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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Psychology of Singing, by David C. Taylor
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Psychology of Singing
+       A Rational Method of Voice Culture Based on a Scientific Analysis of All Systems, Ancient and Modern
+
+
+Author: David C. Taylor
+
+
+
+Release Date: June 28, 2007  [eBook #21957]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SINGING***
+
+
+E-text prepared by David Newman, Sigal Alon, Chuck Greif, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SINGING
+
+A Rational Method of Voice Culture
+based on a Scientific Analysis of
+all Systems, Ancient and Modern
+
+by
+
+DAVID C. TAYLOR
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+New York
+1922
+All rights reserved
+
+Copyright, 1908,
+by the MacMillan Company.
+New York--Boston--Chicago--Atlanta--San Francisco
+MacMillan & Co., Limited
+London--Bombay--Calcutta--Melbourne
+The Macmillan Co. of Canada, Ltd.
+Toronto
+
+Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1908.
+Norwood Press: Berwick & Smith Co., Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+To My Mother
+
+WHOSE DEVOTION TO TRUTH AND EARNEST
+LABOR HAS PROMPTED ALL MY EFFORTS
+THIS WORK IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+A peculiar gap exists between the accepted theoretical basis of
+instruction in singing and the actual methods of vocal teachers. Judging
+by the number of scientific treatises on the voice, the academic
+observer would be led to believe that a coherent Science of Voice
+Culture has been evolved. Modern methods of instruction in singing are
+presumed to embody a system of exact and infallible rules for the
+management of the voice. Teachers of singing in all the musical centers
+of Europe and America claim to follow a definite plan in the training of
+voices, based on established scientific principles. But a practical
+acquaintance with the modern art of Voice Culture reveals the fact that
+the laws of tone-production deduced from the scientific investigation of
+the voice do not furnish a satisfactory basis for a method of training
+voices.
+
+Throughout the entire vocal profession, among singers, teachers, and
+students alike, there is a general feeling of the insufficiency of
+present knowledge of the voice. The problem of the correct management of
+the vocal organs has not been finally and definitely solved. Voice
+Culture has not been reduced to an exact science. Vocal teachers are not
+in possession of an infallible method of training voices. Students of
+singing find great difficulty in learning how to use their voices. Voice
+Culture is generally recognized as entitled to a position among the
+exact sciences; but something remains to be done before it can assume
+that position.
+
+There must be some definite reason for the failure of theoretical
+investigation to produce a satisfactory Science of Voice Culture. This
+cannot be due to any present lack of understanding of the vocal
+mechanism on the part of scientific students of the subject. The anatomy
+and physiology of the vocal organs have been exhaustively studied by a
+vast number of highly trained experts. So far as the muscular operations
+of tone-production are concerned, and the laws of acoustics bearing on
+the vocal action, no new discovery can well be expected. But in this
+very fact, the exhaustive attention paid to the mechanical operations
+of the voice, is seen the incompleteness of Vocal Science. Attention has
+been turned exclusively to the mechanical features of tone-production,
+and in consequence many important facts bearing on the voice have been
+overlooked.
+
+In spite of the general acceptance of the doctrines of Vocal Science,
+tone-production has not really been studied from the purely scientific
+standpoint. The use of the word "science" presupposes the careful
+observation and study of all facts and phenomena bearing in any way on
+the subject investigated. Viewed in this light, the scientific study of
+the voice is at once seen to be incomplete. True, the use of the voice
+is a muscular operation, and a knowledge of the muscular structure of
+the vocal organs is necessary to an understanding of the voice. But this
+knowledge alone is not sufficient. Like every other voluntary muscular
+operation, tone-production is subject to the psychological laws of
+control and guidance. Psychology is therefore of equal importance with
+anatomy and acoustics as an element of Vocal Science.
+
+There is also another line along which all previous investigation of
+the voice is singularly incomplete. An immense fund of information about
+the vocal action is obtained by attentive listening to voices, and in no
+other way. Yet this important element in Vocal Science is almost
+completely neglected.
+
+In order to arrive at an assured basis for the art of Voice Culture, it
+is necessary in the first place to apply the strictest rules of
+scientific investigation to the study of the voice. A definite plan must
+be adopted, to include every available source information. First, the
+insight into the operations of the voice, obtained by listening to
+voices, must be reviewed and analyzed. Second, the sciences of anatomy,
+mechanics, acoustics, and psychology must each contribute its share to
+the general fund of information. Third, from all the facts thus brought
+together the general laws of vocal control and management must be
+deduced.
+
+Before undertaking this exhaustive analysis of the vocal action it is
+advisable to review in detail every method of instruction in singing now
+in vogue. This may seem a very difficult task. To the casual observer
+conditions in the vocal world appear truly chaotic. Almost every
+prominent teacher believes himself to possess a method peculiarly his
+own; it would not be easy to find two masters who agree on every point,
+practical as well as theoretical. But this confusion of methods is only
+on the surface. All teachers draw the materials of their methods from
+the same sources. An outline of the history of Voice Culture, including
+the rise of the old Italian school and the development of Vocal Science,
+will render the present situation in the vocal profession sufficiently
+clear.
+
+Part I of this work contains a review of modern methods. In Part II a
+critical analysis is offered of certain theories of the vocal action
+which receive much attention in practical instruction. Several of the
+accepted doctrines of Vocal Science, notably those of breath-control,
+chest and nasal resonance, and forward placing of the tone, are found on
+examination to contain serious fallacies. More important even than the
+specific errors involved in these doctrines, the basic principle of
+modern Voice Culture is also found to be false. All methods are based on
+the theory that the voice requires to be directly and consciously
+managed in the performance of its muscular operations. When tested by
+the psychological laws of muscular guidance, this theory of mechanical
+tone-production is found to be a complete error.
+
+Part III contains a summary of all present knowledge of the voice.
+First, the insight into the singer's vocal operations is considered,
+which the hearer obtains by attentive listening to the tones produced.
+This empirical knowledge, as it is generally called, indicates a state
+of unnecessary throat tension as the cause, or at any rate the
+accompaniment, of every faulty tone. Further, an outline is given of all
+scientific knowledge of the voice. The anatomy of the vocal organs, and
+the acoustic and mechanical principles of the vocal action, are briefly
+described. Finally, the psychological laws of tone-production are
+considered. It is seen that under normal conditions the voice
+instinctively obeys the commands of the ear.
+
+In Part IV the information about the vocal action obtained from the two
+sources is combined,--the scientific knowledge of mechanical processes,
+and the empirical knowledge derived from attentive listening to voices.
+Throat stiffness is then seen to be the one influence which can
+interfere with the instinctively correct action of the voice. The most
+important cause of throat stiffness is found in the attempt consciously
+to manage the mechanical operations of the voice. In place of the
+erroneous principles of mechanical instruction, imitation is seen to be
+the rational foundation of a method of Voice Culture. The mystery
+surrounding the old Italian method is dispelled so soon as the
+possibility is recognized of teaching singing by imitation. Practical
+rules are outlined for imparting and acquiring the correct use of the
+voice, through the guidance of the sense of hearing. The singer's
+education is considered in its broadest sense, and training in
+tone-production is assigned to its proper place in the complex scheme of
+Voice Culture.
+
+During the past twenty years the author has found opportunity to hear
+most of the famous singers who have visited America, as well as a host
+of artists of somewhat lesser fame. In his early student days the
+conviction grew that the voice cannot reach its fullest development when
+mechanically used. Siegfried does not forge his sword, and at the same
+time think of his diaphragm or soft palate. Lucia cannot attend to the
+movements of her arytenoid cartilages while pouring out the trills and
+runs of her Mad Scene. A study of the theoretical works on Vocal
+Science, dealing always with mechanical action and never with tone,
+served only to strengthen this conviction. Finally the laws of
+physiological psychology were found to confirm this early belief.
+
+Every obtainable work on Voice Culture has been included in the author's
+reading. No desire must be understood to make a display of the results
+of this study. One citation from a recognized authority, or in some
+cases two or three, is held sufficient to verify each statement
+regarding the accepted doctrines of Vocal Science. As for the practical
+features of modern methods, the facts alleged cannot in every case be
+substantiated by references to published works. It is, however, believed
+that the reader's acquaintance with the subject will bear out the
+author's statements.
+
+This work is of necessity academic in conception and in substance. Its
+only purpose is to demonstrate the falsity of the idea of mechanical
+vocal management, and to prove the scientific soundness of instruction
+by imitation. There is no possibility of a practical manual of
+instruction in singing being accepted, based on the training of the ear
+and the musical education of the singer, until the vocal world has been
+convinced of the error of the mechanical idea. When that has been
+accomplished this work will have served its purpose. All of the
+controversial materials, together with much of the theoretical subject
+matter, will then be superfluous. A concise practical treatise can then
+be offered, containing all that the vocal teacher and the student of
+singing need to know about the training and management of the voice.
+
+It is in great measure due to the coöperation of my dear friend, Charles
+Leonard-Stuart, that my theory of voice production is brought into
+literary form, and presented in this book. To his thorough musicianship,
+his skill and experience as a writer of English, and especially to his
+mastery of the bookman's art, I am deeply indebted. True as I know
+Leonard-Stuart's love to be for the art of pure singing, I yet prefer to
+ascribe his unselfish interest in this work to his friendship for the
+author.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+PART I
+
+MODERN METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN SINGING
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+Tone-Production and Voice Culture
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+Breathing and Breath-Control
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+Registers and Laryngeal Action
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+Resonance
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+Empirical Materials of Modern Methods
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+A General View of Modern Voice Culture
+
+
+PART II
+
+A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF MODERN METHODS
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+Mechanical Vocal Management as the Basis of Voice Culture
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+The Fallacy of the Doctrine of Breath-Control
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+The Fallacies of Forward Emission, Chest Resonance, and
+Nasal Resonance
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+The Futility of the Materials of Modern Methods
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+The Error of the Theory of Mechanical Vocal Management
+
+
+PART III
+
+THE BASIS OF A REAL SCIENCE OF VOICE
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+The Means of Empirical Observation of the Voice
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+Sympathetic Sensations of Vocal Tone
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+Empirical Knowledge of the Voice
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+The Empirical Precepts of the Old Italian School
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+Empirical Knowledge in Modern Voice Culture
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+Scientific Knowledge of the Voice
+
+
+PART IV
+
+VOCAL SCIENCE AND PRACTICAL VOICE CULTURE
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+The Correct Vocal Action
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+The Causes of Throat Stiffness and of Incorrect Vocal Action
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+Throat Stiffness and Incorrect Singing
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+The True Meaning of Vocal Training
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+Imitation the Rational Basis of Voice Culture
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+The Old Italian Method
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+The Disappearance of the Old Italian Method and the Development
+of Mechanical Instruction
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+The Materials of Rational Instruction in Singing
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+Outlines of a Practical Method of Voice Culture
+
+Bibliography
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+TONE-PRODUCTION AND VOICE CULTURE
+
+
+In no other form of expression do art and nature seem so closely
+identified as in the art of singing. A perfect voice speaks so directly
+to the soul of the hearer that all appearance of artfully prepared
+effect is absent. Every tone sung by a consummate vocal artist seems to
+be poured forth freely and spontaneously. There is no evidence of
+calculation, of carefully directed effort, of attention to the workings
+of the voice, in the tones of a perfect singer. Yet if the accepted idea
+of Voice Culture is correct, this semblance of spontaneity in the use of
+the voice can result only from careful and incessant attention to
+mechanical rules. That the voice must be managed or handled in some way
+neither spontaneous nor instinctive, is the settled conviction of almost
+every authority on the subject. All authorities believe also that this
+manner of handling the voice must be acquired by every student of
+singing, in the course of carefully directed study.
+
+This training in the use of the voice is the most important feature of
+education in singing. Voice Culture embraces a peculiar and distinct
+problem, that of the correct management of the vocal organs. Vocal
+training has indeed come to be considered synonymous with training in
+the correct use of the voice. Every method of instruction in singing
+must contain as its most important element some means for dealing with
+the problem of tone-production.
+
+No complete and satisfactory solution of this problem has ever been
+found. Of this fact every one acquainted with the practical side of
+Voice Culture must be well aware. As the present work is designed solely
+to suggest a new manner of dealing with this question, it is advisable
+to define precisely what is meant by the problem of tone-production.
+
+In theory the question may be stated very simply. It is generally
+believed throughout the vocal profession that the voice has one correct
+mode of action, different from a wide variety of incorrect actions of
+which it is capable;--that this mode of action, though ordained by
+Nature, is not in the usual sense natural or instinctive;--that the
+correct vocal action must be acquired, through a definite understanding
+and conscious management of the muscular movements involved. The
+theoretical problem therefore is: What is the correct vocal action, and
+how can it be acquired?
+
+On the practical side, the nature of the problem is by no means so
+simple. In actual instruction in singing, the subject of vocal
+management cannot readily be dissociated from the wide range of other
+topics comprised in the singer's education. In much that pertains to the
+art of music, the singer's training must include the same subjects that
+form the training of every musician. In addition to this general musical
+training, about the same for all students of music, each student must
+acquire technical command of the chosen instrument. This is necessarily
+acquired by practice on the instrument, whether it be piano, violin,
+oboe, or whatever else. In the same way, vocal technique is acquired by
+practice in actual singing. Practice makes perfect, with the voice as
+with everything else.
+
+But the voice is not invariably subject to the law that practice makes
+perfect. In this important respect the singer's education presents a
+problem not encountered by the student of any instrument. Given the
+necessary talents, industry, and opportunities for study, the student of
+the violin may count with certainty on acquiring the mastery of this
+instrument. But for the vocal student this is not necessarily true.
+There are many cases in which practice in singing does not bring about
+technical perfection. The mere singing of technical exercises is not
+enough; it is of vital importance that the exercises be sung in some
+particular manner. There is one certain way in which the voice must be
+handled during the practice of singing. If the vocal organs are
+exercised in this particular manner, the voice will improve steadily as
+the result of practice. This progress will continue until perfect
+technical command of the voice is acquired. But if the vocal student
+fails to hit upon this particular way of handling the voice in practice
+the voice will improve little, or not at all. In such a case perfect
+vocal technique will never be acquired, no matter how many years the
+practice may continue.
+
+What is this peculiar way in which the voice must be handled during the
+practice of singing? This is the practical problem of tone-production,
+as it confronts the student of singing.
+
+It is important that the exact bearing of the problem be clearly
+understood. It is purely a feature of education in singing, and concerns
+only teachers and students of the art. Properly speaking, the finished
+singer should leave the teacher and start on the artistic career,
+equipped with a voice under perfect control. There should be no problem
+of tone-production for the trained singer, no thought or worry about the
+vocal action. True, many authorities on the voice maintain that the
+artist must, in all singing, consciously and intelligently guide the
+operations of the vocal organs. But even if this be the case the fact
+remains that this ability to manage the voice must be acquired during
+student days. In seeking a solution of the problem, that period in the
+prospective singer's training must be considered during which the proper
+use of the voice is learned.
+
+It may be taken for granted that teachers of singing have always been
+aware of the existence of the problem of tone-production, and have
+always instructed their pupils in the correct management of the voice.
+Yet it is only within the past hundred and fifty years that vocal
+management has been the subject of special study. A brief review of the
+history of Voice Culture will serve to bring this fact out clearly.
+
+To begin with, the present art of singing is of comparatively recent
+origin. It is indeed probable that man had been using the voice in
+something akin to song for thousands of years before the dawn of
+history. Song of some kind has always played an important part in human
+life, savage as well as civilized. To express our emotions and feelings
+by means of the voice is one of our most deep-seated instincts. For this
+use of the voice to take on the character of melody, as distinguished
+from ordinary speech, is also purely instinctive. Singing was one of the
+most zealously cultivated arts in early Egypt, in ancient Israel, and in
+classic Greece and Rome. Throughout all the centuries of European
+history singing has always had its recognized place, both in the
+services of the various churches and in the daily life of the people.
+
+But solo singing, as we know it to-day, is a comparatively modern art.
+Not until the closing decades of the sixteenth century did the art of
+solo singing receive much attention, and it is to that period we must
+look for the beginnings of Voice Culture. It is true that the voice was
+cultivated, both for speech and song, among the Greeks and Romans.
+Gordon Holmes, in his _Treatise on Vocal Physiology and Hygiene_
+(London, 1879), gives an interesting account of these ancient systems of
+Voice Culture. But practically nothing has come down to us about the
+means then used for training the voice. Even if any defined methods were
+developed, it is absolutely certain that these had no influence on the
+modern art of Voice Culture.
+
+With the birth of Italian opera, in 1600, a new art of singing also came
+into existence. The two arts, opera and singing, developed side by side,
+each dependent on the other. And most important to the present inquiry,
+the art or science of training voices also came into being. In _Le
+Revoluzioni del Teatro Musicale Italiano_ (Venice, 1785), Arteaga says
+of the development of opera: "But nothing contributed so much to clarify
+Italian music at that time as the excellence and the abundance of the
+singers." A race of singing masters seems almost to have sprung up in
+Italy. These illustrious masters taught the singers to produce effects
+with their voices such as had never been heard of before. From 1600 to
+1750 the progress of the art of singing was uninterrupted. Each great
+teacher carried the art a little further, discovering new beauties and
+powers in the voice, and finding means to impart his new knowledge to
+his pupils.
+
+This race of teachers is known to-day as the Old Italian School, and
+their system of instruction is called the Old Italian Method. Just what
+this method consisted of is a much-discussed question. Whatever its
+system of instruction, the old Italian school seems to have suffered a
+gradual decline. In 1800 it was distinctly on the wane; it was entirely
+superseded, during the years from 1840 to 1865, by the modern scientific
+methods.
+
+Considered as a practical system of Voice Culture, the old Italian
+method is a highly mysterious subject. Little is now known about the
+means used for training students of singing in the correct use of the
+voice. This much is fairly certain: the old masters paid little or no
+attention to what are now considered scientific principles. They taught
+in what modern vocal theorists consider a rather haphazard fashion. The
+term "empirical" is often applied to their method, and to the knowledge
+of the voice on which it was based.[1] But as to what the old masters
+actually knew about the voice, and just how they taught their pupils to
+sing, on these points the modern world is in almost complete ignorance.
+Many attempts have been made in recent years to reconstruct the old
+Italian method in the light of modern scientific knowledge of the voice.
+But no such analysis of the empirical system has ever been convincing.
+
+[Note 1: "The old Italian method of instruction, to which vocal
+music owed its high condition, was purely empirical." (Emma Seiler, _The
+Voice in Singing_. Phila., 1886.)]
+
+How the practical method of the old masters came to be forgotten is
+perhaps the most mysterious feature of this puzzling system. There has
+been a lineal succession of teachers of singing, from the earlier
+decades of the eighteenth century down to the present. Even to-day it is
+almost unheard of that any one should presume to call himself a teacher
+of singing without having studied with at least one recognized master.
+Each master of the old school imparted his knowledge and his practical
+method to his pupils. Those of his pupils who in their turn became
+teachers passed the method on to their students, and so on, in many
+unbroken successions. Yet, for some mysterious reason, the substance of
+the old method was lost in transmission.
+
+What little is now known about the old method is derived from two
+sources, the written record and tradition. To write books in explanation
+of their system of instruction does not seem to have occurred to the
+earliest exponents of the art of Voice Culture. The first published work
+on the subject was that of Pietro Francesco Tosi, _Osservazione sopra il
+Canto figurato_, brought out in Bologna in 1723. This was translated
+into English by M. Galliard, and published in London in 1742; a German
+translation by J. F. Agricola was issued in 1757. The present work will
+call for several citations from Tosi, all taken from the English
+edition. Only one other prominent teacher of the old school, G. B.
+Mancini, has left an apparently complete record of his method. His
+_Riflessioni pratiche sul Canto figurato_ was published in Milan in
+1776. Mancini's book has never been translated into English. Reference
+will therefore be made to the third Italian edition, brought out in
+Milan, 1777.
+
+Tosi and Mancini undoubtedly intended to give complete accounts of the
+methods of instruction in singing in vogue in their day. But modern
+vocal theorists generally believe that the most important materials of
+instruction were for some reason not mentioned. Three registers are
+mentioned by Tosi, while Mancini speaks of only two. Both touch on the
+necessity of equalizing the registers, but give no specific directions
+for this purpose. About all these early writers have left us, in the
+opinion of most modern students of their works, is the outline of an
+elaborate system of vocal ornaments and embellishments.
+
+On the side of tradition a slightly more coherent set of rules has come
+down to us from the old masters. These are generally known as the
+"traditional precepts." Just when the precepts were first formulated it
+is impossible to say. Tosi and Mancini do not mention them. Perhaps they
+were held by the old masters as a sort of esoteric mystery; this idea is
+occasionally put forward. At any rate, by the time the traditional
+precepts were given to the world in published works on the voice, their
+valuable meaning had been completely lost.
+
+Gathered from all available sources, the traditional precepts are as
+follows:
+
+"Sing on the breath."
+
+"Open the throat."
+
+"Sing the tone forward," or "at the lips."
+
+"Support the tone."
+
+To the layman these precepts are so vague as to be almost
+unintelligible. But modern vocal teachers are convinced that the
+precepts sum up the most important means used by the old masters for
+imparting the correct vocal action. An interpretation of the precepts in
+terms intelligible to the modern student would therefore be extremely
+valuable. Many scientific investigators of the voice have sought
+earnestly to discover the sense in which the precepts were applied by
+the old masters. These explanations of the traditional precepts occupy a
+very important position in most modern methods of instruction.
+
+There can be no question that the old masters were highly successful
+teachers of singing. Even leaving out of consideration the vocal
+achievements of the castrati, the singers of Tosi's day must have been
+able to perform music of the florid style in a masterly fashion. This is
+plainly seen from a study of the scores of the operas popular at that
+time. Empirical methods of instruction seem to have sufficed for the
+earlier masters. Not until the old method had been in existence for
+nearly one hundred and fifty years does an attempt seem to have been
+made to study the voice scientifically. In 1741 a famous French
+physician, Ferrein, published a treatise on the vocal organs. This was
+the first scientific work to influence the practices of vocal teachers.
+
+For many years after the publication of Ferrein's treatise, the
+scientific study of the voice attracted very little attention from the
+singing masters. Fully sixty years elapsed before any serious attempt
+was made to base a method of instruction on scientific principles. Even
+then the idea of scientific instruction in singing gained ground very
+slowly. Practical teachers at first paid but little attention to the
+subject. Interest in the mechanics of voice production was confined
+almost entirely to the scientists.
+
+In the early decades of the nineteenth century the mechanical features
+of voice production seem to have appealed to a constantly wider circle
+of scientists. Lickovius (1814), Malgaine (1831), Bennati (1830), Bell
+(1832), Savart (1825), brought out works on the subject. It remained,
+however, for a vocal teacher, Garcia, to conceive the idea of basing
+practical instruction on scientific knowledge.
+
+Manuel Garcia (1805-1906) may justly be regarded as the founder of Vocal
+Science. His father, Manuel del Popolo Viscenti, was famous as singer,
+impresario, and teacher. From him Garcia inherited the old method, it is
+safe to assume, in its entirety. But for Garcia's remarkable mind the
+empirical methods of the old school were unsatisfactory. He desired
+definite knowledge of the voice. A clear idea seems to have been in his
+mind that, with full understanding of the vocal mechanism and of its
+correct mode of action, voices would be more readily and surely trained.
+How strongly this idea had possession of Garcia is shown by the fact
+that he began the study of the vocal action in 1832, and that he
+invented the laryngoscope only in 1855.
+
+It must not be understood that Garcia was the first teacher to attempt
+to formulate a systematic scheme of instruction in singing. In the
+works of Mannstein (1834) and of Marx (1823) an ambitious forward
+movement on the part of many prominent teachers is strongly indicated.
+But Garcia was the first teacher to apply scientific principles in
+dealing with the specific problem of tone-production. He conceived the
+idea that a scientific knowledge of the workings of the vocal organs
+might be made the basis of a practical system or method of instruction
+in singing. This idea of Garcia has been the basic principle of all
+practical methods, ever since the publication of the results of his
+first laryngoscopic investigations in 1855.
+
+Before attempting to suggest a new means of dealing with the problem of
+vocal management, it is well to ascertain how this problem is treated in
+modern methods of instruction. It would not be easy to overstate the
+importance assigned to the matter of tone-production in all modern
+systems of Voice Culture. The scientific study of the voice has dealt
+exclusively with this subject. A new science has resulted, commonly
+called "Vocal Science." This science is generally accepted as the
+foundation of all instruction in singing. All modern methods are to
+some extent based on Vocal Science.
+
+To arrive at an understanding of modern methods, the two directions in
+which vocal theorists have approached the scientific study of the voice
+must be borne in mind: First, by an investigation of the anatomy of the
+vocal organs, and of the laws of acoustics and mechanics in accordance
+with which they operate. Second, by an analysis of the traditional
+precepts of the old Italian school in the light of this scientific
+knowledge.
+
+As the present work demands a review of modern methods from the
+practical side only, it is not necessary to include a description of the
+vocal organs. It will be sufficient to describe briefly the manner in
+which scientific investigators of the voice treat the subject of the
+vocal organs.
+
+The vocal mechanism consists of three portions,--the breathing
+apparatus, the larynx with its appendages, and the resonance cavities.
+Vocal scientists apply their efforts to finding out the correct mode of
+action of each portion of the mechanism, and to formulating rules and
+exercises by which these correct actions can be acquired and combined
+for the production of perfect tones. The analysis of the traditional
+precepts also conforms to this general plan; each precept is referred to
+that portion of the vocal apparatus to which it seems best to apply. The
+outline of the principles of modern methods contained in the following
+chapters follows this general scheme.
+
+It must be understood at the start that on most of the doctrines
+included in Vocal Science there is no unanimity of opinion among either
+theorists or teachers. Far from this being the case, practically all the
+principles of Vocal Science are the subjects of controversy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+BREATHING AND BREATH-CONTROL
+
+
+It is generally considered that, as the breath is the foundation of
+singing, the manner of breathing is of vital importance to the singer.
+This subject has therefore received a vast amount of attention from
+vocal scientists, and the muscular actions of breathing have been
+exhaustively studied.
+
+Several sets of rules for inspiration and expiration are put forth by
+different authorities. But there is no occasion for going into a
+detailed discussion of the different modes of breathing advocated by the
+various schools, or of the theoretical arguments which each advances. It
+is sufficient to say that the modes of breathing most in vogue are five
+in number,--deep abdominal, lateral or costal, fixed high chest,
+clavicular, and diaphragmatic-abdominal. However, on experimenting with
+these five systems of breathing, it is found that the number may be
+reduced to two; of these the others are but slight modifications. In
+one system of inspiration the abdomen is protruded, while the upper
+chest is held firm, the greatest expansion being at the base of the
+lungs. In the other mode of taking breath the abdomen is slightly drawn
+in, while the chest is expanded in every direction, upward, laterally,
+forward, and backward. In this system the upper chest is held in a fixed
+and high position.
+
+Necessarily the manner of filling the lungs involves the manner in which
+they are emptied. Opinions are practically unanimous as to the proper
+position of the singer before taking breath, that is, at the end of an
+expiration. The singer must stand erect, the weight of the body evenly
+supported on the balls of both feet, with the whole body in a condition
+of lithe suppleness. In both systems of breathing the manner of
+expiration is simply a return to this position.
+
+A wide variety of breathing exercises are in use, but these do not
+require detailed description. Any one of the prescribed systems of
+breathing can easily be adopted, and the student of singing seldom
+encounters any difficulty on this point. Still most teachers attach
+great importance to the acquirement of the correct manner of breathing.
+Toneless mechanical exercises are generally given, by which the student
+is expected to master the muscular movements before applying in singing
+the system advocated by the teacher. These exercises are usually
+combined with those for breath-control, and they are described under
+that head.
+
+_Breath-Control_
+
+Very early in the development of Vocal Science the management of the
+breath began to receive attention. Mannstein,[2] writing in 1834, says:
+"The air in expiration must stream from the chest slowly and without
+shock. The air must flow from the chest with the tone." In a footnote he
+adds: "In order to acquire this economy of the breath, students were
+required to practise daily, without singing, to take and to hold back
+the breath as long as possible." Mannstein does not mention the muscular
+action involved in this exercise.
+
+[Note 2: _Die grosse italienische Gesangschule._ Dresden, 1834.]
+
+This subject is also touched upon by Garcia. In the first edition of his
+_École de Garcia_, 1847, Chap. IV, p. 14, he says: "The mechanism of
+expiration consists of a gentle pressure on the lungs charged with air,
+operated by the thorax and the diaphragm. The shock of the chest, the
+sudden falling of the ribs, and the quick relaxing of the diaphragm
+cause the air to escape instantly.... If, while the lungs are filled
+with air, the ribs are allowed to fall, and the diaphragm to rise, the
+lungs instantly give up the inspired air, like a pressed sponge. It is
+necessary therefore to allow the ribs to fall and the diaphragm to relax
+only so much as is required to sustain the tones." It may be questioned
+whether Garcia had in mind the doctrine of breath-control as this is
+understood to-day. Very little attention was paid, at any rate, in the
+vocal instruction of that day, to the mechanical actions of
+breath-control; the great majority of teachers probably had never heard
+of this principle.
+
+As a definite principle of Vocal Science, breath-control was first
+formulated by Dr. Mandl, in his _Die Gesundheitslehre der Stimme_,
+Brunswick, 1876. From that time on, this doctrine has been very
+generally recognized as the fundamental principle of correct singing.
+Practically every scientific writer on the voice since then states
+breath-control as one of the basic principles of Vocal Science. The most
+influential published work in popularizing the doctrine of
+breath-control was probably the book written jointly by Lennox Browne
+and Emil Behnke, _Voice, Song, and Speech_, London, 1883.
+
+This doctrine is of so much importance in Vocal Science and in modern
+methods of instruction as to require a detailed explanation. The theory
+of breath-control may be stated as follows:[3]
+
+"In ordinary breathing the air is expelled from the lungs quietly, but
+rapidly; at no point of the breathing apparatus does the expired breath
+meet with resistance. In singing, on the contrary, the expiratory
+pressure is much more powerful, yet the expiration must be much slower.
+Furthermore, all the expired breath must be converted into tone, and the
+singer must have perfect control over the strength and the speed of the
+expiration. This requires that the air be held back at some point. The
+action of holding back the breath must not be performed by the muscles
+which close the glottis, for all the muscles of the larynx are very
+small and weak in comparison with the powerful muscles of expiration.
+The glottis-closing muscles are too weak to oppose their action to the
+force of a powerful expiration. If the vocal cords are called upon to
+withstand a strong breath pressure, they are seriously strained, and
+their proper action is rendered impossible. In the same way, if the
+throat be narrowed at any point above the larynx, so as to present a
+passage small enough to hold back a powerful expiration, the entire
+vocal mechanism is strained and forced out of its proper adjustment. The
+singer must have perfect control of the breath, and at the same time
+relieve the larynx and throat of all pressure and strain. To obtain this
+control the singer must govern the expiration by means of the muscles of
+inspiration. When the lungs are filled the inspiratory muscles are not
+to be relaxed as in ordinary breathing, but are to be held on tension
+throughout the action of expiration. Whatever pressure is exerted by the
+expiratory muscles must be almost counterbalanced by the opposed action
+of the muscles of inspiration. The more powerful the blast, the greater
+must be the exertion by which it is controlled. In this way the singer
+may have perfect control both of the speed and of the strength of the
+expiration."
+
+[Note 3: This statement of the doctrine of breath-control must not
+be construed as an endorsement of the theory of the vocal action
+embodied in this doctrine. On the contrary, both the theory of "opposed
+action" breath-control and the "breath-band" theory are held to be
+utterly erroneous. For a further discussion of this subject see Chapter
+II of Part II.]
+
+The exercises for acquiring command of this "opposed action
+breath-control" are easily understood; indeed, they will readily suggest
+themselves to one who has grasped their purpose. Most important of these
+exercises is a quick inspiration, followed by a slow and controlled
+expiration. Exercises for breathing and breath-control are usually
+combined; the student is instructed to take breath in the manner
+advocated by the teacher, and then to control the expiration.
+
+Teachers usually require their pupils to obtain command of this action
+as a toneless exercise before permitting them to apply it to the
+production of tone. Methods vary greatly as to the length of time
+devoted to toneless drills in breathing and breath-control. Many
+teachers demand that students practise these exercises daily throughout
+the entire course of study, and even recommend that this practice be
+continued throughout the singer's active life.
+
+Simple as these exercises are in theory, they demand very arduous
+practice. Control of the breath by "opposed action" is hard and tiring
+muscular work, as the reader may easily convince himself by practising
+the above described exercise for a few minutes.
+
+No special rules are needed for applying this mode of breathing to the
+production of tone. Theoretical writers generally do not claim that the
+control of the breath brings about the correct laryngeal action, but
+merely that it permits this action by noninterference. Several
+authorities however, notably Shakespeare, maintain that in effect this
+system of breath-control embodies the old precept, "Sing on the breath."
+(Wm. Shakespeare, _The Art of Singing_, London, 1898, p. 24.) Other
+theorists hold that the empirical precept, "Support the tone," refers to
+this manner of controlled expiration. (G. B. Lamperti, _The Technics of
+Bel Canto_, Trans. by Dr. Th. Baker, N. Y., 1905, p. 9.)
+
+_The "Breath-band" System_
+
+While most authorities on the voice advocate the system of
+breath-control by "opposed muscular action," there are a number of
+masters who teach an entirely different system. This is usually known as
+the "Breath-band," or "Ventricular" breath-control. Charles Lunn, in
+_The Philosophy of the Voice_, 1878, was the first to propound the
+theory that the breath may be controlled by the false vocal cords. There
+is reason to believe that this idea was also worked out independently by
+Orlando Steed ("On Beauty of Touch and Tone," _Proceedings of the
+Musical Assn._, 1879-80, p. 47). As a number of prominent teachers base
+their entire methods on this theory, it is worthy of careful attention.
+The "breath-band" theory may be stated as follows:
+
+"When the lungs are filled by a deep inspiration and the breath is held,
+the glottis is of necessity closed so tightly that no air can escape. In
+this condition the expiratory muscles may be very violently contracted,
+and still no air will escape; indeed, the greater the strength exerted
+the tighter is the closure of the glottis. Obviously, this closure of
+the glottis cannot be effected by the contraction of the glottis-closing
+muscles, strictly speaking, for these muscles are too small and weak to
+withstand the powerful air pressure exerted against the vocal cords.[4]
+The point of resistance is located just above the vocal cords. The
+sudden air pressure exerted on the interior walls of the larynx by the
+expiratory contraction causes the ventricles of the larynx to expand by
+inflation. This inflation of the ventricles brings their upper margins,
+formed by the false vocal cords, into contact. Thus the opening from the
+larynx into the pharynx is closed. This closure is not effected by any
+muscular contraction, therefore it is not dependent on the strength of
+the muscular fibers of the false vocal cords. It is an automatic
+valvular action, directly under voluntary control so far as the
+contraction of the expiratory muscles is concerned, but independent of
+volition as regards the action of the false vocal cords. On account of
+their important function in this operation the false vocal cords are
+called the 'breath-bands.' Closure of the glottis by the inflation of
+the ventricles imposes no strain on the vocal cords.
+
+[Note 4: One of the strongest arguments of the "breath-band"
+advocates is based on this action,--the resistance of the closed glottis
+to a powerful expiratory pressure. The theory of breath-control by
+"opposed muscular action" takes no cognizance of this operation. It will
+however be shown in Chapter II of Part II that the "breath-band"
+theorists are mistaken in asserting that the action of holding the
+breath is not performed by the glottis-closing muscles.]
+
+"Control of the breath in singing is effected by this automatic valvular
+action. To produce a tone according to this system, the lungs must be
+filled and the breath held in the manner just described, while the vocal
+cords are brought to the proper degree of tension; then the tone is
+started by allowing the 'breath-bands' to separate very slightly, so
+that a thin stream of air is forced through the opening between their
+margins. The tone is ushered in by a slight explosive sound, which is
+nothing but the well-known stroke of the glottis. So long as the
+expiratory pressure is steadily maintained, this tone may be held, and
+yet no strain is imposed on the vocal cords. Perfect control of the
+breath is thus attained. For a powerful tone, the breath blast is
+greater, therefore the ventricles are more widely inflated, and the
+opening between the 'breath-bands' becomes narrower. The action is
+always automatic; once the tone is correctly started, the singer need
+pay no further attention to the operation of the 'breath-bands.' All
+that is necessary is to maintain a steady breath pressure."
+
+In the methods of all the "breath-band" advocates, the first and most
+important step toward perfect tone-production is held to be the
+acquirement of this automatic breath-control. As in the "opposed
+muscular" system, the initial exercises are toneless drills in
+breathing. The basic exercise, of which all the others are variations,
+is as follows: "Fill the lungs, then hold the breath an instant, and
+forcibly contract all the chest muscles. Then force the air out slowly
+and powerfully through the glottis." Practice of this exercise is always
+accompanied by a hissing sound, caused by the escape of the air through
+the narrow slit between (presumably) the "breath-bands." Tone-production
+by the same muscular action is very simple, and requires no further
+explanation.
+
+In its practical aspect this system of breath-control is the direct
+opposite of the "opposed muscular" system. In one the breath is expelled
+powerfully, the object being to bring a strong expiratory pressure to
+bear on the larynx. In the other system, the air is held back, in order
+that the larynx be exposed to as slight a pressure as possible.
+
+The "breath-band" advocates hold that the glottic stroke is the key to
+correct laryngeal action. As a rule they instruct their pupils to attack
+every tone, throughout all their practising, with the stroke of the
+glottis. In the course of time the automatic valvular action is supposed
+to become so well established that the singer can dispense with the
+glottic stroke in public performance. Needless to say, these teachers
+usually recognize that this explosive sound is very harsh and unmusical,
+and utterly out of place in artistic singing.
+
+An important claim of the "breath-band" teachers is that their doctrine
+contains the explanation of the traditional precept, "Support the tone."
+Their idea is that the throat, being "firmly set," furnishes a secure
+base for the tone to rest on. This explanation is of course utterly
+unscientific, and it cannot be said to throw any light on the meaning of
+the precept. "Singing on the breath" is also referred to this system of
+breath-control, but with no more coherence than the "Support of the
+tone."
+
+No necessary connection obtains between systems of breath-control and
+those of breathing strictly speaking, that is, of inspiration. As has
+been said, the great majority of vocal theorists adhere to the "opposed
+muscular action" breath-control. In this number are included advocates
+of every known system of breathing. Bitter controversies have been
+carried on between champions of different modes of breathing, who yet
+agree that the breath must be controlled by "opposed action." This is
+also true, although not to the same extent, among the "breath-band"
+teachers. And to render the confusion on the subject of breathing and
+breath-control complete, instances might be cited of controversies
+between teachers who agree as to the correct mode of inspiration, and
+yet disagree on the manner of controlling the expiration.
+
+Both systems of breath-control cannot be right; if one is correct, the
+other must necessarily be absolutely wrong. Instead of attempting to
+decide between them, it will be seen that both are false, and that the
+theory on which they rest is erroneous. This discussion is reserved for
+a later chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+REGISTERS AND LARYNGEAL ACTION
+
+
+Probably no other topic of Vocal Science has been studied so earnestly
+as the registers of the voice. Yet on no other topic is there such wide
+diversity of opinion among theorists and investigators.
+
+Very little is definitely known regarding the manner in which the
+subject of registers was treated by the old Italian masters. Suffice it
+to say here that the old masters did not refer the registers to changes
+in the laryngeal action. They were treated simply as different qualities
+of tone, each quality best adapted to be sung only in a portion of the
+voice's compass.
+
+In the early decades of the nineteenth century the registers of the
+voice received much attention from vocal theorists, especially in Paris.
+Garcia's first published work, _Mémoire sur la Voix humaine_, was
+presented to the Academy of Sciences in 1840. This Mémoire gives the
+results of observations which Garcia made on his own pupils; it deals
+mainly with the position of the larynx during the singing of tones in
+the various registers. Garcia describes how the larynx is raised and
+lowered in the throat, according to the register in which the tones are
+produced. He also notes the position of the tongue and the soft palate.
+
+Widespread interest was awakened by the account of Garcia's
+laryngoscopic investigations of the registers, published in 1855. The
+attention of the great majority of vocalists was at once drawn to the
+subject, and the actions of the vocal cords in the different registers
+were studied by many prominent physicians and voice specialists.
+Exhaustive treatises on the registers have since been published by Mme.
+Seiler, Behnke, Curwen, Mills, Battaille, Curtis, Holmes, and by a large
+number of other investigators.
+
+All the results of the laryngoscopic investigation of the vocal action
+have been disappointing in the extreme. In the first place, no two
+observers have obtained exactly the same results. Writing in 1886, Sir
+Morell Mackenzie says: "Direct observation with the laryngoscope is, of
+course, the best method at our disposal, but that even its testimony is
+far from unexceptionable is obvious from the marvelous differences as to
+matters of _fact_ that exist among observers. It is hardly too much to
+say that no two of them quite agree as to what is seen." (_The Hygiene
+of the Vocal Organs_, London, 1886.) Wesley Mills, in his latest work,
+endeavors to show a substantial agreement among the best equipped
+observers of the registers, but his attempt can hardly be called
+convincing. (_Voice Production in Singing and Speaking_, Philadelphia,
+1906.) Opinions on the subject of registers, held by the leading voice
+specialists to-day, are fully as divergent as in 1886. Widely different
+statements are made by prominent authorities as to the number of
+registers, the vocal cord action by which each register is produced, and
+the number of notes which each one should properly include.
+
+Another deficiency of the doctrine of registers is even more serious in
+its bearing on practical instruction. Not only have all investigators
+failed to define exactly what the correct laryngeal action is. Even if
+this were determined it would still be necessary to find means for
+imparting command of this correct action to the student of singing.
+Knowing how the vocal cords should act does not help the singer in the
+least to govern their action. What the vocal student wishes to know is
+how to cause the vocal cords to assume the correct position for each
+register. On this, the most important topic of mechanical Voice Culture,
+Vocal Science has shed no light whatever. A student may hear
+descriptions of the laryngeal action, and study the highly interesting
+laryngoscopic photographs of the vocal cords, until thoroughly familiar
+with the theoretical side of the subject. Even then, the student is no
+better able to control the vocal cord action than when profoundly
+ignorant of the whole matter.
+
+This deficiency of Vocal Science is frankly recognized by one of the
+latest authoritative writers on the subject, Dr. Wesley Mills. On page
+173 of his work just quoted, he advises students to _hear the great
+singers_, to note carefully the _quality of tone_ which characterizes
+each register, and to _imitate these qualities_ with their own voices.
