491 files changed, 39596 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/20873-8.txt b/20873-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fab076c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,13051 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Albert Gallatin, by John Austin Stevens
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Albert Gallatin
+       American Statesmen Series, Vol. XIII
+
+Author: John Austin Stevens
+
+Release Date: March 22, 2007 [EBook #20873]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ALBERT GALLATIN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Thomas Strong and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Standard Library Edition
+
+AMERICAN STATESMEN
+
+EDITED BY
+
+JOHN T. MORSE, JR.
+
+IN THIRTY-TWO VOLUMES VOL. XIII.
+
+THE JEFFERSONIAN DEMOCRACY
+
+ALBERT GALLATIN
+
+[Illustration: Albert Gallatin]
+
+American Statesmen
+
+STANDARD LIBRARY EDITION
+
+[Illustration: The Home of Albert Gallatin]
+
+HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO.
+
+American Statesmen
+
+ALBERT GALLATIN
+
+BY
+
+JOHN AUSTIN STEVENS
+
+BOSTON AND NEW YORK
+HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY
+The Riverside Press, Cambridge
+
+Copyright, 1883 and 1898,
+BY HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO.
+
+_All rights reserved._
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Every generation demands that history shall be rewritten. This is not
+alone because it requires that the work should be adapted to its own
+point of view, but because it is instinctively seeking those lines which
+connect the problems and lessons of the past with its own questions and
+circumstances. If it were not for the existence of lines of this kind,
+history might be entertaining, but would have little real value. The
+more numerous they are between the present and any earlier period, the
+more valuable is, for us, the history of that period. Such
+considerations establish an especial interest just at present in the
+life of Gallatin.
+
+The Monroe Doctrine has recently been the pivot of American
+statesmanship. With that doctrine Mr. Gallatin had much to do, both as
+minister to France and envoy to Great Britain. Indeed, in 1818, some
+years before the declaration of that doctrine, when the Spanish colonies
+of South America were in revolt, he declared that the United States
+would not even aid France in a mediation. Later, in May, 1823, six
+months before the famous message of President Monroe, Mr. Gallatin had
+already uttered its idea; when about leaving Paris, on his return from
+the French mission, he said to Chateaubriand, the French minister of
+foreign affairs (May 13, 1823): "The United States would undoubtedly
+preserve their neutrality, provided it were respected, and avoid any
+interference with the politics of Europe.... On the other hand, they
+would not suffer others to interfere against the emancipation of
+America." With characteristic vanity Canning said that it was he himself
+who "called the new world into existence to redress the balance of the
+old." Yet precisely this had already for a long while been a cardinal
+point of the policy of the United States. So early as 1808, Jefferson,
+alluding to the disturbed condition of the Spanish colonies, said: "We
+consider their interest and ours as the same, and that the object of
+both must be to exclude all European influence in this hemisphere."
+
+Matters of equal interest are involved in the study of Mr. Gallatin's
+actions and opinions in matters of finance. Every one knows that he
+ranks among the distinguished financiers of the world, and problems
+which he had to consider are still agitating the present generation. He
+was opposed alike to a national debt and to paper money. Had the
+metallic basis of the United States been adequate, he would have
+accepted no other circulating medium, and would have consented to the
+use of paper money only for purposes of exchange and remittance. In 1830
+he urged the restriction of paper money to notes of one hundred dollars
+each, which were to be issued by the government. Obviously these must be
+used chiefly for transmitting funds, and would be of little use for the
+daily transactions of the people. Yet even this concession was due to
+the fact that the United States was then a debtor country, and so late
+as 1839, as Mr. Gallatin said, "specie was a foreign product." For
+subsidiary money he favored silver coins at eighty-five per cent. of the
+dollar value, a sufficient alloy to hold them in the country. Silver was
+then the circulating medium of the world, the people's pocket money, and
+gold was the basis and the solvent of foreign exchanges.
+
+Great interest attaches to the application of some other of Gallatin's
+financial principles to more modern problems; and a careful study of his
+papers may fairly enable us to form a few conclusions. It may be safely
+said that he would not have favored a national bank currency based on
+government bonds. This, however, would not have been because of any
+objection to the currency itself, but because the scheme would insure
+the continuance of a national debt. He was too practical, also, not to
+see that the ultimate security is the faith of the government, and that
+no filtering of that responsibility through private banks could do
+otherwise than injure it. Further, it is reasonably safe to say that he
+would favor the withdrawal both of national bank notes and of United
+States notes, the greenbacks so-called; and that he would consent to the
+use of paper only in the form of certificates directly representing the
+precious metals, gold and silver; also that he would limit the use of
+silver to its actual handling by the people in daily transactions. He
+would feel safe to disregard the fluctuations of the intrinsic value of
+silver, when used in this limited way as a subordinate currency, on the
+ground that the stamp of the United States was sufficient for conferring
+the needed value, when the obligation was only to maintain the parity,
+not of the silver, but of the coin, with gold. He understood that, in
+the case of a currency which is merely subordinate, parity arises from
+the guaranty of the government, and not from the quality of the coin;
+and that only such excess of any subordinate currency as is not needed
+for use in daily affairs can be presented for redemption. This
+principle, well understood by him, is recognized in European systems,
+wherein the minimum of circulation is recognized as a maximum limit of
+uncovered issues of paper. The circulation of silver, or of
+certificates based upon it, comes within the same rule.
+
+At the time of the publication of this volume objection was taken to the
+author's statement that, until the publication of Gallatin's writings,
+his fame as a statesman and political leader was a mere tradition. Yet
+in point of fact, not only is his name hardly mentioned by the early
+biographers of Jefferson, Madison, and J. Q. Adams, but even by the
+later writers in this very Series, his work, varied and important as it
+was, has been given but scant notice. The historians of the United
+States, and those who have made a specialty of the study of political
+parties, have been alike indifferent or derelict in their investigations
+to such a degree that it required months of original research in the
+annals of Congress to ascertain Gallatin's actual relations towards the
+Federalist party which he helped to overthrow, and towards the
+Republican party which he did so much to found, and of which he became
+the ablest champion, in Congress by debate, and in the cabinet by
+administration.
+
+Invited by the publishers of the Statesmen Series to bring this study
+"up to date," the author has found no important changes to make in his
+work as he first prepared it. In the original investigation every source
+of information was carefully explored, and no new sources have since
+then been discovered. Mr. Gallatin's writings, carefully preserved in
+originals and copies, and well arranged, supplied the details; while the
+family traditions, with which the author was familiar, indicated the
+objects to be obtained. But so wide was the general field of Mr.
+Gallatin's career, so varied were his interests in all that pertained to
+humanity, philanthropy, and science, and so extensive were his relations
+with the leaders of European and American thought and action, that the
+subject could only be treated on the broadest basis. With this apology
+this study of one of the most interesting characters of American life is
+again commended to the indulgence of the American people.
+
+NEWPORT, April, 1898.
+
+CONTENTS
+
+CHAP.                                                     PAGE
+
+   I. EARLY LIFE                                            1
+
+  II. PENNSYLVANIA Legislature                             32
+
+ III. UNITED STATES SENATE                                 56
+
+  IV. THE WHISKEY INSURRECTION                             67
+
+   V. MEMBER OF CONGRESS                                   97
+
+  VI. SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY                           170
+
+ VII. IN THE CABINET                                      279
+
+VIII. IN DIPLOMACY                                        301
+
+  IX. CANDIDATE FOR THE VICE-PRESIDENCY                   355
+
+   X. SOCIETY--LITERATURE--SCIENCE                        361
+
+INDEX                                                     391
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+ALBERT GALLATIN                                   _Frontispiece_
+
+From the original painting by Gilbert Stuart, in the
+possession of Frederic W. Stevens, Esq., New York, N. Y.
+
+Autograph from the Chamberlain collection, Boston
+Public Library.
+
+The vignette of "Friendship Hill," Mr. Gallatin's
+home at New Geneva, Pa., is from a photograph.
+
+                                                            Page
+
+ROBERT GOODLOE HARPER                               _facing_ 98
+
+From a painting by St. Mémin, in the possession of
+Harper's granddaughter, Mrs. William C. Pennington,
+Baltimore, Md.
+
+Autograph from a MS. in the New York Public
+Library, Lenox Building.
+
+ALEXANDER J. DALLAS                                _facing_ 236
+
+From the original painting by Gilbert Stuart, in the
+possession of Mrs. W. H. Emory, Washington, D. C.
+
+Autograph from the Chamberlain collection, Boston
+Public Library.
+
+JAMES A. BAYARD                                    _facing_ 312
+
+From a painting by Wertmüller, owned by the late
+Thomas F. Bayard, Wilmington, Del.
+
+Autograph from the Chamberlain collection, Boston
+Public Library.
+
+ALBERT GALLATIN
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+EARLY LIFE
+
+
+Of all European-born citizens who have risen to fame in the political
+service of the United States, Albert Gallatin is the most distinguished.
+His merit in legislation, administration, and diplomacy is generally
+recognized, and he is venerated by men of science on both continents.
+Not, however, until the publication of his writings was the extent of
+his influence upon the political life and growth of the country other
+than a vague tradition. Independence and nationality were achieved by
+the Revolution, in which he bore a slight and unimportant part; his
+place in history is not, therefore, among the founders of the Republic,
+but foremost in the rank of those early American statesmen, to whom it
+fell to interpret and administer the organic laws which the founders
+declared and the people ratified in the Constitution of the United
+States. A study of his life shows that, from the time of the peace until
+his death, his influence, either by direct action or indirect counsel,
+may be traced through the history of the country.
+
+The son of Jean Gallatin and his wife, Sophie Albertine Rollaz, he was
+born in the city of Geneva on January 29, 1761, and was baptized by the
+name of Abraham Alfonse Albert Gallatin. The name Abraham he received
+from his grandfather, but it was early dropped, and he was always known
+by his matronymic Albert. The Gallatin family held great influence in
+the Swiss Republic, and from the organization of the State contributed
+numerous members to its magistracy; others adopted the military
+profession, and served after the manner of their country in the Swiss
+contingents of foreign armies. The immediate relatives of Albert
+Gallatin were concerned in trade. Abraham, his grandfather, and Jean,
+his father, were partners. The latter dying in 1765, his widow assumed
+his share in the business. She died in March, 1770, leaving two
+children,--Albert, then nine years of age, and an invalid daughter who
+died a few years later. The loss to the orphan boy was lessened, if not
+compensated, by the care of a maiden lady--Mademoiselle Pictet--who had
+taken him into her charge at his father's death. This lady, whose
+affection never failed him, was the intimate friend of his mother as
+well as a distant relative of his father. Young Gallatin remained in
+this kind care until January, 1773, when he was sent to a
+boarding-school, and in August, 1775, to the academy of Geneva, from
+which he was graduated in May, 1779. The expenses of his education were
+in great part met by the trustees of the Bourse Gallatin,--a sum left in
+1699 by a member of the family, of which the income was to be applied to
+its necessities. The course of study at the academy was confined to
+Latin and Greek. These were taught, to use the words of Mr. Gallatin,
+"Latin thoroughly, Greek much neglected." Fortunately his preliminary
+home training had been careful, and he left the academy the first in his
+class in mathematics, natural philosophy, and Latin translation. French,
+a language in general use at Geneva, was of course familiar to him.
+English he also studied. He is not credited with special proficiency in
+history, but his teacher in this branch was Muller, the distinguished
+historian, and the groundwork of his information was solid. No American
+statesman has shown more accurate knowledge of the facts of history, or
+a more profound insight into its philosophy, than Mr. Gallatin.
+
+Education, however, is not confined to instruction, nor is the influence
+of an academy to be measured by the extent of its curriculum, or the
+proficiency of its students, but rather by its general tone, moral and
+intellectual. The Calvinism of Geneva, narrow in its religious sense,
+was friendly to the spread of knowledge; and had this not been the case,
+the side influences of Roman Catholicism on the one hand, and the
+liberal spirit of the age on the other, would have tempered its
+exclusive tendency.
+
+While the academy seems to have sent out few men of extraordinary
+eminence, its influence upon society was happy. Geneva was the resort of
+distinguished foreigners. Princes and nobles from Germany and the north
+of Europe, lords and gentlemen from England, and numerous Americans went
+thither to finish their education. Of these Mr. Gallatin has left
+mention of Francis Kinloch and William Smith, who later represented
+South Carolina in the Congress of the United States; Smith was
+afterwards minister to Portugal; Colonel Laurens, son of the president
+of Congress, and special envoy to France during the war of the American
+Revolution; the two Penns, proprietors of Pennsylvania; Franklin Bache,
+grandson of Dr. Franklin; and young Johannot, grandson of Dr. Cooper of
+Boston. Yet no one of these followed the academic course. To use again
+the words of Mr. Gallatin, "It was the Geneva society which they
+cultivated, aided by private teachers in every branch, with whom Geneva
+was abundantly supplied." "By that influence," he says, he was himself
+"surrounded, and derived more benefit from that source than from
+attendance on academical lectures." Considered in its broader sense,
+education is quite as much a matter of association as of scholarly
+acquirement. The influence of the companion is as strong and enduring as
+that of the master. Of this truth the career of young Gallatin is a
+notable example. During his academic course he formed ties of intimate
+friendship with three of his associates. These were Henri Serre, Jean
+Badollet, and Etienne Dumont. This attachment was maintained unimpaired
+throughout their lives, notwithstanding the widely different stations
+which they subsequently filled. Serre and Badollet are only remembered
+from their connection with Gallatin. Dumont was of different mould. He
+was the friend of Mirabeau, the disciple and translator of Bentham,--a
+man of elegant acquirement, but, in the judgment of Gallatin, "without
+original genius." De Lolme was in the class above Gallatin. He had such
+facility in the acquisition of languages that he was able to write his
+famous work on the English Constitution after the residence of a single
+year in England. Pictet, Gallatin's relative, afterwards celebrated as a
+naturalist, excelled all his fellows in physical science.
+
+During his last year at the academy Gallatin was engaged in the tuition
+of a nephew of Mademoiselle Pictet, but the time soon arrived when he
+felt called upon to choose a career. His state was one of comparative
+dependence, and the small patrimony which he inherited would not pass to
+his control until he should reach his twenty-fifth year,--the period
+assigned for his majority. It would be hardly just to say that he was
+ambitious. Personal distinction was never an active motor in his life.
+Even his later honors, thick and fast though they fell, were rather
+thrust upon than sought by him. But his nature was proud and sensitive,
+and he chafed under personal control. The age was restless. The spirit
+of philosophic inquiry, no longer confined within scholastic limits, was
+spreading far and wide. From the banks of the Neva to the shores of the
+Mediterranean, the people of Europe were uneasy and expectant. Men
+everywhere felt that the social system was threatened with a cataclysm.
+What would emerge from the general deluge none could foresee. Certainly,
+the last remains of the old feudality would be engulfed forever. Nowhere
+was this more thoroughly believed than at the home of Rousseau. Under
+the shadow of the Alps, every breeze from which was free, the Genevese
+philosopher had written his "Contrat social," and invited the rulers and
+the ruled to a reorganization of their relations to each other and to
+the world. But nowhere, also, was the conservative opposition to the new
+theories more intense than here.
+
+The mind of young Gallatin was essentially philosophic. The studies in
+which he excelled in early life were in this direction, and at no time
+in his career did he display any emotional enthusiasm on subjects of
+general concern. But, on the other hand, he was unflinching in his
+adherence to abstract principle. Though not carried away by the
+extravagance of Rousseau, he was thoroughly discontented with the
+political state of Geneva. He was by early conviction a Democrat in the
+broadest sense of the term. Indeed, it would be difficult to find a more
+perfect example of what it was then the fashion to call a _citoyen du
+monde_. His family seem, on the contrary, to have been always
+conservative, and attached to the aristocratic and oligarchic system to
+which they had, for centuries, owed their position and advancement.
+
+Abraham Gallatin, his grandfather, lived at Pregny on the northern shore
+of the lake, in close neighborhood to Ferney, the retreat of Voltaire.
+Susanne Vaudenet Gallatin, his grandmother, was a woman of the world, a
+lady of strong character, and the period was one when the influence of
+women was paramount in the affairs of men; among her friends she counted
+Voltaire, with whom her husband and herself were on intimate relations,
+and Frederick, Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, with whom she corresponded. So
+sincere was this latter attachment that the sovereign sent his portrait
+to her in 1776, an honor which, at her instance, Voltaire acknowledged
+in a verse characteristic of himself and of the time:--
+
+         "J'ai baisé ce portrait charmant,
+          Je vous l'avoûrai sans mystère,
+          Mes filles en out fait autant,
+          Mais c'est un secret qu'il faut taire.
+          Vous trouverez bon qu'une mère
+          Vous parle un peu plus hardiment,
+          Et vous verrez qu'également,
+          En tous les temps vous savez plaire."
+
+At Pregny young Gallatin was the constant guest of his nearest relatives
+on his father's side, and he was a frequent visitor at Ferney. Those
+whose fortune it has been to sit at the feet of Mr. Gallatin himself,
+in the serene atmosphere of his study, after his retirement from active
+participation in public concerns, may well imagine the influence which
+the rays of the prismatic character of Voltaire must have had upon the
+philosophic and receptive mind of the young student.
+
+There was and still is a solidarity in European families which can
+scarcely be said to have ever had a counterpart in those of England, and
+of which hardly a vestige remains in American social life. The fate of
+each member was a matter of interest to all, and the honor of the name
+was of common concern. Among the Gallatins, the grandmother, Madame
+Gallatin-Vaudenet, as she was called, appears to have been the
+controlling spirit. To her the profession of the youthful scion of the
+stock was a matter of family consequence, and she had already marked out
+his future course. The Gallatins, as has been already stated, had
+acquired honor in the military service of foreign princes. Her friend,
+the Landgrave of Hesse, was engaged in supporting the uncertain fortunes
+of the British army in America with a large military contingent, and she
+had only to ask to obtain for her grandson the high commission of
+lieutenant-colonel of one of the regiments of Hessian mercenaries. To
+the offer made to young Gallatin, and urged with due authority, he
+replied, that "he would never serve a tyrant;" a want of respect which
+was answered by a cuff on the ear. This incident determined his career.
+Whether it crystallized long-cherished fancies into sudden action, or
+whether it was of itself the initial cause of his resolve, is now mere
+matter of conjecture; probably the former. The three friends, Gallatin,
+Badollet, and Serre seem to have amused their leisure in planning an
+ideal existence in some wilderness. America offered a boundless field
+for the realization of such dreams, and the spice of adventure could be
+had for the seeking. Here was the forest primeval in its original
+grandeur. Here the Indian roamed undisputed master; not the tutored
+Huron of Voltaire's tale, but the savage of torch and tomahawk. The
+continent was as yet unexplored. In uncertainty as to motives for man's
+action the French magistrate always searches for the woman,--"cherchez
+la femme!" One single allusion in a letter written to Badollet, in 1783,
+shows that there was a woman in Gallatin's horoscope. Who she was, what
+her relation to him, or what influence she had upon his actions, nowhere
+appears. He only says that besides Mademoiselle Pictet there was one
+friend, "une amie," at Geneva, from whom a permanent separation would be
+hard.
+
+Confiding his purpose to his friend Serre, Gallatin easily persuaded
+this ardent youth to join him in his venturesome journey, and on April
+1, 1780, the two secretly left Geneva. It certainly was no burning
+desire to aid the Americans in their struggle for independence, such as
+had stirred the generous soul of Lafayette, that prompted this act. In
+later life he repeatedly disclaimed any such motive. It was rather a
+longing for personal independence, for freedom from the trammels of a
+society in which he had little faith or interest. Nor were his political
+opinions at this time matured. He had a just pride in the Swiss Republic
+as a free State (Etat libre), and his personal bias was towards the
+"Négatif" party, as those were called who maintained the authority of
+the Upper Council (Petit Conseil) to reject the demands of the people.
+To this oligarchic party his family belonged. In a letter written three
+years later, he confesses that he was "Négatif" when he abandoned his
+home, and conveys the idea that his emigration was an experiment, a
+search for a system of government in accordance with his abstract
+notions of natural justice and political right. To use his own words, he
+came to America to "drink in a love for independence in the freest
+country of the universe." But there was some method in this madness. The
+rash scheme of emigration had a practical side; land speculation and
+commerce were to be the foundation and support of the settlement in the
+wilderness where they would realize their political Utopia.
+
+From Geneva the young adventurers hurried to Nantes, on the coast of
+France, where Gallatin soon received letters from his family, who seem
+to have neglected nothing that could contribute to their comfort or
+advantage. Monsieur P. M. Gallatin, the guardian of Albert, a distant
+relative in an elder branch of the family, addressed him a letter
+which, in its moderation, dignity, and kindness, is a model of
+well-tempered severity and reproach. It expressed the pain Mademoiselle
+Pictet had felt at his unceremonious departure, and his own affliction
+at the ingratitude of one to whom he had never refused a request.
+Finally, as the trustee of his estate till his majority, the guardian
+assures the errant youth that he will aid him with pecuniary resources
+as far as possible, without infringing upon the capital, and within the
+sworn obligation of his trust. Letters of recommendation to
+distinguished Americans were also forwarded, and in these it is found,
+to the high credit of the family, that no distinction was made between
+the two young men, although Serre seems to have been considered as the
+originator of the bold move. The intervention of the Duke de la
+Rochefoucauld d'Enville was solicited, and a letter was obtained by him
+from Benjamin Franklin--then American minister at the Court of
+Versailles--to his son-in-law, Richard Bache. Lady Juliana Penn wrote in
+their behalf to John Penn at Philadelphia, and Mademoiselle Pictet to
+Colonel Kinloch, member of the Continental Congress from South Carolina.
+Thus supported in their undertaking the youthful travelers sailed from
+L'Orient on May 27, in an American vessel, the Kattie, Captain Loring.
+Of the sum which Gallatin, who supplied the capital for the expedition,
+brought from Geneva, one half had been expended in their land journey
+and the payment of the passages to Boston; one half, eighty louis
+d'or--the equivalent of four hundred silver dollars--remained, part of
+which they invested in tea. Reaching the American coast in a fog, or bad
+weather, they were landed at Cape Ann on July 14. From Gloucester they
+rode the next day to Boston on horseback, a distance of thirty miles.
+Here they put up at a French café, "The Sign of the Alliance," in Fore
+Street, kept by one Tahon, and began to consider what step they should
+next take in the new world.
+
+The prospects were not encouraging; the military fortunes of the
+struggling nation were never at a lower ebb than during the summer which
+intervened between the disaster of Camden and the discovery of Arnold's
+treason. Washington's army lay at New Windsor in enforced inactivity;
+enlistments were few, and the currency was almost worthless. Such was
+the stagnation in trade, that the young strangers found it extremely
+difficult to dispose of their little venture in tea. Two months were
+passed at the café, in waiting for an opportunity to go to Philadelphia,
+where Congress was in session, and where they expected to find the
+influential persons to whom they were accredited; also letters from
+Geneva. But this journey was no easy matter. The usual routes of travel
+were interrupted. New York was the fortified headquarters of the British
+army, and the Middle States were only to be reached by a détour through
+the American lines above the Highlands and behind the Jersey Hills.
+
+The homesick youths found little to amuse or interest them in Boston,
+and grew very weary of its monotonous life and Puritanic tone. They
+missed the public amusements to which they were accustomed in their own
+country, and complained of the superstitious observance of Sunday, when
+"singing, fiddling, card-playing and bowling were forbidden." Foreigners
+were not welcome guests in this town of prejudice. The sailors of the
+French fleet had already been the cause of one riot. Gallatin's letters
+show that this aversion was fully reciprocated by him.
+
+The neighboring country had some points of interest. No Swiss ever saw a
+hill without an intense desire to get to its top. They soon felt the
+magnetic attraction of the Blue Hills of Milton, and, descrying from
+their summit the distant mountains north of Worcester, made a pedestrian
+excursion thither the following day. Mr. Gallatin was wont to relate
+with glee an incident of this trip, which Mr. John Russell Bartlett
+repeats in his "Reminiscences."
+
+     "The tavern at which he stopped on his journey was kept by a man
+     who partook in a considerable degree of the curiosity even
+     now-a-days manifested by some landlords in the back parts of New
+     England to know the whole history of their guests. Noticing Mr.
+     Gallatin's French accent he said, 'Just from France, eh! You are a
+     Frenchman, I suppose.' 'No!' said Mr. Gallatin, 'I am not from
+     France.' 'You can't be from England, I am sure?' 'No!' was the
+     reply. 'From Spain?' 'No!' 'From Germany?' 'No!' 'Well, where on
+     earth are you from then, or what are you?' eagerly asked the
+     inquisitive landlord. 'I am a Swiss,' replied Mr. Gallatin. 'Swiss,
+     Swiss, Swiss!' exclaimed the landlord, in astonishment. 'Which of
+     the ten tribes are the Swiss?'"
+
+Nor was this an unnatural remark. At this time Mr. Gallatin did not
+speak English with facility, and indeed was never free from a foreign
+accent.
+
+At the little café they met a Swiss woman, the wife of a Genevan, one De
+Lesdernier, who had been for thirty years established in Nova Scotia,
+but, becoming compromised in the attempt to revolutionize the colony,
+was compelled to fly to New England, and had settled at Machias, on the
+northeastern extremity of the Maine frontier. Tempted by her account of
+this region, and perhaps making a virtue of necessity, Gallatin and
+Serre bartered their tea for rum, sugar, and tobacco, and, investing the
+remainder of their petty capital in similar merchandise, they embarked
+October 1, 1780, upon a small coasting vessel, which, after a long and
+somewhat perilous passage, reached the mouth of the Machias River on the
+15th of the same month. Machias was then a little settlement five miles
+from the mouth of the stream of the same name. It consisted of about
+twenty houses and a small fortification, mounting seven guns and
+garrisoned by fifteen or twenty men. The young travelers were warmly
+received by the son of Lesdernier, and made their home under his roof.
+This seems to have been one of the four or five log houses in a large
+clearing near the fort. Gallatin attempted to settle a lot of land, and
+the meadow where he cut the hay with his own hands is still pointed out.
+This is Frost's meadow in Perry, not far from the site of the Indian
+village. A single cow was the beginning of a farm, but the main
+occupation of the young men was woodcutting. No record remains of the
+result of the merchandise venture. The trade of Machias was wholly in
+fish, lumber, and furs, which, there being no money, the settlers were
+ready enough to barter for West India goods. But the outlet for the
+product of the country was, in its unsettled condition, uncertain and
+precarious, and the young traders were no better off than before. One
+transaction only is remembered, the advance by Gallatin to the garrison
+of supplies to the value of four hundred dollars; for this he took a
+draft on the state treasury of Massachusetts, which, there being no
+funds for its payment, he sold at one fourth of its face value.
+
+The life, rude as it was, was not without its charms. Serre seems to
+have abandoned himself to its fascination without a regret. His
+descriptive letters to Badollet read like the "Idylls of a Faun." Those
+of Gallatin, though more tempered in tone, reveal quiet content with the
+simple life and a thorough enjoyment of nature in its original wildness.
+In the summer they followed the tracks of the moose and deer through the
+primitive forests, and explored the streams and lakes in the light
+birch canoe, with a woodsman or savage for their guide. In the winter
+they made long journeys over land and water on snowshoes or on skates,
+occasionally visiting the villages of the Indians, with whom the
+Lesderniers were on the best of terms, studying their habits and
+witnessing their feasts. Occasional expeditions of a different nature
+gave zest and excitement to this rustic life. These occurred when alarms
+of English invasion reached the settlement, and volunteers marched to
+the defence of the frontier. Twice Gallatin accompanied such parties to
+Passamaquoddy, and once, in November, 1780, was left for a time in
+command of a small earthwork and a temporary garrison of whites and
+Indians at that place. At Machias Gallatin made one acquaintance which
+greatly interested him, that of La Pérouse, the famous navigator. He was
+then in command of the Amazone frigate, one of the French squadron on
+the American coast, and had in convoy a fleet of fishing vessels on
+their way to the Newfoundland banks. Gallatin had an intense fondness
+for geography, and was delighted with La Pérouse's narrative of his
+visit to Hudson's Bay, and of his discovery there (at Fort Albany, which
+he captured) of the manuscript journal of Samuel Hearne, who some years
+before had made a voyage to the Arctic regions in search of a northwest
+passage. Gallatin and La Pérouse met subsequently in Boston.
+
+The winter of 1780-81 was passed in the cabin of the Lesderniers. The
+excessive cold does not seem to have chilled Serre's enthusiasm. Like
+the faun of Hawthorne's mythical tale, he loved Nature in all her moods;
+but Gallatin appears to have wearied of the confinement and of his
+uncongenial companions. The trading experiment was abandoned in the
+autumn, and with some experience, but a reduced purse, the friends
+returned in October to Boston, where Gallatin set to work to support
+himself by giving lessons in the French language. What success he met
+with at first is not known, though the visits of the French fleet and
+the presence of its officers may have awakened some interest in their
+language. However this may be, in December Gallatin wrote to his good
+friend, Mademoiselle Pictet, a frank account of his embarrassments.
+Before it reached her, she had already, with her wonted forethought,
+anticipated his difficulties by providing for a payment of money to him
+wherever he might be, and had also secured for him the interest of Dr.
+Samuel Cooper, whose grandson, young Johannot, was then at school in
+Geneva. Dr. Cooper was one of the most distinguished of the patriots in
+Boston, and no better influence could have been invoked than his. In
+July, 1782, by a formal vote of the President and Fellows of Harvard
+College, Mr. Gallatin was permitted to teach the French language. About
+seventy of the students availed themselves of the privilege. Mr.
+Gallatin received about three hundred dollars in compensation. In this
+occupation he remained at Cambridge for about a year, at the expiration
+of which he took advantage of the close of the academic course to
+withdraw from his charge, receiving at his departure a certificate from
+the Faculty that he had acquitted himself in his department with great
+reputation.
+
+The war was over, the army of the United States was disbanded, and the
+country was preparing for the new order which the peace would introduce
+into the habits and occupations of the people. The long-sought
+opportunity at last presented itself, and Mr. Gallatin at once embraced
+it. He left Boston without regret. He had done his duty faithfully, and
+secured the approbation and esteem of all with whom he had come in
+contact, but there is no evidence that he cared for or sought social
+relations either in the city or at the college. Journeying southward he
+passed through Providence, where he took sail for New York. Stopping for
+an hour at Newport for dinner, he reached New York on July 21, 1783. The
+same day the frigate Mercury arrived from England with news of the
+signature of the definitive treaty of peace. He was delighted with the
+beauty of the country-seats above the city, the vast port with its
+abundant shipping, and with the prospect of a theatrical entertainment.
+The British soldiers and sailors, who were still in possession, he found
+rude and insolent, but the returning refugees civil and honest people.
+At Boston Gallatin made the acquaintance of a French gentleman, one
+Savary de Valcoulon, who had crossed the Atlantic to prosecute in person
+certain claims against the State of Virginia for advances made by his
+house in Lyons during the war. He accompanied Gallatin to New York, and
+together they traveled to Philadelphia; Savary, who spoke no English,
+gladly attaching to himself as his companion a young man of the ability
+and character of Gallatin.
+
+At Philadelphia Gallatin was soon after joined by Serre, who had
+remained behind, engaged also in giving instruction. The meeting at
+Philadelphia seems to have been the occasion for the dissolution of a
+partnership in which Gallatin had placed his money, and Serre his
+enthusiasm and personal charm. A settlement was made; Serre giving his
+note to Gallatin for the sum of six hundred dollars,--one half of their
+joint expenses for three years,--an obligation which was repaid more
+than half a century later by his sister. Serre then joined a
+fellow-countryman and went to Jamaica, where he died in 1784. At
+Philadelphia Gallatin and Savary lodged in a house kept by one Mary
+Lynn. Pelatiah Webster, the political economist, who owned the house,
+was also a boarder. Later he said of his fellow-lodgers that "they were
+well-bred gentlemen who passed their time conversing in French."
+Gallatin, at the end of his resources, gladly acceded to Savary's
+request to accompany him to Richmond.
+
+Whatever hesitation Gallatin may have entertained as to his definitive
+expatriation was entirely set at rest by the news of strife between the
+rival factions in Geneva and the interposition of armed force by the
+neighboring governments. This interference turned the scale against the
+liberal party. Mademoiselle Pictet was the only link which bound him to
+his family. For his ingratitude to her he constantly reproached himself.
+He still styled himself a citizen of Geneva, but this was only as a
+matter of convenience and security to his correspondence. His
+determination to make America his home was now fixed. The lands on the
+banks of the Ohio were then considered the most fertile in America,--the
+best for farming purposes, the cultivation of grain, and the raising of
+cattle. The first settlement in this region was made by the Ohio
+Company, an association formed in Virginia and London, about the middle
+of the century, by Thomas Lee, together with Lawrence and Augustine,
+brothers of George Washington. The lands lay on the south side of the
+Ohio, between the Monongahela and Kanawha rivers. These lands were known
+as "Washington's bottom lands." In this neighborhood Gallatin determined
+to purchase two or three thousand acres, and prepare for that ideal
+country home which had been the dream of his college days. Land here was
+worth from thirty cents to four dollars an acre. His first purchase was
+about one thousand acres, for which he paid one hundred pounds,
+Virginia currency. Land speculation was the fever of the time. Savary
+was early affected by it, and before the new friends left Philadelphia
+for Richmond he bought warrants for one hundred and twenty thousand
+acres in Virginia, in Monongalia County, between the Great and Little
+Kanawha rivers, and interested Gallatin to the extent of one quarter in
+the purchase. Soon after the completion of this transaction the sale of
+some small portions reimbursed them for three fourths of the original
+cost. This was the first time when, and Savary was the first person to
+whom, Gallatin was willing to incur a pecuniary obligation. Throughout
+his life he had an aversion to debt; small or large, private or public.
+It was arranged that Gallatin's part of the purchase money was not to be
+paid until his majority,--January 29, 1786,--but in the meanwhile he
+was, in lieu of interest money, to give his services in personal
+superintendence. Later Savary increased Gallatin's interest to one half.
+Soon after these plans were completed, Savary and Gallatin moved to
+Richmond, where they made their residence.
+
+In February, 1784, Gallatin returned to Philadelphia, perfected the
+arrangements for his expedition, and in March crossed the mountains,
+and, with his exploring party, passed down the Ohio River to Monongalia
+County in Virginia. The superior advantages of the country north of the
+Virginia line determined him to establish his headquarters there. He
+selected the farm of Thomas Clare, at the junction of the Monongahela
+River and George's Creek. This was in Fayette County, Pennsylvania,
+about four miles north of the Virginia line. Here he built a log hut,
+opened a country store, and remained till the close of the year. It was
+while thus engaged at George's Creek, in September of the year 1784,
+that Gallatin first met General Washington, who was examining the
+country, in which he had large landed interests, to select a route for a
+road across the Alleghanies. The story of the interview was first made
+public by Mr. John Russell Bartlett, who had it from the lips of Mr.
+Gallatin. The version of the late Hon. William Beach Lawrence, in a
+paper prepared for the New York Historical Society, differs slightly in
+immaterial points. Mr. Lawrence says:--
+
+     "Among the incidents connected with his (Mr. Gallatin's) earliest
+     explorations was an interview with General Washington, which he
+     repeatedly recounted to me. He had previously observed that of all
+     the inaccessible men he had ever seen, General Washington was the
+     most so. And this remark he made late in life, after having been
+     conversant with most of the sovereigns of Europe and their prime
+     ministers. He said, in connection with his office, he had a cot-bed
+     in the office of the surveyor of the district when Washington, who
+     had lands in the neighborhood, and was desirous of effecting
+     communication between the rivers, came there. Mr. Gallatin's bed
+     was given up to him,--Gallatin lying on the floor, immediately
+     below the table at which Washington was writing. Washington was
+     endeavoring to reduce to paper the calculations of the day.
+     Gallatin, hearing the statement, came at once to the conclusion,
+     and, after waiting some time, he himself gave the answer, which
+     drew from Washington such a look as he never experienced before or
+     since. On arriving by a slow process at his conclusion, Washington
+     turned to Gallatin and said, 'You are right, young man.'"
+
+The points of difference between the two accounts of this interview are
+of little importance. The look which Washington is said to have given
+Mr. Gallatin has its counterpart in that with which he is also said to
+have turned upon Gouverneur Morris, when accosted by him familiarly with
+a touch on the shoulder. Bartlett, in his recollection of the anecdote,
+adds that Washington, about this period, inquired after the forward
+young man, and urged him to become his land agent,--an offer which
+Gallatin declined.
+
+The winter of 1784-85 was passed in Richmond, in the society of which
+town Mr. Gallatin began to find a relief and pleasure he had not yet
+experienced in America. At this period the Virginia capital was the
+gayest city in the Union, and famous for its abundant hospitality,
+rather facile manners, and the liberal tendency of its religious
+thought. Gallatin brought no prudishness and no orthodoxy in his
+Genevese baggage. One of the last acts of his life was to recognize in
+graceful and touching words the kindness he then met with:--
+
+     "I was received with that old proverbial Virginia hospitality to
+     which I know no parallel anywhere within the circle of my travels.
+     It was not hospitality only that was shown to me. I do not know how
+     it came to pass, but every one with whom I became acquainted
+     appeared to take an interest in the young stranger. I was only the
+     interpreter of a gentleman, the agent of a foreign house, that had
+     a large claim for advances to the State, and this made me known to
+     all the officers of government, and some of the most prominent
+     members of the Legislature. It gave me the first opportunity of
+     showing some symptoms of talent, even as a speaker, of which I was
+     not myself aware. Every one encouraged me, and was disposed to
+     promote my success in life. To name all those from whom I received
+     offers of service would be to name all the most distinguished
+     residents at that time in Richmond."
+
+In the spring of 1785, fortified with a certificate from Governor
+Patrick Henry, commending him to the county surveyor, and intrusted by
+Henry with the duty of locating two thousand acres of lands in the
+western country for a third party, he set out from Richmond, on March
+31, alone, on horseback. Following the course of the James River he
+crossed the Blue Ridge at the Peaks of Otter, and reached Greenbrier
+Court House on April 18. On the 29th he arrived at Clare's, on George's
+Creek, where he was joined by Savary. Their surveying operations were
+soon begun, each taking a separate course. An Indian rising broke up the
+operations of Savary, and both parties returned to Clare's. Gallatin
+appeared before the court of Monongalia County, at its October term, and
+took the "oath of allegiance and fidelity to the Commonwealth of
+Virginia." Clare's, his actual residence, was north of the Virginia
+line, but his affections were with the old Dominion. In November the
+partners hired from Clare a house at George's Creek, in Springfield
+township, and established their residence, after which they returned to
+Richmond by way of Cumberland and the Potomac. In February, 1786,
+Gallatin made his permanent abode at his new home.
