in which the
Church of the Eastern Empire was placed by the
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P137"></A>137}</SPAN>
Schism of A.D. 1054, had a tendency to increase its
exaggerated spirit of conservatism, which
was also encouraged by the indolent
unenterprizing temper of the Greeks of the
later empire, whose blood had not been quickened by
the same admixture of races as had given new life
to the worn out nations of the West.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Effects of the Crusades.
</SPAN>
Under these circumstances the crusades were hardly
less a cause of terror to the Greeks than
were the advances of the Turks themselves, and tended
to widen rather than to heal the unhappy breach
between the Latin and Greek Churches.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Unjustifiable proceedings of the Latins.
</SPAN>
The foundation of a Latin Patriarchate at Jerusalem,
after the taking of that city in A.D. 1099,
could not but be accounted an usurpation
on the part of the Pope, which was, however, far
surpassed in injustice by the erection of a Latin empire
and a Latin Patriarchate in Constantinople itself,
A.D. 1204. During the time that this oppressive arrangement
lasted (i.e. till A.D. 1261) the rightful Patriarch
took refuge at the court which the Eastern emperors
held at Nicaea in Asia Minor, and the fugitives there
clung to their national Church, and her rightful
independence.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Attempts at reunion.
</SPAN>
The Emperor Michael Palaeologus, after
driving out the Latins from Constantinople,
endeavoured once more to effect a
reunion between East and West, partly from political
and partly from personal motives, and a formal act of
union was signed, A.D. 1274. Neither the Greek
Clergy nor the Greek people would, however, consent
to give up their own national religious customs, nor
to acknowledge the supremacy of the Pope; and this
shadow of union died out with the death of the
Emperor, its originator.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Invasion of the Turks.
</SPAN>
In the fourteenth century
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P138"></A>138}</SPAN>
the Turks were treacherously invited over to Europe as
allies of the usurper, John Cantacuzenus (A.D. 1347-A.D. 1353),
and so firm a
footing did they gain, that the rightful Emperor, John
Palaeologus (A.D. 1341-A.D. 1391), found himself
obliged to appeal to Rome for aid, promising in return
to reconcile the Greek Church to the Roman
communion. The affairs of Western Europe, were, however
too unsettled to admit of such aid being afforded, and
the Emperor was obliged to give up all his possessions
to the Turks, except Constantinople, Thessalonica,
part of the Morea, and a few islands. Another appeal
was made, with the same results, by his son, Manuel
Palaeologus (A.D. 1391-A.D. 1425).
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
New attempts at reunion.
</SPAN>
John VII. (A.D. 1425-A.D. 1448) opened fresh negociations
with the West, and he and the
Patriarch of Constantinople, together with twenty-one
other Eastern Bishops, appeared (A.D. 1438) at the
Council of Ferrara (afterwards transferred to Florence).
At this council a decree of union was once more signed
by the Greeks, on condition of their receiving aid
against the Turks (A.D. 1439). This fresh attempt
at union was repudiated by the Eastern Church at
large, but a troop of French and Italian crusaders
started for the East. Constantinople was, however,
doomed, and the good and brave Constantine Palaeologus
(A.D. 1448-A.D. 1433) was the last, as he was one
of the best, of the Greek emperors.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Fall of Constantinople
</SPAN>
The city fell, after an
obstinate defence, on the 29th May, A.D. 1453,
and Constantine was among the
slain. The Turks pillaged and slaughtered
indiscriminately, and turned into a mosque the beautiful
Church of St. Sophia, built by the Emperor Justinian
in honour of the "Holy Wisdom" of God.
</P>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P139"></A>139}</SPAN>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and the Greek Empire.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
All the Greek Empire had now fallen into the hands
of the Turks, except the small
mountainous district of Albania, which held
out until the death of George Castriota (dreaded by the
Turks under the name of Scanderbeg), A.D. 1467. The
rocky strip of land known as Montenegro has been
enabled to maintain an unbroken independence.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
State of the Church of Greece under Turkish rule.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Church of Greece was now no longer the
dominant and recognized religion of the
country, but it was not extinguished. The
numerous mountain monasteries, inaccessible
from their construction and position,
were the chief strongholds of the Christian Faith; and
so, "cast down, but not destroyed," the Church in
Greece struggled on, until, after nearly three centuries
of Turkish rule, Greece itself once more became a
Christian kingdom.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 9. The Church of Russia.
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Decay of the Church after its first planting in Russia.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Church, founded in the South of Russia by
St. Andrew, appears not to have spread to the other
parts of this vast country, and to have
died out, perhaps under the influence
the hordes of barbarians who poured
westward from Asia to Europe.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Foundation of the present Church.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Church of Russia, as it now exists, owes its
foundation chiefly to Greek Missionaries,
who began their labours about A.D. 866,
amongst the tribes bordering on
the dominions of the Eastern Empire. Before the
middle of the next century Christianity had gained
a footing in the ancient capital of Kiev, and about
A.D. 933 the Princess Olga was baptized at
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P140"></A>140}</SPAN>
Constantinople.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
It flourishes under Vladimir.
</SPAN>
In the reign of her grandson, Vladimir
(A.D. 986-A.D. 1014), the Church made
great progress in Russia. Vladimir made
a public recognition of Christianity, and
by his marriage with the sister of the Greek Emperor
strengthened the links which bound Russia to
Constantinople. The Greek missionaries were aided in
their labours, churches and bishoprics were founded,
and the Holy Scriptures and Service Books translated
into the native Sclavonic language; the Greek monks,
Cyril and Methodius, who have been already mentioned
as instrumental in the conversion of Bohemia and
Moravia, taking also an active share in the
Christianizing of Russia.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Independence of the Russian Church,
</SPAN>
In the reigns of Yaroslav and his
successor (A.D. 1019-A.D. 1077), the empire became
completely Christian, and the Church of
Russia was placed on an independent
footing, with a native primate at its head.
Innocent III. (A.D. 1198-A.D. 1216) attempted to win
over Russia to the Roman communion, by offering to
confer the title of King on Prince Roman, but his
offer was at once rejected.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
which it has steadily refused to give up,
</SPAN>
Russia suffered severely
from the ravages of the Mongul Tartars, A.D. 1223, and
Pope Innocent IV. took advantage of
the distressed condition of the Russian
church and the removal of the Greek
Patriarchate from Constantinople to
Nicaea, to make another attempt at detaching Russia
from communion with the Greeks. David, Prince of
Galicia, professed himself willing to receive the crown
and title of king from Rome, but this arrangement was
not of long duration, and about A.D. 1230 a Metropolitan
of the Russian Church was consecrated by the Greek
Patriarch, to fill up the vacancy which had taken place
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P141"></A>141}</SPAN>
ten years before during the Tartar invasion. Kiev,
the original seat of the Russian Patriarchate, was burnt
and pillaged by the Tartars, and the see was transferred
to Vladimir, A.D. 1299, and thence during the early
part of the next century (A.D. 1320) to Moscow, where
it has since remained.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
and has preserved unbroken.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
For more than two centuries, until A.D. 1462, Russia
was oppressed by the yoke of the
unbelieving Tartars, but the Church still
maintained her independence, and steadily
resisted the various attempts which were made to bring
about a reunion between East and West, by the
subjugation of the former to the unjust claims of the latter.