+This advice may almost be described as revolutionary. Vocal theorists
+have always assumed that the correct action cannot be acquired by
+imitation. In this advice to rely on the imitative faculty for acquiring
+control of the laryngeal action, Dr. Mills abandons the basic principle
+of modern methods. Without exception, all instruction in singing is
+to-day based on the idea of mechanical tone-production. An entirely new
+theory of Voice Culture is involved in this advice of Dr. Mills.
+
+Turning to practical methods of instruction, it is found that the
+subject of registers is very seldom treated in the manner suggested by
+the theoretical works on the voice. This would be, to make the "placing"
+of the voice in the different registers the exclusive subject of
+instruction for a certain number of lessons;--to train each register of
+the voice separately;--when the correct vocal cord action had been
+established in each register, to unite the different registers, and to
+correct any "breaks" which might have developed. Comparatively few
+teachers attempt to follow this course. The great majority treat the
+registers in a much less systematic fashion. A single half-hour lesson
+usually includes explanations and exercises on several topics of
+mechanical tone-production, as well as hints on agility, style,
+execution, etc. As merely one of this variety of subjects, the
+registers usually receive rather desultory attention.
+
+Some teachers profess to ignore the subject of registers entirely. They
+maintain that, when properly trained from the beginning, the compass of
+the voice is one homogeneous whole; "breaks" and changes of quality are
+in their opinion merely the results of bad instruction. But the general
+belief of vocal authorities is overwhelmingly against these teachers.
+The condition which they describe is without doubt the ideal of vocal
+management; but the vast majority of teachers believe that this
+condition cannot be attained without some attention being paid to the
+individual registers.
+
+Most teachers recognize either two registers,--chest and head; or
+three,--chest, middle, and head. Comparatively few extremists recognize
+more than three. Several sets of names for the registers have been
+proposed by vocal theorists,--thick and thin, long reed and short reed,
+high and low, etc. But these names have not been adopted by teachers to
+any extent.
+
+One important phase of the registers has not received much attention
+from the laryngoscopic investigators. This is, that most of the notes of
+the voice's compass can be produced at will in more than one register.
+Vocal teachers as a rule recognize this fact. Julius Stockhausen for
+instance, in his _Gesangsmethode_ (Leipzig, 1884), says: "The registers
+cross each other. The two principal registers of the voice have many
+tones in common. The perfect blending of the registers on a single tone
+leads to the _crescendo_, called in Italian the _messa di voce_."
+Teachers generally do not set hard and fast limits to the extent of each
+register; they direct that in singing up the scale the student pass
+gradually from chest to middle, middle to head voice, etc.
+
+In most practical methods the chest register occupies about the same
+position; this is also true of the head register. Even those teachers
+who profess to ignore registers recognize these two distinct qualities
+of tone; they instruct their pupils to sing low notes in one quality,
+and high notes in the other. This is in fact the general practice. In
+this connection the topics of registers and resonance are often
+combined. The terms "head voice," "head register," and "nasal
+resonance," are used interchangeably by the great majority of teachers.
+This is also true of the expressions "chest voice," "chest resonance,"
+and "chest register."
+
+In practical instruction, the extending of the compass of the voice is
+usually treated, rather loosely perhaps in most cases, as a feature of
+the registers. Methods vary greatly in points of detail, but in most of
+them instruction on this topic is given along the same general lines.
+Usually the three classes of voices receive different treatment, one
+form of instruction being used for sopranos and tenors, another for
+mezzo-sopranos and baritones, and a third for altos and bassos.
+
+In teaching students with high voices, teachers usually "place"[5] the
+medium notes first, roughly speaking, from G to d (for male voices one
+octave lower). Then the lower notes are developed, mostly by descending
+scale passages, the lowest note practised being usually C. The high
+notes are sometimes "placed" by ascending scale passages and arpeggios,
+but more often by the octave jump and descending scale. There is room
+for considerable variation in this class of exercises, but they all
+conform to the same general principle.
+
+[Note 5: The expression "placing the voice" is more fully treated in
+Chap. VI. It is assumed, however, that the reader is familiar with the
+ordinary usage of this expression.]
+
+For mezzos and baritones about the same system is followed, the
+exercises being sung a major third or so lower. In the case of
+contraltos and bassos, the voice is usually trained from the middle in
+both directions. Most teachers favor the "chest voice" for singers of
+these types throughout the entire compass.
+
+A discussion of the use of special vowels and consonants in this class
+of exercises is contained in Chapter V.
+
+It must not be understood that this topic of instruction is assigned by
+many teachers to any particular period of the student's progress.
+Moreover, practice in the registers seldom forms the exclusive material
+of lessons and home study for any definite time. The wide range of
+topics considered in the average singing lesson has already been
+mentioned.
+
+Very little connection can be traced between the scientific doctrine of
+registers, and the treatment which this subject receives in modern
+methods. This is only to be expected, in view of the fact that
+laryngoscopic investigation has not resulted in practical rules for
+managing the vocal cords. The registers of the voice are handled by
+modern teachers in a purely empirical fashion.
+
+_Movements of the Larynx, Tongue, and Soft Palate_
+
+It was remarked, in speaking of the registers, that no mechanical means
+has ever been found for directly controlling the operations of the vocal
+cords. To this statement one apparent exception is seen in the method
+originated by John Howard. This earnest student of the voice sought to
+carry out, to its logical conclusion, the accepted idea of mechanical
+vocal control. In this respect he stands practically alone. His is the
+only method which even pretends to reduce the entire operation of
+correct tone-production to a set of defined muscular contractions.
+
+Howard's theories, with the details of a practical method based thereon,
+are fully described in his most important published work, _The
+Physiology of Artistic Singing_, New York, 1886. A complete exposition
+of Howard's theories is not called for here. For the present purpose
+the following short summary will suffice:
+
+"The difference between correct tone-production and any incorrect vocal
+action is solely a matter of laryngeal adjustment and vocal cord action.
+Whether the tone produced be right or wrong, the influence of the
+resonance cavities is about the same. It is therefore idle to pay any
+attention to the subject of air resonance. Only one form of resonance is
+of any value in tone-production (considered as distinct from vowel
+formation). This is the sounding-board resonance of the bones of the
+head and chest. To secure this, the most important reinforcement of the
+tone, the larynx must be firmly held in a fixed position against the
+backbone, at the fifth cervical vertebra. All theories as to the
+registers of the voice, derived from laryngoscopic observation, are
+completely erroneous.
+
+"In the production of tone, the muscular tissue of the vocal cords is
+thrown into vibration by the air blast, and not merely the membranous
+covering of the inner edges of the cords. For a soft tone, only a
+portion of the fleshy mass of the vocal cords vibrates; if this tone is
+gradually swelled to _fortissimo_, a constantly increasing portion of
+the muscular tissue is called into play. For the loudest tone, the
+entire mass of the vocal cords is bought into vibration. Thus the
+increased volume of the tone results not alone from the increase in the
+power of the breath blast. Each addition to the power of the expiration
+demands also a change in the adjustment of the vocal cords.
+
+"The contractions of the muscles inside the larynx, including the vocal
+cords, cannot be brought under direct voluntary control. But these
+contractions can be regulated by the actions of other sets of muscles,
+viz., those by which the larynx is connected with the skeletal framework
+of the head, neck, and chest. These latter muscles can all be controlled
+by direct volition. Each of these sets of muscles has its function in
+tone-production. One set pulls the larynx backward, into the position
+already described, against the backbone. Two other opposed sets hold the
+larynx firmly in this position, one set pulling upward, the other
+downward. Finally, and most important in their influence on the actions
+of the vocal cords, a fourth set of muscles comes into play. These tilt
+the thyroid cartilage forward or backward, and thus bring about a
+greater or less tension of the vocal cords, independent of the
+contractions of the muscles of the vocal cords themselves. In this way
+is regulated the amount of the fleshy mass of the vocal cords exposed to
+the expiratory blast. Correct tone-production results when exactly the
+necessary degree of strength is exerted by each one of these four sets
+of muscles."
+
+For each of these groups of muscles Howard devised a system of exercises
+and drills by which the singer is supposed to bring all the movements
+involved under direct voluntary control. The parts thus exercised are
+the tongue, the soft palate, the jaw, the fauces, and also the muscles
+by which the larynx is raised and lowered in the throat, and those by
+which the chest is raised. In teaching a pupil Howard took up each part
+in turn. A sufficient number of lessons was devoted to each set of
+muscles for the pupil (presumably) to acquire the necessary control of
+each group.
+
+Howard also paid much attention to the breath; he worked out the system
+of high-chest breathing in a really masterly fashion. But his manner of
+dealing with this subject did not differ from that of a great number of
+other teachers.
+
+Howard retired from active teaching about 1895. His theories of the
+vocal action have never been generally accepted by vocal theorists, and
+the number of teachers who now profess to follow his method is very
+small. There are, however, many other masters whose methods, in their
+main features, are patterned after Howard's. These latter teachers may
+therefore be justly said to follow the Howard system, even though they
+give him no credit for their doctrines of vocal control.
+
+Howard usually insisted that his pupils should understand the
+theoretical basis of his method, and the exact purpose of each exercise
+and muscular contraction. But as a rule his successors do not make this
+demand on their pupils. They are content to have the students practise
+the prescribed exercises; this the students do, with very little thought
+about the theory lying behind the method. For the pupil this system, as
+at present generally taught, consists solely of a series of muscular
+drills for the tongue, larynx, palate, etc.
+
+In this review of modern methods, the Howard system is important, mainly
+because it represents the consistent application of the idea of
+mechanical tone-production. As was observed, Howard's theories had very
+little influence on the general trend of Vocal Science. The external
+features of the Howard system are indeed shared to some extent by the
+methods of many other teachers. Muscular drills of about the same type
+are very widely used. Some teachers go so far in this respect that their
+methods might almost be confounded with the Howard system. But the
+resemblance is purely external. Even in 1880, at the time when Howard
+had fairly perfected his method, there was nothing novel about exercises
+of this type. The first attempts at a practical study of vocal mechanics
+consisted of observations of those parts of the vocal organs whose
+movements can be readily seen and felt. These are the lips, tongue,
+palate, and larynx. Garcia's _Mémoire_, already cited, is mainly a
+record of observations of this kind. Nearly every vocal theorist since
+that time has also paid some attention to this phase of the vocal
+action.
+
+In practical methods of instruction, elaborate systems of rules have
+long been in use for governing the positions of the tongue, lips,
+palate, etc. Unlike the Howard theory, no definite scientific basis is
+usually given for specific directions of this kind. Each investigator
+has simply noted how certain great singers held their tongues or soft
+palates, whether the larynx was held high or low in the throat, etc.,
+and considered that these must be the correct positions. It would be
+hard to find a greater diversity of opinion on any topic connected with
+the voice than is encountered here. To enumerate all the rules which are
+given for governing the actions of each part would be useless. A few of
+the contradictory opinions regarding the correct position of the larynx
+will suffice to show how great is the confusion on this topic:
+
+"The larynx should be held low in the throat for all tones." "It should
+be held in a fixed position high in the throat." "It should be high for
+low tones, and should descend as the pitch rises." "It should be in a
+low position for the lowest note of each register, and should rise as
+the pitch rises; when the highest note of the register is reached, it
+should at once descend for the lowest note of the next register."
+Prominent teachers and writers could be cited as authority for each of
+these rules, and indeed for several others. A similar diversity of
+opinion is found regarding the rules given for the position of the
+tongue and the soft palate.
+
+Practices vary greatly as to the amount of time and attention devoted to
+muscular drills of the parts under consideration, and also as to the
+importance attached to the positions of these parts. Some teachers make
+this a prominent feature of their methods. The majority, however, treat
+the subject much more lightly. They now and then devote a part of the
+lesson time to the muscular drills and exercises; for the rest, an
+occasional hint or correction regarding the positions of the parts is
+deemed sufficient.
+
+All the movements of the tongue, lips, and jaw are directly under
+voluntary control. Exercises for these parts are therefore given only
+for acquiring suppleness and agility. The muscular movements of the
+larynx and soft palate are readily brought under control. Each can
+simply be raised and lowered. A few minutes' daily practice, extended
+over three or four weeks, is generally sufficient for the student to
+acquire satisfactory command of these actions. But to hold the tongue,
+palate, and larynx in any prescribed position, while singing a tone, is
+an extremely troublesome matter. Those teachers who adhere to precise
+systems for the positions of these parts, frequently impose much arduous
+practice on their pupils. As to the merits of any special system of the
+kind, this question is reserved for future discussion.
+
+_Attack_
+
+It would be hard to determine when the term "attack" was first used to
+describe the starting of a vocal tone. Nor is it easy to define the
+precise position assigned to the subject of attack by vocal theorists.
+No satisfactory statement of the theory of attack can be cited from any
+published treatise on Vocal Science. It is commonly asserted, rather
+loosely indeed, that the tone must be "started right." As Clara Kathleen
+Rogers expresses it, "Attack the tone badly, and nothing can improve it
+afterwards." (_The Philosophy of Singing_, New York, 1893.) This
+statement is in the practical sense utterly unfounded. A tone may be
+"attacked" with a nasal or throaty quality, and then be improved, by
+simply eliminating the objectionable quality. Of this fact the reader
+may readily convince himself. In short, all the accepted theories of
+attack rest on an unscientific basis.
+
+Vocal theorists generally treat the subject of attack as connected in
+some way with registers and laryngeal action. But as no rule has ever
+been formulated for the mechanical management of the laryngeal action,
+it necessarily follows that no intelligible directions are ever given to
+the student for preparing to start the laryngeal action correctly.
+
+Three possible ways of attacking a tone are generally recognized. These
+are described by Albert B. Bach, in _The Principles of Singing_, second
+edition, London, 1897. They are, first, the stroke of the glottis. (This
+is advocated by Garcia in most of his published works, although the
+testimony of many of his pupils, notably Mme. Marchesi, is that Garcia
+used the glottic stroke very little in actual instruction.) Second, the
+aspirate (_h_ as in _have_), which is generally condemned. Third, the
+approximation of the vocal cords at the precise instant the breath blast
+strikes them. This latter mode of attack is advocated by Browne and
+Behnke, who call it the "slide of the glottis." It must be observed
+that neither the stroke nor the slide of the glottis can be shown to
+have any influence in causing the laryngeal muscles to adopt any
+particular mode of adjustment.
+
+Turning to practical methods of instruction, little connection can be
+traced between the theories of attack and the occasional directions
+usually given for starting the tone. The subject of attack is seldom
+assigned to any particular period in the course of study. Many teachers
+ignore the matter altogether. Others devote a few minutes now and then
+to drilling a pupil in the stroke of the glottis, without attaching much
+importance to the subject. (The position assigned to this mode of attack
+by the "breath-band" theorists has already been mentioned.) On the
+whole, the matter of attack is usually treated rather loosely. The pupil
+is occasionally interrupted in singing a phrase, and told to "attack the
+tone better." Needless to say, this form of instruction is in no sense
+scientific.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+RESONANCE
+
+
+In order to understand fully the position in Vocal Science assigned to
+the doctrine of resonance, it is necessary to trace the origin and the
+development of this doctrine. The old Italian masters naturally knew
+nothing whatever of resonance, nor of any other topic of acoustics. Yet
+the accepted theories of resonance in its relation to the voice are
+directly based on a set of empirical observations made by the old
+masters. The facts which they noted are now a matter of common
+knowledge. In singing low notes a sensation of trembling or vibration is
+felt in the upper chest; high notes are accompanied by a similar
+sensation in the head. How these sensations of vibration came to be made
+the basis of the theories of vocal resonance, and of registers as well,
+is an interesting bit of vocal history.
+
+Although almost entirely ignorant of vocal mechanics in the scientific
+sense, the old masters were eager students of the voice. They carefully
+noted the characteristic sound of each tone of the voice, and worked out
+what they believed to be a comprehensive theory of tone-production. One
+of their observations was that in every voice the low notes have a
+somewhat different quality from the high notes. To distinguish these two
+qualities of tone the old masters adopted the word used for a similar
+purpose by the organ builders,--_register_. Further, they noted the
+sensation of vibration in the chest caused by singing low notes, and
+concluded that these notes are actually produced in the chest. To the
+lower notes of the voice they therefore gave the name "chest register."
+As Tosi explains it, "_Voce di Petto_ is a full voice, which comes from
+the breast by strength." For a precisely similar reason, viz., the
+sensation of vibration in the head felt in singing the higher notes,
+this portion of the voice was called by the old masters the "head
+register."
+
+When the study of vocal mechanics along scientific lines was undertaken,
+in the early decades of the nineteenth century, attention was at first
+paid almost exclusively to the subject of registers. The questions then
+most discussed were the number of registers, the number of notes which
+each should include, and the precise point of production of each
+register in the chest, throat, and head. Garcia's _Mémoire_, dealing
+with the registers, was noticed in the preceding chapter. He showed that
+different adjustments of the tongue, palate, and larynx are concerned in
+the production of the various registers. This _Mémoire_ opened up a new
+line of observation, in which Garcia continued to take the lead. But the
+extending of the scope of inquiry concerning the registers did not
+result in any unanimity of opinion on the part of the vocal
+investigators of that time.
+
+For a few years following the invention of the laryngoscope (1855),
+vocal theorists ceased their disputes about the registers, and awaited
+the definite results of this new mode of observation. When this potent
+little instrument was put within the reach of every investigator, it was
+believed that the mystery surrounding the registers was about to be
+dispelled.
+
+One important consequence of the invention of the laryngoscope was the
+turning of attention away from the sensations of vibration in the chest
+and head. Each register was ascribed to a distinct mode of operation of
+the vocal cords, and for several years the terms "chest voice" and "head
+voice" were held to be scientifically unsound. But with the publication
+of Helmholtz's _Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen_ in 1863, the
+sensations of vibration again received attention. These sensations were
+then made the basis of a theory of vocal resonance, which has since been
+adopted by the great majority of vocal scientists.
+
+Until the publication of Helmholtz's work vocal theorists had known
+practically nothing of acoustics. The fact that the tones produced by
+the vocal cords are increased in power and modified in quality by the
+resonance of the air in the mouth-pharynx cavity came as a distinct
+revelation to the theoretical students of the voice. Helmholtz confined
+his experiments and demonstrations to the mouth-pharynx cavity, and
+investigated in particular the influence of this cavity in producing the
+various vowel and consonant sounds. But vocal theorists at once extended
+the idea of air resonance, and connected it with the well-known
+sensations of vibration in the chest and head. It was assumed that these
+sensations are caused by vibrations of the air in the chest and nasal
+cavities.
+
+This assumption has been accepted without question by the great majority
+of vocal scientists. Both the chest voice and the head voice are now
+believed to owe their distinctive qualities to the reinforcing
+vibrations of the air in the chest and nasal cavities respectively. The
+mere fact that these vibrations can be felt is held sufficient proof of
+the statement. "In every true chest tone the resonance can be distinctly
+felt as a vibration (fremitus pectoralis) by the hand laid flat on the
+chest." (_Die Kunst der idealen Tonbildung_, Dr. W. Reinecke, Leipzig,
+1906.) It must be observed that this is by no means a satisfactory
+scientific proof of the doctrine of chest resonance. This feature of the
+subject is reserved for discussion later.
+
+The doctrine of resonance is now generally accepted as one of the basic
+principles of Vocal Science. It is stated, in substance, by almost every
+authority on the voice that "The tone produced by the vibration of the
+vocal cords, even when the laryngeal action is correct in every way, is
+weak, of poor quality, and without character. This tone must be
+strengthened and made of musical quality by utilizing the influence of
+resonance." The subject of resonance is always treated in theoretical
+works on the voice under the three heads of chest, mouth-pharynx, and
+nasal resonance. To these a fourth is sometimes added,--the
+sounding-board resonance of the bones of the chest and head.
+
+_Mouth-Pharynx Resonance_
+
+Considered strictly in its bearing on tone-production, the resonance of
+the mouth-pharynx cavity does not receive much attention from
+theoretical observers of the voice. The form assumed by this cavity is
+of necessity determined by the vowel to be sung. Aside from its function
+in the pronunciation of words, the influence of mouth-pharynx resonance
+on the tones of the voice is seldom discussed by vocal scientists.
+
+As a rule, vocal teachers pay little attention to this form of
+resonance. The subject of enunciation is generally treated as distinct
+from tone-production strictly speaking. While the correct emission of
+the tone, in its passage from the vocal cords to the lips, is considered
+a very important topic, this feature of tone-production has no
+reference to resonance.
+
+One exception must be made to the statement that no attention is paid to
+mouth-pharynx resonance. This is found in an interpretation of the
+empirical precept, "Sing with open throat." Several vocal theorists take
+this precept literally, and hold that it describes a function of
+mouth-pharynx resonance. According to their idea the cavity must be
+expanded to the largest size possible, on the theory that a large
+resonance cavity secures a proportionately greater reinforcement of the
+tone. "The greater the size of the pharynx, whether through practice or
+natural gifts, the stronger in proportion is the tone." (_Die Kunst der
+idealen Tonbildung_, Dr. W. Reinecke, Leipzig, 1906.) This theory is of
+course rather loose and unscientific. Still this idea,--a literal
+interpretation of the "open throat" precept,--receives much attention in
+practical instruction.
+
+Only one muscular action has ever been defined by which the throat might
+be "opened." That is, the lowering of the larynx and the raising of the
+soft palate. Many teachers therefore direct that the throat be "opened"
+gradually in this way for the swelling of the tone. It is assumed that
+the power of the voice is developed by singing with the larynx low in
+the throat. This manner of instruction is, however, very loosely given.
+The supposedly scientific interpretation of the "open throat" precept
+shades off into a purely empirical application.
+
+_Chest Resonance_
+
+In no other topic of Vocal Science is the gap between theory and
+practice more striking than in the doctrine of chest resonance. Vocal
+teachers are in fair accord in believing the resonance of the air in the
+chest to be the most important influence in imparting power and "color"
+to the voice, and particularly to the lower notes of its compass.
+Students of singing are in almost all cases urged to acquire a proper
+command of chest resonance. But when it comes to telling the student how
+to learn to govern the chest resonance, the teacher has practically
+nothing to offer. No direct means has ever been found for causing the
+air in the thorax to vibrate; this cannot be effected, so far as has yet
+been determined, by any voluntary muscular action on the part of the
+singer.
+
+This being the case, intelligible instruction in the use and management
+of chest resonance is hardly to be expected. Teachers of singing are
+obliged to fall back on purely empirical instruction on this topic. This
+usually takes the form of a description of the sensations experienced by
+the singer when producing tones in the chest voice. How this description
+of the singer's sensations is applied, is discussed in the following
+chapter.
+
+_Nasal Resonance_
+
+The lack of connection between the theories of vocal scientists and the
+practical methods of singing teachers is well illustrated in the subject
+of nasal resonance. A striking feature of all the discussions concerning
+the use or avoidance of nasal resonance is the fact that vocal theorists
+base their opinions entirely on empirical observations. The use of nasal
+resonance is condemned by almost every prominent authority on Vocal
+Science. Yet the only reason ever advanced for condemning nasal
+resonance is the fact that a tone of objectionable nasal quality seems
+to "come through the nose." This fact cannot, of course, be questioned.
+It is mentioned by Tosi, who speaks of the "defect of singing through
+the nose," and is observed by everybody possessed of an ear keen enough
+to detect the nasal quality of sound.
+
+It is generally stated by vocal theorists that the nasal quality is
+imparted to the tone by the influence of the resonance of the air in the
+nasal cavities. In order to prove this assertion Browne and Behnke offer
+the following experiment, (quoted in substance): "Hold a hand-mirror
+flat, face up, just below the nostrils. Then sing a nasal tone; you will
+note that the mirror is clouded, showing that part of the breath has
+passed through the nasal cavities. Now sing another tone, free from the
+fault of nasal quality; this time the mirror is not clouded, which
+proves that no air has passed through the cavities in question."
+(_Voice, Song and Speech._) This experiment is simplified by other
+authorities, who direct that the nostrils be pinched by the fingers, and
+then allowed to open by the removal of the pressure of the fingers. A
+steady tone is meanwhile to be sung. It will be noted, according to
+these theorists, that with the nostrils open the tone is nasal, and with
+the nostrils closed the tone is not nasal. This proves to their
+satisfaction that a tone passing in whole or in part through the nasal
+cavities must be nasal in quality.
+
+It must be noted here that these experiments are not in any sense
+convincing. A tone of objectionable nasal quality can be sung equally
+well with the nostrils either closed or open, and so can a tone free
+from the nasal quality.
+
+In theory, the mechanical prevention of nasal resonance is very simple.
+It is necessary only to raise the soft palate in singing, and thus to
+cut off the expired breath from passing into the nasal cavities. Most
+vocal scientists advise that the singer hold the soft palate raised for
+every tone.
+
+Practical teachers of singing pay little attention to the theoretical
+discussions concerning nasal resonance. The overwhelming majority of
+teachers are firm believers in nasal resonance, and make it an important
+feature of their methods. They believe that this resonance is the most
+important factor in giving to the tone its "point," brilliance, and
+carrying power.
+
+So far as instruction in the use of nasal resonance is concerned,
+teachers owe but little to the mechanical doctrines of Vocal Science.
+No voluntary muscular operation has ever been found, by which the air in
+the nasal cavities can be directly thrown into vibration, and so made to
+reinforce the tones of the voice. Instruction in the management of nasal
+resonance is therefore similar to that in chest resonance. The teacher
+describes the sensations experienced by a singer who produces the exact
+quality of tone desired. Use is also made of special vowels and
+consonants, for (supposedly) acquiring command of nasal resonance. A
+description of this form of instruction is given in the following
+chapter.
+
+_Sounding-Board Resonance_
+
+The acoustic principle of sounding-board resonance, in its application
+to the voice, is discussed by several vocal scientists. It is usually
+treated under two heads: first, the entire body is looked upon as a
+sounding board, capable of reinforcing the tones of the voice under
+certain conditions. Second, the bones of the chest and of the head are
+thought to be thrown into vibration, in sympathy with the vibrations of
+the air in the chest and nasal cavities respectively.
+
+The importance attached by Howard to the sounding-board resonance of the
+entire body has already been noticed. Aside from the teachers of the
+Howard system, very few masters pay any attention to this feature of
+vocal reinforcement. Those who do so have no difficulty in dealing with
+the subject. When the singer stands in the position generally considered
+correct for singing, the body is said to be in the position most
+favorable for securing the benefits of this form of resonance. For this
+no special rules or exercises are needed.
+
+Very little attention is paid, in practical instruction, to the
+vibrations of the bones of the resonance cavities. Each cavity is
+treated as a whole; the fact is only occasionally mentioned that the
+bones inclosing the cavities may vibrate, as well as the inclosed air.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+EMPIRICAL MATERIALS OF MODERN METHODS
+
+
+A series of topics included in modern methods is now to be considered,
+different in scope from the strictly mechanical features of
+tone-production so far described. It must be apparent to the reader that
+the present understanding of the muscular processes of singing is not
+sufficient to furnish a complete method of instruction. This fact is
+thoroughly appreciated by the teachers of singing. Almost without
+exception they seek to supplement the mechanical doctrines by
+instruction of an entirely different character. The subjects included in
+this form of instruction are of several classes. They comprise the
+manner of emission of the tone, the traditional precepts of the old
+Italian school, the singer's sensations, and the use of certain vowels
+and consonants for special purposes.
+
+_Emission and Forward Placing_
+
+Of all the traditional precepts, the one most frequently cited in
+theoretical treatises on the voice is, "Place the tone forward." For
+this precept it is generally believed that a satisfactory explanation
+has been found in the accepted doctrine of tone emission.
+
+The characteristic effect of perfect singing known as the "forward tone"
+is thoroughly well known to every lover of singing. In some peculiar way
+the tone, when perfectly produced, seems to issue directly from the
+singer's mouth. When we listen to a poorly trained and faulty singer the
+tones seem to be caught somewhere in the singer's throat. We feel
+instinctively that if the singer could only lift the voice off the
+throat, and bring it forward in the mouth, the tones would be greatly
+improved in character. It is commonly believed that the old masters knew
+some way in which this can be done. Just what means they used for this
+purpose is not known. But the accepted scientific interpretation of the
+"forward tone" precept is held by vocal theorists to render the subject
+perfectly clear.
+
+Sir Morell Mackenzie states the correct emission of the tone as one of
+the three cardinal principles of the vocal action. "The regulation of
+the force of the blast which strikes against the vocal cords, the
+placing of these in the most favourable position for the effect which it
+is desired to produce, and the direction of the vibrating column of air
+which issues from the larynx are the three elements of artistic
+production." (_The Hygiene of the Vocal Organs_, London, 1886.) His
+analysis of the mechanical and acoustic processes involved in emission
+may be cited as typical of the views of the great majority of vocal
+scientists. "It (the column of sound) must be projected against the roof
+of the cavity behind the upper front teeth, from which it rebounds
+sharply and clearly to the outside." Mme. Seiler expresses the idea
+somewhat differently, but the meaning is about the same. "A correct
+disposition of the tones of the voice consists in causing the air,
+brought into vibration by the vocal ligaments, to rebound from
+immediately above the front teeth, where it must be concentrated as much
+as possible, rebounding thence to form in the mouth continuous
+vibrations." (_The Voice in Singing_, Phila., 1886.)
+
+To the vocal theorists this is no doubt thoroughly convincing and
+satisfactory. But as a topic of practical instruction in singing this
+theory of tone emission is utterly valueless. How can the "column of
+vocalized breath" be voluntarily directed in its passage through the
+pharynx and mouth? No muscular process has ever been located, by which
+the singer can influence the course of the expired breath, and direct it
+to any specific point in the mouth. Even if the expired breath does, in
+perfect singing, take the course described, knowledge of this fact
+cannot enable the singer to bring this about. The accepted doctrine of
+tone emission is of no benefit whatever to the teacher of singing. He
+knows what the "forward tone" is, that is, what it sounds like, just as
+well no doubt as did the old Italian master. But if the latter knew how
+to enable his pupils to obtain the "forward" character of tone, the
+modern teacher is to that extent not so well off.
+
+In view of the prevailing ignorance of any means for securing the
+(supposedly) correct emission of tone, intelligible instruction on this
+topic is hardly to be expected. But the great majority of teachers lay
+great stress on the need of acquiring the correct emission. The best
+they can do is to explain the scientific doctrine to their pupils; the
+students are generally left to find for themselves some way of applying
+the explanation. In many cases the master tries to assist the student by
+describing the singer's sensations, experienced when producing a
+"forward" tone.
+
+Certain vowels and consonants are usually held to be especially favored
+by a "forward position," and exercises on these are very widely used for
+securing a "forward" tone. These exercises are described in a later
+paragraph. It will be noticed however that this use of vowels is not an
+application of the theory of "forward emission." The vowel sounds are
+believed to owe their "forward position" to resonance, while "emission"
+is purely a matter of direction or focusing of the breath-blast. The
+whole subject of emission and forward placing is in a very
+unsatisfactory condition.
+
+_The Traditional Precepts in Modern Instruction_
+
+So much importance is attached by modern teachers to the traditional
+precepts of the old school that this subject calls for somewhat lengthy
+treatment. Before discussing the manner in which the precepts are
+applied in practical instruction, it will be well to review first the
+interpretations of the precepts offered by different vocal scientists.
+
+It must be remarked, in the first place, that no single one of the
+precepts has ever been satisfactorily explained; that is, no direct
+means of performing the actions indicated by the precepts has ever been
+found. If ever the precepts had a definite meaning, considered as
+specific directions for performing certain actions in a special way,
+that meaning has been lost. Mechanical analysis has not reduced the
+precepts to a form in which they are of direct value to the modern
+teacher.
+
+That the "forward tone" is interpreted as a reference to the emission of
+the voice was noted earlier in this chapter. The explanation of the
+"open throat" precept as a function of mouth-pharynx resonance has also
+been mentioned.
+
+"Singing on the breath" is a very perplexing subject for vocal
+theorists. Many authorities assert that this precept describes an
+effect obtained by the "opposed muscular action" breath-control. (See
+citation from Shakespeare in Chapter II.) But this explanation is hardly
+satisfactory; if the precept had meant no more than breath-control, it
+would have been forgotten long ago.
+
+The "support of the tone" is mentioned by a large number of theoretical
+writers on the voice. These writers generally state, in substance, that
+"the tone must be supported by the breathing muscles of the chest, and
+not by the throat muscles." (See _The Technics of Bel Canto_, by G. B.
+Lamperti, New York, 1905.) But this explanation is hardly to be
+considered as a scientific doctrine. Every one knows that a tone has no
+weight, so in the physical sense it can need no support. In short,
+scientific analysis has thrown no more light on this than any other of
+the old precepts.
+
+Notwithstanding the modern teacher's complete ignorance of the
+mechanical operations which they seem to indicate, the old precepts form
+a very important feature of instruction in singing. The great majority
+of teachers cite these precepts constantly, and frequently direct their
+pupils to "open the throat," to "bring the tone forward," etc. Is it to
+be believed that an intelligent master would use these directions in any
+occult or cabalistic sense? Such a statement is occasionally made by a
+consistent upholder of the mechanical system of Voice Culture. Paulo
+Guetta, for example, in a recent exhaustive work on the subject,
+ridicules the use of the old precepts. Says this ardent advocate of
+mechanical instruction in singing:
+
+"Nowadays alchemy and necromancy awaken nothing but curiosity. How then
+can one who thinks and reasons admit that an art can be cultivated and
+sustained by theories extravagant, fantastic, enigmatic, explained and
+condensed in abstruse phrases and sentences, which not only have no
+meaning whatever, but even lead one to doubt whether the teacher himself
+knows what result it is desired to obtain? Do you wish a little example?
+Behold!
+
+"'Press the whole voice against the mask.' 'Place the voice in the
+head.' 'The voice is directed to the nasal cavities.' 'Place the voice
+forward.'
+
+"Others, with the most austere gravity, will tell you that your voice is
+too far back, or that you send the voice to the lower teeth, and promise
+in a few days to place the voice forward, at the upper teeth, or
+wherever else it should be." (_Il Canto nel suo Mecanismo_, Milan,
+1902.)
+
+This statement is by no means justified. The precepts have a real and
+definite meaning for the vocal teacher. Any one familiar with the
+highest type of artistic singing must have observed that the singer's
+"throat seems to be open"; the tones impress the hearer as being in some
+way "forward in the singer's mouth," and not at the vocal cords; the
+voice "seems to be supported" somewhere; the tones float out freely on
+the breath. A harsh and badly produced voice seems to be held in the
+singer's throat by main force. The critical hearer feels instinctively
+that such a singer's voice would be greatly improved if the tones could
+only be supported in a forward position in the mouth, and kept from
+slipping back into the throat. It seems that this would relieve the
+throat of the strain of holding the tone; the throat would then be open,
+and the voice would float out freely on the breath.
+
+In short, the traditional precepts describe accurately the most striking
+points of difference between perfect singing and bad singing, so far as
+the effect on the listener is concerned. Modern teachers are thoroughly
+familiar with the highest standards of the vocal art; they fully
+appreciate how well the precepts describe the perfection of singing.
+Through long continued listening to voices, the precepts come to have a
+very real meaning. It is inevitable therefore that the teacher should
+try to impart to the pupil this intimate feeling for the voice. True,
+this acquaintance with the voice is purely empirical; as has just been
+remarked, no mechanical analysis of this empirical knowledge has ever
+been successfully made. The modern teacher's apprehension of the meaning
+of the precepts is only very vaguely connected with a supposed insight
+into the mechanical processes of tone-production.
+
+Yet there is nothing vague about the impression made on the teacher in
+listening to his pupils. On the contrary, every faulty tone impresses
+the teacher very keenly and definitely as being too far back, or as
+caught in the throat, or as falling back for lack of support, etc. How
+could it be expected then, that the teacher should refrain from telling
+the pupil to correct the faulty production, in the manner so clearly and
+directly indicated by the tones?
+
+But this direct application of the precepts is of absolutely no value in
+instruction, because of the teacher's ignorance of the mechanical
+processes supposedly involved. There is after all some justification for
+Guetta's criticism of empirical instruction. It is all very well for the
+teacher to feel that the pupil's voice is gripped in the throat, and to
+bid him "open your throat." The pupil may strive ever so earnestly to
+open his throat, but he does not know how, and the teacher is utterly
+unable to tell him.
+
+All instruction based on the empirical precepts is thus seen to be
+extremely unsatisfactory. While the precepts convey a very valuable
+meaning to the teacher, no way has ever been found for translating this
+meaning into rules for the mechanical management of the vocal organs.
+Recourse is had, to some extent, to a description of the singer's
+sensations; exercises on special vowels and consonants are also much
+used, for imparting the ideas embodied in the precepts. Both of these
+topics are now to be considered.
+
+_The Singer's Sensations_
+
+The correct use of the voice awakens in the singer a variety of
+sensations generally held to be different from those accompanying any
+incorrect vocal action.
+
+One important fact must first be noted regarding the manner in which the
+singer's sensations are described by various authorities. The use of the
+voice awakens a wide variety of local sensations, which bear no
+necessary relation to each other. A singer may, at will, pay entire
+attention to any one, or to any particular set, of these sensations, and
+for the time being completely ignore all the others.
+
+Physiologically considered, the singer's sensations are of two
+classes,--first, muscular sensations strictly speaking; and second, a
+sense of tingling or vibration, definitely located usually about the
+breast bone, and in the front and upper part of the head.
+
+_Muscular Sensations of Singing_
+
+It is very difficult to analyze and describe exactly the muscular
+sensations which accompany any complex action. Swimming, diving,
+dancing, skating,--each awakens a set of extremely vivid muscular
+feelings; yet to describe these sensations so graphically that they
+could be felt in imagination by one who had never experienced them
+actually,--that would be almost impossible.
+
+This peculiar aspect of muscular sensations is particularly true as
+regards the action of singing. While every vocal teacher knows exactly
+how it feels to sing properly, all descriptions of the singer's muscular
+sensations are extremely vague. But the vividness of these sensations
+keeps them constantly before the teacher's mind, and some application of
+them, in the present state of Voice Culture, is almost inevitable.
+
+The basic sensation of correct singing, as generally described, is a
+feeling of perfect poise and harmony of the whole body; this is
+accompanied by a sense of freedom about the throat and jaw, and firm
+grasp and control of the expiratory muscles. Attempts are frequently
+made to amplify this description, but the results are always very vague.
+A feeling of "absence of local effort" at the throat is much spoken of,
+or "perfect relaxation of the vocal muscles."
+
+A few specially localized muscular sensations are also much discussed.
+Descriptions of this class however are often so loosely given as to
+render a definite statement almost impossible. Most frequently mentioned
+are the feeling of "backward pressure in the throat," and of "drinking
+in the tone," instead of sending it out. Then again, the "tone must be
+felt at the upper front teeth." A feeling as of an "expanded and
+flexible vocal tube, extending from the base of the lungs to the lips,"
+is also much talked of. "Feel that you grow bigger as the tone swells"
+is about as intelligible as the feeling of "floating jaw."
+
+On the whole, the subject of the singer's muscular sensations is usually
+rather mystifying to the student.
+
+_Sensations of Tingling or Vibration_
+
+Descriptions of sensations of this class are much more coherent than
+those just considered. A definite location is given to the feelings, in
+the chest and in the head.
+
+A feeling of trembling in the upper chest is usually held to indicate
+that the chest cavity is working properly as a resonator. This
+sensation is therefore the chief reliance of most teachers in "placing"
+the lower tones, especially for low voices. Sensations in the nasal
+cavities and head are utilized for acquiring control of nasal resonance,
+for placing the upper notes of the voice, and for "bringing the voice
+forward." Exercises for control of both cavities, on special vowels and
+consonants, combine the two topics, "vowel position" and sensation.
+
+_Singing in the Mask_
+
+In recent years a method of instruction has been developed in France,
+which is commonly called by its advocates "singing in the mask." The
+basic idea of this method is that the singer must imagine his face to be
+covered by a mask, and must "sing into this mask." This idea may seem
+rather vague at first; but a few trials will show how easy it is for the
+singer to persuade himself that he projects his voice into his face.
+
+This method goes to the extreme in utilizing the sensations of vibration
+in the nose and forehead. These sensations are analyzed, localized, and
+described, down to the most minute detail. While other topics of
+instruction are included,--breathing, registers, position of tongue,
+larynx, palate, etc., everything else is subordinated to nasal
+resonance. "Singing in the mask" is of course a purely empirical method,
+and little has been attempted in the way of justifying it on scientific
+principles.
+
+* * *
+
+All instruction based on the singer's sensations is purely empirical, in
+the meaning ordinarily attached to this word in treatises on Vocal
+Science. Theoretical works on the voice seldom touch on the subject of
+sensations, nor do the vocal teachers generally make this subject
+prominent when speaking of their methods.[6]
+
+[Note 6: An exception to this statement is seen in the recently
+published book of Mme. Lilli Lehmann, _Meine Gesangskunst_, Berlin,
+1902. This famous artist and teacher devotes by far the greater part of
+her book to a minute analysis and description of the singer's
+sensations.]
+
+Sensations occupy a rather peculiar position in modern methods. They are
+a distinctly subsidiary element of instruction and are seldom raised to
+the dignity accorded to the mechanical doctrines of vocal management.
+The use of the singer's sensations, as applied in practical instruction,
+is almost exclusively interpretive. In the mechanical sense the
+traditional precepts have no meaning whatever; this is also true of
+several of the accepted doctrines of Vocal Science. For example, the
+precept "Support the tone," is absolutely meaningless as a principle of
+mechanical vocal action. But, when interpreted as referring to a set of
+sensations experienced by the singer, this precept takes on a very
+definite meaning. Nobody knows what the support of the tone is, but
+every vocal teacher knows how it feels. In the same way, no means is
+known for directly throwing the air in the nasal cavities into
+vibration. But the sensation in the front of the head, which indicates,
+presumably, the proper action of nasal resonance, is familiar to all
+teachers. Most of the positive materials of modern methods are thus
+interpreted in terms of sensations.
+
+True, the accepted theory of Vocal Science does not directly countenance
+this interpretation. The basic principle of modern Voice Culture is the
+idea of mechanical vocal management. All instruction is supposed to aim
+at direct, conscious, and voluntary control of the muscular operations
+of singing. Teachers always impart to their pupils this idea of the
+mechanical control of the voice. The vocal action is always considered
+from the mechanical side. Even those expressions whose mechanical
+meaning is vague or unscientific are yet used as referring definitely to
+muscular actions. The conscious thought of the teacher is always turned
+to the mechanical idea supposedly conveyed by scientific doctrine and
+empirical precept. The translation of this idea into a description of
+sensations is almost always the result of a sub-conscious mental
+process.