+
+Mention has been made of the intimacy of the young emigrants with Jean
+Badollet, a college companion. When they left Geneva he was engaged in
+the study of theology, and was now a teacher. He was included in the
+original plan of emigration, and the first letters of both Gallatin and
+Serre, who had for him an equal attachment, were to him, and year by
+year, through all the vicissitudes of their fortune, they kept him
+carefully informed of their movements and projects. For two years after
+their departure no word was received from him. At last, spurred by the
+sharp reproaches of Serre, he broke silence. In a letter written in
+March, 1783, informing Gallatin of the troubles in Switzerland, he
+excused himself on the plea that their common friend, Dumont, retained
+him at Geneva. In answer, Gallatin opened his plans of western
+settlement, which included the employment of his fortune in the
+establishment of a number of families upon his lands. He suggested to
+Badollet to bring with him the little money he had, to which enough
+would be added to establish him independently. Dumont was invited to
+accompany him. But with a prudence which shows that his previous
+experience had not been thrown away upon him, Gallatin recommends his
+friend not to start at once, but to hold himself ready for the next, or,
+at the latest, the year succeeding, at the same time suggesting the idea
+of a general emigration of such Swiss malcontents as were small
+capitalists and farmers; that of manufacturers and workmen he
+discouraged. It was not, however, until the spring of 1785, on the eve
+of leaving Richmond with some families which he had engaged to establish
+on his lands, that he felt justified in asking his old friend to cross
+the seas and share his lot. This invitation was accepted, and Badollet
+joined him at George's Creek.
+
+The settlement beginning to spread, Gallatin bought another farm higher
+up the river, to which he gave the name of Friendship Hill. Here he
+later made his home.
+
+The western part of Pennsylvania, embracing the area which stretches
+from the Alleghany Mountains to Lake Erie, is celebrated for the wild,
+picturesque beauty of its scenery. Among its wooded hills the head
+waters of the Ohio have their source. At Fort Duquesne, or Pittsburgh,
+where the river takes a sudden northerly bend before finally settling in
+swelling volume on its southwesterly course to the Mississippi, the
+Monongahela adds its mountain current, which separates in its entire
+course from the Virginia line the two counties of Fayette and
+Washington. The Monongahela takes its rise in Monongalia County,
+Virginia, and flows to the northward. Friendship Hill is one of the
+bluffs on the right bank of the river, and faces the Laurel Ridge to the
+eastward. Braddock's Road, now the National Road, crosses the mountains,
+passing through Uniontown and Red Stone Old Fort (Brownsville), on its
+course to Pittsburgh. The county seat of Fayette is the borough of Union
+or Uniontown. Gallatin's log cabin, the beginning of New Geneva, was on
+the right bank of the Monongahela, about twelve miles to the westward of
+the county seat. Opposite, on the other side of the river, in Washington
+County, was Greensburg, where his friend Badollet was later established.
+
+Again for a long period Gallatin left his family without any word
+whatever. His most indulgent friend, Mademoiselle Pictet, could hardly
+excuse his silence, and did not hesitate to charge that it was due to
+misfortunes which his pride prompted him to conceal. In the early days
+of 1786 a rumor of his death reached Geneva, and greatly alarmed his
+family. Mr. Jefferson, then minister at Paris, wrote to Mr. Jay for
+information. This was Jefferson's first knowledge of the existence of
+the young man who was to become his political associate, his philosophic
+companion, and his truest friend. Meanwhile Gallatin had attained his
+twenty-fifth year and his majority. His family were no longer left in
+doubt as to his existence, and in response to his letters drafts were at
+once remitted to him for the sum of five thousand dollars, through the
+banking-house of Robert Morris. This was, of course, immediately applied
+to his western experiment. The business of the partnership now called
+for his constant attention. It required the exercise of a great variety
+of mental powers, a cool and discriminating judgment, combined with an
+incessant attention to details. Nature, under such circumstances, is not
+so attractive as she appears in youthful dreams; admirable in her
+original garb, she is annoying and obstinate when disturbed. The view of
+country which Friendship Hill commands is said to rival Switzerland in
+its picturesque beauty, but years later, when the romance of the
+Monongahela hills had faded in the actualities of life, Gallatin wrote
+of it that "he did not know in the United States any spot which afforded
+less means to earn a bare subsistence for those who could not live by
+manual labor."
+
+Gallatin has been blamed for "taking life awry and throwing away the
+advantages of education, social position, and natural intelligence," by
+his removal to the frontier, and his career compared with that of
+Hamilton and Dallas, who, like him, foreign born, rose to eminence in
+politics, and became secretaries of the treasury of the United States.
+But both of these were of English-speaking races. No foreigner of any
+other race ever obtained such distinction in American politics as Mr.
+Gallatin, and he only because he was the choice of a constituency, to
+every member of which he was personally known. It is questionable
+whether in any other condition of society he could have secured
+advancement by election--the true source of political power in all
+democracies. John Marshall, afterwards Chief Justice, recognized
+Gallatin's talent soon after his arrival in Richmond, offered him a
+place in his office without a fee, and assured him of future distinction
+in the profession of the law; but Patrick Henry was the more sagacious
+counselor; he advised Gallatin to go to the West, and predicted his
+success as a statesman. Modest as the beginning seemed in the country he
+had chosen, it was nevertheless a start in the right direction, as the
+future showed. It was in no sense a mistake.
+
+Neither did the affairs of the wilderness wholly debar intercourse with
+the civilized world. Visiting Richmond every winter, he gradually
+extended the circle of his acquaintance, and increased his personal
+influence; he also occasionally passed a few weeks at Philadelphia. Two
+visits to Maine are recorded in his diary, but whether they were of
+pleasure merely does not appear. One was in 1788, in midwinter, by stage
+and sleigh. On this excursion he descended the Androscoggin and crossed
+Merrymeeting Bay on the ice, returning by the same route in a snowstorm,
+which concealed the banks on either side of the river, so that he
+governed his course by the direction of the wind. With the intellect of
+a prime minister he had the constitution of a pioneer. On one of these
+occasions he intended to visit his old friends and hosts, the
+Lesderniers, but the difficulty of finding a conveyance, and the rumor
+that the old gentleman was away from home, interfered with his purpose.
+He remembered their kindness, and later attempted to obtain pensions for
+them from the United States government.
+
+But the time now arrived when the current of his domestic life was
+permanently diverted, and set in other channels. In May, 1789, he
+married Sophie Allègre, the daughter of William Allègre of a French
+Protestant family living at Richmond. The father was dead, and the
+mother took lodgers, of whom Gallatin was one. For more than a year he
+had addressed her and secured her affections. Her mother now refused her
+consent, and no choice was left to the young lovers but to marry without
+it. Little is known of this short but touching episode in Mr. Gallatin's
+life. The young lady was warmly attached to him, and the letter written
+to her mother asking forgiveness for her marriage is charmingly
+expressed and full of feeling. They passed a few happy months at
+Friendship Hill, when suddenly she died. From this time Mr. Gallatin
+lost all heart in the western venture, and his most earnest wish was to
+turn his back forever upon Fayette County. In his suffering he would
+have returned to Geneva to Mademoiselle Pictet, could he have sold his
+Virginia lands. But this had become impossible at any price, and he had
+no other pecuniary resource but the generosity of his family.
+
+Meanwhile the revolution had broken out in France. The rights of man had
+been proclaimed on the Champ de Mars. All Europe was uneasy and alarmed,
+and nowhere offered a propitious field for peaceful labor. But Gallatin
+did not long need other distraction than he was to find at home.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PENNSYLVANIA LEGISLATURE
+
+
+Political revolutions are the opportunity of youth. In England, Pitt and
+Fox; in America, Hamilton and Gouverneur Morris; in Europe, Napoleon and
+Pozzo di Borgo, before they reached their thirtieth year, helped to
+shape the political destiny of nations. The early maturity of Gallatin
+was no less remarkable. In his voluminous correspondence there is no
+trace of youth. At nineteen his habits of thought were already formed,
+and his moral and intellectual tendencies were clearly marked in his
+character, and understood by himself. His tastes also were already
+developed. His life, thereafter, was in every sense a growth. The germs
+of every excellence, which came to full fruition in his subsequent
+career, may be traced in the preferences of his academic days. From
+youth to age he was consistent with himself. His mind was of that rare
+and original order which, reasoning out its own conclusions, seldom has
+cause to change.
+
+His political opinions were early formed. A letter written by him in
+October, 1783, before he had completed his twenty-third year, shows the
+maturity of his intellect, and his analytic habit of thought. An extract
+gives the nature of the reasons which finally determined him to make his
+home in America:--
+
+     "This is what by degrees greatly influenced my judgment. After my
+     arrival in this country I was early convinced, upon a comparison of
+     American governments with that of Geneva, that the latter is
+     founded on false principles; that the judicial power, in civil as
+     well as criminal cases, the executive power wholly, and two thirds
+     of the legislative power being lodged in two bodies which are
+     almost self-made, and the members of which are chosen for life,--it
+     is hardly possible but that this formidable aristocracy should,
+     sooner or later, destroy the equilibrium which it was supposed
+     could be maintained at Geneva."
+
+The period from the peace of 1783 to the adoption of the federal
+Constitution in 1787 was one of political excitement. The utter failure
+of the old Confederation to serve the purposes of national defense and
+safety for which it was framed had been painfully felt during the war.
+Independence had been achieved under it rather than by it, the patriotic
+action of some of the States supplying the deficiencies of others less
+able or less willing. By the radical inefficiency of the Confederation
+the war had been protracted, its success repeatedly imperiled, and, at
+its close, the results gained by it were constantly menaced. The more
+perfect union which was the outcome of the deliberations of the federal
+convention was therefore joyfully accepted by the people at large.
+Indeed, it was popular pressure, and not the arguments of its advocates,
+that finally overcame the formidable opposition in and out of the
+convention to the Constitution. No written record remains of Mr.
+Gallatin's course during the sessions of the federal convention. He was
+not a member of the body, nor is his name connected with any public act
+having any bearing upon its deliberations. Of the direction of his
+influence, however, there can be no doubt. He had an abiding distrust of
+strong government,--a dread of the ambitions of men. Precisely what form
+he would have substituted for the legislative and executive system
+adopted nowhere appears in his writings, but certainly neither president
+nor senate would have been included. They bore too close a resemblance
+to king and lords to win his approval, no matter how restricted their
+powers. He would evidently have leaned to a single house, with a
+temporary executive directly appointed by itself; or, if elected by the
+people, then for a short term of office, without renewal; and he would
+have reduced its legislative powers to the narrowest possible limit. The
+best government he held to be that which governs least; and many of the
+ablest of that incomparable body of men who welded this Union held these
+views. But the yearning of the people was in the other direction. They
+felt the need of government. They wanted the protection of a strong arm.
+It must not be forgotten that the thirteen colonies which declared
+their independence in 1776 were all seaboard communities, each with its
+port. They were all trading communities. The East, with its fisheries
+and timber; the Middle States, with their agricultural products and
+peltries; the South, with its tobacco; each saw, in that freedom from
+the restrictions of the English navigation laws which the treaty of
+peace secured, the promise of a boundless commerce. To protect commerce
+there must be a national power somewhere. Since the peace the government
+had gained neither the affection of its own citizens nor the respect of
+foreign powers.
+
+The federal Constitution was adopted September 17, 1787. The first State
+to summon a convention of ratification was Pennsylvania. No one of the
+thirteen original States was more directly interested than herself. The
+centre of population lay somewhere in her limits, and there was
+reasonable ground for hope that Philadelphia would become once more the
+seat of government. The delegates met at Philadelphia on November 2. An
+opposition declared itself at the beginning of the proceedings.
+Regardless of the popular impatience, the majority allowed full scope to
+adverse argument, and it was not until December 12 that the final vote
+was taken and the Constitution ratified, without recommendations, by a
+majority of two to one. In this body Fayette County was represented by
+Nicholas Breading and John Smilie. The latter gentleman, of Scotch-Irish
+birth, an adroit debater, led the opposition. In the course of his
+criticisms he enunciated the doctrines which were soon to become a party
+cry; the danger of the Constitution "in inviting rather than guarding
+against the approaches of tyranny;" "its tendency to a consolidation,
+not a confederation, of the States." Mr. Gallatin does not appear to
+have sought to be a delegate to this body, but his hand may be traced
+through the speeches of Smilie in the precision with which the
+principles of the opposition were formulated and declared; and his
+subsequent course plainly indicates that his influence was exerted in
+the interest of the dissatisfied minority. The ratification was received
+by the people with intense satisfaction, but the delay in debate lost
+the State the honor of precedence in the honorable vote of
+acquiescence,--the Delaware convention having taken the lead by a
+unanimous vote. For the moment the Pennsylvania Anti-Federalists clung
+to the hope that the Constitution might yet fail to receive the assent
+of the required number of States, but as one after another fell into
+line, this hope vanished.
+
+One bold expedient remained. The ratification of some of the States was
+coupled with the recommendation of certain amendments. Massachusetts led
+the way in this, Virginia followed, and New York, which, in the language
+of the day, became the eleventh pillar of the federal edifice, on July
+26, 1788, accompanied her ratification with a circular letter to the
+governors of all the States, recommending that a general convention be
+called.[1]
+
+The argument taken in this letter was the only one which had any chance
+of commending itself to popular favor. It was in these words: "that the
+apprehension and discontents which the articles occasion cannot be
+removed or allayed unless an act to provide for the calling of a new
+convention be among the first that shall be passed by the next
+Congress." This document, made public at once, encouraged the
+Pennsylvania Anti-Federalists to a last effort to bring about a new
+convention, to undo or radically alter the work of the old. A conference
+held at Harrisburg, on September 3, 1788, was participated in by
+thirty-three gentlemen, from various sections of the State, who
+assembled in response to the call of a circular letter which originated
+in the county of Cumberland in the month of August. The city of
+Philadelphia and thirteen counties were represented; six of the
+dissenting members of the late convention were present, among whom was
+Smilie. He and Gallatin represented the county of Fayette.
+
+Smilie, Gallatin's earliest political friend, was born in 1742, and was
+therefore about twenty years his senior. He came to the United States in
+youth, and had grown up in the section he now represented. His
+popularity is shown by his service in the state legislature, and during
+twelve years in Congress as representative or as senator. In any
+estimate of Mr. Gallatin, this early influence must be taken into
+account. The friendship thus formed continued until Smilie's death in
+1816. From the adviser he became the ardent supporter of Mr. Gallatin.
+
+Blair McClanachan, of Philadelphia County, was elected chairman of the
+conference. The result of this deliberation was a report in the form of
+a series of resolutions, of which two drafts, both in Mr. Gallatin's
+handwriting, are among his papers now in the keeping of the New York
+Historical Society. The original resolutions were broad in scope, and
+suggested a plan of action of a dual nature; the one of which failing,
+resort could be had to the other without compromising the movement by
+delay. In a word, it proposed an opposition by a party organization. The
+first resolution was adroitly framed to avoid the censure with which the
+people at large, whose satisfaction with the new Constitution had grown
+with the fresh adhesions of State after State to positive enthusiasm,
+would surely condemn any attempt to dissolve the Union formed under its
+provisions. This resolution declared that it was in order to _prevent_ a
+dissolution of the Union and to secure liberty, that a revision was
+necessary. The second expressed the opinion of the conference to be,
+that the safest manner to obtain such revision was to conform to the
+request of the State of New York, and to urge the calling of a new
+convention, and recommended that the Pennsylvania legislature be
+petitioned to apply for that purpose to the new Congress. These were
+declaratory. The third and fourth provided, first, for an organization
+of committees in the several counties to correspond with each other and
+with similar committees in other States; secondly, invited the friends
+to amendments in the several States to meet in conference at a fixed
+time and place. This plan of committees of correspondence and of a
+meeting of delegates was simply a revival of the methods of the Sons of
+Liberty, from whose action sprung the first Continental Congress of
+1774.
+
+The formation of such an organization would surely have led to
+disturbance, perhaps to civil war. During the progress of the New York
+convention swords and bayonets had been drawn, and blood had been shed
+in the streets of Albany, where the Anti-Federalists excited popular
+rage by burning the new Constitution. But the thirty-three gentlemen who
+met at Harrisburg wisely tempered these resolutions to a moderate tone.
+Thus modified, they recommended, first, that the people of the State
+should acquiesce in the organization of the government, while holding in
+view the necessity of very considerable amendments and alterations
+essential to preserve the peace and harmony of the Union. Secondly, that
+a revision by general convention was necessary. Thirdly, that the
+legislature should be requested to apply to Congress for that purpose.
+The petition recommended twelve amendments, selected from those already
+proposed by other States. These were of course restrictive. The report
+was made public in the "Pennsylvania Packet" of September 15. With this
+the agitation appears to have ceased. On September 13 Congress notified
+the States by resolution to appoint electors under the provisions of the
+Constitution. The unanimous choice of Washington as president hushed all
+opposition, and for a time the Anti-Federalists sunk into
+insignificance.
+
+The persistent labors of the friends of revision were not without
+result. The amendments proposed by Virginia and New York were laid
+before the House of Representatives. Seventeen received the two thirds
+vote of the House. After conference with the Senate, in which Mr.
+Madison appeared as manager for the House, these, reduced in number to
+twelve by elimination and compression, were adopted by the requisite two
+thirds vote, and transmitted to the legislatures of the States for
+approval. Ratified by a sufficient number of States, they became a part
+of the Constitution. They were general, and declaratory of personal
+rights, and in no instance restrictive of the power of the general
+government.
+
+In 1789, the Assembly of Pennsylvania calling a convention to revise the
+Constitution of the State, Mr. Gallatin was sent as a delegate from
+Fayette County. To the purposes of this convention he was opposed, as a
+dangerous precedent. He had endeavored to organize an opposition to it
+in the western counties, by correspondence with his political friends.
+His objections were the dangers of alterations in government, and the
+absurdity of the idea that the Constitution ever contemplated a change
+by the will of a mere majority. Such a doctrine, once admitted, would
+enable not only the legislature, but a majority of the more popular
+house, were two established, to make another appeal to the people on the
+first occasion, and, instead of establishing on solid foundations a new
+government, would open the door to perpetual change, and destroy that
+stability which is essential to the welfare of a nation; since no
+constitution acquires the permanent affection of the people, save in
+proportion to its duration and age. Finally, such changes would sooner
+or later conclude in an appeal to arms,--the true meaning of the popular
+and dangerous words, "an appeal to the people." The opposition was begun
+too late, however, to admit of combined effort, and was not persisted
+in; and Mr. Gallatin himself, with practical good sense, consented to
+serve as a delegate. Throughout his political course the pride of
+mastery never controlled his actions. When debarred from leadership he
+did not sulk in his tent, but threw his weight in the direction of his
+principles. The convention met at Philadelphia on November 24, 1789, and
+closed its labors on September 2, 1790. This was Gallatin's
+apprenticeship in the public service. Among his papers are a number of
+memoranda, some of them indicating much elaboration of speeches made, or
+intended to be made, in this body. One is an argument in favor of
+enlarging the representation in the House; another is against a plan of
+choosing senators by electors; another concerns the liberty of the
+press. There is, further, a memorandum of his motion in regard to the
+right of suffrage, by virtue of which "every freeman who has attained
+the age of twenty-one years, and been a resident and inhabitant during
+one year next before the day of election, every naturalized freeholder,
+every naturalized citizen who had been assessed for state or county
+taxes for two years before election day, or who had resided ten years
+successively in the State, should be entitled to the suffrage, paupers
+and vagabonds only being excluded." Certainly, in his conservative
+limitations upon suffrage, he did not consult his own interest as a
+large landholder inviting settlement, nor pander to the natural desires
+of his constituency.
+
+In an account of this convention, written at a later period, Mr.
+Gallatin said that it was the first public body to which he was elected,
+and that he took but a subordinate share in the debates; that it was one
+of the ablest bodies of which he was ever a member, and with which he
+was acquainted, and, excepting Madison and Marshall, that it embraced as
+much talent and knowledge as any Congress from 1795 to 1812, beyond
+which his personal knowledge did not extend. Among its members were
+Thomas McKean, signer of the Declaration of Independence and president
+of the Continental Congress, Thomas Mifflin and Timothy Pickering, of
+the Revolutionary army, and Smilie and Findley, Gallatin's political
+friends. General Mifflin was its president.
+
+But mental distraction brought Mr. Gallatin no peace of heart at this
+period, and when the excitement of the winter was over he fell into a
+state of almost morbid melancholy. To his friend Badollet he wrote from
+Philadelphia, early in March, that life in Fayette County had no more
+charms for him, and that he would gladly leave America. But his lands
+were unsalable at any price, and he saw no means of support at Geneva.
+Some one has said, with a profound knowledge of human nature, that no
+man is sure of happiness who has not the capacity for continuous labor
+of a disagreeable kind. The occasional glimpses into Mr. Gallatin's
+inner nature, which his correspondence affords, show that up to this
+period he was not supposed by his friends or by himself to have this
+capacity. In the letter which his guardian wrote to him after his flight
+from home, he was reproached with his "natural indolence." His good
+friend, Mademoiselle Pictet, accused him of being hard to please, and
+disposed to _ennui_; and again, as late as 1787, repeats to him, in a
+tone of sorrow, the reports brought to her of his "continuance in his
+old habit of indolence," his indifference to society, his neglect of
+his dress, and general indifference to everything but study and reading,
+tastes which, she added, he might as well have cultivated at Geneva as
+in the new world; and he himself, in the letter to Badollet just
+mentioned, considers that his habits and his laziness would prove
+insuperable bars to his success in any profession in Europe. In
+estimation of this self-condemnation, it must be borne in mind that the
+Genevans were intellectual Spartans. Gallatin must be measured by that
+high standard. But if the charge of indolence could have ever justly
+lain against Gallatin,--a charge which his intellectual vigor at
+twenty-seven seems to challenge,--it certainly could never have been
+sustained after he fairly entered on his political and public career. In
+October, 1790, he was elected by a two thirds majority to represent
+Fayette County in the legislature of the State of Pennsylvania; James
+Findley was his colleague, John Smilie being advanced to the state
+Senate. Mr. Gallatin was reëlected to the Assembly in 1791 and 1792,
+without opposition.
+
+Among his papers there is a memorandum of his legislative service during
+these three years, and a manuscript volume of extracts from the Journals
+of the House, from January 14, 1791, to December 17, 1794. They form
+part of the extensive mass of documents and letters which were collected
+and partially arranged by himself, with a view to posthumous
+publication. Here is an extract from the memorandum:--
+
+     "I acquired an extraordinary influence in that body [the
+     Pennsylvania House of Representatives]; the more remarkable as I
+     was always in a party minority. I was indebted for it to my great
+     industry and to the facility with which I could understand and
+     carry on the current business. The laboring oar was left almost
+     exclusively to me. In the session of 1791-1792, I was put on
+     thirty-five committees, prepared all their reports, and drew all
+     their bills. Absorbed by those details, my attention was turned
+     exclusively to administrative laws, and not to legislation properly
+     so called.... I failed, though the bill I had introduced passed the
+     House, in my efforts to lay the foundation for a better system of
+     education. Primary education was almost universal in Pennsylvania,
+     but very bad, and the bulk of schoolmasters incompetent, miserably
+     paid, and held in no consideration. It appeared to me that in order
+     to create a sufficient number of competent teachers, and to raise
+     the standard of general education, intermediate academical
+     education was an indispensable preliminary step, and the object of
+     the bill was to establish in each county an academy, allowing to
+     each out of the treasury a sum equal to that raised by taxation in
+     the county for its support. But there was at that time in
+     Pennsylvania a Quaker and a German opposition to every plan of
+     general education.
+
+     "The spirit of internal improvements had not yet been awakened.
+     Still, the first turnpike-road in the United States was that from
+     Philadelphia to Lancaster, which met with considerable opposition.
+     This, as well as every temporary improvement in our communications
+     (roads and rivers) and preliminary surveys, met, of course, with my
+     warm support. But it was in the fiscal department that I was
+     particularly employed, and the circumstances of the times favored
+     the restoration of the finances of the State.
+
+     "The report of the Committee of Ways and Means of the session
+     1790-91 was entirely prepared by me, known to be so, and laid the
+     foundation of my reputation. I was quite astonished at the general
+     encomiums bestowed upon it, and was not at all aware that I had
+     done so well. It was perspicuous and comprehensive; but I am
+     confident that its true merit, and that which gained me the general
+     confidence, was its being founded in strict justice, without the
+     slightest regard to party feelings or popular prejudices. The
+     principles assumed, and which were carried into effect, were the
+     immediate reimbursement and extinction of the state paper-money,
+     the immediate payment in specie of all the current expenses, or
+     warrants on the treasury (the postponement and uncertainty of which
+     had given rise to shameful and corrupt speculations), and provision
+     for discharging without defalcation every debt and engagement
+     previously recognized by the State. In conformity with this, the
+     State paid to its creditors the difference between the nominal
+     amount of the state debt assumed by the United States and the rate
+     at which it was funded by the act of Congress.
+
+     "The proceeds of the public lands, together with the arrears, were
+     the fund which not only discharged all the public debts, but left a
+     large surplus. The apprehension that this would be squandered by
+     the legislature was the principal inducement for chartering the
+     Bank of Pennsylvania, with a capital of two millions of dollars, of
+     which the State subscribed one half. This, and similar subsequent
+     investments, enabled Pennsylvania to defray, out of the dividends,
+     all the expenses of government without any direct tax during the
+     forty ensuing years, and till the adoption of the system of
+     internal improvement, which required new resources.
+
+     "It was my constant assiduity to business, and the assistance
+     derived from it by many members, which enabled the Republican party
+     in the legislature, then a minority on a joint ballot, to elect me,
+     and no other but me of that party, senator of the United States."
+
+Among the reports enumerated by Mr. Gallatin, as those of which he was
+the author, is one made by a committee on March 22, 1793, that they ...
+are of opinion slavery is inconsistent with every principle of humanity,
+justice, and right, and repugnant to the spirit and express letter of
+the Constitution of the Commonwealth. Added to this was a resolution for
+its abolition in the Commonwealth.
+
+The seat of government was changed from New York to Philadelphia in
+1790, and the first Congress assembled there in the early days of
+December for its final session. Philadelphia was in glee over the
+transfer of the departments. The convention which framed the new state
+Constitution met here in the fall, and the legislature was also holding
+its sessions. The atmosphere was political. The national and local
+representatives met each other at all times and in all places, and the
+public affairs were the chief topic in and out of doors. In this busy
+whirl Gallatin made many friends, but Philadelphia was no more to his
+taste as a residence than Boston. He was disgusted with the
+ostentatious display of wealth, the result not of industry but of
+speculation, and not in the hands of the most deserving members of the
+community. Later he became more reconciled to the tone of Pennsylvania
+society, comparing it with that of New York; he was especially pleased
+with its democratic spirit, and the absence of _family influence_. "In
+Pennsylvania," he says, "not only we have neither Livingstons, nor
+Rensselaers, but from the suburbs of Philadelphia to the banks of the
+Ohio I do not know a single family that has any extensive influence. An
+equal distribution of property has rendered every individual
+independent, and there is amongst us true and real equality. In a word,
+as I am lazy, I like a country where living is cheap; and as I am poor,
+I like a country where no person is very rich."
+
+Hamilton's excise bill was a bone of contention in the national and
+state legislatures throughout the winter. Direct taxation upon anything
+was unpopular, that on distilled spirits the most distasteful to
+Pennsylvania, where whiskey stills were numerous in the Alleghanies. To
+the bill introduced into Congress a reply was immediately made January
+14, 1791, by the Pennsylvania Assembly in a series of resolutions which
+are supposed to have been drafted by Mr. Gallatin, and to have been the
+first legislative paper from his pen. They distinctly charged that the
+obnoxious bill was "subversive of the peace, liberty, and rights of the
+citizen."
+
+Tax by excise has always been offensive to the American people, as it
+was to their ancestors across the sea. It was characterized by the first
+Continental Congress of 1774 as "the horror of all free States."
+Notwithstanding their warmth, these resolutions passed the Assembly by a
+vote of 40 to 16. The course of this excitement must be followed; as it
+swept Mr. Gallatin in its mad current, and but for his self-control,
+courage, and adroitness would have wrecked him on the breakers at the
+outset of his political voyage. The excise law passed Congress on March
+3, 1791. On June 22 the state legislature, by a vote of 36 to 11,
+requested their senators and representatives in Congress to oppose every
+part of the bill which "shall militate against the rights and liberties
+of the people."
+
+The western counties of Pennsylvania--Westmoreland, Fayette, Washington,
+and Allegheny--lie around the head-waters of the Ohio in a radius of
+more than a hundred miles. At this time they contained a population of
+about seventy thousand souls. Pittsburgh, the seat of justice, had about
+twelve hundred inhabitants. The Alleghany Mountains separate this wild
+region from the eastern section of the State. There were few roads of
+any kind, and these lay through woods. The mountain passes could be
+traveled only on foot or horseback. The only trade with the East was by
+pack-horses, while communication with the South was cut off by hostile
+Indian tribes who held the banks of the Ohio. This isolation from the
+older, denser, and more civilized settlements bred in the people a
+spirit of self-reliance and independence. They were in great part
+Scotch-Irish Presbyterians, a religious and warlike race to whom the
+hatred of an exciseman was a tradition of their forefathers. Having no
+market for their grain, they were compelled to preserve it by converting
+it into whiskey. The still was the necessary appendage of every farm.
+The tax was light, but payable in money, of which there was little or
+none. Its imposition, therefore, coupled with the declaration of its
+oppressive nature by the Pennsylvania legislature, excited a spirit of
+determined opposition near akin to revolution.
+
+Unpopular in all the western part of the State, Hamilton's bill was
+especially odious to the people of Washington County. The first meeting
+in opposition to it was held at Red Stone Old Fort or Brownsville, the
+site of one of those ancient remains of the mound-builders which abound
+in the western valleys. It was easily reached by Braddock's Road, the
+chief highway of the country. Here gathered on July 27, 1791, a number
+of persons opposed to the law, when it was agreed that county committees
+should be convened in the four counties at the respective seats of
+justice. Brackenridge, in his "Incidents of the Western Insurrection,"
+says that Albert Gallatin was clerk of the meeting. One of these
+committees met in the town of Washington on August 23, when violent
+resolutions were adopted. Gallatin, engaged at Philadelphia, was not
+present at this assemblage, three of whose members were deputed to meet
+delegates from the counties of Westmoreland, Fayette, and Allegheny, at
+Pittsburgh, on the first Tuesday in September following, to agree upon
+an address to the legislature on the subject of excise and other
+grievances. At the Pittsburgh meeting eleven delegates appeared for the
+four counties. The resolutions adopted by them, general in character,
+read more like a declaration of grievances as a basis for revolution
+than a petition for special redress. No wonder that the secretary of the
+treasury stigmatized them as "intemperate." They charge that in the laws
+of the late Congress hasty strides had been made to all that was unjust
+and oppressive. They complain of the increase in the salaries of
+officials, of the unreasonable interest of the national debt, of the
+non-discrimination between original holders and transferees of the
+public securities, of the National Bank as a base offspring of the
+funding system; finally, in detail, of the excise law of March 3, 1791.
+At this meeting James Marshall and David Bradford represented Washington
+County.
+
+In August government offices of inspection were opened. The spirit of
+resistance was now fully aroused, and in the early days of September the
+collectors for Washington, Westmoreland, and Fayette were treated with
+violence. Unwilling to proceed to excessive measures, and no doubt
+swayed by the attitude of the Pennsylvania legislature, Congress in
+October referred the law back to Hamilton for revision. He reported an
+amended act on March 6, 1792, which was immediately passed, and became a
+law March 8. It was to take effect on the last day of June succeeding.
+By it the rate of duty was reduced, a privilege of time as to the
+running of licenses of stills granted, and the tax ordered only for such
+time as they were actually used.
+
+But these modifications did not satisfy the malcontents of the four
+western counties, and they met again on August 21, 1792, at Pittsburgh.
+Of this second Pittsburgh meeting Albert Gallatin was chosen secretary.
+Badollet went up with Gallatin. John Smilie, James Marshall, and James
+Bradford of Washington County were present. Bradford, Marshall,
+Gallatin, and others were appointed to draw up a remonstrance to
+Congress. In order to carry out with regularity and concert the measures
+agreed upon, a committee of correspondence was appointed, and the
+meeting closed with the adoption of the violent resolutions passed at
+the Washington meeting of 1791:--
+
+     "Whereas, some men may be found among us so far lost to every sense
+     of virtue and feeling for the distresses of this country as to
+     accept offices for the collection of the duty.
+
+     "Resolved, therefore, that in future we will consider such persons
+     as unworthy of our friendship; have no intercourse or dealings with
+     them; withdraw from them every assistance, and withhold all the
+     comforts of life which depend upon those duties that as men and
+     fellow citizens we owe to each other; and upon all occasions treat
+     them with that contempt they deserve; and that it be, and it is
+     hereby, most earnestly recommended to the people at large, to
+     follow the same line of conduct towards them."
+
+If such an excommunication were to be meted out to an offending
+neighbor, what measure would the excise man receive if he came from
+abroad on his unwelcome errand?
+
+These resolutions were signed by Mr. Gallatin as clerk, and made public
+through the press. Resolutions of this character, if not criminal, reach
+the utmost limit of indiscretion, and political indiscretion is quite as
+dangerous as crime. The petition to Congress, subscribed by the
+inhabitants of western Pennsylvania, was drawn by Gallatin; while
+explicit in terms, it was moderate in tone. It represented the unequal
+operation of the act. "A duty laid on the common drink of a nation,
+instead of taxing the citizens in proportion to their property, falls as
+heavy on the poorest class as on the rich;" and it ingeniously pointed
+out that the distance of the inhabitants of the western counties from
+market prevented their bringing the produce of their lands to sale,
+either in grain or meal. "We are therefore distillers through necessity,
+not choice; that we may comprehend the greatest value in the smallest
+size and weight."
+
+Hamilton, indignant, reported the proceedings to the President on
+September 9, 1792, and demanded instant punishment. Washington, who was
+at Mount Vernon, was unwilling to go to extremes, but consented to issue
+a proclamation, which, drafted by Hamilton, and countersigned by
+Jefferson, was published September 15, 1792. It earnestly admonished all
+persons to desist from unlawful combinations to obstruct the operations
+of the laws, and charged all courts, magistrates, and officers with
+their enforcement. There was no mistaking Hamilton's intention to
+enforce the law. Prosecutions in the Circuit Court, held at Yorktown in
+October, were ordered against the Pittsburgh offenders, but no proof
+could be had to sustain an indictment.
+
+The President's proclamation startled the western people, and some
+uneasiness was felt as to how such of their representatives as had taken
+part in the Pittsburgh meeting would be received when they should go up
+to the legislature in the winter. Bradford and Smilie accompanied
+Gallatin; Smilie to take his seat in the state Senate, and Bradford to
+represent Washington County in the House, where he "cut a poor figure."
+Gallatin despised him, and characterized him as a "tenth-rate lawyer and
+an empty drum." Gallatin found, however, that although the Pittsburgh
+meeting had hurt the general interest of his party throughout the State,
+and "rather defeated" the repeal of the excise law, his eastern friends
+did not turn the cold shoulder to him. He said to every one whom he
+knew that the resolutions were perhaps too violent and undoubtedly
+highly impolitic, but, in his opinion, contained nothing illegal.
+Meanwhile federal officers proceeded to enforce the law in Washington
+County. A riot ensued, and the office was forcibly closed. Bills were
+found against two of the offenders in the federal court, and warrants to
+arrest and bring them to Philadelphia for trial were issued. Gallatin
+believed the men innocent, and did not hesitate to advise Badollet to
+keep them out of the way when the marshal should go to serve the writs,
+but deprecated any insult to the officer. He thought "the precedent a
+very dangerous one to drag people such a distance in order to be tried
+on governmental prosecutions." Here the matter rested for a season.
+
+At this session of the legislature Gallatin introduced a new system of
+county taxation, proposed a clause providing for "trustees yearly
+elected, one to each township, without whose consent no tax is to be
+raised, nor any above one per cent. on the value of lands," which he
+hoped would "tend to crush the aristocracy of every town in the State."
+Also he proposed a plan to establish a school and library in each
+county, with a sufficient immediate sum in money, and a yearly allowance
+for a teacher in the English language.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: The drafting of this letter was, notwithstanding his
+protest, intrusted to John Jay, one of the strongest of the Federal
+leaders, and a warm supporter of the Constitution as it stood.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+UNITED STATES SENATE
+
+
+The death of the grandfather of Mr. Gallatin, and soon after of his
+aunt, strongly tempted him to make a journey to Geneva in the summer of
+1793. The political condition of Europe at that time was of thrilling
+interest. On January 21 the head of Louis XVI. fell under the
+guillotine, to which Marie Antoinette soon followed him. The armies of
+the coalition were closing in upon France. Of the political necessity
+for these state executions there has always been and will always be
+different judgments. That of Mr. Gallatin is of peculiar value. It is
+found expressed in intimate frankness in a letter to his friend
+Badollet, written at Philadelphia, February 1, 1794.
+
+     "France at present offers a spectacle unheard of at any other
+     period. Enthusiasm there produces an energy equally terrible and
+     sublime. All those virtues which depend upon social or family
+     affections, all those amiable weaknesses, which our natural
+     feelings teach us to love or respect, have disappeared before the
+     stronger, the only, at present, powerful passion, the _Amor
+     Patriæ_. I must confess my soul is not enough steeled, not
+     sometimes to shrink at the dreadful executions which have restored
+     at least apparent internal tranquillity to that republic. Yet upon
+     the whole, as long as the combined despots press upon every
+     frontier, and employ every engine to destroy and distress the
+     interior parts, I think they, and they alone, are answerable for
+     every act of severity or injustice, for every excess, nay for every
+     crime, which either of the contending parties in France may have
+     committed."
+
+Within a few years the publication of the correspondence of De Fersen,
+the agent of the king and queen, has supplied the proof of the charge
+that they were in secret correspondence with the allied sovereigns to
+introduce foreign troops upon the soil of France,--a crime which no
+people has ever condoned.
+
+The French Revolution, which from its beginning in 1789 reacted upon the
+United States with fully the force that the American Revolution exerted
+upon France, had become an important factor in American politics. The
+intemperance of Genet, the minister of the French Convention to the
+United States on the one hand, and the breaches of neutrality by England
+on the other, were dividing the American people into English and French
+parties. The Federalists sympathized with the English, the late enemies,
+and the Republicans with the French, the late allies, of the United
+States.
+
+Mr. Gallatin had about made up his mind to visit Europe, when an
+unexpected political honor changed his plans. The Pennsylvania
+legislature elected him a senator of the United States on joint ballot,
+a distinction the more singular in that the legislature was Federalist
+and Mr. Gallatin was a representative of a Republican district, and
+strong in that faith. Moreover, he was not a candidate either of his own
+motion or by that of his friends, but, on the contrary, had doubts as to
+his eligibility because of insufficient residence. This objection, which
+he himself stated in caucus, was disregarded, and on February 28, 1793,
+by a vote of 45 to 37, he was chosen senator. Mr. Gallatin had just
+completed his thirty-second year, and now a happy marriage came
+opportunely to stimulate his ambition and smooth his path to other
+honors.
+
+Among the friends made at Philadelphia was Alexander J. Dallas, a
+gentleman two years Gallatin's senior, whose career, in some respects,
+resembled his own. He was born in Jamaica, of Scotch parents; had been
+thoroughly educated at Edinburgh and Westminster, and, coming to the
+United States in 1783, had settled in Philadelphia. He now held the post
+of secretary of state for Pennsylvania. Mr. Gallatin's constant
+committee service brought him into close relations with the secretary,
+and the foundation was laid of a lasting political friendship and social
+intimacy. In the recess of the legislature, Mr. Gallatin joined Mr.