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[1] The preaching Friars having been in vain employed for
the conversion of the Albigenses, their efforts were
supplemented by the institution of the Inquisition.
</P>
<BR><BR><BR>
<A NAME="chap12"></A>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P142"></A>142}</SPAN>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
CHAPTER XII
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
The Mediaeval Church in Great Britain and Ireland
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
A.D. 500-A.D. 1500
</H3>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 1. <I>The Church of England.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Trials of the English Church under the Saxons.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
We have seen (p. 74) that the native Church of
England had not succeeded in converting the
Anglo-Saxon invaders who gradually took possession of the
country, and that such as remained of the
Bishops and Clergy had been compelled for
the most part to take refuge in mountainous,
and therefore inaccessible, districts.
It was, however, only in A.D. 587, that Theonas, Bishop
of London, and Thadiocus, Bishop of York, retreated
from their sees, and they were both living in exile in
Wales, when, ten years later, St. Augustine was sent
by Pope Gregory to found a mission in England.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Roman usurpation.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
It seems uncertain whether St. Gregory was aware
of the previous existence of a Church in
these islands; at any rate, he acted as if
ignorant of the fact, by bestowing on St. Augustine a
spiritual supremacy over the whole country; and the
good Italian missionary, when brought into actual
contact with the living representatives of a national Church
already five hundred years old, appears to have
considered himself justified in endeavouring to bring its
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P143"></A>143}</SPAN>
Liturgy and usages into agreement with the Roman
pattern.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Consequent disputes.
</SPAN>
All this was not unnatural, especially under
the circumstances of weakness and depression in which
the Church of England was then placed; but it was
equally natural that such interference should be felt to
be an usurpation, and resented accordingly,
and that much misunderstanding
and bitterness should be the consequence. There
probably was a recognition of the claims of the elder race
of English Bishops in the fact, that St. Augustine was
consecrated to the see of Canterbury rather than to
that of London, of which the rightful occupant was still
living, and that neither the latter diocese, nor that of
York, appear to have been filled up until after the deaths
of Theonas and Thadiocus.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
English independence partially recognized.
</SPAN>
It was also eventually
found expedient to leave to the English
Church its own national Liturgy and
ritual (originally derived through a Gallican
channel from that of Ephesus), instead of
insisting upon an exact conformity to Roman rites.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Some account of the English Liturgy.
</SPAN>
This ancient English Liturgy, revised in
the seventh century by St. Augustine,
underwent a second revision at the hands of
Osmund, Bishop of Salisbury, about A.D. 1083; and,
though certain variations existed in some dioceses, the
"Use of Sarum," as it was called, became the general
"use" throughout the southern portion of England, and
was even at length considered to be <I>the</I> Liturgy of the
country. It is from this Sarum Use that our present
Post-Reformation Liturgy is derived.
</P>
<P>
A very considerable amount of new life and energy
was infused into the Church of England by the mission
of St. Augustine. Though the native Bishops and Clergy
could not bring themselves to look cordially on those
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P144"></A>144}</SPAN>
whose religious zeal was not always tempered with
justice or courtesy towards their predecessors in the
field of their missionary labours, still both
foreigners and natives worked for the same
cause, each in their own way, and a new
evangelization of the freshly-heathenized
population ensued[1].
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Amalgamation of English and Roman successions.
</SPAN>
By degrees the two lines of
Bishops became blended in one succession, which has
continued unbroken until the present day.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
English missionary zeal.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The Church of England, thus strengthened and
quickened, soon began to give abundant
proofs of its vitality by sending out
missionaries to convert the heathen in other lands. A
large part of Germany and the Netherlands owes its
Christianity to English Bishops and Clergy, such as
Winfrith or Boniface, Willebrord, and a host of other
less well-known or altogether forgotten names. The
eighth century was especially distinguished by these
missionary labours abroad, whilst, at home, were to be
found such good and learned men as the Venerable
Bede (A.D. 672 or '3-A.D. 735), an early translator of
the Holy Scriptures, and his friend Egbert (A.D. about
678-A.D. 776), Archbishop of York, and founder of a
famous school in that city, where the illustrious Alcuin
(about A.D. 723-A.D. 804) was a scholar.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Invasion, and conversion of the Danes.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
In A.D. 787, the Church of England began to suffer
severely from the ravages of the heathen
Danes or Northmen; but, by the wisdom
and valour of the good King Alfred (A.D. 871-A.D. 901),
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P145"></A>145}</SPAN>
they were for a while subdued, and numbers of
them settled as peaceable colonists in
England, where they gradually embraced
Christianity.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
King Alfred.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Alfred was very zealous in his endeavours to repair
the spiritual and intellectual losses which
the Church of England had undergone
during the contest with the Danes, whose ravages had
almost entirely swept away all native scholarship. The
king was especially eager to secure a literature in the
vernacular for his subjects, and himself translated
into "simple English" parts of the Holy Bible, and
other religious books. In these labours he was assisted
by a small body of learned men, including the two
Aelfrics, Archbishops of Canterbury and York, and
Wulfstan, supposed to have been Bishop of Worcester.
The conversion of the Danes who had first settled in
England to Christianity prepared the way for the
evangelizing of later colonists; and when, through the
crimes and weakness of the later Anglo-Saxon princes,
the country fell altogether into the hands of Danish
invaders, Canute the Great (A.D. 1016-A.D. 1033) not
only embraced Christianity himself, but secured for
his native country the services of English
missionaries.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Evangelization of Scandinavia.
</SPAN>
In fact, at this time
Scandinavia seems to have been the chief
mission-field of the English Church.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Roman influence comparatively small under the Saxons.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
We can hardly be wrong in gathering from all this,
that Roman influence had only to a
certain limited extent been introduced into
the Church of England by St. Augustine's
mission, and that, as time passed on, the
foreign element had become absorbed in the national
one. With the Norman conquest of A.D. 1066, the
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P146"></A>146}</SPAN>
case was, however, altered.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Much increased under the Normans.
</SPAN>
The claims of the Popes to
temporal as well as to spiritual authority
were by that time definite and authoritative;
the Conquest itself had been undertaken
by the permission of Alexander II., and the
authority of the foreign conquerors, (as the Norman
and early Plantagenet kings continued to be,) required
foreign support. Hence the Bishops of Rome gained
an amount of political influence in England which was
thoroughly unconstitutional, and which could probably
never have been attained by any foreign power, had
the English sovereigns immediately after the Conquest
felt themselves more firmly fixed upon the throne they
had seized.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Denationalizing of the Episcopate.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The appointment of foreigners to the highest
ecclesiastical offices in England, was one means
by which the Norman sovereigns sought
to secure themselves against disaffection
amongst their new subjects; but the real result of this
policy was to foster the claims of the Popes to religious
and secular supremacy in this country; for these foreign
ecclesiastics, though English Bishops, were not loyal
subjects of the English crown, nor were their interests
identical with those of their flocks.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Lanfranc.