+
+It therefore follows that in practical instruction the appeal to
+sensations is more often indirect than direct. For example, when a
+student's tones are caught in the throat, the master says
+explicitly,--"Free the tone by opening your throat." The master explains
+the (supposed) wrong vocal action, and describes how the tone should be
+produced. Incidentally, the master may also tell how and where the tone
+should be felt.
+
+There is also a great deal of instruction based frankly and directly on
+the singer's sensations. Instruction of this type usually takes the form
+of special exercises on certain vowels and consonants, which are
+believed to be peculiarly suited for imparting command of particular
+features of the correct vocal action. The topics generally covered are
+chest resonance, nasal resonance, open throat, and forward placing of
+the tone. This form of instruction is held to be referable in some way
+to scientific principles. The laws of vowel and consonant formation
+formulated by Helmholtz are often cited in proof of the efficacy of
+exercises of this type. There is also much discussion of the "location"
+of the tone. But there is little justification for the statement that
+instruction based on the singer's sensations is scientific in character.
+A misconception of acoustic principles is evidenced by most of the
+statements made concerning the use of special vowels and consonants in
+securing the correct vocal action. The exercises which aim to utilize
+the singer's sensations in producing particular vowels and consonants
+are now to be described.
+
+_Exercises on Special Vowels and Consonants_
+
+Of the rules concerning the use of special vowels, probably the most
+important is that _a_ (as in _far_) is the most favorable vowel for the
+general purposes of voice training. Teachers generally have their
+pupils sing most of their exercises on this vowel. Much attention is
+paid to the exact pronunciation of the vowel, and fine distinctions are
+drawn between its various sounds in Italian, French, German, and
+English. The preference for the Italian pronunciation is very general.
+It is claimed for this sound that it helps materially in acquiring
+command of the "open throat." Indeed, a peculiar virtue in this regard
+is ascribed to the Italian vowels generally. No convincing reason has
+ever been given for this belief. But the usual custom is to "place the
+voice" on the Italian _a_, and then to take up, one at a time, the other
+Italian vowels.
+
+The labial consonants, _p_, _b_, _t_, _d_, are believed to have a
+peculiar influence in securing the "forward position" of the tone. Much
+the same influence is also ascribed to the vowel _oo_, although many
+authorities consider _i_ (Italian) the "most forward" vowel. Exercises
+combining these consonants and vowels are very widely used, on single
+tones, and on groups of three, four, or five notes. The syllables _boo_,
+_poo_, _too_, _doo_ are practised, or if the teacher hold to the other
+"forward" vowel, _bee_, _pee_, _tee_, _dee_; the student is instructed
+to hold the vowel in the "forward position" secured by the initial
+consonant. Later on, the "forward" vowel is gradually widened into the
+other vowels; exercises are sung on _boo-ah_, _doo-ah_, etc. This form
+of instruction is capable of great elaboration. Many teachers use a wide
+variety of combinations of these vowels and consonants; but as the basic
+idea is always the same, this class of exercises calls for no further
+description. The singer's sensations, notably those of "open throat,"
+"expanded vocal tube," "forward tone," and vibration in the chest, are
+generally brought to the pupil's attention in this form of exercise.
+
+Another set of sounds are held to be specially adapted for securing the
+use of nasal resonance. These are the letters _m_, _n_, and _ng_, when
+used for starting a tone, and also the vowel _i_ (Italian). The
+exercises used are similar in character to those just described. In
+singing these exercises, the student is supposed to "start the tone high
+up in the head on the initial _m_ or _n_, and to hold it there, while
+gradually and smoothly opening the mouth for the vowel," etc. The
+sensations specially noticed in this type of exercise are the feelings
+of vibration in the nose and forehead. The "forward tone," as well as
+the nasal resonance, is supposed to be favored by the practice of these
+exercises.
+
+_Enunciation_
+
+Vocal teachers always recognize the importance of a clear delivery of
+the text in singing. Correct enunciation is therefore considered in all
+methods. A few teachers believe that a clear pronunciation helps greatly
+to establish the correct vocal action. Some even go so far as to say
+that a clear delivery of the words will of itself insure a correct
+tone-production. But this theory calls for only passing comment. One has
+but to turn to the vaudeville stage to see its falsity. For singers of
+that class, the words are of the utmost importance, while the
+tone-production is usually of the very worst.
+
+A few teachers base their methods on the theory that correct
+tone-production results necessarily from the singing of "pure vowels."
+This is no doubt interesting, but still far from convincing. The problem
+of tone-production is not solved quite so simply.
+
+As a rule, vocal teachers consider the subject of pronunciation as quite
+distinct from tone-production. Methods differ with regard to the use of
+exercises in articulation, and to the stage of progress at which these
+exercises are taken up. Some teachers insist on their pupils practising
+singing for months on the vowels, before permitting them to sing even
+the simplest songs with words. Others have the pupils sing words from
+the beginning of instruction. As a rule, teachers begin to give songs,
+and vocalises with words, very early in the course.
+
+_Throat Stiffness and Relaxing Exercises_
+
+Teachers of singing generally recognize that any stiffening of the
+throat interferes with the correct action of the voice. Yet for some
+strange reason vocal students are very much inclined to form habits of
+throat stiffness. This constantly happens, in spite of the fact that
+teachers continually warn their pupils against the tendency to stiffen.
+On this account, exercises for relaxing the throat are an important
+feature of modern instruction in singing.
+
+Naturally, relaxing exercises are not thought to have any direct
+bearing in bringing about the correct vocal action. They are purely
+preparatory; their purpose is only to bring the vocal organs into the
+right condition for constructive training. For this reason, the means
+used for relaxing the throat are seldom mentioned among the materials of
+instruction. But almost every vocal teacher is obliged to make frequent
+use of throat relaxing exercises. Indeed, throat stiffness is one of the
+most serious difficulties of modern Voice Culture. A student frequently
+seems to be making good progress, and then without much warning falls
+into a condition of throat stiffness so serious as to undo for a time
+the good work of several months' study. In such a case there is nothing
+for the teacher to do but to drop the progressive work, and devote a few
+lessons to relaxing exercises.
+
+Little difficulty is usually found in relaxing the throat, when once the
+necessity becomes strikingly apparent. That is, provided progressive
+study is dropped for a time, and attention paid solely to relaxing
+exercises. But such cases are comparatively rare. A much more constant
+source of trouble is found in the prevailing tendency of vocal students
+to stiffen their throats, just enough to interfere with the (supposed)
+application of the teacher's method.
+
+The exercises used for relaxing the throat are fairly simple, both in
+character and scope. They consist mainly of toneless yawning, of single
+tones "yawned out" on a free exhalation, and of descending scale
+passages of the same type. Although seldom recognized as a coördinate
+topic of instruction, exercises of this character are usually
+interspersed among the other materials of vocal methods.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+A GENERAL VIEW OF MODERN VOICE CULTURE
+
+
+All the materials of modern methods have now been described. The subject
+next to be considered is the manner in which these materials are
+utilized in practical instruction. In other words, what is a method of
+Voice Culture?
+
+In the present state of Vocal Science, the subject of tone-production
+overshadows everything else in difficulty. When once the correct vocal
+action has been acquired, the student's progress is assured. Every other
+feature of the singer's education is simply a matter of time and
+application. But, under present conditions, the acquirement of the
+correct vocal action is extremely uncertain. On account of its
+fundamental importance, and more especially of its difficulty, the
+subject of tone-production is the most prominent topic of instruction in
+singing. The term "method" is therefore applied solely to the means used
+for imparting the correct vocal action.
+
+This use of the word is in accordance with the accepted theory of Voice
+Culture. The general belief is that tone-production is entirely distinct
+from vocal technique. Technical studies cannot profitably be undertaken,
+according to the prevailing idea, until the correct management of the
+vocal organs has been established. This idea is supposed to be followed
+out in modern instruction. It is generally assumed that the voice is
+brought under control through a definite series of exercises; these
+exercises are supposed to follow, one after the other, according to a
+well-defined system. The term "method" implies this systematic
+arrangement of exercises. It indicates that vocal training is a matter
+of precise knowledge and orderly progression.
+
+This represents the accepted ideal of Voice Culture, rather than the
+actual condition. The idea that the vocal management should be imparted
+specially, as something preliminary to the technical training of the
+voice, is not carried out in practice. Teachers generally are striving
+to bring their systems into conformity with this ideal standard. They
+use the expression, "placing the voice," to describe the preliminary
+training in tone-production. But no successful system of this type has
+ever been evolved. The correct management of the voice never is imparted
+in the manner indicated by this ideal of instruction. Tone-production
+continues, throughout the entire course of study, to be the most
+important topic of instruction.
+
+In order to understand the nature of a method of Voice Culture, it is
+necessary first to consider the relation which exists, in modern
+instruction, between training in tone-production, and the development of
+vocal technique. According to the accepted theory, the voice must be
+"placed" before the real study of singing is undertaken. After the voice
+has been properly "placed," it is supposed to be in condition to be
+developed by practice in singing technical exercises. But in actual
+practice this distinction between "voice-placing" exercises and
+technical studies is seldom drawn. The voice is trained, almost from the
+beginning of the course of study, by practice in actual singing. The
+earliest exercises used for "placing the voice" are in every respect
+technical studies,--single tones and syllables, scale passages,
+arpeggios, etc. It is impossible to produce even a single tone without
+embodying some feature of technique. Practice therefore serves a double
+purpose; it brings the voice gradually to the condition of perfect
+action, and at the same time it develops the technique. The student
+advances gradually toward the correct manner of tone-production, and
+this progress is evidenced solely by the improved technical use of the
+voice. Considerable technical facility is attained before the
+tone-production becomes absolutely perfect.
+
+A vocal student's practice in singing is not confined to technical
+exercises, strictly speaking. Vocalises, songs, and arias are taken up,
+usually very early in the course of study. Moreover, attention is nearly
+always paid to musical expression and to artistic rendition, as well as
+to the vocal action and the technical use of the voice. This is true,
+whether the student sings an exercise, a vocalise, a song, or an aria.
+
+For daily home practice, the student sings, usually, first some
+exercises, then a few vocalises, and finally several songs and arias.
+Every teacher has at command a wide range of compositions of all these
+kinds, carefully graded as to technical and musical difficulty. As the
+pupil advances, more and more difficult works are undertaken. For each
+stage of advancement the teacher chooses the compositions best adapted
+to carry the student's progress still further.
+
+There is no point in this development at which instruction in
+tone-production ceases, and the technical training of the voice is
+begun. On the contrary, the means used for imparting the correct vocal
+action are interspersed with the other materials of instruction, both
+technical and artistic, throughout the entire course of study. Moreover,
+the training in tone-production is carried on during the singing of the
+compositions just described, as well as by practice on "voice-placing"
+exercises strictly speaking.
+
+A method of instruction in singing therefore consists primarily of a set
+of mechanical rules and directions for managing the voice, and
+secondarily of a series of exercises, both toneless and vocal, so
+designed that the student may directly apply in practising them the
+rules and directions for vocal management. It must not be understood
+however that the mechanical rules are applied only to the exercises
+specially designed for this purpose. These rules and directions are
+also intended to be applied to everything the student sings,--exercises,
+technical studies, and musical compositions.
+
+It will be recalled that the review of the topics of modern vocal
+instruction covered three distinct types of materials. First, the purely
+mechanical doctrines, commonly regarded as the only strictly scientific
+principles of Voice Culture. These are, the rules for the management of
+the breath, of the registers, of laryngeal action, and of the resonance
+cavities, and also the directions for attacking the tone, and for
+forward emission. The second class of materials is held by strict
+adherents of the scientific idea to be purely empirical; this class
+includes the traditional precepts of the old Italian school, and also
+all the topics of instruction based on the singer's sensations. A third
+class of materials is found in the attempts to interpret the empirical
+doctrines in the light of the scientific analysis of the vocal action.
+
+To enumerate and classify all the methods of instruction in vogue would
+be almost an impossibility. Absolutely no uniformity can be found on any
+topic. Even among the accepted doctrines of Vocal Science there are
+many controverted points. Five distinct schools of breathing are
+represented, two of breath-control. Of well worked-out systems of
+registers, at least twenty could be enumerated. Fully this number of
+theories are offered regarding the correct positions of the larynx, soft
+palate, and tongue. Two opposed theories are held as to nasal resonance.
+Further, the empirical doctrines are always stated so loosely that no
+real unanimity of view can be found on any one of them.
+
+Every vocal teacher selects the materials of instruction from these
+controverted doctrines, but neither rule nor reason determines what
+materials shall be embodied in any one method. There is no coherence
+whatever in the matter. Further, there is no agreement as to which
+topics of instruction are most important. One teacher may emphasize
+breath-control and support of tone as the foundations of the correct
+vocal action, another may give this position to nasal resonance and
+forward placing. Yet both these teachers may include in their methods
+about the same topics. The methods seem entirely different, only because
+each makes some one or two doctrines the most important. In short, it
+might almost be said that there are as many methods as teachers.
+
+Three fairly distinct types of method may be defined, depending on the
+class of materials adopted. At one extreme are found those teachers who
+attempt to follow strictly the scientific principles. These teachers
+generally profess to employ only the purely mechanical doctrines of
+Vocal Science, and to ignore all empirical interpretations of these
+doctrines. They generally devote a portion of every lesson to toneless
+muscular drills, and insist that their pupils practise every exercise in
+singing, with special attention to the throat action. These teachers
+attempt to follow a definite plan and order in the giving of exercises
+and rules. This systematic arrangement of instruction is, however,
+seldom followed out consistently with any one student. An important
+reason for this is considered in Chapter I of Part II.
+
+A very different type of method is taught by many teachers who pay
+special attention to the empirical topics of instruction. Of course no
+teacher professes to teach empirically; on the contrary, every method is
+called scientific, no matter what materials it embodies. Indeed, a very
+little attention paid to breathing, attack, registers, and nasal
+resonance, is enough to relieve any teacher of the reproach of
+empiricism. The teachers now being considered touch to some extent on
+these topics; but most of their instruction is based on the traditional
+precepts, the singer's sensations, and the special vowel and consonant
+drills. In the first few lessons of the course they usually give some
+special breathing exercises, but almost always ignore breath-control.
+Not much is done for vocal control in the strictly muscular sense.
+Special "voice-placing" exercises are not used to any such extent as in
+the strictly scientific methods just described, the voice-placing work
+being usually done on vocalises, songs, and arias. No system whatever is
+followed, or even attempted, in the sequence of topics touched upon. The
+directions, "Breathe deeper on that phrase," "Bring that tone more
+forward," "Open your throat for that _ah_," "Feel that tone higher up in
+the head," may follow one after the other within five minutes of
+instruction.
+
+Teachers of this type are frequently charged, by the strict advocates of
+mechanical instruction, with a practice commonly known as "wearing the
+voice into place." This expression is used to indicate the total
+abandonment of system in imparting the correct vocal action. It means
+that the teacher simply has the pupil sing at random, trusting to
+chance, or to some vague intuitive process, to bring about the correct
+use of the voice. To the vocal scientist, "wearing the voice into place"
+represents the depth of empiricism.
+
+The great majority of teachers occupy a middle ground between the two
+types just described. Teachers of this class touch, more or less, on
+every topic of instruction, mechanical, empirical, and interpretive.
+Their application of most of the topics of instruction is not quite so
+mechanical as in the first type of method considered. The student's
+attention is always directed to the vocal organs, but the idea of direct
+muscular control is not so consistently put forward. As a rule, the
+attempt is made in the first stages of instruction to follow a
+systematic plan. Breathing, and perhaps breath-control, are first taught
+as muscular drills, and then applied on single tones. Attack is
+generally taken up next, then simple exercises in the medium register.
+Following this, the chest and head registers are placed, and the
+attention is turned to emission and resonance. But in most cases, when
+the pupil has covered three or four terms of twenty lessons each, all
+system is abandoned. The method from that time on is about of the type
+described as empirical.
+
+It must be remembered that this classification of methods is at best
+very crude. It would not be easy to pick out any one teacher who adheres
+consistently to any of the three forms of instruction described. All
+that can be said is that a teacher usually tends somewhat more to one
+type than to another.
+
+Further, the degree of prominence given to the idea of direct mechanical
+control of the voice does not classify a method quite satisfactorily.
+Without exception every teacher adheres to the prevailing idea, that the
+voice must be controlled and guided in some direct way,--that the singer
+"must do something" to cause the vocal organs to operate properly. All
+the materials of instruction, mechanical and empirical, are utilized for
+the sole purpose of enabling the student to learn how to "do this
+something."
+
+Several names are used by teachers to describe their methods. One
+professes to teach a "natural method," another the "pure Italian school
+of Bel Canto," a third the "old Italian method as illustrated by Vocal
+Science," a fourth the "strict scientific system of Voice Culture." No
+attention need be paid to these expressions, as they are seldom accurate
+descriptions.
+
+Vocal lessons are usually of thirty minutes' duration. Each student
+generally takes two such lessons every week, although in some cases
+three, four, or even more are taken. A description of a few typical
+lessons will show how the materials of instruction are practically
+utilized.
+
+Example 1: The student takes a few preliminary toneless breaths. Then
+follow, in the order given, a few short tones for practice on attack,
+some sustained tones on the vowel _ah_, exercises on three, four, and
+five notes, ascending and descending, a single tone followed by the
+octave jump up and descending scale, this last rising by semitones
+through several keys. In these exercises the student's attention is
+directed at random to the correct use of the registers, to nasal
+resonance, forward emission, etc. This consumes ten or twelve minutes of
+the lesson time. More elaborate exercises on scale passages are then
+sung, lasting another five minutes. These are followed by a vocalise or
+two, and a couple of songs or arias, which fill out the thirty minutes.
+
+Example 2: A few breathing exercises are practised, followed by single
+tones and short scale passages, the whole lasting about five minutes.
+Then the student is drilled for some ten minutes on "placing the head
+tones," in the manner described in the section on special vowel and
+consonant drills. These exercises are varied by swelling the high tone,
+by changing the vowels, and by elaborating the descending scale
+passages. The remaining fifteen minutes are devoted to vocalises and
+songs.
+
+Example 3: This is an advanced pupil, whose voice is supposed to be
+fairly well "placed." Technical exercises of some difficulty are sung,
+covering a range of an octave and a half, or a little more. The teacher
+interrupts occasionally to say "Sing those lower notes more in the chest
+voice," "Place the upper notes higher in the head," "Don't let your
+vocal cords open on that ah," "Sing that again and make the tones
+cleaner," etc. One or two arias are then sung, interspersed with
+instructions of the same sort, and also with suggestions regarding
+style, delivery, and expression.
+
+For daily practice between lessons, the student sings usually the same
+exercises and studies included in the previous lesson, and also commits
+to memory compositions assigned for future study.
+
+Examples of this kind might be multiplied indefinitely, but the main
+points have been fairly well brought out. Most important to be noticed
+is the fact that the voice is trained by practice in actual singing. In
+the whole scheme of modern Voice Culture, toneless muscular drills
+consume only an insignificant proportion of the time devoted to lessons.
+Further, the number of exercises and musical compositions embraced in a
+single half-hour lesson is very small. On the other hand, no limit can
+be set to the number of topics of vocal control touched on in any one
+lesson. These latter are used, throughout the whole range of
+instruction, without any systematic sequence. Whatever fault of
+production the pupil's tones indicate, the teacher calls attention to
+the fault, and gives the supposedly appropriate rule for its
+correction.
+
+
+
+
+Part II
+
+A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF MODERN METHODS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+MECHANICAL VOCAL MANAGEMENT AS THE BASIS OF VOICE CULTURE
+
+
+Notwithstanding the wide diversity of opinion on most topics connected
+with vocal training, there is one point on which all authorities agree.
+This is, that the voice must be consciously controlled. In all the
+conflict of methods, this basic mechanical idea has never been attacked.
+On the contrary, it is everywhere accepted without question as the
+foundation of all instruction in singing.
+
+The idea of mechanical vocal control is also the starting-point of all
+analysis of the vocal action. Every investigator of the voice approaches
+the subject in the belief that an exact determination of the muscular
+operations of correct singing would lead to an absolutely infallible
+method of training voices. The problem of tone-production is identical,
+in the common belief, with the problem of the vocal action. Three
+sciences, anatomy, mechanics, and acoustics, are believed to hold
+somewhere among them the secret of the voice. All investigation has
+therefore been carried on along the lines of these three sciences. It is
+on this account that modern methods are called scientific, and not
+because they are in conformity with general scientific principles.
+Before taking up the question whether the idea of mechanical vocal
+control is well grounded in fact and reason, let us consider further the
+influence of this idea on modern methods of instruction.
+
+All instruction in singing is intended to teach the student to "do
+something," in order that the vocal organs may be directly caused to act
+properly. No matter how vague and indefinite the directions given, their
+aim is always to inform the student what to do, how to guide the vocal
+action. Even when used in a purely empirical way the directions for open
+throat, etc., are always given in this spirit. That these directions are
+utterly meaningless in the mechanical sense does not alter the fact;
+nobody has ever found any other connection in which they would take on a
+definite meaning.
+
+In this regard the empirical directions are no more unsatisfactory than
+the mechanical doctrines of the accepted Vocal Science. It was pointed
+out that no means has ever been discovered for applying several of these
+doctrines in practical instruction. The rules contained in the
+theoretical works on Voice Culture for managing the registers and
+vocal-cord action, for forward emission of tone, and for control of the
+resonance cavities, are of no value whatever to the student of singing.
+It will be asked, how does the conscientious teacher get over this
+difficulty? How are the deficiencies of the scientific doctrines
+supplied in instruction? In many cases the deficiency is absolutely
+ignored. The student is simply told to "make the vocal cords act
+properly," to "direct the tone against the roof of the mouth," to "bring
+in the nasal resonance," etc., and no further help is given. That this
+works severe hardship on the earnest student need hardly be mentioned.
+
+Other teachers, as has been explained, rely on a description of the
+singer's sensations, and on the use of several vowel and consonant
+combinations, for imparting control of resonance and forward emission.
+These means are purely empirical makeshifts, and as a rule they are not
+sanctioned by the consistent advocates of scientific instruction. But
+for acquiring control of the correct vocal-cord action, absolutely no
+means has ever been found, scientific or empirical. On this, the
+surpassingly important feature of the vocal action, Vocal Science has
+thrown no light whatever.
+
+It was also remarked that the strictly scientific idea of Voice Culture
+is very seldom carried out, to its logical conclusion, in actual
+instruction. One important reason for this is that a student seldom
+remains long enough with a teacher to cover the entire ground of
+mechanical instruction. Students move about from teacher to teacher. In
+the class of any one master the proportion of pupils who have never had
+any previous instruction does not average one in ten. To carry the idea
+of averages further, the length of time a student takes lessons of one
+instructor may be set down as seldom more than two years.
+
+How long it would take to apply the complete system of mechanical vocal
+training has never been precisely stated. Cases are on record of pupils
+being kept on mechanical drills and elementary exercises for four
+years, without being allowed to attempt a simple song. But these
+instances are extremely rare. It seldom happens that a teacher can hold
+a pupil long enough to carry out the complete course of mechanical
+study.
+
+There are however many teachers who try conscientiously to have their
+pupils pay attention to all the mechanical features of the vocal action.
+What it would mean to sing in this way can only be imagined. Before
+starting a tone, the singer would prepare by taking a breath in some
+prescribed way, and retaining this breath an instant by holding the
+chest walls out. Meanwhile the lips, tongue, soft palate, and larynx
+would each be placed in the correct position. The jaw would be held
+relaxed, and the throat loose and open. The expected tone would be felt,
+in imagination, high up in the head, to assure the proper influence of
+nasal resonance. The vocal cords would be held in readiness to respond
+instantly to the mental command, so as to assure the exact state of
+tension necessary. Preparation would be made to direct the "column of
+vocalized breath," through the pharynx and mouth, to the proper point
+on the hard palate. Then, at the same precise instant, the breath would
+be started, and the vocal cords would be brought together, but without
+touching.
+
+So the tone would be begun. And all this would have to be done, with due
+attention to each operation, in the fraction of a second preceding the
+starting of the tone! The downright absurdity of this idea of singing
+must be apparent to any one who has ever listened to a great singer.
+
+Under the influence of the idea of mechanical vocal management there is
+little room for choice between voice culture along empirical lines, and
+the accepted type of scientific instruction. Modern empirical voice
+training has little practical value. Describing to the student the
+sensations which ought to be felt, does not help in the least. Even if
+the sensations felt by the singer, in producing tone correctly, are
+entirely different from those accompanying any incorrect use of the
+voice, nothing can be learned thereby. The sensations of correct singing
+cannot be felt until the voice is correctly used. An effect cannot
+produce its cause. Correct tone-production must be there to cause the
+sensations, or the sensations are not awakened at all. Nothing else can
+bring about the sensations of correct singing, but correct singing
+itself.
+
+Further, these sensations cannot be known until they are actually
+experienced. No description is adequate to enable the student to feel
+them in imagination. And, finally, even if the sensations could be
+described with all vividness, imagining them would not influence the
+vocal organs in any way. This is true, whether the description is given
+empirically, or whether it is cited to explain a mechanical feature of
+the vocal action. Instruction based on the singer's sensations is
+absolutely valueless.
+
+It would seem that modern methods contain very little of real worth. The
+investigation of the mechanical operations of the voice can hardly be
+said to have brought forth anything of definite value to the vocal
+teacher. But this is not the worst that can be said about the mechanical
+doctrines of tone-production. When critically examined, and submitted to
+a rigid scientific analysis, several of these doctrines are found to be
+erroneous in conception. These are the theories of breath-control, chest
+resonance, nasal resonance, and emission of tone. It will be observed
+that these doctrines comprise more than half of the materials of the
+accepted Vocal Science. Yet notwithstanding the fact that they are
+accepted without question by the great majority of vocal theorists as
+important elements of instruction in singing, each of these doctrines
+involves a distinct misconception of scientific principles. An
+examination of these doctrines is therefore the next subject to be
+undertaken.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE FALLACY OF THE DOCTRINE OF BREATH-CONTROL
+
+
+When Dr. Mandl advanced the statement that the laryngeal muscles are too
+weak to withstand the pressure of a powerful expiratory blast, the
+theory of the vocal action therein embodied met with immediate
+acceptance. This idea is so plausible that it appeals to the thoughtful
+investigator as self-evident, and seems to call for no proof. The
+doctrine of breath-control was at once adopted, by the most influential
+vocal scientists, as the basic principle of tone-production.
+
+Curiously, neither Dr. Mandl, nor any other advocate of breath-control,
+seems to have read an article by Sir Charles Bell dealing with this same
+action, the closing of the glottis against a powerful exhalation. This
+paper, "On the Organs of the Human Voice," was read before a meeting of
+the London Philosophical Society on February 2, 1832.
+
+Dr. Bell dispels all the mystery concerning the closure of the glottis,
+and the holding of the breath against a powerful contraction of the
+expiratory muscles. He points out that this action occurs in accordance
+with the law of the distribution of pressure in a fluid body, commonly
+known as Pascal's law of fluid pressures.
+
+Pascal's law is stated as follows:--"Pressure exerted anywhere upon a
+mass of fluid is transmitted undiminished in all directions, and acts
+with equal force on all equal surfaces, and in a direction at right
+angles to those surfaces." (Atkinson's _Ganot's Physics_, 4th ed., New
+York, 1869.)
+
+The hydraulic press furnishes the familiar illustration of this law. Two
+vertical cylinders, one many times larger than the other, are connected
+by a pipe. The cylinders are fitted with pistons. Both the cylinders,
+and the pipe connecting them, are filled with water, oil, air, or any
+other fluid; the fluid can pass freely from one cylinder to the other,
+through the connecting pipe. Suppose a horizontal section of the smaller
+cylinder to measure one square inch, that of the larger to be one
+hundred square inches. A weight of one pound on the smaller piston will
+balance a weight of one hundred pounds on the larger. If a downward
+pressure of one pound be exerted on the smaller piston, the larger
+piston will exert an upward pressure of one hundred pounds. Conversely,
+a downward pressure of one hundred pounds, exerted on the larger piston,
+will effect an upward pressure of only one pound on the smaller piston.
+
+A type of the hydraulic press is presented by the chest cavity and the
+larynx, considered as one apparatus. This fact is illustrated in the
+following quotation: "If a bladder full of water be connected with a
+narrow upright glass tube, heavy weights placed on the bladder will be
+able to uphold only a very small quantity of liquid in the tube, this
+arrangement being in fact a hydraulic press worked backwards. If the
+tube be shortened down so as to form simply the neck of the bladder, the
+total expulsive pressure exerted by the bladder upon the contents of the
+neck may seem to be very small when compared with the total pressure
+exerted over the walls of the bladder upon the whole contents." (_A Text
+Book of the Principles of Physics_, Alfred Daniell, London, 1884.)
+
+That the glottis-closing muscles are too weak to withstand a powerful
+expiratory pressure is therefore an entirely erroneous statement. Owing
+to the small area of the under surfaces of the vocal cords, the air
+pressure against them is very small, in comparison with the total
+pressure exerted on the contents of the thorax by the expiratory
+contraction. The glottis-closing muscles are fully capable of
+withstanding this comparatively slight pressure. The doctrine of
+breath-control is therefore scientifically untenable. This doctrine has
+no place in Vocal Science.
+
+As the basic doctrine of breath-control is unsound, the singer does not
+need any direct means for controlling the breath. The attempt to check
+the flow of the breath in any mechanical way is entirely uncalled for.
+This being the case, it is hardly to be expected that the systems
+devised to meet this fancied need would stand the test of scientific
+examination. Each of these systems of breath-control, opposed muscular
+action and ventricular, is in fact found on analysis to embody a
+misconception of scientific principles.
+
+_Opposed-Action Breath-Control_
+
+A curious misapprehension of mechanical processes is contained in the
+doctrine of breath-control by opposed muscular action. This can best be
+pointed out by a consideration of the forces brought to bear on a single
+rib in the acts of inspiration and expiration. One set of muscles
+contract to raise this rib in inspiration, an opposed set, by their
+contraction, lower the rib for the act of expiration. In the
+opposed-action system of breath-control, the action of the rib-raising
+muscles is continued throughout the expiration, as a check upon the pull
+in the opposite direction of the rib-lowering muscles. Theoretically,
+the downward pull is "controlled" by the upward pull. To express this
+idea in figures, let the expiratory or downward pull on the rib be said
+to involve the expenditure of five units of strength. According to the
+theory of opposed-action breath-control, this downward pull would have
+to be opposed by a slightly less upward pull, say four units of
+strength.
+
+Thus graphically presented, the fallacy of the "opposed-muscular" theory
+is clearly exposed. The rib is lowered with a degree of strength equal
+to the excess of the downward over the upward pull. If the downward pull
+equals five units of strength, and the upward pull four units, the rib
+is lowered with a pull equivalent to one unit of strength. Exactly the
+same effect would be obtained if the downward and upward pulls were
+equal respectively to twenty and nineteen units, or to two and one
+units. Further, the result would be the same if the downward pull
+involved the exertion of one unit of strength, and there was no upward
+pull whatever. In every case, the actual result is equivalent to the
+excess of the downward over the upward pull.
+
+In the case of the expiratory pressure of five units of strength being
+"controlled" by an inspiratory contraction of four units, nine units of
+strength are exerted, and the same result could be obtained by the
+exertion of one unit. There is a clear waste of eight units of strength.
+The power of the expiratory blast is just what it would be if one unit
+of strength were exerted in an "uncontrolled" expiration. The singer
+exerts just nine times as much strength as is necessary to effect the
+same result. This is why the practice of breath-control exercises is so
+extremely fatiguing.
+
+So far as the effect of the expiratory blast on the vocal cords is
+concerned, "controlling" the breath has no influence whatever. The vocal
+cords respond to the effective air pressure; they are not affected in
+any way by the opposed contractions of the breath muscles.
+"Opposed-muscular" breath-control is a sheer waste of time and effort.
+
+Probably no particular harm has ever resulted to any singer's throat
+from the practice of breath-control exercises. But the attempt to hold
+back the breath has a very bad effect on the singer's delivery. The
+"breath-control" type of singer is never found in the ranks of the great
+artists. There is something utterly unnatural about this holding back of
+the breath, repugnant to every singer endowed with the right idea of
+forceful and dramatic delivery. The vast majority of the successful
+pupils of "breath-control" teachers abandon, very early in their
+careers, the tiresome attempt to hold back the breath. These singers
+yield, probably unconsciously, to the instinctive impulse to sing freely
+and without constraint.
+
+But in the ranks of the minor concert and church singers are many who
+try conscientiously to obey the instructions of the "breath-control"
+teachers. Singers of this type can always be recognized by a curious
+impression of hesitancy, or even timidity, conveyed by their tones. They
+seem afraid to deliver their phrases with vigor and energy; they do not
+"let their voices out." Frequently their voices are of excellent
+quality, and their singing is polished and refined. But these singers
+never give to the listener that sense of satisfaction which is felt on
+hearing a fine voice freely and generously delivered.
+
+As for the particular fallacy contained in the theory of ventricular
+breath-control, that must be reserved for a later chapter. Suffice it to
+say here that this theory disregards the two basic mechanical principles
+of tone-production,--Pascal's law, and the law of the conservation of
+energy. The application of this latter physical law to the operations of
+the vocal organs is considered in Chapter VI of Part III.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE FALLACIES OF FORWARD EMISSION, CHEST RESONANCE, AND NASAL RESONANCE
+
+
+Sir Morell Mackenzie's analysis of the acoustic principle supposedly
+involved in "forward emission" has already been quoted. That this
+analysis involves a complete misunderstanding of the laws of acoustics
+need hardly be said. When stated in precise terms, the fallacy of the
+"forward emission" theory is evident:
+
+"On issuing from the vocal cords the tone is directed in a curved path,
+around the back of the tongue. There the tone is straightened out, and
+made to impinge on the roof of the mouth at a precisely defined point.
+From this point the tone is reflected, not directly back, as it should
+be, since the angles of incidence and reflection must be equal. Instead
+of this, the tone is reflected forward, out of the mouth, necessarily
+again taking a curved path, to avoid striking the front teeth."
+Naturally, no muscular action has ever been defined for causing the
+tone to perform this remarkable feat.
+
+The "forward emission" theory assumes the existence of a current of air,
+issuing from the vocal cords as a tone. In other words, the tone is
+supposed to consist of a stream of air, which can be voluntarily
+directed in the mouth, and aimed at some precise point on the roof of
+the mouth. This is an utter mistake.
+
+There is no "column of vibrating air," or "stream of vocalized breath,"
+in the mouth during tone-production. In the acoustic sense, the air in
+the mouth-pharynx is still air, not air in a current. The only motion
+which takes place in the air in this cavity is the oscillatory swing of
+the air particles. To imagine the directing of air vibrations in the
+mouth, as we direct a stream of water out of a hose, is absurd.
+
+What then is the "forward tone"? There must be some reason for this
+well-known effect of a perfectly produced voice,--the impression made on
+the hearer that the tones are formed in the front of the mouth. There
+ought also to be some way for the singer to learn to produce tones of
+this character. A consideration of this feature of the vocal action is
+reserved for Chapter IV of part III.
+
+_Chest Resonance_
+
+Who was originally responsible for the doctrine of chest resonance, it
+would be impossible now to determine. Were it not for the fact of this
+doctrine having received the support of eminent scientists (Holmes,
+Mackenzie, Curtis, and many others), it might be looked upon as a mere
+figure of speech. That the tones of the voice are reinforced by the
+resonance of the air in the chest cavity, is an utter absurdity. In the
+acoustic sense, the thorax is not a cavity at all. The thorax is filled
+with the spongy tissue of the lungs, not to mention the heart. It is no
+better adapted for air resonance than an ordinary spherical resonator
+would be, if filled with wet sponges.
+
+_Nasal Resonance_
+
+Enough was said of the theories of nasal resonance in Chapter IV of Part
+I to show the unscientific character of all these theories. It remains
+only to point out the misconception of acoustic principles, contained in
+all the discussions of the subject. This is very much the same as in
+the theory of "forward emission," viz., that the tones of the voice
+consist physically of a "stream of vocalized breath." The mistaken idea
+is, that nasal resonance results from part or all of the expired breath
+passing through the nose.
+
+What is nasal resonance? How is it caused? What is its effect on the
+tones of the voice? These questions have never been answered. It can
+however be proved that a satisfactory science of Voice Culture is not in
+any way dependent on obtaining an answer to these questions. This much
+is definitely known:
+
+1. If the resonance of the air in the nasal cavities exerts any
+influence on the tones of the voice, this influence cannot be increased,
+diminished, or prevented by any direct action on the part of the singer.
+Shutting off the entrance of the breath, by raising the soft palate, is
+possible as a muscular exercise. But it is impossible to perform this
+action, and to sing artistically, at the same time. To produce any kind
+of tone, while holding the soft palate raised, is extremely difficult.
+In a later chapter it will be seen that this action has no place
+whatever in the correct use of the voice.
+
+2. As the nasal cavities are fixed in size and shape, the singer cannot
+control or vary any influence which they may exert as a resonator.
+
+3. Independent of any thought or knowledge of how the nasal quality of
+tone is caused, the singer has perfect voluntary control over this
+quality by the simple, direct influence of the will. A singer may
+produce nasal tones, or tones free from this faulty sound, at will, with
+no thought of the mechanical processes involved. All that is required is
+that the singer have an ear keen enough to recognize the nasal quality
+in his own voice, as well as in the voice of any other singer.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE FUTILITY OF THE MATERIALS OF MODERN METHODS
+
+
+Of the strictly scientific or mechanical materials of modern methods,
+four have been seen to be utterly erroneous. The remaining topics of
+instruction, mechanical and empirical, may with equal justice be
+submitted to a similar examination.
+
+Several of these topics have already been critically examined. The rules
+for registers and laryngeal management were seen to be of no value to
+the student of singing. So also was it observed that all instruction
+which attempts to utilize the singer's sensations is futile. All that is
+left of the materials of modern methods, in which any valuable idea
+might be contained, are the rules for breathing.
+
+Without undertaking to decide whether one system of breathing can be
+right, to the exclusion of all other systems, one general remark can be
+applied to the whole subject. It has never been scientifically proved
+that the correct use of the voice depends in any way on the mastery of
+an acquired system of breathing. True, this is the basic assumption of
+all the discussions of the singer's breathing. As Frangçon-Davies justly
+remarks,--"All combatants are agreed on one point, viz., that the
+singer's breath is an acquired one of some kind." (_The Singing of the
+Future_, David Frangçon-Davies, M.A., London, 1906.) This is purely an
+assumption on the part of the vocal theorists. No one has ever so much
+as attempted to offer scientific proof of the statement.
+
+Further, it is frequently stated that the old Italian masters paid much
+attention to the subject of breathing; the assumption is also made that
+these masters approached the subject in the modern spirit. Neither this
+statement, nor the assumption based on it, is susceptible of proof. Tosi
+and Mancini do not even mention the subject of breathing.
+
+Breathing has been made the subject of exhaustive mechanical and
+muscular analysis, for one reason, and for only one reason. This is,
+because the action of breathing is the only mechanical feature of
+singing which can be exhaustively studied. The laryngeal action is
+hidden; the influence of the resonance cavities cannot well be
+determined. But the whole muscular operation of breathing can be readily
+seen and studied; any investigator can personally experiment with every
+conceivable system.
+
+Furthermore, the adoption of any system of breathing has no influence
+whatever on the operations of the voice. A student of singing may learn
+to take breath in any way favored by the instructor; the manner of
+tone-production is not in the least affected. Even if the correct use of
+the voice has to be acquired, the mode of breathing does not contribute
+in any way to this result.
+
+All that need be said in criticism of the various doctrines of breathing
+is, that the importance of this subject has been greatly overestimated.
+Breath and life are practically synonymous. Nothing but the prevalence
+of the mechanical idea has caused so much attention to be paid to the
+singer's breathing. A tuba player will march for several hours in a
+street parade, carrying his heavy instrument, and playing it fully half
+the time; yet the vocal theorist does not consider him an object of
+sympathy.
+
+No doubt the acquirement of healthy habits of breathing is of great
+benefit to the general health. But this does not prove that correct
+singing demands some kind of breathing inherently different from
+ordinary life. To inspire quickly and exhale the breath slowly is not an
+acquired ability; it is the action of ordinary speech. Singing demands
+that the lungs be filled more quickly than in ordinary speech, and
+perhaps a fuller inspiration is also required. This is readily mastered
+with very little practice. It does not call for the acquirement of any
+new muscular movements, nor the formation of any new habits.
+
+What is left of all the materials of modern vocal instruction? To sum
+them up in the order in which they were considered in Part I:
+
+Breathing does not need to be mastered in any such way as is stated in
+the theoretical works on the voice. Breath-control is a complete
+fallacy. The doctrines of registers and laryngeal action are utterly
+valueless. Chest resonance, nasal resonance, and forward emission, are
+scientifically erroneous. The traditional precepts are of no value,
+because nobody knows how to follow or apply them. Empirical teaching
+based on the singer's sensations is of no avail.
+
+In other words, modern methods contain not one single topic of any value
+whatever in the training of the voice. It will be objected that this
+statement is utterly absurd, because many of the world's greatest
+singers have been trained according to these methods. No doubt this is
+in one sense true; modern methods can point to many brilliant successes.
+But this does not prove anything in favor of the materials of modern
+methods.
+
+Singers are trained to-day exactly as they were trained two hundred
+years ago, through a reliance on the imitative faculty. The only
+difference is this: In the old days, the student was directly and
+expressly told to listen and to imitate, while to-day the reliance on
+the imitative faculty is purely instinctive. A fuller consideration of
+the important function of imitation as an unrecognized element of modern
+Voice Culture is contained in Chapter V of Part IV.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE ERROR OF THE THEORY OF MECHANICAL VOCAL MANAGEMENT
+
+
+A fundamental difference was pointed out, at the close of the preceding
+chapter, between the old Italian method and modern systems of vocal
+instruction. This is worthy of repetition. The old Italian method was
+founded on the faculty of imitation. Modern methods have as their basis
+the idea of conscious, direct, mechanical control of the vocal organs.
+All the materials of instruction based on this idea of mechanical
+control were seen to be absolutely valueless. It is now in order to
+examine still further the structure of modern Voice Culture, and to test
+this basic idea of mechanical control.