+Dallas and his wife in an excursion to the northward. Mr. Gallatin's
+health had suffered from close confinement and too strict attention to
+business, and he needed recreation and diversion. In the course of the
+journey the party was joined by some ladies, friends of Mrs. Dallas,
+among whom was Miss Hannah Nicholson. The excursion lasted nearly four
+weeks. The result was that Mr. Gallatin returned to Philadelphia the
+accepted suitor of this young lady. He describes her in a letter to
+Badollet as "a girl about twenty-five years old, who is neither handsome
+nor rich, but sensible, well-informed, good-natured, and belonging to a
+respectable and very amiable family." Nor was he mistaken in his
+choice,--a more charming nature, a more perfect, well-rounded character
+than hers is rarely found. They were married on November 11, 1793. She
+was his faithful companion throughout his long and honorable career, and
+death separated them but by a few months. This alliance greatly widened
+his political connection.
+
+Commodore James Nicholson, his wife's father, famous in the naval annals
+of the United States as the captain of the Trumbull, the first of
+American frigates, at the time resided in New York, and was one of the
+acknowledged leaders of the Republican party in the city. His two
+brothers--Samuel and John--were captains in the naval service. His two
+elder daughters were married to influential gentlemen;--Catharine to
+Colonel Few, senator from Georgia; Frances, to Joshua Seney, member of
+Congress from Maryland; Maria later (1809) married John Montgomery, who
+had been member of Congress from Maryland, and was afterwards mayor of
+Baltimore. A son, James Witter Nicholson, then a youth of twenty-one,
+was, in 1795, associated with Mr. Gallatin in his Western Company, and,
+removing to Fayette, made his home in what was later and is now known as
+New Geneva. Here, in connection with Mr. Gallatin and the brothers
+Kramer, Germans, he established extensive glass works, which proved
+profitable.
+
+        *        *        *        *        *
+
+Mr. Gallatin's election to the United States Senate did not disqualify
+him for his unfinished legislative term, and, on his return to
+Philadelphia, he was again plunged in his manifold duties. The few days
+which intervened between his marriage and the meeting of Congress--a
+short honeymoon--were spent under the roof of Commodore Nicholson in New
+York.
+
+On February 28, 1793, the Vice-President laid before the Senate a
+certificate from the legislature of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania to
+the election of Albert Gallatin as senator of the United States. Mr.
+Gallatin took his seat December 2, 1793. The business of the session was
+opened by the presentation of a petition signed by nineteen individuals
+of Yorktown, Pennsylvania, stating that Mr. Gallatin had not been nine
+years a citizen of the United States. This petition had been handed to
+Robert Morris, Mr. Gallatin's colleague for Pennsylvania, by a member of
+the legislature for the county of York, but he had declined to present
+it, and declared to Mr. Gallatin his intention to be perfectly neutral
+on the occasion--at least so Mr. Gallatin wrote to his wife the next
+day; but Morris did not hold fast to this resolution, as the votes in
+the sequel show. The petition was ordered to lie upon the table. On
+December 11 Messrs. Rutherford, Cabot, Ellsworth, Livermore, and
+Mitchell were appointed a committee to consider the petition. These
+gentlemen, Gallatin wrote, were undoubtedly "the worst for him that
+could have been chosen, and did not seem to him to be favorably
+disposed." He himself considered the legal point involved as a nice and
+difficult one, and likely to be decided by a party vote. The fourth
+article of the Constitution of the first Confederation of the United
+States reads as follows:--
+
+     "The better to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and
+     intercourse among the people of the different States in this Union,
+     the free inhabitants of each of these States, paupers, vagabonds,
+     and fugitives from justice excepted, shall be entitled to all
+     privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States."
+
+Article 1, section 3, of the new Constitution declares:--
+
+     "No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the
+     age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United
+     States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that
+     State for which he shall be chosen."
+
+Mr. Gallatin landed in Massachusetts in July, 1780, while still a minor.
+His residence, therefore, which had been uninterrupted, extended over
+thirteen years. He took the oath of citizenship and allegiance to
+Virginia in October, 1785, since which, until his election in 1793, nine
+years, the period called for by the United States Constitution, had not
+elapsed. On the one hand, his actual residence exceeded the required
+period of citizenship; on the other, his legal and technical residence
+as a citizen was insufficient. In point of fact, his intention to become
+a citizen dated from the summer of 1783.
+
+To take from the case the air of party proscription, which it was
+beginning to assume, the Senate discharged its special committee, and
+raised a general committee on elections to consider this and other
+cases. On February 10, 1794, the report of this committee was submitted,
+and a day was set for a hearing by the Senate, with open doors. On that
+day Mr. Gallatin exhibited a written statement of facts, agreed to
+between himself and the petitioners, and the case was left to the Senate
+on its merits. On the 28th a test vote was taken upon a motion to the
+effect that "Albert Gallatin, returned to this House as a member for the
+State of Pennsylvania, is duly qualified for and elected to a seat in
+the Senate of the United States," and it was decided in the
+negative--yeas, 12; nays, 14.[2]
+
+Motion being made that the election of Albert Gallatin to be a senator
+of the United States was void,--he not having been a citizen of the
+United States for the term of years required as a qualification to be a
+senator of the United States,--it was further moved to divide the
+question at the word "void;" and the question being then taken on the
+first paragraph, it passed in the affirmative--yeas, 14; nays, 12. The
+yeas and nays were required, and the Senate divided as before. The
+resolution was then put and adopted by the same vote. Thus Mr. Gallatin,
+thirteen years a resident of the country, a large land-holder in
+Virginia, and for several terms a member of the Pennsylvania
+legislature, was excluded from a seat in the Senate of the United
+States.
+
+Mr. Gallatin conducted his case with great dignity. On being asked
+whether he had any testimony to produce, he replied, in writing, that
+there was not sufficient matter charged in the petition and proved by
+the testimony to vacate his seat, and declined to go to the expense of
+collecting evidence until that preliminary question was settled.
+
+Short as the period was during which Mr. Gallatin held his seat, it was
+long enough for him seriously to annoy the Federal leaders. Indeed, it
+is questionable whether, if he had delayed his embarrassing motion, a
+majority of the Senate could have been secured against him. Certain it
+is that the Committee on Elections, appointed on December 11, did not
+send in its report until the day after Mr. Gallatin moved his
+resolution, calling upon the secretary of the treasury for an elaborate
+statement of the debt on January 1, 1794, under distinct heads,
+including the balances to creditor States, a statement of loans,
+domestic and foreign, contracted from the beginning of the government,
+statements of exports and imports; finally for a summary statement of
+the receipts and expenditures to the last day of December, 1790,
+_distinguishing the moneys received under each branch of the revenue and
+the moneys expended under each of the appropriations, and stating the
+balances of each branch of the revenue remaining unexpended on that
+day_, and also calling for similar and separate statements for the years
+1791, 1792, 1793. This resolution, introduced on January 8, was laid
+over. On the 20th it was adopted. It was not until February 10 that a
+reply from the secretary of the treasury was received by the Senate, and
+on the 11th submitted to Gallatin, Ellsworth, and Taylor for
+consideration and report. In this letter (February 6, 1794) Hamilton
+stated the difficulty of supplying the precise information called for,
+with the clerical forces of the department, the interruption it would
+cause in the daily routine of the service, and deprecated the practice
+of such unexpected demands.
+
+With this response of the secretary the inquiry fell to the ground, but
+it was neither forgotten nor forgiven by his adherents, and Mr. Gallatin
+paid the penalty on at least one occasion. This was years later, when he
+himself was secretary of the treasury. On March 2, 1803, the day before
+the adjournment of Congress, Mr. Griswold, Federalist from Connecticut,
+attacked the correctness of the accounts of the sinking fund, and
+demanded an answer to a resolution of the House on the management of
+this bureau. Had such been his desire, Mr. Gallatin was foreclosed from
+Hamilton's excuse. On the night of the 3d he sent in an elaborate
+statement which set accusation at rest and criticism at defiance.
+
+Mr. Gallatin's short stay in the Senate revealed to the Federalists the
+character of the man, who, disdaining the lesser flight, checked only at
+the highest game. He accepted his exclusion with perfect philosophy.
+Soon after the session opened he said, "My feelings cannot be much hurt
+by an unfavorable decision, since having been elected is an equal proof
+of the confidence the legislature of Pennsylvania reposed in me, and not
+being qualified, if it is so decided, cannot be imputed to me as a
+fault." His exclusion was by no means a disadvantage to him. It made
+common cause of the honor of Pennsylvania and his own; it endeared him
+to the Republicans of his State as a martyr to their principles. It
+"secured him," to use his own words, "many staunch" friends throughout
+the Union, and extended his reputation, hitherto local and confined,
+over the entire land; more than all, it led him to the true field of
+political contest--the House of Representatives of the people of the
+United States.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 2: The yeas and nays being required by one fifth of the
+senators present, there were: _Affirmative_.--Bradley, Brown, Burr,
+Butler, Edwards, Gunn, Jackson, Langdon, Martin, Monroe, Robinson,
+Taylor; 12.
+
+_Negative_.--Bradford, Cabot, Ellsworth, Foster, Frelinghuysen, Hawkins,
+Izard, King, Livermore, Mitchell, Morris, Potts, Strong, Vining; 14.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE WHISKEY INSURRECTION
+
+
+Mr. Gallatin was now out of public life. For eighteen months since he
+came up to the legislature with his friends of the Pittsburgh
+convention, he had not returned to Fayette. His private concerns were
+suffering in his absence. Neither his barn, his meadow, nor his house
+was finished at the close of 1793. In May, 1794, he took his wife to his
+country home. Their hopes of a summer of recreation and domestic comfort
+in the wild beauties of the Monongahela were not to be realized. Before
+the end of June the peaceful country was in a state of mad agitation.
+
+The seeds of political discontent, sown at Pittsburgh in 1792, had
+ripened to an abundant harvest. An act passed by Congress June 5, 1794,
+giving to the state courts concurrent jurisdiction in excise cases,
+removed the grievance of which Gallatin complained, the dragging of
+accused persons to Philadelphia for trial, but was not construed to be
+retroactive in its operation. The marshal, accordingly, found it to be
+his duty to serve the writs of May 31 against those who had fallen under
+their penalties. These writs were returnable in Philadelphia. They were
+served without trouble in Fayette County. Not so in Allegheny. Here on
+July 15, 1794, the marshal had completed his service, when, while still
+in the execution of his office, and in company with the inspector, he
+was followed and fired upon. The next day a body of men went to the
+house of the marshal and demanded that he should deliver up his
+commission. They were fired upon and dispersed, six were wounded, and
+the leader killed. A general rising followed. The marshal's house,
+though defended by Major Kirkpatrick, with a squad from the Pittsburgh
+garrison, was set on fire, with the adjacent buildings, and burned. On
+July 18 the insurgents sent a deputation of two or three to Pittsburgh,
+to require of the marshal a surrender of the processes in his
+possession, and of the inspector the resignation of his office. These
+demands were, of course, rejected; but the officers, alarmed for their
+personal safety, left the town, and, descending the Ohio by boat to
+Marietta, proceeded by a circuitous route to Philadelphia, and made
+their report to the United States authorities.
+
+This was the outbreak of the Western or Whiskey Insurrection. The
+excitement spread rapidly through the western counties. Fayette County
+was not exempt from it. The collector's house was broken into, and his
+commission taken from him by armed men; the sheriff refused to serve the
+writs against the rioters of the spring. Since these disturbances there
+had been no trouble in this county. But the malcontents elsewhere rose
+in arms, riots ensued, and the safety of the whole community was
+compromised. The news reaching Fayette, the distillers held a meeting at
+Uniontown, the county seat, on July 20. Both Gallatin and Smilie were
+present, and by their advice it was agreed to submit to the laws. The
+neighboring counties were less fortunate. On July 21 the Washington
+County committee was summoned to meet at Mingo Creek Meeting-house. On
+the 23d there was a large assemblage of people, including a number of
+those who had been concerned in burning the house of the Pittsburgh
+inspector. James Marshall, the same who opposed the ratification of the
+federal Constitution, David Bradford, the "empty drum," and Judge
+Brackenridge of Pittsburgh, attended this meeting. Bradford, the most
+unscrupulous of the leaders, sought to shirk his responsibility, but was
+intimidated by threats, and thereafter did not dare to turn back.
+Brackenridge was present to counsel the insurgents to moderation. In
+spite of his efforts the meeting ended in an invitation, which the
+officers had not the boldness to sign, to the townships of the four
+western counties of Pennsylvania and the adjoining counties of Virginia
+to send representatives to a general meeting on August 14, at
+Parkinson's Ferry on the Monongahela, in Washington County. Bradford,
+determined to aggravate the disturbance, stopped the mail at Greensburg,
+on the road between Pittsburgh and Philadelphia, and robbed it of the
+Washington and Pittsburgh letters, some of which he published, to the
+alarm of their authors.
+
+On July 28 a circular signed by Bradford, Marshall, and others was sent
+out from Cannonsburg to the militia of the county, whom it summoned for
+personal service, and likewise called for volunteers to rendezvous the
+following Wednesday, July 30, at their respective places of meeting,
+thence to march to Braddock's Field, on the Monongahela, the usual
+rendezvous of the militia, about eight miles south of Pittsburgh, by two
+o'clock of Friday, August 1. It closed in these words, "Here is an
+expedition proposed in which you will have an opportunity for displaying
+your military talents and of rendering service to your country." Nothing
+less was contemplated by the more extreme of these men than an attack
+upon Fort Pitt and the sack of Pittsburgh. Thoroughly aroused at last,
+the moderate men of Washington determined to breast the storm. A meeting
+was held; James Ross of the United States Senate made an earnest appeal,
+and was supported by Scott of the House of Representatives and Stokely
+of the Senate of Pennsylvania. Marshall and Bradford yielded, and
+consented to countermand the order of rendezvous. But the excited
+population poured into the town from all quarters, and Bradford, who
+found that he had gone too far to retreat, again took the lead of the
+movement, already beyond restraint.
+
+There are accounts of this formidable insurrection by H. H. Brackenridge
+and William Findley, eye-witnesses. These supply abundant details.
+Findley says that he knew that the movement would not stop at the limit
+apparently set for it. "The opposing one law would lead to oppose
+another; they would finally oppose all, and demand a new modeling of the
+Constitution, and there would be a revolution." There was great alarm in
+Pittsburgh. A meeting was held there Thursday evening, July 31, at which
+a message from the Washington County insurgents was read, violent
+resolutions adopted, and the 9th of August appointed as the day for a
+town meeting for election of delegates to a general convention of the
+counties at Parkinson's Ferry; Judge Brackenridge of Pittsburgh, a man
+of education, influence, and infinite jest and humor, was present at
+this meeting. Of Scotch-Irish birth himself, his sympathies of race were
+with his countrymen, but in political sentiments he was not in harmony
+with their leaders. They were nearly all Republicans, while he had sided
+with the Federalists in the convention which adopted the new
+Constitution of the United States. He was a man of peace, and of too
+much sagacity not to foresee the inevitable ruin upon which they were
+rushing. At Mingo Creek he had thwarted the plans of immediate
+revolution. The evident policy of moderate men was to prevent any
+violence before the convention at Parkinson's Ferry should meet, and to
+bend all their energies to control the deliberations of that body. The
+people of Pittsburgh were intensely excited by the armed gathering
+almost at their doors.
+
+Brackenridge felt that the only safe issue from the situation was to
+take part in and shape the action of that gathering. Under his lead a
+committee from the Pittsburgh meeting, followed by a large body of the
+citizens, went out to the rendezvous. Here they found a motley
+assemblage, arrayed in the picturesque campaign costume which the
+mountaineers wore when they equipped themselves to meet the
+Indians,--yellow hunting-shirts, handkerchiefs tied about their heads,
+and rifles on the shoulder; the militia were on foot, and the light
+horse of the counties were in military dress. Conspicuous about the
+field, "haughty and pompous," as Gallatin described him in the
+legislature, was David Bradford, who had assumed the office of
+major-general. Brackenridge draws a lifelike picture of him as, mounted
+on a superb horse in splendid trappings, arrayed in full uniform, with
+plume floating in the air and sword drawn, he rode over the ground, gave
+orders to the military, and harangued the multitude. On the historic
+ground where Washington plucked his first military laurels were gathered
+about seven thousand men, of whom two thousand militia were armed and
+accoutred as for a campaign,--a formidable and remarkable assemblage,
+when it is considered that the entire male population of sixteen years
+of age and upwards of the four counties did not exceed sixteen
+thousand, and was scattered over a wide and unsettled country. This is
+Brackenridge's estimate of the numbers. Later, Gallatin, on comparison
+of the best attainable information, estimated the whole body at from
+fifteen hundred to two thousand men. Whatever violence Bradford may have
+intended, none was accomplished. That he read aloud the Pittsburgh
+letters, taken from the mail, shows his purpose to inflame the people to
+vindictive violence. He was accused by contemporary authorities of
+imitation of the methods of the French Jacobins, which were fresh
+examples of revolutionary vigor. But the mass was not persuaded. After
+desultory conversation and discussion, the angry turn of which was at
+times threatening to the moderate leaders, the meeting broke up on
+August 2; about one third dispersed for their homes, and the remainder,
+marching to Pittsburgh, paraded through the streets, and finally
+crossing the river in their turn scattered. They did no damage to the
+town beyond the burning of a farm belonging to Major Kirkpatrick of the
+garrison. The taverns were all closed, but the citizens brought whiskey
+to their doors. Judge Brackenridge reports that his sacrifice to peace
+on this occasion cost him four barrels of his best old rye.
+
+This moderation was no augury of permanent quiet. Brackenridge, who was
+a keen observer of men, says of the temper of the western population at
+this period: "I had seen the spirit which prevailed at the Stamp Act,
+and at the commencement of the revolution from the government of Great
+Britain, but it was by no means so general and so vigorous amongst the
+common people as the spirit which now existed in the country." Nor did
+the armed bands all return peaceably to their homes. The house of the
+collector for Fayette and Washington counties was burned, and warnings
+were given to those who were disposed to submit to the law. The
+disaffected were called "Tom the tinker" men, from the signature affixed
+to the threatening notices. From a passage in one of Gallatin's letters
+it appears that there was a person of that name, a New England man, who
+had been concerned in Shays's insurrection. Liberty poles, with the
+device, "An equal tax and no excise law," were raised, and the trees
+placarded with the old revolutionary motto, "United we stand, divided we
+fall," with a divided snake as an emblem. Mr. Gallatin's neighborhood
+was not represented at Braddock's Field, and not more than a dozen were
+present from the entire county. But now the flame spread there also, and
+liberty poles were raised. Mr. Gallatin himself, inquiring as to their
+significance and expressing to the men engaged the hope that they would
+not behave like a mob, was asked, in return, if he was not aware of the
+Westmoreland resolution that any one calling the people a mob should be
+tarred and feathered,--an amusing example of that mob logic which
+proves the affirmative of the proposition it denies.
+
+Mr. Gallatin did not attend the meeting at Braddock's Field. Somewhat
+isolated at his residence at the southerly border of the county, engaged
+in the care of his long neglected farm, and in the full enjoyment of
+release from the bustle and excitement of public life, he had paid
+little attention to passing events. He was preparing definitively to
+abandon political pursuits and to follow some kind of mercantile
+business, or take up some land speculation and study law in his
+intervals of leisure. It was not a year since he had given hostages to
+fortune. He was now in the full tide of domestic happiness, which was
+always to him the dearest and most coveted. He might well have hesitated
+before again engaging upon the dangerous and uncertain task of
+controlling an excited and aggrieved population. But he did not
+hesitate.
+
+The people among whom he had made his home, and whose confidence had
+never failed him, were his people. By them he would stand in their
+extremity, and if hurt or ruin befell them, it should not be for want of
+the interposition of his counsel. He knew his powers, and he determined
+to bring them into full play. He knew the danger also, but it only
+nerved him to confront and master it. He knew his duty, and did not
+swerve one hair from the line it prompted. In no part of his long,
+varied, and useful political life does he appear to better advantage
+than in this exciting episode of the Whiskey Insurrection. His
+self-possession, his cool judgment, swayed neither by timidity nor
+rashness, never for a moment failed him. Here he displayed that
+remarkable combination of persuasion and control,--the indispensable
+equipment of a political chief,--which, in later days, gave him the
+leadership of the Republican party. With intuitive perception of the
+political situation he saw that the only path to safety, beset with
+difficulty and danger though it were, was through the convention at
+Parkinson's Ferry. He did not believe that any revolutionary proceedings
+had yet been taken, or that the convention was an illegal body, but he
+was determined to separate the wheat from the chaff, and disengage the
+moderate and the law-abiding from the disorderly. By the light of his
+own experience he had learned wisdom. He also had drawn a lesson from
+the French Revolution, and knew the uncontrollable nature of large
+popular assemblages. The news from Philadelphia, the seat of government,
+was of a kind to increase his alarm. Washington was not the man to
+overlook such an insult to authority as the resistance to the marshal
+and inspector; nor was it probable that Hamilton would let pass such an
+occasion for showing the strength and vigor of the government.
+
+Before the meeting at Braddock's Field, the secretary's plans for a
+suppression of the insurrection were matured. On August 2 he laid
+before the President an estimate of the probable armed force of the
+insurgents, and of that with which he proposed to reduce them to
+submission. When the question of the use of force came before the
+cabinet, Edmund Randolph, who was secretary of state, opposed it in a
+written opinion, one phrase of which deserves repetition:--
+
+     "It is a fact well known that the parties in the United States are
+     highly inflamed against each other, and that there is but one
+     character which keeps both in awe. As soon as the sword shall be
+     drawn, who shall be able to retain them."
+
+Mifflin, the governor of Pennsylvania, deprecated immediate resort to
+force; the venerable Chief Justice McKean suggested the sending of
+commissioners on the part of the federal and state governments.
+Washington, with perfect judgment, combined these plans, and happily
+allied conciliation with force. A proclamation was issued on August 7
+summoning all persons involved in the disturbance to lay down their arms
+and repair to their homes by September 1. Requisitions were made upon
+the governors of Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and New Jersey for
+fifteen thousand men in all, and a joint commission of five was
+raised,--three of whom on the part of the United States were appointed
+by the President, and two on the part of the State of Pennsylvania. This
+news was soon known at Pittsburgh, and rapidly spread through the
+adjacent country; and it was clear that in the proceedings to be taken
+at Parkinson's Ferry the question of resistance or submission must be
+definitively settled. On August 14, 1794, the convention assembled; two
+hundred and twenty-six delegates in all, of whom ninety-three were from
+Washington, forty-nine from Westmoreland, forty-three from Allegheny,
+thirty-three from Fayette, two from Bedford, five from Ohio County in
+Virginia, with spectators to about the same number.
+
+Parkinson's Ferry, later called Williamsport, and now Monongahela City,
+is on the left bank of the Monongahela, about half way between
+Pittsburgh and Red Stone Old Fort or Brownsville. Brackenridge pictures
+the scene with his usual local color: "Our hall was a grove, and we
+might well be called 'the Mountain' (an allusion to the radical left of
+the French convention), for we were on a very lofty ground overlooking
+the river. We had a gallery of lying timber and stumps, and there were
+more people collected there than there was of the committee." In full
+view of the meeting stood a liberty pole, raised in the morning by the
+men who signed the Braddock's Field circular order, and it bore the
+significant motto, "Liberty and no excise and no asylum for cowards."
+Among the delegates, or the committee, to use their own term, were
+Bradford, Marshall, Brackenridge, Findley, and Gallatin. Before the
+meeting was organized, Marshall came to Gallatin and showed him the
+resolutions which he intended to move, intimating at the same time that
+he wished Mr. Gallatin to act as secretary. Mr. Gallatin told him that
+he highly disapproved the resolutions, and had come to oppose both him
+and Bradford, and therefore did not wish to serve. Marshall seemed to
+waver; but soon the people met, and Edward Cook of Fayette, who had
+presided at Braddock's Field, was chosen chairman, with Gallatin for
+secretary. Bradford opened the proceedings with a summary sketch of the
+action previously taken, declared the purpose of the committee to be to
+determine on a course of action, and his own views to be the appointment
+of committees to raise money, purchase arms, enlist volunteers, or draft
+the militia: in a word, though he did not use it, to levy war.
+
+At this point in the proceedings the arrival of the commissioners from
+the President was announced, but the progress of the meeting was not
+interrupted. The commissioners were at a house near the meeting, but
+there were serious objections against holding a conference at this
+place.
+
+Marshall then moved his resolutions. The first, declaratory of the
+grievance of carrying citizens great distances for trial, was
+unanimously agreed to. The second called for a committee of public
+safety "to call forth the resources of the western country to repel any
+hostile attempts that may be made against the rights of the citizens, or
+of the body of the people." Had this resolution been adopted, the people
+were definitively committed to overt rebellion. This brought Mr.
+Gallatin at once to his feet. He denied that any hostile attempts
+against the rights of the people were threatened, and drew an adroit
+distinction between the regular army, which had not been called out, and
+the militia, who were a part of the people themselves; and to gain time
+he moved a reference of the resolutions to a committee who should be
+instructed to wait the action of the government. In the course of his
+speech Gallatin denied the assertion that resistance to the excise law
+was legal, or that coercion by the government was necessarily hostile.
+He was neither supported by his own friends nor opposed by those of
+Bradford. He stood alone.
+
+But Marshall withdrew his resolution, and a committee of sixty was
+appointed, with power to summon the people. The only other objectionable
+resolution was that which pledged the people to the support of the laws,
+except the excise law and the taking of citizens out of their counties
+for trial,--an exception which Gallatin succeeded in having stricken
+out. He then urged the adoption of the resolution, without the
+exception, as necessary "to the establishment of the laws and the
+conservation of the peace," and here he was supported by Brackenridge.
+The entire resolutions were finally referred to a committee of
+four,--Gallatin, Bradford, Husbands, and Brackenridge. The meeting then
+adjourned. The next morning a standing committee of sixty was chosen,
+one from each township. From these a committee of twelve was selected
+to confer with the government commissioners. Upon this committee were
+Cook, the chairman, Bradford, Marshall, Gallatin, Brackenridge, and
+Edgar. The meeting then adjourned.
+
+Upon this representative body there seems to have been no outside
+pressure. The proclamation of the President, which arrived while it was
+in session, showed the determination, while the appointment of the
+commission showed the moderation, of the government. Gallatin availed of
+each circumstance with consummate adroitness, pointing out to the
+desperate the folly of resistance, and to the moderate an issue for
+honorable retreat.
+
+Meanwhile, the commissioners reached Pittsburgh, where on August 20 the
+committee of conference was received by them, and an informal
+understanding arrived at, which was put in writing. The laws were to be
+enforced with as little inconvenience to the people as possible. All
+criminal suits for indictable offenses were to be dropped, but civil
+suits were to take their course. Notice was given that a definitive
+submission must be made by September 1 following. On the 22d the
+conference committee answered that they must consult with the committee
+of sixty. Thursday the 28th was appointed for a meeting at Red Stone Old
+Fort, the very spot where the original resolutions of opposition were
+passed in 1791. In the report drawn up every member of the twelve,
+except Bradford, favored submission.
+
+The hour was critical, the deliberations were in the open air, and under
+the eyes of a threatening party of seventy riflemen accidentally present
+from Washington County across the stream. Bradford, who instinctively
+felt that he had placed himself beyond the pale of pardon, and to whom
+there was no alternative to revolution but flight, pressed an instant
+decision and rejection of the written terms of the commissioners. In the
+presence of personal danger, the conferrees only dared to move that part
+of their report which advised acceptance of the proffered terms. The
+question of submission they left untouched. An adjournment was obtained.
+The next day, to quote the words of Brackenridge, "the committee having
+convened, Gallatin addressed the chair in a speech of some hours. It was
+a piece of perfect eloquence, and was heard with attention and without
+disturbance." Never was there a more striking instance of intellectual
+control over a popular assemblage. He saved the western counties of
+Pennsylvania from anarchy and civil war. He was followed by
+Brackenridge, who, warned by the example of his companion, or encouraged
+by the quiet of the assemblage, supported him with vigor. Bradford, on
+the other hand, faced the issue with directness and savage vehemence. He
+repelled the idea of submission, and insisted upon an independent
+government and a declaration of war. Edgar of Washington rejoined in
+support of the report. Gallatin now demanded a vote, but the twelve
+conferrees alone supported him. He then proposed an informal vote, but
+without result. Finally a secret ballot was proposed by a member. A hat
+was passed, and when the slips of paper were taken out, there were
+thirty-four yeas and twenty-three nays. The report was declared to be
+adopted, and amid the scowls of the armed witnesses the meeting
+adjourned; not, however, before a new committee of conference had been
+appointed. On this new committee not one of the old leaders was named.
+They evidently knew the folly of further delay, or of attempting to
+secure better terms. As his final act Colonel Cook, the chairman of the
+standing committee of sixty, indorsed the resolution adopted. It
+declared it to be "to the interest of the people of the country to
+accede to the proposals made by the commissioners on the part of the
+United States." This was duly forwarded, with request for a further
+conference. The commissioners consented, but declined to postpone the
+time of taking the sense of the people beyond September 11.
+
+William Findley said of the famous and critical debate at Red Stone: "I
+had never heard speeches that I more ardently desired to see in print
+than those delivered on this occasion. They would not only be valuable
+on account of the oratory and information displayed in all the three,
+and especially in Gallatin's, who opened the way, but they would also
+have been the best history of the spirit and the mistakes which then
+actuated men's minds." Findley, in his allotment of the honors of the
+day, considers that "the verbal alterations made by Gallatin saved the
+question." Brackenridge thought that his own seeming to coincide with
+Bradford prevented the declaration of war; and he has been credited with
+having saved the western counties from the horrors of civil war,
+Pittsburgh from destruction, and the Federal Union from imminent danger.
+
+Historians have agreed in according to Gallatin the honor of this field
+day. It was left to John C. Hamilton, half a century later, to charge a
+want of courage upon Gallatin,--a baseless charge.[3] Not Malesherbes,
+the noble advocate defending the accused monarch before the angry French
+convention, with the certainty of the guillotine as the reward of his
+generosity, is more worthy of admiration than Gallatin boldly pleading
+the cause of order within rifle range of an excited band of lawless
+frontiersmen. If, as he confessed later, in his part in the Pittsburgh
+resolutions he was guilty of "a political sin," he nobly atoned for it
+under circumstances that would have tried the courage of men bred to
+danger and to arms. Sin it was, and its consequences were not yet summed
+up. For although the back of the insurrection was broken at Red Stone
+Old Fort, there was much yet to be done before submission could be
+completed.
+
+Bradford attempted to sign, but found that his course at Red Stone Old
+Fort had placed him outside the amnesty. Well might the moderate men say
+in their familiar manner of Scripture allusion, "Dagon is fallen." He
+fled down the Ohio and Mississippi to Louisiana, then foreign soil. The
+commissioners waited at Pittsburgh for the signatures of adhesion on
+September 10, which was the last day allowed by the terms of amnesty.
+They required that meetings should be held on this day in the several
+townships; the presiding officers to report the result to commissioner
+Ross at Uniontown the 16th of the same month, on which day he would set
+out for Philadelphia. The time was inadequate, but there was no help.
+Gallatin hastened the submission of Fayette, and a meeting of committees
+from the several townships met at the county seat, Uniontown, on
+September 10, 1794, when a declaration drawn by Mr. Gallatin was
+unanimously adopted. A passage in this admirable paper shows the
+comparative order which prevailed in Fayette County during this period
+of trouble. It is an appeal to the people of the neighboring counties,
+who, under the influence of their passions and resentment, might blame
+those of Fayette for their moderation.
+
+     "The only reflection we mean to suggest to them is the
+     disinterestedness of our conduct upon this occasion. The indictable
+     offences to be buried in oblivion were committed amongst them, and
+     almost every civil suit that has been instituted under the revenue
+     law, in the federal court, was commenced against citizens of this
+     county. By the terms proposed, the criminal prosecutions are to be
+     dropped, but no condition could be obtained for the civil suits. We
+     have been instrumental in obtaining an amnesty, from which those
+     alone who had a share in the riots derive a benefit, and the other
+     inhabitants of the western country have gained nothing for
+     themselves."
+
+This declaration was forwarded on September 17 to Governor Mifflin, with
+reasons for the delay, and advice that signatures were fast being
+obtained, not only in the neighboring counties, but even in Fayette,
+where this formality had not been thought necessary. It closes with a
+forcible appeal to delay the sending of troops until every conciliatory
+measure should have proved abortive.
+
+But the commissioners, unfortunately, were not favorably impressed with
+the reception they met with or the scenes they witnessed on their
+western mission. They had heard of Bradford's threat to establish an
+independent government west of the mountains, and they had seen a
+liberty pole raised upon which the people with the greatest difficulty
+had been dissuaded from hoisting a flag with six stripes--emblematic of
+the six counties represented in the committee. The flag was made, but
+set aside for the fifteen stripes with reluctance. This is Findley's
+recollection, but Brackenridge says that it was a flag of seven stars
+for the four western counties, Bedford, and the two counties of
+Virginia. This, he adds, was the first and only manifestation among any
+class of a desire to separate from the Union. But here his memory
+failed him.
+
+Hamilton had long been impatient. Again, as in old days, he presented
+his arguments directly to the people. Under the heading, "Tully to the
+people of the United States," he printed a letter on August 26, of which
+the following is a passage:--
+
+     "Your representatives in Congress, pursuant to the commission
+     derived from you, and with a full knowledge of the public
+     exigencies, have laid an excise. At three succeeding sessions they
+     have revised that act ... and _you_ have actually paid more than a
+     million of dollars on account of it. But the four western counties
+     of Pennsylvania undertake to rejudge and reverse your decrees.
+     _You_ have said, 'The Congress _shall have power_ to lay
+     _excises_.' They say, 'The Congress shall _not have_ this power;'
+     or, what is equivalent, they shall not exercise it, for a _power_
+     that may not be exercised is a nullity. Your representatives have
+     said, and four times repeated it, 'An excise on distilled spirits
+     _shall_ be collected;' they say, 'It _shall not_ be collected. We
+     will punish, expel, and banish the officers who shall attempt the
+     collection.'"
+
+The peace commissioners returned to Philadelphia and made their report
+on September 24. The next day, September 25, Washington issued a
+proclamation calling out the troops. In it he again warned the
+insurgents. The militia, already armed, accoutred, and equipped, and
+awaiting marching orders, moved at once. Governor Mifflin at first
+hesitated about his power to call out the militia, but when the
+President's requisition was made, he summoned the legislature in special
+session, and obtained from it a hearty support, with authority to accept
+volunteers and offer a bounty. Thus fortified, he made a tour through
+the lower counties of the State, and by his extraordinary popular
+eloquence soon filled up the ranks. The old soldier led his troops in
+person. Those of New Jersey were commanded by their governor, Richard
+Howell of Revolutionary fame. These formed the right wing and marched to
+rendezvous at Bedford to cross the mountains by the northern and
+Pennsylvania route. The left wing, composed of the Virginia troops,
+under the veteran Morgan, and those of Maryland, under Samuel Smith, a
+brigadier-general in the army of the Revolution, assembled at Cumberland
+to cross the mountains by Braddock's Road. The chief command was
+confided to Governor Henry Lee of Virginia. Washington accompanied the
+army as far as Bedford. Hamilton continued with it to Pittsburgh, which
+was reached in the last days of October and the first of November, after
+a wearisome march across the mountains in heavy weather. Arrived in the
+western counties, the army found no opposition.
+
+Meanwhile, on October 2, the standing committee met again at Parkinson's
+Ferry, and unanimously adopted resolutions declaring the general
+submission, and explaining the reasons why signatures to the amnesty had
+not been general. Findley and Redick were appointed to take these
+resolutions to the President, and to urge him to stop the march of the
+troops. They met the left wing at Carlisle. Washington received them
+courteously, but did not consent to countermand the march. They hurried
+back for more unequivocal assurances, which they hoped to be able to
+carry to meet Washington on his way to review the right wing. On October
+14, the day of the autumn elections, general submissions were
+universally signed, and finally, on October 24, a third and last meeting
+was held at Parkinson's Ferry, at which a thousand people attended,
+when, with James Edgar, chairman, and Albert Gallatin, secretary, it was
+resolved, first, that the civil authority was fully competent to punish
+both past and future breaches of the law; secondly, that surrender
+should be made of all persons charged with offenses, in default of which
+the committee would aid in bringing them to justice; thirdly, that
+offices of inspection might be opened, and that the distillers were
+willing and ready to enter their stills.
+
+These resolutions were published in the "Pittsburgh Gazette." Findley
+carried them to Bedford, but before he reached the army the President
+had returned to Philadelphia. The march of the army was not stopped. The
+two wings made a junction at Uniontown. Companies of horse were
+scattered through the country. New submissions were made, and the oath
+of allegiance, required by General Lee, was generally taken.
+
+Hamilton now investigated the whole matter of the insurrection, and it
+was charged against him, and the charge is supported by Findley, with
+names of persons, that he spared no effort to secure evidence to bring
+Gallatin within the pale of an indictment. Of course he failed in this
+purpose, if indeed it were ever seriously entertained. But the belief
+that Gallatin was the arch-fiend, who instigated the Whiskey
+Insurrection, had already become a settled article in the Federalist
+creed, and for a quarter of a century, long after the Federalist party
+had become a tradition of the past, the Genevan was held up to scorn and
+hatred, as an incarnation of deviltry--an enemy of mankind.
+
+On the 8th of November, Hamilton, who remained with the army, wrote to
+the President that General Lee had concluded to take hold of all who are
+worth the trouble by the military arm, and then to deliver them over to
+the disposition of the judiciary. In the mean time, he adds, "all
+possible means are using to obtain evidence, and accomplices will be
+turned against the others."
+
+The night of November 13, 1794, was appointed for the arrests; a
+dreadful night Findley describes it to have been. The night was frosty;
+at eight o'clock the horse sallied forth, and before daylight arrested
+in their beds about two hundred men. The New Jersey horse made the
+seizures in the Mingo Creek settlement, the hot-bed of the insurrection
+and the scene of the early excesses. The prisoners were taken to
+Pittsburgh, and thence, mounted on horses, and guarded by the
+Philadelphia Gentlemen Corps, to the capital. Their entrance into
+Cannonsburg is graphically described by Dr. Carnahan, president of
+Princeton College, in his account of the insurrection.
+
+     "The contrast between the Philadelphia horsemen and the prisoners
+     was the most striking that can be imagined. The Philadelphians were
+     some of the most wealthy and respectable men of that city. Their
+     uniform was blue, of the finest broadcloth. Their horses were large
+     and beautiful, all of a bay color, so nearly alike that it seemed
+     that every two of them would make a good span of coach horses.
+     Their trappings were superb. Their bridles, stirrups, and
+     martingales glittered with silver. Their swords, which were drawn,
+     and held elevated in the right hand, gleamed in the rays of the
+     setting sun. The prisoners were also mounted on horses of all
+     shapes, sizes, and colors; some large, some small, some long tails,
+     some short, some fat, some lean, some every color and form that can
+     be named. Some had saddles, some blankets, some bridles, some
+     halters, some with stirrups, some with none. The riders also were
+     various and grotesque in their appearance. Some were old, some
+     young, some hale, respectable looking men; others were pale,
+     meagre, and shabbily dressed. Some had great coats,--others had
+     blankets on their shoulders. The countenance of some was downcast,
+     melancholy, dejected; that of others, stern, indignant, manifesting
+     that they thought themselves undeserving such treatment. Two
+     Philadelphia horsemen rode in front and then two prisoners, and two
+     horsemen and two prisoners, actually throughout a line extending
+     perhaps half a mile.... If these men had been the ones chiefly
+     guilty of the disturbance, it would have been no more than they
+     deserved. But the guilty had signed the amnesty, or had left the
+     county before the army approached."