</SPAN>
Thus
the Italian Lanfranc, when appointed
Archbishop of Canterbury by William the Conqueror
(A.D. 1070), did not hesitate to obey the summons of
the Pope to Rome for the purpose of receiving the pall,
and thus acknowledging that he held his Bishopric
from the Papal see.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Anselm.
</SPAN>
His successor, St. Anselm (A.D. 1093), also an Italian, and a
man of great learning and holiness, was prepared to
carry out a similar line of conduct; but the covetous
and irreligious tyrant, William Rufus, was seeking at
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P147"></A>147}</SPAN>
the same time to reduce Bishops to the state of mere
nominees and vassals of the crown, and a long contest
ensued[2]. The dispute was carried on into the next
reign; and at length, in A.D. 1107, a compromise was
agreed upon, by which it was arranged that Bishops
should receive investiture from the Pope, and, at the
same time, take an oath of allegiance to the king.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Thomas of Canterbury.
</SPAN>
Anselm's unflinching advocacy of Papal claims cost him
years of exile from his diocese, and much suffering;
but, in the following century, similar conduct involved
still more serious consequences to
St. Thomas à Becket, the then Archbishop of
Canterbury. The new question in dispute was the
right of clerical offenders to be tried in the spiritual
courts, instead of coming under the jurisdiction of the
civil power; but, in reality, it was only another form of
the constant endeavours of the English monarchs to
free themselves from the foreign bondage which was,
to some extent at least, self-imposed. Becket fell a
martyr to his own sense of duty and the king's
displeasure, A.D. 1170.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Roman influence strongest in England.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
Papal usurpation in England reached its height
when, in A.D. 1208, Innocent III placed
the kingdom under an Interdict, for
refusing to receive as Archbishop of
Canterbury his nominee, Stephen Langton, who was
unacceptable both to king and people; and soon after
proceeded to excommunicate John, and depose him
from his throne. The king's cowardly and
unconstitutional conduct in resigning his kingdom into the
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P148"></A>148}</SPAN>
hands of the Pope's legate (A.D. 1213), and receiving it
again at the end of three days as a tributary vassal of
the Roman see, caused England to be looked upon for
some years as only a fief of Rome.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Kept up by the Friars;
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
In the reign of Henry III. (A.D. 1216-A.D. 1272),
Roman influence in England was greatly
sustained by the introduction of the
Preaching Orders of Franciscan and Dominican
Friars, who, being many of them foreigners, and
all of them independent of any episcopal control,
and subject to Papal jurisdiction only, were very
energetic in their endeavours to maintain and extend
the authority of the popedom.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
by the habit of appeals;
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
By this time, too, appeals to Rome against the
decisions of English courts had come to be
a great bar to national independence.
Such appeals had been altogether unrecognized in
England until the days of Stephen, and the practice
was again forbidden in Henry II.'s reign by the
Constitutions of Clarendon (A.D. 1164); but, after Becket's
death, the prohibition was once more repealed. It is
easy to see how seriously this system of appeals must
have delayed and interfered with the regular course of
justice in this country, and how capable it was of being
made a political engine in the hands of the Pope, or of
those who held with him. The exemption of most of
the monasteries from the supervision of the Bishops
was also a serious evil, interfering as it did with the
Divinely-appointed functions of the episcopacy, and
opening the door to disorders which the distant and usurped
authority of the Popes had not power to remedy.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
by large money payments.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
In the fourteenth century another means was resorted
to of increasing the power of the Popes at
expense of the monarch and people of
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P149"></A>149}</SPAN>
England, by the payment of annates, or first-fruits, on
the appointment of each Bishop; and so heavy did
this burden become, that between A.D. 1486 and A.D. 1531,
160,000 pounds (or about 45,000 pounds a year of our money)
was paid to Rome under the head of annates.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
All these evils borne under protest.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
It is not to be supposed that these encroachments of
a foreign power were accepted without a
murmur or remonstrance on the part of
the people of England; on the contrary,
there was a constant undercurrent of discontent, which
found occasional expression in some official or popular
protest. Such, on the one hand, was the statute of
<I>praemunire</I>, passed in the reign of Richard II. (A.D. 1389),
to prohibit Papal interference with Church
patronage and decisions in ecclesiastical causes; and,
on the other, the irregular proceedings of Wickliffe and
the Lollards, in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,
which, though they eventually degenerated into seditious
agitation, had their rise in a feeling of opposition
to Romish abuses and usurpations. This feeling was
increased by the fearful state of profligacy into which
Rome, and indeed all Italy, was plunged during the
fifteenth century, which effectually destroyed the
character formerly enjoyed by the Roman Church, whilst
it could not but affect the spiritual health of the other
Churches over which Rome exercised so wide an
influence. Wiser and calmer men than Wickliffe saw the
need of some reformation, though they questioned, and,
as the event showed, rightly, the wisdom and the justice
of the steps he took towards his object. Wickliffe's
teaching in the fourteenth century had, in fact, little or
nothing to do with the real Reformation of two hundred
years later, except that some of his dangerous theories
on political matters took deeper root than did his
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P150"></A>150}</SPAN>
religious peculiarities, and bore fruit in much of the
unprincipled licence which was an unhappy, though by
no means an essential, feature of the Reformation era.
</P>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
English longings for reformation.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
England, in common with the other nations of
Europe, was willing to hope for great
benefit from the councils of the Church
held in the fifteenth century; and, at each
of them, we find English Clergy making grave and
urgent protests against the abuses which they saw
around them, and pleading for a return to purer and
better ways. Thus, at the Council of Pisa, A.D. 1400,
one of the English Bishops who attended it presented
a memorial which complained of the evils resulting
from the want of episcopal control over the monasteries,
from the practice of appeals to Rome, and from the
ease with which dispensations for non-residence and
pluralities were obtained[3]. Again, at the Council of
Constance (A.D. 1415) a sermon was preached by
Dr. Abendon, an Oxford professor, which painted in
very strong language the worldliness and covetousness
of the non-resident Bishops and Clergy; and these
protests were followed up by an official appeal to the
Pope for a reformation, on the part of the Kings of
France and England, A.D. 1425, as well as by official
instructions given to the English deputation despatched
to the Council of Basle (A.D. 1431), to use their
influence for the same end.