+
+As a muscular operation, the actions of singing must be subject to the
+same physiological and psychological laws which govern all other
+voluntary muscular actions. What are these laws? How do we guide and
+control our muscular movements? At first sight, this seems a simple
+question. We know what we want to do, and we do it. But the important
+point is, how are we able to do the things we want to do? You wish to
+raise your hand, for example, therefore you raise it. How does your hand
+know that you wish to raise it? Does the hand raise itself? Not at all;
+it is raised by the contraction of certain muscles in the arm, shoulder,
+and back. That is, when you wish to raise your hand, certain muscles
+contract themselves. But these muscles are not part of the hand. What
+leads these muscles in the shoulder and back to contract, when you will
+to raise your hand? Normally you are not even aware of their
+contraction. Yet in some way these muscles know that they are called on
+to contract, in response to the wish to raise the hand. This takes
+place, even though you know nothing whatever of the muscles in question.
+The process is by no means so simple, when looked at in this light.
+
+A complicated psychological process is involved in the simplest
+voluntary movements. This is seen in the following analysis:
+
+"To move any part of the body voluntarily requires the following
+particulars: (1) The possession of an educated reflex-motor mechanism,
+under the control of the higher cerebral centers which are most
+immediately connected with the phenomena of consciousness; (2) certain
+_motifs_ in the form of conscious feelings that have a tone of pleasure
+or pain, and so impel the mind to secure such bodily conditions as will
+continue or increase the one, and discontinue or diminish the other; (3)
+ideas of motions and positions of the bodily members, which previous
+experience has taught us answer more or less perfectly to the _motifs_
+of conscious feeling; (4) a conscious fiat of will, settling the
+question, as it were, which of these ideas shall be realized in the
+motions achieved and positions attained by these members; (5) a central
+nervous mechanism, which serves as the organ of relation between this
+act of will and the discharge of the requisite motor impulses along
+their nerve-tracts to the groups of muscles peripherally situated."
+(_Elements of Physiological Psychology_, Geo. T. Ladd, New York, 1889.)
+
+Let us again consider the action of raising the hand, and see how the
+psychological analysis applies in this movement. We note in the first
+place that we are concerned only with the third, fourth, and fifth
+particulars of Prof. Ladd's analysis. These are:
+
+The idea of the movement.
+
+The fiat of will which directs that this movement be performed.
+
+The discharge of the requisite motor impulses, along the nerve-tracts,
+to the muscles whose contraction constitutes the movement.
+
+It will be simpler, and will answer the purpose equally well, to combine
+the third and fourth elements, and to consider as one element the idea
+of the movement and the fiat of will to execute the movement.
+
+_The Idea of a Movement_
+
+The mental picture of a purposed movement is simple and direct. No
+reference is involved to the muscles concerned in the performance of the
+movement. When you will to raise your hand, the action is pictured to
+your mind as the raising of the hand, and nothing more. Certain muscles
+are to be contracted. But the mental picture of the movement does not
+indicate what these muscles are, in what order they are to be brought
+into play, nor the relative degrees of strength to be exerted by each
+muscular fiber. You do not consciously direct the muscles in their
+contractions.
+
+_The Discharge to the Muscles of the Nerve Impulse_
+
+How then are the muscles informed that their contraction is called for?
+They have no independent volition; each muscular fiber obeys the impulse
+transmitted to it by the nerve, from the nerve center governing its
+action. These nerve centers are in their turn controlled by the central
+nervous mechanism. And in complex voluntary movements the central
+nervous mechanism is under the control of the higher cerebral centers.
+The wish to raise the hand appears to the mind as an idea of the hand
+being raised. This idea is translated by the central nervous mechanism
+into a set of motor nerve impulses. Does consciousness or volition come
+into play here? Not at all. On this point Prof. Ladd remarks: "As to the
+definite nature of the physical basis which underlies the connection of
+ideas of motion and the starting outward of the right motor impulses,
+our ignorance is almost complete."
+
+Is it necessary for the performance of a complex muscular action that
+the individual know what muscles are involved and how and when to
+contract them? No; this knowledge is not only unnecessary, it is even
+impossible. Prof. Ladd says of this: "It would be a great mistake to
+regard the mind as having before it the cerebral machinery, all nicely
+laid out, together with the acquired art of selecting and touching the
+right nervous elements in order to produce the desired motion, as a
+skilful player of the piano handles his keyboard."
+
+How then are the muscles informed of the service required of them? Or
+more precisely, how does the central nervous mechanism know what
+distribution of nerve impulses to make among the different nerve centers
+governing the muscles? As Prof. Ladd says, our ignorance on this point
+is almost complete. There resides in the central nervous mechanism
+governing the muscles something which for lack of a better name may be
+called an instinct. When a purposeful movement of any part of the body
+is willed, the mental picture of the movement is translated by the
+central nervous mechanism into a succession of nerve impulses; these
+impulses are transmitted through the lower centers to the muscles. The
+instinct informing the central nervous mechanism how to apportion the
+discharges of nerve impulse among the various muscular centers is to a
+high degree mysterious. The present purpose will not be served by
+carrying the analysis of this instinct further.[7]
+
+[Note 7: The evolutionary development of this instinct is not
+altogether mysterious. Science can fairly well trace the successive
+steps in the development of the central nervous mechanism, from the
+amoeba to the highest type of vertebrate. "Nerve channels" are worn by
+the repeated transmission of impulses over the same tracts.
+Coördinations become in successive generations more complex and more
+perfect. As consciousness develops further, in each succeeding type,
+actions originally reflex tend to take on a more consciously purposeful
+character. But all we are concerned with now is the problem of
+tone-production. Our purpose is best served by accepting the faculty of
+muscular adaptation as an instinct, pure and simple.]
+
+There is therefore no direct conscious guidance of the muscles, in any
+movement, simple or complex. So far as the command of voluntary muscular
+actions is concerned, the first simple statement of the process sums up
+all that for practical purposes need be determined;--we know what we
+want to do, and we do it. The mind forms the idea of an action and the
+muscles instinctively respond.
+
+But the fact remains that the muscles need to be guided in some way. We
+do not perform instinctively many complex actions,--writing, dancing,
+rowing, swimming, etc. All these actions, and indeed most of the
+activities of daily life, must be consciously learned by practice and
+repeated effort. How are these efforts guided? To arrive at an answer to
+this question let us consider how a schoolboy practises his writing
+lesson.
+
+The boy begins by having before him a copy of the letters he is to
+write. Under the guidance of the eye the hand traces these letters. At
+each instant the eye points out to the hand the direction in which to
+move. As the hand occasionally wanders from the prescribed direction the
+eye immediately notes the deviation and bids the hand to correct it. The
+hand responds to the demands of the eye, immediately, without thought on
+the boy's part of nerve impulse or of muscular contraction. By repeated
+efforts the boy improves upon his first clumsy attempts; with each
+repetition he approaches nearer to the model.
+
+In the course of this progress the muscular sense gradually comes to the
+assistance of the eye as a sort of supplementary guidance. But at no
+time is the eye relieved of the responsibility of guiding the hand in
+writing. To sum this up, the movements of the hand in writing are
+guided, so far as the consciousness is aware, directly by the sense of
+sight.
+
+We have here the law of voluntary muscular guidance. In all voluntary
+movements the muscles are guided in their contractions, through some
+instinctive process, by the sense or senses which observe the movements
+themselves, and more especially, the results of the movements. In most
+actions the two senses concerned are sight and muscular sense. The more
+an action becomes habitual the more it tends to be performed under the
+guidance of muscular sense, and to be free from the necessity of the
+guidance of the eye. But muscular sense does not usually rise so high
+into consciousness as sight, in the guidance of muscular activities.
+Many oft-repeated movements, especially those of walking, become
+thoroughly habitual and even automatic; that is, the muscular
+contractions are performed as purely reflex actions, without conscious
+guidance of any kind. But even in walking, the necessity may at any
+instant arise for conscious guidance. In such a case the sense of sight
+immediately comes into service; from reflex the movements become
+voluntary, and consciously guided. In the case of most complex actions
+the sense of sight furnishes the most important guidance.
+
+If the muscular operations of singing are subject to the general laws of
+psychological control, the guidance of the vocal organs must be
+furnished by the sense which observes the results of the movements
+involved. This is the sense of hearing. Just as in writing the hand is
+guided by the eye, so in singing the voice is guided by the ear. There
+can be no other means of guiding the voice. Muscular sense may under
+certain conditions supplement the sense of hearing, but under no
+circumstances can muscular sense assume full command. The net result of
+the application of psychological principles to the problem of
+tone-production is simply this, that the voice is guided directly by the
+ear.
+
+It is thus seen that the idea of mechanical vocal management is utterly
+erroneous. On pushing the analysis still further the fallacy of this
+idea is found to be even more glaring.
+
+Is a knowledge of anatomy of any assistance in the acquirement of skill
+in performing complex muscular actions? Not in the least. An
+understanding of muscular processes does not contribute in any way to
+skilful execution. The anatomist does not play billiards or row a boat
+one whit the better for all his knowledge of the muscular structure of
+the body.
+
+Even if the precise workings of the vocal mechanism could be determined,
+the science of Voice Culture would not benefit thereby. Knowing how the
+muscles should act does not help us to make them act properly. It is
+utterly idle to tell the vocal student that as the pitch of the voice
+rises the arytenoid cartilages rotate, bringing their forward surfaces
+together, and so shortening the effective length of the vocal cords.
+Whatever the vocal cords are required to do is performed through an
+instinctive obedience to the demands of the mental ear.
+
+And finally, a precise analysis of muscular contractions is impossible,
+even in the case of comparatively simple actions. When, for example,
+the hand describes a circle in the air, a number of muscles are
+involved. True, it is known what these muscles are, and what effect the
+combined contractions of any group would have on the position of the
+hand. The direction of the hand's motion at any instant is determined by
+the resultant of all the forces exerted on this member. But as this
+direction constantly changes, so must the relative degrees of strength
+exerted by the muscles also constantly change. At no two successive
+instants are the muscular adjustments the same. This simple action,
+performed without thought or knowledge of the muscular processes,
+presents features too complex to be analyzed on the basis of mechanical
+law and anatomic structure.
+
+A complete analysis of the muscular operations of tone-production is
+absolutely impossible. The adjustments of the laryngeal muscles involve
+probably the most minute variations in degree of contraction performed
+in the whole voluntary muscular system. What we do know of the
+mechanical operations of the voice is exceedingly interesting, and a
+further knowledge of the subject is greatly to be desired. But we can
+never hope to clear up all the mystery of the vocal action.
+
+This statement must not be construed to mean that the study of the vocal
+mechanism has been devoid of valuable results. On the contrary, the
+present understanding of the mechanical operations of the voice will be
+found of very great value in erecting a true science of Voice Culture.
+The only weakness of the present results of vocal investigation is due
+to the fact that this investigation has always been carried on under the
+influence of the idea of mechanical vocal management. This influence has
+led all theoretical students of the subject to attempt to apply their
+knowledge in formulating rules for direct mechanical guidance of the
+voice. That these rules are valueless is due solely to the fundamental
+error involved in the mechanical idea.
+
+Voice Culture must be turned from the idea of mechanical vocal
+management. The old Italian masters were right in that they relied, even
+though empirically, on the imitative faculty. Modern teachers may do
+better, for in the light of present knowledge reliance on the faculty of
+vocal imitation can be shown to be in strict accord with sound
+scientific principles.
+
+
+
+
+Part III
+
+THE BASIS OF A REAL SCIENCE OF VOICE
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE MEANS OF EMPIRICAL OBSERVATION OF THE VOICE
+
+
+To all knowledge obtained through the observation of facts and
+phenomena, the term empirical is properly applied. Empirical knowledge
+must be the basis of every science. To be available in forming a
+science, empirical knowledge of a subject must be so carefully gathered
+that all probability of error is eliminated; the observations must be so
+exhaustive as to embrace every possible source of information. From the
+knowledge thus obtained a set of verified general rules must be worked
+out with which all the observed facts and phenomena are shown to be in
+accord. Then a science has been erected. There is no possibility of
+conflict between empirical and scientific knowledge. The discovery of a
+single fact, at variance with the supposed general laws bearing on any
+subject, is sufficient to overthrow the entire structure which had been
+accepted as a science.
+
+In the accepted Vocal Science the terms empirical and scientific are
+used in a sense entirely different from that which properly attaches to
+these words. Present knowledge of the operations of the voice is called
+scientific, solely because it is derived from the sciences of anatomy,
+acoustics, and mechanics. The term "empirical knowledge of the voice" is
+used as a name for knowledge of the subject drawn from any source other
+than these sciences. Yet so far as the modern vocal world seems to be
+aware, it possesses no knowledge of the voice other than that commonly
+called scientific. It is supposed that the old Italian masters had some
+"empirical understanding of the voice." But, if this was the case, their
+empirical knowledge has apparently been utterly lost.
+
+Thus far in the present work, the usage of the terms empirical and
+scientific, accepted by vocal theorists generally, has been adopted. A
+distinction has been drawn between knowledge of the voice obtained
+through the study of the vocal mechanism and that obtained through
+observation of any other kind. The purpose will best be served by
+continuing this same usage.
+
+It must be apparent to the reader, from the analysis of modern methods,
+that no real Science of Voice has thus far been erected. This is due to
+the fact that the general principles of scientific investigation have
+not been applied to the study of the voice. Under the influence of the
+idea of mechanical vocal management the attention of all investigators
+has been turned exclusively to the mechanical features of
+tone-production. Meanwhile the empirical knowledge of the old masters
+seems to have been forgotten. As a matter of fact, as will now be seen,
+this empirical knowledge has never been lost. Every modern teacher of
+singing shares the empirical knowledge which formed the sole material of
+the old method. But this knowledge is not applied effectually in modern
+instruction for two reasons. First, modern teachers do not realize the
+importance of this knowledge; indeed, they are practically unaware of
+this valuable possession. Although in fact the basis of nearly all
+modern instruction in singing, empirical knowledge is always
+unconsciously used. Second, empirical knowledge is always applied in the
+prevailing mechanical spirit. The attempt is always made to translate
+the sub-conscious empirical understanding of the voice into rules for
+direct mechanical management. Under the influence of the mechanical idea
+the modern teacher's most valuable possession, empirical knowledge of
+the voice, becomes utterly unserviceable.
+
+Thus far, the whole result of this work has been destructive. The
+accepted Vocal Science has been shown to be erroneous in its conception
+and unsound in its conclusions. The work cannot halt here. Vocal Science
+must be reconstructed. This can be done only by following the general
+plan of all scientific investigation, beginning with the observation of
+all ascertainable facts bearing on the voice.
+
+How can any facts be observed about the voice other than by the study of
+the vocal mechanism? An answer to this question is at once suggested so
+soon as scientific principles are applied to the subject. Strictly
+speaking, the voice is a set of sounds, produced by the action of the
+vocal organs. The scientific method of inquiry is therefore to begin by
+observing these sounds. Sounds as such can be observed only by the sense
+of hearing. It follows then that the attentive listening to voices is
+the first step to be taken.
+
+Can any empirical knowledge of the voice be obtained by the mere
+listening to voices? If so, we ought now to be in possession of any
+facts which might be thus observed. Is it possible that information of
+this character is already a common possession of the vocal world, and
+yet that this information has never been applied in the investigation of
+the voice? This is exactly the case. Many facts regarding the voice have
+been observed so continually that they are a matter of common knowledge,
+and yet these facts have never been recorded in a scientific manner.
+
+Consider, for example, this remark about a famous singer, made by one of
+the foremost musical critics of the United States: "Mme. T---- 's lower
+medium notes were all sung with a pinched glottis." How did this critic
+know that the singer had pinched her glottis? He had no opportunity of
+examining her throat with the laryngoscope, nor of observing her throat
+action in any other way. In fact, the critic was seated probably
+seventy-five feet from the artist at the time the tones in question were
+sung. The critic had only one means of knowing anything about the
+singer's throat action, and that was contained in the sound of the
+tones. There must therefore have been something in the sound of the
+tones which conveyed this information to the critical listener. For many
+years this gentleman had been in the habit of listening closely to
+singers, and he had found some way of estimating the singer's throat
+action by the character of the tones produced.
+
+This same means of judging the manner of production from the sound of
+the tones seems to have been utilized nearly two hundred years ago.
+Speaking of the most frequent faults of tone-production, Tosi remarks:
+"The voice of the scholar should always come forth neat and clear,
+without passing through the nose or being choked in the throat." Mancini
+also speaks of the faults of nasal and throaty voice: "Un cantare di
+gola e di naso." A throaty tone, therefore, impressed these writers as
+being in some way formed or caught in the singer's throat. It may be set
+down as certain that no pupil ever explained to either of these masters
+how the objectionable sounds were produced. How then did Tosi and
+Mancini know the manner in which a throaty tone is produced?
+
+We need not go back to the early writers to find out what is meant by a
+throaty tone. Fully as many throaty singers are heard nowadays as the
+old masters ever listened to. What do we mean when we say that a
+singer's voice is throaty? The answer to this question seems at first
+sight simple enough: The tones impress us as being formed in the
+singer's throat. But what conveys this impression? Something in the
+sound of the tone, of course. Yet even that is not enough. How can a
+tone, merely a sound to which we listen, tell us anything about the
+condition of the singer's throat during the production of the tone? Here
+again the answer seems simple: The listener knows that, in order to
+produce a tone of like character, he would have to contract his own
+throat in some way.
+
+Here we have a highly significant fact about the voice. On hearing a
+throaty tone, the listener can tell how this tone is produced; he feels
+that he would have to contract his own throat in order to produce a
+similar tone. Let us carry this discussion a little further. How does
+the listener know this? Certainly not by actually singing a throaty
+tone. When seated in a concert hall, for example, and listening to a
+throaty singer, the hearer cannot rise from his seat, sing a few throaty
+tones himself, and then note how his throat feels. The critic just
+mentioned did not sing some notes with "pinched glottis" in order to
+learn how Mme. T---- sang her low tones. Evidently it is not necessary
+actually to imitate the singer; the hearer gets the same result by
+imitating the sounds mentally. In other words, when we hear throaty
+tones we mentally imitate these tones; thus we know that we should have
+to contract our own throats in order to produce similar tones.
+
+But even here we cannot stop. To imitate the singer actually is one
+thing; mental imitation is something entirely different. In the first
+case, actual imitation, our muscular sense would inform us of the state
+of throat tightening. But in the case of mental imitation there is no
+actual tightening of the throat, nothing, at any rate, comparable to
+what takes place in actual imitation. There is then a dual function of
+the imagination; first, the mental imitation of the sound; second, the
+imaginary tightening of the throat. The analysis of the mental process
+must therefore be modified, and stated as follows: When we listen to a
+throaty tone we mentally imitate the tone; an imaginative function of
+the muscular sense informs us what condition the singer's throat assumes
+for the production of the tone.
+
+A similar operation takes place in listening to nasal voices. An
+impression is conveyed by a nasal tone, through which the hearer is
+informed of a condition of tightness or contraction somewhere in the
+singer's nose.
+
+The terms applied to the two most marked forms of faulty
+tone-production, nasal and throaty, are derived from impressions
+conveyed by the sounds of the tones. These names, nasal and throaty,
+refer to a feeling of tightness or contraction experienced in
+imagination by the hearer; in one case this feeling is located in the
+nose, in the other, in the throat. But the terms nasal and throaty are
+general descriptions of faulty tones. Each one covers a wide range of
+tone qualities. There is an almost infinite variety of throaty tones,
+and of nasal sounds as well. The knowledge of the voice obtained by
+listening to vocal tones is of equally wide extent. Every throaty tone,
+whatever its precise character, informs the hearer of the exact
+condition of the singer's throat in producing the tone. In short, every
+vocal tone is thus analyzed by the critical listener, and referred in
+imagination to his own throat. An insight into the singer's vocal action
+is imparted to the hearer through an imaginative process which always,
+of necessity, accompanies the attentive listening to vocal tones.
+
+Every vocal tone awakens in the hearer a set of imagined muscular
+sensations. These sensations furnish the means for an exhaustive
+analysis of the operations of the voice. The production of tone
+therefore awakens two sets of muscular sensations, one actually felt by
+the singer, the other felt in imagination by the listener. The former
+are commonly known as the "singer's sensations"; but, as will be
+explained later, this expression is often very loosely applied. It is
+advisable on this account to give a new name to the singer's sensations,
+and also to give a name to the muscular sensations awakened in the
+hearer. Let us therefore call the sensations experienced by the singer
+in the production of tone the "direct sensations of tone." To the
+imaginary sensations of the hearer let us give the name, the
+"sympathetic sensations of tone."
+
+These two terms will be used throughout the remainder of this work in
+the meanings here given to them.
+
+Direct sensations of tone are the sensations actually felt by the singer
+as a result of the exercise of the vocal organs.
+
+Sympathetic sensations of tone are the muscular sensations experienced
+in imagination by the hearer as a result of the listening to the tones
+of voices other than his own.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+SYMPATHETIC SENSATIONS OF VOCAL TONE
+
+
+A peculiar relation of sympathy exists between the human voice and the
+human ear. So intimate is this relation that the two might almost be
+considered as forming one complete organ. One aspect of this relation
+has already been noted, the guidance of the vocal organs by the sense of
+hearing. There is now to be considered another feature of this relation
+between voice and ear,--the assistance rendered by the vocal organs to
+the sense of hearing.
+
+That a sub-conscious adjustment of the vocal organs may supplement the
+sense of hearing in the estimation of pitch is mentioned by Prof. Ladd.
+Speaking of the ability, by no means uncommon, to tell the pitch of any
+musical note heard, Prof. Ladd says: "Such judgment, however, may be,
+and ordinarily is, much assisted by auxiliary discriminations of other
+sensations which blend with those of the musical tone. Among such
+secondary helps the most important are the muscular sensations which
+accompany the innervation of the larynx and other organs used in
+producing musical tones. For we ordinarily innervate these organs (at
+least in an inchoate and partial way)--that is, we sound the note to
+ourselves--when trying carefully to judge of its pitch." (_Elements of
+Physiological Psychology._)
+
+Much more important in the study of the problem of tone-production are
+the adjustments of the hearer's vocal organs which were named the
+sympathetic sensations of tone. This peculiar auxiliary to the sense of
+hearing calls for the closest attention.
+
+Sympathetic sensations of tone are awakened in the hearer through the
+mere listening to the sounds of the human voice. Vocal tones impress the
+listener's ear in a manner entirely different from any other sounds. Not
+only are the tones of the voice heard, just as other sounds are heard;
+in addition to this, every vocal tone heard is mentally imitated, and
+this mental reproduction of the tone is referred in imagination to the
+hearer's own vocal organs. Besides hearing the vocal tone as a sound
+pure and simple, the listener is also informed of the manner of throat
+action by which the tone is produced.
+
+This mental imitation and judgment of vocal tones is not a voluntary
+operation. On the contrary it cannot even be inhibited. It is impossible
+for us to listen to the voices of those about us, even in ordinary
+conversation, without being to some extent aware of the various modes of
+tone-production.
+
+This idea of the mental imitation of voices may impress us at first as
+highly mysterious. Sympathetic sensations of tone have been felt and
+noted, probably ever since the human voice and the human ear were
+developed. Yet the process is purely sub-conscious. It is performed
+involuntarily, without thought on the part of the hearer, even without
+any consciousness of the process. The hearer simply knows how the voices
+to which he listens are produced. A throaty voice simply sounds throaty;
+the hearer feels this, and pays no attention to the source of the
+information. We take it as a matter of course that a nasal voice seems
+to come through the speaker's nose. Why a certain quality of sound gives
+this impression we never stop to inquire. The impressions of throat
+action conveyed by other people's voices seem so simple and direct that
+nobody appears to have thought to analyze the psychological process
+involved.
+
+This psychological process is found on analysis to be highly complex. In
+addition to the actual physical exercise of the sense of hearing, three
+distinct operations are performed in imagination. These are the mental
+imitation of the tone, the imagined adjustments of the vocal organs, and
+the imaginative exercise of the muscular sense. Although simultaneously
+performed, each of these four operations may be considered separately.
+
+_Hearing_
+
+As the judgment of vocal tones by sympathetic sensations is purely a
+function of the sense of hearing, the keenness of these sensations
+varies in each individual in proportion to the keenness of the ear. It
+would be a great mistake to assert that we all feel these sympathetic
+sensations with equal vividness. On the contrary, many people are so
+inattentive to the qualities of sounds that they hardly know the meaning
+of the term "nasal tone."
+
+One trait in particular distinguishes the musician and the music lover;
+this is, the possession of a keen sense of hearing. The ear is trained
+by exercise in its own function,--hearing. The more attentively we
+listen to music the higher do we develop our ability to discriminate
+between musical sounds. Moreover, natural endowments vary in different
+individuals, with regard to the ear, as with all other human faculties.
+To appreciate fully the wonderful insight into vocal operations conveyed
+by the sympathetic sensations of tone, a naturally keen musical ear is
+required; further, this natural gift of a good ear must be developed by
+attentive listening to music, vocal and instrumental, carried on through
+several years.
+
+_Mental Imitation of Vocal Tones_
+
+That every sense has its counterpart in the imagination need hardly be
+said. We know what it means to feel warm or cold, hungry or thirsty; we
+know the taste of an apple, the scent of a rose. We can at will create
+pictures before the mind's eye. In the same way we can hear in
+imagination any sound we choose to produce mentally.
+
+An inseparable function of the sense of hearing is the impulse to
+imitate mentally the tones of speakers and singers. The imitation of
+sounds is an instinctive operation. "Talking proper does not set in till
+the instinct to _imitate sounds_ ripens in the nervous system." (_The
+Principles of Psychology_, Wm. James, N. Y., 1890.) Little can be said
+about the impulse to imitate voices mentally, further than that it is an
+exercise of this same instinct.
+
+_Imagined Adjustments of the Vocal Organs_
+
+It has already been seen that the vocal organs have the ability to
+adjust themselves, through instinctive guidance, for the production of
+any tone demanded by the ear. This same ability is invoked in the mental
+imitation of tones. In one case the muscular contractions are actually
+performed; in the other the muscular adjustments are wholly or in part
+imaginary.
+
+It is highly probable that actual contractions of the laryngeal muscles
+take place, under certain conditions, as an accompaniment to the
+listening to voices. This is evident in the case of extremely aggravated
+throaty and forced voices. In listening to the harsh, raucous cries of
+many street vendors, when calling out their wares, the hearer
+frequently feels a sense of actual pain in his own throat.
+
+Involuntary and unconscious contractions of the laryngeal muscles,
+somewhat similar to those under consideration, are well known to
+experimental psychologists. Prof. Ladd's statement that these
+contractions assist the ear in the judgment of absolute pitch has
+already been cited. Another example of unconscious laryngeal movements
+has been investigated by Hansen and Lehmann ("Ueber unwillkuerliches
+Fluestern," _Philos. Studien_, 1895, Vol. XI, p. 47), and by H. S.
+Curtis ("Automatic Movements of the Larynx," _Amer. Jour. Psych._, 1900,
+Vol. XI, p. 237). The laboratory experiments of these investigators show
+that when words, or ideas definitely expressed in words, are strongly
+thought but not uttered, the vocal organs unconsciously adjust
+themselves to the positions necessary for uttering the words. Curtis
+says of these unconscious laryngeal contractions: "Such movements are
+very common with normal people, and are comparatively easy of
+demonstration."
+
+The apparatus used by Hansen and Lehmann in their experiments consists
+of two large concave reflectors. These are placed at a convenient
+distance, one facing the other, so that two experimenters may be seated,
+the first having his mouth at the focal point of one reflector, the
+second with his ear at the focal point of the other. As the first
+experimenter repeats mentally any words or phrases, these are found to
+be unconsciously whispered. These sounds of whispering, inaudible under
+ordinary conditions, are so magnified by the two reflectors as to be
+distinctly heard by the second experimenter.
+
+Curtis proved that actual movements of the larynx unconsciously
+accompany intense thought. His demonstrations were conducted along lines
+familiar to all students of experimental psychology. Similar experiments
+would probably show that unconscious movements of the larynx also occur
+during the listening to vocal tones.
+
+A peculiarity of the laryngeal adjustments accompanying the listening to
+voices is seen in the fact that the possession of a fine or well-trained
+voice is not required in this process. It does not matter whether the
+physical organs are capable of producing fine musical tones. The
+nervous equipment alone is involved; this is frequently highly
+developed, even though the physical voice is very poor. A keen and
+highly-trained ear is the only requisite. Players in the opera
+orchestras often develop this faculty to a high degree, even though they
+may never attempt to sing a note.
+
+_Muscular Sense_
+
+An exhaustive analysis of the various classes of sensations, commonly
+grouped under the general heading of muscular sense, would involve a
+mass of technicalities not necessary to the present purpose. It is
+sufficient to bear in mind the limitations of this sense, and to notice
+what it tells us, and what it does not tell.
+
+Through the exercise of the muscular sense we are informed of the
+movements, positions, and conditions of the different parts of the body.
+Of specific muscular contractions very little information is conveyed.
+Thus, when the arm is bent at the elbow the muscular sensations of the
+movement are clear and definite; but, under normal conditions, these
+sensations do not inform us that the movement results from the
+contraction of the biceps muscle. Knowledge of the muscular structure
+of the body is not involved in muscular sense. The muscular sensations
+of bending the arm are felt in precisely the same way by the professor
+of anatomy and the ignorant child.
+
+Further, no amount of attention paid to muscular sensations will inform
+us exactly what muscles are contracted in any complex action. A single
+stroke in the game of tennis, returning a swift service for example, may
+involve some contraction of every muscle of the entire body. A skilful
+player may observe with the utmost care the muscular sensations
+accompanying this stroke; he would never be able to learn from these
+sensations whether the number of muscles in his forearm is ten or one
+hundred.
+
+For the same reason the sympathetic sensations of tone tell us nothing
+whatever of the muscular structure of the vocal organs. When listening
+to a throaty voice, we feel that the singer's throat is tightened,
+stiffened, or contracted. But no matter how keen and vivid this
+sensation may be, it leaves us in complete ignorance of the names and
+locations of the muscles wrongly contracted. This is true, however
+thoroughly we may know the anatomy of the vocal organs.
+
+Much of the prevailing confusion about the voice is due to a
+misunderstanding of this point. When, for example, the musical critic
+asserted that Mme. T---- sang certain tones with "pinched glottis," he
+fell into this error. His sympathetic sensations informed him of some
+unnecessary tightening of the singer's throat. From these sensations he
+seems to have inferred that the glottis-closing muscles were too
+strongly contracted. This assumption was not warranted by any
+information conveyed in the sympathetic sensations.
+
+It is not necessary now to determine to what extent the muscular
+sensations accompanying the listening to voices are purely imaginative,
+and to what extent they result from actual, though unconscious,
+contractions of the listener's throat muscles. The psychological process
+is the same in either case.
+
+Sympathetic sensations of tone always accompany the listening to voices.
+While the psychological process is complex, this process is performed
+unconsciously and involuntarily. Even though the attention may be
+definitely turned to the sympathetic sensations themselves, the mental
+imitation and the laryngeal adjustments seldom rise into consciousness.
+As a rule, the entire operation is purely sub-conscious. The listener
+simply knows how the voices to which he listens are produced. This
+knowledge has always been accepted as intuitive; but this is merely
+another way of saying that the process of its acquirement is
+sub-conscious.
+
+_Direct Sensations of Tone_
+
+In addition to the source of misunderstanding of the vocal action just
+mentioned,--the attempt to define the precise muscular contractions
+indicated in the sympathetic sensations, another common
+misinterpretation of these sensations must be noted. As a consequence of
+the sub-conscious character of the sympathetic sensations, the two
+classes of muscular sensation of vocal tone, direct and sympathetic, are
+frequently confounded and classed together as the "singer's sensations."
+A third source of confusion is seen in the attempt to apply the
+sympathetic sensations, by formulating rules for the guidance of the
+student, in performing specific actions for the management of the vocal
+organs. All three of these topics will be considered in a later chapter.
+Before approaching this subject let us see just what information may be
+derived from the observation of the direct sensations of tone.
+
+The direct sensations of tone are never so vivid, so precise, nor so
+reliable as the sympathetic sensations. In other words, the hearer is
+better able to judge of the singer's throat action than the singer
+himself. This may seem a paradoxical statement, but a brief
+consideration will show it to be fully justified.
+
+In the case of teacher and pupil, it will hardly be questioned that the
+master hears the pupil's voice to better advantage than the pupil. This
+is also true when a trained singer's tones are observed by a competent
+hearer. The singer's direct sensations are highly complex. They include
+the muscular sensations accompanying the exertion of the breathing
+muscles, and these are usually so intense as to overshadow the
+sensations due to the laryngeal adjustments. On the other hand, the
+hearer is free to pay close attention to the sensations of throat
+action, and therefore feels these much more keenly than does the singer.
+On this account the direct sensations of tone are of vastly less value
+in the study of the vocal action than are the sympathetic sensations.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE VOICE
+
+
+Through attention paid to the sympathetic sensations of tone, the
+listener may carry on mentally a running commentary on the throat
+actions of all those whose voices are heard. Continuing to use the word
+empirical in the sense thus far adopted, it may be said that the summary
+of the impressions conveyed in the sympathetic sensations of tone
+constitutes empirical knowledge of the voice. In other words, empirical
+knowledge of the voice is an understanding of the operations of the
+vocal mechanism, obtained through the attentive listening to voices.
+
+Let us consider first the running commentary on the throat action,
+mentally carried on by the listener. This mental commentary is an
+inseparable accompaniment of the listening to the voices of others,
+whether in speech or song. As we are concerned now only with the problem
+of tone-production in artistic singing, our consideration will be
+limited to the critical hearer's observation of the tones of singers.
+
+Let us imagine two friends to be seated side by side in the concert
+hall, listening to the performance of a violin sonata by an artist of
+about mediocre ability. Suppose one of the friends to be a highly
+trained musical critic, the other to be almost unacquainted with music
+of this class. Let us now inquire how the tones of the violin will
+impress these two hearers; and further, let the inquiry be limited
+strictly to the matter of tone, leaving out of consideration all
+questions of composition and rendition.
+
+As a matter of course, the tones of the violin will impress these two
+listeners in widely different ways. The untrained observer will greatly
+enjoy the beautiful tones,--supposing of course that he be gifted with a
+natural fondness for music. But so far as musical value is concerned,
+all the tones will sound to him practically alike.
+
+For the trained hearer, on the other hand, every note drawn by the
+performer from his instrument will have a distinct value. Some of the
+tones will be true in pitch and perfect in quality. Some will vary
+slightly from the correct pitch; others will perhaps be in perfect
+tune, and yet be marred in quality by faults of scratching, thinness,
+roughness, etc.
+
+When the two come to compare notes at the end of the performance the
+trained critic will be utterly unable to convey to his friend his
+impressions of the player's technique. Vividly clear as it is to the
+critic, his understanding of tonal values is lodged solely in his
+cultivated ear. This understanding cannot be imparted in words; it must
+be acquired by experience in actual listening to music.
+
+Let us now imagine this same critic to be listening to a singer, not an
+artist of the first rank, but one whose voice is marred by some slight
+faults of production. In this case the critic will note exactly the same
+sort of differences in tonal value as in the case of the violinist. Some
+of the singer's notes will be perfect musical tones, others will be
+marred by faults of intonation or of quality. But a great difference
+will be noted between faulty tones played on the violin, and faulty
+tones sung by the human voice. In addition to their blemishes as musical
+tones, the faulty notes of the voice also convey to the critical
+listener an idea of the state of the singer's throat in producing them.
+
+Every blemish on the beauty of a vocal tone, every fine shade of quality
+which detracts from its perfection, indicates to the critical hearer
+some faulty action of the singer's vocal organs. The more faulty the
+musical character of the singer's tones the more pronounced is this
+impression of faulty production. On the other hand, just so nearly as
+the singer's tones approach perfection as musical sounds, so do they
+also impress the ear of the critical listener as indicating the approach
+to the perfect vocal action.
+
+The critic could not impart to his untrained friend the impressions made
+by the violinist's tones. Somewhat the same is true of the impressions
+made by the tones of the voice on the critical ear. In voices of
+extremely nasal or throaty sound these blemishes can, of course, be
+detected by the ordinary hearer. But the fine shades of difference in
+vocal tone quality, heard by the trained critic, cannot be noted by the
+inexperienced listener.
+
+This fine ability to discriminate between musical sounds comes only
+through experience in listening to music, better still, when this has
+been combined with the actual study of music. But the ability to judge
+the vocal actions of singers, through the sympathetic sensations of
+tone, does not depend on any actual exercise of the listener's own
+voice. For the developing of this ability the exercise of the ear
+suffices. The mere exercise of the ear, in listening to singers, entails
+also the training of what may be called the "mental voice." Attentive
+listening to voices, involving as a natural consequence the
+sub-conscious impressions of sympathetic sensations, results in the
+development of a faculty to which this name, the mental voice, very
+aptly applies.
+
+A music-lover whose experience of hearing singing and instrumental music
+has been wide enough to develop the mental voice in a fair degree,
+possesses in this faculty a valuable means for judging singers. The
+mental voice carries on a running commentary on the manner of production
+of all the voices to which this music-lover listens. At every instant he
+is informed of the exact condition of the singer's throat. For him there
+is an almost infinite variety of throaty tones, each one indicating some
+degree and form of throat tension or stiffening. A perfect vocal tone,
+on the other hand, is _felt_ to be perfectly produced, as well as
+_heard_ to be musically perfect.
+
+Equipped with a highly trained sense of hearing, and the resulting
+faculty of mental voice, the lover of singing has an unfailing insight
+into the operations of the vocal mechanism. This understanding of the
+workings of the vocal organs is the empirical knowledge of the voice.
+
+This empirical knowledge of the voice can be possessed only by one who
+is equipped with a highly cultivated ear. The keener the ear the more
+precise and definite is this understanding of the voice. Season after
+season, as the music-lover continues to attend concerts, operas, and
+recitals, his feeling for the voice becomes gradually more keen and
+discerning.
+
+Further, empirical knowledge of the voice can be acquired in no other
+way than by actual experience in listening to voices. No matter how keen
+and definite are the impressions of throat action felt by the
+experienced hearer, these impressions cannot be described to the
+uninitiated. In fact, these impressions are to a great extent of a
+character not capable of being recorded in precise terms. The general
+nature of a throaty tone, for example, is thoroughly understood. But of
+the thousands of varieties of the throaty tone no adequate description
+can be given. Each observer must learn for himself to hear these fine
+shades of difference in tone quality.
+
+Every experienced music lover has his own mental standard of tonal
+perfection. The trained ear knows how a perfect musical tone should
+sound, independent of the precise quality of the tone. The tone quality
+is determined, of course, by the instrument on which it is sounded. But
+along with the individual characteristics of the sound, the tones drawn
+from every instrument, to be available in the artistic performance of
+music, must conform to the correct standard. Knowing the general musical
+character of the tones of all instruments, the cultured hearer can at
+once detect any variation from this character. Further, he knows how the
+tones of a badly-played instrument would sound if the instrument were
+correctly handled. An unskilled trumpeter in an orchestra, for example,
+may draw from his instrument tones that are too brassy, blatant, or
+harsh. An observant hearer knows exactly what these tones would be if
+the instrument were skilfully played.
+
+In just the same way the mental voice has its own standard of vocal
+perfection. Every voice which falls below this standard is felt by the
+critical hearer to be imperfectly used. When listening to a nasal singer
+we know that the voice would be greatly improved in quality if the nasal
+sound of the tones were eliminated. We feel that the correction of the
+faults of production indicated by a throaty voice would add greatly to
+the beauty of the voice. More than this, we can also form some idea how
+an imperfectly produced voice would sound if all the faults of vocal
+action were to be corrected.
+
+A perfectly produced voice affects the ear in a peculiar and distinct
+way. Not only is such a voice free from faults; it has also, on the
+positive side, a peculiar character which renders it entirely different
+from any wrongly used voice. The cultured hearer is impressed with a
+sense of incompleteness and insufficiency in listening to a voice which
+does not "come out" in a thoroughly satisfactory manner. This is true,
+even though the voice is not marred by any distinct fault.
+
+A voice absolutely perfect in its production awakens a peculiar set of
+sympathetic sensations. In addition to its musical beauty such a voice
+satisfies an instinctive demand for the perfect vocal action. An
+indescribable sensation of physical satisfaction is experienced in
+listening to a perfectly managed voice.
+
+On further consideration of this feeling of physical satisfaction
+awakened by a perfectly produced voice, it seems a mistake to call it
+indescribable. A beautiful description of this set of sympathetic
+sensations has been handed down to us by the masters of the old Italian
+school. This description is embodied in two of the traditional precepts,
+those dealing with the open throat and the support of the tone.
+
+Mention of the traditional precepts leads at once to the consideration
+of another aspect of the empirical knowledge of the voice. Vocalists
+have been attentively listening to voices since the beginning of the
+modern art of singing. Although many of the impressions made by the
+voice on the ear cannot be expressed in words, one set of impressions
+has been clearly recorded. A marked difference was evidently noticed by
+the old Italian masters between the feelings awakened in the hearer by
+a voice properly managed and those awakened by an incorrectly produced
+voice. These impressions were embodied in a set of precepts for the
+guidance of the singer, which are none other than the much-discussed
+traditional precepts.
+
+In other words, the traditional precepts embody the results of the old
+masters' empirical study of the voice. Considered in this light, the old
+precepts lose at once all air of mystery and become perfectly
+intelligible and coherent. To a consideration of this record of the
+empirical knowledge of the voice the following chapter is devoted.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE TRADITIONAL PRECEPTS OF THE OLD ITALIAN SCHOOL
+
+
+There should be nothing mysterious, nothing hard to understand, about
+the empirical precepts. It was pointed out in Chapter V of Part I that
+these precepts contain a perfect description of correctly produced vocal
+tone, so far as the impression on the listener is concerned. This means
+nothing else than that the old precepts summarize the results of
+empirical observation of correct singing. There is nothing new in this
+statement; considered as empirical knowledge, the modern vocal teacher
+understands the meaning of the old masters' precepts perfectly well. The
+misunderstanding of the subject begins with the attempt to apply the
+precepts as specific rules for the direct mechanical management of the
+voice. In this connection they were seen to be valueless. Let us now see
+if the old precepts are found to contain any meaning of value to the
+vocal teacher when considered as purely empirical formulæ.
+
+Each one of the precepts may be said to describe some special
+characteristic of the perfect vocal tone, considered solely as a sound.
+These characteristics may each be considered separately, that is, the
+hearer may voluntarily pay close attention to any special aspect of the
+vocal tone. The best plan for arriving at the exact meaning of the
+precepts is therefore to consider each one in turn.