+
+Dallas, the secretary of state, Gallatin's friend, was one of this
+troop. Gallatin saw him soon after his return. In a letter to his wife
+of December 3, Gallatin relates the experience of the trooper who had
+little stomach for the work he had to do.
+
+     "I saw Dallas yesterday. Poor fellow had a most disagreeable
+     campaign of it. He says the spirits, I call it the madness, of the
+     Philadelphia Gentlemen's Corps was beyond conception before the
+     arrival of the President. He saw a list (handed about through the
+     army by officers, nay, by a general officer) of the names of those
+     persons who were to be destroyed at all events, and you may easily
+     guess my own was one of the most conspicuous. Being one day at
+     table with sundry officers, and having expressed his opinion that,
+     if the army were going only to support the civil authority, and not
+     to do any military execution, one of them (Dallas did not tell me
+     his name, but I am told it was one Ross of Lancaster, aide-de-camp
+     to Mifflin) half drew a dagger he wore instead of a sword, and
+     swore any man who uttered such sentiments ought to be dagged. The
+     President, however, on his arrival, and afterwards Hamilton, took
+     uncommon pains to change the sentiments, and at last it became
+     fashionable to adopt, or at least to express, sentiments similar to
+     those inculcated by them."
+
+Randolph was, perhaps, not far out of the way in his fear of a civil war
+should blood be drawn, and in his conviction that the influence of
+Washington was the only sedative for the fevered political pulse. On
+November 17 general orders were issued for the return of the army, a
+detachment of twenty-five hundred men only remaining in the West, under
+command of General Morgan. There were no further disturbances. The army
+expenses gave a circulating medium, and the farmers, having now the
+means to pay their taxes, made no further complaints of the excise law.
+The total expense of the insurrection to the government was $800,000.
+
+Mr. Gallatin returned with his wife from his western home early in
+November. He had been again chosen at the October elections to represent
+Fayette in the Pennsylvania Assembly. Moreover, at the same time, he was
+elected to represent the congressional district of Washington and
+Allegheny in the House of Representatives of the United States. Of four
+candidates Gallatin led the poll. Judge Brackenridge was next in order.
+No better proof is needed of the firm hold Gallatin had in the esteem
+and affection of the people. No doubt, either, that they understood his
+principles, and relied upon his sincere attachment to the country he had
+made his home.
+
+When he appeared to take his seat in the Assembly he found that his
+election was contested. A petition was presented from thirty-four
+persons calling themselves peaceable citizens of Washington County,
+which stated that their votes had not been cast, because of the
+disturbed condition of the country, and requested the Assembly to
+declare the district to have been in a state of insurrection at the time
+of the election, and to vacate the same. Mr. Gallatin knew the person
+who procured the signatures, and also that the business originated in
+the army. It was couched in terms insulting to all the members elect
+from that district. After a protracted debate the election was declared
+void on January 9, 1795. It was during this debate that Mr. Gallatin
+made the celebrated speech called "The speech on the western elections,"
+in which occurs the confession already alluded to. Speaking of the
+Pittsburgh resolutions of 1792, he said:--
+
+     "I might say that those resolutions did not originate at
+     Pittsburgh, as they were almost a transcript of the resolutions
+     adopted at Washington the preceding year; and I might even add that
+     they were not introduced by me at the meeting. But I wish not to
+     exculpate myself where I feel I have been to blame. The sentiments
+     thus expressed were not illegal or criminal; yet I will freely
+     acknowledge that they were violent, intemperate, and reprehensible.
+     For, by attempting to render the office contemptible, they tended
+     to diminish that respect for the execution of the laws which is
+     essential to the maintenance of a free government; but whilst I
+     feel regret at the remembrance, though no hesitation in this open
+     confession of that _my only political sin_, let me add that the
+     blame ought to fall where it is deserved."
+
+This was the first speech of Gallatin that appeared in print--simple,
+lucid, convincing. The result of the new Assembly election would
+naturally determine the right of the representatives of the contested
+district to their seats in Congress. Word had gone forth from the
+Treasury Department that Gallatin must not take his seat in Congress,
+and the whippers-in took heed of the desire of their chief. A line of
+instruction to Badollet, who lived at Greensburg in Washington County,
+across the river from Gallatin's residence, determined the matter.
+Gallatin warned him against the attempt that would be made to disaffect
+that district because none of the representatives whose seats had been
+vacated were residents of it. "Fall not into the snare," he wrote; "take
+up nobody from your own district; reëlect unanimously the same members,
+whether they be your favorites or not. It is necessary for the sake of
+our general character." Here is an instance of that true political
+instinct which made of him "the ideal party leader." His advice was
+followed, and all the members were reëlected but one, who declined. Mr.
+Gallatin returned to his seat in the Assembly on February 14, and
+retained it until March 12, when he asked and obtained leave of absence.
+He does not appear to have taken further part in the session. The
+subjects, personal to himself, which occupied his attention during the
+summer will be touched upon elsewhere.
+
+The pitiful business of the trial of the western prisoners needs only
+brief mention. In May Gallatin was summoned before the grand jury as a
+witness on the part of the government. The inquiry was finished May 12,
+and twenty-two bills were found for treason. Against Fayette two bills
+were found; one for misdemeanor in raising the liberty pole in
+Uniontown. The petit jury was composed of twelve men from each of the
+counties of Fayette, Washington, Allegheny, and Northumberland, but none
+from Westmoreland. One man, a German from Westmoreland, who was
+concerned in a riot in Fayette, was found guilty and condemned to death.
+Mr. Gallatin, at the request of the jury, drew a petition to the
+President, who granted a pardon. Washington extended mercy to the only
+other offender who incurred the same penalty.
+
+To the close of this national episode, which, in its various phases of
+incident and character, is of dramatic interest, Gallatin, through good
+repute and ill repute, stood manfully by his constituents and friends.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 3: Hamilton's _History of the Republic_, vi. 96.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+MEMBER OF CONGRESS
+
+
+The first session of the fourth Congress began at Philadelphia on
+Monday, December 7, 1795. Washington was president, John Adams
+vice-president. No one of Washington's original constitutional advisers
+remained in his cabinet. Jefferson retired from the State Department at
+the beginning of the first session of the third Congress. Edmund
+Randolph, appointed in his place, resigned in a cloud of obloquy on
+August 19, 1795, and the portfolio was temporarily in charge of Timothy
+Pickering, secretary of war. Hamilton resigned the department of the
+Treasury on January 31, 1795, and Oliver Wolcott, Jr., succeeded him in
+that most important of the early offices of the government. General
+Henry Knox, the first secretary of war, pressed by his own private
+affairs and the interests of a large family, withdrew on December 28,
+1794, and Timothy Pickering, the postmaster-general, had been appointed
+in his stead January 2, 1795. The Navy Department was not as yet
+established (the act creating it was passed April 30, 1798), but the
+affairs which concerned this branch of the public service were under
+the direction of the secretary of war. The administration of Washington
+was drawing to a close. In the lately reconstructed cabinet, honest,
+patriotic, and thorough in administration, there was no man of shining
+mark. The Senate was still in the hands of the Federal party. The bare
+majority which rejected Gallatin in the previous Congress had increased
+to a sufficient strength for party purposes, but neither in the ranks of
+the administration nor the opposition was there in this august
+assemblage one commanding figure.
+
+The House was nearly equally divided. The post of speaker was warmly
+contested. Frederick A. Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania, who had presided
+over the House at the sessions of the first Congress, 1789-1791, and
+again over the third, 1793-1795, was the candidate of the Federalists,
+but was defeated by Jonathan Dayton of New Jersey, whose views in the
+last session had drifted him into sympathy with the Republican
+opposition. The House, when full, numbered one hundred and five members,
+among whom were the ablest men in the country, veterans of debate versed
+in parliamentary law and skilled in the niceties of party fence. In the
+Federal ranks, active, conscious of their power, and proud of the great
+party which gloried in Washington as their chief, were Robert Goodloe
+Harper of South Carolina, Theodore Sedgwick of Massachusetts, Roger
+Griswold and Uriah Tracy of Connecticut, who led the front and held the
+wings of debate; while in reserve, broken in health but still in the
+prime of life, the pride of his party and of the House, was Fisher Ames,
+the orator of his day, whose magic tones held friend and foe in rapt
+attention, while he mastered the reason or touched the heart. Upon these
+men the Federal party relied for the vindication of their principles and
+the maintenance of their power. Supporting them were William Vans Murray
+of Maryland, Goodrich and Hillhouse of Connecticut, William Smith of
+South Carolina, Sitgreaves of Pennsylvania, and in the ranks a
+well-trained party. Opposed to this formidable array of Federal talent
+was the Republican party, young, vigorous, and in majority, bold in
+their ideas but as yet hesitating in purpose under the controlling if
+not overruling influence of the name and popularity of Washington.
+
+[Illustration: Rob. G. Harper]
+
+Hamilton watched the shifting fortunes of his party from a distance, and
+found time in the pressure of a large legal practice to aid each branch
+of administration in turn with his advice. But though he still inspired
+its councils, he no longer directed its course. In his Monticello home
+Jefferson waited till the fruit was ripe for falling, occasionally
+impatient that his followers did not more roughly shake the tree.
+
+The open rupture of Jefferson with Hamilton was the first great break in
+the Federal administration; the lukewarmness of Madison, whose leanings
+were always towards Jefferson, followed.
+
+At the head of the Republican opposition was Madison. Wise in council,
+convincing in argument, an able and even adroit debater, he was an
+admirable leader, but his tactics were rather of the closet than the
+field. He was wanting in the personal vigor which, scorning defense,
+delights in bold attack upon the central position of the enemy, and
+carries opposition to the last limit of parliamentary aggression. With
+this mildness of character, though recognized as the leader of his
+party, he, as a habit, waived his control upon the floor of the House,
+and, reserving his interference for occasions when questions of
+constitutional interpretation arose, left the general direction of
+debate to William B. Giles of Virginia, a skillful tactician and a ready
+debater, keen, bold, and troubled by no scruples of modesty, respect, or
+reverence for friend or foe. Of equal vigor, but of more reserve, was
+John Nicholas of Virginia--a man of strong intellect, reliable temper,
+and with the dignity of the old school. To these were now added Albert
+Gallatin and Edward Livingston. Edward Livingston, from New York, was
+young, and as yet inexperienced in debate, but of remarkable powers. He
+was another example of that early intellectual maturity which was a
+characteristic of the time.
+
+When Congress met, the all-disturbing question was the foreign policy of
+the United States. The influence of the French Revolution upon American
+politics was great. The Federalists, conservative in their views, held
+the new democratic doctrines in abhorrence, and used the terrible
+excesses of the French Revolution with telling force against their
+Republican adversaries. The need of a strong government was held up as
+the only alternative to anarchy. In the struggle which now united Europe
+against the French republic, the sympathies of the Federalists were with
+England. Hence they were accused of a desire to establish a monarchy in
+the United States, and were ignominiously called the British party.
+Shays's Rebellion in Massachusetts and the Whiskey Insurrection in
+Pennsylvania gave point to their arguments.
+
+On the other side was the large and powerful party which, throughout the
+war in the Continental Congress, under the confederation in the national
+convention which framed and in the state conventions which ratified the
+Constitution, had opposed the tendency to centralization, but had been
+defeated by the yearning of the body of the plain people for a
+government strong enough at least to secure them peace at home and
+protection abroad. This natural craving being satisfied, the old
+aversion to class distinctions returned. The dread of an aristocracy,
+which did not exist even in name, threw many of the supporters of the
+Constitution into the ranks of its opponents, who were democrats in name
+and in fact. The proclamation of the rights of man awoke this latent
+sentiment, and aroused an intense sympathy for the people of France.
+This again was strengthened by the memory, still warm, of the services
+of France in the cause of independence. Lafayette, who represented the
+true French republican spirit, and held a place in the affections of the
+American people second only to that of Washington, was languishing, a
+prisoner to the coalition of sovereigns, in an Austrian dungeon.
+
+Jefferson returned from France deeply imbued with the spirit of the
+French Revolution. His views were warmly received by his political
+friends, and the principles of the new school of politics were rapidly
+spread by an eager band of acolytes, whose ranks were recruited until
+the feeble opposition became a powerful party. Democratic societies,
+organized on the plan of the French Jacobin clubs, extended French
+influence, and no doubt were aided in a practical way by Genet, whose
+recent marriage with the daughter of George Clinton, the head of the
+Republican party in New York, was an additional link in the bond of
+alliance.
+
+During the second session of the third Congress Madison had led the
+opposition in a mild manner; party lines were not yet strongly defined,
+and the influence of Washington was paramount. In the interim between
+its expiration and the meeting of the fourth Congress in December, the
+country was wildly agitated by the Jay treaty. This document not
+reaching America until after the adjournment of Congress in March,
+Washington convened the Senate in extra and secret session on June 1,
+and the treaty was ratified by barely two thirds majority. Imprudently
+withheld for a time, it was at last made public by Senator Mason of
+Virginia, one of the ten who voted against its ratification. It
+disappointed the people, and was denounced as a weak and ignominious
+surrender of American rights. The merchants of Boston, New York,
+Philadelphia, and Charleston protested against it in public meetings. It
+was burned, and the English flag was trailed in the dust before the
+British minister's house at the capital. Jay was hung in effigy, and
+Hamilton, who ventured to defend the treaty at a public meeting, was
+stoned. To add to the popular indignation that the impressment of
+American seamen had been ignored in the instrument, came the alarming
+news that the British ministry had renewed their order to seize vessels
+carrying provisions to France, whither a large part of the American
+grain crop was destined. On the other hand, Randolph, the secretary of
+state, had compromised the dignity of his official position in his
+intercourse with Fauchet, the late French ambassador, whose
+correspondence with his government, thrown overboard from a French
+packet, had been fished up by a British man-of-war, and forwarded to
+Grenville, by whom it was returned to America. Thus petard answered
+petard, and the charge by the Republicans upon the Federalists of taking
+British gold was returned with interest, and the accusation of receiving
+bribe money was brought close home to Randolph, if not proved.
+
+Hard names were not wanting either; Jefferson was ridiculed as a
+_sans-culotte_ and red-legged Democrat. Nor was Washington spared. He
+was charged with an assumption of royal airs, with political hypocrisy,
+and even with being a public defaulter; a charge which no one dared to
+father, and which was instantly shown to be false and malicious. It was
+made by Bache in "The Aurora," a contemptible sheet after the fashion of
+"L'Ami du Peuple," Marat's Paris organ.
+
+Such was the temper of the people when the House of Representatives met
+on December 7, 1795. The speaker, Dayton, was strongly anti-British in
+feeling. He was a family connection of Burr, but there is no reason to
+suppose that he was under the personal influence of that adroit and
+unscrupulous partisan. On the 8th President Washington, according to his
+custom, addressed both houses of Congress. This day for the first time
+the gallery was thrown open to the public. When the reply of the Senate
+came up for consideration, the purpose of the Republicans was at once
+manifest. They would not consent to the approbation it expressed of the
+conduct of the administration. They would not admit that the causes of
+external discord had been extinguished "on terms consistent with our
+national honor and safety," or indeed extinguished at all, and they
+would not acknowledge that the efforts of the President to establish the
+peace, freedom, and prosperity of the country had been "enlightened and
+firm." Nevertheless the address was agreed to by a vote of 14 to 8.
+
+In the House a resolution was moved that a respectful address ought to
+be presented. The opposition immediately declared itself. Objection was
+made to an address, and in its stead the appointment of a committee to
+wait personally on the President was moved. The covert intent was
+apparent through the thin veil of expediency, but the Republicans as a
+body were unwilling to go this length in discourtesy, and did not
+support the motion. Only eighteen members voted for it. Messrs. Madison,
+Sedgwick, and Sitgreaves, the committee to report an address, brought in
+a draft on the 14th which was ordered to be printed for the use of the
+members. The next day the work of dissection was begun by an objection
+to the words "probably unequaled spectacle of national happiness"
+applied to the country, and the words "undiminished confidence" applied
+to the President. The words "probably unequaled" were stricken out
+without decided opposition by a vote of forty-three to thirty-nine.
+Opinions were divided on that subject even in the ranks of the
+Federalists. The cause of dissatisfaction was the Jay treaty. The
+address was recommitted without a division. The next day Madison brought
+in the address with a modification of the clause objected to. In its new
+form the "very great share" of Washington's zealous and faithful
+services in securing the national happiness was acknowledged. The
+address thus amended was unanimously adopted. In this encounter nothing
+was gained by the Republicans. The people would not have endured an open
+declaration of want of confidence in Washington. But the entering wedge
+of the new policy was driven. The treaty was to be assailed. It was,
+however, the pretext, not the cause of the struggle, the real object of
+which was to extend the powers of the House, and subordinate the
+executive to its will. Before beginning the main attack the Republicans
+developed their general plan in their treatment of secondary issues; of
+these the principal was a tightening of the control of the House over
+the Treasury Department.
+
+In this Mr. Gallatin took the lead. His first measure was the
+appointment of a standing Committee of Finance to superintend the
+general operations of this nature,--an efficient aid to the Treasury
+when there is accord between the administration and the House, an
+annoying censor when the latter is in opposition. This was the beginning
+of the Ways and Means Committee, which soon became and has since
+continued to be the most important committee of the House. To it were to
+be referred all reports from the Treasury Department, all propositions
+relating to revenue, and it was to report on the state of the public
+debt, revenue, and expenditures. The committee was appointed without
+opposition. It consisted of fourteen members, William Smith, Sedgwick,
+Madison, Baldwin, Gallatin, Bourne, Gilman, Murray, Buck, Gilbert,
+Isaac Smith, Blount, Patten, and Hillhouse, and represented the strength
+of both political parties. To this committee the estimates of
+appropriations for the support of the government for the coming year
+were referred. The next step was to bring to the knowledge of the House
+the precise condition of the Treasury. To this end the secretary was
+called upon to furnish comparative views of the commerce and tonnage of
+the country for every year from the formation of the department in 1789,
+with tables of the exports and imports, foreign and domestic, separately
+stated, and with a division of the nationality of the carrying vessels.
+Later, comparative views were demanded of the receipts and expenditures
+for each year; the receipts under the heads of Loans, Revenue in its
+various forms, and others in their several divisions; the expenditures,
+also, to be classified under the heads of Civil List, Foreign
+Intercourse, Military Establishment, Indian Department, Naval, etc.
+Finally a call was made for a statement of the annual appropriations and
+the applications of them by the Treasury. The object of Mr. Gallatin was
+to establish the expenses of the government in each department of
+service on a permanent footing for which annual appropriations should be
+made, and for any extraordinary expenditure to insist on a special
+appropriation for the stated object and none other. By keeping
+constantly before the House this distinction between the permanent fund
+and temporary exigencies, he accustomed it to take a practical business
+view of its legislative duties, and the people to understand the
+principles he endeavored to apply.
+
+In a debate at the beginning of the session, on a bill for establishing
+trading houses with the Indians, Mr. Gallatin showed his hand by
+declaring that he would not consent to appropriate any part of the war
+funds for the scheme; nor, in view of the need of additional permanent
+funds for the discharge of the public debt, would he vote for the bill
+at all, unless there was to be a reduction in the expense of the
+military establishment; and he would not be diverted from his purpose
+although Mr. Madison advocated the bill because of its extremely
+benevolent object. The Federal leaders saw clearly to what this doctrine
+would bring them, and met it in the beginning. The first struggle
+occurred when the appropriations for the service of 1796 were brought
+before the House. Beginning with a discussion upon the salaries of the
+officers of the mint, the debate at once passed to the principle of
+appropriations. The Federalists insisted that a discussion of the merits
+of establishments was not in order when the appropriations were under
+consideration; that the House ought not, by withholding appropriations,
+to destroy establishments formed by the whole legislature, that is, by
+the Senate and House; that the House should vote for the appropriations
+agreeably to the laws already made. This view was sanctioned by
+practice. Mr. Gallatin immediately opposed this as an alarming and
+dangerous principle. He insisted that there was a certain discretionary
+power in the House to appropriate or not to appropriate for any object
+whatever, whether that object were authorized or not. It was a power
+vested in the House for the purpose of checking the other branches of
+government whenever necessary. He claimed that this power was shown in
+the making of yearly instead of permanent appropriations for the civil
+list and military establishments, yet when the House desired to
+strengthen public credit it had rendered the appropriation for those
+objects permanent and not yearly. It was, therefore, "contradictory to
+suppose that the House was bound to do a certain act at the same time
+that they were exercising the discretionary power of voting upon it."
+The debate determined nothing, but it is of interest as the first
+declaration in Congress of the supremacy of the House of
+Representatives.
+
+The great debate which, from the principles involved in it as well as
+the argument and oratory with which they were discussed, made this
+session of the House famous, was on the treaty with Great Britain. This
+was the first foreign treaty made since the establishment of the
+Constitution. The treaty was sent in to the House "for the information
+of Congress," by the President, on March 1, with notice of its
+ratification at London in October. The next day Mr. Edward Livingston
+moved that the President be requested to send in a copy of the
+instructions to the minister of the United States who negotiated the
+treaty, together with the correspondence and other documents. A few days
+later he amended his resolution by adding an exception of such of said
+papers as any existing negotiations rendered improper to disclose. The
+Senate in its ratification of the treaty suspended the operation of the
+clause regulating the trade with the West Indies, on which Great Britain
+still imposed the old colonial restriction, and recommended the
+President to open negotiations on this subject; and in fact such
+negotiations were in progress. The discussion was opened on the Federal
+side by a request to the gentlemen in favor of the call to give their
+reasons. Mr. Gallatin supported the resolution, and expressed surprise
+at any objection, considering that the exception of the mover rendered
+the resolution of itself unexceptionable. The President had not informed
+the House of the reasons upon which the treaty was based. If he did not
+think proper to give the information sought for, he would say so to
+them. A question might arise whether the House should get at those
+secrets even if the President refused the request, but that was not the
+present question. In reply to Mr. Murray, who asserted that the treaty
+was the supreme law of the land, and that there was no discretionary
+power in the House except on the question of its constitutionality, Mr.
+Gallatin said that Congress possessed the power of regulating
+trade,--perhaps the treaty-making power clashed with that,--and
+concluded by observing that the House was the grand inquest of the
+nation, and that it had the right to call for papers on which to ground
+an impeachment. At present he did not contemplate an exercise of that
+right. Mr. Madison said it was now to be decided whether the general
+power of making treaties supersedes the powers of the House of
+Representatives, particularly specified in the Constitution, so as to
+give to the executive all deliberative will and leave the House only an
+executive and ministerial instrumental agency; and he proposed to amend
+the resolution so as to read, "except so much of said papers as in his
+(the President's) judgment it may be inconsistent with the interest of
+the United States at this time to disclose." But his motion was defeated
+by a vote of 47 nays to 37 yeas.
+
+The discussion being resumed in committee of the whole, the expressions
+of opinion were free on both sides, but so moderate that one of the
+members made comment on the calmness and temper of the discussion.
+Nicholas said that, if the treaty were not the law of the land, the
+President should be impeached. But the parts of the treaty into which
+the President had not the right to enter, he could not make law by
+proclamation. Swanwick supported the call as one exercised by the House
+of Commons. On the Federal side, Harper said that the papers were not
+necessary, and, being unnecessary, the demand was an improper and
+unconstitutional interference with the executive department. If he
+thought them necessary, he would change the milk and water style of the
+resolutions. In that case the House had a right to them and he had no
+idea of requesting as a favor what should be demanded as a right.
+Gallatin, he said, had declared that it was a request, but that in case
+of refusal it might be considered whether demand should not be made, and
+he charged that when, at the time the motion was made, the question had
+been asked, what use was to be made of the papers, Gallatin did not and
+could not reply. Mr. Gallatin answered that whether the House had a
+discretionary power, or whether it was bound by the instrument, there
+was no impropriety in calling for the papers. He hoped to have avoided
+the constitutional question in the motion, but as the gentlemen had come
+forward on that ground, he had no objection to rest the decision of the
+constitutional power of Congress on the fate of the present question. He
+would therefore state that the House had a right to ask for the papers.
+
+The constitutional question being thus squarely introduced, Mr. Gallatin
+made an elaborate speech, which, from its conciseness in statement,
+strength of argument, and wealth of citations of authority, was, to say
+the least, inferior to no other of those drawn out in this memorable
+struggle. In its course he compared the opinion of those who had opposed
+the resolution to the saying of an English bishop, that the people had
+nothing to do with the law but to obey it, and likened their conduct to
+the servile obedience of a Parliament of Paris under the old order of
+things. He concluded with the hope that the dangerous doctrine, that the
+representatives of the people have not the right to consult their
+discretion when about exercising powers delegated by the Constitution,
+would receive its death-blow. Griswold replied in what by common consent
+was the strongest argument on the Federal side. The call, at first view
+simple, had, he said, become a grave matter. The gist of his objection
+to it was that the people in their Constitution had made the treaty
+power paramount to the legislative, and had deposited that power with
+the President and Senate.
+
+Mr. Madison once more rose to the constitutional question. He said that,
+if the passages of the Constitution be taken literally, they must clash.
+The word _supreme_, as applied to treaties, meant as over the state
+Constitutions, and not over the Constitution and laws of the United
+States. He supported Mr. Gallatin's view of the congressional power as
+coöperative with the treaty power. A construction which made the treaty
+power omnipotent he thought utterly inadmissible in a constitution
+marked throughout with limitations and checks.
+
+Mr. Gallatin again claimed the attention of the House, as the original
+question of a call for papers had resolved itself into a discussion on
+the treaty-making power. In the treaty of peace of 1783 there were
+three articles which might be supposed to interfere with the legislative
+powers of the several States: 1st, that which related to the payment of
+debts; 2d, the provision for no future confiscations; 3d, the
+restitution of estates already confiscated. The first could not be
+denied. "Those," he said, "might be branded with the epithet of
+disorganizers, who threatened a dissolution of the Union in case the
+measures they dictated were not obeyed; and he knew, although he did not
+ascribe it to any member of the House, that men high in office and
+reputation had industriously spread an alarm that the Union would be
+dissolved if the present motion was carried." He took the ground that a
+treaty is not valid, and does not bind the nation as such, till it has
+received the sanction of the House of Representatives. Mr. Harper closed
+the argument on the Federal side. On March 24 the resolution calling for
+the papers was carried by a vote of yeas 62, nays 37, absent 5, the
+speaker 1 (105). Livingston and Gallatin were appointed to present the
+request to the President.
+
+On March 30 the President returned answer to the effect that he
+considered it a dangerous precedent to admit this right in the House;
+that the assent of the House was not necessary to the validity of a
+treaty; and he absolutely refused compliance with the request. The
+letter of instructions to Jay would bear the closest examination, but
+the cabinet scorned to take shelter behind it, and it was on their
+recommendation that the President's refusal was explicit. This message,
+in spite of the opposition of the Federalists, was referred, by a vote
+of 55 yeas to 37 nays, to the committee of the whole. This reference
+involved debate. In his opposition to this motion, Mr. Harper said that
+the motives of the friends of the resolution had been avowed by the
+"gentleman who led the business, from Pennsylvania;" whereby it appears
+that Mr. Gallatin led the Republicans in the first debate. During this
+his first session he shared this distinction with Mr. Madison. At the
+next he became the acknowledged leader of the Republican party.
+
+On April 3 the debate was resumed. This second debate was led by Mr.
+Madison, who considered two points: 1st, the application for papers; 2d,
+the constitutional rights of Congress. His argument was of course calm
+and dispassionate after his usual manner. The contest ended on April 7,
+with the adoption of two resolutions: 1st, that the power of making
+treaties is exclusively with the President and Senate, and the House do
+not claim an agency in making them, or ratifying them when made; 2d,
+that when made a treaty must depend for the execution of its
+stipulations on a law or laws to be passed by Congress; and the House
+have a right to deliberate and determine the expediency or inexpediency
+of carrying treaties into effect. These resolutions were carried by a
+vote of 63 to 27.
+
+There was now a truce of a few days. In the meanwhile the country was
+agitated to an extent which, if words mean anything, really threatened
+an attempt at dissolution of the Union, if not civil war itself. The
+objections on the part of the Republicans were to the treaty as a whole.
+Their sympathies were with France in her struggle for liberty and
+democratic institutions and against England, and their real and proper
+ground of antipathy to the instrument lay in its concession of the right
+of capture of French property in American vessels, whilst the treaty
+with France forbade her to seize British property in American vessels.
+The objections in detail had been formulated at the Boston public
+meeting the year before. The commercial cities were disturbed by the
+interference with the carrying trade; the entire coast, by the search of
+vessels and the impressment of seamen; the agricultural regions, by the
+closing of the outlet for their surplus product; the upland districts,
+by the stoppage of the export of timber. But the country was without a
+navy, was ill prepared for war, and the security of the frontier was
+involved in the restoration of the posts still held by the British.
+
+The political situation was uncertain if not absolutely menacing. The
+threats of disunion were by no means vague. The Pendleton Society in
+Virginia had passed secession resolutions, and a similar disposition
+appeared in other States. While the treaty was condemned in the United
+States, British statesmen were not of one opinion as to the advantages
+they had gained by Grenville's diplomacy. Jay's desire, expressed to
+Randolph, "to manage so that in case of wars our people should be united
+and those of England divided," was not wholly disappointed. And there is
+on record the expression of Lord Sheffield, when he heard of the rupture
+in 1812, "We have now a complete opportunity of getting rid of that most
+impolitic treaty of 1794, when Lord Grenville was so perfectly duped by
+Jay."[4] Washington's ratification of the treaty went far to correct the
+hasty judgment of the people, and to reconcile them to it as a choice of
+evils. Supported by this modified tone of public opinion, the
+Federalists determined to press the necessary appropriation bills for
+carrying the treaties into effect. Besides the Jay treaty there were
+also before the House the Wayne treaty with the Indians, the Pinckney
+treaty with Spain, and the treaty with Algiers. With these three the
+House was entirely content, and the country was impatient for their
+immediate operation. Wayne's treaty satisfied the inhabitants on the
+frontier. The settlers along the Ohio, among whom was Gallatin's
+constituency, were eager to avail themselves of the privileges granted
+by that of Pinckney, which was a triumph of diplomacy; and all America,
+while ready to beard the British lion, seems to have been in terror of
+the Dey of Algiers. Mr. Sedgwick offered a resolution providing for the
+execution of the four treaties. Mr. Gallatin insisted on and received a
+separate consideration of each. That with Great Britain was reserved
+till the rest were disposed of. It was taken up on April 14. Mr. Madison
+opened the debate. He objected to the treaty as wanting in real
+reciprocity; 2d, in insufficiency of its provisions as to the rights of
+neutrals; 3d, because of its commercial restrictions. Other Republican
+leaders followed, making strong points of the position in which the
+treaty placed the United States with regard to France, to whom it was
+bound by a treaty of commercial alliance, which was a part of the
+contract of aid in the Revolutionary War; and also of the possible
+injustice which would befall American claimants in the British courts of
+admiralty.
+
+The Federalists clung to their ground, defended the treaty as the best
+attainable, and held up as the alternative a war, for which the refusal
+of the Republicans to support the military establishment and build up a
+navy left the country unprepared. In justice to Jay, his significant
+words to Randolph, while doubtful of success in his negotiation, should
+be remembered: "Let us hope for the best and prepare for the worst." To
+the red flag which the Federalists held up, Mr. Gallatin replied,
+accepting the consequences of war if it should come, and gave voice to
+the extreme dissatisfaction of the Virginia radicals with Jay and the
+negotiation. He charged that the cry of war and threats of a
+dissolution of the government were designed for an impression on the
+timidity of the House. "It was through the fear of being involved in a
+war that the negotiation with Great Britain had originated; under the
+impression of fear the treaty had been negotiated and signed; a fear of
+the same danger, that of war, had promoted its ratification; and now
+every imaginary mischief which could alarm our fears was conjured up in
+order to deprive us of that discretion which this House thought they had
+a right to exercise, and in order to force us to carry the treaty into
+effect." He insisted on the important principle that 'free ships make
+free goods,' and complained of its abandonment by the negotiators.
+
+In a reply to this attack upon Jay, whose whole life was a refutation of
+the charge of personal or moral timidity, Mr. Tracy passed the limits of
+parliamentary courtesy. "The people," he said, "where he was most
+acquainted, whatever might be the character of other parts of the Union,
+were not of the stamp to cry hosannah to-day and crucify to-morrow; they
+will not dance around a whiskey pole to-day and curse their government,
+and upon hearing of a military force sneak into a swamp. No," said he,
+"my immediate constituents, whom I very well know, understand their
+rights and will defend them, and if they find the government will not
+protect them, they will attempt at least to protect themselves;" and he
+concluded, "I cannot be thankful to that gentleman for coming all the
+way from Geneva to give Americans a character for pusillanimity." He
+held it madness to suppose that if the treaty were defeated war could be
+avoided. Called to order, he said that he might have been too personal,
+and asked pardon of the gentleman and of the House.
+
+The brilliant crown of the debate was the impassioned speech of Fisher
+Ames, the impression of which upon the House and the crowded gallery is
+one of the traditions of American oratory. The scene, as it has been
+handed down to us, resembles, in all save its close, that which
+Parliament presented when Chatham made his last and dying appeal. Like
+the great earl, Ames rose pale and trembling from illness to address a
+House angry and divided. Defending himself and the Federal party against
+the charge of being in English interest, he said, "Britain has no
+influence, and can have none. She has enough--and God forbid she ever
+should have more. France, possessed of popular enthusiasm, of party
+attachments, has had and still has _too much influence_ on our
+politics,--any foreign influence is too much and ought to be destroyed.
+I detest the man and disdain the spirit that can ever bend to a mean
+subserviency to the views of any nation. It is enough to be American.
+That character comprehends our duties and ought to engross our
+attachments." Considering the probable influence on the Indian tribes of
+the rejection of the treaty, he said, "By rejecting the Posts we light
+the savage fires, we bind the victims.... I can fancy that I listen to
+the yells of savage vengeance and shrieks of torture. Already they seem
+to sigh in the west wind,--already they mingle with every echo from the
+mountains." His closing words again bring Chatham to mind. "Yet I have
+perhaps as little personal interest in the event as any one here. There
+is, I believe, no member who will not think his chance to be a witness
+of the consequences greater than mine. If, however, the vote should pass
+to reject, and a spirit should rise, as rise it will, with the public
+disorders to make confusion worse confounded, even I, slender and almost
+broken as my hold upon life is, may outlive the government and
+Constitution of my country." This appeal, supported by the petitions and
+letters which poured in upon the House, left no doubt of the result. An
+adjournment was carried, but the speech was decisive. The next day,
+April 29, it was resolved to be expedient to make the necessary
+appropriations to carry the treaty into effect. The vote stood 49 ayes
+to 49 nays, and was decided in the affirmative by Muhlenberg, who was in
+the chair. But the House would not be satisfied without an expression of
+condemnation of the instrument. On April 30 it was resolved that in the
+opinion of the House the treaty was objectionable.
+
+While Mr. Gallatin in this debate rose to the highest rank of
+statesmanship, he showed an equal mastery of other important subjects
+which engaged the attention of the House during the session. He was
+earnest for the protection of the frontier, but had no good opinion of
+the Indians. "Twelve years had passed," he said, "since the peace of
+1783; ever since that time he had lived on the frontier of Pennsylvania.
+Not a year of this period had passed, whether at war or peace, that some
+murders had not been committed by the Indians, and yet not an act of
+invasion or provocation by the inhabitants." In the matter of
+impressment of American seamen, he urged the lodging of sufficient power
+in the executive. Men had been impressed, and he held it to be the duty
+of the House to take notice of it by war or negotiation. In the
+establishment of land offices for the sale of the western lands he
+brought to bear upon legislation his practical experience. He urged that
+the tracts for sale be divided, and distinctions be made between large
+purchasers and actual settlers--proposing that the large tracts be
+sold at the seat of government, and the small on the territory itself.
+He instanced the fact that in 1792 all the land west of the Ohio was
+disposed of at 1_s_. 6_d_. the acre, and a week afterwards was resold at
+$1.50, so that the money which should have gone into the treasury went
+to the pockets of speculators. He also suggested that the proceeds of
+the sales should be a fund to pay the public debt, and that the public
+stock should always be received at its value in payment for land; a plan
+by which the land would be brought directly to the payment of the debt,
+as foreigners would gladly exchange the money obligations of the
+government for land. On the question of taxation he declared himself in
+favor of direct taxes, and held that a tax on houses and lands could be
+levied without difficulty. He would satisfy the people that it was to
+pay off the public debt, which he held to be a public curse. He
+supported the excise duty on stills under regulations which would avoid
+the watching of persons and houses and inspection by officers, and
+proposed that licenses be granted for the time applied for.
+
+The military establishment he opposed in every way, attacked the
+principle on which it was based, and fought every appropriation in
+detail, from the pay of a major-general to the cost of uniforms for the
+private soldiers. He was not afraid of the army, he said, but did not
+think that it was necessary for the support of the government or
+dangerous to the liberties of the people; moreover, it cost six hundred
+thousand dollars a year, which was a sum of consequence in the condition
+of the finances.
+
+The navy found no more favor in his eyes. He denied that fleets were
+necessary to protect commerce. He challenged its friends to show, from
+the history of any nation in Europe as from our own, that commerce and
+the navy had gone hand in hand. There was no nation except Great
+Britain, he said, whose navy had any connection with commerce. Navies
+were instruments of power more calculated to annoy the trade of other
+nations than to protect that of the nations to which they belonged. The
+price England had paid for her navy was a debt of three hundred millions
+of pounds sterling. He opposed appropriations even for the three
+frigates, United States, Constitution, and Constellation,--the
+construction of which had been ordered,--the germs of that navy which
+was later to set his theory at naught, redeem the honor of the flag,
+protect our commerce, and release the country and the civilized world
+from ignominious tribute to the Mediterranean pirates, who were
+propitiated in this very session only at the cost of a million of
+dollars to the Treasury of the United States, and by the gift of a
+frigate.
+
+In the debate over the payment of the sum of five millions, which the
+United States Bank had demanded from the government, the greatest part
+of which had been advanced on account of appropriations, he lamented the
+necessity, but urged the liquidation. This was the occasion of another
+personal encounter. In reply to a charge of Gallatin that the
+Federalists were in favor of debt, Sedgwick alluded to Gallatin's part
+in the Whiskey Insurrection, and said that none of those gentlemen whom
+Gallatin had charged with "an object to perpetuate and increase the
+public debt" had been known to have combined "in every measure which
+might obstruct the operation of law," nor had declared to the world
+"that the men who would accept of the offices to perform the necessary
+functions of government were lost to every sense of virtue;" "that from
+them was to be withheld every comfort of life which depended on those
+duties which as men and fellow-citizens we owe to each other. If," he
+said, "the gentlemen had been guilty of such nefarious practices, there
+would have been a sound foundation for the charge brought against them."
+Gallatin made no reply. This was the one political sin he had
+acknowledged. His silence was his expiation.