</P>
<BR>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P151"></A>151}</SPAN>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 2. <I>The Church of Ireland.</I>
</H3>
<P>
The Church of Ireland was not, like the Church of
Great Britain, to which it owes its foundation, a prey
to the depressing influences of the heathen Saxons;
and, at the time of the mission of St. Augustine, the
daughter was in some measure enabled to repay to the
mother the benefits which the British St. Patrick had
conferred on the scene of his missionary labours. A
constant intercourse was kept up between the numerous
monasteries of Ireland and those of Wales and
Scotland, some of the abbeys in the latter countries being
founded and frequented by Irishmen.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Early reputation of Ireland.
</SPAN>
Ireland, in the sixth and seventh centuries,
had a great reputation for learning and missionary zeal,
both of which were called into play to help in the
reconversion of a large portion of England, as well as to
encourage the efforts of English Churchmen in retaining
in the National Church the national characteristics, with
the loss of which it was threatened from the large
admixture of foreign elements introduced by
St. Augustine.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Irish missionary work in England and elsewhere.
</SPAN>
Nor were their missionary
labours confined to England: they shared
in the toils and honours of the conversion
of Germany, and are believed to have penetrated as far
as Iceland and Greenland.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Unjustifiable conduct of England.
</SPAN>
The aid given by Irish
ecclesiastics in preserving the religious liberty of the
Church of England was ill requited in the twelfth
century, when the English, having taken
possession of Ireland, forced the Irish Church
to abandon her distinctive Liturgy by a
decree passed at the synod of Cashel, A.D. 1173. The
state of anarchy and restless discontent into which
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P152"></A>152}</SPAN>
Ireland was thrown by the presence of English invaders,
had a very unfavourable effect on the Church of the
country, as had also the appointment of Englishmen to
Irish bishoprics, and the consequent non-residence of
the Bishops. It is curious that the influence of English
conquerors should have tended to extend Roman
authority in Ireland, much as the policy of Norman
conquerors produced the same effect in England.
Before the Reformation, the state of the Irish Church had
become thoroughly unsatisfactory, and was felt to be
so by many of the Irish themselves.
</P>
<BR>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
Section 3. <I>The Church of Scotland.</I>
</H3>
<P>
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
St. Columba.
</SPAN>
</P>
<P>
The country of the Southern Picts, christianized by
St. Ninian (see p. 76), having fallen into the hands
of the heathen Anglo-Saxons, something like a fresh
evangelization became necessary; and this was
accomplished by the labours of St. Columba and
his successors, who, having crossed over
from Ireland (first about A.D. 560) for the purpose of
preaching to the Northern tribes of Scotland, extended
their mission southward.
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Irish or Scotch missionaries in England.
</SPAN>
The monastery of Iona, or
Icolmkill, was for some time inhabited by Irish
missionaries, and became the chief source of missionary
labour not only in Scotland, but also in
the North of England, the Scotch or Irish
missionaries using all the weight of their
influence to uphold the independence of the National
Church against the Roman tendencies of St. Augustine
and his successors. St. Aidan (died A.D. 651), Bishop
of Lindisfarne, or Holy Island, and the head of the
mission for the conversion of the Saxon kingdom of
Mercia, was a monk of Iona. His diocese included
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P153"></A>153}</SPAN>
Yorkshire, and extended to Scotland; and, in
consequence of this, the Archbishops of York long laid claim
to exercise metropolitan authority over the whole of
North Britain.
</P>
<P>
Roman influence gradually made itself felt in
Scotland, in great measure through the monastic system,
which received a great impetus under David
I. (A.D. 1124-A.D. 1153).
<SPAN CLASS="sidenote">
Longings for reformation.
</SPAN>
The constant wars with England,
and the confusion and bloodshed they entailed, had a
very unfavourable effect on the prosperity and spiritual
activity of the Church of Scotland, so that from
Scotland, no less than from England and
Ireland, there arose that cry for a
return to older and purer ways, which ended in the
Reformation.
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[1] The native Clergy seem to have laboured chiefly in the
north, where they were aided by Scotch and Irish
missionaries. St. Aidan, Bishop of Lindisfarne, or Holy Island
(who died A.D. 651), may be mentioned as a successful agent
in the conversion of Northumbria and Mercia.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[2] This dispute between St. Anselm and the English king
was another form of the long strife between the Popes and
the Emperors of the West, which is known as the War of
Investitures.
</P>
<P CLASS="footnote">
[3] Many of the Bishops, at this time, were foreigners, who
lived away from their sees, and did not even understand the
native language of their flocks. The Kings of England and
the Bishops of Rome seem to have equally abused their
powers of patronage in this respect.
</P>
<BR><BR><BR>
<A NAME="chap13"></A>
<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P155"></A>155}</SPAN>
<H3 ALIGN="center">
INDEX
</H3>
<BR>
<P CLASS="index">
Abendon, Dr., at Constance, <A HREF="#P150">150</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Abyssinia, Church of, <A HREF="#P82">82</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Africa, Church in, its early history, <A HREF="#P80">80</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Church in, its mediaeval history, <A HREF="#P120">120</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Aidan, St., <A HREF="#P144">144</A>, <A HREF="#P152">152</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Alban, St., his martyrdom, <A HREF="#P73">73</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Albigenses, <A HREF="#P122">122</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Alexandria, Church of, <A HREF="#P80">80</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, School of, <A HREF="#P81">81</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Altar, its arrangements in Eastern and Early English Churches, <A HREF="#P54">54</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Ambrosian Liturgy, <A HREF="#P123">123</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
"Angels" or Bishops, The Seven, <A HREF="#P49">49</A>, <A HREF="#P52">52</A>, <A HREF="#P85">85</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Annates, Payment of, <A HREF="#P149">149</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Anselm, St., <A HREF="#P146">146</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Anti-Popes, <A HREF="#P109">109</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Antioch, Church of, <A HREF="#P23">23</A>, <A HREF="#P28">28</A>, <A HREF="#P84">84</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, St. Paul and St. Barnabas at, <A HREF="#P28">28</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
"——— St. Peter's Throne at," <A HREF="#P28">28</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— first sends Missionaries to heathen, <A HREF="#P29">29</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Antioch disturbed by disputes about circumcision, <A HREF="#P34">34</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Antioch, Probable visit of St. Peter to, <A HREF="#P36">36</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Apocalypse, The, <A HREF="#P52">52</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
"Apology against Heathenism," The first Christian, <A HREF="#P32">32</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
"——— Judaism," The first Christian, <A HREF="#P20">20</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Apostle, St. Matthias chosen to be, <A HREF="#P8">8</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Apostles, extent of their labours, <A HREF="#P43">43</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— trained by our Lord, <A HREF="#P5">5</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— taught by the Holy Ghost, <A HREF="#P5">5</A>, <A HREF="#P6">6</A>, <A HREF="#P48">48</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Commission given to the, <A HREF="#P6">6</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— a living Gospel, <A HREF="#P12">12</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— Creed, an instance of traditional teaching, <A HREF="#P13">13</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— St. Paul and St. Barnabas complete the number of, <A HREF="#P30">30</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, how they differ from Bishops, <A HREF="#P31">31</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, their deaths, <A HREF="#P43">43</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Apostolic office, Nature of, <A HREF="#P5">5</A> <I>n.</I>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— Doctrine, <A HREF="#P12">12</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— Fellowship, <A HREF="#P18">18</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Apostolical Succession in England, <A HREF="#P144">144</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Appeals from England to Rome, <A HREF="#P148">148</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Arabia, Church of, <A HREF="#P86">86</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Arianism, <A HREF="#P68">68</A>, <A HREF="#P81">81</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— in Greece, <A HREF="#P79">79</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— in France, <A HREF="#P78">78</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— of the Goths, <A HREF="#P77">77</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— prepares for Mahometanism, <A HREF="#P88">88</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Arles, Council of, <A HREF="#P78">78</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Armenia, Church of, <A HREF="#P85">85</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Athanasius, St., <A HREF="#P70">70</A>, <A HREF="#P72">72</A>, <A HREF="#P81">81</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Athens, its intellectual pride, <A HREF="#P39">39</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, St. Paul at, <A HREF="#P39">39</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Augustine, St., <A HREF="#P82">82</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, and Church of England, <A HREF="#P142">142</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Authority of the Jerusalem Council, <A HREF="#P36">36</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Avignon, The Popes at, <A HREF="#P108">108</A>, <A HREF="#P123">123</A>