+
+_The Forward Tone_
+
+Every lover of singing is familiar with this characteristic of the
+perfectly produced voice; the sound seems to come directly from the
+singer's mouth, and gives no indication of being formed at the back of
+the throat. This characteristic of the perfect tone is simply heard. It
+is not distinguished by any sympathetic sensations, but is purely a
+matter of sound. On the other hand, a wrongly produced voice seems to be
+formed or held in the back of the singer's throat. The tones of such a
+voice do not come out satisfactorily; they seem to be lodged in the
+throat instead of at the front of the mouth.
+
+In the badly used voice the impression of throat is conveyed by the
+sympathetic sensations awakened in the hearer. A striking difference
+between correct and incorrect singing is thus noted. A wrongly produced
+voice is felt by the hearer to be held in the singer's throat. When
+properly used the voice gives no impression of throat; it seems to have
+no relation to the throat, but to be formed in the front of the mouth.
+
+So much has been written about "forward emission" that the forward
+characteristic of vocal tones seems to be enshrouded in mystery. As a
+matter of fact, the forward tone is easily explained. The perfectly
+produced voice issues directly from the mouth for the same reason that
+the tones of the trombone issue from the bell of the instrument. It is
+all a matter of resonance. This is well illustrated by a simple
+experiment with a tuning fork and a spherical resonator reinforcing the
+tone of the fork.
+
+When the fork is struck, the ear hears the sound issuing from the
+resonator, not that coming direct from the fork. This is brought out
+distinctly by placing the fork at a little distance from the resonator.
+The listener can then definitely locate the source of the sound which
+impresses the ear. Under these circumstances the sound coming from the
+resonator is found to be many times more powerful than that coming
+direct from the tuning fork. If left to its own judgment the ear takes
+the resonator to be the original source of the sound.
+
+In the voice the exciting cause of the air vibrations is located at the
+back of the resonator,--the mouth-pharynx cavity. The sound waves in
+this case can issue only from the front of the resonator,--the singer's
+mouth. No matter how the voice is produced, correctly or badly, this
+acoustic principle must apply.
+
+Why then does not the incorrectly used voice impress the hearer as
+issuing directly from the mouth, the same as the correctly produced
+tone? This is purely a matter of sympathetic sensations of throat
+tightness, awakened by the faulty tone. Every wrongly used voice arouses
+in the listener sympathetic sensations of throat contraction. This
+impression of throat, noted by the hearer, consists of muscular, not of
+strictly auditory sensations.
+
+As a statement of scientific fact, the forward-tone precept is
+erroneous. It does not describe scientifically the difference between
+correct and incorrect tone-production. Correctly sung tones are not
+produced at the lips. Every vocal tone, good or bad, is produced by the
+motion of the vocal cords and reinforced by the resonance of the
+mouth-pharynx cavity. Only when considered as an empirical description
+is the forward-tone precept of value. In this sense the precept
+describes accurately the difference in the impressions made on the
+hearer by correct and incorrect singing. A badly produced tone seems to
+be caught in the singer's throat; the correctly used voice is free from
+this fault, and is therefore heard to issue directly from the singer's
+mouth.
+
+This marked difference between correct and incorrect tone throws a
+valuable light on the meaning of the correct vocal action. Every badly
+used voice gives the impression of wrong or unnecessary tightness,
+stiffening, and contraction of the throat. When perfectly used, the
+voice does not convey any such impression of throat stiffness.
+
+_The Open Throat_
+
+Just as with the forward tone, the meaning of the open throat is best
+brought out by contrasting the impressions made on the hearer by a
+perfect and a badly used voice. A badly produced tone seems to be
+caught, or as Tosi expressed it, "choaked in the throat." The singer's
+throat seems to be tightened and narrowed so that the sound has not
+sufficient passageway to come out properly. On the other hand, the
+perfectly used voice comes out freely, without interference or hindrance
+at any point in the singer's throat. There seems to be plenty of room
+for the tone to come forth; in other words, the singer's throat seems to
+be open.
+
+All these impressions are purely a matter of sympathetic sensations. In
+listening to a faulty singer the hearer feels a sensation of tightness
+and contraction of the throat. A well used voice awakens exactly the
+opposite sensation, that of looseness and freedom of the throat.
+
+Here again is seen the difference between correct and incorrect singing,
+empirically considered. Judging from the impressions made by rightly and
+wrongly used voices, any incorrect vocal action involves a condition of
+tightness and contraction of the throat. Perfect singing gives the
+impression that the throat is loose and supple, and free from all
+unnecessary tension.
+
+_The Support of the Tone_
+
+Following the plan of contrasting correct and incorrect singing, the
+meaning of this precept is readily found. The perfect voice is felt by
+the hearer to be firmly and confidently held by the singer in a secure
+grasp of the throat muscles. Such a voice awakens the sympathetic
+sensations of perfectly balanced muscular effect, similar to the
+muscular sensations of the hand and forearm when an object is firmly
+grasped in the hand.
+
+A badly used voice seems to be convulsively gripped in the singer's
+throat. The tones seem to fall back into the throat for want of some
+secure base on which to rest. This impression is conveyed by a peculiar
+set of sympathetic sensations of highly unpleasant muscular tension far
+back in the throat.
+
+This precept, "Support the tone," points to the difference already noted
+between the right and the wrong vocal action. Badly produced tones
+indicate a state of excessive tension of the throat muscles. Correct
+singing gives the impression that the throat muscles exert exactly the
+requisite degree of strength, and no more.
+
+Taken together, the open-throat and the forward-tone precepts embody an
+admirable description of the sympathetic sensations awakened by perfect
+singing. The singer's entire vocal mechanism is felt to be in a
+condition of lithe and supple freedom. There is no straining, no
+constraint, no forcing, no unnecessary tension. Each muscle of the vocal
+mechanism, and indeed of the entire body, exerts just the necessary
+degree of strength.
+
+Similar muscular sensations always accompany the expert performance of
+any action requiring a high degree of dexterity. Whatever be the form of
+exertion, skilful physical activity awakens muscular sensations of
+perfectly balanced and harmonized contractions. This feeling of muscular
+poise and adjustment is pleasurable in a high degree.
+
+A keen enjoyment is experienced in the skilful performance of many
+complex muscular activities. Much of the pleasure of skating, dancing,
+rowing, tennis, etc., is dependent on this feeling of muscular poise
+and harmonious contraction. Healthy exercise is always normally
+enjoyable; but skilful performance greatly enhances the pleasure. A
+beginner learning to skate, for example, exerts himself fully as much as
+the accomplished skater. Yet the beginner does not by any means derive
+the same degree of pleasure from his exertions.
+
+Precisely this feeling of balanced and harmonious muscular exertion is
+experienced by the perfect singer. More than this, the hearer also,
+through sympathetic sensations, shares the same pleasurable feeling.
+This is the sensation described as the feeling of soaring, of poise, and
+of floating, in many descriptions of the "singer's sensations."
+
+_Singing on the Breath_
+
+When the voice is perfectly used the tones seem to detach themselves
+from the singer, and to float off on the breath. Nothing in the sound of
+the tones, nor in the sympathetic sensations awakened, gives any
+indication that the breath is checked or impeded in its flow. The
+current of tone seems to be poured out on the breath just as freely as
+a quiet expiration in ordinary breathing.
+
+This is a purely empirical description of perfect singing. As we know
+very well, the vocal action is quite different from this description.
+But the important point is that the phrase "singing on the breath" does
+very accurately describe the impression made on the hearer by perfect
+singing.
+
+Singing on the breath represents the highest possible degree of purely
+vocal perfection. One may attend operas and concerts for a whole season
+and listen to a score of famous singers, and count oneself fortunate to
+have heard even one artist who attains this standard of tonal
+excellence. Singing on the breath is an effect of wondrous tonal beauty;
+it is simply this, pure beauty, pristine and naïve.
+
+With the slightest degree of throat stiffness or muscular tension,
+singing on the breath is utterly impossible. So soon as the tones
+indicate the merest trace of throat contraction, the free outflow of the
+stream of sound is felt to be checked.
+
+Coloratura singing, to be absolutely perfect, demands this degree of
+tonal excellence. Singing on the breath and coloratura are indeed very
+closely allied. The modern school of musical criticism does not hold
+coloratura singing in very high esteem. We demand nowadays expression,
+passion, and emotion; we want vocal music to portray definite
+sentiments, to express concrete feelings. Florid singing is not adapted
+to this form of expressiveness. It is only sensuously beautiful; it
+speaks to the ear, but does not appeal to the intellect.
+
+Yet it may well be asked whether the highest type of coloratura singing,
+pure tonal beauty, does not appeal to a deeper, more elemental set of
+emotions than are reached by dramatically expressive singing. This
+question would call for a profound psychological discussion, hardly in
+place in a work devoted to the technical problem of tone-production. But
+this much is certain: Coloratura singing still has a strong hold on the
+affections of the music loving public. Even to-day audiences are moved
+by the vocal feats of some famous queen of song fully as profoundly as
+by the performance of a modern dramatic or realistic opera.
+
+To describe a sound is an extremely difficult task. The tone of the
+muted horn, for example, is perfectly familiar to the average musician.
+Yet who would undertake to describe in words the tone of the muted horn?
+A description of the sounds produced by a perfectly managed voice is
+almost as difficult to frame in words. Still the old Italian masters
+succeeded in finding words to describe perfect singing. These few simple
+phrases--open the throat, support the tone, sing the tones forward, sing
+on the breath--embody a most beautiful and complete description of vocal
+perfection. The empirical study of the voice can hardly be expected to
+go further than this. From the old masters we have received a complete
+record of all that need be known empirically about the voice.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE IN MODERN VOICE CULTURE
+
+
+It was pointed out in Chapter I of Part III that there is no possibility
+of conflict between empirical and scientific knowledge. Modern Voice
+Culture seems to present a direct contradiction of this statement. The
+vocal teacher's empirical understanding of the voice conflicts at every
+step with his supposedly scientific knowledge. No doubt the reader is
+already aware of the real meaning of this apparent contradiction. It
+only bears out the philosophic rule; an accepted science must be
+abandoned so soon as its deductions are found to be not in accord with
+observed facts.
+
+Modern methods of instruction in singing can be understood only by
+following out this idea of conflict between known facts and accepted,
+though erroneous, scientific doctrines. As we have seen, the only
+universally accepted theory of supposedly scientific Voice Culture is
+the idea of direct mechanical guidance of the voice. Every vocal
+teacher attempts to make his empirical knowledge conform to this
+mechanical idea. As the empirical knowledge is correct, and the
+mechanical idea a complete mistake, conflict between the two is
+inevitable.
+
+Every modern teacher of singing possesses in full measure the empirical
+understanding of the voice. To this statement hardly an exception need
+be made. Probably the most startling fact concerning the wide diffusion
+of this knowledge is that the nature of this knowledge is so thoroughly
+ignored. Because the psychological process is purely sub-conscious,
+empirical knowledge is always indirectly and generally unconsciously
+applied. In the teacher's mind the most prominent idea is that of
+mechanical vocal guidance. His attention is always directly turned to
+this idea. Empirical knowledge, consisting merely of a succession of
+auditory and muscular sensations, lurks in the background of
+consciousness.
+
+To the intelligent vocal teacher there is something peculiarly
+fascinating about the study of tone-production. In listening to any
+faulty singer we feel with the utmost precision what is wrong with the
+voice. Each imperfect tone informs us clearly and definitely just where
+the wrong muscular contraction is located. It seems so easy to tell the
+singer what to do in order to bring the tone out perfectly. Under the
+influence of the mechanical idea we try to express this feeling in the
+terms of muscular action. This attempt is never successful; the singer
+cannot be brought to understand our meaning. Yet it is so clear in our
+own minds that our inability to express it is extremely tantalizing. We
+go on, constantly hoping to find a way to define the mechanical
+processes so clearly indicated to the ear. We always feel that we are
+just on the verge of the great discovery. The solution of the problem of
+tone-production is almost within our grasp, yet it always eludes us.
+
+It was stated in Chapter V of Part I that empirical knowledge of the
+voice, based on the singer's sensations, is used to supplement and
+interpret the doctrines of mechanical vocal guidance. This is in the
+main true, so far as the vocal teacher is aware. But here again the
+result of the sub-conscious character of empirical knowledge of the
+voice is seen. As a matter of fact the real situation is the direct
+reverse of that described in the chapter mentioned. The mechanical
+doctrines are used in the attempt to interpret the empirical knowledge.
+This fact is well brought out in the following passage from Kofler: "The
+teacher must imitate the wrong muscle-action and tone of his pupil as an
+illustration of the negative side." (_The Art of Breathing_, N. Y.,
+1889.) Kofler does not touch on the question, how the teacher is able to
+locate the wrong muscle-action of the pupil. He takes this ability for
+granted; it is so purely an intuitive process that he does not stop to
+inquire into the source of this information of the pupil's vocal action.
+Through his sense of hearing he sub-consciously locates the faults in
+the pupil's tone-production. His only conscious application of this
+knowledge is the attempt to explain to the pupil the wrong
+muscle-action. This he naturally tries to do in the terms of mechanical
+action and muscular operation. Thus the mechanical doctrine is used in
+the attempt to explain the empirical knowledge. Yet the teacher is
+conscious only of citing the mechanical rule, and believes this to cover
+the entire instruction.
+
+In the preceding chapter it was seen that the perfectly produced vocal
+tone may be considered in a variety of aspects. Each one of these
+aspects is characterized by a fairly distinct set of sympathetic
+sensations. Of faulty modes of throat action, as revealed by sympathetic
+sensations, there is an almost infinite variety. Of this wide variety of
+forms of throat tension the most prominent are those indicated by sets
+of sympathetic sensations, the direct opposites of those characterizing
+the perfect vocal action. Thus the open throat is indicated by one set
+of sympathetic sensations, the lack of this characteristic of tone by an
+opposite set, etc.
+
+Whatever distinct fault of production the pupil's tone indicates, the
+master immediately notes the character of the faulty throat action. The
+master feels, simply and directly, what is wrong with the student's
+tone-production. Whence this knowledge comes he does not stop to
+inquire. Suppose the pupil to sing an exercise, and to produce tones
+which stick in the throat, instead of coming out freely. The master
+simply hears that the pupil's voice is caught in the throat; he does not
+observe that he is informed of this condition by muscular as well as
+auditory sensations.
+
+This ignoring of the psychological nature of the impressions of tone is
+not necessarily detrimental to successful instruction. On the contrary,
+the master's empirical insight into the vocal operations of the pupil
+would probably not be advanced by an understanding of the psychological
+process. It is sufficient for the teacher's purpose to hear that the
+pupil's voice is caught in the throat. What robs this hearing, or
+feeling, of all value is this: the master attempts to interpret the
+sensation as an indication of the need of some specific muscular action,
+to be directly performed by the pupil. To this end he cites the
+mechanical rule, assumed to be indicated by the pupil's faulty vocal
+action. This may be, for example, the opening of the throat to give room
+for the tone to expand. It seems so perfectly simple to the
+teacher;--the pupil narrows his throat, and so holds in the tone; let
+him expand his throat and the tone will come out freely. This conclusion
+seems so clearly indicated by the sound of the tones that the master
+almost inevitably gives the precise instruction: "Open your throat and
+let your voice come out." This sums up, to the master's satisfaction,
+everything the pupil need do to correct this particular fault of
+tone-production.
+
+Other sets of sympathetic sensations, awakened by badly produced tones,
+are interpreted in the same manner. A tone heard to be held in the back
+of the throat is believed to indicate the need of bringing the voice
+forward in the mouth. Other forms of throaty production are taken to
+show a lack of support, a wrong management of the breath, a need of
+breath-control, a misuse of nasal resonance, or an improper action of
+the vocal cords. In all these attempts to interpret sympathetic
+sensations by means of mechanical doctrines the teacher naturally relies
+on those doctrines in which he believes most firmly. Sympathetic
+sensations are indeed sometimes cited in proof of certain theories of
+breath-control, and also of nasal resonance. Both these topics are
+worthy of separate attention.
+
+_Sympathetic Sensations and Nasal Resonance_
+
+One of the most widely accepted theories of the vocal action is that the
+higher notes of the voice are influenced by reinforcing vibrations
+located in the nose and forehead. Whether this idea was derived more
+from direct than from sympathetic sensations need not be determined now.
+It is at any rate certain that a perfectly sung tone gives to the hearer
+the impression of nasal influence of some kind. The exact nature of this
+influence has never been determined. It may be air resonance, or
+sounding-board resonance, or both combined. Satisfactory proof on this
+point is lacking. In the belief of the practical teacher, however, this
+impression of nasal influence is the strongest argument in favor of
+nasal resonance.
+
+Turning now to the question of nasal quality, strictly speaking, tones
+of this objectionable character always awaken the sympathetic sensations
+of contraction somewhere in the nose. Why such a contraction should
+cause this unpleasant sound of the voice is a profound mystery. Perhaps
+wrong tension of the soft palate exerts an influence on the actions of
+the vocal cords; or it may be that the form of the nasal cavities is
+altered by the muscular contraction. This aspect of the vocal action has
+never been scientifically investigated. The sympathetic sensation of
+nasal contraction or pinching is at any rate very pronounced.
+Curiously, this sympathetic sensation is cited as an argument in favor
+of their respective theories, by both the advocates and the opponents of
+nasal resonance.
+
+_Sympathetic Sensations and Breath-Control_
+
+Certain forms of exaggerated throat stiffness are frequently held to
+indicate the need of breath-control. The faulty vocal action in question
+is analyzed by the breath-control advocates substantially as follows:
+"Owing to the outflow of the breath not being checked at the proper
+point, the entire vocal mechanism is thrown out of adjustment. The
+singer exerts most of his efforts in the endeavor to prevent the escape
+of the breath; to this end he contracts his throat and stiffens his
+tongue and jaw. His tones are forced, harsh, and breathy; they lack
+musical quality. His voice runs away with him and he cannot control or
+manage it. In the attempt to obtain some hold on his voice he 'reaches'
+for his tones with his throat muscles. The more he tries to regain
+control of the runaway breath the worse does his state become."
+
+This extreme condition of throat stiffness is unfortunately by no means
+rare. So far as concerns the sympathetic sensations awakened by this
+kind of singing the condition is graphically described by the
+breath-control advocates. But the conclusion is entirely unjustified
+that this condition indicates the lack of breath-control. Only the
+preconceived notion of breath-control leads to this inference. The
+sympathetic sensations indicate a state of extreme muscular tension of
+the throat; this is about the only possible analysis of the condition.
+
+* * *
+
+Empirical impressions of vocal tones determine the character of most
+present-day instruction in singing. This means no more than to say that
+throughout all vocal training the teacher listens to the pupil's voice.
+The impressions of tone received by the teacher's ear cannot fail to
+inform the teacher of the condition of the pupil's throat in producing
+the voice. For the teacher to seek to apply this information in
+imparting the correct vocal action to the pupil is inevitable.
+
+Almost every teacher begins a course of instruction by having the pupil
+run through the prescribed series of mechanical exercises and rules.
+Breathing is always taken up first. Breath-control, laryngeal action,
+registers, and resonance follow usually in this order. The time devoted
+to this course of training may vary from a few weeks to several months.
+This mechanical instruction is almost always interspersed with songs and
+arias. The usual procedure is to devote about half of each lesson to
+mechanical doctrines and the remainder to real singing.
+
+Blind faith in the efficacy of this mechanical training is the teacher's
+only motive in giving it. Very little attention is paid to the sound of
+the pupil's voice during the study of mechanical rules and doctrines. It
+is simply taken for granted that the voice must be put through this
+course. Once the mechanical course has been covered, the pupil's voice
+is supposed, in a vague way, to be "placed." From that time on, whether
+it be at the end of two months of study or of two years, the instruction
+is based solely on empirical impressions of tone.
+
+Little remains to be said of the nature of this empirical instruction.
+It always retains the mechanical aspect. Whatever fault of production
+is noted, the teacher seeks to correct the fault by applying some
+mechanical rule. The futility of this form of instruction has already
+been pointed out.
+
+Only two ways of applying empirical knowledge of the voice are known to
+the modern vocal teacher. These are, first, to tell the pupil to "open
+the throat," or to "support the tone," or to perform whatever other
+mechanical operation seems to be indicated as necessary by the sound of
+the tone; second, to bid the student to "feel that the tone is
+supported," to "feel that the throat is open," etc. Under these
+circumstances the little advantage derived from empirical knowledge in
+modern Voice Culture is readily understood.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE OF THE VOICE
+
+
+So far as any definite record can be made, the knowledge of the voice
+obtained by attentive listening to voices has now been set down. The
+next step in the scientific study of tone-production is the
+consideration of all knowledge of the voice obtained from sources other
+than empirical. In other words, the knowledge of the voice usually
+classed as scientific is now to be examined.
+
+Three sciences are generally held to contribute all that can possibly be
+known about the vocal action. These are anatomy, acoustics, and
+mechanics. Of these anatomy has received by far the most attention from
+vocal scientists. The laws of acoustics, bearing on the voice, have also
+been carefully considered. Beyond the theory of breath-control, little
+attempt has been made to apply the principles of mechanics in Vocal
+Science. Psychology, the science most intimately concerned with the
+management of the voice, has received almost no attention in this
+connection.
+
+A complete record of the teachings of the established sciences with
+regard to the voice demands the separate consideration of the four
+sciences mentioned. Each will therefore be treated in turn. In the case
+of each of these sciences it is seen that the most essential facts of
+the vocal action have been definitely established. Many questions still
+remain to be satisfactorily answered which are of great interest to the
+theoretical student of the voice. Yet in spite of the lack of exact
+knowledge on these points, enough is now known to furnish the basis for
+a practical science of Voice Culture.
+
+_The Anatomy of the Vocal Mechanism_
+
+This subject has been so exhaustively studied that nothing new can well
+be discovered regarding the muscular structure of the vocal organs. In
+all probability the reader is sufficiently acquainted with the anatomy
+of the larynx and its connections. Only a very brief outline of the
+subject is therefore demanded. The muscles concerned with breathing
+call for no special notice in this connection.
+
+The special organ of voice is the larynx. This consists of four
+cartilages, with their connecting ligaments,--the thyroid, the cricoid,
+and the two arytenoids, and of nine so-called intrinsic muscles,--two
+crico-thyroid, right and left, two thyro-arytenoid, two posterior
+crico-arytenoid, two lateral crico-arytenoid, and one arytenoideus. The
+inner edges of the thyro-arytenoid muscles form the vocal cords. The
+hyoid bone, serving as a medium of attachment for the tongue, may also
+be considered a portion of the larynx. By means of the extrinsic muscles
+the larynx is connected with the bones of the chest, neck, and head.
+
+While the muscular structure of the vocal organs is thoroughly known,
+the actions of the laryngeal muscles in tone-production have never been
+absolutely determined. This much is definitely established: Vocal tone
+is produced when the vocal cords are brought together and held on
+tension, and the air in the lungs is expired with sufficient force to
+set the vocal cords in motion. The tension of the vocal cords can be
+increased by the contraction of their muscular tissues, the two
+thyro-arytenoid muscles; further, increased tension of the cords can
+also result from the tilting of the thyroid cartilage on the cricoid, by
+the contraction of the crico-thyroid muscles.
+
+It is also definitely proved that the pitch of the vocal tone varies
+with the state of tension of the vocal cords; increasing the degree of
+tension raises the pitch, decreasing the tension lowers it. As to the
+relative importance of the different groups of muscles in varying the
+tension of the vocal cords, nothing has been definitely proved.
+
+In addition to the variations in pitch resulting from variations in the
+tension of the vocal cords, there is also much ground for believing that
+the pitch may be raised by shortening the effective length of the vocal
+cords. This is apparently accomplished by the rotation of the arytenoid
+cartilages; but the specific muscular contractions concerned in the
+rotation of the arytenoids have not been located.
+
+It is generally asserted by vocal theorists that the quality of the
+vocal tone, on any one note, is determined mainly by the influence of
+the resonance cavities. Dr. Mills says on this point: "When it is borne
+in mind that the vocal bands have little or nothing to do with the
+quality of the tone, the importance of those parts of the vocal
+apparatus which determine quality... becomes apparent." (_Voice
+Production in Singing and Speaking_, 1906.) This theory that the quality
+of the tone is determined solely by the resonance cavities is directly
+contradicted by Prof. Scripture. He proves that changes in tone quality
+result from changes in vocal cord adjustment. This subject is more fully
+treated in the following section. Even before this matter had been
+definitely settled by Prof. Scripture, there was a strong presumption in
+favor of the vocal cord adjustment theory. Howard advanced this idea in
+1883. Several empirical observations support this theory. Most important
+of these is the fact that a single tone, swelled from _piano_ to
+_forte_, goes through a wide variety of changes in quality.
+Stockhausen's mention of this fact has already been noted.
+
+This fact tends to cast some doubt on the value of laryngoscopic
+observation as a means of determining the laryngeal action. Under the
+conditions necessary for examination with the laryngoscope it is
+impossible for the singer to produce any but soft tones in the head
+quality of voice. Most of these tones, if swelled to _forte_, would
+change from the head to the chest quality. It is probable that this
+change in quality is effected by a corresponding change in the vocal
+cord adjustment, as the conditions of the resonance cavities remain the
+same. But this cannot be determined by laryngoscopic observation.
+
+So far as the actions of the laryngeal muscles are concerned, no
+difference can be defined between the correct vocal action and any
+improper mode of operation. Sir Morell Mackenzie examined a large number
+of people with the aid of the laryngoscope; of these, some were trained
+singers, others, while possessed of good natural voices, had had no
+vocal training whatever. Many variations were noted in the notes on
+which changes of register occurred. But it could not be determined by
+this mode of examination whether the subject was a trained singer or
+not.
+
+If there is one specifically correct mode of operation for the vocal
+cords, this correct action has never been determined from the anatomy of
+the organs. No doubt there is some difference between the muscular
+actions of correct tone-production and those of any incorrect operation
+of the voice. But the nature of this difference in muscular action has
+never been discovered by means of dissections of the larynx, nor by
+laryngoscopic observation.
+
+_The Acoustic Principles of Tone-Production_
+
+An outline of the existing state of knowledge regarding the acoustic
+principles of tone-production must be drawn mainly from one source. This
+is the latest authoritative work on the subject, _The Study of Speech
+Curves_, by E. W. Scripture (Washington, 1906). In this work Prof.
+Scripture overthrows several of the conclusions of Helmholtz which had
+hitherto furnished the basis of all the accepted theories of vocal
+acoustics. Considering the eminently scientific character of all Prof.
+Scripture's research work, his thorough acquaintance with every detail
+of the subject, and the exhaustive attention devoted to this series of
+experiments, we are fully justified in accepting his present statements
+as conclusively proved.
+
+A first impression received from a careful reading of _The Study of
+Speech Curves_ is that the subject is vastly more intricate than had
+formerly been believed. Helmholtz's theory of vocal acoustics was fairly
+simple: The vocal cords vibrate after the manner of membranous reeds; a
+tone thus produced consists of a fundamental and a series of overtones;
+vowel and tone quality are determined by the influence of the resonance
+cavities, which reinforce certain of the overtones with special
+prominence. This theory is discarded by Prof. Scripture. "The overtone
+theory of the vowels cannot be correct." In place of this simple theory,
+Prof. Scripture reaches conclusions too complicated to be given in
+detail here. A brief outline of the subject must suffice for the needs
+of the present work.
+
+Prof. Scripture found that the nature of the walls of a resonating
+cavity is of more importance than either its size, shape, or opening. A
+flesh-lined cavity is capable of reinforcing tones covering a range of
+several notes. Further, the vowel sound, and presumably also the tone
+quality, are determined more by the action of the vocal cords than by
+the adjustment of the resonance cavities. "The glottal lips vibrate
+differently for the different vowels." This adjustment of the glottal
+lips "presumably occurs by nervously aroused contractions of the fibers
+of the muscles in the glottal lips." Continuing, Prof. Scripture says:
+
+"Physiologically stated, the action for a vowel is as follows: Each
+glottal lip consists mainly of a mass of muscles supported at the ends
+and along the lateral side. It bears no resemblance to a membrane or a
+string. The two lips come together at their front ends, but diverge to
+the rear. The rear ends are attached to the arytenoid cartilages. When
+the ends are brought together by rotation of these arytenoid cartilages,
+the medial surfaces touch. At the same time they are stretched by the
+action of the crico-thyroid muscles, which pull apart the points of
+support at the ends.
+
+"In this way the two masses of muscle close the air passage. To produce
+a vowel such a relation of air pressure and glottal tension is arranged
+that the air from the trachea bursts the muscles apart for a moment,
+after which they close again; the release of the puff of air reduces the
+pressure in the trachea and they remain closed until the pressure is
+again sufficient to burst them apart. With appropriate adjustments of
+the laryngeal muscles and air pressure this is kept up indefinitely,
+and a series of puffs from the larynx is produced. The glottal lips open
+partly by yielding sidewise,--that is, they are compressed,--and partly
+by being shoved upward and outward. The form of the puff, sharp or
+smooth, is determined by the way in which the glottal lips yield; the
+mode of yielding depends on the way in which the separate fibers of the
+muscles are contracted.
+
+"These puffs act on the vocal cavity, that is, on a complicated system
+of cavities (trachea, larynx, pharynx, mouth, nose) with variable
+shapes, sizes, and openings. The effect of the puffs on each element of
+the vocal cavity is double: first, to arouse in it a vibration with a
+period depending on the cavity; second, to force on it a vibration of
+the same period as that of the set of puffs. The prevalence of one of
+the factors over the other depends on the form of the puff, the walls of
+the cavities, etc."
+
+Prof. Scripture does not undertake to point out a difference between the
+correct vocal action in tone-production, and any incorrect action. This
+difference in action does not seem capable of definition by any
+analysis of the acoustic principles involved.
+
+_Mechanical Principles of the Vocal Action_
+
+In Part II, Chapter II, it was seen that the outflow of the breath in
+tone-production is checked by the vocal cords, in accordance with
+Pascal's law of fluid pressures. Another law of mechanics bearing on
+this operation is now to be considered, viz., the law of the
+transformation and conservation of energy.
+
+The application of the law of the transformation and conservation of
+energy to the operations of the voice is nicely illustrated by the
+well-known candle-flame test of (supposedly) breath-control. To perform
+this test the singer is instructed to practise the exercises for
+breath-control while holding a lighted candle with the flame an inch or
+two in front of the lips. According to the idea of the breath-control
+advocates, the expired breath should escape so slowly, and with so
+little force, that no current of air can be detected at the lips, the
+expiration therefore does not cause the candle flame to flicker.
+
+Describing the toneless breathing exercises to be practised with the
+candle flame, Browne and Behnke say, "Let it be observed that the above
+exercise is quite distinct from the well-known practice of _singing_
+before a lighted candle, which is, comparatively speaking, an easy
+matter." (_Voice, Song, and Speech_.) A very striking fact is stated
+correctly by Browne and Behnke,--there is no current of air created at
+the lips during tone-production. Of the truth of this statement the
+reader may readily convince himself by trying this same experiment with
+a candle flame, or even with a lighted match. Hold a lighted match just
+in front of the lips and sing a powerful tone. The quality of the tone
+is of no consequence so long as it be powerful. Just sing, shout, yell,
+the louder the better. You will find that the flame is less affected
+under these circumstances than by the quiet expiration of ordinary
+breathing.
+
+Considerable practice and close attention are required in order to hold
+back the breath in toneless breathing exercises. Whereas in producing
+any kind of powerful tone the breath normally creates no current of air
+at the lips.
+
+There is no reason for considering this experiment a test of correct
+tone-production. It is impossible to produce a powerful tone of any
+kind, good, bad, or indifferent, and at the same time to create an
+appreciable current of air at the lips.
+
+Needless to say, the breath-control theorists have entirely failed to
+grasp the significance of the candle-flame experiment. Yet we have here
+a demonstration of the mechanical law of tone-production.
+
+Considered as a mechanical process, tone-production occurs when the
+energy exerted by the expiratory muscles, in their contraction, is
+converted into energy of motion of the vocal cords.[8] In other words,
+tone-production is an example of the transformation of energy. The law
+of the transformation and conservation of energy must therefore apply to
+this operation. This law is stated as follows: "Energy may be
+transformed from any of its forms to any other form. When energy is thus
+transformed the quantity of energy in the resulting form or forms is
+equal to the quantity of energy in the original form."
+
+[Note 8: This exposition of the mechanical principle of
+tone-production is intended to be graphic, rather than strictly
+technical. For the sake of simplicity, that portion of the expiratory
+energy expended in friction against the throat walls, tongue, cheeks,
+etc., is disregarded, as well as that expended in propelling the air out
+of the mouth, in displacing the same quantity of external air, etc.]
+
+The mechanical operation of tone-production comprises the following
+transformations of energy: First, the energy exerted in the contraction
+of the expiratory muscles is converted into energy of condensation or
+elasticity of the air in the lungs and trachea. Second, this energy of
+condensation of the air is converted into energy of motion of the vocal
+cords. In other words, the expiratory energy is transformed into energy
+of motion.
+
+One objection, at first sight very serious, may be offered against this
+statement: the amount of strength exerted in the contractions of the
+breath muscles seems many times greater than is accounted for in the
+motion of the vocal cords. The movements of the vocal cords are so
+slight as to be observable only with the aid of a specially devised
+apparatus, the stroboscope. Can all the expiratory force expended in
+tone-production show such a small result? This apparent objection is
+found to be groundless in view of the application in this operation of
+Pascal's law. As this topic was fully treated in Chapter II of Part II,
+no further explanation is required here.
+
+The erroneous idea of vocal mechanics involved in the doctrine of
+breath-control is now fully exposed. Tone can be produced only when the
+expired air exerts a pressure on the vocal cords. There is no necessity
+for any conscious or voluntary check on the expiration. The energy of
+the expiration is expended in setting the vocal cords in motion. No
+energy of condensation is left in the expired air the instant it has
+passed the vocal cords. Beyond that point there is no expiratory
+pressure.
+
+In one sense it is true that the expiration is "controlled" in
+tone-production. But this control is strictly an automatic action. The
+vocal cords are adjusted, by the appropriate muscular contractions, to
+move in response to the air pressure exerted against them. This action
+involves, as a necessary consequence, the holding back by the vocal
+cords of the out-rushing air. So long as the vocal cords remain in the
+position for producing tone, they also control the expiration. In this
+sense breath-control is an inseparable feature of tone-production.
+
+All that need be known of the mechanics of the voice is therefore
+perfectly plain. The vocal cords are set in motion by the pressure
+against them of the expired breath. This operation is in accordance with
+Pascal's law and the law of the conservation of energy.
+
+But this analysis throws no light on the nature of the correct vocal
+action. It is impossible for the voice to produce a sound in any way
+other than that just described. In speaking or in singing, in laughing
+or in crying, in every sound produced by the action of the vocal cords,
+the mechanical principle is always the same. Nor is the bearing of this
+law limited to the human voice. Every singing bird, every animal whose
+vocal mechanism consists of lungs and larynx, illustrates the same
+mechanical principle of vocal action.
+
+Only passing mention is required of the fallacy of the breath-band
+theory. The idea of any necessity of relieving the vocal cords of the
+expiratory pressure is purely fanciful. How any one with even a slight
+understanding of mechanics could imagine the checking of the breath by
+the inflation of the ventricles of Morgagni, is hard to conceive.
+
+_The Psychology of Tone-Production_
+
+This subject was treated, in some detail, in Chapter V of Part II. In
+that chapter however we were concerned more with a destructive criticism
+of the idea of mechanical tone-production than with the positive
+features of vocal psychology. At the risk of some repetition it is
+therefore advisable here to sum up the laws of psychology bearing on the
+vocal action.
+
+Considered as a psychological process, tone-production in singing
+involves three distinct operations. First, the mental ear conceives a
+tone of definite pitch, quality, vowel sound, and power. Second, the
+vocal organs prepare to adjust themselves, by the appropriate muscular
+contractions, for the production of the tone mentally conceived. Third,
+the fiat of will is issued, causing the muscular contractions to be
+performed. These three operations are executed as one conscious,
+voluntary act. Let us inquire to what extent consciousness is concerned
+with each operation.
+
+As conscious volitional impulses, the mental conception of the tone, and
+the fiat of will to produce the tone, are well enough understood. These
+two operations call for no extended consideration. We are at present
+concerned only with the psychological laws bearing on the muscular
+adjustments of the vocal organs.
+
+Muscular contractions result from the transmission to the muscular
+fibers of motor nerve impulses. These nerve impulses originate in the
+motor nerve centers. They can never, under any circumstances, rise into
+consciousness. Contractions of the voluntary muscles occur either as
+reflex or as voluntary actions. In both cases the motor nerve impulses
+originate in the same nerve centers. In the case of reflex actions these
+lower muscular centers alone are involved; in voluntary actions the
+originating of the motor impulses is "controlled" by consciousness. In
+deciding that an action shall be performed, and in what way it is to be
+performed, consciousness directs that each motor center involved shall
+send out the appropriate discharges of nerve impulse.
+
+Complex muscular activities require the sending out of nerve impulses
+from various motor centers. Such activities are usually not performed
+instantaneously, but require a longer or shorter time. Thus we may
+consider it as one action for the writer to rise from his chair, to
+lower the window and adjust the shade, and then to return to his seat.
+In this case a large number of motor centers are successively involved;
+at the proper instant each center discharges its impulse. To this end
+the motor centers must be instructed when to come into activity.
+
+This distribution of nerve impulse is effected by the power of
+coördination. In voluntary actions coördination is accompanied by
+conscious control.[9] But coördination is not a function of the higher
+cerebral centers, that is, of consciousness. How the connection is made
+between the higher cerebral centers and the lower motor centers is a
+complete mystery. All that can be said is that the ideas of movements
+are transmitted to the motor centers, and that these send out the
+appropriate motor impulses.
+
+[Note 9: In this connection it is advisable to point out a
+difference between the meanings attached to the word "control" in
+psychology and in Vocal Science. The psychologist classes habitual
+movements as either automatic or controlled. Automatic movements are
+purely reflex; the individual does not consciously decide whether they
+shall be performed or not. Psychologically considered, the _control_ of
+a movement is simply the conscious volitional decision whether the
+movement shall be performed. To adopt the language of Psychology, we
+should speak of _voice management_, and of _breath regulation_, instead
+of vocal control, breath control, etc. In the following chapters the
+accepted psychological usage of the word "control" will so far as
+possible be adopted.]
+
+Turning now to the muscular adjustments of the vocal organs, these
+adjustments are seen to be independent of conscious guidance. When a
+tone is mentally conceived the vocal organs adjust themselves, in
+response to some mysterious guidance, for the production of the tone.
+The vocal cords assume the appropriate degree of tension according to
+the pitch of the tone to be sung. Both the quality of the tone and the
+vowel are determined by the combined adjustments of the laryngeal
+muscles and of the muscles which fix the shape and size of the resonance
+cavities. The power of the tone is regulated by the force of the breath
+blast; for each degree of power some special adjustment of the vocal
+cords is required.
+
+All these adjustments are executed as one concrete and individual act in
+response to the volitional impulse contained in the mental conception of
+the tone. The tone is conceived as a concrete whole. It is not normally
+broken up mentally into its four aspects of pitch, quality, vowel, and
+power. True, each one of these four characteristics of the tone may be
+separately considered by the singer. So also, to a certain extent, may
+the adjustments of the vocal organs be performed with special reference
+to one or the other characteristic of the tone. But in every case the
+muscular contractions are performed without direct conscious guidance.
+Whatever be the character of the tone mentally demanded, the vocal
+organs instantly adjust themselves to produce the tone.
+
+What is meant by saying that the muscular contractions are performed
+without conscious guidance? Does this mean that the singer is
+unconscious of the muscular contractions? Not at all. Muscular sense
+informs the singer, more or less distinctly, of the state of contraction
+or relaxation of the various muscles of the vocal organs. The singer
+always knows fairly well the condition of the various parts of the vocal
+mechanism. What is meant is this: The singer does not consciously direct
+the vocal organs to assume certain positions and conditions, and does
+not instruct the various muscles to contract in certain ways. The singer
+does not need to know, and in fact cannot know, what muscular
+contractions are required to produce any desired tone.
+
+Some connection exists between the organs of hearing and the vocal
+mechanism. That this connection has a physical basis in the nervous
+structure is fairly well established. "The centers for sight and for arm
+movements, for instance, or those of hearing and of vocal movements,
+have connecting pathways between them." (_Feeling and Will_, Jas. M.
+Baldwin, 1894.) The psychological law of tone-production is that the
+vocal organs adjust themselves, without conscious guidance, to produce
+the tones mentally conceived. In actual singing the practical
+application of this law is that the voice is guided by the ear.
+
+This guidance of the voice by the ear is incessant. It must not be
+understood that the mental ear simply conceives a single tone, and that
+the vocal machinery then operates without further guidance. All the
+characteristics of the vocal tones,--pitch, quality, and power,--are
+constantly changing. These changes require corresponding changes in the
+muscular adjustments. The muscular contractions in turn are guided by
+the demands of the mental ear. As a psychological process, singing may
+therefore be analyzed as follows: The singer mentally sings the
+composition. In response to the ever varying demands of the ear the
+vocal organs adjust themselves to produce actually the sounds thus
+mentally conceived. The singer listens to these sounds and at every
+instant compares them to the mental conception. If the tones actually
+produced fail to correspond exactly to those mentally conceived, the
+singer instantly notes this variation and bids the vocal organs to
+correct it. The ear has therefore a dual function in singing. First, the
+mental ear directs the voice in its operations. Second, the physical ear
+acts as a check or corrective on the voice.
+
+To sum up the psychology of tone-production, the singer guides or
+manages the voice by attentively listening to the tones of the voice.
+This is the only possible means of vocal guidance. The voice and the ear
+together form one complete organ.
+
+But we are still apparently as far as ever from the specific meaning of
+the correct vocal action. That the voice instinctively obeys the
+commands of the ear may be true theoretically. In actual practice we
+know that this does not by any means always occur. Singers are often
+unable to get the desired results from their voices, even when they
+believe themselves to rely on the sense of hearing. There must therefore
+be some influence which under certain conditions interferes with the
+operations of the vocal organs. The problem of tone-production is thus
+seen to be one of psychology. It narrows down to this: What can
+interfere with the normal action of the voice and prevent the vocal
+organs from instinctively responding to the demands of the ear? A
+satisfactory answer to this problem will be found only by a
+consideration of all available knowledge of the voice, both empirical
+and scientific. This forms the material of the final division of the
+present work.