+
+The Treasury Department and its control, past and present, was the
+object of his unceasing criticism. In April, 1796, he said, "The
+situation of the gentleman at the head of the department [Wolcott] was
+doubtless delicate and unpleasant; it was the more so when compared with
+that of his predecessor [Hamilton]. Both indeed had the same power to
+borrow money when necessary; but that power, which was efficient in the
+hands of the late secretary and liberally enough used by him, was become
+useless at present. He wished the present secretary to be extricated
+from his present difficulty. Nothing could be more painful than to be at
+the head of that department with an empty treasury, a revenue inadequate
+to the expenses, and no means to borrow." Nevertheless he feared that if
+it were declared that the payment of the debt incurred by themselves
+were to be postponed till the present generation were over, it might
+well be expected that the principle thus adopted by them would be
+cherished, that succeeding legislatures and administrations would follow
+in their steps, and that they were laying the foundations of that
+national curse,--a growing and perpetual debt.
+
+On the last day of the session W. Smith had challenged the correctness
+of Gallatin's charge that there had been an increase of the public debt
+by five millions under the present administration, and claimed that
+there were errors in Gallatin's statement of more than four and a half
+millions. Gallatin defended his figures. At this day it is impossible to
+determine the merits of this dispute.
+
+One incident of this session deserves mention as showing the distaste of
+Gallatin for anything like personal compliment, stimulated in this
+instance, perhaps, by his sense of Washington's dislike to himself. It
+had been the habit of the House since the commencement of the government
+to adjourn for a time on February 22, Washington's birthday, that
+members might pay their respects to the President. When the motion was
+made that the House adjourn for _half an hour_, the Republicans
+objected, and Gallatin, nothing loath to "bell the cat," moved that the
+words "half an hour" be struck out. His amendment was lost without a
+division. The motion to adjourn was then put and lost by a vote of 50
+nays to 38 ayes. The House waited on the President at the close of the
+business of the day. On June 1 closed this long and memorable session,
+in which the assaults of the Republicans upon the administration were so
+persistent and embarrassing as to justify Wolcott's private note to
+Hamilton, April 29, 1796, that "unless a radical change of opinion can
+be effected in the Southern States, the existing establishments will not
+last eighteen months. The influence of Messrs. Gallatin, Madison, and
+Jefferson must be diminished, or the public affairs will be brought to a
+stand." Here is found an early recognition of the political
+"triumvirate," and Gallatin is the first named.
+
+Gallatin seems to have had some doubts as to his reëlection to Congress.
+As he did not reside in the Washington and Allegheny district, his name
+was not mentioned as a candidate, and, to use his own words, he expected
+to "be gently dropped without the parade of a resignation." In his
+distaste at separation from his wife, the desire to abandon public life
+grew upon him. But personal abuse of him in the newspapers exasperating
+his friends, he was taken up again in October, and he arrived on the
+scene, he says, too late to prevent it. He had no hope, however, of
+success, and was resolved to resign a seat to which he was in every way
+indifferent. "Ambition, love of power," he wrote to his wife on October
+16, he had never felt, and he added, if vanity ever made one of the
+ingredients which impelled him to take an active part in public life, it
+had for many years altogether vanished away. He was nevertheless
+reëlected by the district he had represented.
+
+        *        *        *        *        *
+
+The second session of the fourth Congress began on December 5, 1796. At
+the beginning of this session Mr. Gallatin took the reins of the
+Republican party, and held them till its close. The position of the
+Federalists had been strengthened before the country by the energy of
+Washington, who, impatient of the delays which Great Britain opposed to
+the evacuation of the posts, marched troops to the frontier and obtained
+their surrender. Adet, the new French minister, had dashed the feeling
+of attachment for France by his impudent notice to the President that
+the dissatisfaction of France would last until the executive of the
+United States should return to sentiments and measures more conformable
+to the interests and friendships of the two nations. In September
+Washington issued his Farewell Address, in which he gave the famous
+warning against foreign complications, which, approved by the country,
+has since remained its policy; but neither the prospect of his final
+withdrawal from the political and official field, nor the advice of
+Jefferson to moderate their zeal, availed to calm the bitterness of the
+ultra Republicans in the House.
+
+The struggle over the answer to the President's message, which Fisher
+Ames on this occasion reported, was again renewed. An effort was made to
+strike out the passages complimentary to Washington and expressing
+regret at his approaching retirement. Giles, who made the motion, went
+so far as to say that he 'wished him to retire, and that this was the
+moment for his retirement, that the government could do very well
+without him, and that he would enjoy more happiness in his retirement
+than he possibly could in his present situation.' For his part he did
+not consider Washington's administration either "wise or firm," as the
+address said. Gallatin made a distinction between the administration and
+the legislature, and in lieu of the words, wise, firm, and patriotic
+administration, proposed to address the compliment directly to the
+wisdom, firmness, and patriotism of Washington. But Ames defended his
+report, and it was adopted by a vote of 67 to 12. Gallatin voted with
+the majority, but Livingston, Giles, and Macon held out with the small
+band of disaffected, among whom it is amusing also to find Andrew
+Jackson, who took his seat at this Congress to represent Tennessee,
+which had been admitted as a State at the last session.[5]
+
+The indebtedness of the States to the general government, in the old
+balance sheet, on the payment of which Gallatin insisted, was a subject
+of difference between the Senate and the House. Gallatin was appointed
+chairman of the committee of conference on the part of the House. The
+reduction of the military establishment, which he wished to bring down
+to the footing of 1792, was again insisted upon. Gallatin here
+ingeniously argued against the necessity for the number of men
+proposed, that it was a mere matter of opinion, and if it was a matter
+of opinion, it was not strictly necessary, because if necessary it was
+no longer a matter of opinion. Naval appropriations were also opposed,
+on the ground that a navy was prejudicial to commerce. Taxation, direct
+and indirect, and compensation to public officers were also subjects of
+debate at this session. On the subject of appropriations, general or
+special, he was uncompromising. He charged upon the Treasury Department
+that notwithstanding the distribution of the appropriations they thought
+themselves at liberty to take money from an item where there was a
+surplus and apply it to another where it was wanted. To check such
+irregularity, he secured the passage of a resolution ordering that "the
+several sums shall be solely applied to the objects for which they are
+respectively appropriated," and tacked it to the appropriation bill. The
+Senate added an amendment removing the restriction, but Gallatin and
+Nicholas insisting on its retention, the House supported them by a vote
+of 52 to 36, and the Senate receded.
+
+Notwithstanding the apparent enthusiasm of the House in the early part
+of the session, when the tricolor of France, a present from the French
+government to the United States, was sent by Washington to Congress, to
+be deposited with the archives of the nation, French influence was on
+the wane. The common sense of the country got the better of its
+passion. In the reaction the Federalists regained the popular favor for
+a season.
+
+Whatever latent sympathy the French people may have had for America as
+the nation which set the example of resistance to arbitrary rule, the
+French government certainly was moved by no enthusiasm for abstract
+rights. Its only object was to check the power of their ancient enemy,
+and deprive it of its empire beyond the seas. Nevertheless, France did
+contribute materially to American success. The American government and
+people acknowledged the value of her assistance, and, in spite of the
+prejudices of race, there was a strong bond of sympathy between the two
+nations; and when, in her turn, France, in 1789, threw off the feudal
+yoke, she expected and she received the sympathy of America. Beyond this
+the government and the people of the United States could not and would
+not go. The position of France in the winter of 1796-97 was peculiar.
+She was at war with the two most formidable powers of Europe,--Austria
+and England, the one the mistress of Central Europe, the other supreme
+ruler of the seas. The United States was the only maritime power which
+could be opposed to Great Britain. The French government determined to
+secure American aid by persuasion, if possible, otherwise by threat. The
+Directory indiscreetly appealed from the American government to the
+American people, forgetting that in representative governments these are
+one. Nor was the precedent cited in defense of this unusual
+proceeding--namely, the appeal of the American colonists to the people
+of England, Ireland, and Canada to take part in the struggle against the
+British government--pertinent; for that was an appeal to sufferers under
+a common yoke.
+
+The enthusiasm awakened in France by the dramatic reception of the
+American flag, presented by Monroe to the French Convention, was
+somewhat dampened by the cooler manner with which Congress received the
+tricolor, and was entirely dashed by the moderation of the reply of the
+House to Washington's message. The consent of the House to the
+appropriations to carry out the Jay Treaty decided the French Directory
+to suspend diplomatic relations with the United States. The marvelous
+successes of Bonaparte in Italy over the Austrian army encouraged Barras
+to bolder measures. The Directory not only refused to receive Charles C.
+Pinckney, the new American minister, but gave him formal notice to
+retire from French territory, and even threatened him with subjection to
+police jurisdiction. In view of this alarming situation, President Adams
+convened Congress.
+
+The first session of the fifth Congress began at Philadelphia on Monday,
+May 15, 1797. Jonathan Dayton was reëlected speaker of the House. Some
+new men now appeared on the field of national debate: Samuel Sewall and
+Harrison Gray Otis from Massachusetts, James A. Bayard from Delaware,
+and John Rutledge, Jr., from South Carolina. Madison and Fisher Ames did
+not return, and their loss was serious to their respective parties.
+Madison was incontestably the finest reasoning power, and Ames, as an
+orator, had no equal in our history until Webster appeared to dwarf all
+other fame beside his matchless eloquence. Parties were nicely balanced,
+the nominal majority being on the Federal side. Harper and Griswold
+retained the lead of the administration party. Giles still led the
+Republican opposition, but Gallatin was its main stay, always ready,
+always informed, and already known to be in the confidence of Jefferson,
+its moving spirit. The President's message was, as usual, the touchstone
+of party. The debate upon it unmasked opinions. It was to all intents a
+war message, since it asked provision for war. The action of France left
+no alternative. The Republicans recognized this as well as the
+Federalists. They must either respond heartily to the appeal of the
+executive to maintain the national honor, or come under the charge they
+had brought against the Federalists of sympathy with an enemy. At first
+they sought a middle ground. Admitting that the rejection of our
+minister and the manner of it, if followed by a refusal of all
+negotiation on the subject of mutual complaints, would put an end to
+every friendly relation between the two countries, they still hoped that
+it was only a suspension of diplomatic intercourse. Hence, in response
+to the assurance in the message that an attempt at negotiation would
+first be made, Nicholas moved an amendment in this vein. The Federalists
+opposed all interference with the executive, but the Republicans took
+advantage of the debate to clear themselves of any taint of unpatriotic
+motives in their semi-opposition. The Federalists, repudiating the
+charge of British influence, held up Genet to condemnation, as making an
+appeal to the people, Fauchet as fomenting an insurrection, and Adet as
+insulting the government. The Republicans retorted upon them Grenville's
+proposition to Mr. Pinckney, to support the American government against
+the dangerous Jacobin factions which sought to overturn it. Gallatin
+deprecated bringing the conduct of foreign relations into debate, and
+hoped that the majority would resist the rashness which would drive the
+country into war; he claimed that a disposition should be shown to put
+France on an equal footing with other nations. He would offer an
+ultimatum to France. Harper closed the debate in a powerful and
+brilliant speech, opposing the amendment because he was for peace, and
+because peace could only be maintained by showing France that we were
+preparing for war. So the rival leaders based their opposite action on a
+common ground. Dayton, the speaker, now embodied Gallatin's idea in
+another form, and introduced a paragraph to the effect that "the House
+receive with the utmost satisfaction the information of the President
+that a fresh attempt at negotiation will be instituted, and cherish the
+hope that a mutual spirit of conciliation and a disposition on the part
+of the United States to place France on grounds as favorable as other
+countries will produce an accommodation compatible with the engagements,
+rights, and honor of our nation."
+
+Kittera, who was one of the committee on the address, then moved to add
+after "mutual spirit of conciliation" the clause, "to compensate for any
+injury done to our neutral rights," etc. This both Harper and Gallatin
+opposed. Gallatin objected to being forced to this choice. To vote in
+its favor was a threat, if compensation were refused; to vote against it
+was an abandonment of the claim. But he should oppose it, if forced to a
+choice. The Federal leaders insisted; the previous question was ordered,
+51 to 48. Here Mr. Gallatin showed himself the leader of his party. He
+stated that, the majority having determined the question, it was now a
+choice of evils, and he should vote for the amendment, and it was
+adopted, 78 ayes to 21 nays. Among the nays were Harper, the Federalist
+leader, Giles, the nominal chief of the Republicans, and Nicholas, high
+in rank in that party. But the last word was not yet said. Edward
+Livingston, who day by day asserted himself more positively, denied that
+the conduct of the executive had been "just and impartial to foreign
+nations," and moved to strike out the statement; Gallatin was more
+moderate. Though he did not believe that in every instance the
+government had been just and impartial, yet, generally speaking, it had
+been so. He did not approve the British treaty, though he attributed no
+bad motives to its makers; but he did not think that the laws respecting
+the subordinate departments of the executive and judiciary had been
+fairly executed. He therefore would not consent to the sentence in the
+answer to the address, that the House did not hesitate to declare that
+"they would give their most cordial support to principles so
+deliberately and uprightly established."
+
+What, he asked, were these principles? Otis denounced this as an artful
+attempt to cast a censure, not only on the executive, but on all the
+departments of government, and Allen of Connecticut declared "that there
+was American blood enough in the House to approve this clause and
+American accent enough to pronounce it." The rough prejudice of the
+Saxon against the Latin race showed itself in this language, and
+expressed the antagonism which Mr. Gallatin found to increase with his
+political progress. Both the resolution and the amendment were defeated,
+53 nays to 45 yeas. But when the final vote came upon the address, Mr.
+Gallatin, with that practical sense which made him the sheet anchor of
+his party in boisterous weather, voted with the Federalists and carried
+the moderate Republicans with him. The vote was 62 to 36. Among the
+irreconcilables the name of Edward Livingston is recorded.
+
+The answer of the President was a model of good sense. "No event can
+afford me so much cordial satisfaction as to conduct a negotiation with
+the French Republic to a removal of prejudices, a correction of errors,
+a dissipation of umbrages, an accommodation of all differences, and a
+restoration of harmony and affection to the mutual satisfaction of both
+nations."
+
+This was the leading debate of the session. The situation was too grave
+for trifling. On June 5, two days after the President's reply,
+resolutions were introduced to put the country in a state of defense.
+Gallatin struggled hard to keep down the appropriations, and opposed the
+employment of the three frigates, which as yet had not been equipped or
+manned. If they got to sea, the President would have no option except to
+enforce the disputed articles of the French treaty. Gallatin laid down
+also the law of search in accordance with the law of nations, and
+pointed out that resistance to search or capture by merchantmen would
+not only lead to war, but was war. In the remaining acts of the session
+he was in favor of the defense of ports and harbors, with no preference
+as to fortification on government territory; in favor of a prohibition
+of the export of arms; against raising an additional corps of artillery;
+against expatriation of persons who took service under foreign
+governments. He opposed the duty on salt as unequal and unnecessary, and
+sought to have the loan, which became necessary, cut down to the exact
+sum of the deficiency in the appropriations; and finally, on the
+impeachment of William Blount, Senator of the United States, charged
+with having conspired with the British government to attack the
+Spaniards of St. Augustine, he pointed out the true method of procedure
+in the preparation of the bill of impeachment and the arraignment of the
+offender.
+
+The House adjourned on July 10. Jefferson complained of the weakness and
+wavering of this Congress, the majority of which shifted with the breeze
+of "panic or prowess." This was, however, a very narrow view; for at
+this session the House fairly represented the prevailing sentiment of
+the country, which was friendly to France as a nation, but indignant
+with the insolence of her rulers. Gallatin, in the middle of the
+session, wrote to his wife that the Republicans "were beating and beaten
+by turns." He supposed that her father, Commodore Nicholson, 'thought
+him too moderate and about to trim,' and then declared, 'Moderation and
+firmness hath ever been, and ever will be, my motto.' Gallatin tells a
+story of his colleague from Pennsylvania, the old Anti-Federalist, Blair
+McClanachan, which shows the warmth of party feeling. They were both
+dining with President Adams, who entertained the members of Congress in
+turn. "McClanachan told the President that, by God, he would rather see
+the world annihilated than this country united with Great Britain; that
+there would not remain a single king in Europe within six months, etc.,
+all in the loudest and most decisive tone."
+
+Jefferson, who, as vice-president, presided over the debates in the
+Senate, had no cause to complain of any hesitation in that body, in
+which the Federalists had regained a clear working majority, giving him
+no chance of a deciding vote.
+
+        *        *        *        *        *
+
+The second session of the fifth Congress began on November 13, 1797. The
+words of the President's address, "We are met together at a most
+interesting period, the situation of the powers of Europe is singular
+and portentous," was not an idle phrase. The star of Bonaparte already
+dominated the political firmament. Europe lay prostrate at the feet of
+the armies of the Directory. England, who was supposed to be the next
+object of attack, was staggering under the load of debt; and the sailors
+of her channel fleet had risen in mutiny. Even the Federalists, the
+aristocrats as Mr. Gallatin delighted to call them, believed that she
+was gone beyond recovery. But the admirers of France were no better
+satisfied with the threatening attitude of the Directory towards
+America, and eagerly waited news of the reception given to the envoys
+extraordinary, Gerry, Pinckney, and Marshall, whom Adams with the
+consent of the Senate dispatched to Paris in the summer. Even Jefferson
+lost his taste for a French alliance, and almost wished there were "an
+ocean of fire between the new and the old world."
+
+The tone of the President's address was considered wise on all sides,
+and it was agreed that the answer should be general and not a subject
+of contention. One of the members asked to be excused from going with
+the House to the President, but Gallatin showed that, as there was no
+power to compel attendance, no formal excuse was necessary. When the
+motion was put as to whether they should go in a body as usual to
+present their answer, Mr. Gallatin voted in the negative. He
+nevertheless accompanied the members, who were received pleasantly by
+President Adams and "treated to cake and wine."
+
+Harper was made the chairman of the Ways and Means Committee. Though of
+high talents and a fine speaker, Gallatin found him a "great bungler" in
+the business of the House, a large share of which fell upon his own
+shoulders as well as the direction of the Republicans, of whom,
+notwithstanding the jealousy of Giles, he now was the acknowledged
+leader. As a member for Pennsylvania, Mr. Gallatin presented a memorial
+from the Quakers with regard to the arrest of fugitive slaves on her
+soil; the law of Pennsylvania declaring all men to be free who set foot
+in that State except only servants of members of Congress. There was
+already an opposition to hearing any petition with regard to slaves, but
+Gallatin insisted on the memorial taking the usual course of reference
+to a committee. He directed the House also in the correct path in its
+legislation as to foreign coins. It was proposed to take from them the
+quality of legal tender; but he showed that it was policy not to
+discriminate against such coins until the mint could supply a
+sufficiency for the use of the country. In this argument he estimated
+the entire amount of specie in the United States at eight millions of
+dollars. At this early period in his political career he was acquiring
+that precise knowledge of the facts of American finance which later
+served to establish the principles upon which it is based.
+
+This session was noteworthy by reason of the first personal encounter on
+the floor of the House. It was between two Northern members, Lyon of
+Vermont and Griswold of Connecticut. Gallatin stood by Lyon, who was of
+his party, and showed that the House could not expel him, since it was
+not at the time in organized session. As the Federalists would not
+consent to censure Griswold, both offenders escaped even a formal
+reproof. The general bitterness of feeling which marked the summer
+session was greatly modified in the expectant state of foreign politics;
+but the occasion for display of political divergence was not long
+delayed.
+
+On January 18, 1798, Mr. Harper, who led the business of the House,
+moved the appropriation for foreign intercourse. This was seized upon by
+the opposition to advance still further their line of attack by a
+limitation of the constitutional prerogative of the President. In
+addition to the usual salaries of the envoys to Great Britain and
+France, appropriations were asked for the posts at Madrid, Lisbon, and
+Berlin, which last Mr. Adams had designated as a first-class mission.
+The discussion on the powers of the President, and the extent to which
+they might be controlled by paring down the appropriations, lifted the
+debate from the narrow ground of economy in administration to the
+higher plane of constitutional powers. Nicholas opened on the
+Republican side by announcing that it was seasonable to bring back the
+establishment of the diplomatic corps to the footing it had been on
+until the year 1796. In all governments like our own he declared that
+there was a tendency to a union and consolidation of all its parts into
+the executive, and the limitation and annexion of the parts with each
+other as settled by the Constitution would be destroyed by this
+influence unless there were a constant attention on the part of the
+legislature to resist it. The appointment of a minister plenipotentiary
+to Prussia, with which we had little or no commercial intercourse,
+offered an opportunity to determine this limitation. Harper said that
+this was a renewal of the old charge that foreign intercourse was
+unnecessary, and the old suggestion that our commerce ought to be given
+up or left to shift for itself. Mr. Gallatin laid down extreme theories
+which have never yet found practical application. He took the question
+at once from party or personal ground by admitting that the government
+was essentially pure, its patronage not extensive, or its effect upon
+the legislative or any other branch of the government as yet material.
+The Constitution had placed the patronage in the executive. There he
+thought it was wisely placed. The legislature would be more corrupt
+than the executive were it placed with them. While not willing at once
+to give up political foreign intercourse, he thought that it should by
+degrees be altogether declined. To it he ascribed the critical situation
+of the country. Commercial intercourse could be protected by the
+consular system. He then argued that the power to provide for expenses
+was the check intended by the Constitution. To this Griswold answered
+that this doctrine of checks contained more mischief than Pandora's box;
+Bayard, that the checks were all directed to the executive, and that
+they would check and counter-check until they _stopped the wheels of
+government_.[6] When the President was manacled and at the mercy of the
+House they would be satisfied. He held the executive to be the weakest
+branch of the government, because its powers are defined; but the limits
+of the House are undefined.
+
+As the debate advanced, Nicholas declared that the purpose of the
+Republicans was to define the executive power and to put an end to its
+extension through their power over appropriations. Later he would bring
+in a motion to do away with all foreign intercourse. Goodrich answered
+that the office of foreign minister was created by the Constitution
+itself, and the power of appointment was placed in the President. The
+House might speculate upon the propriety of doing away with all
+intercourse with foreign powers, but could not decide on it, for
+political intercourse did not depend on the sending of ministers abroad.
+Foreign ministers would come here and the Constitution required their
+reception. The idea that we should have no foreign intercourse was taken
+from Washington's Farewell Address, but his words applied only to
+alliances offensive and defensive. If ministers were abandoned, envoys
+extraordinary must be sent, a much more dangerous practice; the only
+choice was between ministers and spies. In conclusion he accused the
+Republicans of making one continuous attack upon the administration, and
+charged that the opposition to the appropriation bill was not a single
+measure, but connected with others, and intended to clog the wheels of
+government.
+
+The purpose of the Republicans being thus declared by Nicholas and
+squarely met by the friends of the administration, Mr. Gallatin, March
+1, 1798, summed up the opposition arguments in an elaborate speech three
+hours and a quarter in length. He denied the novel doctrine that each
+department had checks within itself, but none upon others; he claimed
+that the principle of checks is admitted in all mixed governments.
+Commercial intercourse, he said, is regulated by the law of nations, by
+the municipal law of respective countries and by treaties of commerce,
+the application of which is the province of consuls. What advantages, he
+asked, had our commercial treaties given us, either that with France or
+that with England? He excepted that part of the treaty with Great
+Britain which arranged our difference with that power, as foreign to the
+discussion. He claimed that the restriction which we had laid upon
+ourselves by our commercial treaties had been attended with political
+consequences fatal to our tranquillity. Washington had advised a
+separation of our political from our commercial relations. The message
+of President Adams intimated a different policy and alluded to the
+balance of power in Europe as not to be forgotten or neglected.
+Interesting as that balance may be to Europe, how does it concern us? We
+shall never throw our weight into the scale. Passing from this to the
+danger of the absorption of powers by the executive, he cited the
+examples of the Córtes of Spain, the États Généraux of France, the Diets
+of Denmark. In all these countries the executive is in possession of
+legislative, of absolute powers. The fate of the European republics was
+similar. Venice, Switzerland, and Holland had shown the legislative
+powers merging into the executive. The object of the Constitution of the
+United States is to divide and distribute the powers of government. With
+uncontrolled command over the purse of the people the executive tends to
+prodigality, to taxes, and to wars. He closed with a hope that a fixed
+determination to prevent the increase of the national expenditure, and
+to detach the country from any connection with European politics, would
+tend to reconcile parties, promote the happiness of America, and
+conciliate the affection of every part of the Union. No such admirable
+exposition of the true American doctrine of non-interference with
+European politics had at that time been heard in Congress.
+
+In reply, Harper insisted on the admission that the purpose of the
+amendment of Nicholas was to restrain the President; that it was a
+question of power, not of money. Mr. Gallatin admitted the right of
+appointment, but denied that the House was bound to appropriate. Harper
+rejoined that the offices did not originate with the President but with
+the Constitution, and that they could not be destroyed by the action of
+the House, and, leaving the general ground of debate, made a brilliant
+attack upon the Republicans as revolutionists, whom he divided into
+three classes: the philosophers, the Jacobins, and the _sans-culottes_.
+The philosophers are most to be dreaded. "They declaim with warmth on
+the miseries of mankind, the abuses of government, and the vices of
+rulers; all which they engage to remove, providing their theories should
+once be adopted. They talk of the perfectibility of man and of the
+dignity of his nature; and, entirely forgetting what he is, declaim
+perpetually about what he should be." Of Jacobins there are plenty. They
+profit by the labors of others; tyrants in power, demagogues when not.
+Fortunately for America there are few or no _sans-culottes_ among her
+inhabitants. Jefferson, he said, returned from France a missionary to
+convert Americans to the new faith, and he charged that the system of
+French alliance and war with Great Britain by the United States was a
+part of the scheme of the French revolutionists, and was imported into
+this country. Gallatin and his friends he regarded in the light of an
+enemy who has commenced a siege against the fortress of the
+Constitution.
+
+The restricting amendment was lost, and the bill passed by a vote of 52
+yeas to 43 nays. Nor is it easy to see how the theory of Mr. Gallatin
+with regard to diplomatic relations could have been applied successfully
+with the existing channels of intercourse. Now that the ocean cable
+brings governments into direct relation with each other, there is a
+tendency to restrict the authority of ambassadors, for whom there is no
+longer need, and the entire system will no doubt soon disappear. Mr.
+Gallatin's speech was the delight of his party and his friends. He was
+called upon to write it out, and two thousand copies of it were
+circulated as the best exposition of Republican doctrine.
+
+Early in February the President informed Congress of certain captures
+and outrages committed by a French privateer within the limits of the
+United States, including the burning of an English merchantman in the
+harbor of Charleston. On March 19, in a further special message, he
+communicated dispatches from the American envoys in France, and also
+informed Congress that he should withdraw his order forbidding merchant
+vessels to sail in an armed condition. A collision might, therefore,
+occur at any moment.
+
+On March 27, 1798, a resolution was introduced that it is not now
+expedient for the United States to resort to war against the French
+Republic; a second, to restrict the arming of merchant vessels; and a
+third, to provide for the protection of the seacoast and the internal
+defense of the country. Speaking to the first resolution, Mr. Gallatin
+said that the United States had arrived at a crisis at which a stand
+must be made, when the House must say whether it will resort to war or
+preserve peace. If to war, the expense and its evils must be met; if
+peace continue, then the country must submit: in either case American
+vessels would be taken. It was a mere matter of calculation which course
+would best serve the interest and happiness of the country. If he could
+separate defensive from offensive war, he should be in favor of it; but
+he could not make the distinction, and therefore he should be in favor
+of measures of peace. The act of the President was a war measure.
+Members of the House so designated it in letters to their constituents.
+
+On April 2 the President was requested to communicate the instructions
+and dispatches from the envoys extraordinary, mention of which he had
+made in his message of March 19. Gallatin supported the call. He said
+that the President was not afraid of communicating information, as he
+had shown in the preceding session, and that to withhold it would
+endanger the safety of our commerce, or prevent the happy issue of
+negotiation. On April 3 Mr. Gallatin presented a petition against
+hazarding the neutrality and peace of the nation by authorizing private
+citizens to arm and equip vessels. This was signed by forty members of
+the Pennsylvania legislature. Protests of a similar character were
+presented from other parts of the country. On the same day the President
+sent in the famous X Y Z dispatches, in confidence. These letters
+represented the names of Hottinguer, Bellamy, and Hauteval, the agents
+of Talleyrand, the foreign minister of the First Consul, which were
+withheld by the President. The mysterious negotiations contained a
+distinct demand by Talleyrand of a douceur of 1,200,000 livres to the
+French officials as a condition of peace. The effect was immediately to
+strengthen the administration, Dayton, the speaker, passing to the ranks
+of the Federalists.
+
+On the 18th the Senate sent down a bill authorizing the President to
+procure sixteen armed vessels to act as convoys. Gallatin still held
+firm. He admitted that from the beginning of the European contest the
+belligerent powers had disregarded the law of nations and the
+stipulations of treaties, but he still opposed the granting of armed
+convoys, which would lead to a collision. Let us not, he said, act on
+speculative grounds; if our present situation is better than war, let us
+keep it. Better even, he said, suffer the French to go on with their
+depredations than to take any step which may lead to war.
+
+Allen of Connecticut read a passage from the dispatches which envenomed
+the debate. By it one of the French agents appears to have warned the
+American envoys that they were mistaken in supposing that an exposition
+of the unreasonable demands of France would unite the people of the
+United States. He said, "You should know that the _diplomatic skill_ of
+France and the _means_ she possesses in your country are sufficient to
+enable her, with the _French party_ in America, to throw the blame which
+will attend the rupture of the negotiations on the _Federalists_, as you
+term yourselves, but on the _British party_, as France terms you, and
+you may assure yourselves this will be done." Allen then charged upon
+Gallatin that his language was that of a foreign agent. Gallatin replied
+that the representatives of the French Republic in this country had
+shown themselves to be the worst diplomatists that had ever been sent to
+it, and he asked why the gentlemen who did not come forward with a
+declaration of war (though they were willing to go to war without the
+declaration) charge their adversaries with meaning to submit to France.
+France might declare war or give an order to seize American vessels, but
+as long as she did not, some hope remained that the state of peace might
+not be broken; and he said in conclusion "that, notwithstanding all the
+violent charges and personal abuse which had been made against him, it
+would produce no difference in his manner of acting, neither prevent him
+from speaking against every measure which he thought injurious to the
+public interest, nor, on the other hand, inflame his mind so as to
+induce him to oppose measures which he might heretofore have thought
+proper."
+
+The war feeling ran high in the country; "Millions for defense, but not
+one cent for tribute,"[7] was the popular cry. On May 28 Mr. Harper
+introduced a bill to suspend commercial intercourse with France.
+Gallatin thought this a doubtful measure. Its avowed purpose was to
+distress France in the West Indies, but he said that in six months that
+entire trade would be by neutral vessels. In the discussion on the bill
+to regulate the arming of merchant vessels, he showed that it was the
+practice of neutral European nations to allow such vessels to arm, but
+not to regulate their conduct. Bonds are required in cases of letter of
+marque, and the merchant who arms is bound not to break the laws of
+nations or the agreements of treaties. Restriction was therefore
+unnecessary. Government should not interfere. Commercial intercourse
+with France was suspended June 13.
+
+In the pride of their new triumph and the intensity of their personal
+feeling the Federalists overleaped their mark, and began a series of
+measures which ultimately cost them the possession of the government
+and their political existence. The first of these was the Sedition Bill,
+which Jefferson believed to be aimed at Gallatin in person. Mr. Gallatin
+met it at its inception with a statement of the constitutional
+objections, viz., 1st, that there was no power to make such a law, and
+2d, the special provision in the Constitution that the writ of _habeas
+corpus_ shall not be suspended except in cases of rebellion and
+invasion. There was neither. The second, the Alien Bill, gave the
+President power to expel from the country all aliens. Over this measure
+Gallatin and Harper had hot words. Gallatin charged upon Harper not only
+a misrepresentation of the arguments of his opponents, but an
+arraignment of the motives of others, while claiming all purity for his
+own. Harper answered in words which show that Gallatin, for once, had
+met warmth with warmth, and anger with anger. When, Harper said, a
+gentleman, who is usually so cool, all at once assumes such a tone of
+passion as to forget all decorum of language, it would seem as if the
+observation had been properly applied. On the vote to strike out the
+obnoxious sections, the Federalists defeated their antagonists, and on
+June 21 the bill itself was passed with all its odious features by 46 to
+40.
+
+On June 21 President Adams sent in a message with letters from Gerry,
+who had remained at Paris after the return of Marshall and Pinckney, on
+the subject of a loan. They contained an intimation from Talleyrand that
+he was ready to resume negotiations. In this message Adams said, "I
+will never send another minister to France without assurances that he
+will be received, respected, and honored as the representative of a
+great, free, powerful, and independent nation." On the 25th an act was
+passed authorizing the commanders of merchant vessels to defend
+themselves against search and seizure under regulations by the
+President. On June 30 a further act authorized the purchase and
+equipment of twelve vessels as an addition to the naval armament. To all
+intents and purposes a state of war between the two countries already
+existed.
+
+The 4th of July (1798) was celebrated with unusual enthusiasm all over
+the United States, and the black cockade was generally worn. This was
+the distinctive badge of the Federalists, and a response to the tricolor
+which Adet had recommended all French citizens to wear in 1794.
+
+On July 5 a resolution was moved to appoint a committee to consider the
+expediency of declaring, by legislative act, the state of relations
+between the United States and the French Republic. Mr. Gallatin asked if
+a declaration of war could not be moved as an amendment, but the
+speaker, Mr. Dayton, made no reply. Mr. Gallatin objected that Congress
+could not declare a state of facts by a legislative act. But this view,
+if tenable then, has long since been abandoned. In witness of which it
+is only necessary to name the celebrated resolution of the Congress of
+1865 with regard to the recognition of a monarchy in Mexico. July 6 the
+House went into committee of the whole on the state of the Union to
+consider a bill sent down by the Senate abrogating the treaty with
+France. The bill was passed on the 16th by a vote of 47 ayes to 37 nays,
+Gallatin voting in the negative. The House adjourned the same day.
+
+While thus engaged in debates which called into exercise his varied
+information and displayed not only the extent of his learning but his
+remarkable powers of reasoning and statement, Mr. Gallatin never lost
+sight of reform in the administration of the finances of the government.
+To the success of his efforts to hold the Treasury Department to a
+strict conformity with his theory of administration, Mr. Wolcott, the
+secretary, gave ample if unwilling testimony. To Hamilton he wrote on
+April 5, 1798, "The management of the Treasury becomes more and more
+difficult. The legislature will not pass laws in gross; their
+appropriations are minute. Gallatin, to whom they yield, is evidently
+intending to break down this department by charging it with an
+impracticable detail."
+
+During these warm discussions Gallatin rarely lost his self-control.
+Writing to his old friend Lesdernier at this period, he said, "You may
+remember I am blessed with a very even temper; it has not been altered
+by time or politics."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The third session of the fifth Congress opened on December 3, 1798. On
+the 8th, when the President was expected, Lieutenant-General Washington
+and Generals Pinckney and Hamilton entered the hall and took their
+places on the right of the speaker's chair. They had been recently
+appointed to command the army of defense.
+
+The President's speech announced no change in the situation. "Nothing,"
+he said, "is discoverable in the conduct of France which ought to change
+or relax our measures for defense. On the contrary, to extend and
+invigorate them is our true policy. An efficient preparation for war can
+alone insure peace. It must be left to France, if she is indeed desirous
+of accommodation, to take the requisite steps. The United States will
+steadily observe the maxims by which they have hitherto been governed."
+The reply to this patriotic sentiment was unanimously agreed to, and was
+most grateful to Adams, who thanked the House for it as "consonant to
+the characters of representatives of a great and free people."
+
+On December 27 a peculiar resolution was introduced to punish the
+usurpation of the executive authority of the government of the United
+States in carrying on correspondence with the government of any foreign
+prince or state. Gallatin thought this resolution covered too much
+ground. The criminality of such acts did not lie in their being
+usurpations, but in the nature of the crime committed. There was no
+authority in the Constitution for a grant of such a power to the
+President. To afford aid and comfort to the enemy was treason, but
+there was no war, and therefore no enemy. He claimed the right to
+himself and others to do all in his power to secure a peace, even by
+correspondence abroad, and he would not admit that the ground taken by
+the friends of the measure was a proper foundation for a general law. A
+committee was, however, appointed, in spite of this remonstrance, to
+consider the propriety of including in the general act all persons who
+should commence or carry on a correspondence, by a vote of 65 to 23. A
+bill was reported on January 9, when Gallatin endeavored to attach a
+proviso that the law should not operate upon persons seeking justice or
+redress from foreign governments; but his motion was defeated by a vote
+of 48 to 37. Later, however, a resolution of Mr. Parker, that nothing in
+the act should be construed to abridge the rights of any citizen to
+apply for such redress, was adopted by a vote of 69 yeas to 27 nays. On
+this vote Harper voted yea. Griswold, Otis, Bayard, and Goodrich were
+found among the nays. Gallatin succeeded in carrying an amendment
+defining the bill, after which it was passed by a vote of 58 to 36.
+
+Towards the close of January, 1799, a bill was brought in authorizing
+the President to discontinue the restraints of the act suspending
+intercourse with the French West India Islands, whenever any persons in
+authority or command should so request. This was to invite a secession
+of the French colonies from the mother country. Gallatin deprecated any
+action which might induce rebellion against authority, or lead to
+self-government among the people of the islands who were unfit for it.
+Moreover, such action would remove still further every expectation of an
+accommodation with France. The bill was passed by a vote of 55 to 37. He
+objected to the bill to authorize the President to suspend intercourse
+with Spanish and Dutch ports which should harbor French privateers, as
+placing an unlimited power to interdict commerce in the hands of the
+executive. The bill was carried by 55 to 37. On the question of the
+augmentation of the navy he opposed the building of the seventy-fours.
+
+In February Edward Livingston presented a petition from aliens, natives
+of Ireland, against the Alien and Sedition laws. Numerous similar
+petitions followed; one was signed by 18,000 persons in Pennsylvania
+alone. To postpone consideration of the subject, the Federalists sent
+these papers to a select committee, against the protests of Livingston
+and Gallatin. This course was the more peculiar because of the reference
+of petitions of a similar character in the month previous to the
+committee of the whole. The Federalists were abusing their majority, and
+precipitating their unexpected but certain ruin. One more effort was
+made to repeal the offensive penal act; the constitutional objection was
+again pleaded, but the repeal was defeated by a vote of 52 in the
+affirmative. Mr. Gallatin opposed these laws in all their stages, but,
+failing in this, persistently endeavored to make them as good as
+possible before they passed. Jefferson later said that nothing could
+obliterate from the recollection of those who were witnesses of it the
+courage of Gallatin in the "Days of Terror."[8] The vote of thanks to
+Mr. Dayton, the speaker, was carried by a vote of 40 to 22. On March 3,
+1800, this Congress adjourned.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The sixth Congress met at Philadelphia on December 2, 1799. The
+Federalists were returned in full majority. Among the new members of the
+House, John Marshall and John Randolph appeared for Virginia. Theodore
+Sedgwick was chosen speaker. President Adams came down to the House on
+the 3d and made the usual speech. The address in reply, reported by a
+committee of which Marshall was chairman, was agreed to without
+amendment. Adams was again delighted with the very respectful terms
+adopted at the "first assembly after a fresh election, under the strong
+impression of the public opinion and national sense at this interesting
+and singular crisis." At this session it was the sad privilege of
+Marshall to announce the death of Washington, "the Hero, the Sage, and
+the Patriot of America." In the shadow of this great grief, party
+passion was hushed for a while.