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="index">
Baptism, Nature of, <A HREF="#P2">2</A>, <A HREF="#P3">3</A>, <A HREF="#P4">4</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, its necessity, <A HREF="#P26">26</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— of St. John different from that of our Lord, <A HREF="#P7">7</A> <I>n.</I>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— of the Three Thousand, <A HREF="#P10">10</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Barchochebas, <A HREF="#P83">83</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Barnabas, St., Conversion of, <A HREF="#P11">11</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, ordained Apostle, <A HREF="#P30">30</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Basil, St., <A HREF="#P111">111</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Basle, Council of, <A HREF="#P110">110</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Becket, St. Thomas à, <A HREF="#P147">147</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Benedictine rule, The, <A HREF="#P111">111</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Bible, The, in Middle Ages, <A HREF="#P117">117</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Bishop, Meaning of the word, <A HREF="#P33">33</A> <I>n.</I>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— and Priest originally one office, <A HREF="#P5">5</A> <I>n.</I>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Bishops, Consecration of, by the Apostles, <A HREF="#P33">33</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— rarely appointed at first, <A HREF="#P46">46</A>, <A HREF="#P47">47</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— especially subject to persecution, <A HREF="#P65">65</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Bohemia, Church of, <A HREF="#P129">129</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Boniface, St., in Germany, <A HREF="#P128">128</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Books, Christian, kept hidden, <A HREF="#P63">63</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Bread, The Breaking of the, <A HREF="#P7">7</A>, <A HREF="#P13">13</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Breakspear, Nicholas, <A HREF="#P106">106</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Bulgaria, Conversion of, <A HREF="#P136">136</A>
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="index">
Canute, Conversion of, <A HREF="#P145">145</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Cashel, Synod of, <A HREF="#P151">151</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Catacombs, Use of the, <A HREF="#P63">63</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Corinthians, Heresy of the, <A HREF="#P50">50</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Chalcedon, Fourth Council of, <A HREF="#P71">71</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Charlemagne, <A HREF="#P122">122</A>, <A HREF="#P124">124</A>, <A HREF="#P128">128</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
China, Church of, <A HREF="#P87">87</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Chrysostom, St., <A HREF="#P84">84</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Church, Definition of, <A HREF="#P1">1</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, a Kingdom, <A HREF="#P1">1</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, the fruit of the Incarnation, <A HREF="#P2">2</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— the New Jerusalem, <A HREF="#P8">8</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, its gradual development, <A HREF="#P47">47</A>, <A HREF="#P48">48</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, its Divine Foundation proved by persecution, <A HREF="#P62">62</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Church, Growth of, unchecked by persecution, <A HREF="#P62">62</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Church Militant, a preparation for Church Triumphant, <A HREF="#P4">4</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Outward recognition of the, <A HREF="#P66">66</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— Government modified by persecution, <A HREF="#P65">65</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Churches, Primitive, their arrangement, <A HREF="#P53">53</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Circumcision, Apostolic Decision respecting <A HREF="#P35">35</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Wish to impose it on Converts, <A HREF="#P27">27</A>, <A HREF="#P34">34</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Columba, St., <A HREF="#P76">76</A>, <A HREF="#P152">152</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Confirmation by the Apostles, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>, <A HREF="#P24">24</A>, <A HREF="#P32">32</A>, <A HREF="#P37">37</A>, <A HREF="#P40">40</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Continental Churches, their early history, <A HREF="#P76">76-80</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— in Middle Ages, <A HREF="#P120">120</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Constance, Council of, <A HREF="#P110">110</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Constantine, his English parentage, <A HREF="#P73">73</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Conversion of, <A HREF="#P66">66</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Council summoned by, <A HREF="#P69">69</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Constantinople, Creed of, <A HREF="#P70">70</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Building of, <A HREF="#P67">67</A>, <A HREF="#P80">80</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Second Council of, <A HREF="#P70">70</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Fifth Council of, <A HREF="#P71">71</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Sixth Council of, <A HREF="#P71">71</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Fall of, <A HREF="#P138">138</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Conversion of the Three Thousand, <A HREF="#P10">10</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— Five Thousand, <A HREF="#P11">11</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— of Gentiles, Obstacles to, <A HREF="#P29">29</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Conversions after appointment of Diaconate, <A HREF="#P17">17</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Corinth, its luxury and unbelief, <A HREF="#P40">40</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, St. Paul at, <A HREF="#P40">40</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Cornelius, Conversion of, <A HREF="#P25">25</A>, <A HREF="#P26">26</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Council of the Church, First, <A HREF="#P35">35</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Second, at Jerusalem, <A HREF="#P46">46</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Councils, General, their nature, <A HREF="#P69">69</A> <I>n.</I>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— guided by the Holy Ghost, <A HREF="#P36">36</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Creed, Apostles', <A HREF="#P13">13</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Crusades, <A HREF="#P113">113</A>, <A HREF="#P125">125</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Effect of, in the East, <A HREF="#P137">137</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Cyprian, St., <A HREF="#P82">82</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Cyril, St., <A HREF="#P81">81</A>
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="index">
Danes, Conversion of, <A HREF="#P145">145</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— and Church of England, <A HREF="#P144">144</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Deacon, Meaning of the word, <A HREF="#P17">17</A> <I>n.</I>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Deacons, their work, <A HREF="#P18">18</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Decretals, The false Papal, <A HREF="#P103">103</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Denial of Cup to Laity, <A HREF="#P119">119</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Denmark, Church of, <A HREF="#P133">133</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Development, Intellectual, in the Church, <A HREF="#P72">72</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Diocesan system, its late development in Ireland, <A HREF="#P75">75</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Dioclesian, his false boasting, <A HREF="#P62">62</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Discipline, its strictness increased by persecution, <A HREF="#P64">64</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— relaxed, <A HREF="#P68">68</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Division between East and West, <A HREF="#P95">95</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Docetae, Heresy of the, <A HREF="#P50">50</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Domitian's persecution, <A HREF="#P49">49</A>, <A HREF="#P59">59</A>
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="index">
Eastern Church, <A HREF="#P83">83</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, its want of missionary zeal, <A HREF="#P136">136</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
East and West, Division of, <A HREF="#P94">94</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Elders.