+
+
+
+
+Part IV
+
+VOCAL SCIENCE AND PRACTICAL VOICE CULTURE
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE CORRECT VOCAL ACTION
+
+
+Two distinct lines of approach were laid down for studying the
+operations of the voice. First, the manner of investigation usually
+accepted as scientific. This is, to study the vocal mechanism; to
+determine, as far as possible, the laws of its operation, in accordance
+with the principles of anatomy, acoustics, mechanics, and psychology.
+Second, the manner of investigation generally called empirical. This
+begins with the observing of the tones of the voice, considered simply
+as sounds. From the tones we work back to the vocal organs and apply to
+them the information obtained by attentive listening. Both of these
+means of investigation have been utilized; we are now in possession of
+the most salient facts obtainable regarding the vocal action.
+
+Separately considered, neither the scientific nor the empirical study of
+the voice is alone sufficient to inform us of the exact nature of the
+correct vocal action. The next step is therefore to combine the
+information obtained from the two sources, scientific analysis and
+empirical observation. Let us begin by summing up all the facts so far
+ascertained.
+
+Tone-production in singing is a conscious and voluntary muscular
+operation. The vocal organs consist of a number of sets of voluntary
+muscles, of the bones and cartilages to which these muscles are
+attached, and of the nerves and nerve centers governing their actions.
+The precise nature of the muscular contractions of tone-production,
+whether correct or incorrect, is not known. These contractions occur in
+accordance with established laws of acoustics and mechanics. Under
+normal conditions the vocal organs instinctively respond to the demands
+of the singer, through the guidance of the sense of hearing. The ability
+of the vocal organs to adjust themselves properly may be upset by some
+influence apparently outside the singer's voluntary control. Study of
+the vocal mechanism does not inform us of the meaning of the correct
+vocal action, nor of the difference between this action and any other
+mode of operation of the voice.
+
+Empirically considered, there is a striking difference between the
+correct vocal action and any other manner of tone-production. A perfect
+vocal tone awakens in the hearer a distinct set of auditory and muscular
+sensations. Attentively observed, the muscular sensations of the hearer
+indicate that the perfect vocal tone is produced by the balanced and
+harmonious action of all the muscles of the singer's vocal mechanism. In
+listening to perfect singing the hearer feels that every muscle of the
+singer's vocal organs is contracted with exactly the appropriate degree
+of strength. Any vocal tone of unsatisfactory sound awakens in the
+hearer a set of muscular sensations, the direct opposite of those
+indicating the correct vocal action. An incorrectly produced tone
+imparts to the hearer a sensation of stiffness and undue muscular
+tension, located more or less definitely in the throat. This sensation
+indicates that the singer's throat is stiffened by excessive muscular
+contraction. Further, this feeling of throat stiffness indicates to the
+hearer that the singer's vocal action would become correct if the undue
+muscular tension were relaxed.
+
+Combining now the results of empirical and scientific investigation of
+the voice, throat stiffness is seen to be the interfering influence
+which disturbs the instinctive connection between voice and ear. Let us
+now consider the meaning of throat stiffness as a feature of incorrect
+tone-production. First, what is muscular stiffness?
+
+All the voluntary muscles of the body are arranged in opposed pairs,
+sets, or groups. A typical pair of opposed muscles are the biceps and
+triceps of the upper arm. Contraction of the biceps flexes the forearm
+at the elbow; the contrary movement, extending the forearm, results from
+the contraction of the triceps. This principle of opposition applies to
+the entire muscular system. One set of muscles raises the ribs in
+inspiration, another set lowers them in expiration; one group flexes the
+fingers and clenches the fist, an opposed set extends the fingers and
+opens the hand. Muscular opposition does not imply that the entire
+structure is made up of parallel pairs of muscles, like the biceps and
+triceps, located on opposite sides of the same bone. It means only that
+the opposed sets pull in contrary directions.
+
+Each opposed set consists of muscles of about equal strength. Under
+normal conditions of relaxation the entire muscular system exerts a
+slight degree of contraction. To this normal state of oppositional
+contraction the name "muscular tonicity" is given. The present purpose
+does not call for a discussion of the subject of muscular tonicity. This
+form of contraction has no direct bearing on the performance of
+voluntary movements.
+
+What effect has the voluntary contraction of all the muscles of any
+member, each opposed set exerting the same degree of strength? No motion
+of the member results, but the member is brought on tension and
+stiffened. This is well illustrated in the case of the arm. Extend the
+arm and clench the fist; then contract all the muscles of the arm, about
+as the athlete does to display his muscular development. You will notice
+that the arm becomes stiff and tense.
+
+This state of tension is commonly called "muscular stiffness," but the
+term is open to objection. It is really the joints which are stiffened,
+not the muscles. We are, however, so accustomed to speak of muscular
+stiffness, and particularly of throat stiffness, that little is to be
+gained by substituting a more accurate expression.
+
+A condition of muscular stiffness results from the contraction of all
+the muscles of a member, whether this contraction be voluntary or
+involuntary. This condition does not prevent the normal movements of the
+member; it only renders the movements more difficult and fatiguing and
+less effective. It is readily seen why this is the case. More than the
+necessary strength is exerted by the muscles. Suppose the biceps and
+triceps, for example, each to be contracted with five units of strength;
+then let some work be performed by the flexing of the forearm, requiring
+the exertion of two units of strength. In this case the biceps must
+exert two units of strength more than the triceps, that is, seven units.
+In all, the two muscles together exert twelve units of strength to
+accomplish the effective result of two units. Six times the needed
+strength is exerted. Activity of this kind is naturally fatiguing.
+
+Muscular stiffness increases the difficulty of complex movements. Not
+only is unnecessary strength exerted; the stiffness of the joints also
+interferes with the freedom and facility of motion. But this unfavorable
+condition does not upset the power of coördination. The instinctive
+connection between the nerve centers of consciousness and the motor
+centers is not broken. Although hampered in their efforts, the muscles
+are still able to execute the demands of consciousness.
+
+As an illustration of this analysis of muscular stiffness let us
+consider the actions of writing, when performed under the conditions
+just described. It is possible to write with the hand and arm in a state
+of muscular stiffness. But one does not write so easily, so rapidly, nor
+so well with the arm stiff as with the arm normally relaxed. Closer
+attention must be paid to the forming of the letters, and more effort
+must be put forth to write with the muscles stiffened; yet the result is
+not equal to that obtained with less care and labor under normal
+muscular conditions.
+
+All that has been said of muscular stiffness applies with especial force
+to the vocal organs. Like the rest of the muscular system, the muscles
+of the vocal organs are arranged in opposed pairs and sets. The
+contraction of all the muscles of the throat, each opposed set or pair
+exerting about the same degree of strength, causes a condition of
+throat stiffness. Singing is possible in this condition. But the
+singer's command of the voice is not so complete and satisfactory as
+under normal conditions.
+
+Throat stiffness does not altogether deprive the vocal organs of their
+faculty of instinctive adjustment in obedience to the demands of the
+ear. To a fair extent the voice is under the command of the singer. The
+vocal cords adjust themselves readily enough for the desired pitch;
+tones of the various degrees of loudness and softness can be sung in a
+fairly satisfactory manner. But the muscles are somewhat hampered in
+their contractions, and the response to the demands of the ear is not
+quite perfect. This lack of perfect command is evidenced specially in
+the quality of the tones. Some form of throaty quality always mars the
+voice when the throat is in a stiffened condition. In this regard the
+voice refuses to fulfill the demands of the ear. Even though the singer
+hears, and indeed feels, the effects of the muscular tension, and
+strives to remedy the fault of production, the voice still refuses to
+respond.
+
+This incomplete command of the voice is frequently observed, even among
+singers of very high standing. At first sight the condition here
+described seems to disprove the statement that the voice normally obeys
+the ear. But there is no real contradiction of the psychological law of
+vocal command in the case of a stiff-throated singer. For one thing,
+whatever degree of command the singer possesses is obtained in
+accordance with the law of guidance by the ear. Moreover, the failure to
+secure perfect response is due solely to the interference with the
+normal workings of the voice, occasioned by the state of throat
+stiffness. Far from this form of muscular contraction being a
+contradiction of psychological principles, it will be found on
+examination to be in perfect accord with well-established laws of
+physiological psychology.
+
+It is hardly to be supposed that the singer consciously and voluntarily
+contracts the muscles of the entire vocal mechanism and so deliberately
+brings about the stiffening of the throat. True, this can readily be
+done. We can at will sing throaty and nasal tones. But this form of
+voluntary throat tension is not, properly speaking, an incorrect vocal
+action. So long as the vocal organs respond to the demands of the ear,
+the vocal action is correct. Only when the voice refuses to obey can
+the action be described as incorrect.
+
+A satisfactory definition of the various modes of vocal action can now
+be given. The correct vocal action is the natural operation of the vocal
+organs; the voice normally obeys the commands of the ear. An incorrect
+vocal action occurs when the throat is stiffened by the involuntary
+contraction of the muscles of the vocal mechanism.
+
+This definition of the vocal action does not solve the problem of
+tone-production. It is still to be determined how the involuntary
+contraction of the throat muscles is caused.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE CAUSES OF THROAT STIFFNESS AND OF INCORRECT VOCAL ACTION
+
+
+Involuntary contractions of the voluntary muscles can occur only as
+reflex actions. If the muscles of the vocal organs are subject to
+involuntary contractions, the causes of these contractions must be
+sought through an investigation of the subject of reflex actions.
+
+Reflex actions are of several kinds; of these the simplest type, and the
+one most easily studied, is the muscular contraction due to the
+excitation of the sensory nerve endings located in the skin. Thus when
+the sole of the foot of a sleeping person is tickled, the leg is at
+first drawn up and then violently kicked out. An exhaustive discussion
+of the physiological and psychological features of reflex action is not
+called for here; a sufficient understanding of the subject may safely be
+assumed to be possessed by the reader.
+
+Involuntary muscular contractions often occur as reflex actions without
+any direct or tactual irritation of the sensory nerve endings. Several
+examples of this form of reflex action are now to be considered. These
+actions will be seen to be matters of such common experience as to call
+for no special proof. They are the following:
+
+(_a_) Reflex actions performed under the influence of sensory
+impressions other than those of touch or muscular sense.
+
+(_b_) Involuntary muscular contractions due to nervousness.
+
+(_c_) Contractions of the muscles of certain members, caused by the
+turning of the attention specially to the members.
+
+(_d_) Involuntary contractions of muscles, accompanying the exertion of
+other associated and antagonist muscles, and due to the radiation of
+nerve impulse.
+
+
+(_a_) _Reflex Actions due to Sensory Impressions other than those of
+Touch or Muscular Sense_
+
+A wide range of movements is included under this heading. Of these it is
+necessary to mention only a few, such as the sudden start on the hearing
+of an unexpected noise, the instinctive movement of dodging to escape an
+approaching missile, and the raising of the arm to ward off an expected
+blow.
+
+Actions of a somewhat similar character normally occur in which it is
+not easy to point to the excitation of any sense or senses. These
+include the instinctive cowering attitude of fear, the play of facial
+expression caused by sentiment and emotion, etc.
+
+
+(_b_) _Involuntary Actions due to Nervousness_
+
+A condition of marked nervousness generally causes the involuntary
+contraction of muscles. Who does not recall his earliest attempts at
+"speaking a piece" in school? The trembling of the lips, the twitching
+of the arms and hands, and the vain attempts to govern the bodily
+movements, are an experience painful even in the recollection.
+
+Movements and contractions due to nervousness are entirely purposeless;
+they even defy the most earnest efforts at inhibition. A marked feature
+of this type of involuntary action is the contraction of antagonist
+groups of muscles, productive of muscular stiffness of the members.
+
+An extreme example of this form of nervousness is offered by the
+unfortunate sufferer from stage fright. In this condition the entire
+body often stiffens, and purposeful movement of any kind becomes for a
+time impossible.
+
+
+(_c_) _Contractions caused by Special Attention to Certain Members_
+
+Suppose a small boy of sensitive nature to enter a room suddenly, and to
+be at once chided for his awkwardness. His body will probably stiffen,
+and his awkwardness become more pronounced. Now call his attention to
+his hands and tell him he is holding them badly. His arms and hands will
+immediately become painfully stiff. Speak of his feet and his legs come
+on tension. Whatever member his attention is turned to, the muscles of
+that part contract involuntarily.
+
+Photographers sometimes have to contend with this form of involuntary
+action on the part of their sitters. When the hands are to be posed the
+arms stiffen; so also do the legs, the shoulders, and the neck, each
+when its turn comes to receive attention.
+
+Under normal conditions this form of awkwardness is easily overcome.
+Sitting for a photograph soon becomes a simple matter. The boy outgrows
+the awkward stage and gradually acquires a natural and easy bearing.
+Muscular stiffening due to attention to special members is usually the
+result of an uncomfortable feeling of being out of one's element, and
+ill at ease in one's surroundings. So soon as this feeling wears off the
+tendency to this form of stiffness disappears.
+
+
+(_d_) _Contractions of Muscles due to the Radiation of Nerve Impulse_
+
+A voluntary exertion of some of the muscles of a member sometimes causes
+the involuntary contraction of all the other muscles of the part. As
+will readily be seen, the exercise then takes place under conditions of
+muscular stiffness. This is commonly a feature of the unskilful and
+unaccustomed performance of muscular activities. A few examples will
+serve to illustrate this type of involuntary contraction better than a
+lengthy discussion of the physio-psychological principles involved.
+
+When a novice takes his first lesson in riding a bicycle he clutches the
+handle bars in a vise-like grip. His knees are so stiff as to bend only
+with a great exertion of strength. To steer the wheel the learner must
+put forth his most powerful muscular efforts. A half-hour lesson in
+bicycle riding often tires the beginner more than an afternoon's ride
+does the experienced cyclist.
+
+This condition of muscular stiffness is due to the contraction of
+antagonist groups of muscles, involving practically the entire body. In
+one sense the excessive muscular contractions are involuntary; yet it
+would not be easy to define where the voluntary element of the
+contractions leaves off.
+
+A similar excessive expenditure of strength may be seen in the attempt
+of an illiterate laborer to sign his name. He grips the pen as though it
+were a crowbar, and puts forth enough strength to handle a twenty-pound
+weight. Learning to dance, or to skate, or to row a boat, is usually
+accompanied in the beginning by this form of muscular stiffness.
+
+As skill is acquired by practice in the performance of complex
+activities, the undue muscular tension of the initial stage is gradually
+relaxed.
+
+There is another way in which the radiation of nerve impulse may be
+caused, entirely distinct from the lack of use or skill. Muscular
+stiffness may be induced in the case of activities so thoroughly
+habitual as to be normally performed automatically. The cause of
+muscular stiffness now to be considered is the attempt to perform
+complex activities mechanically, that is, by consciously directing the
+individual component movements and muscular contractions involved in the
+actions. Involuntary contractions of associated and antagonist muscles
+take place under these conditions, in addition to the voluntary exercise
+of the muscles normally exerted in the movements.
+
+This fact may be illustrated by attempting to write a few lines, and
+forming every stroke of each letter by a distinct exercise of the will.
+If you keep up this attempt for ten minutes you will find that you press
+upon the paper with many times your accustomed weight. The hand stiffens
+in consequence of the close attention paid to its movements. This
+stiffness will extend to the arm, and even to the shoulder, if the
+exercise be continued long enough and with sufficient intensity of
+attention to the hand.
+
+Another good illustration of this form of muscular stiffening may be
+found by walking upstairs, and paying the same kind of attention to the
+muscular actions. Try to ascend a single flight of stairs, performing
+each elementary movement by a distinct volitional impulse. Pause on the
+first step to secure perfect balance on one foot; raise the other foot,
+bending the leg at the knee, then place this foot carefully on the next
+higher step. Now gradually shift the weight of the body from the lower
+to the higher foot; as the body inclines forward, exert the muscles of
+the back and sides to preserve your balance; then contract the leg
+muscles so as to raise the body to the higher step, with the weight
+supported on that foot. Repeat this operation for each step. To mount
+one flight of stairs in this way will tire you more than ascending a
+half dozen flights in the ordinary automatic way.
+
+All four of the types of involuntary muscular contraction just described
+may be combined in a single instance. An inexperienced violin soloist,
+such as a student playing at a conservatory recital, often exemplifies
+this. Nervousness and awkwardness cause him to tremble; the scratchy
+sound of his tones makes him twitch and start; meanwhile, the close
+attention paid to his fingering and bowing stiffens his arms and
+completes his difficulty.
+
+The vocal organs are peculiarly subject to the forms of involuntary
+muscular contraction under consideration. Each of the causes of muscular
+tension may exert its special influence on the voice. Let us go over the
+ground once more, this time with special reference to the actions of the
+throat muscles.
+
+_(a) Reflex Actions of the Muscles of the Vocal Organs, Independent of
+Direct Sensory Excitation_
+
+Involuntary actions of the vocal organs normally occur in response to
+stimuli furnished by the emotions and feelings. Every one is familiar
+with the shout of triumph, the sigh of relief, and the ejaculation of
+surprise. Some emotions cause a convulsive stiffening of the muscles of
+the vocal organs so complete as to render tone-production for a time
+absolutely impossible. "Speechless with terror," "breathless with
+apprehension," are expressions which accurately describe psychological
+processes. A crowd of people watching a difficult rescue of a drowning
+man is silent so long as the uncertainty lasts. A shout instantly goes
+up when the rescue is seen to be safely effected. Both the silence of
+the nervous strain and the shout of relief are normal involuntary
+responses to the emotional states.
+
+_(b) The Influence of Nervousness on the Vocal Action_
+
+Nervous conditions exert a striking influence on the operations of the
+voice. Even when our self-control under trying conditions is complete in
+all other respects we are often unable to prevent our voices betraying
+our nervous state. Stage fright, an extreme form of nervousness,
+sometimes deprives the sufferer entirely of the power of speech. This
+temporary loss of vocal command is not due to an inability to innervate
+the muscles of the vocal organs; on the contrary, it is caused by
+extreme muscular stiffness due to the violent, though involuntary,
+contraction of all the muscles of the vocal organs.
+
+Under normal conditions, entirely aside from nervousness, the voice
+instinctively reflects every phase of sentiment and emotion. Love and
+hate, sorrow and joy, anger, fear, and rage, each is clearly expressed
+by the quality of the tones, independent of the meaning of the spoken
+words. All these fine shades of tone quality result from muscular
+adjustments of the vocal mechanism. In some mysterious manner the
+outflow of motor impulses to the throat muscles is governed by the
+nervous and emotional states.
+
+This form of muscular contraction is in one sense not involuntary. As
+the voice is voluntarily used, all the muscular contractions involved
+are voluntary. Yet the minute contractions producing tone qualities
+expressive of emotion are distinctly involuntary. More than this, these
+contractions cannot usually be inhibited. An angry man cannot make his
+voice sound other than angry. Our voices often betray our feelings in
+spite of the most earnest efforts at concealment.
+
+While the voice always normally and involuntarily adopts the tone
+quality indicative of the emotional state, this action of the vocal
+organs may be voluntarily and purposely performed. A perfect command of
+these fine shades of tone quality renders the voice a very potent
+instrument of expression. For the purposes of dramatic singing this form
+of vocal expression might be of great value. It is to be regretted that
+dramatic singers of this day pay so little attention to purely tonal
+expressiveness. This is probably due in great measure to the prevalence
+of throat stiffness, which robs the voice of much of its expressive
+power.
+
+_(c) Contractions of the Throat Muscles, caused by Attention to the
+Throat_
+
+When a physician attempts to examine a child's throat, the tendency of
+the throat muscles to this form of involuntary contractions is apt to be
+evidenced. The jaw stiffens and the tongue rises; for a time the
+rebellious little throat refuses to remain quiet and relaxed.
+
+People usually have some such difficulty the first time they submit to
+examination with the laryngoscope. This is very apt to occur, even in
+the case of experienced singers. Needless to say, this form of muscular
+contraction is entirely involuntary; it even defies the most earnest
+attempts at prevention. Comparatively little experience is required for
+normal people to overcome this tendency. The throat usually becomes
+tractable after one or two trials with the laryngoscope.
+
+Vocalists are well aware of the proneness of one part of the vocal
+mechanism, the tongue, to stiffen in consequence of direct attention
+being paid to this member. In this connection Frangçon-Davies remarks:
+"When the writer in early student days concentrated his attention upon
+his tongue he found that this member became very stiff and unruly
+indeed." (_The Singing of the Future_, London, 1906.) Leo Kofler speaks
+of the same tendency: "Tell a pupil to let his tongue lie flat in his
+mouth; he draws it back till it dams up his throat." (_Werner's
+Magazine_, Oct., 1899.)
+
+_(d) Throat Stiffness due to the Radiation of Nerve Impulse_
+
+Two types of muscular tension due to the radiation of motor impulses
+were noted; first, the stiffness incident to the early stages of
+practice in complex activities; second, the stiffness caused by the
+attempt to perform complex activities in a mechanical manner by paying
+attention to the individual component movements and contractions. To
+both these types of muscular stiffness the voice is especially subject.
+
+It is not easy to find a perfect illustration of throat stiffness
+incident to the early stages of instruction in singing. For this the
+chief reason is that the later form of stiffness, due to the attempt
+directly to manage the vocal organs, is much more pronounced than the
+temporary early tension. As good an example as possible would be the
+following: Let some one possessed of a fine natural untrained voice sing
+a steady tone and then attempt to trill on the same note. The attempted
+trill will invariably indicate a much higher degree of stiffness than
+the single tone.
+
+Several investigators of the voice have noticed the tendency of the
+throat to stiffen when the singer tries to manage the voice by paying
+direct attention to the mechanical action. Clara Kathleen Rogers points
+this out clearly in the following passage: "There exists a possible and
+a dangerous obstacle to the performance of the natural mission of the
+voice. That obstacle is what? It is a superfluous and misdirected mental
+activity which is fruitful of a corresponding obstruction on the part of
+the body. In the body this obstruction takes the form of superfluous or
+unnatural tension." (_The Philosophy of Singing_, N. Y., 1893.) Prof.
+Scripture describes in scientific language the results of any attempt
+directly to manage the vocal organs. Speaking of the use of the voice
+under unfavorable conditions, he says: "The attempt is instinctively
+made by the speaker or singer to correct such a fault by voluntary
+innervation of the muscles; this cannot succeed perfectly because an
+increase of innervation brings about contractions of associated and
+antagonist muscles with the result of changed conditions and changed
+sounds. Such extra muscular effort is, moreover, very fatiguing." (_The
+Elements of Experimental Phonetics_, 1902.)
+
+For the purposes of scientific voice culture this is one of the most
+important facts which have been determined. The attempt to manage the
+voice, by paying attention to the mechanical operations of the vocal
+organs, causes an involuntary contraction of all the throat muscles, and
+so interferes with the normal instinctive vocal action. Even the mere
+thinking of the throat in singing, and especially in practising, is
+enough to induce throat stiffness.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THROAT STIFFNESS AND INCORRECT SINGING
+
+
+It is a lamentable fact that most of the singing heard nowadays gives
+evidence of throat stiffness. Perfect singing becomes more rare with
+each succeeding year. The younger generation of artists in particular
+evince a marked tendency to this fault of production.
+
+Considered as a cause of faulty tone-production in singing, throat
+stiffness is due to only one influence, viz., the attempt to manage the
+voice by thinking of the vocal organs and their mechanical operations.
+Muscular tension due to nervousness, or to the unskilful nature of first
+attempts at singing, cannot be looked upon as causing a wrong vocal
+action. In the case of nervousness the lack of vocal command faithfully
+reflects the psychological condition of the singer; the imperfect
+response of the voice is normal to this condition. The stiffness due to
+first attempts is also perfectly normal. Moreover, both these forms of
+throat stiffness are temporary; they disappear when the cause,
+nervousness or lack of skill, is removed.
+
+Throat stiffness does not necessarily destroy the musical character of
+the voice. Very many degrees and varieties of excessive throat tension
+are possible. The undue muscular exertion may be so slight in degree
+that the throat stiffness can be detected in the sound of the tones only
+by a highly sensitive and observant hearer. Or on the other hand, the
+muscles of the entire throat may be so powerfully contracted that the
+singer has only a very imperfect command of the voice. Between the two
+extremes, perfect tone-production and exaggerated stiffness, every
+conceivable shade of difference in degree of undue tension might be
+illustrated in the case of some prominent singer.
+
+Faulty tone-production manifests itself in two ways; first, in its
+effects on the tones of the voice; second, in its effects on the
+singer's throat. Let us consider each of these topics separately.
+
+_The Effect of Throat Stiffness on the Sound of the Voice_
+
+In whatever degree throat stiffness is present, to just that extent the
+voice sacrifices something of its capabilities as a musical instrument.
+The voice can realize its full natural resources of beauty, range,
+power, and flexibility only when the throat is absolutely free from
+undue tension. As regards the quality of the tones, every phase of undue
+throat tension has its effect on the sound of the voice. These effects
+are always bad; the same voice is less beautiful when used in a
+stiffened condition than when perfectly produced. Throaty and nasal
+tones are always more or less harsh and offensive to the sensitive
+hearer. Further, the more pronounced the state of throat stiffness the
+more marked does the throaty or nasal quality become.
+
+Under conditions of throat tension the range of the voice is almost
+always curtailed. The highest and lowest notes possible to any voice can
+be reached only when the throat is entirely free from stiffness. So also
+with regard to the varying degrees of power, undue tension prevents the
+singer from obtaining the extreme effects. A throaty singer's soft tones
+generally lack the carrying quality. Louder tones can be produced with a
+normally relaxed than with a stiffened throat.
+
+Real flexibility of voice is impossible to a stiff-throated singer.
+Extreme rapidity and accuracy of muscular adjustments, the physical
+basis of coloratura singing, cannot be attained when the muscles are
+hampered by undue tension.
+
+A distinct fault of production, the tremolo, is directly due to throat
+stiffness. A simple experiment illustrates the nature of the muscular
+action from which the tremolo results. "Set" the muscles of the arm by
+contracting the biceps and triceps with the utmost possible strength.
+With the arm in this stiffened condition flex and extend the forearm
+slowly several times. You will notice a pronounced trembling of the arm.
+Why a condition of muscular stiffness should cause the affected member
+to tremble is not well understood. But the fact admits of no question.
+It is highly probable that the tremolo is caused by a trembling of the
+vocal organs, due to muscular stiffness. The tones of a voice afflicted
+with tremolo always give evidence of extreme throat tension.
+
+Another bad result of throat stiffness in tone-production is seen in the
+matter of intonation. Tones produced with a stiff throat are seldom in
+perfect tune. This subject will be more fully treated in a later
+chapter.
+
+_Effects of Muscular Stiffness on the Throat_
+
+Many of the muscles of the vocal organs, particularly the laryngeal
+muscles, are extremely small and delicate. Under normal conditions these
+muscles are fully capable of exerting the relatively small amount of
+strength required of them without strain or injury. But when the voice
+is used in a stiffened condition the delicate muscles of the larynx are
+obliged to contract with much more than their normal strength. To borrow
+an expression of the engineers, the throat muscles are then forced to
+carry an excessive load.
+
+A balanced contraction of antagonist groups of muscles is the muscular
+basis of throat stiffness. When the voice is used in this condition each
+muscle of the vocal organs must put forth the amount of effort necessary
+to produce the desired effect under normal conditions, in addition to an
+effort equal to the counterbalancing pull of its antagonist muscle. An
+increase in the degree of throat stiffness demands a corresponding
+increase in the effort exerted by every muscle of the throat.
+
+Over-exertion of muscles always results in strain and injury. The extent
+of the injury to the muscular tissues varies with the degree of
+excessive exertion and with the duration of the injurious exercise. An
+advanced stage of muscular strain is distinctly a pathological
+condition.
+
+Tone-production in a state of throat stiffness is of necessity injurious
+to the muscles of the vocal organs. The delicate laryngeal muscles are
+specially subject to the injurious effects of strain. These effects vary
+in extent and character, according to the degree of throat stiffness, to
+the extent and duration of the faulty use of the voice, and to the
+individual characteristics of the singer. A very slight degree of undue
+tension may not sensibly injure the voice. Even a fairly marked
+condition of tension, such as is evidenced by the uniformly throaty
+quality of many baritones and mezzo-sopranos, may be persisted in for
+years without perceptibly straining the throat or destroying the musical
+value of the voice. But a misuse of the voice is bound, in the course of
+time, to show its injurious results on the throat. How many promising
+young singers are forced to abandon their careers in early life, at the
+time when their artistic and dramatic powers are just ripening to
+fruition! A misused voice "wears out" years before its time.
+
+Most of the throat troubles of singers are directly caused by throat
+stiffness and muscular strain. Dr. Mills, among others, touches on this
+fact. "All the author's experience as a laryngologist tended to convince
+him that most of those evils from which speakers and singers suffer,
+whatever the part of the vocal mechanism affected, arise from faulty
+methods of voice production, or excess in the use of methods in
+themselves correct." (_Voice Production in Singing and Speaking_,
+Phila., 1906.)
+
+For the purposes of artistic singing, a voice loses all its value when
+the injurious effects of throat stiffness become very pronounced. On
+this account singers are obliged to give up appearing in public before
+the condition reaches the extreme. It follows therefore that only in the
+case of public speakers do we see the extreme results of persistence in
+the wrong use of the voice. "Clergyman's sore throat" is the name
+usually applied to this condition. The sustained use of the voice, under
+conditions of extreme strain, is exceedingly painful both to the speaker
+and to the hearer.
+
+Singers are usually unconscious of throat stiffness unless the condition
+be very pronounced. Neither the sense of hearing nor the muscular sense
+informs the singer of the state of tension. Accustomed to the sound of
+his own voice, the singer may be unaware of a throaty or nasal quality
+which he would instantly detect in another voice. This is also true of
+the muscular sensations of tone-production; habit makes the singer
+inattentive to the sensations caused by throat tension.
+
+Throat stiffness always tends to become greater in degree; it is a
+self-aggravating condition. Even though very slight in its beginnings,
+the state of stiffness obliges the singer to put forth more than the
+normal effort in order to secure the desired effects. This increase of
+innervation is not confined to the muscles which need to be more
+strongly contracted. As Prof. Scripture points out, it also extends to
+the associated and antagonist muscles, that is, to all the muscles of
+the throat. Thus the stiffness is increased in degree. Still greater
+exertion is then required, resulting in still greater stiffness. This
+may go on for years, the voice gradually becoming less responsive to the
+demands of the singer.
+
+Individual personal characteristics are an important factor in
+determining a singer's experience with throat stiffness. Some singers
+are so fortunately constituted as to be almost entirely free from the
+tendency to stiffen the throat. Others detect the tendency in its
+beginning and find no difficulty in correcting it. Still others
+habituate themselves to some manner of tone-production, and neither
+increase nor diminish the degree of stiffness. Even under modern methods
+of instruction, many artists are correctly trained from the start and so
+never stiffen their throats in any way.
+
+Several traits of character are concerned in determining the individual
+tendency to throat stiffness. Nervous temperament, keenness of ear,
+artistic and musical endowment, each has its influence in this
+connection.
+
+The great prevalence of throat stiffness among present-day singers is
+due primarily to the idea of mechanical vocal management as the basis
+of instruction in singing. Not only are modern methods intrinsically
+worthless, in that a correct use of the voice cannot be attained by the
+application of mechanical rules. Worse than this, the means used for
+training the voice are such as to defeat their own purpose. At every
+instant of instruction the student's attention is expressly turned to
+the vocal organs and to the mechanical operations of the voice. The only
+possible result of this kind of vocal instruction is to stiffen the
+throat and so to render the correct vocal action an impossibility.
+
+A peculiar contradiction is presented by the modern vocal teacher; his
+artistic conception of singing is utterly at variance with his ideas of
+mechanical tone-production. It may safely be said that the vast majority
+of vocal teachers are thoroughly conversant with the highest standards
+of artistic singing. They know what effects their pupils ought to
+obtain. But the means they use for enabling the pupils to get these
+effects have exactly the contrary result. When the student tries to open
+the throat this obstinate organ only closes the tighter. Attempting to
+correct a tremolo by "holding the throat steady" causes the throat to
+tremble all the more.
+
+Modern voice culture, in its practical aspect, is a struggle with throat
+stiffness. Everything the student does, for the purpose of acquiring
+direct command of the voice, has some influence in causing the throat to
+stiffen. Telling the student to hold the throat relaxed seldom effects a
+cure; this direction includes a primary cause of tension,--the turning
+of attention to the throat. All the teacher can do to counteract the
+stiffening influence is to give relaxing exercises. These are in most
+cases efficacious so long as constructive instruction is abandoned, and
+the relaxing of the throat is made the sole purpose of study. But soon
+after positive instruction is resumed the tendency to stiffen reappears.
+As lesson follows after lesson, the stiffness becomes gradually,
+imperceptibly more pronounced. At length the time again comes for
+relaxing exercises.
+
+A single repetition of this process, relaxing the throat and then
+stiffening it again, may extend over several months of study. During
+this time the student naturally learns a great deal about music and the
+artistic side of singing, and also improves the keenness of the sense
+of hearing. This artistic development is necessarily reflected in the
+voice so soon as the throat is again relaxed.
+
+It usually happens that students change teachers about the time the
+voice has become unmanageably stiff. In this condition the student, of
+course, sings rather badly. A marked improvement in the singing
+generally results from the change of teachers. This is easy to
+understand because the new teacher devotes his first efforts to relaxing
+the stiffened throat. Later on this improvement is very likely to be
+lost, for the second teacher has nothing more of a positive nature to
+offer than the first.
+
+Vocal teachers in general seem to be aware of the fact that mechanical
+instruction causes the student's throat to stiffen. A much-debated
+question is whether "local effort" is needed to bring about the correct
+vocal action. The term local effort is used to describe the direct
+innervation of the throat muscles. A logical application of the
+mechanical idea absolutely demands the use of local effort. This is the
+main argument of the local-effort teachers.
+
+Those teachers who discountenance local effort have only their own
+experience to guide them. They simply know that local effort results in
+throat stiffness. Yet these teachers have nothing to offer in place of
+the mechanical management of the vocal organs. Even though aware of the
+evil results of local effort, they yet know of no other means of
+imparting the correct vocal action. The weakness of the position of
+these teachers is well summed up by a writer in _Werner's Magazine_ for
+June, 1899: "To teach without local effort or local thought is to teach
+in the dark. Every exponent of the non-local-effort theory contradicts
+his theory every time he tells of it." To that extent this writer states
+the case correctly. Every modern vocal teacher believes that the voice
+must be consciously guided in its muscular operations. Until this
+erroneous belief is abandoned it is idle for a teacher to decry the use
+of local effort.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE TRUE MEANING OF VOCAL TRAINING
+
+
+In all scientific treatises on the voice it is assumed that the voice
+has some specifically correct mode of operation. Training the voice is
+supposed to involve the leading of the vocal organs to abandon their
+natural and instinctive manner of operating, and to adopt some other
+form of activity. Further, the assumption is made that the student of
+singing must cause the vocal organs to adopt a supposedly correct manner
+of operating by paying direct attention to the mechanical movements of
+tone-production. Both these assumptions are utterly mistaken. On
+scientific analysis no difference is seen between the right and the
+wrong vocal action, such as is assumed in the accepted Vocal Science.
+Psychological principles do not countenance the idea of mechanical vocal
+management.
+
+Yet the fact remains, as a matter of empirical observation, that there
+is a marked difference between the natural voice and the correctly
+trained voice. What change takes place in the voice as a result of
+correct training?
+
+Singing is a natural function of the vocal organs. Learning to sing
+artistically does not involve a departure from natural and instinctive
+processes. The training of the voice consists of the acquirement of
+skill in the use of the vocal organs, and of nothing more.
+
+Under normal conditions the vocal organs instinctively adjust
+themselves, by performing the necessary muscular contractions, to
+fulfill the demands of the ear. In order that a perfect musical tone be
+produced it is necessary in the first place that the ear be keen and
+well trained; only such an ear can know the exact sound of a perfect
+tone, and so demand it of the voice. Second, the vocal organs must make
+repeated efforts to produce the perfect tone, each response approaching
+nearer to the mentally-conceived tone. Two elements are therefore
+involved in the training of the voice; first, the cultivation of the
+sense of hearing; second, the acquirement of skill in the use of the
+voice by the actual practice of singing.
+
+Practical vocal teachers generally recognize the importance of both
+these elements of Voice Culture. Only in one way do they fall short of
+fully realizing the value of ear training and of practice guided by the
+ear;--they do not see that these two topics sum up the whole material of
+vocal training. Unfortunately, the search after some imaginary means of
+direct vocal management destroys, in all modern methods, most of the
+value of the real elements of voice culture.
+
+A few citations from standard writers on the voice will show the
+estimation in which ear-training is held. To begin with, the old Italian
+masters were fully alive to the necessity of cultivating the sense of
+hearing, as witness Tosi: "One who has not a good ear should not
+undertake either to instruct or to sing." This writer also says in the
+chapter headed "Observations for a student": "Let him hear as much as he
+can the most celebrated singers, and likewise the most excellent
+instrumental performers; because from the attention in hearing them one
+reaps more advantage than from any instruction whatsoever."
+
+Another early writer on the voice, the celebrated Adolph Bernhard Marx,
+speaks of the advantage derived from the attentive listening to voices:
+"An important influence is exerted by the frequent attentive hearing of
+good voices. Through this an idea of good tone is strengthened, which
+gains an influence on the use and also on the training of the organs,
+not perhaps immediate, but clearly seen in its results." (_Die Kunst des
+Gesanges_, Berlin, 1826.)
+
+Among modern writers only a few need be mentioned. D. Frangçon-Davies
+remarks: "The training of the ear is one half of the training of the
+voice." (_The Singing of the Future._) Clara Kathleen Rogers is even
+more emphatic in her statement: "Not to exercise our sense of hearing is
+to rob it gradually of the habit of acting at all; whereas, if we keep
+it in exercise, it will daily grow readier, finer, more acute, more
+analytical, and the ear will serve as an ever more effective medium of
+reaction on the will." The following remark of the same writer points
+unmistakably to an understanding of the evil results of the attempt to
+sing mechanically: "If the singer's attention is directed to any part of
+the vocal instrument, or even to its motor, the breath, his sense of
+sound, and his perception of either the beautiful or the bad elements
+in sound, will grow fainter and fainter." (_The Physiology of Singing._)
+
+As for the purpose of cultivating the sense of hearing, this is also
+pointed out by several prominent vocal theorists. One of the latest
+exponents of the traditional method of instruction was Stéphen de la
+Madelaine, who remarks: "The first need of the voice is to be guided in
+its exercise by an ear capable of appreciating naturally its least
+deviation." (_Théorie complète du Chant_, Paris, 1852.)
+
+One of the most recent authoritative writers on voice culture, Dr.
+Mills, speaks at length of the necessity of guiding the voice by the
+sense of hearing. "We cannot too much insist on both speaker and singer
+attending to forming a connection between his ear and his mouth cavity.
+He is to hear that he may produce good tones, and the tones cannot be
+correctly formed if they be not well observed. To listen to one's self
+carefully and constantly is a most valuable but little practised art.
+The student should listen as an inexorable critic, accepting only the
+best from himself." Dr. Mills touches on the psychological features of
+the connection between voice and ear. "There can be no doubt that the
+nervous impulses that pass from the ear to the brain are of all sensory
+messages the most important guides for the outgoing ones that determine
+the necessary movements." Summing up the matter of ear-training and
+vocal guidance Dr. Mills says: "The author would impress on all students
+of music, and of the voice as used in both singing and speaking, the
+paramount importance of learning early to listen most attentively to
+others when executing music; and above all to listen with the greatest
+care to themselves, and never to accept any musical tone that does not
+fully satisfy the ear." (_Voice Production in Singing and Speaking_,
+1906.)
+
+One more citation from Mrs. Rogers must suffice. "And now, in
+conclusion, let me once more remind the singer that in practising these
+and all other vocal exercises the ear is the only safe guide."
+
+Given a fine natural voice and a trained musical ear, skill is acquired
+in the use of the voice by the repetition of effort. The only necessity
+is for the singer to have a clear mental conception of the effects to
+be obtained, and to listen attentively to the voice. With each
+repetition of an exercise, whether on sustained tones, scale passages,
+crescendo and diminuendo, or whatever else, the voice responds more
+smoothly and accurately to the mental demand. Each time the student
+practises the exercise he listens to the tones and notes how they differ
+from the desired effect; he strives the next time to correct this
+departure.
+
+Psychological principles verify the proverb that practice makes perfect.
+This is true of all complex activities. Through repeated performance the
+muscles, or rather the motor-nerve centers, become habituated to complex
+activities. Coördinations gradually become perfect and automatic because
+the nerve impulses naturally tend to take the well-worn paths. To this
+rule the voice is no exception. Practice makes perfect, with the voice,
+as with every other muscular activity.
+
+In practical Voice Culture the ear and the voice are normally trained
+together. The proper function of the teacher is to guide the student in
+developing along the two lines. Listening to his own voice is a valuable
+means for the student to develop his sense of hearing. It is for the
+master to point out the salient qualities and faults in the pupil's
+tones in order that the pupil may know what to listen for. As the ear
+gradually becomes keener and better acquainted with the characteristics
+of perfect singing, it also becomes more exacting in its demands on the
+voice. In its turn the voice steadily improves in its responsiveness to
+the ear.
+
+Skill in using the voice involves something more than has thus far been
+considered under the head of tone-production. Skill in singing is
+synonymous with finished vocal technique, and the basis of technique is
+the correctly produced single tone. It is seen that a single tone can be
+sung correctly when, first, the singer knows the sound of the perfect
+musical tone, and second, the vocal organs are not hampered by muscular
+stiffness. When these conditions are fulfilled nothing but practice is
+needed for the acquirement of technical skill.
+
+Coloratura singing presents the highest development of vocal technique.
+Dazzling as the effects of coloratura are, they are obtained by the
+combination of a few simple elements. Perfect command of the single tone
+throughout the entire compass of the voice, with accurately graded
+crescendo and diminuendo, the clear, rapid, and accurate transition from
+one note to another in the varying degrees of staccato and
+legato,--these elements include the whole physical material of vocal
+technique.
+
+Training the voice is one concrete process. Its component features may
+be considered separately; the cultivation of the sense of hearing, the
+acquirement of command of the single tone, and the development of
+technical skill,--each may be considered apart from its companion
+processes. But in actual practice the three elements of Voice Culture
+cannot be dissociated. The student of singing progresses simultaneously
+along all three lines. Intelligently directed practice in singing
+results in this simultaneous progress. As the voice depends for guidance
+on the ear, so the ear benefits by the improvement of the voice. Each
+advance made by the voice toward the perfect production of tone is
+marked by a greater facility in the technical use of the voice. Correct
+tone-production cannot be directly acquired by the singing of single
+tones. This practice would tend to stiffen the throat. Technique and
+tone-production must be developed together.