+
+Gallatin again led the Republican opposition; Nicholas and Macon were
+his able lieutenants. The line of attack of the Republicans was clear.
+If war could be avoided, the growing unpopularity of the Alien and
+Sedition laws would surely bring them to power. The foreign-born voter
+was already a factor in American politics. In January the law providing
+for an addition to the army was suspended. Macon then moved the repeal
+of the Sedition Law. He took the ground that it was a measure of
+defense. Bayard adroitly proposed as an amendment that "the offenses
+therein specified shall remain punishable as at common law, provided
+that upon any prosecution it shall be lawful for the defendant to give
+as his defense the truth of the matter charged as a libel." Gallatin
+called upon the chair to declare the amendment out of order, as intended
+to destroy the resolution, but the speaker declined, and the amendment
+was carried by a vote of 51 to 47. The resolution thus amended was then
+defeated by a vote of 87 to 1. The Republicans preferred the odious act
+in its original form rather than accept the Federal interpretation of
+it.
+
+On February 11, 1800, a bill was introduced into Congress further to
+suspend commercial intercourse with France. It passed the House after a
+short debate by a vote of 68 yeas to 28 nays. On this bill the
+Republican leaders were divided. Nicholas, Macon, and Randolph opposed
+it; but Gallatin, separating from his friends, carried enough of his
+party with him to secure its passage. Returned by the Senate with
+amendments, it was again objected to by Macon as fatal to the interests
+of the Southern States, but the House resolved to concur by a vote of 50
+to 36.
+
+In March the country was greatly excited by the news of an engagement on
+the 1st of February, off Guadaloupe, between the United States frigate
+Constellation, thirty-eight guns, and a French national frigate, La
+Vengeance, fifty-four guns. The House of Representatives called on the
+secretary of the navy for information, and, by 84 yeas to 4 nays, voted
+a gold medal to Captain Truxton, who commanded the American ship. John
+Randolph's name is recorded in the negative.
+
+Notwithstanding this collision, the relations of the United States and
+France were gradually assuming a kindlier phase. The Directory had
+sought to drive the American government into active measures against
+England. Bonaparte, chosen First Consul, at once adopted a conciliatory
+tone. Preparing for a great continental struggle, he was concentrating
+the energies and the powers of France. In May Mr. Parker called the
+attention of the House to this change of conduct in the French
+government and offered a resolution instructing the Committee on
+Commerce to inquire if any amendments to the Foreign Intercourse Act
+were necessary. Macon moved to amend so that the inquiry should be
+whether it were not expedient to repeal the act. Gallatin opposed the
+resolution on the ground that it was highly improper to take any
+measures at the present time which would change the defensive system of
+the country. The resolution was negatived,--43 nays to 40 yeas.
+
+One singular opposition of Gallatin is recorded towards the close of the
+session; the Committee on the Treasury Department reported an amendment
+to the act of establishment, providing that the secretary of the
+treasury shall lay before Congress, at the commencement of every
+session, a report on finance with plans for the support of credit, etc.
+Gallatin and Nicholas opposed this bill, because it came down from the
+Senate, which had no constitutional right to originate a money bill; but
+Griswold and Harper at once took the correct ground that it was not a
+bill, but a report on the state of the finances, in which the Senate had
+an equal share with the House. The bill was passed by a vote of 43 to
+39. It is worthy of note that the first report on the state of the
+finances communicated under this act was by Mr. Gallatin himself the
+next year, and that it was sent in to the Senate. The House adjourned on
+May 14, 1800.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The second session of the sixth Congress was held at the city of
+Washington, to which the seat of government had been removed in the
+summer interval. After two southerly migrations they were now
+definitively established at a national capital. The session opened on
+November 17, 1800. On the 22d President Adams congratulated Congress on
+"the prospect of a residence not to be changed." The address of the
+House in reply was adopted by a close vote.
+
+The situation of foreign relations was changed. The First Consul
+received the American envoys cordially, and a commercial convention was
+made but secured ratification by the Senate only after the elimination
+of an article and a limitation of its duration to eight years. While the
+bill was pending in the Senate, Mr. Samuel Smith moved to continue the
+act to suspend commercial intercourse with France. Mr. Gallatin opposed
+this motion; at the last session he had voted for this bill because
+there was only the appearance of a treaty. Now that the precise state of
+negotiation was known, why should the House longer leave this matter to
+the discretion of the President? The House decided to reject the
+indiscreet bill by a vote of 59 to 37. An effort was also made to repeal
+a part of the Sedition Law, and continue the rest in force, but the
+House refused to order the engrossing of the bill, taking wise counsel
+of Dawson, who said that, supported by the justice and policy of their
+measures, the approaching administration would not need the aid of
+either the alien, sedition, or common law. The opponents of the bill
+would not consent to any modification. The last scenes of the session
+were of exciting interest.
+
+Freed from the menace of immediate war, the people of plain common sense
+recognized that the friendship of Great Britain was more dangerous than
+the enmity of France. They dreaded the fixed power of an organized
+aristocracy far more than the ephemeral anarchy of an ill-ordered
+democracy; they were more averse to class distinctions protected by law
+than even to military despotism which destroyed all distinctions, and
+they preferred, as man always has preferred and always will prefer,
+personal to political equality. The Alien and Sedition laws had borne
+their legitimate fruit. The foreign-born population held the balance of
+power; a general vote would have shown a large Republican or, it is more
+correct to say, anti-Federalist majority. But the popular will could not
+be thus expressed. Under the old system each elector in the electoral
+college cast his ballot for president and vice-president without
+designation of his preference as to who should fill the first place. New
+England was solid for Adams, who, however, had little strength beyond
+the limits of this Federal stronghold. New York and the Southern States
+with inconsiderable exceptions were Republican. Pennsylvania was so
+divided in the legislature that her entire vote would have been lost but
+for a compromise which gave to the Republicans one vote more than to the
+Federalists. Adams being out of the question, the election to the first
+place lay between Jefferson and Burr, both Republicans. The Federalists,
+therefore, had their option between the two Republican candidates, and
+the result was within the reach of that most detestable of combinations,
+a political bargain. Mr. Gallatin's position in this condition of
+affairs was controlling. His loyalty to Jefferson was unquestioned,
+while Burr was the favorite of the large Republican party in New York
+whose leaders were Mr. Gallatin's immediate friends and warm supporters.
+Both Jefferson and Burr were accused of bargaining to secure enough of
+the Federalist vote to turn the scale. That Mr. Jefferson did make some
+sacrifice of his independence is now believed. Whether Mr. Gallatin was
+aware of any such compromise is uncertain. If such bargain were made,
+General Samuel Smith was the channel of arrangement, and in view of the
+inexplicable and ignominious deference of Jefferson and Madison to his
+political demands, there is little doubt that he held a secret power
+which they dared not resist. Gallatin felt it, suffered from it,
+protested against it, but submitted to it.
+
+The fear was that Congress might adjourn without a conclusion. To meet
+this emergency Mr. Gallatin devised a plan of balloting in the House,
+which he communicated to Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Nicholas. It stated the
+objects of the Federalists to be, 1st, to elect Burr; 2d, to defeat the
+present election and order a new one; 3d, to assume _executive_ power
+during the interregnum. These he considers, and suggests alternative
+action in case of submission or resistance on the part of the
+Republicans. The Federalists, holding three branches of government,
+viz., the presidency, a majority in the Senate, and a majority in the
+House, might pass a law declaring that one of the great officers
+designated by the Constitution should act as president pro tempore,
+which would be constitutional. But while Mr. Gallatin in this paragraph
+admitted such a law to be constitutional, in the next he argued that the
+act of the person designated by law, or of the president pro tempore,
+assuming the power is clearly "unconstitutional." By this ingenious
+process of reasoning, to which the strict constructionists have always
+been partial, it might be unconstitutional to carry out constitutional
+law. The assumption of such power was therefore, Mr. Gallatin held,
+usurpation, to be resisted in one of two ways; by declaring the interval
+till the next session of Congress an interregnum, allowing all laws not
+immediately connected with presidential powers to take their course, and
+opposing a silent resistance to all others; or by the Republicans
+assuming the executive power by a joint act of the two candidates, or by
+the relinquishment of all claims by one of them. On the other hand, the
+proposed outlines of Republican conduct were, 1st, to persevere in
+voting for Mr. Jefferson; 2d, to use every endeavor to defeat any law on
+the subject; 3d, to try to persuade Mr. Adams to refuse his consent to
+any such law and not to call the Senate on any account if there should
+be no choice by the House.
+
+In a letter written in 1848 Mr. Gallatin said that a provision by law,
+that if there should be no election the executive power be placed in the
+hands of some public officer, was a revolutionary act of usurpation
+which would have been put down by force if necessary. It was threatened
+that, if any man should be thus appointed President he should instantly
+be put to death, and bodies of men were said to be organized, in
+Maryland and Virginia, ready to march to Washington on March 4 for that
+purpose. The fears of violence were so great that to Governor McKean of
+Pennsylvania was submitted the propriety of having a body of militia in
+readiness to reach the capital in time to prevent civil war. From this
+letter of Mr. Gallatin, then the last surviving witness of the election,
+only one conclusion can be drawn: that the Republicans would have
+preferred violent resistance to temporary submission, even though the
+officer exercising executive powers was appointed in accordance with
+law. Fortunately for the young country there was enough good sense and
+patriotism in the ranks of the Federalists to avert the danger.
+
+On the suggestion of Mr. Bayard it was agreed by a committee of sixteen
+members, one from each State, that if it should appear that the two
+persons highest on the list, Jefferson and Burr, had an equal number of
+votes, the House should immediately proceed in their own chamber to
+choose the president by ballot, and should not adjourn until an
+election should have been made. On the first ballot there was a tie
+between Jefferson and Burr; the deadlock continued until February 17,
+when the Federalists abandoned the contest, and Mr. Jefferson received
+the requisite number of votes. Burr, having the second number, became
+vice-president.
+
+Mr. Gallatin's third congressional term closed with this Congress. In
+his first term he asserted his power and took his place in the councils
+of the party. In his second, he became its acknowledged chief. In the
+third, he led its forces to final victory. But for his opposition, war
+would have been declared against France, and the Republican party would
+have disappeared in the political chasm. But for his admirable
+management, Mr. Jefferson would have been relegated to the study of
+theoretical government on his Monticello farm, or to play second fiddle
+at the Capitol to the music of Aaron Burr.
+
+In the foregoing analysis of the debates and resolutions of Congress,
+and the recital of the part taken in them by Mr. Gallatin, attention has
+only been paid to such of the proceedings as concerned the
+interpretation of the Constitution or the forms of administration with
+which Mr. Gallatin interested himself. From the day of his first
+appearance he commanded the attention and the respect of his fellows.
+The leadership of his party fell to him as of course. It was not grasped
+by him. He was never a partisan. He never waived his entire
+independence of judgment. His ingenuity and adroitness never tempted him
+to untenable positions. Hence his party followed him with implicit
+confidence. Yet while the debates of Congress, imperfectly reported as
+they seem to be in its annals, show the deference paid to him by the
+Republican leaders, and display the great share he took in the
+definition of powers and of administration as now understood, his name
+is hardly mentioned in history. Jefferson and Madison became presidents
+of the United States. They, with Gallatin, formed the triumvirate which
+ruled the country for sixteen years. Gallatin was the youngest of the
+three.[9] To this political combination Gallatin brought a knowledge of
+constitutional law equal to their own, a knowledge of international law
+superior to that of either, and a habit of practical administration of
+which they had no conception. The Republican party lost its chief when
+Gallatin left the House; from that day it floundered to its close.
+
+In the balance of opinion there are no certain weights and measures. The
+preponderance of causes cannot be precisely ascertained. The freedom
+which the people of the United States enjoy to-day is not the work of
+any one party. Those who are descended from its original stock, and
+those whom its free institutions have since invited to full membership,
+owe that freedom to two causes: the one, formulated by Hamilton, a
+strong, central power, which, deriving its force from the people,
+maintains its authority at home and secures respect abroad; the other,
+the spirit of liberty which found expression in the famous declaration
+of the rights of man. This influence Jefferson represented. It taught
+the equality of man; not equality before the law alone, nor yet
+political equality, but that absolute freedom from class distinction
+which is true social equality; in a word, mutual respect. But for
+Hamilton we might be a handful of petty States, in discordant
+confederation or perpetual war; but for Jefferson, a prey to the class
+jealousy which unsettles the social relations and threatens the
+political existence of European States.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 4: Lord Sheffield to Mr. Abbott, November 6, 1812.
+_Correspondence of Lord Colchester_, ii. 409.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Gallatin later described Jackson as he first saw him in his
+seat in the House: "A tall, lank, uncouth looking individual, with long
+locks of hair hanging over his brows and face, while a queue hung down
+his back tied in an eelskin. The dress of this individual was singular,
+his manners and deportment that of a backwoodsman." Bartlett's
+_Reminiscences of Gallatin_.]
+
+[Footnote 6: The phrase "stop the wheels of government" originated with
+"Peter Porcupine" (William Cobbett) and was on every tongue.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Charles C. Pinckney, when ambassador to France, 1796.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Jefferson to William Duane, March 28, 1811. Jefferson's
+_Works_, vol. v. p. 574.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Jefferson was born in 1743, Madison in 1751, Gallatin in
+1761.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY
+
+_Funding_
+
+
+The material comfort of every people depends more immediately upon the
+correct management of its finances than upon any other branch of
+government. _Haute finance_, to use a French expression for which there
+is no English equivalent, demands in its application the faculties of
+organization and administration in their highest degree. The relations
+of money to currency and credit, and their relations to industry and
+agriculture, or in modern phrase of capital to labor, fall within its
+scope. The history of France, the nation which has best understood and
+applied true principles of finance, supplies striking examples of the
+benefits a finance minister of the first order renders to his country,
+and the dangers of false theories. The marvelous restoration of its
+prosperity by the genius of Colbert, the ruin caused by the malign
+sciolism of Law, are familiar to all students of political economy. Nor
+has the United States been less favored. The names of Morris, Hamilton,
+Gallatin, and Chase shine with equal lustre.
+
+Morris, the Financier of the Revolution, was called to the
+administration of the money department of the United States government
+when there was no money to administer. Before his appointment as
+"Financier" the expenses of the government, military and civil, had been
+met by expedients; by foreign loans, lotteries, and loan office
+certificates; finally by continental money, or, more properly speaking,
+bills of credit emitted by authority of Congress and made legal tender
+by joint action of Congress and the several States. The relation of coin
+to paper in this motley currency appears in the appendix to the "Journal
+of Congress" for the year 1778, when the government paid out in fourteen
+issues of paper currency, $62,154,842; in specie, $78,666; in French
+livres, $28,525.[10] The power of taxation was jealously withheld by the
+States, and Congress could not go beyond recommending to them to levy
+taxes for the withdrawal of the bills emitted by it for their quotas,
+_pari passu_ with their issue. When the entire scheme of paper money
+failed, the necessary supplies for the army were levied in kind. In the
+spring of 1781 the affairs of the Treasury Department were investigated
+by a committee of Congress, and an attempt was made to ascertain the
+precise condition of the public debt. The amount of foreign debt was
+approximately reached, but the record of the domestic debt was
+inextricably involved, and never definitely discovered. Morris soon
+brought order out of this chaos. His plan was to liquidate the public
+indebtedness in specie, and fund it in interest-bearing bonds. The Bank
+of North America was established, the notes of which were soon preferred
+to specie as a medium of exchange. Silver, then in general use as the
+measure of value, was adopted as the single standard. The weight and
+pureness of the dollar were fixed by law. The dollar was made the unit
+of account and payment, and subdivisions were made in a decimal ratio.
+This was the dollar of our fathers. Gouverneur Morris, the assistant of
+the Financier, suggested the decimal computation, and Jefferson the
+dollar as the unit of account and payment. The board of treasury, which
+for five years had administered the finances in a bungling way, was
+dissolved by Congress in the fall of 1781, and Morris was left in sole
+control. Semi-annual statements of the public indebtedness were now
+begun. The expenses of the government were steadily and inflexibly cut
+down to meet the diminishing income. A loan was negotiated in Holland,
+and, with the aid of Franklin, the amount of indebtedness to France was
+established.
+
+The public debt on January 1, 1783, was $42,000,375, of which $7,885,088
+was foreign, bearing four and five per cent. interest; and $34,115,290
+was held at home at six per cent. The total amount of interest was
+$2,415,956. No means were provided for the payment of either principal
+or interest. In July of the previous year Morris urged the wisdom of
+funding the public debt, in a masterly letter to the president of
+Congress. On December 16 a sinking fund was provided for by a
+resolution, which, though inadequate to the purpose, was at least a
+declaration of principle. In February, 1784, Morris notified Congress of
+his intended retirement from office. He may justly be termed the father
+of the American system of finance. In his administration he inflexibly
+maintained the determination, with which he assumed the office, to apply
+the public funds to the purpose to which they were appropriated. He
+declared that he would "neither pay the interest of our debts out of the
+moneys which are called for to carry on the war, nor pay the expenses of
+the war from the funds which are called for to pay the interest of our
+debts." One new feature of Morris's administration was the beginning of
+the sale of public lands.
+
+On the retirement of Mr. Morris, November, 1784, a new board of treasury
+was charged with the administration of the finances, and continued in
+control until September 30, 1788, when a committee, raised to examine
+into the affairs of the department, rendered a pitiful report of
+mismanagement for which the board had not the excuse of their
+predecessors during the war. They had only to observe the precepts which
+Morris had enunciated, and to follow the methods he had prescribed, with
+the aid of the assistants he had trained. But the taxes collected had
+not been covered into the Treasury by the receivers. Large sums
+advanced for secret service were not accounted for; and the entire
+system of responsibility had been disregarded. John Adams attributed all
+the distresses at this period to "a downright ignorance of the nature of
+coin, credit and circulation;" an ignorance not yet dispelled. More
+truly could he have said that our distresses arose from willful neglect
+of the principle of accountability in the public service.
+
+The first Congress under the new Constitution met at New York on March
+4, 1789, but it was not until the autumn that the executive
+administration of the government was organized by the creation of the
+three departments: State, Treasury, and War.
+
+The bill establishing the Treasury Department passed Congress on
+September 2, 1789. Hamilton was appointed secretary by Washington on
+September 11. On September 21 the House directed the secretary to
+examine into and report a financial plan. On the assembling of Congress,
+June 14, 1790, Hamilton communicated to the House his first report,
+known as that on public credit. The boldness of Hamilton's plan startled
+and divided the country. Funding resolutions were introduced into the
+House. The first, relating to the foreign debt, passed unanimously; the
+second, providing for the liquidation of the domestic obligations, was
+sharply debated, but in the end Hamilton's scheme was adopted. The
+resolutions providing for the assumption of the state debts, which he
+embodied in his report, aroused an opposition still more formidable, and
+it was not until August 4 that by political machinery this part of his
+plan received the assent of Congress. To provide for the interest on the
+debt and the expenses of the government, the import and navigation
+duties were raised to yield the utmost revenue available; but, in the
+temper of Congress, the excise law was not pressed at this session. The
+secretary had securely laid the foundations of his policy. Time and
+sheer necessity would compel the completion of his work in essential
+accord with his original design. The President's message at the opening
+of the winter session added greatly to the prestige of Hamilton's policy
+by calling attention to the great prosperity of the country and the
+remarkable rise in public credit. The excise law, modified to apply to
+distilled spirits, passed the House in January. The principle of a
+direct tax was admitted. On December 14, 1790, in obedience to an order
+of the House requiring the secretary to report further provision for the
+public credit, Hamilton communicated his plans for a national bank. Next
+in order came the establishment of a national mint. Thus in two sessions
+of Congress, and in the space of little more than a year from the time
+when he took charge of the Treasury, Hamilton conceived and carried to
+successful conclusion an entire scheme of finance.
+
+One more measure in the comprehensive system of public credit crowned
+the solid structure of which the funding of the debt was the
+cornerstone. This was the establishment of the sinking fund for the
+redemption of the debt. Hamilton conformed his plan to the maxim, which,
+to use his words, "has been supposed capable of giving immortality to
+credit, namely, that with the creation of debts should be incorporated
+the means of extinguishment, which are twofold. 1st. The establishing,
+at the time of contracting a debt, funds for the reimbursement of the
+principal, as well as for the payment of interest within a determinate
+period. 2d. The making it a part of the contract, that the fund so
+established shall be inviolably applied to the object." The ingenuity
+and skill with which this master of financial science managed the
+Treasury Department for more than five years need no word of comment.
+Nor do they fall within the scope of this outline of the features of his
+policy. His reports are the textbook of American political economy.
+Whoever would grasp its principles must seek them in this limpid source,
+and study the methods he applied to revenue and loans. Well might
+Webster say of him in lofty praise, "He smote the rock of national
+resources, and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth; he touched the
+dead corpse of Public Credit, and it sprung upon its feet."
+
+On the resignation of Hamilton, January 31, 1795, Washington invited
+Wolcott, who was familiar with the views of Hamilton and on such
+intimate terms with him that he could always have his advice in any
+difficult emergency, to take the post. Wolcott had been connected with
+the department from its organization, first as auditor, afterwards as
+comptroller of the Treasury. He held the Treasury until nearly the end
+of Adams's administration. On November 8, 1800, upon the open breach
+between Mr. Adams and the Hamilton wing of the Federal party, Wolcott,
+whose sympathies were wholly with his old chief, tendered his
+resignation, to take effect at the close of the year. On December 31 Mr.
+Samuel Dexter was appointed to administer the department. But the days
+of the Federal party were now numbered: it fell of its own dissensions,
+"wounded in the house of its friends."
+
+There is little in the administration of the finances by Wolcott to
+attract comment. He managed the details of the department with integrity
+and skill. On his retirement a committee of the House on the condition
+of the Treasury was appointed. No similar examination had been made
+since May 22, 1794. On January 28, 1801, Mr. Otis, chairman of the
+committee, submitted the results of the investigation in an unanimous
+report that the business of the Treasury Department had been conducted
+with regularity, fidelity, and a regard to economy; that the
+disbursements of money had always been made pursuant to law, and
+generally that the financial concerns of the country had been left by
+the late secretary in a state of good order and prosperity. During his
+six years of administration of the finances Wolcott negotiated six
+loans, amounting in all to $2,820,000. The emergencies were
+extraordinary,--the expenses of the suppression of the Whiskey
+Insurrection in 1794, and the sum required to effect a treaty of peace
+with Algiers in 1795. To fund these sums Mr. Wolcott had recourse to an
+expedient which marked an era in American finance. This was the creation
+of _new stock_, subscribed for at home. No loan had been previously
+placed by the government among its own citizens. Between 1795 and 1798,
+four and a half, five, and six per cent. stocks were created. In 1798
+the condition of the country was embarrassing. There was a threatening
+prospect of war. Foreign loans were precarious and improvident; the
+market rate of interest was eight per cent. Under these circumstances an
+eight per cent. stock was created, not redeemable until 1809. An Act of
+March 3, 1795, provided for vesting in the sinking fund the surplus
+revenues of each year.
+
+In the formation of the first Republican cabinet Mr. Gallatin was
+obviously Mr. Jefferson's first choice for the Treasury. The appointment
+was nevertheless attended with some difficulties of a political and
+party nature. The paramount importance of the department was a legacy of
+Hamilton's genius. Its possession was the Federalist stronghold, and the
+Senate, which held the confirming power, was still controlled by a
+Federalist majority. To them Mr. Gallatin was more obnoxious than any
+other of the Republican leaders. In the few days that he held a seat in
+the Senate (1793) he offended Hamilton, and aroused the hostility of the
+friends of the secretary by a call for information as to the condition
+of the Treasury. As member of Congress in 1796 he questioned Hamilton's
+policy, and during Adams's entire administration was a perpetual thorn
+in the sides of Hamilton's successors in the department. The day after
+his election, February 18, 1801, Mr. Jefferson communicated to Mr.
+Gallatin the names of the gentlemen he had already determined upon for
+his cabinet, and tendered him the Treasury. The only alternative was
+Madison; but he, with all his reputation as a statesman and party
+leader, was without skill as a financier, and in the debate on the
+Funding Bill in 1790 had shown his ignorance in the impracticability of
+his plans. If Jefferson ever entertained the thought of nominating
+Madison to the Treasury, political necessity absolutely forbade it. That
+necessity Mr. Gallatin, by his persistent assaults on the financial
+policy of the Federalists, had himself created, and he alone of the
+Republican leaders was competent to carry out the reforms in the
+administration of the government, and to contrive the consequent
+reduction in revenue and taxation, which were cardinal points of
+Republican policy. Public opinion had assigned Gallatin to the post, and
+the newspapers announced his nomination before Mr. Jefferson was
+elected, and before he had given any indication of his purpose. To his
+wife Mr. Gallatin expressed some doubt whether his abilities were equal
+to the office, and whether the Senate would confirm him, and said,
+certainly with sincerity, 'that he would not be sorry nor hurt in his
+feelings if his nomination should be rejected, for exclusively of the
+immense responsibility, labor, etc., attached to the intended office,
+another plan which would be much more agreeable to him and to her had
+been suggested, not by his political friends, but by his New York
+friends.' He was by no means comfortable in his finances, and he had
+already formed a plan of studying law and removing to New York. He had
+made up his mind to leave the western country, which would necessarily
+end his congressional career. His wife was forlorn in his absence, and
+suffered so many hardships in her isolated residence that he felt no
+reluctance to the change. To one of his wife's family he wrote at this
+time:--
+
+     "As a political situation, the place of secretary of the treasury
+     is doubtless more eligible and congenial to my habits; but it is
+     more laborious and responsible than any other, and the same
+     industry which will be necessary to fulfill its duties, applied to
+     another object, would at the end of two years have left me in the
+     possession of a profession which I might have exercised either in
+     Philadelphia or New York. But our plans are all liable to
+     uncertainty, and I must now cheerfully undertake that which had
+     never been the object of my ambition or wishes."
+
+Well might he hesitate as he witnessed the distress which had overtaken
+the great party which for twelve years had held the posts of political
+honor. Fortunately, perhaps for himself and certainly for his party and
+the country, the proposition came at a time when he had definitively
+determined upon a change of career. His situation was difficult. The
+hostility of the Federal senators, and the great exertions which were
+being made to defeat the appointment, led him to the opinion that, if
+presented on March 4, it would be rejected. There was the alternative of
+delay until after that date, which would involve a postponement of the
+confirmation until the meeting of Congress in December, but there was no
+certainty that it would then be ratified. Meanwhile he would be
+compelled to remove to Washington at some sacrifice and expense. He
+therefore at first positively refused "to come in on any terms but a
+confirmation by the Senate first given." He was finally induced to
+comply with the general wish of his political friends. The appointment
+was withheld by the President that the feeling in the Senate might be
+judged from its action on the rest of the nominations submitted. They
+were all approved, and Mr. Dexter consented to hold over until his
+successor should be appointed. Thus Mr. Gallatin's convenience was
+entirely consulted. He remained in Washington a few days to confer with
+the President as to the general conduct of the administration, and on
+March 14 set out for Fayette to put his affairs in order and to bring
+his wife and family to Washington. On May 14 Jefferson wrote to Macon,
+"The arrival of Mr. Gallatin yesterday completed the organization of our
+administration."
+
+Mr. Gallatin soon realized the magnitude of his task. He did nothing by
+halves. To whatever work he had to do, he brought the best of his
+faculty. No man ever better deserved the epithet of "thorough." He
+searched till he found the principle of every measure with which he had
+concern and understood every detail of its application. This perfect
+knowledge of every subject which he investigated was the secret of his
+political success. As a committee man, he was incomparable. No one could
+be better equipped for the direction of the Treasury Department than he,
+but he was not satisfied with direction; he would manage also; and he
+went to the work with untiring energy. A quarter of a century later he
+said of it, in a letter to his son, "To fill that office in the manner I
+did, and as it ought to be filled, is a most laborious task and labor of
+the most tedious kind. To fit myself for it, to be able to understand
+thoroughly, to embrace and control all its details, took from me, during
+the two first years I held it, every hour of the day and many of the
+night and had nearly brought on a pulmonary complaint. I filled the
+office twelve years and was fairly worn out."
+
+Mr. Gallatin first drew public attention to his knowledge of finance in
+the Pennsylvania legislature. An extract from his memorandum of his
+three years' service gives the best account of this incident. In it
+appear the carefully matured convictions which he inflexibly maintained.
+
+     "The report of the Committee of Ways and Means of the session
+     1790-1791 (presented by Gurney, chairman) was entirely prepared by
+     me, known to be so, and laid the foundation of my reputation. I was
+     quite astonished at the general encomiums bestowed upon it, and was
+     not at all aware that I had done so well. It was perspicuous and
+     comprehensive; but I am confident that its true merit, and that
+     which gained me the general confidence, was its being founded in
+     strict justice without the slightest regard to party feelings or
+     popular prejudices. The principles assumed, and which were carried
+     into effect, were the immediate reimbursement and extinction of the
+     state paper money, the immediate payment in specie of all the
+     current expenses or warrants on the Treasury (the postponement and
+     uncertainty of which had given rise to shameful and corrupt
+     speculations), and provision for discharging, without defalcation,
+     every debt and engagement previously recognized by the State. In
+     conformity with this, the State paid to its creditors the
+     difference between the nominal amount of the state debt assumed by
+     the United States and the rate at which it was funded by the act of
+     Congress.
+
+     "The proceeds of the public lands, together with the arrears, were
+     the fund which not only discharged all the public debts, but left a
+     large surplus. The apprehension that this would be squandered by
+     the Legislature was the principal inducement for chartering the
+     Bank of Pennsylvania with a capital of two millions of dollars, of
+     which the State subscribed one half. This and similar subsequent
+     investments enabled Pennsylvania to defray out of the dividends all
+     the expenses of government without any direct tax during the forty
+     ensuing years, and till the adoption of the system of internal
+     improvement, which required new resources."
+
+This report was printed in the Journal of the House, February 8, 1791.
+The next year he made a report on the same subject which was printed
+February 22, 1792.
+
+But his equal grasp of larger subjects was shown in his sketch of the
+finances of the United States, which he published in November, 1796. It
+presents under three sections the revenues, the expenses, and the debts
+of the United States, each subdivided into special heads. The arguments
+are supported by elaborate tabular statements. No such exhaustive
+examination had been made of the state of the American finances. The one
+cardinal principle which he laid down was the extinguishment of debt. He
+severely criticised Hamilton's methods of funding, and outlined those
+which he himself later applied. He charged upon Hamilton direct
+violations of law in the application of money, borrowed as principal, to
+the payment of interest on that principal. The public funds he regarded
+as three in number: 1st, the sinking fund; 2d, the surplus fund; 3d, the
+general fund.
+
+In July, 1800, Mr. Gallatin published a second pamphlet, "Views of the
+Public Debt, Receipts, and Expenditures of the United States," the
+object of the inquiry being to ascertain the result of the fiscal
+operations of the government under the Constitution. The entire field of
+American finance is examined from its beginning. He severely condemns
+the mode of assumption of the state debts in Hamilton's original plan,
+and no doubt his strictures are technically correct. The debts assumed
+for debtor States were not due by the United States, nor was there any
+moral reason for their assumption. But the assumption was sound
+financial policy, and all the cost to the nation was amply repaid by the
+order which their assumption drew out of chaos, and the vigor given to
+the general credit by the strengthening of that of its parts. The course
+of the Federalists and Republicans on this question shows that the
+former had at heart the welfare of all the States, while the latter
+confined their interest to their own body politic.
+
+Had Mr. Gallatin never penned another line on finance, these two
+remarkable papers would place him in the first rank of economists and
+statisticians. There are no errors in his figures, no flaws in his
+reasoning, no faults in his deductions. In construction and detail, as
+parts of a complete financial system of administration, they are beyond
+criticism. Opinions may differ as to the ends sought, but not as to the
+means to those ends.
+
+For a long period Mr. Gallatin found no more time for essays; he was
+now to apply his methods. These may be traced in his printed treasury
+reports, which are lucid and instructive. He was appointed to the
+Treasury on May 14, 1801, as appears by the official record in the State
+Department. Before he entered on the duties of the office he submitted
+to Mr. Jefferson, March 14, 1801, some rough sketches of the financial
+situation, and suggested the general outlines of his policy. He insisted
+upon a curtailment in the appropriations for the naval and military
+establishments, the only saving adequate to the repeal of all internal
+duties; and upon the discharge of the foreign debt within the period of
+its obligation. He estimated that the probable receipts and expenditures
+for the year 1801 would leave a surplus of more than two millions of
+dollars applicable to the redemption of the debt.
+
+On taking personal charge of the Treasury Department, his first business
+was to get rid of the arrears of current business which had accumulated
+since the retirement of Wolcott; his next, to perfect the internal
+revenue system, so far as it could be remedied without new legislation.
+The entire summer of 1801 was passed in "arranging, or rather procuring
+correct statements amongst the Treasury documents," a task of such
+difficulty that he was unwilling, on November 15, to arrive at an
+estimate of the revenue within half a million, or to commit himself to
+any opinion as to the feasibility of abolishing the internal revenues.
+In his "notes" submitted to Jefferson upon the draft of his first
+message, there are several passages of interest which show Mr.
+Gallatin's logical habit of searching out economic causes. Under the
+head of finances, he remarks, "The revenue has increased more than in
+the same ratio with population: 1st, because our wealth has increased in
+a greater ratio than population; 2d, because the seaports and towns,
+which consume imported articles much more than the country, have
+increased in a greater proportion." The final paragraph in these "notes"
+is a synopsis of his entire scheme of administration.
+
+     "There is but one subject not mentioned in the message which I feel
+     extremely anxious to see recommended. It is generally that Congress
+     should adopt such measures as will effectually guard against
+     misapplications of public moneys, by making specific appropriations
+     whenever practicable; by providing against the application of
+     moneys drawn from the Treasury under an appropriation to any other
+     object or to any greater amount than that for which they have been
+     drawn; by limiting discretionary power in the application of that
+     money; whether by heads of department or by any other agents; and
+     by rendering every person who receives public moneys from the
+     Treasury as immediately, promptly, and effectually accountable to
+     the accounting officer (the comptroller) as practicable. The great
+     characteristic, the flagrant vice, of the late administration has
+     been total disregard of laws, and application of public moneys by
+     the Department to objects for which they were not appropriate."
+
+Outlines for a system of specific appropriations were inclosed.
+
+That the mission of Jefferson's administration was the reduction of the
+debt, Gallatin set forth in his next letter of November 16, 1801. "I am
+firmly of opinion that if the present administration and Congress do not
+take the most effective measures for that object, the debt will be
+entailed on us and the ensuing generations, together with all the
+systems which support it, and which it supports." On the other hand he
+says, "If this administration shall not reduce taxes, they never will be
+permanently reduced." To reduce both the debt and the taxes was as much
+a political as a financial problem. To solve it required the reduction
+to a minimum of the departments of War and Marine. But Mr. Jefferson was
+not a practical statesman. His individuality was too strong for much
+surrender of opinion. He stated the case very mildly when he wrote in
+his retirement that he sometimes differed in opinion from some of his
+friends, from those whose views were as "pure and as sound as his own."
+It was not his habit to consult his entire cabinet except on general
+measures. The heads of each department set their views before him
+separately. Under this system Mr. Gallatin was never able to realize
+that harmonious interdependence of departments and subordination of ways
+to means which were his ideal of cabinet administration.
+
+The successful application of Mr. Gallatin's plan would have
+subordinated all the executive departments to the Treasury. The theory
+was perfect, but it took no account of the greed of office, the
+jealousies of friends, the opposition of enemies, and the unknown factor
+of foreign relations. A speck on the horizon would cloud the peaceful
+prospect, a hostile threat derange the intricate machinery by which the
+delicate financial balance was maintained. Mr. Gallatin was fast
+realizing the magnitude of his undertaking, in which he was greatly
+embarrassed by the difficulty of finding faithful examining clerks, on
+whose correctness and fidelity a just settlement of all accounts
+depends. The number of independent offices attached to the Treasury made
+the task still more arduous. He wrote to Jefferson at this time, "It
+will take me twelve months before I can thoroughly understand every
+detail of all these several offices. Current business and the more
+general and important duties of the office do not permit me to learn the
+lesser details, but incidentally and by degrees. Until I know them all I
+dare not touch the machine." One of the acquirements which he considered
+indispensable for a secretary of the treasury was a "thorough knowledge
+of book-keeping." The recollection of his persistent demands for
+information from Hamilton and Wolcott during his congressional career
+would have stung the conscience of an ordinary man. But Gallatin was not
+an ordinary man. He asked nothing of others which he himself was not
+willing to perform. His ideal was high, but he reached its summit. It
+seems almost as if, in his persistent demand that money accountability
+should be imposed by law upon the Treasury Department, he sought to set
+the measure of his own duty, while in the requirement that it should be
+extended to the other departments, he pledged himself to the perfect
+accomplishment of that duty in his own.
+
+In his first report to Congress,[11] made December 18, 1801, Mr.
+Gallatin submitted his financial estimate for the year 1802.
+
+REVENUE.                  EXPENDITURES.
+
+Imposts       $9,500,000  Int. on debts. $7,100,000
+Lands     }      450,000  Civil List        980,000
+Postages  }               Army            1,420,000
+Internal Rev.    650,000  Navy            1,100,000
+              ----------                 ----------
+             $10,600,000                $10,600,000
+
+Mr. Wolcott, in his last report to the Commissioners of the Sinking
+Fund, stated the amount in the Treasury to its credit at $500,718. Mr.
+Gallatin denied that there was any such surplus, but said that instead
+of a credit balance the treasury books showed a deficiency of $930,128
+on the aggregate revenue from the establishment of the government to the
+close of the year 1799. Elliott, in his "Funding System," said
+concerning this once vexed controversy, that it was difficult to
+reconcile such a diversity of opinion on so intricate a subject; and
+concerning the official statements of Hamilton and Wolcott, that it was
+hardly to be credited that they were so superficial or imperfect. Mr.
+Gallatin himself furnishes the apology that the difference might arise
+from "entries made or omitted on erroneous principles." To the Federal
+financiers the palliation was as offensive as the charge, and rankled
+long and sore. If it were not possible, when Elliott made an
+examination, to arrive at the precise facts, it is certainly now a
+secret as secure from discovery as the lost sibylline leaves.
+
+Mr. Gallatin stated the debt of the United States--
+
+On January 1, 1801, at          $80,161,207.60
+On January 1, 1802, at           77,881,890.29
+                               ---------------
+Reduction                        $2,279,317.31
+
+This difference was the amount of principal paid during the year 1801,
+the result of the management of his predecessors. On December 18, 1801,
+Mr. Gallatin entered upon an examination of the time in which the total
+debt might be discharged, and showed that, by the annual application of
+$7,300,000 to the principal and interest the debt would in eight years,
+_i. e._ on January 1, 1810, be reduced (by the payment of $32,289,000 of
+the principal) to $45,592,739, and that the same annual sum of
+$7,300,000 would discharge the whole debt by the year 1817. The revenues
+of the Union he found sufficient to defray all the current expenses. In
+his report to Congress at the beginning of the session he designated
+this sum of $7,300,000 to be set aside from the revenues, and Congress
+gave the requisite authority. An extract from a tabular statement
+submitted to the House of Representatives, April 16, 1810, will show how
+nearly Mr. Gallatin approached the result at which he aimed, and the
+nature of the embarrassment he encountered on the path.