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Endowment of Church, <A HREF="#P67">67</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
England, Church of, its early history, <A HREF="#P73">73</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, in Middle Ages, <A HREF="#P142">142</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, its Liturgy, <A HREF="#P143">143</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
English Bishops at early Councils, <A HREF="#P74">74</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Ephesus, St. John at, <A HREF="#P49">49</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Heresies at, <A HREF="#P50">50</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Council of, <A HREF="#P85">85</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Liturgy of, <A HREF="#P124">124</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Third Council of, <A HREF="#P71">71</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Episcopacy, its permanent organization, <A HREF="#P46">46</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Ethiopia, Church of, <A HREF="#P82">82</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Eucharist, Daily, <A HREF="#P7">7</A>, <A HREF="#P13">13</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, the chief act of worship, <A HREF="#P14">14</A>, <A HREF="#P56">56</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Eucharistic Sacrifice, <A HREF="#P2">2</A>, <A HREF="#P3">3</A>, <A HREF="#P13">13</A>, <A HREF="#P14">14</A>, <A HREF="#P56">56</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Eutyches, his heresy, <A HREF="#P71">71</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Expectation, Days of, <A HREF="#P7">7</A>
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="index">
Fathers, value of their writings, <A HREF="#P72">72</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Ferrara, Council of, <A HREF="#P110">110</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Florence, Council of, <A HREF="#P110">110</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Forty Days, The teaching of the, <A HREF="#P6">6</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Foundation of Church, its Divine Origin, <A HREF="#P4">4</A>, <A HREF="#P7">7</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
France, Church of, its early history, <A HREF="#P77">77</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, its mediaeval history, <A HREF="#P124">124</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, its Liturgy, <A HREF="#P78">78</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
French Bishops from Asia, <A HREF="#P77">77</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
French interference in Papal affairs, <A HREF="#P107">107</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Friars, Franciscan and Dominican, in England, <A HREF="#P112">112</A>, <A HREF="#P148">148</A>
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="index">
Gallican Liturgy, <A HREF="#P124">124</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
General Councils, <A HREF="#P69">69-71</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Gentiles called into the Church, <A HREF="#P26">26</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Germany, Church of, <A HREF="#P127">127</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Gnosticism, Simon Magus the author of, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>, <A HREF="#P51">51</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— at Corinth, <A HREF="#P40">40</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— at Ephesus, <A HREF="#P51">51</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Gospels, Holy, great reverence shown to them, <A HREF="#P54">54</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
"Grecians," Who meant by, <A HREF="#P16">16</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Greek Church, What meant by, <A HREF="#P80">80</A> <I>n.</I>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, its early history, <A HREF="#P79">79</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, its mediaeval history, <A HREF="#P135">135</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— under Turkish rule, <A HREF="#P139">139</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— Empire, End of, <A HREF="#P139">139</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Greeks, their liability to heresy, <A HREF="#P79">79</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Greenland, Conversion of, <A HREF="#P135">135</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Gregory, St., <A HREF="#P103">103</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, and Church of England, <A HREF="#P142">142</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— VII., <A HREF="#P106">106</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
"Hebrews," Definition of, <A HREF="#P17">17</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— and Grecians, Dispute between, <A HREF="#P17">17</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Hegira, the Mahometan Era, <A HREF="#P89">89</A> <I>n.</I>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
"Hellenists" or "Grecians," Definition of, <A HREF="#P16">16</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Heresy, how opposed, <A HREF="#P69">69</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Hilary, St., <A HREF="#P102">102</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Hildebrand, <A HREF="#P105">105</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Hincmar, <A HREF="#P104">104</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Hungary, Church of, <A HREF="#P131">131</A>
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="index">
Iceland, Church of, <A HREF="#P133">133</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Iconoclast controversy, <A HREF="#P95">95</A>, <A HREF="#P121">121</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Ignatius, St., <A HREF="#P84">84</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Ignorance, Causes of, in Middle Ages, <A HREF="#P115">115</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Incense, its burning made a test, <A HREF="#P59">59</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, its use in heaven, <A HREF="#P55">55</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
India, Church of, <A HREF="#P87">87</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Indulgences, <A HREF="#P109">109</A>, <A HREF="#P118">118</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Innocent III., <A HREF="#P107">107</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Inquisition, Origin of, <A HREF="#P107">107</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Interdict, England placed under, <A HREF="#P147">147</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Investiture, Disputes about, <A HREF="#P106">106</A>, <A HREF="#P147">147</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Iona, Monastery of, <A HREF="#P76">76</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Ireland, Church of, its early history, <A HREF="#P74">74</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, its Liturgy and customs, <A HREF="#P78">78</A>, <A HREF="#P151">151</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, its mediaeval history, <A HREF="#P151">151</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, English influence in, <A HREF="#P152">152</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Irenaeus, St., <A HREF="#P78">78</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Irish missionary labours, <A HREF="#P151">151</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Italy, Church of, its early history, <A HREF="#P76">76</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, its mediaeval history, <A HREF="#P121">121</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, its Liturgy, <A HREF="#P123">123</A>
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="index">
James, St., the Great, his martyrdom, <A HREF="#P27">27</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— the Less, first Bishop of Jerusalem, <A HREF="#P27">27</A>, <A HREF="#P35">35</A>, <A HREF="#P83">83</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— presides at the First Council, <A HREF="#P35">35</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Jerusalem, The Apostolic Church in, <A HREF="#P27">27</A>, <A HREF="#P83">83</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, First Council at, <A HREF="#P35">35</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Second Council at, <A HREF="#P46">46</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— taken by Saracens, <A HREF="#P113">113</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Jewish Worship, and scheme of Redemption, <A HREF="#P4">4</A>, <A HREF="#P56">56</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
John, St., his special work in the Church, <A HREF="#P45">45</A>, <A HREF="#P47">47</A>, <A HREF="#P49">49</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, his sacramental teaching, <A HREF="#P47">47</A>, <A HREF="#P52">52</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, his universal patriarchate, <A HREF="#P51">51</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, his writings, <A HREF="#P51">51</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, his Epistles, <A HREF="#P52">52</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, his Revelation, <A HREF="#P52">52</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, his martyrdom in will, <A HREF="#P57">57</A> <I>n.</I>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, King, Unconstitutional conduct of, <A HREF="#P147">147</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Judicial powers first exerted in the Church, <A HREF="#P16">16</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Julian the Apostate, <A HREF="#P83">83</A>