+
+There is a difference between the natural and the properly trained
+voice. As to the nature of this difference the facts of empirical
+observation are borne out by the results of scientific analysis. The
+natural voice is crude because it is unskilfully used. A lack of
+facility is revealed in the untrained singer's handling of the voice.
+Intonations are imperfect; transitions from note to note are rough; the
+whole effect indicates that the voice is not completely under the
+command of the singer. Further, the sound of the individual tones
+betrays faults of production. The tones are more or less throaty or
+nasal, or indicative of some degree of muscular tension.
+
+A perfectly used voice, on the other hand, convinces the hearer that the
+singer has full command of all the resources of the vocal organs. Each
+tone is a perfect musical sound, free from fault or blemish. The voice
+moves from one note to another with ease and with purity of intonation.
+All the gradations of loud and soft, all the lights and shades of
+sentiment or passion, seem to respond directly to the singer's
+instinctive desire for musical expression. On the physical side the
+singer's voice is felt by the hearer to be in a condition of balanced
+and harmonious muscular activity.
+
+When the possessor of a good natural voice goes through a proper course
+of vocal training, the faults of production native to the untrained
+voice are gradually corrected. Wrong muscular tension is imperceptibly
+relaxed. Little by little the student acquires facility in handling the
+voice. Coincident with this progress is the advance toward the correct
+vocal action. The transition from the natural to the perfect use of the
+voice is gradual and imperceptible. There is no stage of progress at
+which the operations of the voice radically change in character. At no
+time does the student change the manner of managing the voice. Effects
+difficult at first gradually become easier, simply as the result of
+practice. This is the only change that the voice undergoes in training.
+
+One influence, and only one, can interfere with this normal development
+of the voice. This is the involuntary and unconscious stiffening of the
+throat. In the normal practice of singing nothing is involved which
+could cause the throat to stiffen. True, the first stages of study are
+usually marked by a slight degree of stiffness, due solely to the lack
+of practice and experience. This initial stiffness does not tend to
+become habitual; it disappears before the student becomes aware of it,
+and leaves no permanent trace on the voice. That is, provided mechanical
+instruction does not intervene, to introduce the tendency directly to
+stiffen the throat.
+
+As the initial stiffness disappears, and the vocal action gradually
+becomes smooth and automatic, the voice begins to take on the
+characteristics of perfect tone-production. The voice rounds out, the
+tones become free and true, and in perfect tune. No excessive throat
+tension being present, the voice conforms to the correct empirical
+standard of tone-production. It gives evidence to the ear of correct
+support and of open throat. The tones issue freely from the mouth and
+convey no impression of throat or nose.
+
+As a matter of experience it is known that vocal students generally make
+satisfactory progress in the first few months of study. This is
+perfectly natural. It requires several months for the normally
+constituted student to grasp the idea of mechanical vocal management.
+Gifted with a fine voice, the natural impulse of any one is to sing. By
+singing naturally the voice is bound to improve.
+
+Just so soon as the student begins to understand the meaning of
+attempted mechanical guidance of the voice, the evil effects of throat
+stiffness begin to be manifest. The more earnest and intelligent
+students are often the worst sufferers from throat stiffness. They more
+readily grasp the mechanical doctrines of modern methods and apply the
+mechanical idea more thoroughly.
+
+There is in reality no problem of tone-production such as the accepted
+theory of Voice Culture propounds. The voice does not require to be
+taught how to act. Tone-production was never thought to involve any
+mechanical problem until the attention of vocalists was turned to the
+mechanical operations of the voice. This dates, roughly speaking, from
+about 1800. Since that time the whole tendency of Voice Culture has been
+mechanical. Nowadays the entire musical world is acquainted with the
+idea that the voice must be directly guided; hardly any one has ever
+heard this belief contradicted. To say that the voice needs no guidance
+other than the ear would seem utterly preposterous to the average lover
+of singing. It is even highly probable that this statement would not be
+understood. Yet there is strong evidence that the old Italian masters
+would have had equal difficulty in grasping the idea of mechanical vocal
+management. How long it will take for the vocal profession to be
+persuaded of the error of the mechanical idea only the future can
+determine.
+
+Probably the most important fact about vocal training is the following:
+The voice is benefited by producing beautiful tones, and is injured by
+producing harsh sounds. A tone of perfect beauty can be sung only when
+the vocal organs are free from unnecessary tension. The nearer the tones
+approach to the perfection of beauty, the closer does the voice come to
+the correct action. Healthy exercise of the voice, with the throat free
+from strain, strengthens and develops the throat muscles. Harsh and
+unmusical sounds, produced by the voice, indicate that the throat is in
+a condition of injurious tension. Singing under these circumstances
+strains and weakens the muscles of the throat and injures the voice.
+The harsher the tones the worse they are for the voice.
+
+Beauty of tone is the only criterion of the correct vocal action. By
+listening to himself the singer may know whether his tone-production is
+correct. If the tones are beautiful the tone-production cannot be wrong.
+The ear must always decide. A normally constituted ear instinctively
+delights in hearing beautiful sounds. While attentive listening renders
+the ear more keen and discriminating, no vocal student of average gifts
+need be told the meaning of tonal beauty.
+
+Instinct prompts the possessor of a fine natural voice and a musical ear
+to sing, and to sing beautiful tones. No normally constituted student
+can take pleasure in the practice of mechanical exercises. This form of
+study is repugnant to the musical sensibility. Vocal students want to
+sing; they feel instinctively that the practice of mechanical exercises
+is not singing. A prominent exponent of mechanical instruction
+complains: "I tell them to take breathing exercises three times a
+day--but they all want to go right to singing songs." (_Werner's
+Magazine_, April, 1899.) These students are perfectly right. They know
+instinctively that the voice can be trained only by singing. There is no
+connection between artistic singing and the practice of toneless
+breathing exercises. "Five finger drills" and studies in broken scales
+of the types generally used are also utterly unmusical. Mechanical
+drills, whether toneless or vocal, have little effect other than to
+induce throat stiffness.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+IMITATION THE RATIONAL BASIS OF VOICE CULTURE
+
+
+It is generally assumed by vocal theorists that the voice cannot be
+trained by imitation. Browne and Behnke state this belief definitely:
+"Singing cannot be learned exclusively by imitation." (_Voice, Song, and
+Speech._) Having ascertained the futility of the attempt to teach
+singing mechanically, it is now in order to determine the truth or
+falsity of the statement that the exercise of the imitative faculty
+alone does not suffice for the training of the voice.
+
+In the first place, no one has ever thought of questioning the existence
+of an instinct of vocal imitation. On the contrary, this instinct is
+everywhere recognized. In childhood we learn to speak our mother tongue
+by imitating the speech of those about us. "Talking proper does not set
+in till the instinct to _imitate sounds_ ripens in the nervous system."
+(_The Principles of Psychology_, Wm. James, New York, 1890.)
+
+Vocal imitation would be impossible without the ability of the voice to
+produce sounds in obedience to the commands of the ear. This ability the
+voice normally possesses; spoken language could not otherwise exist. The
+voice can imitate a wide range of sounds. If the perfect vocal tone can
+be shown to be included in this range of sounds, then the voice can be
+trained by imitation.
+
+Exceptional powers of vocal imitation are sometimes developed.
+Vaudeville performers are by no means rare who can imitate the tones of
+the oboe, the clarinet, the muted trumpet, and several other
+instruments. Imitation of the notes and songs of birds is also a
+familiar type of performance. This peculiar gift of imitation results in
+each case from some special structure of the vocal organs. One performer
+can imitate the reed instruments, another the lighter brasses, and so
+on. Just what peculiar formation of the vocal organs is required for
+this type of imitative ability need not be inquired here. All that need
+be noted is, that the vocal organs must be so constructed as to be able
+to produce the particular quality of sound. Given this natural ability
+on the part of the vocal organs, the power to produce the tone quality
+is developed by repeated attempts at imitation. The possessor of the
+natural gift perfects this gift by practice. For practice in the
+imitation of sounds to be effective it is necessary that the ear be well
+acquainted with the tone quality to be reproduced. In addition, the
+practice must be guided by the performer listening closely to the sounds
+produced by the vocal organs, and constantly comparing these sounds to
+the tones of the instrument chosen for imitation.
+
+This vocal imitation of instruments is not a normal ability; the tones
+of the oboe and trumpet do not lie within the range of qualities native
+to the normal voice. But the quality of the perfect vocal tone is
+unquestionably within the range of every voice so constituted as to be
+capable of artistic singing. A fine natural voice normally produces
+beautiful tones. It is only with this type of voice that Voice Culture
+is concerned. Such a voice must be capable of producing the perfect
+vocal tone. Can it learn to produce this quality of tone by imitation?
+
+It cannot be questioned that the faulty tones of one voice can readily
+be imitated by another voice. Any one endowed with normal powers of
+speech can imitate a markedly nasal speaking voice. This is equally true
+of a nasal tone in singing, and of a strongly throaty tone as well. The
+more marked the fault of production the more readily it is heard and the
+more easily it can be imitated.
+
+Let us imagine the case of a vocal teacher who undertakes to teach a
+gifted pupil by having the pupil imitate tones of faulty production, and
+gradually correcting the faults in the tones sung as a model for the
+pupil. The master is of course understood to have perfect command of his
+own voice. Suppose this master to begin the course of instruction by
+singing for the pupil tones of exaggerated throaty quality, and bidding
+the pupil to imitate these tones. Naturally, the pupil would have no
+difficulty in doing so. At the next lesson the master would very
+slightly improve the quality of the tones sung as a model for the
+pupil's imitation. The student would listen to these tones and model his
+daily practice accordingly. Just so soon as the student had succeeded in
+correctly reproducing this slightly less throaty tone the master would
+again set a slightly improved model.
+
+With each successive step the master might eliminate, one by one, the
+faults of his own tone-production. Following the same course, the pupil
+would also gradually approach a correct model of tone. Finally, all the
+faults of tone-production having been corrected, both of master and
+pupil, the latter would be called upon to imitate perfect vocal tones.
+It would necessarily follow either that the student would successfully
+imitate the master's perfect tones or that at some point in this
+progress the student's imitative faculty would be found lacking.
+
+Could any point be located at which the student would be unable to
+imitate the teacher's voice? This could certainly not be in the early
+stages of the course. Any one can imitate a very bad throaty or nasal
+tone. This being done, the imitation of a slightly less faulty tone
+would also present no difficulty. A second improvement in the master's
+model tone would again be readily imitated, and so on, with each
+succeeding correction of the faults of production. When the last trace
+of faulty production in the student's voice had been eliminated, he
+would be singing perfect tones. It is utterly impossible to define a
+point in this progress at which the pupil would be unable to imitate the
+teacher's voice. If a bad fault of production can be imitated, so can a
+comparatively slight fault. Further, if the pupil can correct his
+pronounced faulty production by imitating a tone not quite so faulty, so
+can he improve upon this tone by imitating a still better model of
+production. This process of gradual improvement by imitation must be
+capable of continuation until the last fault is eliminated. No limit can
+be set to the ability of the voice to improve its manner of
+tone-production by imitation. It must therefore be concluded that the
+perfect vocal action can be acquired by imitation.
+
+In practical Voice Culture, learning to sing by imitation means simply
+the cultivation of the sense of hearing and the guidance of the voice by
+the ear. In other words, those vocal theorists who insist upon ear
+training commit themselves to the theory of imitative Voice Culture.
+What necessity is there of mechanical management of the vocal organs if
+the voice is to be guided by the ear? Even if mechanical management of
+the voice were possible it would be entirely superfluous. The voice
+needs no other guidance than the singer's sense of hearing.
+
+Here another striking question is encountered: Why should the vocal
+organs be thought to be unable to adjust themselves for the tone quality
+demanded by the ear any more than for the pitch? No vocal theorist has
+ever thought to formulate rules for securing the tension of the vocal
+cords necessary for the desired pitch. This is always left to
+instinctive processes. No one would ever undertake to question the
+voice's ability to sing by imitation a note of any particular pitch.
+What valid reason can be given for denying the corresponding ability
+regarding tone quality?
+
+Only one answer can be made to this question. The whole matter of
+mechanical vocal management rests on pure assumption. No scientific
+proof has ever been sought for the belief that the voice requires
+mechanical management. This necessity is always assumed, but the
+assumption is utterly illogical. The vocal organs adjust themselves for
+the imitation of tone quality by exactly the same psychological
+processes as for the imitation of pitch. Neither pitch nor tone quality
+can be regulated in any other way than by the guidance of the ear.
+
+Imitation furnishes the only means of acquiring the correct vocal
+action. Several authorities on the voice admit the value of imitation,
+even though they also make much of the mechanical doctrines of modern
+methods. Sieber gives imitation as the best means of curing faults of
+production. "The best means to free the student of the three forms of
+faulty tone just described is possessed by that teacher who is able to
+imitate these faults with his own voice." (_Vollständiges Lehrbuch der
+Gesangskunst_, Ferd. Sieber, 1858.) Dr. Mills goes further and advocates
+the imitating of finished singers for the purpose of acquiring the
+correct vocal action. "The author would recommend all students who have
+begun a serious practical study of the registers to hear, if possible,
+some singer of eminence who observes register formation strictly."
+(_Voice Production in Singing and Speaking_, Phila., 1906.) Kofler even
+declares that imitation is an indispensable element of instruction. "It
+is just as difficult or impossible to learn to sing good tones without
+hearing the teacher's pure model tone as it is difficult or impossible
+to learn to speak without hearing." (_The Art of Breathing_, Leo Kofler,
+1889.)
+
+If the correct vocal action is to be acquired by imitation, of what use
+are the mechanical doctrines of vocal management? Kofler seeks to
+combine these two forms of instruction. "Physiological theories must go
+hand in hand with the musical ear or the law of imitation."
+Scientifically considered, this attempted combination of mechanical
+vocal training and instruction by imitation is an utter absurdity. There
+is no possibility of connection between vocal imitation and mechanical
+vocal management. Reliance on the imitative faculty involves the utter
+rejection of the mechanical idea. Compromise, or combination of the two,
+is a logical absurdity. Imitation and attempted mechanical management of
+the voice are absolutely incompatible. Any attempt consciously to direct
+the muscular workings of the vocal organs is an interference with the
+normal action of the voice. So soon as conscious mechanical management
+of the voice is attempted throat stiffness results, and the voice is
+hampered in the exercise of its instinctive faculty of imitation. It is
+impossible to acquire the correct vocal action by the application of
+mechanical rules, because a consistent following of mechanical doctrines
+utterly prevents the vocal organs from operating normally, even though
+the student try at the same time to guide the voice by the sense of
+hearing.
+
+A close scrutiny of the practices of modern vocal teachers reveals
+convincing evidence that all their successes are due to a reliance,
+conscious or unconscious, on the imitative faculty. Teachers are as a
+rule not aware of the appeal to the instinct of imitation; neither
+indeed do the students usually pay much attention to this feature of
+their lessons. Much of modern vocal instruction is dual in character.
+When, for example, the teacher wishes to correct a marked fault in the
+pupil's tone-production, he adopts this dual mode of imparting his
+ideas. First, he explains to the pupil the (supposed) mechanical
+operation; second, he imitates the pupil's faulty production and then
+sings a correct tone to show how it should be produced.
+
+For the teacher to sing the correct tone takes but a few seconds and
+requires almost no thought. The mechanical explanation, on the other
+hand, calls for much more of time, and of voluntary attention, from both
+master and student. It thus follows that they both look upon the
+mechanical rule as the important matter, and consider the teacher's
+perfect tone as merely an illustration of the rule.
+
+In most cases the student strives to apply the mechanical rule,
+particularly in home practice between lessons. Under these circumstances
+the voice does not respond satisfactorily. But it often happens that the
+student pays little attention to the mechanical rule, and simply
+imitates the teacher's voice. There being then nothing to interfere, the
+student's voice naturally responds. The master ascribes this
+satisfactory result to the application of the mechanical doctrine, while
+in fact the result is due to the student's complete ignoring of the
+doctrine.
+
+Vocal imitation is often completely unconscious. Individuals vary
+greatly, as regards the tendency to unconscious imitation. Of two
+English lads coming to America at the age of fifteen, one may be found
+ten years later to have entirely lost the English accent, the other may
+retain it all his life. This difference in individual traits has much
+to do with determining to what extent the vocal student may
+unconsciously imitate correct models of singing. Other characteristics
+are also influential in this regard. Some students so dislike to sing
+mechanically that they neglect, in their home study, to practise their
+exercises in the prescribed way. This is often due to an instinctive
+abhorrence of harsh sounds. Other students are so gifted with the true
+feeling for vocal melody that mechanical instruction makes no impression
+on them.
+
+As a general rule, the reliance on the imitative faculty in modern vocal
+instruction is entirely unconscious on the part of both master and
+pupil. Adherence to the mechanical idea excludes from the student's mind
+all thought of any means of vocal guidance other than mechanical. This
+is true, even in the most common form of instruction, imitation and
+mechanical doctrine combined. As regards the master, his only conscious
+exercise of the imitative faculty is the reproduction of the pupil's
+faulty tones. He seldom thinks of telling the pupil to imitate his own
+correctly produced tones.
+
+Imitation supplies the only practical means for training voices. All the
+elements of Voice Culture are combined in one simple process, when the
+master sings correctly, and the student imitates the master. This
+exercise of the imitative faculty may be made to suffice for both the
+training of the ear and the cultivation of the voice. On practical, as
+well as on scientific grounds, imitation is the only rational basis of a
+method of Voice Culture.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE OLD ITALIAN METHOD
+
+
+To the believer in the necessity of direct mechanical management of the
+voice, the old Italian method is a complete mystery. Modern vocal
+theorists are at a loss to account for the success of the old masters in
+training voices. Many authorities go so far as to assert that these
+masters possessed some insight into the operations of the vocal organs,
+along the lines of accepted Vocal Science. In their introductory
+chapter, "A Plea for Vocal Physiology," Browne and Behnke attempt to
+prove that the old masters studied the anatomy of the vocal organs. But
+even if this could be proved, that would not solve the mystery of the
+old method. Modern teachers are certainly as well acquainted with the
+mechanical features of tone-production as the old masters were. Yet,
+judged by their results, modern methods are distinctly inferior to the
+old Italian method.
+
+There is absolutely no ground for the belief that the old masters owed
+their success to a knowledge of vocal physiology. This idea of ascribing
+scientific knowledge to the early teachers results only from erroneous
+belief that no other means of training the voice is possible. It may be
+set down as absolutely certain that the old method was not based on the
+principles of the accepted Vocal Science.
+
+Yet the old masters undoubtedly possessed some means of training voices.
+They must have known something about the voice. Their knowledge,
+whatever it was, is commonly believed to have been lost. Many modern
+teachers claim to have inherited the old method. Still these teachers
+have nothing to offer beyond the well-known doctrines of breathing,
+breath-control, forward tone, etc. How these doctrines might have been
+applied in practical instruction nobody is able to tell. Little
+attention need be paid to the claim of any modern teacher to possess the
+old Italian method of training voices.
+
+So early as 1847 Garcia remarked the dearth of information of a literary
+character bearing on the old method. "Unfortunately this epoch has left
+us only vague and incomplete documents bearing on its traditions. Of the
+methods then followed we have only an approximate and confused idea."
+(_École de Garcia_, Mayence, 1847.) Although familiar with the works of
+Tosi and Mancini, Garcia was unable to find in their writings any hint
+of the means used for imparting the correct vocal action. This same
+remark is made by many other investigators.
+
+Yet a reconstruction of the old method is not necessarily a matter of
+conjecture. Once the possibility of training the voice by imitation is
+established, the old Italian method is easily understood. Speaking of
+the glorious past of the art of Voice Culture, Dr. Mills says: "We have
+advanced, musically, in many respects since the days of the old Italian
+masters, but just as we must turn to the Greeks to learn what
+constitutes the highest and best in sculpture, so must we sit at the
+feet of these old masters. Consciously or unconsciously they taught on
+sound physiological principles." (_Voice Production in Singing and
+Speaking._)
+
+Dr. Mills' statement might be more complete if it were made to read,
+"consciously or unconsciously they taught on sound physiological and
+psychological principles." Vocal instruction on sound principles is
+simply the training of the voice by imitation. With the scientific basis
+of their method--the laws of physiological psychology--the old masters
+were utterly unacquainted. Vocal imitation is purely instinctive.
+Probably the old masters could not even have formulated a concise
+statement of their reasons for relying on the imitative faculty.
+
+Garcia's complaint of the dearth of literary information regarding the
+old method is by no means justified. Naturally there is no record of any
+means for imparting a direct mechanical management of the voice. Nothing
+of the kind was thought of. But as a description of a course in voice
+training by imitation, the works of Tosi and Mancini leave little to be
+desired.
+
+Both Tosi and Mancini devote by far the greater portion of their books
+to describing the ornaments and embellishments of vocal music. They take
+up the singer's education from the beginning and seem to assume, as a
+matter of course, that the training in the art of music is coincident,
+if not indeed identical, with the cultivation of the voice. But they do
+not by any means neglect the subject of tone-production. Most modern
+readers of these early writers overlook the simple directions given for
+securing a proper use of the voice. This is, of course, due to the
+current belief that directions for vocal management must of necessity
+deal with mechanical and muscular operations. Finding nothing of this
+kind in Tosi and Mancini, the modern investigator concludes that these
+writers for some reason failed to record the means used for imparting
+the correct vocal action. All that can be found by such an investigator
+in the works of Tosi and Mancini is an outline of an elaborate system of
+coloratura singing. Much more is seen when the meaning of imitative
+Voice Culture is understood.
+
+Let us consider first the "Observations" of Tosi. This writer devotes
+his first few pages to some remarks on the art of singing, and to a
+general consideration of the practices of Voice Culture. Almost at the
+outset we meet this striking statement: "It would be needless to say
+that verbal instruction would be of no use to singers any farther than
+to prevent 'em falling into errors, and that it is practice alone can
+set them right." That is certainly a sound principle.
+
+Consider also this passage. "The faults in singing insinuate themselves
+so easily into the minds of young beginners, and there are such
+difficulties in correcting them, when grown into an habit, that it were
+to be wished the ablest singers would undertake the task of teaching,
+they best knowing how to conduct the scholar from the first elements to
+perfection. But there being none (if I mistake not) but who abhor the
+thoughts of it, we must reserve them for those delicacies of the art,
+which enchant the soul. Therefore the first rudiments necessarily fall
+to a master of a lower rank, till the scholar can sing his part at
+sight; whom one would at least wish to be an honest man, diligent and
+experienced, without the defects of singing through the nose, or in the
+throat, and that he have a command of voice, some glimpse of a good
+taste, able to make himself understood with ease, a perfect intonation,
+and a patience to endure the fatigue of a most tiresome employment."
+
+This brings out three striking facts. First, that the student learned to
+use his voice by imitating the voice of the master. Second, that the
+initial work of "voice placing" was merely an incident in the training
+in sight singing and the rudiments of music. Third, that "voice placing"
+was considered of too little importance to claim the attention of
+masters of the first rank. This feature of instruction, so important now
+as to overshadow all else, was at that time left to masters of a lower
+rank.
+
+This passage is followed by a short discourse on the rudiments of _Sol
+Fa_, a subject of only academic interest to the modern student. We are
+so thoroughly accustomed nowadays to the diatonic scale that it is
+almost impossible for us to understand the old system of _Muance_ or
+_Solmisation_. Suffice it to say that only four keys were known, and
+that each note was called by its full Sol-Fa name. Thus D was called
+_D-la-sol-re_, C was _C-sol-fa-ut_, etc. In studying sight singing, the
+student pronounced the full name of each note in every exercise.
+Instruction in singing began with this study of sight reading. In the
+course of this practice the student somehow learned to produce his voice
+correctly.
+
+Tosi does not leave us in doubt what was to be done in order to lead
+the pupil to adopt a correct manner of tone-production. "Let the master
+do his utmost to make the scholar hit and sound the notes perfectly in
+tune in _Sol-Fa-ing_.... Let the master attend with great care to the
+voice of the scholar, which should always come forth neat and clear,
+without passing through the nose or being choaked in the throat." To
+sing in tune and to produce tones of good quality,--this summed up for
+Tosi the whole matter of tone-production.
+
+Many teachers in the old days composed _Sol-Fa_ exercises and vocalises
+for their own use. Tosi did not think this indispensable. But he points
+out the need of the teacher having an extensive repertoire of graded
+exercises and vocalises. To his mind these should always be melodious
+and singable. "If the master does not understand composition let him
+provide himself with good examples of _Sol-Fa-ing_ in divers stiles,
+which insensibly lead from the most easy to the most difficult,
+according as he finds the scholar improves; with this caution, that
+however difficult, they may be always natural and agreeable, to induce
+the scholar to study with pleasure."
+
+How many months of study were supposed to be required for this
+preliminary course we have no means of judging from Tosi's work. At any
+rate the combining of the registers was accomplished during this time.
+Tosi's description of the registers is very concise. "_Voce di Petto_ is
+a full voice which comes from the breast by strength, and is the most
+sonorous and expressive. _Voce di Testa_ comes more from the throat than
+from the breast, and is capable of more volubility. _Falsetto_ is a
+feigned voice which is formed entirely in the throat, has more
+volubility than any, but of no substance." He speaks of the necessity of
+uniting the registers, but gives no directions how this is to be
+accomplished. Evidently this seemed to him to present no difficulty
+whatever.
+
+In this early period of instruction the pupil was exercised in both
+_portamento_ and _messa di voce_. "Let him learn the manner to glide
+with the vowels, and to drag the voice gently from the high to the lower
+note.... In the same lessons let him teach the art to put forth the
+voice, which consists in letting it swell by degrees from the softest
+_Piano_ to the loudest _Forte_, and from thence with the same art return
+from the _Forte_ to the _Piano_. A beautiful _Messa di Voce_ can never
+fail of having an excellent effect."
+
+Only the first chapter of Tosi's book is devoted to this initial study.
+That the student was expected to make steady progress as a result of
+this study is evident from the closing sentence of this chapter. "The
+scholar having now made some remarkable progress, the instructor may
+acquaint him with the first embellishments of the art, which are the
+_Appoggiaturas_, and apply them to the vowels." The remainder of the
+work is devoted almost entirely to the embellishments of singing. Here
+and there an interesting passage is found. "After the scholar has made
+himself perfect in the Shake and the Divisions, the master should let
+him read and pronounce the words." (Shake was the old name for trill,
+and division for run.) Again, "I return to the master only to put him in
+mind that his duty is to teach musick; and if the scholar, before he
+gets out of his hands, does not sing readily and at sight, the innocent
+is injured without remedy from the guilty." This injunction might well
+be taken to heart by the modern teacher. Good sight readers are rare
+nowadays, outside of chorus choirs.
+
+Mancini begins his outline of the course of instruction in singing with
+this striking sentence: "Nothing is more insufferable and more
+inexcusable in a musician than wrong intonation; singing in the throat
+or in the nose will certainly be tolerated rather than singing out of
+tune." This is followed by the advice to the teacher to ascertain beyond
+a doubt that a prospective pupil is endowed with a true musical ear.
+This being done the pupil is to begin his studies by _sol-fa_-ing the
+scales. "Having determined the disposition and capacity of the student
+with respect to intonation, and finding him able and disposed to
+succeed, let him fortify himself in correct intonation by _sol-fa_-ing
+the scale, ascending and descending. This must be executed with
+scrupulous attention in order that the notes may be perfectly intoned."
+
+In this practice the quality of the tone is of the highest importance.
+"The utmost care is necessary with the student to render him able to
+manage this portion of his voice with the proper sweetness and
+proportion." Mancini takes it for granted that the student will progress
+steadily on account of this practice. "When the teacher observes that
+the pupil is sufficiently free in delivering the voice, in intonation,
+and in naming the notes, let him waste no time, but have the pupil
+vocalize without delay."
+
+Regarding the registers, Mancini disagrees with Tosi and names only two.
+"Voices ordinarily divide themselves into two registers which are
+called, one of the chest, the other of the head, or falsetto." His
+method was to exercise the voice at first in the chest register, and
+then gradually to extend the compass of the voice upward. "Every student
+can for himself with perfect ease recognize the difference between these
+two separate registers. It will suffice therefore to commence by singing
+the scale, for example, if a soprano, from G to d;[10] let him take care
+that these five notes are sonorous, and say them with force and
+clearness, and without effort." For uniting the registers, "the most
+certain means is to hold back the tones of the chest and to sing the
+transition notes in the head register, increasing the power little by
+little."
+
+[Note 10: Mancini of course uses the _Sol-Fa_ names of these notes.]
+
+Mancini devotes a few pages to a description of the vocal organs. This
+fact is cited by several modern theorists in support of their statement
+that the old masters based their methods on mechanical principles. In
+the following chapter this topic of Mancini's treatise will be
+considered.
+
+Probably the best summary of the old Italian method offered by any
+modern teacher is contained in a little booklet by J. Frank Botume,
+entitled _Modern Singing Methods_. (Boston, 1885. The citations are from
+the fourth edition, 1896.) Speaking of the meaning of the word method,
+as applied to a system of rules for acquiring the correct vocal action,
+this writer says: "If a teacher says, 'that tone is harsh, sing more
+sweetly,' he has given no method to his pupil. He has asked the scholar
+to change his tone, but has not shown him how to do it. If, on the other
+hand, he directs the pupil to keep back the pressure of the breath, or
+to change the location of the tone; if he instructs him in regard to the
+correct use of his vocal cords, or speaks of the position of his tongue,
+of his diaphragm, of his mouth, etc., he gives him method. The Italian
+teachers of the early period of this art had so little method that it
+can hardly be said to have existed with them. In fact, the word method,
+as now used, is of comparatively modern origin. The founders of the art
+of singing aimed at results directly; the manner of using the vocal
+apparatus for the purpose of reaching these results troubled them
+comparatively little. The old Italian teacher took the voice as he found
+it. He began with the simplest and easiest work, and trusted to patient
+and long-continued exercise to develop the vocal apparatus. In all this
+there is no method as we understand the term. The result is aimed at
+directly. The manner of getting it is not shown. There is no conscious
+control of the vocal apparatus for the purpose of effecting a certain
+result."
+
+This sums up beautifully the external aspects of the old Italian method,
+and of modern methods as well. It points out clearly the difference
+between the old and the modern system. But it is a mistake to say that
+the old masters followed no systematized plan of instruction. Tosi's
+advice, already quoted ("Let the master provide himself with examples of
+Sol-fa, leading insensibly from the easy to the difficult," etc.), shows
+a thorough grasp of the meaning of methodical instruction. Once the real
+nature of vocal training is understood, both Tosi and Mancini are seen
+to describe a well worked out system of Voice Culture. The only
+important difference between the old and the new system is this: one
+relied on instinctive and imitative processes for imparting the correct
+vocal action, the other seeks to accomplish the same result through the
+mechanical management of the vocal organs. In this regard the advantage
+is all on the side of the old Italian method.
+
+One question regarding the old method remains to be answered. This has
+to do with the use of the empirical precepts in practical instruction.
+So far as the written record goes we have no means of answering this
+question. Neither Tosi nor Mancini mentions the old precepts in any way.
+The answer can therefore be only conjectural. We may at once dismiss the
+idea that the old masters used the precepts in the currently accepted
+manner as rules for the mechanical management of the voice. This
+application of the empirical precepts followed upon the acceptance of
+the idea of mechanical voice culture.
+
+A fine description of perfect singing, considered empirically, was found
+to be embodied in the traditional precepts. Such a description of
+correctly produced tone might be of great value in the training of the
+ear. The sense of hearing is developed by listening; and attentive
+listening is rendered doubly effective in the singer's education by the
+attention being consciously directed to particular characteristics of
+the sounds observed.
+
+A highly important aspect of ear training in Voice Culture is the
+acquainting the student with the highest standards of singing. The
+student derives a double advantage from listening to artistic singing
+when he knows what to listen for. Telling the student that in perfect
+singing the throat seems to be open makes him keenly attentive in
+observing this characteristic sound of the correctly produced tone. This
+seems to be the most effective manner of utilizing the empirical
+precepts. A student may be helped in imitating correct models of singing
+by knowing what characteristics of the tones it is most important to
+reproduce. In pointing out to the student his own faults of production,
+the judicious use of the precepts might also be of considerable value.
+Probably the old masters treated the precepts about in this fashion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE DISAPPEARANCE OF THE OLD ITALIAN METHOD AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF
+MECHANICAL INSTRUCTION
+
+
+One of the most mysterious facts in the history of Voice Culture is the
+utter disappearance of the old Italian method. This has occurred in
+spite of the earnest efforts of vocal teachers to preserve the old
+traditions. If the conclusions drawn in the preceding chapter are
+justified, the old method consisted of a system of teaching singing by
+imitation. Assuming this to be true, there should now be no difficulty
+in accounting for the disappearance of the imitative method by tracing
+the development of the mechanical idea.
+
+Imitative Voice Culture was purely empirical in the ordinary meaning of
+this word. The old masters did not knowingly base their instruction on
+any set of principles. They simply taught as their instincts prompted
+them. There can now be no doubt that the old masters were fully
+justified in their empiricism. They taught singing as Nature intends it
+to be taught. But the old masters were not aware of the scientific
+soundness of their position. So soon as the correctness of empirical
+teaching was questioned they abandoned it without an attempt at defense.
+As a system of Voice Culture, the old method occupied a weak strategic
+position. With absolute right on its side, it still had no power of
+resistance against hostile influences.
+
+This does not imply that the old masters were ignorant men. On the
+contrary, the intellectual standard of the vocal profession seems to
+have been fully as high two hundred years ago as to-day. Even famous
+composers and musical theorists did not disdain to teach singing. But
+this very fact, the generally high culture of the old masters, was an
+important factor in the weakness of the old method against attack. The
+most intelligent masters were the ones most likely to abandon the
+empirical system in favor of supposedly scientific and precise methods
+of instruction.
+
+The hostile influence to which the old Italian method succumbed was the
+idea of mechanical vocal management. This idea entered almost
+imperceptibly into the minds of vocal teachers in the guise of a
+scientific theory of Voice Culture. A short historical sketch will bring
+this fact out clearly. This necessitates a repetition of some of the
+material of Chapter I of Part I; the entire subject will however appear
+in a new light now that the true nature of the mechanical idea is
+understood.
+
+From the founding of the art of Voice Culture, about 1600, up to 1741,
+no vocalist seems to have paid any attention to the anatomy or muscular
+movements of the vocal organs. In 1741 a French physician, Ferrein,
+presented to the Academy of Sciences a treatise on the anatomy of the
+vocal organs, entitled "De la Formation de la Voix de l'Homme." This
+treatise was published in the same year, and it seems to have attracted
+at once the attention of the most enlightened masters of singing. That
+Ferrein was the first to call the attention of vocalists to the
+mechanical features of tone-production is strongly indicated in the
+German translation of Tosi's "Observations." In the original Italian
+edition, 1723, and the English translation, 1742, there is absolutely no
+mention of the anatomy or physiology of the vocal organs. But in
+preparing the German edition, published in 1757, the translator, J. F.
+Agricola, inserted a description of the vocal organs which he credited
+directly to Ferrein.
+
+Mancini followed Agricola's example, and included in this "Riflessioni"
+(1776) a brief description of the vocal organs. But Mancini made no
+attempt to apply this description in formulating a system of
+instruction. He recommends the parents of a prospective singer to
+ascertain, by a physician's examination, that the child's vocal organs
+are normal and in good health. He also gives one mechanical rule, so
+obvious as to seem rather quaint. "Every singer must place his mouth in
+a natural smiling position, that is, with the upper teeth
+perpendicularly and moderately removed from the lower." Beyond this
+Mancini says not a word of mechanical vocal management. There is no
+mention of breathing, or tone reflection, or laryngeal action. Although
+Mancini borrowed his description of the vocal organs from Ferrein, his
+notion of the mechanics of tone-production was very crude. "The air of
+the lungs operates on the larynx in singing exactly as it operates on
+the head of the flute."
+
+Voice Culture has passed through three successive periods. From 1600 to
+1741 instruction in singing was purely empirical. Ferrein's treatise may
+be said to mark the beginning of a transition period during which
+empirical instruction was gradually displaced by so-called scientific
+methods. This transition period lasted, roughly speaking, till the
+invention of the laryngoscope in 1855. Since that time vocal instruction
+has been carried on almost exclusively along mechanical lines.
+
+No vocal teacher had ever heard of a problem of tone-production previous
+to 1741, and indeed for many years thereafter. The earlier masters were
+not aware of any possibility of difficulty in causing the voice to
+operate properly. Their success justified their ignoring of any
+mechanical basis of instruction; but even of this justification the
+later masters of the old school were only dimly conscious. They builded
+better than they knew. When any teacher of the transition period was
+called upon to explain his manner of imparting the correct vocal action
+he was at once put on the defensive. No champion of the imitative
+faculty could be found. This lack of understanding of the basis of the
+empirical method, on the part of its most intelligent and successful
+exponents, was the first cause of the weakness of this method against
+attack.
+
+Another source of weakness in the hold of empirical systems on the vocal
+profession was seen in the generally high intellectual standard of the
+more prominent teachers. These masters gladly accepted the new knowledge
+of the basis of their art, offered them in the description of the vocal
+organs. Thoroughly conversant with every detail of the empirical
+knowledge of the voice, the masters of the transition period were well
+prepared to understand something of the mechanical features of
+tone-production. By their auditory and muscular sensations of vocal tone
+they were able, to their own satisfaction at least, to verify the
+statements of the anatomists.
+
+It is not easy for us to put ourselves mentally in the position of a
+vocalist, thoroughly familiar with the empirical knowledge of the voice,
+and yet ignorant of the first principles of vocal mechanics. In all
+probability the early masters were not even aware that tone is produced
+by the action of the breath on the larynx. They did not know that
+different qualities and pitches result from special adjustments and
+contractions of the throat muscles. Yet they were keenly aware of all
+the muscular sensations resulting from these contractions. We can well
+imagine how interesting these vocalists of the early transition period
+must have found the description of the cartilages and muscles of the
+throat.
+
+It seems to us but a short step from the study of vocal mechanics to the
+application of the results of this study in the formulating of a
+practical system of vocal instruction. Yet it required more than sixty
+years for the vocal profession to travel so far. Even then the true
+bearing of this development of Voice Culture was but dimly realized. In
+1800 the mechanical management of the voice was not even thought of.
+This is conclusively proved by a most important work, the _Méthode de
+Chant du Conservatoire de Musique_, published in Paris in 1803.
+
+There can be no question that this Méthode represents the most
+enlightened and advanced thought of the vocal profession of that day.
+Not only does it contain everything then known about the training of the
+voice; it was drawn up with the same exhaustive care and analytical
+attention to detail that were devoted to the formulation of the metric
+system. To mechanical rules less than one page is devoted. Respiration
+is the only subject to receive more than a few lines. A system of
+breathing with flat abdomen and high chest is outlined, and the student
+is instructed to practise breathing exercises daily. Five lines are
+contained in the chapter headed "De l'emission du son," and these five
+lines are simply a warning against throaty and nasal _quality_. The
+pupil is told to stand erect, and to open the mouth properly. But a
+foot-note is given to the rule for the position of the mouth which shows
+how thoroughly the mechanical rule was subordinated to considerations of
+tone quality. "As there is no rule without exceptions, we think it
+useful to observe at what opening of the mouth the pupil produces the
+most agreeable, sonorous, and pure quality of tone in order to have him
+always open the mouth in that manner." In the main the Méthode outlines
+a purely empirical system of instruction, based on the guidance of the
+voice by the ear. There can be no question that the idea of mechanical
+management of the voice was introduced later than 1803.
+
+Citations might be made to show the gradual advance of the mechanical
+idea from two interesting works, _Die Kunst des Gesanges_, by Adolph B.
+Marx, Berlin, 1826, and _Die grosse italienische Gesangschule_, by H. F.
+Mannstein, Dresden, 1834. But this is not necessary. It is enough to say
+that Scientific Voice Culture was not generally thought to be identical
+with mechanical vocal management until later than 1855.
+
+Manuel Garcia was the first vocal teacher to undertake to found a
+practical method of instruction on the mechanical principles of the
+vocal action. When only twenty-seven years old, in 1832, Garcia
+determined to reform the practices of Voice Culture by furnishing an
+improved method of instruction. (_Grove's Dictionary._) His first
+definite pronouncement of this purpose is contained in the preface to
+his _École de Garcia_, 1847. "As all the effects of song are, in the
+last analysis, the product of the vocal organs, I have submitted the
+study to physiological considerations." This statement of Garcia's idea
+of scientific instruction strikes us as a commonplace. But that serves
+only to prove how thoroughly the world has since been converted to the
+idea of mechanical Voice Culture. At that time it was generally believed
+to be a distinct advance. Garcia expected to bring about a great
+improvement in the art of Voice Culture. His idea was that the voice can
+be trained in less time and with greater certainty by mechanical than by
+imitative methods. As for the inherent falsity of this idea, that has
+been sufficiently exposed.
+
+So soon as the theory of mechanical vocal management began to find
+acceptance, the old method yielded the ground to the new idea. That this
+occurred so easily was due to a number of causes. Of these several have
+already been noted,--the readiness of the most prominent teachers to
+broaden their field of knowledge, in particular. Other causes
+contributing to the acceptance of the mechanical idea were the elusive
+character of empirical knowledge of the voice, and the unconscious
+aspect of the instinct of vocal imitation. No master of the later
+transition period deliberately discarded his empirical knowledge. This
+could have been possible only by the master losing his sense of hearing.
+Neither did the master cease to rely on the imitative faculty. Although
+unconsciously exercised, that was a habit too firmly fixed to be even
+intentionally abandoned.
+
+Public opinion also had much to do with the spread of the mechanical
+idea. Teachers found that they could get pupils easier by claiming to
+understand the mechanical workings of the voice. In order to obtain
+recognition, teachers were obliged to study vocal mechanics and to adapt
+their methods to the growing demand for scientific instruction.
+
+No master of this period seems to have intentionally abandoned the
+traditional method. Their first purpose in adopting the new scientific
+idea was to elucidate and fortify the old method. Every successful
+master undoubtedly taught many pupils who in their turn became teachers.
+There must have been, in each succession of master and pupil, one
+teacher who failed to transmit the old method in its entirety. Both
+master and pupil must have been unconscious of this. No master can be
+believed to have deliberately withheld any of his knowledge from his
+pupils. Neither can any student have been aware that he failed to
+receive his master's complete method.