+
+------+--------------+--------------+---------------+-------------+
+      |  Amount of   |    Payments  |   Debt        |   Annual    |
+Years.| Public Debt  |      on      |   Contracted. |   Increase. |
+      | January 1st. |   Principal. |               |             |
+------+--------------+--------------+---------------+-------------+
+1802  |$80,712,632.25| $3,657,945.95|        -      |       -     |
+1803  | 77,054,686.30|  5,627,565.42|  $15,000,000* |$9,372,434.58|
+1804  | 86,427,120.88|  4,114,970.38|        -      |       -     |
+1805  | 82,312,150.50|  6,588,879.84|        -      |       -     |
+1806  | 75,723,270.66|  6,504,872.02|        -      |       -     |
+1807  | 69,218,398.64|  4,022,080.67|        -      |       -     |
+1808  | 65,196,317.97|  8,173,125.88|        -      |       -     |
+1809  | 57,023,192.09|  3,850,889.77|        -      |       -     |
+1810  | 53,172,302.32|        -     |        -      |        -    |
+------+--------------+--------------+---------------+-------------+
+-----------------
+     Annual
+     Decrease.
+-----------------
+   $3,657,948.95
+         -
+    4,114,970.38
+    6,588,879.84
+    6,504,872.02
+    4,022,080.67
+    8,173,125.88
+    3,850,889.77
+         -
+-----------------
+                         * Louisiana purchase.
+
+1802  $80,712,632.25    Decrease           $36,912,764.51
+1810   53,172,302.32    Increase             9,372,434.58
+      --------------                       --------------
+      $27,540,329.93    Decrease in 8 yrs. $27,540,329.93
+
+From this it appears that, notwithstanding the extraordinary increase of
+the principal by the amount of the Louisiana purchase, Mr. Gallatin
+contrived a reduction of $27,540,329. But if to this be added the true
+reduction for the year 1803, namely, the difference between the
+Louisiana debt, $15,000,000, and the increase for that year, by reason
+of that purchase, $9,372,434, say $6,627,565, the reduction is found to
+be, and but for that disturbing cause would have reached, $34,167,895,
+a sum exceeding by $1,878,895 that estimated by Mr. Gallatin in his
+report of 1801 as the amount of eight years' reduction, namely,
+$32,289,000.
+
+The ways and means of this remarkable example of financial management
+appear in the following extracts from Elliott's synoptical statement
+(table given on page 194).
+
+The purchase of Louisiana was the extraordinary financial measure of
+Jefferson's first presidential term. Though the new obligation for the
+consideration money, fifteen millions of dollars, was a large sum in
+proportion to the total existing debt of the United States, it did not
+in the least derange Gallatin's plan of funding and reduction, but was
+brought without friction within his general scheme. With the terms of
+the contract Gallatin had nothing to do. They were arranged by
+Livingston and Monroe, the American commissioners; the intervention of
+the houses of Hope and the Barings being a part of the understanding
+between the commissioners and the French government. These bankers
+engaged to make the money payments and take six per cent. stock of the
+United States at seventy-eight and one half cents on the dollar. With
+this price Mr. Gallatin does not seem to have been satisfied, though of
+course he interposed no objection to the terms; but to Jefferson he
+wrote, August 31, 1803, that the low price at which that stock had been
+sold, was "not ascribable to the state of public credit nor to any act
+of your administration, and particularly of the Treasury Department;"
+and he adds in a postscript, "at that period our threes were in England
+worth one per cent. more at market than the English."
+
+
+RECEIPTS.
+
+------------------+----------------+---------------+-------------+
+Four years        |   Customs.     |   Internal    |   Direct    |
+ending            |                |   Revenue.    |   Taxes.    |
+December 31.      |                |               |             |
+------------------+----------------+---------------+-------------+
+Adams, 1800       | $30,347,093.62 | $2,808,382.37 | $734,223.97 |
+                  +--------------- +-------------- +------------ +
+Jefferson, 1804   |  44,766,997.61 |  1,936,053.30 |  862,986.46 |
+           1808   |  59,813,257.40 |     63,110.73 |  131,539.54 |
+                  +--------------- +-------------- +------------ +
+                  | 104,580,255.01 |  1,999,146.03 |  994,526.00 |
+------------------+----------------+---------------+-------------+
+
+------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------+
+Four years        |   Postage.  |   Public     |    Loans and  |
+ending            |             |    Lands.    |    Treasury   |
+December 31.      |             |              |    Notes.     |
+------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------+
+Adams, 1800       | $223,000.00 |   $95,947.46 | $7,055,791.25 |
+                  +-------------+--------------+---------------+
+Jefferson, 1804   |  157,427.26 | 1,009,556.56 |     25,255.00 |
+           1808   |   60,074.90 | 2,419,541.86 |    179,534.81 |
+                  +-------------+--------------+---------------+
+                  |  217,502.10 | 3,429,098.42 |    205,089.81 |
+------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------+
+
+------------------+--------------+----------------+----------------
+Four years        |  Dividends   | Miscellaneous. |   Total.
+ending            | and sales of |                |
+December 31.      |  Bank Stock. |                |
+------------------+--------------+-------------- -+----------------
+Adams, 1800       |  $607,220.00 |   $168,971.76  | $42,040,630.45
+                  +--------------+----------------+----------------
+Jefferson, 1804   | 1,416,360.00 |    672,148.72  |  50,846,784.91
+           1808   |       --     |     85,782.03  |  62,758,841.27
+                  +--------------+----------------+----------------
+                  | 1,416,360.00 |    757,930.75  | 113,605,626.18
+------------------+--------------+----------------+----------------
+
+
+EXPENDITURES.
+
+
+------------------+---------------+---------------+--------------+
+Four years        | Civil List.   | Foreign       |Miscellaneous.|
+ending            |               | Intercourse   |              |
+December 31.      |               | including     |              |
+                  |               | Awards.       |              |
+------------------+---------------+---------------+--------------+
+Adams, 1800       | $2,329,433.08 | $1,793,879.57 |  $621,633.37 |
+                  +---------------+---------------+--------------+
+Jefferson, 1804   |  2,297,648.17 |  3,144,093.00 | 1,169,601.87 |
+           1808   |  2,616,772.77 |  5,441,669.24 | 1,721,876.87 |
+                  +---------------+---------------+--------------+
+                  |  4,914,420.94 |  8,585,762.24 | 2,891,478.74 |
+------------------+---------------+---------------+--------------+
+
+------------------+---------------+-------------+--------------+
+Four years        |  Military     | Pensions.   |  Indian      |
+ending            |  Forts, etc.  |             |  Department. |
+December 31.      |               |             |              |
+                  |               |             |              |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+--------------+
+Adams, 1800       | $8,076,750.71 | $356,677.06 |   $99,299.88 |
+                  +---------------+-------------+--------------+
+Jefferson, 1804   |  4,549,572.11 |  301,968.66 |   279,500.00 |
+           1808   |  6,126,656.97 |  316,806.16 |   849,700.00 |
+                  +---------------+-------------+--------------+
+                  | 10,676,229.08 |  618,774.82 | 1,129,200.00 |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+--------------+
+
+------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------
+Four years        |    Naval       |  Public Debt.  |      Total.
+ending            | Establishment. |                |
+December 31.      |                |                |
+                  |                |                |
+------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------
+Adams, 1800       | $8,070,777.52  | $18,957,962.69 | $40,306,413.88
+                  +----------------+----------------+----------------
+Jefferson, 1804   |  5,432,049.15  |  32,258,658.68 |  49,433,091.64
+           1808   |  6,853,673.79  |  32,927,739.85 |  56,854,985.65
+                  +----------------+----------------+----------------
+                  | 12,285,722.94  |  65,186,398.53 | 106,288,077.29
+------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------
+
+Adams--Receipts            $42,040,630.45
+Adams--Expenditures         40,306,413.88
+                           --------------
+Under Wolcott, Secretary     1,734,216.57
+
+Jefferson--Receipts       $113,605,626.18
+Jefferson--Expenditures    106,288,077.29
+                           --------------
+Under Gallatin, Secretary    7,317,584.89[12]
+
+[**Transcriber's Note: Some of the numbers in the above tables do not
+add up, but reflect the actual numbers given in the original document.]
+
+The arrangements being completed, Jefferson called Congress together in
+October, 1803, for a ratification of the treaty; the commissioners, by
+virtue of the authority granted them, had already guaranteed the advance
+by the Barings of ten million livres ($2,000,000). On October 25, 1803,
+Gallatin made a report to Congress on the state of the finances. It
+showed a reduction of the public debt in the two and one half years of
+his management, April 1, 1801, to September 30, 1803, of $12,702,404.
+The only question to be considered was whether any additional revenues
+were wanted to provide for the _new debt_ which would result from the
+purchase of Louisiana.
+
+The sum called for by treaty, fifteen millions, consisted of two items:
+1st, $11,250,000 payable to the government of France in a stock bearing
+an interest of six per cent. payable in Europe, and the principal to be
+discharged at the Treasury of the United States; 2d, a sum which could
+not exceed, but might fall short of, $3,750,000, payable in specie at
+the Treasury of the United States to American citizens having claims of
+a certain description upon the government of France.
+
+It is interesting here to note Mr. Gallatin's distinction between the
+place of payment of interest and of principal as a new departure in
+American finance. The principal and interest of foreign loans had up to
+that period been paid abroad. But a United States stock was an
+obligation of a different character and properly payable at home. In the
+large negotiations which Secretary Chase had in 1862 with the Treasury
+Note Committee of the Associated Banks,[13] this policy was matter of
+grave debate. The determined American pride of Mr. Chase prevailed, and
+both the principal _and interest_ of the loans created were made payable
+at the Treasury of the United States. These may be small matters in
+their financial result, but are grave points in national policy.
+
+The only financial legislation necessary to carry out the Louisiana
+purchase was a provision that $700,000 of the duties on merchandise and
+tonnage, a sum sufficient to pay the interest on the new debt, be added
+to the annual permanent appropriation for the sinking fund, making a sum
+of $8,000,000 in all.
+
+The new debt would, Gallatin said, neither impede nor retard the payment
+of the principal of the old debt; and the fund would be sufficient,
+besides paying the interest on both, to discharge the principal of the
+old debt before the year 1818, and of the new, within one year and a
+half after that year. In this expectation he relied solely on the
+maintenance of the revenue at the amount of the year 1802, and in no way
+depended on its probable increase as a result of neutrality in the
+European war; nor on any augmentation by reason of increase of
+population or wealth, nor the effect which the opening of the
+Mississippi to free navigation might be expected to have on the sales of
+public lands and the general resources of the country.
+
+In his report of December 9, 1805, Mr. Gallatin reviewed the results of
+his first four years of service, April 1, 1801, to March 31, 1805.
+
+                     RECEIPTS.
+
+Duties on tonnage and importation of
+foreign merchandise                           $45,174,837.22
+
+From all other sources                          5,492,629.82
+                                              --------------
+                                              $50,667,467.04
+                                              ==============
+
+                      EXPENDITURES.
+
+Civil list and miscellaneous                   $3,786,094.79
+
+Intercourse with foreign nations                1,071,437.84
+
+Military establishment and Indian department    4,405,192.26
+
+Naval establishment                             4,842,635.15
+
+Interest on foreign debt                       16,278,700.95
+
+Reimbursement of debt from surplus
+revenue                                        19,281,446.57
+                                              --------------
+                                              $49,665,507.56
+
+The Louisiana purchase and the admirable manner of its financial
+arrangement were important factors in Jefferson's reëlection. Mr.
+Gallatin was now sure of four years, at least, for the prosecution of
+his plan of redemption of the public debt. Estimating that with the
+increase of population at the rate of thirty-five per cent. in ten
+years, and the corresponding growth of the revenue, he could count upon
+a net annual surplus of $5,500,000, he now proposed to convert the
+several outstanding obligations into a six per cent. stock amounting,
+January 1, 1809, to less than _forty millions of dollars_, which the
+continued annual appropriation of $8,000,000 would, besides paying the
+interest on the Louisiana debt, reimburse within a period of less than
+seven years, or before the end of the year 1815. After that year no
+other incumbrance would remain on the revenue than the interest and
+reimbursement of the Louisiana stock, the last payment of which in the
+year 1821 would complete the final extinguishment of the public debt.
+The conversion act was passed February 1, 1807, and books were opened on
+July 1 following. On February 27, 1807, Mr. Gallatin made a special
+report on the state of the debt from 1801 to 1807, showing a diminution,
+notwithstanding the Louisiana purchase, of $14,260,000.
+
+In the summer of 1807 war with England seemed inevitable. Gallatin had
+the satisfaction to report a full treasury,--the amount of specie
+October 7, 1807, reaching over eight and one half millions,--and an
+annual unappropriated surplus, which could be confidently relied upon,
+of at least three millions of dollars. On this subject his remarks in
+the light of subsequent history are of extreme interest. While
+refraining from any recommendations as to the application of this
+surplus, either to "measures of security and defense," or to "internal
+improvements which, while increasing and diffusing the national wealth,
+will strengthen the bonds of union," as "subjects which do not fall
+within the province of the Treasury Department," he proceeds to consider
+the advantage of an accumulation in the Treasury. In this report he
+rises with easy flight far above the purely financial atmosphere into
+the higher plane of political economy.
+
+     "A previous accumulation of treasure in time of peace might in a
+     great degree defray the extraordinary expenses of war and diminish
+     the necessity of either loans or additional taxes. It would provide
+     during periods of prosperity for those adverse events to which
+     every nation is exposed, instead of increasing the burthens of the
+     people at a time when they are least able to bear them, or of
+     impairing, by anticipations, the resources of ensuing
+     generations....
+
+     "That the revenue of the United States will in subsequent years be
+     considerably impaired by a war neither can nor ought to be
+     concealed. It is, on the contrary, necessary, in order to be
+     prepared for the crisis, to take an early view of the subject, and
+     to examine the resources which should be selected for supplying the
+     deficiency and defraying the extraordinary expenses....
+
+     "Whether taxes should be raised to a greater amount or loans be
+     altogether relied on for defraying the expenses of the war, is the
+     next subject of consideration.
+
+     "Taxes are paid by the great mass of the citizens, and immediately
+     affect almost every individual of the community. Loans are supplied
+     by capital previously accumulated by a few individuals. In a
+     country where the resources of individuals are not generally and
+     materially affected by the war, it is practicable and wise to raise
+     by taxes the greater part at least of the annual supplies. The
+     credit of the nation may also from various circumstances be at
+     times so far impaired as to have no resource but taxation. In both
+     respects the situation of the United States is totally
+     dissimilar....
+
+     "An addition to the debt is doubtless an evil, but experience
+     having now shown with what rapid progress the revenue of the Union
+     increases in time of peace, with what facility the debt, formerly
+     contracted, has in a few years been reduced, a hope may confidently
+     be entertained that all the evils of the war will be temporary and
+     easily repaired, and that the return of peace will, without any
+     effort, afford ample resources for reimbursing whatever may have
+     been borrowed during the war."
+
+He then enumerates the several branches of revenue which might be
+selected to provide for the interest of war loans and to cover
+deficiencies. First, a considerable increase of the duties on
+importations; and here he says:--
+
+     "Without resorting to the example of other nations, experience has
+     proven that this source of revenue is in the United States the most
+     productive, the easiest to collect, and the least burthensome to
+     the great mass of the people. 2d. Indirect taxes, however
+     ineligible, will doubtless be cheerfully paid as _war taxes_, if
+     necessary. 3d. Direct taxes are liable to a particular objection
+     arising from unavoidable inequality produced by the general rule
+     of the Constitution. Whatever differences may exist between the
+     relative wealth and consequent ability of paying of the several
+     States, still the tax must necessarily be raised in proportion to
+     their relative population."
+
+The Orders in Council of November 11, 1807, avowedly adopted to compel
+all nations to give up their maritime trade or accept it through Great
+Britain, reached Washington on December 18, 1807, and were immediately
+replied to by the United States by an embargo act on December 22. The
+history of the political effect of this measure is beyond the limits of
+this economic study, and will be touched upon in a later chapter, but
+the result of its application upon the Treasury falls within this
+analysis of the methods of Mr. Gallatin's administration.
+
+On December 18 Gallatin wrote Jefferson that "in every point of view,
+privations, sufferings, revenue, effect on the enemy, politics at home,
+etc.," he preferred "war to a permanent embargo;" nevertheless he was
+called upon to draft the bill. The correctness of Mr. Gallatin's
+prevision was soon apparent. In his report of December 10, 1808, he
+reviewed the general effect of the measure. "The embargo has brought
+into and kept in the United States almost all the floating property of
+the nation. And whilst the depreciated value of domestic product
+increases the difficulty of raising a considerable revenue by internal
+taxes, at no former time has there been so much specie, so much
+redundant unemployed capital in the country." Again stating his opinion
+that loans should be principally relied on in case of war, he closed
+with the following words: "The high price of public stocks (and indeed
+of all species of stocks), the reduction of the public debt, the
+unimpaired credit of the general government, and the large amount of
+existing bank stock in the United States [estimated by him at forty
+millions of dollars], leave no doubt of the practicability of obtaining
+the necessary loans on reasonable terms."
+
+The receipts into the Treasury during the
+year ending September, 1808, the last of
+Jefferson's administration, were            $17,952,419.90
+
+The disbursements during the same period
+were                                         12,635,275.46
+                                             -------------
+Excess of receipts                           $5,317,144.44
+
+And the specie in Treasury, October 1,
+1808                                        $13,846,717.82
+
+From January 1, 1791, to January 1, 1808, the debt had fallen from
+$75,169,974 to $57,023,192; during the first ten years it had increased
+nearly seven millions of dollars, in the last eight it had been
+diminished more than twenty millions and Louisiana had been purchased.
+Thus closed the second term of Gallatin's service. Happen what might,
+the credit of the country could not be in a better situation to meet the
+exigencies of a war. A letter from Mr. Jefferson to Mr. Gallatin after
+the close of this administration, and Gallatin's reply, show the entire
+accord between them upon the one cardinal point of financial policy. Mr.
+Jefferson, October 11, 1809, wrote from Monticello, "I consider the
+fortunes of our republic as depending in an eminent degree on the
+extinction of the public debt before we engage in any war; because, that
+done, we shall have revenue enough to improve our country in peace and
+defend it in war, without incurring either new taxes or new loans." And
+urging Gallatin to retain his post, he closed with the striking words,
+"I hope, then, you will abandon entirely the idea you expressed to me,
+and that you will consider the eight years to come as essential to your
+political career. I should certainly consider any earlier day of your
+retirement as the most inauspicious day our new government has ever
+seen." To which Gallatin replied from Washington, on November 10:--
+
+     "The reduction of the public debt was certainly the principal
+     object in bringing me into office, and our success in that respect
+     has been due both to the joint and continued efforts of the several
+     branches of government and to the prosperous situation of the
+     country. I am sensible that the work cannot progress under adverse
+     circumstances. If the United States shall be forced into a state of
+     actual war, all the resources of the country must be called forth
+     to make it efficient and new loans will undoubtedly be wanted. But
+     whilst peace is preserved, the revenue will, at all events, be
+     sufficient to pay the interest and to defray necessary expenses. I
+     do not ask that in the present situation of our foreign relations
+     the debt be reduced, but only that it shall not be increased so
+     long as we are not at war."
+
+In his eight years of service under Jefferson, Gallatin had not found
+the Treasury Department a bed of roses. Under Madison there was an undue
+proportion of thorns.
+
+It has been shown that the entire reliance of Gallatin for the expenses
+of government was on customs, tonnage dues, and land sales. The effect
+of the Embargo Act was soon felt in the falling off of importations, and
+consequently in the revenue from this source. Mr. Gallatin felt the
+strain in the spring of 1809; and on March 18, soon after Mr. Madison's
+inauguration, he gave notice to the commissioners of the sinking fund of
+a probable deficiency. In his annual report to Congress, December, 1809,
+he announced the expenses of government, exclusive of the payments on
+account of the principal of the debt, to have exceeded the actual
+receipts into the Treasury by a sum of near $1,300,000. For this
+deficiency, and the sum required for the sinking fund, Gallatin was
+authorized in May to borrow from the Bank of the United States
+$3,750,000 at six per cent., reimbursable on December 31, 1811. Of this
+sum only $2,750,000 was taken, the expenses having proved less than Mr.
+Gallatin had anticipated.
+
+Madison called Congress together on November 1, 1811. The political
+tension was strong, and he was anxious to throw the responsibility of
+peace or war upon Congress. On November 22, 1811, Mr. Gallatin made his
+report on the finances and the public debt. It was, as usual, explicit
+and in no manner despondent. The actual receipts arising from revenue
+alone exceeded the current expenses, including the interest paid on the
+debt, by a sum of more than five and one half millions of dollars. The
+public debt on January 1, 1812, was $45,154,463. Since Gallatin took
+charge of the department, the United States had in ten years and nine
+months paid in full the purchase money of Louisiana, and increased its
+revenue nearly two millions of dollars. For eight years eight millions
+of dollars had been annually paid on account of the principal and
+interest of the debt. And as though intending to leave as the legacy of
+his service a lesson of financial policy, he said:--
+
+     "_The redemption of principal has been effected without the aid of
+     any internal taxes, either direct or indirect, without any addition
+     during the last seven years to the rate of duties on importations,
+     which on the contrary have been impaired by the repeal of the duty
+     on salt, and notwithstanding the great diminution of commerce
+     during the last four years._ It therefore proves decisively the
+     ability of the United States with their ordinary revenue to
+     discharge, in ten years of peace, a debt of forty-two millions of
+     dollars, a fact which considerably lessens the weight of the most
+     formidable objection to which that revenue, depending almost solely
+     on commerce, appears to be liable. In time of peace it is almost
+     sufficient to defray the expenses of a war; in time of war it is
+     hardly competent to support the expenses of a peace establishment.
+     Sinking at once, under adverse circumstances, from fifteen to six
+     or eight millions of dollars, it is only by a persevering
+     application of the surplus which it affords us in years of
+     prosperity, to the discharge of the debt, that a total change in
+     the system of taxation or a perpetual accumulation of debt can be
+     avoided. But if a similar application of such surplus be hereafter
+     strictly adhered to, forty millions of debt, contracted during five
+     or six years of war, may always, without any extraordinary
+     exertions, be reimbursed in ten years of peace. This view of the
+     subject at the present crisis appears necessary for the purpose of
+     distinctly pointing out one of the principal resources within reach
+     of the United States. But to be placed on a solid foundation, it
+     requires the aid of a revenue sufficient at least to defray the
+     ordinary expenses of government, and to pay the interest on the
+     public debt, including that on new loans which may be authorized."
+
+From this plain declaration, it was evident that the sum necessary to
+pay interest on new loans, and provide for their redemption by the
+operation of the sinking fund, could not be obtained from the ordinary
+sources of revenue, and that resort must be had to extraordinary imposts
+or direct taxation. On January 10, 1812, in response to an inquiry of
+the Ways and Means Committee as to an increase of revenue in _the event
+of a war_, Gallatin submitted a project for war loans of ten millions a
+year, irredeemable for ten years. He pointed out that the government had
+never since its organization obtained considerable loans at six per
+cent. per annum, except from the Bank of the United States, and these,
+on a capital of seven millions, never amounted to seven millions in the
+whole. As the amount of prospective loans would naturally raise the
+amount of interest, it seemed prudent not to limit the rate of interest
+by law; ineligible as it seemed to leave that rate discretionary with
+the executive, it was preferable to leaving the public service
+unprovided for. For the same reason the loans should be made
+irredeemable for a term not less than ten years.
+
+He then repeated a former suggestion, that "treasury notes," bearing
+interest, might be issued, which would to that extent diminish the
+amount to be directly borrowed and also provide a part of the
+circulating medium, passing as bank notes; but their issue must be
+strictly limited to that amount at which they would circulate without
+depreciation. So long as the public credit is preserved and a sufficient
+revenue provided, he entertained no doubts of the possibility of
+procuring on loan the sums necessary to defray the extraordinary
+expenses of a war. He warned the committee, and through it Congress,
+that "no artificial provisions, no appropriations or investments of
+particular funds in certain persons, _no nominal sinking fund_, however
+constructed, will ever reduce a public debt unless the net annual
+revenue shall exceed the aggregate of the annual expenses, including the
+interest of the debt." He then submitted the following estimates:--
+
+     "The current or peace expenses have been estimated at nine millions
+     of dollars. Supposing the debt contracted during the war not to
+     exceed fifty millions and its annual interest to amount to three
+     millions, the aggregate of the peace expenditure would be no more
+     than twelve millions. And as the peace revenue of the United States
+     may at the existing rate of duties be fairly estimated at fifteen
+     millions, there would remain from the first outset a surplus of
+     three millions applicable to the redemption of the debt. So far,
+     therefore, as can be now foreseen, there is the strongest reason to
+     believe that the debt thus contracted will be discharged with
+     facility and as speedily as the terms of the loans will permit. Nor
+     does any other plan in that respect appear necessary than to extend
+     the application of the annual appropriation of eight millions (and
+     which is amply sufficient for that purpose) to the payment of
+     interest and reimbursement of the principal of the new debt.... If
+     the national revenue exceeds the national expenditure, a simple
+     appropriation for the payment of the principal of the debt and
+     coextensive with the object is sufficient and will infallibly
+     extinguish the debt. If the expense exceeds the revenue, the
+     appropriation of any specific sum and the investment of the
+     interest extinguished or of any other fund, will prove altogether
+     nugatory; and the national debt will, notwithstanding that
+     apparatus, be annually increased by an amount equal to the deficit
+     in the revenue.... What appears to be of vital importance is that
+     _the crisis_ should at once be met by the adoption of efficient
+     measures, which will with certainty provide means commensurate with
+     the expense, and, by _preserving unimpaired instead of abusing that
+     public credit on which the public resources so eminently depend,
+     will enable the United States to persevere in the contest until an
+     honorable peace shall have been obtained_."
+
+On March 14 Congress authorized a public loan of eleven millions of
+dollars, leaving it optional with the banks who subscribed to take
+stock, or to loan the money on special contract. The books were opened
+May 1 and 2, and in the two days $6,118,900 were subscribed: $4,190,000
+by banks and $1,928,000 by individuals. The rate was six per cent. Mr.
+Gallatin reported this result, and proposed the issue of treasury notes
+for such amount as was desired within the limit of the loan to bear
+interest at five and two fifths per cent. a year, equal to a cent and a
+half per day on a hundred dollars' note; 2d, to be payable one year
+after date of issue; 3d, to be in the meanwhile receivable in payment of
+all duties, taxes, or debts due to the United States. The first of these
+ingenious qualifications was adopted by Mr. Chase in his issue of the
+seven-thirties.
+
+On June 18 war was declared. On the 28th Mr. Gallatin submitted his
+estimate of receipts and expenditures for the year.
+
+EXPENDITURES IN ROUND NUMBERS.
+
+Civil and miscellaneous                   $1,560,000
+Military establishment, and Indian dept   12,800,000
+Naval establishment                        3,940,000
+Public debt                                8,000,000
+                                          ----------
+                                         $26,300,000
+                                          ==========
+
+FUNDS PROVIDED.
+
+Balance in Treasury, January 1            $2,000,000
+Receipts from duties and sales of lands
+  as by estimate of November 22, 1811      8,200,000
+Loan authorized by law                    11,000,000
+Treasury notes as authorized by House
+  of Representatives                       5,000,000
+                                          ----------
+                                         $26,200,000
+
+The issue of _treasury notes_ was a novel experiment in the United
+States; but they were favorably received, and Mr. Gallatin calculated
+that the full amount authorized by law, $5,000,000, could be put in
+circulation during the year. The result of a loan seemed more doubtful.
+The old six per cents. and deferred stock had already fallen two or
+three per cent. below par. Mr. Gallatin again recommended the conversion
+of these securities into a new six per cent. stock, which would
+facilitate the new loan, and to prevent the necessity of applying, the
+same years, the large sums required in reimbursement of and purchase of
+the public debt.
+
+On December 1 Mr. Gallatin made his last annual statement.
+
+_Treasury Report for Fiscal Year ending September_ 30, 1812.
+
+RECEIPTS.
+
+Customs, sales of lands, etc.            $10,934,946.20
+On account of loan of eleven millions,
+  act 14 March, 1812                       5,847,212.50
+                                         --------------
+                                         $16,782,158.70
+Balance in Treasury October 1, 1811        3,947,818.36
+                                         --------------
+                                         $20,729,977.06
+                                         ==============
+
+DISBURSEMENTS.
+
+Civil Department, foreign intercourse     $1,823,069.35
+Army, militia, forts, etc.  $7,770,300.00
+Navy Department              3,107,501.54
+Indian Department              230,975.00
+                            ------------- 11,108,776.54
+Interest on debt            $2,498,013.19
+On account of principal      2,938,465.99
+                            -------------  5,436,479.18
+                                         --------------
+                                         $18,368,325.07
+Leaving in Treasury 30 Sept., 1812         2,361,652.69
+                                         --------------
+                                         $20,729,977.76
+
+The sums obtained or secured on loans during the year amounted to
+$13,100,209, and the secretary had the satisfaction to state "that
+notwithstanding the addition thus made to the public debt, and although
+a considerable portion has been remitted from England and brought to
+market in America, the public stocks (which had at first experienced a
+slight depression) have been for the last three months, and continue to
+be, at par." His last report to the commissioners of the sinking fund of
+February 5, 1813, stated the usual application of $8,719,773 to the
+principal and interest of the debt.
+
+In his report of December 1, 1812, Mr. Gallatin announced that a loan of
+twenty-one millions was needed for the service of 1813. Congress
+authorized a loan of $16,000,000, having six years to run, and an
+additional issue of $5,000,000 of treasury notes. Congress adjourned on
+March 4. Their procrastination and the pressing demands of the War
+Department nearly beggared the Treasury before the loans could be
+negotiated and covered into it.
+
+On April 17 Mr. Gallatin wrote to the secretaries of the army and of the
+navy, and sent a copy of his letters to Mr. Madison with information
+that the loan had been filled, and the probable receipts of the Treasury
+from ordinary sources for the year ascertained. These he estimated at
+$9,300,000. Deducting the annual appropriation for interest on the debt,
+the sum expended to March 31, and the amount needed for the civil
+service, there remained for the War and Navy Departments together the
+sum of $18,720,000.
+
+The loan of $16,000,000 was obtained in the following places:--
+
+States east of New York               $486,700
+State of New York                    5,720,000
+Philadelphia, Pa.                    6,858,400
+Baltimore and District of Columbia   2,393,300
+State of Virginia                      187,000
+Charleston, S. C.                      354,000
+                                   -----------
+                                   $16,000,000
+
+The history of this subscription is not without interest. The extremely
+small subscriptions in New England and in the Southern States can hardly
+be explained on any other theory than that of a belief in the collapse
+of the finances of the United States and a dissolution of the Union, for
+which the New England States had certainly been prepared by their
+governing minds.[14]
+
+Books were opened on March 12 and 13, 1813, at Portsmouth, Salem,
+Boston, Providence, New York, Albany, Philadelphia, Baltimore,
+Washington, Richmond, and Charleston. In the two days the subscriptions
+only reached the sum of $3,956,400. They were again opened on the 25th
+of March at New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington. The New
+England and Southern States seem to have been disregarded because of
+their indifference in the first instance. The books remained open from
+March 25 to 31, during which time there were received $1,881,800, a
+total of $5,838,200.
+
+The pressure fell on the Middle States. In these, fortunately for the
+government, there were three great capitalists whose faith in the future
+prosperity of the United States was unimpaired. All were foreigners:
+David Parish and Stephen Girard in Philadelphia and John Jacob Astor in
+New York. These now came forward, no doubt at the instance of Mr.
+Gallatin, who was a personal friend of each. Parish and Girard offered
+on April 5 to take eight millions of the loan at the rate of
+eighty-eight dollars for a certificate of one hundred dollars bearing
+interest at six per cent., redeemable before December 31, 1825, they to
+receive one quarter of one per cent. commission on the amount accepted,
+and in case of a further loan for the service of the year 1813, to be
+placed on an equal footing with its takers. John Jacob Astor on the same
+day and at the same place proposed to take for himself and his friends
+the sum of two million and fifty-six thousand dollars of the loan on the
+same conditions. These offers were accepted and the loan was complete.
+An offer on behalf of the State of Pennsylvania to take one million of
+the loan was received too late. Altogether the offers amounted to about
+eighteen millions, or two millions more than the sum demanded. Mr.
+Gallatin, clinging to his old plan, endeavored to negotiate this loan at
+par, by offering a premium of a thirteen years' annuity of one per
+cent., but found it impracticable. Indeed, the system of annuity,
+general in England, has never found favor as an investment in the United
+States.
+
+This was Mr. Gallatin's last financial transaction. A few weeks later,
+at his own request, he severed his actual connection with the Treasury
+Department and was on his way to St. Petersburg to secure the proffered
+mediation of the emperor of Russia between the United States and Great
+Britain.
+
+Thus ended Mr. Gallatin's administration of the national finances. The
+hour for saving had passed. The imperious necessities of war take no
+heed of economic principles. The work which the secretary had done
+became as the rope of sand. It is not surprising that Gallatin wearied
+of his post; that he watched with vain regret and unavailing sighs the
+unavoidable increase of the national debt, and that he sought relief in
+other services where success was not so evanescent as in the Treasury
+Department. Before the close of Madison's administration, February 12,
+1816, the public debt had run up to over one hundred and twenty-three
+millions,[15] and a sum equal to the entire amount of Mr. Gallatin's
+savings in two terms had been expended in one. But his work had not been
+in vain. The war was the crucial test of the soundness of his financial
+policy. The maxims which he announced, that debt can only be reduced by
+a surplus of revenue over expenditure, and the accompaniment of every
+loan by an appropriation for its extinguishment, became the fundamental
+principle of American finance. Mr. Gallatin was uniformly supported in
+it by Congress and public opinion. It was faithfully adhered to by his
+distinguished successors, Dallas and Crawford, and the impulse thus
+given continued through later administrations, until, in 1837, twenty
+years after the peace, the entire debt had been extinguished. All this
+without any other variation from Mr. Gallatin's original plan than an
+increase of the annual appropriation, to the sinking fund for its
+reimbursement, from eight to ten millions.[16]
+
+The only charge which has ever been made against Gallatin's
+administration was, that he reduced the debt at the expense of the
+defenses and security of the country; but, to quote the words of one of
+his biographers:[17] "Mr. Gallatin had the sagacity to know that it [the
+redemption of the debt] would make but little difference in the degree
+of preparation of national defense and means of contest, for which it is
+impossible ever to obtain a considerable appropriation before the near
+approach of the danger that may render them necessary. He knew that the
+money thus well and wisely devoted to the payment of the debt was only
+rescued from a thousand purposes of extravagance and mal-application to
+which all our legislative bodies are so prone whenever they have control
+of surplus funds." In our own day the irresistible temptations of a full
+treasury need no labored demonstration. Friend and foe drop political
+differences over the abundant fleshpot. The very thought of catering to
+such appetites disgusted Gallatin. To Jefferson he frankly said, in
+1809, that while he did not pretend to step out of his own sphere and to
+control the internal management of other departments, yet he could not
+"consent to act the part of a mere financier, to become a contriver of
+taxes, a dealer of loans, a seeker of resources for the purpose of
+supporting useless baubles, of increasing the number of idle and
+dissipated members of the community, of fattening contractors, pursers,
+and agents, and of introducing in all its ramifications that system of
+patronage, corruption, and rottenness which you justly execrate."
+
+RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES DURING MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION, FROM
+                 ELLIOTT'S SYNOPTICAL EXHIBITS.
+
+                          RECEIPTS.
+
+------------+----------------+---------------+----------------+
+Four Years  |  Customs.      |   Internal    |  Direct Taxes. |
+Ending      |                |   Revenue.    |                |
+Dec. 31.    |                |               |                |
+------------+----------------+---------------+----------------+
+1812        | $38,151,330.15 |    $18,674.03 |    $28,491.87  |
+1816        |  62,813,212.43 | 11,470,507.24 |  8,639,611.38  |
+            |----------------+---------------+----------------+
+Madison     | 100,964,542.58 | 11,489,181.27 |  8,668,103.25  |
+------------+----------------+---------------+----------------+
+----------------+----------------+-------------------+----------------+
+    Postage.    |  Public Lands. |   Loans and       |  Dividends     |
+                |                |   Treasury Notes. |  Sales of      |
+                |                |                   | Bank Stock.    |
+----------------+----------------+-------------------+----------------+
+   $85,077.40   | $2,889,466.46  |   $15,606,201.30  |     -          |
+   364,787.84   |  4,977,570.54  |    94,321,103.73  |     -          |
+----------------+----------------+-------------------+----------------+
+   449,865.24   |  7,867,037.00  |   109,927,305.03  |     -          |
+----------------+----------------+-------------------+----------------+
+
+----------------+----------------
+ Miscellaneous. |    Total.
+                |
+                |
+----------------+----------------
+ $209,309.34    |  $56,988,550.55
+  630,248.16    |  183,217,041.32
+----------------+----------------
+  839,557.50    |  240,205,591.87
+----------------+----------------
+
+                       EXPENDITURES.
+
+-----------+-----------------+---------------+----------------+
+Four Years |  Civil List.    | Foreign       | Miscellaneous. |
+Ending     |                 | Intercourse.  |                |
+Dec. 31.   |                 |               |                |
+-----------+-----------------+---------------+----------------+
+1812       | $2,887,197.98   |  $860,281.28  | $1,619,849.12  |
+1816       |  3,768,342.61   | 1,042,633.42  |  5,015,100.92  |
+           |-----------------+---------------+----------------+
+Madison    | 6,655,540.59    | 1,902,914.70  |  6,634,950.04  |
+-----------+-----------------+---------------+----------------+
+
+----------------+----------------+-------------------+----------------+
+ Military Dept. |   Pensions.    |      Indian Dept. |   Naval Dept.  |
+                |                |                   |                |
+                |                |                   |                |
+----------------+----------------+-------------------+----------------+
+ $19,480,722.54 |  $338,023.68   |       $944,848.84 | $10,006,934.54 |
+  70,809,210.90 |   435,614.48   |      1,140,015.30 |  26,326,169.25 |
+----------------+----------------+-------------------+----------------+
+  90,289,933.44 |   773,638.16   |      2,084,864.14 |  36,333,103.79 |
+----------------+----------------+-------------------+----------------+
+
+----------------+----------------
+  Public Debt.  |    Total.
+                |
+                |
+----------------+----------------
+ $26,920,285.12 |  $63,058,143.10
+  56,508,652.66 |  165,045,739.54
+----------------+----------------
+  83,428,937.78 |  228,103,882.64
+----------------+----------------
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Revenue_
+
+_L'État c'est moi_ was the autocratic maxim of Louis Quatorze. An
+adherence to it cost the Bourbons their throne. Burke was more
+philosophical when he said, "The revenue of the State is the State." Its
+imposition, its collection, and its application involve all the
+principles and all the powers of government, constitutional or
+extraordinary. It is the sole foundation of public credit, the sole
+support of the body politic, its life-blood in peace, its nerve in war.