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="index">
Koran, The, <A HREF="#P90">90</A>
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="index">
Labours, Apostolic, Extent of, <A HREF="#P43">43</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Lanfranc, <A HREF="#P146">146</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Langton, Stephen, <A HREF="#P147">147</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Lapland, Conversion of, <A HREF="#P135">135</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Latin, Use of, in Middle Ages, <A HREF="#P116">116</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Law, Christ's obedience to the, <A HREF="#P15">15</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Lay investiture, Disputes about, <A HREF="#P106">106</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Letters of Peace, <A HREF="#P64">64</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Lollards, The, <A HREF="#P149">149</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Love of the First Christians, <A HREF="#P13">13</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Luke, St., joins St. Paul, <A HREF="#P37">37</A>
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="index">
Macedonius, his heresy, <A HREF="#P70">70</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Mahometanism, <A HREF="#P88">88</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— in Spain, <A HREF="#P127">127</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Martyrdom, seeking it forbidden, <A HREF="#P63">63</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Martyrs, Immense number of the, <A HREF="#P61">61</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Matthias, St., chosen to be Apostle, <A HREF="#P8">8</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Mediaeval Church, its true state, <A HREF="#P119">119</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Meletian schism, <A HREF="#P81">81</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Middle Ages, Learning in, <A HREF="#P117">117</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Religion in, <A HREF="#P116">116</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Ministry, Christian, Three-fold nature of, <A HREF="#P2">2</A>, <A HREF="#P5">5</A> <I>n.</I>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Jewish, replaced by Christian, <A HREF="#P4">4</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Miracles, Gift of, <A HREF="#P11">11</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Monastic Orders, The, <A HREF="#P111">111</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Monasticism, its good results, <A HREF="#P112">112</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Moors in Spain, <A HREF="#P126">126</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Moravia, Church of, <A HREF="#P128">128</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Mozarabic Liturgy, <A HREF="#P127">127</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Music, its use in heaven, <A HREF="#P55">55</A>
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="index">
Nero's persecution, <A HREF="#P49">49</A> <I>n.</I>, <A HREF="#P59">59</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Nestorius, his heresy, <A HREF="#P71">71</A>, <A HREF="#P82">82</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Nicaea, Council and Creed of, <A HREF="#P70">70</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Nicolas of Antioch, <A HREF="#P18">18</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Ninian, St., his mission in Scotland, <A HREF="#P76">76</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Norman influence on English Church, <A HREF="#P146">146</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Northmen, Conversion of, <A HREF="#P124">124</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Norway, Church of, <A HREF="#P134">134</A>
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="index">
Ordinances or traditions, <A HREF="#P13">13</A> <I>n.</I>
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="index">
Paganism not revived by persecution, <A HREF="#P62">62</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Papal supremacy, its dangers, <A HREF="#P101">101</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— Supremacy in France, <A HREF="#P125">125</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— aggression, The first, <A HREF="#P102">102</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Parochial system, its late development in Ireland, <A HREF="#P75">75</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Parthia, Church of, <A HREF="#P85">85</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Passover replaced by Eucharist, <A HREF="#P3">3</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Patrick, St., his mission to Ireland, <A HREF="#P75">75</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Paul, St., Conversion of, <A HREF="#P23">23</A>.
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, his fitness for the Apostolate, <A HREF="#P24">24</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Paul, St., ordained Apostle, <A HREF="#P30">30</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, the Chief Apostle of the Gentiles, <A HREF="#P31">31</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, his first Apostolic journey, <A HREF="#P31">31</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, his second Apostolic journey, <A HREF="#P36">36</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, his third Apostolic journey, <A HREF="#P40">40</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, a prisoner, <A HREF="#P42">42</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, in England, <A HREF="#P73">73</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Martyrdom of, <A HREF="#P43">43</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Pelagianism, <A HREF="#P78">78</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Pella, Flight to, <A HREF="#P83">83</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Penances, their severity, <A HREF="#P64">64</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Pentecost, The Day of, <A HREF="#P8">8</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, The effects of, <A HREF="#P9">9</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Persecution, Causes of, <A HREF="#P57">57</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— under Herod Agrippa, <A HREF="#P27">27</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Progress of, <A HREF="#P11">11</A>, <A HREF="#P57">57</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Persecutions, Nature and extent of, <A HREF="#P61">61</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Table of, <A HREF="#P60">60</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Effect of, on the Church, <A HREF="#P63">63</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— cease under Constantine, <A HREF="#P66">66</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Persia, Church of, <A HREF="#P85">85</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Peter, St., results of his first Sermon, <A HREF="#P10">10</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, his special work in the Church, <A HREF="#P45">45</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, his first Apostolic journey, <A HREF="#P24">24</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, his imprisonment and deliverance, <A HREF="#P28">28</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Martyrdom of, <A HREF="#P43">43</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Peter the hermit, <A HREF="#P125">125</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Pharisees, their opposition to the Gospel, <A HREF="#P19">19</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Philip, St., the Deacon, <A HREF="#P21">21</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Pisa, Council of, <A HREF="#P109">109</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, English Bishops at, <A HREF="#P150">150</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Poland, Church of, <A HREF="#P132">132</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Pomerania, <A HREF="#P130">130</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Popes of the Middle Ages, <A HREF="#P102">102-111</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Worldliness of the later, <A HREF="#P110">110</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— and anti-Popes, Disputes between, <A HREF="#P109">109</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Portugal, Church of, its early history, <A HREF="#P78">78</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Church of, its mediaeval history, <A HREF="#P126">126</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Pothinus, Bishop of Lyons, <A HREF="#P77">77</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Praemunire, Statute of, <A HREF="#P149">149</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Presbyters.