+
+Let us consider a typical instance of master and pupil in the later
+transition period. Instruction in this case was probably of a dual
+character. Both teacher and pupil devoted most of their attention to the
+mechanical features of tone-production. Yet the master continued to
+listen closely to the student's voice, just as he had done before
+adopting the (supposedly) scientific idea of instruction. Unconsciously
+he led the pupil to listen and imitate. When the student found it
+difficult to apply the mechanical instruction the master would say,
+"Listen to me and do as I do." Naturally this would bring the desired
+result. Yet both master and pupil would attribute the result to the
+application of the mechanical rule. The student's voice would be
+successfully trained, but he would carry away an erroneous idea of the
+means by which this was accomplished. Becoming a teacher in his turn,
+the vocalist taught in this fashion would entirely overlook the
+unobtrusive element of imitation and would devote himself to mechanical
+instruction. He would, for example, construe the precept, "Sing with
+open throat," as a rule to be directly applied; that he had acquired the
+open throat by imitating his master's tones this teacher would be
+utterly unaware.
+
+More than one generation of master and pupil was probably concerned, in
+each succession, in the gradual loss of the substance of the old method.
+The possibility of learning to sing by imitation was only gradually lost
+to sight. This is well expressed by Paolo Guetta. "The aphorism 'listen
+and imitate,' which was the device of the ancient school, coming down by
+way of tradition, underwent the fate of all sane precepts passed along
+from generation to generation. Through elimination and individual
+adaptation, through assuming the personal imprint, it degenerated into a
+purely empirical formula." (_Il Canto nel suo Mecanismo_, Milan, 1902.)
+
+Guetta is himself evidently at a loss to grasp the significance of the
+empirical formula, "Listen and imitate." He seems however to be aware of
+an antagonism between imitation and mechanical vocal management. The
+reason of this antagonism has already been noticed, but it will bear
+repetition. For a teacher to tell a pupil to "hold your throat open and
+imitate my tone," is to demand the impossible. A conscious effort
+directly to hold the throat open only causes the throat to stiffen. In
+this condition the normal action of the voice is upset and the pupil
+cannot imitate the teacher's voice.
+
+This was the condition confronting the teacher of the second generation
+in the "maestral succession" just considered. He found his pupils unable
+to get with their voices the results which had come easily to him.
+Attributing his satisfactory progress as a student to the mastery of the
+supposed mechanical principles of tone-production, this teacher ascribed
+his pupil's difficulties to their failure to grasp the same mechanical
+ideas. As a natural consequence he labored even more energetically along
+mechanical lines. Curiously, no teacher seems to have questioned the
+soundness of the mechanical idea. Failure on the part of the pupil to
+obtain the correct use of the voice served only to make the master more
+insistent on mechanical exercises.
+
+In direct proportion to the prominence given to the idea of mechanical
+management of the voice, the difficulties of teachers and students
+became ever more pronounced. The trouble caused by throat stiffness led
+the teachers to seek new means for imparting the correct vocal action,
+always along mechanical lines. In this way the progress of the
+mechanical idea was accelerated, and the problem of tone-production
+received ever more attention.
+
+Faith in the imitative faculty was gradually undermined by the progress
+of the mechanical idea. With each succeeding generation of master and
+pupil, the mechanical idea became more firmly established. Something
+akin to a vicious circle was involved in this progress. As attention was
+paid in practical instruction to the mechanical operations of the voice,
+so the voice's instinctive power of imitation was curtailed by throat
+stiffness. This served to make more pressing the apparent need of means
+for the mechanical management of the voice. Thus the mechanical idea
+found ever new arguments in its favor, based always on the difficulties
+itself had caused.
+
+It is impossible to assign a precise date to the disappearance of the
+old Italian method. The last exponent of the old traditions was
+Francesco Lamperti, who retired from active teaching in 1876. Yet even
+Lamperti finally yielded, in theory at least, to the mechanical idea. In
+the closing years of his active life as a teacher (1875 and 1876),
+Lamperti wrote a book descriptive of his method, _A Treatise on the Art
+of Singing_ (translated into English by J. C. Griffith and published by
+Ed. Schuberth & Co., New York). When this work was about ready for the
+press, Lamperti read Dr. Mandl's _Gesundheitslehre der Stimme_,
+containing the first definite statement of the opposed-muscular-action
+theory of breath-control. At the last moment Lamperti inserted a note in
+his book to signify his acceptance of this theory.
+
+Vocal mechanics was at first studied by teachers of singing as a matter
+of purely academic interest. No insufficiency of imitative teaching had
+ever been felt. Teachers of the transition period, even so late probably
+as 1830, had in most cases no reason to be dissatisfied with their
+methods of instruction. Garcia himself started out modestly enough to
+place the traditional method, received from his father, on a definite
+basis. His first idea, announced in the preface to the first edition of
+his _École de Garcia_, was to "reproduce my father's method, attempting
+only to give it a more theoretical form, and to connect results with
+causes."
+
+Interest in the mechanics of the voice continued to be almost entirely
+academic until the invention of the laryngoscope in 1855. Then the
+popular note was struck. The marvelous industrial and scientific
+progress of the preceding fifty years had prepared the world to demand
+advancement in methods of teaching singing, as in everything else. When
+the secrets of the vocal action were laid bare, a new and better method
+of teaching singing was at once expected. Within very few years
+scientific knowledge of the voice was demanded of every vocal teacher.
+
+Nothing could well be more natural than a belief in the efficacy of
+scientific knowledge of the vocal organs as the basis of instruction in
+singing. Surely no earnest investigator of the voice can be criticized
+for adopting this belief. No one ever thought of questioning the
+soundness of the new scientific idea. The belief was everywhere
+accepted, as a matter of course, that methods of instruction in singing
+were about to be vastly improved. Vocal theorists spoke confidently of
+discovering means for training the voice in a few months of study. The
+singer's education under the old system had demanded from four to seven
+years; science was expected to revolutionize this, and to accomplish in
+months what had formerly required years.
+
+Even then tone-production was not seen to be a distinct problem. The old
+imitative method was still successfully followed. No one thought of
+discarding the traditional method, but only of improving it by reducing
+it to scientific principles. But that could not last. Soon after the
+attempt began to be made to manage the voice mechanically,
+tone-production was found to contain a real problem. This was of course
+due to the introduction of throat stiffness.
+
+From that time on (about 1860 to 1865), the problem of tone-production
+has become steadily more difficult of solution in each individual case.
+This problem has been, since 1865, the one absorbing topic of Voice
+Culture. Probably the most unfortunate single fact in the history of
+Voice Culture is that scientific study of the voice was from the
+beginning confined solely to the mechanical features of tone-production.
+Had scientific investigators turned their attention also to the analysis
+of the auditory impressions of vocal tones, and to the psychological
+aspect of tone-production, scientific instruction in singing would
+probably not have been identified with mechanical management of the
+voice. All the subsequent difficulties of the vocal profession would
+almost certainly have been avoided.
+
+Every attempt at a solution of the problem of tone-production has been
+made along strictly mechanical lines. Attention has been devoted solely
+to the anatomy and physiology of the vocal organs, and to the acoustic
+principles of the vocal action. Since 1865 hardly a year has passed
+without some important contribution to the sum of knowledge of the vocal
+mechanism. For many years this development of Vocal Science was eagerly
+followed by the vocal teachers. Any seemingly authoritative announcement
+of a new theory of the voice was sure to bring its reward in an
+immediate influx of earnest students. Prominent teachers made it their
+practice to spend their vacations in studying with the famous
+specialists and investigators. Each new theory of the vocal action was
+at once put into practice, or at any rate this attempt was made. Yet
+each new attempt brought only a fresh disappointment. The mystery of the
+voice was only deepened with each successive failure at solution.
+
+A review in detail of the development of Vocal Science would be of only
+academic interest. Very little of practical moment would probably be
+added to the outline of modern methods contained in Part I.
+
+Teachers of singing at present evince an attitude of skepticism toward
+new theories of the vocal action. Voice Culture has settled along
+well-established lines. In the past fifteen years little change can be
+noted in the practices of vocal teachers. The mechanical idea is so
+firmly established that no question is ever raised as to its scientific
+soundness. Under the limitations imposed by this erroneous idea,
+teachers do their best to train the voices entrusted to their care.
+
+Vocal Science is of vastly less importance in modern Voice Culture than
+the world in general supposes. Only an imaginary relation has ever
+existed between the scientific knowledge of the voice and practical
+methods of instruction. To cause the summits of the arytenoid
+cartilages, for example, to incline toward each other is entirely beyond
+the direct power of the singer. How many similar impossibilities have
+been seriously advocated can be known only to the academic student of
+Vocal Science. Vocal teachers in general have ceased to attempt any such
+application of the doctrines of Vocal Science. Even if these doctrines
+could be shown to be scientifically sound it would still be impossible
+to devise means for applying them to the management of the voice.
+Accepted Vocal Science has contributed only one element of the practical
+scheme of modern voice culture; this is the erroneous notion that the
+vocal organs require to be managed mechanically.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE MATERIALS OF RATIONAL INSTRUCTION IN SINGING
+
+
+Practical methods of instruction in singing may be judged by their
+results fully as well as by a scientific analysis of their basic
+principles. If the progress of the art of singing in the past fifty
+years has been commensurate with the amount of study devoted to the
+operations of the vocal mechanism, then the value of present methods is
+established. Otherwise the need is proved for some reform in the present
+system of training voices. Judged by this standard modern methods are
+not found to be satisfactory. There has been no progress in the art of
+singing; exactly the contrary is the case. A prominent vocalist goes so
+far as to say that "vocal insufficiency and decay are prevalent." (_The
+Singing of the Future_, D. Frangçon-Davies, M.A., 1906.) It is perhaps
+an exaggeration of the condition to call it "insufficiency and decay."
+Yet a gradual decline in the art of singing must be apparent to any
+lover of the art who has listened to most of the famous singers of the
+past twenty or twenty-five years. Operatic performance has been improved
+in every other respect, but pure singing, the perfection of the vocal
+art, has become almost a rarity. This is true not only of coloratura
+singing; it applies with almost equal force to the use of the singing
+voice for the purpose of dramatic and emotional expression.
+
+Musical critics are beginning to comment on the decline of singing. They
+seek naturally for the causes of this decline. Many influences are cited
+by different writers, each of which has undoubtedly contributed
+something toward lowering the present standard of singing. Most
+influential among these contributing causes, in the general opinion, is
+the dramatic style of singing demanded in Wagner's later operas. Yet
+several writers point out that the rôles of Tristan, Brunnhilde, etc.,
+are vastly more effective when well sung than when merely shouted or
+declaimed. A change in the public taste is also spoken of. Audiences are
+said to be indifferent to the older operas, written to suit the style of
+florid singing. But even this statement does not pass unchallenged. A
+prominent critic asserts that "the world is still hungry" for florid
+singing. "It is altogether likely," continues this writer, "that
+composers would begin to write florid works again if they were assured
+of competent interpretation, for there is always a public eager for
+music of this sort." This critic asserts that the decline of coloratura
+singing is due to the indifference of the artists themselves to this
+style of singing.
+
+Still another commentator ascribes the decline of pure singing in recent
+years to the rise of a new school of dramatic interpretation among the
+younger operatic artists. "Nowadays it is not the singing that counts.
+It is the interpretation; and the chances are there will be more and
+more interpretation and less and less singing every year." Even this
+view has its limitations. Faithful dramatic interpretation, and
+attention to all the details of make-up and "business," are not in any
+way antagonistic to pure singing. One of the most potent means of
+emotional expression is vocal tone color. But the skilful use of
+expressive tone quality is possible only to a singer possessed of a
+perfect command of all the resources of the voice. Many vocal
+shortcomings are forgiven in the singer of convincing interpretive
+power. This is probably an important factor in influencing the younger
+generation of artists to devote so much attention to interpretation.
+
+More important than any of the reasons just given to account for the
+present state of the art of singing, is the decline in the art of
+training voices. The prospects of an improvement in the art of Voice
+Culture, imagined by the early investigators of the vocal mechanism,
+have not been realized. Voice Culture has not progressed in the past
+sixty years. Exactly the contrary has taken place. Before the
+introduction of mechanical methods every earnest vocal student was sure
+of learning to use his voice properly, and of developing the full
+measure of his natural endowments. Mechanical instruction has upset all
+this. Nowadays the successful vocal student is the exception. Even those
+students who succeed in acquiring sufficient command of their voices to
+win public acceptance are unable to master the finest points of vocal
+technique.
+
+Perfect singing is becoming rare, mainly because the technical mastery
+of the voice cannot be acquired under modern methods of instruction.
+These methods have been found unsatisfactory in every way. A change must
+be made in the practices of Voice Culture; its present state cannot be
+regarded as permanent. Modern methods are not truly scientific. There is
+at present no justification for the belief that the art of Voice Culture
+is founded an assured scientific principles. This does not by any means
+invalidate the idea that Voice Culture is properly a subject for
+scientific regulation. Modern methods are unsatisfactory only because
+they do not conform to the fundamental laws of science. In order to
+erect a satisfactory art of Voice Culture it is necessary only that the
+art be brought into conformity with scientific principles.
+
+No sweeping reform of modern methods is called for. A thorough
+application of scientific principles in the training of voices demands
+only one thing,--the abandonment of the idea of mechanical vocal
+management. This is not a backward step; on the contrary, it means a
+distinct advance. Once freed from the burden of the mechanical idea, the
+art of Voice Culture will be in position to advance, even beyond the
+ideals of the old masters.
+
+Nothing could well be simpler than the dropping of the mechanical idea.
+It was pointed out in the review of modern methods that most of the time
+spent in giving and taking lessons is devoted to actual singing by the
+student. This is exactly what rational instruction means. Were it not
+for the evil influence of the mechanical idea, the results of present
+instruction would in most cases be satisfactory. It is only in
+consequence of the attention paid to the mechanical workings of the
+vocal organs that throat stiffness is interposed between the ear and the
+voice. Let the mechanical idea be dropped, and instruction may be
+carried on exactly as at present. There will be only one marked
+difference,--throat stiffness will cease to be a source of difficulty.
+
+It is for the individual teacher to change his own practices. This could
+be done so easily that students would hardly note a change in the form
+of instruction. Simply call the pupil's attention always to the quality
+of the tones, and never to the throat. Cease to talk of breathing and of
+laryngeal action, and these subjects will never suggest themselves to
+the student's mind. Continue to have the student sing vocalises, scales,
+songs, and arias, just as at present. Teach the student to listen
+closely to his own voice, and familiarize him with correct models of
+singing. This covers the whole ground of rational Voice Culture.
+
+It is a great mistake to suppose that a vocal student comes to the
+teacher with a definite idea of the need of direct vocal management.
+Several months of study are required before the student begins to grasp
+the teacher's idea of mechanical management of the voice. Even then the
+student rarely comes to a clear understanding of the mechanical idea. In
+the great majority of cases the student never gets beyond the vague
+notion that he must "do something" to bring the tones. Yet this vague
+idea is enough to keep his attention constantly directed to his vocal
+organs, and so to hamper their normal activity. So soon as a teacher
+drops the mechanical idea, his pupils will not think of their throats,
+nor demand mechanical instruction. There will be no need of his
+cautioning his pupils not to pay attention to the muscular workings of
+the vocal organs. No vocal student ever would do this were the practice
+not demanded in modern methods.
+
+At first thought it may seem that for a teacher to drop all mechanical
+instruction would leave a great gap in his method. How is the correct
+vocal action to be imparted to the pupil if not by direct instruction to
+this end? This question has already been answered in preceding chapters,
+but the answer may well be repeated. The correct vocal action is
+naturally and instinctively adopted by the voice without any attention
+being paid to the operations of the vocal mechanism. It is necessary
+only that the student sing his daily exercises and listen to his voice.
+The voice's own instinct will lead it gradually to the perfect action.
+Nothing need be substituted for mechanical instruction. Present methods
+of Voice Culture will be in every way complete, they will leave nothing
+to be desired, when the mechanical idea is abandoned. This change in the
+character of vocal instruction will not be in any sense a return to
+empiricism. It will be a distinct advance in the application of
+scientific principles.
+
+When fully understood, a practical science of Voice Culture is seen to
+embrace only three topics,--the musical education of the student, the
+training of the ear, and the acquirement of skill in the use of the
+voice. The avoidance of throat stiffness is not properly a separate
+topic of Vocal Science, as in rational instruction nothing should ever
+be done to cause the throat to stiffen. Let us consider in detail these
+three topics of practical Vocal Science.
+
+_The Musical Education of a Singer_
+
+Every singer should be a well-educated and accomplished musician. This
+does not mean that the singer must be a capable performer on the piano
+or violin; yet some facility in playing the piano is of enormous benefit
+to the singer. A general understanding of the art of music is not
+necessarily dependent on the ability to play any instrument. The
+rudiments of music may quite well be mastered through the study of sight
+singing. This was the course adopted by the old masters, and it will
+serve equally well in our day.
+
+One of the evil results of the introduction of the mechanical idea in
+Voice Culture is that almost the entire lesson time is devoted to the
+matter of tone-production. To the rudiments of music no attention
+whatever is usually paid. Many vocal students realize the need of a
+general musical training, and seek it through studying the piano and
+through choir and chorus singing. But the vocal teacher seldom finds
+time to teach his pupils to read music at sight. This is a serious
+mistake. The artistic use of the voice is dependent on the possession of
+a trained ear and a cultured musical taste. Ear training and musical
+culture are greatly facilitated by a knowledge of the technical basis of
+the art of music. This latter is best acquired, by the vocal student at
+any rate, through the study of sight reading.
+
+Sight singing and the rudiments of music are taught to better advantage
+in class work than in private individual instruction. The class system
+also secures a great saving of time to the teacher. Every teacher should
+form a little class in sight reading and choral singing, made up of all
+his pupils. An hour or an hour and a half each week, devoted by the
+entire class to the study of sight singing and simple part songs and
+choruses, would give an ample training to all the pupils in this
+important branch of the art of music.
+
+Many vocal teachers advise their pupils not to sing in choirs and
+choruses. There may be some ground for the belief that students are apt
+to fall into bad vocal habits while singing in the chorus. But this risk
+is entirely avoided by the teacher having his pupils sing in his own
+chorus, under his own direction.
+
+Another important feature of the musical education is the hearing of
+good music artistically performed. Vocal students should be urged to
+attend the opera and the orchestral concerts. They should become
+familiar with the different forms of composition by actually hearing the
+masterpieces of music. Chamber music concerts, song recitals, and
+oratoric performances,--all are of great advantage to the earnest
+student. When students attend the opera, or hear the great singers in
+concerts and recitals, they should listen to the singers' tones, and not
+wonder how the tones are produced.
+
+_Ear Training_
+
+No special exercises can be given for the training of the ear. The sense
+of hearing is developed only by attentive listening. Every vocal
+student should be urged, and frequently reminded, to form the habit of
+listening attentively to the tones of all voices and instruments. A
+highly trained sense of hearing is one of the musician's most valuable
+gifts. A naturally keen musical ear is of course presupposed in the case
+of any one desiring to study music. This natural gift must be developed
+by exercise in the ear's proper function,--listening to sounds.
+
+Experience in listening to voices is made doubly effective in the
+training of the ear when the student's attention is called to the
+salient characteristics of the tones heard. In this regard the two
+points most important for the student to notice are the intonation and
+the tone quality.
+
+Absolute correctness of intonation, whether in the voice or in an
+instrument, can be appreciated only by the possessor of a highly
+cultivated sense of hearing. Many tones are accepted as being in tune
+which are heard by a very keen ear to be slightly off the pitch, or
+untrue to the pitch. This matter of a tone being untrue to the pitch is
+of great importance to the student of music. Many instruments, when
+unskilfully played, give out tones of this character. The tones are
+impure; instead of containing only one pitch, each note shades off into
+pitches a trifle higher, or lower, or both. This faulty type of tone is
+illustrated by a piano slightly out of tune. On a single note of this
+piano one string may have remained in perfect tune, the second may have
+flatted by the merest fraction of a semitone, and the third by a
+slightly greater interval. When this note is played it is in one sense
+not out of tune. Yet its pitch is untrue, and it shades off into a
+slightly flat note. In the case of many instruments, notably the flute,
+the clarinet, and the French horn, unskilled performers often play notes
+of this character. But in these instruments the composite character of
+the note is vastly more complex than in the piano. A very keen ear is
+required to appreciate fully the nature of this untrueness to the pitch.
+But this is exactly the kind of ear the singer must possess, and it can
+be acquired only by the experience of attentive listening.
+
+The voice is especially liable to produce tones untrue to the pitch.
+Stiff-throated singers almost invariably exhibit this faulty tendency.
+An excessive tension of the throat hampers the vocal cords in their
+adjustments, and the result is an impure tone. This is more often the
+cause of an artist singing out of tune than a deficiency of the sense of
+hearing. Many singers "sharp" or "flat" habitually, and are unable to
+overcome the habit, even though well aware of it. Only a voice entirely
+free from stiffness can produce tones of absolute correctness and
+perfect intonation. Du Maurier hit upon a very apt description of pure
+intonation when he said that Trilby always sang "right into the middle
+of the note." As an impurity of intonation is almost always an
+indication of throat tension, vocal teachers should be keenly sensitive
+to this type of faulty tone.
+
+Tone quality is a subject of surpassing interest to the musician.
+Whatever may be thought the true purpose of music, there can be no
+question as to one demand made on each individual instrument,--it must
+produce tones of sensuous beauty. A composer may delight in dissonances;
+but no instrument of the orchestra may produce harsh or discordant
+tones. Of beauty of tone the ear is the sole judge; naturally so, for
+the only appeal of the individual tone is to the ear. Melody, rhythm,
+and harmony may appeal to the intellect, but the quality of each
+component tone is judged only by the ear.
+
+Each instrument has its own characteristic tone quality. The student of
+singing should become familiar with the sounds of the different
+orchestral instruments. Attention to this is extremely valuable in the
+training of the ear.
+
+Beauty of tone was seen to be the truest and best indication of the
+correct vocal action. The voice has its own tonal beauty, entirely
+different in character from any artificial instrument. Students of
+singing should listen for every fine shade of tone quality in the voices
+of other singers. They should learn to detect the slightest blemish on
+the quality of every tone, the slightest deviation from the correct
+pitch.
+
+As the voice is guided by the ear, the first requirement of a singer is
+a keen sense of hearing. For a keen ear to be of benefit, the student
+must learn to listen to his own voice. This is not altogether an easy
+matter. For one to learn to hear oneself justly and correctly requires
+considerable practice. The singer is placed at a natural disadvantage in
+listening to himself. This is due to two causes. In the first place, the
+direct muscular sensations of singing are so complex, and so
+distributed about the throat and face, that the singer's attention is
+apt to be divided between these and his auditory sensations. Second, the
+sound waves are conducted to the ear internally, by the vibration of the
+bones of the head, as well as externally, by the air waves. The
+internally conveyed vibrations are a rumbling rather than a true sound;
+the only true tone is the external sound, heard by the singer in the
+same way as by a listener. Yet the attention is more apt to be taken up
+with the internal rumbling than with the external tone. Every vocal
+student must be taught to listen to himself, to disregard the muscular
+sensations and the internal rumbling, and to pay attention only to the
+real tones of his voice.
+
+Throat stiffness greatly increases the difficulty of listening to
+oneself. Both the muscular sensations and the internal rumbling are
+heightened by the increased muscular tension. A stiff-throated singer
+confounds the muscular with the auditory sensations; the feeling of
+muscular effort also makes him believe his tones to be much more
+powerful than they really are.
+
+_The Acquirement of Skill_
+
+Skill in the use of the voice is acquired solely by practice in singing.
+Only one rule is required for the conduct of vocal practice, that is,
+that the voice thrives on beautiful sounds. Musical taste must always
+guide the vocal student in practising. The voice cannot well do more
+than is demanded by the ear. If a student is unable to distinguish a
+correct intonation, his voice will not intone correctly. A student must
+hear and recognize his own faults or there is no possibility of his
+correcting them. He must be familiar with the characteristics of a
+perfect musical tone in order to demand this tone of his voice.
+
+In the student's progress the ear always keeps slightly in advance of
+the voice. Both develop together, but the ear takes the lead. The voice
+needs practice to enable it to meet the demands of the ear. As this
+practice goes on day by day the ear in the meantime becomes keener and
+still more exacting in its demands on the voice.
+
+To train a voice is in reality a very simple matter. Nothing is required
+of the student but straightforward singing. Provided the student's
+daily practice of singing be guided by a naturally keen ear and a sound
+musical taste, the voice will steadily progress. Little need be said
+here about the technical demands made on the voice in modern music. The
+standards of vocal technique are well known to all vocal teachers, and
+indeed to musicians generally. Further, the scope of this work is
+limited to the basic principle of vocal technique,--correct
+tone-production.
+
+For starting the voice properly on the road to the perfect action,
+intelligently guided practice alone is needed. This practice must be
+carried on under the direction of a competent teacher. But the teacher
+cannot pay attention solely to the technical training of the student's
+voice. As has been seen, the training of the voice is impossible without
+the cultivation of the sense of hearing; and this is dependent in great
+measure on the general musical education of the student. The teacher
+must therefore direct the student's musical education as the basic
+principle of Voice Culture.
+
+_The Avoidance of Throat Stiffness_
+
+A great advance will be brought about in the profession of Voice Culture
+when vocal teachers become thoroughly familiar with the subject of
+throat stiffness. This is the only troublesome feature of the training
+of voices. Teachers must be always on the alert to note every indication
+of throat stiffness. The correction of faults of production has always
+been recognized as one of the most important elements of vocal training.
+Faults of production are of two kinds, natural and acquired. Natural
+faults are exhibited in some degree by every vocal student. These are
+due solely to the lack of facility in the use of the voice and to the
+beginner's want of experience in hearing his own voice. Acquired faults
+develop only as the result of unnatural throat tension. The most common
+cause of acquired faults of tone-production was seen in the attempt
+consciously to direct the mechanical operations of the voice.
+
+Equipped with a thorough understanding of the subject of throat
+stiffness, the teacher is in no danger of permitting his pupils to
+contract faulty habits of tone-production. Here the great value of the
+empirical knowledge of the voice is seen. The slightest trace of
+incipient throat stiffness must be immediately detected by the teacher
+in the sound of the pupil's tones. To correct the faulty tendency in
+the beginning is comparatively simple. By listening closely to every
+tone sung by his pupils in the course of instruction, noting both the
+musical character of the tones and the sympathetic sensations of throat
+action, the master will never be in doubt whether a tendency to throat
+stiffness is shown. In locating the natural faults of production the
+teacher will also find his empirical knowledge of the voice a most
+valuable possession.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+OUTLINES OF A PRACTICAL METHOD OF VOICE CULTURE
+
+
+According to the accepted idea of Voice Culture, the word "method" is
+taken to mean only the plan supposedly followed for imparting a correct
+manner of tone-production. Owing to the prevalence of the mechanical
+idea, the acquirement of the correct vocal action has become so
+difficult as to demand almost the exclusive attention of both teachers
+and students. Very little time is left for other subjects of vastly more
+importance. Aside from the matter of tone-production, teachers do not
+seem to realize the importance, or even the possibility, of
+systematizing a course of instruction in singing.
+
+Scientific Voice Culture is inconceivable without a systematic plan of
+procedure. But this is not dependent on a set of rules for imparting the
+correct vocal action. Eliminating the idea of mechanical vocal
+management does not imply the abandonment of methodical instruction in
+singing. On the contrary, Voice Culture cannot be made truly systematic
+so long as it is based on an erroneous and unscientific theory of vocal
+management. A vocal teacher cannot perfect a system of instruction until
+he has done with the mechanical idea. Then he will find himself to be in
+possession of all the materials of a sound practical method.
+
+Most important of the materials of a practical method is a comprehensive
+repertoire of vocal music. Every teacher should have at his command a
+wide range of compositions in every form available for the voice. This
+should include simple exercises, vocalises with and without words, songs
+of every description, arias of the lyric, dramatic, and coloratura type,
+and recitatives, as well as concerted numbers of every description. All
+these compositions should be graded, according to the difficulties they
+present, both technical in the vocal sense, and musical. For every stage
+of a pupil's progress the teacher should know exactly what composition
+to assign for study.
+
+Every composition used in instruction, be it simple exercise or
+elaborate aria, should be first of all melodious. For the normally
+gifted student the sense of melody and the love of singing are almost
+synonymous. Next to the physical endowments of voice and ear the sense
+of melody is the vocal student's most important gift. This feeling for
+melody should be appealed to at every instant. Students should not be
+permitted to sing anything in a mechanical fashion. Broken scales, "five
+finger exercises," and mechanical drills of every kind, are altogether
+objectionable. They blunt the sense of melody, and at the same time they
+tend to induce throat stiffness. Beauty of tone and of melody should
+always be the guiding principle in the practice of singing.
+
+All the elements of instruction,--musical education, ear training, and
+the acquirement of facility in the use of the voice,--can be combined in
+the singing of melodious compositions. While the teacher should know the
+precise object of each study, this is not necessary for the student.
+Have the pupil simply sing his daily studies, with good tone and true
+musical feeling, and all the rest will take care of itself.
+
+Every vocal teacher will formulate his method of instruction according
+to his own taste and judgment. There will always be room for the
+exercise of originality, and for the working out of individual ideas.
+His own experience, and his judgment in each individual case, must guide
+the teacher in answering many important questions. Whether to train a
+voice up or down, whether to pay special attention to enunciation, when
+to introduce the trill, what form of studies to use for technique and
+ornament,--these are all matters for the teacher to decide in his own
+way.
+
+Above all else the teacher should seek to make the study of singing
+interesting to his pupils. This cannot be done by making the idea of
+method and of mechanical drudgery prominent. Singing is an art; both
+teacher and student must love their art or they cannot succeed.
+Everything the student is called on to do should be a distinct pleasure.
+To master the piano or the violin many hours of tedious practice are
+required. Students of singing are indeed fortunate to be spared the
+necessity of this tiresome work. In place of two or three hours' daily
+practice of scales and exercises, the vocal student need do nothing but
+sing good music.
+
+Much is required of a competent vocal teacher. First of all, he must be
+a cultured musician and a capable judge both of composition and of
+performance. Further, while not necessarily a great singer, he must have
+a thorough command of all the resources of his own voice. His
+understanding of the voice should embrace a fair knowledge of vocal
+physiology and of vocal psychology. His ear should be so highly trained,
+and his experience in hearing singers so wide, that he possess in full
+the empirical knowledge of the voice. The vocal teacher must be familiar
+with the highest standards of singing. He should hear the great artists
+of his day and also be well versed in the traditions of his art.
+
+A highly important gift of the vocal teacher is tact. He must know how
+to deal with his pupils, how to smooth over the rough places of
+temperament. He should be able to foster a spirit of comradeship among
+his pupils, to secure the stimulating effect of rivalry, while avoiding
+the evils of jealousy. Tact is an important element also in individual
+instruction. Some students will demand to know the reason of everything,
+others will be content to do as they are told without question. One
+student may be led to stiffen his throat by instruction which would have
+no such effect on another. In every case the teacher must study the
+individual temperaments of his pupils and adapt his method to the
+character of each student.
+
+Practical instruction, in its outward aspect, should be very simple. At
+one lesson the teacher assigns certain studies and has the pupil sing
+them. Now and then the teacher sings a few measures in order to give the
+student the correct idea of the effects to be obtained. If any
+pronounced fault is shown in the student's tones, the master calls
+attention to the fault, perhaps imitating it, to make it more apparent
+to the student. In his home practice the student sings the assigned
+studies, trying always to get his tones pure and true. At the next
+lesson the same studies are again sung, and new compositions given for
+further study.
+
+A great advantage might be gained by combining three, four, or five
+students in a class and giving lessons of an hour's time, or even an
+hour and a half. The students might sing in turn, all the others
+listening to the one who is singing. This form of instruction would be
+of great service in ear training, and in acquainting the students with
+the various qualities of vocal tone, both correct and faulty. Much time
+would thus be saved in giving explanations and in pointing out the
+characteristics of tone to be sought or avoided. On the side of musical
+education, instruction in small classes would also be found very
+effective.
+
+A thorough understanding of Vocal Science, including both the mechanical
+features of tone-production and the psychological aspects of singing, is
+almost indispensable to the vocal teacher. But the student of singing
+will in most cases derive no benefit from this scientific knowledge.
+Those students who plan to become teachers must of course study Vocal
+Science. Yet even these students will do well to defer this study until
+they have acquired a thorough mastery of their voices.
+
+* * *
+
+Musical progress would seem to have taken a peculiar direction when a
+voice need be raised in defense of the old art of pure singing. Several
+famous writers on musical subjects would have us believe that the love
+of vocal melody is outgrown by one who reaches the heights of musical
+development. This may be true; but if so, the world has not yet
+progressed so far. Music without melody may some day be written. But
+Mozart knew naught of it, nor Beethoven, nor Wagner. Melody is still
+beautiful, and never more lovely than when artistically sung by a
+beautiful voice. We have not reached a point where we can afford to toss
+lightly aside the old art of Bel Canto.
+
+For its future development, if not indeed for its continued existence,
+the art of singing depends on an improvement in the art of training
+voices. For this to be accomplished, mechanical methods must be
+abandoned. If this work succeeds in bringing home to the vocal
+profession the error of mechanical instruction in singing, it will have
+served its purpose.
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+Pietro Francesco Tosi: _Observations on the Florid Song_. Bologna, 1723.
+
+Giovanni Battista Mancini: _Riflessioni pratiche sul Canto figurato_.
+Milan, 1776.
+
+Georg Joseph Vogler: _Stimmbildungskunst_. Mannheim, 1776.
+
+_Méthode de Chant du Conservatoire de Musique_. Paris, 1803.
+
+Stefana Arteaga: _Le Revoluzioni del Teatro musicale italiano_. Venice,
+1785.
+
+Adolph Bernhard Marx: _Die Kunst des Gesanges_. Berlin, 1826.
+
+Heinrich F. Mannstein: _Die grosse italienische Gesangschule_. Dresden,
+1834.
+
+Manuel Garcia: _École de Garcia_. The Ninth Edition (Paris, 1893) gives
+date of first edition, 1856. Grove's Dict. gives 1847.
+
+_Proceedings of the Royal Soc._, London, Vol. 2, May, 1855.
+
+_Hints on Singing_. (Trans. by Beata Garcia). New York, 1894.
+
+Ferdinand Sieber: _Vollstaendiges Lehrbuch der Gesangskunst_. Magdeburg,
+1858.
+
+_The Art of Singing_. (Trans. by Dr. F. Seeger). New York, 1872.
+
+Stéphen de la Madelaine: _Théorie complète du Chant_. Paris, 1852.
+
+Lennox Browne and Emil Behnke: _Voice, Song, and Speech_. London, 1883.
+
+John Howard: _The Physiology of Artistic Singing_. New York, 1886.
+
+Gordon Holmes: _A Treatise on Vocal Physiology and Hygiene_. London,
+1879.
+
+Emma Seiler: _The Voice in Singing_. Philadelphia, 1886.
+
+J. Frank Botume: _Modern Singing Methods_. Boston, 1885.
+
+Francesco Lamperti: _A Treatise on the Art of Singing_. (Trans. by J. C.
+Griffith). New York. Original about 1876.
+
+Wesley Mills, M. D.: _Voice Production in Singing and Speaking_.
+Philadelphia, 1906.
+
+Dr. W. Reinecke: _Die Kunst der idealen Tonbildung_. Leipzig, 1906.
+
+William Shakespeare: _The Art of Singing_. London, 1898.
+
+G. B. Lamperti: _The Technics of Bel Canto_. New York, 1905.
+
+Paolo Guetta: _Il Canto nel suo Mecanismo_. Milan, 1902.
+
+Lilli Lehmann: _Meine Gesangskunst_. Berlin, 1902.
+
+David Frangçon-Davies: _The Singing of the Future_. London, 1906.
+
+Leo Kofler: _The Old Italian Method_. Albany, 1880.
+
+_The Art of Breathing_. New York, 1889.
+
+Clara Kathleen Rogers: _The Philosophy of Singing_. New York, 1893.
+
+Albert B. Bach: _The Principles of Singing_. London (2d ed.), 1897.
+
+Julius Stockhausen's _Gesangsmethode_. Leipzig, 1884.
+
+Sir Morell Mackenzie: _The Hygiene of the Vocal Organs_. London, 1886.
+
+Charles Lunn: _The Philosophy of the Voice_. London, 1878.
+
+Antoine Ferrein: _De la Formation de la Voix de l'Homme_. Paris, 1741.
+
+Sir Charles Bell: _On the Organs of the Human Voice_. London, 1832.
+
+Carl Ludwig Merkel: _Der Kehlkopf_. Leipzig, 1873.
+
+Dr. L. Mandl: _Die Gesundheitslehre der Stimme_. Braunschweig, 1876.
+
+George F. Ladd: _Outlines of Physiological Psychology_. New York, 1892.
+
+James M. Baldwin: _Feeling and Will_. New York, 1894.
+
+H. S. Curtis: "Automatic Movements of the Larynx," _Amer. Jour. Psych._,
+Vol. 11, p. 237. 1900.
+
+H. L. F. Helmholtz: _Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen_. Braunschweig,
+1862.
+
+E. W. Scripture: _The New Psychology_, London, 1897.
+
+_The Elements of Experimental Phonetics_. New York, 1902.
+
+_The Study of Speech Curves_. Washington, 1906.
+
+William James: _The Principles of Psychology_. New York, 1890.
+
+Hansen and Lehmann: "Ueber unwillkuerliches Fluestern," _Philo. Stud._,
+Vol. 11, p. 471. 1895.
+
+C. Lloyd Morgan: _An Introduction to Comparative Psychology_. 1894.
+
+Wilhelm Wundt: _Grundzuege der physiologischen Psychologie_. Leipzig,
+1874.
+
+Grove's _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_.
+
+Fétis: _Biographie universelle des Musiciens_.
+
+Musikalisches Conversations-Lexikon.
+
+Quellen Lexikon der Musiker. (Robt. Eitner, Leipzig, 1902.)
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Acoustics of voice, 188, 216.
+
+Anatomy of vocal organs, 211.
+
+Attack, 51, 53.
+
+
+Breathing, 20, 130.
+
+Breath, singing on the, 14, 27, 32, 72, 194.
+
+
+Candle-flame test, 221.
+
+Coloratura, 195, 282.
+
+
+Decline of singing, 341.
+
+
+Ear training, 276, 281, 319, 351.
+
+Emission, 68, 125, 188.
+
+Empirical knowledge, 151, 176, 181, 359.
+  basis of, 155.
+  in modern instruction, 75, 199, 207.
+  in traditional precepts, 184.
+
+Enunciation, 88.
+
+Exercises
+  for breath-control, 26, 31.
+  for breathing, 22.
+  for muscular movements, 46, 50.
+  for relaxing muscles, 90, 272.
+  on vowels and consonants, 85.
+
+
+Forward tone, 14, 68, 71, 125, 187.
+
+
+Garcia, 16, 22, 34, 35, 56, 328.
+
+Glottic stroke, 30, 52.
+
+
+History of voice culture, 8, 322.
+
+Howard, John, 43.
+
+
+Imitation, 134, 166, 291, 298, 307, 309, 324, 332.
+
+Intonation, 265, 311, 314, 352.
+
+
+Laryngeal action, 34, 36, 44.
+
+Laryngoscope, 16, 35, 56, 214, 215, 258, 336.
+
+Lessons, 103, 366.
+
+Local effort, 273.
+
+
+Mancini, 12, 156, 307, 314, 323.
+
+Mask, singing in the, 74, 81.
+
+Mechanical vocal management, 83, 102, 109, 113, 135, 271,
+  287, 297, 299, 321, 329, 333, 346.
+
+Mechanics of voice, 118, 220, 325, 335.
+
+Mental voice, 180, 183.
+
+Messa di voce, 40, 312.
+
+Method, 92, 96, 99.
+  Old Italian, 10, 304, 316, 320.
+
+Méthode de Chant, 326.
+
+Muscular sense, 143, 170.
+  stiffness, 240, 251.
+  strain, 267.
+
+
+Nasal tone, 62, 129, 205.
+
+Nervousness, 249, 256.
+
+
+Old Italian masters, 9, 11, 14, 54, 306, 320.
+  method, 10, 304, 316, 320.
+
+Open throat, 14, 60, 86, 191.
+
+
+Placing the voice, 38, 41, 93, 310.
+
+Practice, 5, 105, 281, 366.
+
+Precepts, 13, 72, 76, 184, 186, 317.
+
+Problem of voice, 4, 7, 287, 324, 337, 338.
+
+Psychology of muscular guidance, 136, 227.
+  of sympathetic sensations, 165.
+  of vocal management, 144, 229, 297.
+
+Pure vowel theory, 88.
+
+
+Quality of tone, 40, 62, 156, 179, 182, 314, 346.
+
+
+Radiation of nerve impulse, 251, 259.
+
+Reflex actions, 247, 255.
+
+Registers, 34, 38, 55, 312, 315.
+
+Relaxing exercises, 90, 272.
+
+Resonance, 54, 58.
+  chest, 61, 127.
+  mouth-pharynx, 59.
+  nasal, 62, 87, 127, 204.
+  sounding-board, 44, 65.
+
+
+Sensations of singing, 160.
+  direct, 161, 173.
+  in modern instruction, 78, 84, 114.
+  muscular, 78.
+  sympathetic, 161, 162, 176.
+  of vibration, 54, 55, 58, 80.
+
+Sight reading, 309, 310, 313.
+
+Singing in the mask, 74, 81.
+  on the breath, 14, 27, 32, 72, 194.
+
+Sol-fa, 310, 314.
+
+Stiffness, muscular, 240, 251.
+  throat, 89, 243, 260, 262, 285, 356, 358.
+
+Support of tone, 14, 27, 32, 73, 192.
+
+Sympathetic sensations, 161, 162, 165, 176.
+
+
+Technique, 6, 94, 282.
+
+Throat stiffness, 89, 243, 260, 262, 285, 356, 358.
+
+Tone-production, 4.
+  problem of 7, 287, 324, 337, 338.
+
+Tosi, 12, 55, 63, 156, 307, 308, 322.
+
+Traditional precepts, 13, 14, 76, 186, 317.
+  empirical basis, 184.
+  in modern instruction, 72, 77.
+
+Tremolo, 265, 272.
+
+
+Vocal action, 5, 17, 92, 112, 246.
+
+Vocal Science, 17, 19, 37, 98, 152, 339, 361, 367.
+
+
+Wearing voice into place, 101.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SINGING***
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