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Priest, Meaning of the word, <A HREF="#P32">32</A> <I>n.</I>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Priests, First ordination of, <A HREF="#P32">32</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, their functions, <A HREF="#P33">33</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Prussia, Church of, <A HREF="#P129">129</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Purgatory, <A HREF="#P118">118</A>
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="index">
Reformation, what it was, <A HREF="#P102">102</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Longings for, <A HREF="#P123">123</A>, <A HREF="#P131">131</A>, <A HREF="#P150">150</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Reunion between East and West attempted, <A HREF="#P137">137</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Ritual, Early Christian, <A HREF="#P53">53</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— checked by persecution, <A HREF="#P63">63</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Heavenly, as shown in the Apocalypse, <A HREF="#P53">53</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— developed in prosperity, <A HREF="#P67">67</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Roman Empire, its decay, <A HREF="#P77">77</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Roman influence in Middle Ages, <A HREF="#P118">118</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— influence in Germany, <A HREF="#P131">131</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Rome, St. Paul at, <A HREF="#P42">42</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, its influence in extending the Faith, <A HREF="#P67">67</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Russia, Church of, its foundation, <A HREF="#P80">80</A>, <A HREF="#P139">139</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Church of, its independence, <A HREF="#P140">140</A>
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="index">
Sacrifice, The Christian, <A HREF="#P2">2</A>, <A HREF="#P3">3</A>, <A HREF="#P13">13</A>, <A HREF="#P14">14</A>, <A HREF="#P56">56</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Sacrifices under the patriarchal dispensation, <A HREF="#P3">3</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— under the Mosaic dispensation, <A HREF="#P3">3</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Sadducees, their opposition to the Gospel, <A HREF="#P12">12</A>, <A HREF="#P19">19</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Samaria, Conversion of, <A HREF="#P21">21</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Sarum Use, <A HREF="#P143">143</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Satan, his enmity against the Church, <A HREF="#P58">58</A>, <A HREF="#P62">62</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Saul of Tarsus, <A HREF="#P19">19</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Saxon and English Church, <A HREF="#P74">74</A>, <A HREF="#P142">142</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Scandinavian Churches, <A HREF="#P133">133</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Schism, The first, in the Church, <A HREF="#P16">16</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— between East and West, <A HREF="#P98">98</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, The forty years', <A HREF="#P109">109</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Scotland, Church of, its early history, <A HREF="#P75">75</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, its mediaeval history, <A HREF="#P152">152</A>, <A HREF="#P153">153</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Saxon influence in, <A HREF="#P152">152</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Roman influence in, <A HREF="#P153">153</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Seven Churches, The, <A HREF="#P84">84</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Simon Magus, his unbelief and end, <A HREF="#P21">21</A>, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Sin, First deadly, in the Church, <A HREF="#P16">16</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Spain, Church of, its early history, <A HREF="#P78">78</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Church of, its mediaeval history, <A HREF="#P126">126</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Church of, its Liturgy, <A HREF="#P127">127</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Stephen, St., ordained Deacon, <A HREF="#P18">18</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, his preaching and inspiration, <A HREF="#P19">19</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, results of his Martyrdom, <A HREF="#P21">21</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Supremacy, Papal claims to, <A HREF="#P100">100</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Sweden, Church of, <A HREF="#P133">133</A>
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="index">
Table of "Fields of Apostolic Labour," <A HREF="#P44">44</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— Persecutions, <A HREF="#P60">60</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— Councils, <A HREF="#P72">72</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Teaching of the Church, Reserve in, <A HREF="#P49">49</A>, <A HREF="#P63">63</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— its gradual development, <A HREF="#P49">49</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Temple Services, Attendance of the Apostles on, <A HREF="#P13">13</A>, <A HREF="#P15">15</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Temporal power of the Popes, its rise, <A HREF="#P100">100</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
"Theological Gospel," The, <A HREF="#P47">47</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Theotokos, <A HREF="#P71">71</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Timothy, St., his circumcision, <A HREF="#P37">37</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
———, Bishop of Ephesus, <A HREF="#P33">33</A>, <A HREF="#P41">41</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Titus, St., Bishop of Crete, <A HREF="#P33">33</A>, <A HREF="#P41">41</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Tongues, The gift of, <A HREF="#P9">9</A>, <A HREF="#P11">11</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Tradition, its value, <A HREF="#P13">13</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
"Traditores," <A HREF="#P64">64</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Turkey, European Church in, its early history, <A HREF="#P79">79</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
——— in Europe, Church in, its medieval history, <A HREF="#P135">135</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Turks, their inroads in the East, <A HREF="#P138">138</A>
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="index">
"Universal Bishop," Title of, <A HREF="#P95">95</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Universities in Middle Ages, <A HREF="#P117">117</A>
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="index">
Vernacular Bibles in Middle Ages, <A HREF="#P116">116</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Visigoths, Arianism of, <A HREF="#P79">79</A>
</P>
<BR><BR>
<P CLASS="index">
Waldenses, <A HREF="#P122">122</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Wales the refuge of British Clergy, <A HREF="#P74">74</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Wickliffe, <A HREF="#P149">149</A>
</P>
<P CLASS="index">
Worship, Jewish and Christian, <A HREF="#P3">3</A>
</P>
<BR><BR><BR><BR>
<hr class="full" noshade>
<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A KEY TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF CHURCH HISTORY (ANCIENT)***</p>
<p>******* This file should be named 22017-h.txt or 22017-h.zip *******</p>
<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br />
<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/2/0/1/22017">http://www.gutenberg.org/2/2/0/1/22017</a></p>
<p>Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
will be renamed.</p>
<p>Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules,
set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project
Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you
do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is
subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
redistribution.</p>
<pre>
*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license">http://www.gutenberg.org/license)</a>.
Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the
collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an
individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in
a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check
the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning
the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
States.
1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
copied or distributed:
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
1.E.9.
1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked
to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg-tm License.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or
distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
that
- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is
owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments
must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License. You must require such a user to return or
destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
Project Gutenberg-tm works.
- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
of receipt of the work.
- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the
Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
1.F.
1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
your equipment.
1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.
1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with
the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy
is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
opportunities to fix the problem.
1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS,' WITH NO OTHER
WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists
because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
people in all walks of life.
Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
and the Foundation web page at http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf.
Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at
809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact
information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
page at http://www.gutenberg.org/about/contact
For additional contact information:
Dr. Gregory B. Newby
Chief Executive and Director
gbnewby@pglaf.org
Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation
Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.
The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To
SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
particular state visit http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf
While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.
International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
To donate, please visit: http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate
Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works.
Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily
keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
Each eBook is in a subdirectory of the same number as the eBook's
eBook number, often in several formats including plain vanilla ASCII,
compressed (zipped), HTML and others.
Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks replace the old file and take over
the old filename and etext number. The replaced older file is renamed.
VERSIONS based on separate sources are treated as new eBooks receiving
new filenames and etext numbers.
Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org">http://www.gutenberg.org</a>
This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
EBooks posted prior to November 2003, with eBook numbers BELOW #10000,
are filed in directories based on their release date. If you want to
download any of these eBooks directly, rather than using the regular
search system you may utilize the following addresses and just
download by the etext year.
<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext06/">http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext06/</a>
(Or /etext 05, 04, 03, 02, 01, 00, 99,
98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 92, 91 or 90)
EBooks posted since November 2003, with etext numbers OVER #10000, are
filed in a different way. The year of a release date is no longer part
of the directory path. The path is based on the etext number (which is
identical to the filename). The path to the file is made up of single
digits corresponding to all but the last digit in the filename. For
example an eBook of filename 10234 would be found at:
http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/0/2/3/10234
or filename 24689 would be found at:
http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/6/8/24689
An alternative method of locating eBooks:
<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/GUTINDEX.ALL">http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/GUTINDEX.ALL</a>
*** END: FULL LICENSE ***
</pre>
</body>
</html>
|