+The "purse and the sword" are respectively the resource and defense of
+government and peoples, and they are interdependent powers. With the
+discovery of the sources of revenue, and the establishment of its
+currents, Mr. Gallatin, in the first eight years of his administration
+of the Treasury, had nothing to do. He had only to maintain those
+systems which Hamilton had devised, and which, wisely adapted to the
+growth of the country, proved amply adequate to the ordinary
+expenditures of the government and to the gradual extinguishment of the
+debt. The entire revenue included three distinct branches: imposts on
+importations and tonnage, internal revenue, sales of public lands. The
+duties on imports of foreign merchandise were alone sufficient to meet
+the current expenses of the various departments of administration on a
+peace establishment, and, increasing with the growth of the country,
+would prove ample in future. The gross amount of imports in the four
+years of Adams's administration, 1796-1800, was about three hundred and
+fourteen millions of dollars, and the customs yielded about thirty
+millions.
+
+Mr. Gallatin's first annual report, submitted to the House of
+Representatives in December, 1801, exhibited his financial scheme. He
+recapitulated the various sources of permanent revenue. They were those
+of Hamilton's original tariff.
+
+The revenues for the year ended September 30, 1801, were the basis of
+the estimates for future years. These were
+
+Duties on imports and tonnage   $10,126,213.92
+Internal revenue                    854,000.00
+Land sales                          400,000.00
+                                --------------
+                                $11,380,213.92
+
+But the close of the war in Europe sensibly diminished the enormous
+carrying trade which fell to the United States as neutrals, and, as a
+consequence, the revenue from that source; large quantities of goods
+were brought into the United States and reëxported to foreign ports
+under a system of debenture. The revenue on what Mr. Gallatin calls
+"this accidental commerce" was $1,200,000. He therefore _estimated the
+permanent revenues at_
+
+Customs duties                  $9,500,000
+Land sales                         400,000
+Postage                             50,000
+Internal revenue                   650,000
+                               -----------
+                               $10,600,000
+
+Or, without the internal revenue, say ten millions of permanent revenue,
+as a basis for _the permanent expenditures_.
+
+To bring the expenditures within this sum, however, a reduction in the
+army and navy establishments was necessary. This Gallatin soon found to
+be too radical a measure for success, either in the cabinet or Congress,
+however well it may have accorded with Jefferson's utopian views. In the
+budget of 1802 the internal revenue, $650,000, was, therefore, a
+necessary item. The expenditures proposed were
+
+Annual appropriation for interest and
+principal of debt                     $7,100,000
+Civil list                  $780,000
+Foreign intercourse          200,000
+Military and Indian Dept   1,420,000
+Naval                      1,100,000
+                         -----------
+                          $3,500,000    3,500,000
+                                      -----------
+                                      $10,600,000
+
+In this budget the estimate for the military establishment was an
+increase over that of Wolcott for 1801, which was $1,120,000. But the
+Republicans in the House were not content with this arrangement. The
+internal revenues were utterly distasteful to them. They had been laid
+against their protest and collected under military menace. They were of
+those Federal measures of which they would have none. John Randolph,
+chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means, reported, March 2, 1802,
+against the entire system of internal duties, in the old words of the
+Pennsylvania radicals, as vexatious, oppressive, and peculiarly
+obnoxious; as of the nature of an excise which is hostile to the genius
+of a free people, and finally because of their tendency to multiply
+offices and increase the patronage of the executive. The repeal was
+imperative upon the Republican party. On April 6, 1802, the act was
+repealed and the surplus of the budget stripped from it, without Mr.
+Gallatin's consent, certainly, but also without protest from him.
+
+The prosperity of the country continued. The impost duties for the
+fiscal year ending September 30, 1802, rose to $12,280,000, the sales of
+the public lands to $326,000, and the postage to $50,500, a total of
+$12,656,500, and left in the Treasury, September 30, 1802, the sum of
+$4,539,675. This large increase in the Treasury did not in the least
+change Mr. Gallatin's general plan, and his budget for 1803 was based on
+his original scale of a permanent revenue of $10,000,000, to correspond
+with which the estimates of the preceding year were reduced. The fiscal
+year closed September 30, 1803, with a balance in the Treasury of
+$5,860,000. This situation of the finances was fortunate in view of
+secret negotiations which the President and Congress were initiating for
+the purchase of Louisiana from France.
+
+The secretaries of war and of the navy had promised to reduce their
+expenditures to a figure approximate to Mr. Gallatin's estimates; but
+the breaking out of hostilities with Tripoli prevented the proposed
+economy, and Mr. Gallatin was called upon to provide for an increased
+expenditure with one certain source of revenue definitively closed. He
+therefore proposed an additional tax of two and one half per cent. on
+all importations which paid an _ad valorem_ duty. This additional
+impost, laid by act of March 25, 1804, called the Mediterranean Fund,
+remained in force long after the war closed and held its place on the
+books of the Treasury under that name.
+
+The bulk of the cost of Louisiana was met by an issue of bonds; but Mr.
+Gallatin, true to his principle, applied the moneys in the Treasury as
+far as they would go. The budget for 1805 was on a different scale. The
+increase in the debt demanded a proportionate increase in the revenue to
+meet the additional sum required for interest and gradual annual
+reimbursement. The Mediterranean Fund was sufficient to meet the
+increased amounts required for the navy. In this manner he held up the
+Navy Department to a strict accountability and made it responsible to
+Congress and not to the cabinet for its administration, and he thus,
+from his own point of view, relieved the Treasury Department from any
+responsibility for extraordinary expenditure.
+
+Mr. Gallatin closed his four years of administration with flying colors.
+The successful management of the finances was an important factor in the
+election of 1804, which returned Mr. Jefferson to the presidential chair
+and insured to the country the inestimable advantages of Mr. Gallatin's
+practical mind. Order reigned in his department at least, and order
+subordinate to the strictest requirements of law. In the four years,
+1801-1804, Jefferson's first term, the imports aggregated $337,363,510
+and the customs yielded $45,000,000.
+
+The annual report, made December 9, 1805, announced an increasing
+revenue, amounting in all to thirteen and one half millions of dollars,
+chiefly from customs. Still Mr. Gallatin made but small addition to his
+estimates for the coming year. The permanent revenue he raised to twelve
+and one half millions and increased the appropriation for the payment of
+the debt and interest to eight millions. Nothing occurred during the
+next year to check the growth of the country; the revenue continued on a
+rising scale, and reached close upon fifteen millions of dollars.
+
+So far Mr. Gallatin had met but inconsiderable obstacles in his course,
+and these he used to his advantage to impress economy upon the Army and
+Navy Departments, and enforce his principle of minute appropriations
+for their government. All that he had already accomplished in the
+establishment of a sound financial system and the support of the credit
+of the United States was but the basis of a broader structure of
+national economy. His extensive scheme of internal improvements was
+hardly matured when the thunder broke in the clear sky.
+
+The acquisition of Louisiana, the large carrying trade which had passed
+under the American flag, and the rapid prosperity of the financial and
+industrial condition of the country aroused the jealousy of Great
+Britain, and determined her to check the further progress of the United
+States by war, if need be. The capture of the American frigate
+Chesapeake by the man-of-war Leopard, June 22, 1807, was only the first
+in a series of outrages which rendered the final collision, though long
+delayed, inevitable. Mr. Gallatin at once recognized that the Treasury
+could no longer be conducted on a peace basis. "Money," he wrote to
+Joseph H. Nicholson, "we will want to carry on the war; our revenue will
+be cut up; new and internal taxes will be slow and not sufficiently
+productive; we must necessarily borrow. This is not pleasing to me, but
+it must be done." Congress was called together for October 26, 1807, and
+on November 5, Mr. Gallatin sent in his annual report. There was still
+hope that Great Britain would make amends for the outrage, and Congress
+was certainly peaceably disposed. In the condition of the Treasury
+there was no reason as yet for recommending extraordinary measures. The
+revenues for the year passed the sum of seventeen millions; the balance
+in the Treasury reached eight and one half millions; the surplus on a
+peace footing was twelve millions. Mr. Gallatin recommended that the
+duties should be doubled in case war were threatened. He said, "Should
+the revenue fall below seven millions of dollars, not only the duty on
+salt and the Mediterranean duties could be immediately revived, but the
+duties on importation generally be considerably increased, perhaps
+double, with less inconvenience than would arise from any other mode of
+taxation." Experience had proven that this source of revenue is in the
+United States "the most productive, the easiest to collect, and least
+burdensome to the great mass of the people." But still the war-cloud did
+not break. Mr. Canning contented himself with war in disguise, and by
+his Order in Council of November 11, 1807, shut the ports of Europe to
+American trade, and wiped away the advantages of the United States as a
+neutral power. The United States answered with the act of embargo on
+December 22, 1807, completing, as far as it was possible for legislation
+to effect it, the blockade of the Treasury Department as regarded
+revenues from foreign imports. The immediate effect, however, of these
+acts in Great Britain and America was an enormous temporary increase of
+importations in the interim from the time of the passage of the act
+until the date when it took effect. To aid merchants in this peculiar
+condition of affairs an act was passed by Congress, on March 10, 1808,
+extending the terms of credit on revenue bonds.
+
+Mr. Gallatin's report of December 16, 1808, closed the record of his
+eight years of management of the Department. In the second term of
+Jefferson's administration, 1805-1808, the gross amount of imports had
+risen to $443,990,000, and the customs collected to nearly $60,000,000.
+In the entire eight years, 1800-1808, the gross amount of importations
+was $781,000,000, and the customs yielded $105,000,000. The entire
+expenses of the government in the same period, including $65,000,000 of
+debt, had been liquidated from customs alone.
+
+The specie in the Treasury on September 20, 1808, reached nearly
+$14,000,000. Mr. Jefferson knew of the amount in the Treasury when he
+wrote his last message, November 8, 1808, and he could not have been
+ignorant of Mr. Gallatin's warning of the previous year that a
+continuance of the embargo restriction would reduce the revenue below
+the point of annual expenditures and require an additional impost; yet
+he had the ignorance or the presumption to say in his message, "Shall it
+(the surplus revenue) lie unproductive in the public vaults? Shall the
+revenue be reduced? or shall it not rather be appropriated to the
+improvement of roads, canals, rivers, education, and other great
+foundations of prosperity and union under the powers which Congress may
+already possess or such amendments of the Constitution as may be
+approved by the States? While uncertain of the course of things, the
+time may be advantageously employed in obtaining the powers necessary
+for a system of improvement, should it be thought best." In these words
+Jefferson surrendered the vital principle of the Republican party. In
+his satisfaction at the only triumph of his administration, the
+management of the finances and the purchase of a province without a
+ripple on the even surface of national finance, he gave up the very
+basis of the Republican theory, the reduction of the government to its
+possible minimum, and actually proposed a system of administration
+coextensive with the national domain, an increase of the functions of
+government, and consequently of executive power.
+
+The annual report of the Treasury, presented December 16, 1808, showed
+no diminution of resources. The total receipts for the fiscal year were
+nearly eighteen millions. The total receipts for--
+
+Customs reached                    $26,126,648
+On which debentures were allowed
+  on exportations                   10,059,457
+                                   -----------
+Actual receipts from customs       $16,067,191
+
+But this source of revenue was now definitively closed by the embargo,
+while the expenditures of the government were increased. Mr. Gallatin
+met the situation frankly and notified Congress of the resources of the
+Treasury.
+
+             RESOURCES FOR 1809
+
+Cash in Treasury     $13,846,717.52
+Back customs, net      2,154,000.00
+                     --------------
+Total resources      $16,000,717.52
+
+The receipts from importations and land sales would be offset by
+deductions for bad debts and extensions of credit to importers. The
+expenditures were set at $13,000,000, which would leave in the Treasury
+for extraordinary expenditure $3,000,717. The disbursements had been far
+beyond the estimates; those for the military and naval establishments
+reaching together six millions.
+
+It is not to be supposed that Mr. Gallatin saw this depletion of the
+Treasury, this rapid dissipation of the specie,--always desirable and
+never more so than in periods of trouble,--without disappointment and
+regret. His report to Congress was as outspoken politically as it was
+financially, and from a foreign-born citizen to an American Congress
+must have carried its sting. "Either America," he wrote, "must accept
+the position of commerce allotted to her by the British edicts, and
+abandon all that is forbidden,--and it is not material whether this is
+done by legal provisions limiting the commerce of the United States to
+the permitted places, or by acquiescing in the capture of vessels
+stepping beyond the prescribed bounds. Or the nation must oppose force
+to the execution of the orders of England; and this, however done, and
+by whatever name called, will be war." He recalled to them his advice of
+the preceding years in a vein of tempered bitterness: "Had the duties
+been doubled on January 1, 1808, as was then suggested, in case of war
+the receipts into the Treasury during that and the ensuing year would
+have been increased nine or ten millions of dollars." He then proposed
+to continue the Mediterranean Fund and to double all existing duties on
+importations after January 1, 1809. He informed them that no internal
+taxes, either direct or indirect, were contemplated by him even in the
+case of hostilities against the two belligerent powers; France having
+responded to the Orders in Council by Napoleon's Milan decree, December
+17, 1807, which was quite as offensive to the United States as that of
+Canning. With true statesmanship Mr. Gallatin nerved the country to
+extraordinary exertion by reminding it that the geographical situation
+of the United States and their history since the Revolution removed
+every apprehension of frequent wars.
+
+During the year 1809 the country drifted along apparently without rudder
+or compass, helmsman or course, and the treasury locker was being
+rapidly reduced to remainder biscuit. Mr. Madison was inaugurated in
+March. In his first message, May 23, 1809, he exposed the financial
+situation with an indecision which was as marked a trait of his
+character as optimism was of that of Jefferson. In his message of
+November 29, 1809, he said "the sums which had been previously
+accumulated in the Treasury, together with the receipts during the year
+ending on September 30 last, and amounting to more than nine millions of
+dollars, have enabled us to fulfill all our engagements and defray the
+current expenses of government without recurring to any loan; but the
+insecurity of our commerce and the consequent demands of the public
+revenue will probably produce a deficiency in the receipts of the
+ensuing year." Beyond this Madison did not venture; Gallatin was left
+alone.
+
+The Treasury report of December 8, 1809, announced the beginning of
+short rations. The expenses of government, exclusively of the payments
+on account of the principal of the debt, had exceeded the actual
+receipts into the Treasury by a sum of near $1,300,000. If the military
+and naval establishments were to be continued at the figures of 1809,
+when six millions were expended, there would result a deficiency of
+$3,000,000, and a loan of $4,000,000 would be necessary. Otherwise the
+Mediterranean Fund would suffice. The cash in the Treasury had fallen
+from nearly fourteen millions on June 2, 1809, to less than six millions
+on September 3, following. In this report Gallatin expressed his
+opinion, that the system of restriction established by the embargo and
+partly relaxed must be entirely reinstated or wholly abandoned. On May
+1, 1810, an act of strict prohibition of importations from Great
+Britain and her dependencies was passed.
+
+While from the incompetency of the administration the country was fast
+approaching the real crisis of open war, the Republicans in Congress
+were deliberately destroying and undermining the basis of national
+credit, by which alone it could be carried on. In February the United
+States Bank, by which, and its branches, the customs were collected
+throughout the country, was destroyed by the refusal of Congress to
+renew its charter. Mr. Gallatin in his combinations never contemplated
+such a contingency as the total destruction of the fiscal agency on
+which the government had relied for twenty years. Unwilling to struggle
+longer against the mean personalities and factious opposition of his own
+party in Congress, he tendered his resignation to Mr. Madison. But the
+Republican party was a party of opposition, not of government. With the
+exception of Mr. Gallatin, no competent administrative head had as yet
+appeared. There was no one in the party or out of it to take his place.
+Mr. Madison knew it. Mr. Gallatin felt it, and remained. Congress met in
+November. On the 25th Mr. Gallatin sent in his annual report; the
+receipts reached thirteen and a half million dollars.
+
+The budget for 1812 left a deficiency to be provided for of $1,200,000.
+This was a small matter. The revenue Mr. Gallatin proposed to increase,
+on the plan before recommended, by additions of fifty per cent, to the
+imposts on foreign commerce. This he preferred to any internal tax.
+
+At the close of the year the country, chafed beyond endurance by the
+indignities put upon it and the sufferings it encountered without
+compensation to its pride, was eager for war. Congress was no way loath
+to try the dangerous path out of its labyrinth of blunders. The near
+contingency imposed the necessity of an immediate examination of the
+sources of revenue. In January, 1812, Mr. Gallatin was requested by the
+chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means to give his opinion as to
+the probable amount of receipts from duties on tonnage and merchandise
+in the event of war. This, in view of the vigorous restrictions laid by
+France under her continental system of exclusion, Mr. Gallatin estimated
+under existing rules as not to exceed $2,500,000. He then stated,
+without hesitation, that it was practicable and advisable to double the
+rate of duties, and to renew the old duty on salt. The sum acquired,
+with this addition, he anticipated, would amount to $5,400,000.
+
+On the basis of annual loans of ten millions of dollars during the
+continuance of the war (the sum assumed by the committee), the
+deficiency for 1814 would amount, by Mr. Gallatin's estimate, to
+$4,200,000. To produce a net revenue equal to this deficiency he stated
+that the gross sum of taxes to be laid must be five millions of dollars.
+He then reverted to his report of December 10, 1808, in which he had
+stated that "no internal taxes, either direct or indirect, were
+contemplated, even in the case of hostilities carried on against the two
+great belligerent powers." The balance in the Treasury was then nearly
+fourteen millions of dollars, but in view of the daily decrease of the
+revenue he had recommended "that all the existing duties be doubled on
+importations subsequent to the first day of January, 1809." As the
+revenues of 1809, 1810, and 1811 had yielded $26,000,000, the sum on
+hand, with the increase thus recommended, would have reached
+$20,000,000, a sum greater than the net amount of the proposed internal
+taxes in four years.
+
+At that time no symptoms had appeared from which the absolute
+dissolution of the Bank of the United States without any substitute
+could have been anticipated. If its charters had been renewed, on the
+conditions suggested by Mr. Gallatin, the necessity for internal taxes
+would have been avoided. The resources of the country, properly applied,
+however, were amply sufficient to meet the emergency; but Mr. Gallatin
+distinctly threw upon Congress, and by implication upon the Republican
+majority, the responsibility for the state of the Treasury, and the
+imperative necessity for a form of taxation which it detested as
+oppressive, and which it was a party shibboleth to declare in and out of
+season, to be unconstitutional. The choice of the administration was
+between the Bank which Jefferson detested and Gallatin favored, and the
+internal tax which Mr. Gallatin considered as the most repulsive in its
+operation of any form of revenue.
+
+But necessity knows no law, and the prime mover, if not the original
+author, of the opposition to Hamilton's system was driven to propose the
+renewal of the measures, opposition to which had brought the Republican
+party into power, and had placed himself at the head of the Treasury. He
+now proposed to raise the five millions deficiency by internal
+taxation--$3,000,000 by direct tax and $2,000,000 by indirect tax.
+
+Continuing his lucid and remarkable report with careful details of the
+methods to be adopted, Gallatin closed with an urgent recommendation
+that the crisis should at once be met by the adoption of efficient
+measures to provide, with certainty, means commensurate with the
+expense, and by preserving unimpaired, instead of abusing, that credit
+on which the public resources eminently depend, to enable the United
+States to persevere in the contest until an honorable peace should be
+obtained. Thus he held the bitter cup to the lips of the Republican
+Congress, which, however, was not yet to drain its full measure. War was
+declared June 18, 1812. On July 1, 1812, an act was passed imposing an
+additional duty of one hundred per cent. on all importations, an
+additional ten per cent. on goods brought in foreign vessels, and also a
+duty of $1.50 per ton on all foreign vessels. The duty was to remain
+until the expiration of one year after peace should be made with Great
+Britain. On December 5, 1812, Mr. Gallatin sent in his last report. The
+balance in the treasury was $3,947,818. His estimate for the service of
+the year 1813 was a war budget. Resources, $12,000,000; expenditures,
+$31,926,000; promising a deficiency of $19,925,000. For this and other
+contingencies Mr. Gallatin asked for a loan of twenty millions. The
+authority was granted, but the recommendations of direct and indirect
+taxes were disregarded. Here Mr. Gallatin's direct connection with the
+customs system closed.
+
+The value of foreign importations during Madison's first term was
+$275,230,000, and the customs derived from them thirty-eight millions of
+dollars.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Congress adjourned March 4, 1813, but was called together again in May,
+when the subject of internal taxes was again forced upon them. The
+internal revenue was a part of Hamilton's general scheme. His original
+bill was passed, and, after numerous amendments suggested by trial, its
+grievances were tempered and the friction removed. In Adams's term it
+yielded nearly three millions of dollars. In Jefferson's first term,
+before the rise in customs revenue allowed of its abandonment, Mr.
+Gallatin drew from this source nearly two millions of dollars, enough to
+pay the interest and provide for the extinguishment of a six per cent.
+loan of thirty millions; a war budget in itself. But it had been so
+entirely set aside that in Jefferson's second term, 1808-1812, it had
+fallen to a little over sixty-three thousand; in Madison's first term,
+to a little under nineteen thousand dollars. Was it to this Mr. Dallas
+referred in that passage of his report, made in 1815, on the financial
+operations of the war, in which he expresses his regret "that there
+existed no system by which the internal resources of the country could
+be brought at once into action, when the resources of its external
+commerce became incompetent to answer the exigencies of the time? The
+existence of such a system would probably have invigorated the early
+movements of the war, might have preserved the public credit unimpaired,
+and would have rendered the pecuniary contributions of the people more
+equal, as well as more effective." "It certainly," to use the words of
+this Mr. Gallatin's oldest and best political friend, "furnishes a
+lesson of practical policy." Disagreeable as the necessity was, it could
+not be avoided, and Mr. Gallatin met it manfully. Nay more, he seems to
+have had a grim satisfaction in proposing the measure to the Congress
+which had thwarted him in his plans. In accordance with his suggestions,
+Congress, in the extra session of May, 1813, laid a direct tax of
+$3,000,000 upon the States, and specific duties upon refined sugar,
+carriages, licenses to distillers of spirituous liquors, sales at
+auction, licenses to retailers of wines, and upon notes of banks and
+bankers. These duties, in the beginning temporary, were calculated to
+yield $500,000, and with the direct tax to give a sum of $3,500,000. But
+the increasing expenditures again requiring additional sums of revenue,
+the duties were made permanent and additional taxes were laid; the
+entire revenue for 1815 being raised so as to yield $12,400,000. In the
+second term of Mr. Madison the internal revenue brought in nearly eleven
+and a half millions. The Federalists, who as a party were opposed to the
+war, enjoyed the situation; Mr. Gallatin was compelled to impose the
+internal revenue tax which he detested, and Mr. Dallas was called upon
+to enforce its application.
+
+[Illustration: A. J. Dallas]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The only remaining source of revenue was the sale of public lands. This
+also was a part of Hamilton's original scheme. The public lands of the
+United States were acquired in three different ways, namely, 1, by
+cessions from the States of such lands as they claimed, or were entitled
+to by their original grants or charters from the crown, while colonies;
+2, by purchase from Indian tribes; 3, by treaties with foreign
+nations,--those of 1783 and 1794 with Great Britain, of 1795 with Spain,
+and of 1803 with France. The need of bringing this vast territory under
+the control of the government and disposing of it for settlement was
+early apparent. In July, 1791, Hamilton sent in to the House a report on
+"A uniform system for the disposition of the lands, the property of the
+United States." In March preceding, grants of the United States had
+confirmed to the actual settlers in the Illinois country the possession
+of their farms. But what with the Indian wars and the rebellion within
+the United States, no action was taken by Congress to carry the
+recommendations of the secretary into effect, until Mr. Gallatin, whose
+residence on the frontier gave him direct interest in the subject,
+brought up the matter at the very first session he attended. In 1796 a
+bill was passed authorizing and regulating the sale of lands northwest
+of the Ohio and above the mouth of the Kentucky River, and a
+surveyor-general was appointed with directions to lay out these lands in
+townships. The sales under Adams's administrations were trifling, the
+total amount received from this source before the year 1800 being
+slightly over one hundred thousand dollars. In May, 1800, sales of the
+same lands were authorized at public vendue at not less than two dollars
+per acre; four land offices were established in the territory; surveyors
+were appointed, and a register of the land office was made a permanent
+official. In March, 1803, an act was passed to regulate the sale of the
+United States lands south of the Tennessee River, two land offices were
+established and public sale provided for at the same price set in the
+act of 1800. In March, 1804, the Indiana lands lying north of the Ohio
+and east of the Mississippi were brought within similar regulations, and
+an act was passed concerning the country acquired under Spanish and
+British grants. In the same month Louisiana was erected into two
+territories. The sums received from the sales during the first term of
+Jefferson's administration amounted to little more than one million of
+dollars. In January, 1805, the territory of Indiana was divided into two
+separate governments; that one which was set off received the name of
+Michigan, and in 1808, its territory was brought under the regulations
+of the land office.
+
+The sums received from the sales in the second term of Jefferson's
+administration reached nearly two and one half millions of dollars, and
+in Madison's first term, nearly three millions of dollars. From first to
+last Mr. Gallatin never lost sight of the subject, though occasion did
+not serve for more than organization of the system which, in the four
+years ending 1836, yielded nearly fifty million dollars, and paid more
+than one third of the entire expenses of the government. To John W.
+Eppes[18] Mr. Gallatin wrote in the crisis of 1813, "The public lands
+constitute the only great national resource exclusive of loans and
+taxes. They have already been mentioned as a fund for the ultimate
+extinguishment of the public debt." The land offices were then in full
+operation.
+
+In 1810 Mr. Gallatin prepared an "Introduction to the collection of
+laws, treaties, and other documents respecting the public lands," which
+was published pursuant to an act of Congress passed in April of that
+year.
+
+
+_Free Trade_
+
+While Mr. Gallatin differed from his early Republican associates in many
+of their theories of administration, he was a firm believer in the best
+of their principles, namely, the wisdom of giving free scope to the
+development of national resources with the least possible interference
+on the part of government. One of his purposes in his persistent desire
+for economy in expenditure was to reduce the tariff upon foreign
+importations to the lowest practicable limit. He was the earliest public
+advocate in America of the principles of free trade, and an experience
+of sixty years confirmed him in his convictions.
+
+The extinguishment of the debt rendered a great reduction in the revenue
+possible. On the other hand, it brought the friends of a low tariff face
+to face with the problem of internal improvements. As the election of
+1832 drew near, the advocates of the two systems ranged themselves in
+two great parties precisely as to-day: the advocates of the protective
+or American system with internal improvements as an outlet for
+accumulations of revenue on the one side; on the other the advocates of
+free trade. Between his desire for the advantages of the one with its
+attendant disadvantages of government interference in its prosecution,
+and the freedom of commerce from undue restrictions, Mr. Gallatin did
+not hesitate. He threw the whole force of his experience and character
+into the free trade cause, and became the leader of its friends.
+
+On September 30, 1831, a convention of the advocates of free trade,
+without distinction of party, met at the Musical Fund Hall in
+Philadelphia. Two hundred and twelve delegates appeared. Among them were
+Theodore Sedgwick, George Peabody, and John L. Gardner from
+Massachusetts; Preserved Fish, John Constable, John A. Stevens, Jonathan
+Goodhue, James Boorman, Jacob Lorillard, and Albert Gallatin from New
+York; C. C. Biddle, George Emlen, Isaac W. Norris from Pennsylvania;
+Langdon Cheves, Henry Middleton, Joseph W. Allston, and William C.
+Preston from South Carolina; and men of equal distinction, bankers,
+merchants, statesmen, and political economists from other States. Of
+this convention Mr. Gallatin was the soul. He opened its business by
+stating the objects of the meeting, and nominated the Hon. Philip P.
+Barbour of Virginia for president. A general committee of two from each
+State was appointed, which recommended an address to the people of the
+United States and a memorial to Congress. The address to the people
+closed with a declaration that the near extinguishment of the national
+debt, which would be discharged by the available funds of the government
+on January 1, 1833, suggested that the moment was propitious for the
+establishment of the principles of free trade. Thus the people of the
+United States, who had successfully asserted the doctrines of free
+government, might add to its claims upon the gratitude of the world by
+being the first also to proclaim the theory of a free and unrestricted
+commerce, the genuine "American system." Mr. Gallatin was the chairman
+of the committee of fourteen, one from each State represented in the
+convention, to prepare the memorial which was presented in their behalf
+to Congress, the conclusions of which, presented with his consummate
+ability, demonstrated with mathematical precision that a duty of
+twenty-five per cent. was sufficient for all the legitimate purposes of
+government. Here he found himself in direct opposition to Mr. Clay,
+whose political existence was staked upon the opposite theory. Mr. Clay
+answered in a great speech in the Senate in February, 1832, and forgot
+himself in personal denunciation of Mr. Gallatin as a foreigner with
+European interests at heart, and of utopian ideas; for this he expressed
+his regret to Mr. Gallatin in an interview arranged by mutual friends at
+a much later period. Mr. Gallatin's views were accepted as the policy of
+the country, and after some shifting of parties, in which friends and
+foes changed ground in subordination to other political exigencies, they
+prevailed in the tariff of 1846, the best arranged and most reasonable
+which the United States has yet seen.
+
+It is certain that Mr. Gallatin was opposed to "protective" revenue. His
+preference was for an "even" duty on all imports. This is not the place
+for an economic discussion. The true policy of the United States is
+probably between the extremes of protection and free trade. The nature
+of our population has been changed by the enormous immigration of the
+last fifty years. Moreover, instead of an absolute freedom from debt the
+nation has had to endure the legacy of debt left by the Civil War, to
+meet which a development of all its resources of manufacture as well as
+of agriculture is required.
+
+
+_Administration_
+
+To arrive at a correct estimate of Mr. Gallatin's administration of the
+Treasury Department, a cursory review of the establishment as he
+received it from the hands of Mr. Wolcott is necessary. This review is
+confined to administration in its limited sense, namely, the direction
+of its clerical management under the provisions of statute law. The
+organization of the department as originated by Hamilton and established
+by the act of September 2, 1789, provided for a secretary of the
+treasury as head of the department, whose general duty should be to
+supervise the fiscal affairs of the country, and particularly to suggest
+and prepare plans for the improvement and support of the public credit;
+and, under his direction and supervision, a comptroller to adjust and
+preserve accounts; an auditor to receive, examine, and rectify accounts;
+a treasurer to receive, keep, and disburse moneys on warrants signed and
+countersigned; a register to keep the accounts of receipts and
+expenditures; and an assistant to the secretary of the treasury to fill
+any vacancy from absence or other temporary cause. In addition to the
+departments of State, Treasury, and War, a fourth, that of the Navy, was
+established April 30, 1798. The three departments were brought into
+relation with that of the Treasury by an act passed July 16, 1798,
+supplementary to that organizing the Treasury, and which provided, 1st,
+for the appointment of an accountant in each department, who was
+required to report to the accounting officer of the Treasury; 2d, that
+the Treasurer of the United States should only disburse by warrants on
+the Treasury, countersigned by the accountant of the Treasury; 3d, that
+all purchases for supplies for military or naval service should be
+subject to the inspection and revision of the officers of the Treasury.
+Mr. Jefferson, after his usual fashion of economy in the wrong
+direction, proposed to Mr. Gallatin "to amalgamate the comptroller and
+auditor into one, and reduce the register to a clerk of accounts: so
+that the organization should consist, as it should at first, of a keeper
+of money, a keeper of accounts, and the head of the department." But in
+the Treasury Department there was no extravagance during Gallatin's
+administration, and the shifting of responsibility would bring no saving
+of salaries.
+
+In May, 1800, an act was passed making it "the duty of the secretary of
+the treasury to digest, prepare, and lay before Congress at the
+commencement of every session a report on the subject of finances,
+containing estimates of the public revenue and expenditures, and plans
+for improving and increasing the revenue from time to time, for the
+purpose of giving information to Congress in adopting modes for raising
+the money requisite to meet the expenditures." Hamilton had never sent
+in any other than a statement of expenditure for the past fiscal year,
+together with the estimate of the accountant of the Treasury for the
+proximate wants of the departments of government. Mr. Gallatin
+incorporated in his annual report a balance sheet in accordance with the
+ordinary forms of book-keeping familiar to every accountant and
+indispensable in every business establishment, and such as is presented
+to the public in the monthly and annual statements of the Treasury
+Department at this day.
+
+The statutes show no legislation during Mr. Gallatin's period of
+administration, and to its close he was in continual struggle to force
+upon Congress and the departments an accord with his pet plan of minute
+specific appropriation of the sums estimated for and expended by each.
+Mr. Madison heartily agreed with Mr. Gallatin on this subject, and on
+taking office placed the relations of the State Department upon the
+desired footing. But the heads of the Army and Navy were never willing
+to consent to the strict limitation which Mr. Gallatin would have
+imposed on their expenditures. In his notes to Jefferson for the draft
+of his first message in 1801, Mr. Gallatin said that the most important
+reform he could suggest was that of 'specific appropriations,' and he
+inclosed an outline of a form to be enforced in detail. In January,
+1802, he sent to Joseph H. Nicholson a series of inquiries to be
+addressed to himself by a special committee on the subject, with regard
+to the mode by which money was drawn from the Treasury and the situation
+of accounts between that department and those of the Army and Navy. To
+these questions he sent in to the House an elaborate reply, which he
+intended to be the basis of legislation. Strict appropriation was the
+ideal at which he aimed, and this word was so often on his tongue or in
+his messages that it could not be mentioned without a suggestion of his
+personality. He carried the same nicety of detail into his domestic
+life. He managed his own household expenses, and at a time when
+bountiful stores were the fashion in every household he insisted on a
+rigid observance of the more precise French system. He made an
+appropriation of a certain sum each day for his expenses, and required
+from his purveyor a strict daily account of disbursements. An amusing
+story is told of him at his own table. On an occasion when entertaining
+a company at dinner, he was dissatisfied with the menu and expressed his
+disapprobation to his maître d'hôtel, a Frenchman, who replied to him
+in broken English, that it was not his fault, but that of the
+"mal-appropriations."
+
+The example set by Mr. Gallatin in this particular was never forgotten,
+and from his day to this strict accountability has been the tradition of
+the Treasury Department, now greatly increased in detail, but in
+structure essentially as it was originally organized. Of its management
+Mr. Sherman was able to say in his report of December 1, 1879, "The
+organization of the several bureaus is such, and the system of
+accounting so perfect, that the financial transactions of the government
+during the past two years, aggregating $3,354,345,040, have been
+adjusted without question with the exception of a few small balances,
+now in the process of collection, of which it is believed that the
+government will eventually lose less than $13,000, or less than four
+mills for each $1000 of the amount involved;" and in 1880 he said with
+entire truth, "The department is a well organized and well conducted
+business office, depending mainly for its success upon the integrity and
+fidelity of the heads of bureaus and chiefs of divisions."
+
+
+_Banking_
+
+There is no more instructive chapter in the history of finance than that
+upon the banking system of the United States. It has its distinct eras
+of radical change, each of which presents a series of tentative
+experiments. The outcome, by a process of development, in which
+political expediency has been as effective an agency as financial
+necessity, is the present national banking system. Though the term
+"government," or "national," bank is constantly used in reference to the
+great banking institutions of England, France, and the United States, no
+one of these is in the true sense of the word a national bank. The Bank
+of England is a chartered corporation, the Bank of France an association
+instituted by law. The Bank of North America, and the Bank of the United
+States which followed it, were founded on the same principle. Both were
+corporations of individuals intimately connected with the government,
+enjoying certain privileges accorded and being under certain
+restrictions, but otherwise independent of government control.
+
+The Bank of North America, the first bank established in the United
+States, was also the first which had any direct relation to the
+government. It was the conception of the comprehensive and original mind
+of Robert Morris, the financier or superintendent of the public finances
+of the United States. Its purpose was not the convenience or profit of
+individuals, but to draw together the scattered financial resources of
+the country and found a public credit. He submitted his plan to
+Congress, which adopted a resolution of approval May 26, 1781. The
+original plan contemplated a capital of ten millions of dollars; but the
+collection of such a sum in gold and silver in one depository was beyond
+the range of possibility at that period, and the capital was finally
+fixed at four hundred thousand dollars, in one thousand shares of four
+hundred dollars each. Subscription books were immediately opened, but
+not more than $70,000 was entered during the summer months. The arrival
+at Boston of a French war frigate with a remittance of $470,000 in
+specie, which was brought to Philadelphia and deposited in the vaults of
+the bank, enabled Mr. Morris to mature his plans. He designed to retain
+this sum in the bank as a specie basis; but the necessities of the
+country were so urgent during the critical season of the Yorktown
+campaign, that nearly one half of it was exhausted before an
+organization could be effected. In December Congress passed an ordinance
+of incorporation. Mr. Morris then subscribed the specie remaining in the
+Treasury, about $254,000, for shares for account of the United States,
+which became thereby the principal stockholder. The limit assigned by
+the ordinance remained, however, at ten millions of dollars. There was
+nothing in the acts of Congress which implied any exclusive right of the
+United States government in the bank except during the war of the
+Revolution. A local charter was obtained from the legislature of
+Pennsylvania, and the bank was opened in Philadelphia for the
+transaction of business in January, 1782. Its services to the government
+during the period of the war were inestimable. In the words of Hamilton,
+"American independence owes much to it." But after the war such were
+the local jealousies, the fears of oppression, and the dread of foreign
+influence, that, on the petition of the inhabitants of Philadelphia and
+some of the neighboring counties, the legislature of Pennsylvania
+repealed its charter on September 13, 1785. The bank continued its
+operations, however, under the charter from Congress. On March 17, 1787,
+the legislature of Pennsylvania renewed the charter for fourteen years
+and limited the capital to two millions of dollars. The charter was
+extended for a similar term of fourteen years on March 26, 1799. Thus in
+the beginning of the American banking system are found that distrust and
+jealousy of money power which seem inherent in democracies. The exercise
+of state jurisdiction over the existence of the Bank of North America
+suggested possible embarrassments, which could not escape the
+discernment of Hamilton, whose policy, as it was also that of the
+Federal party, was to strengthen the powers of the government in every
+vital branch of administration.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In his comprehensive plan of government Hamilton included a financial
+institution to develop the national resources, strengthen the public
+credit, aid the Treasury Department in its administration, and provide a
+secure and sound circulating medium for the people. On December 13,
+1790, he sent in to Congress a report on the subject of a national bank.
+The Republican party, then in the minority, opposed the plan as
+unconstitutional, on the ground that the power of creating banks or any
+corporate body had not been expressly delegated to Congress, and was
+therefore not possessed by it. Washington's cabinet was divided;
+Jefferson opposing the measure as not within the implied powers, because
+it was an expediency and not a paramount necessity. Later he used
+stronger language, and denounced the institution as "one of the most
+deadly hostility existing against the principles and form of our
+Constitution," nor did he ever abandon these views. There is the
+authority of Mr. Gallatin for saying that Jefferson "died a decided
+enemy to our banking system generally, and specially to a bank of the
+United States." But Hamilton's views prevailed. Washington, who in the
+weary years of war had seen the imperative necessity of some national
+organization of the finances, after mature deliberation approved the
+plan, and on February 25, 1791, the Bank of the United States was
+incorporated. The capital stock was limited to twenty-five thousand
+shares of four hundred dollars each, or ten millions of dollars, payable
+one fourth in gold and silver, and three fourths in public securities
+bearing an interest of six and three per cent. The stock was immediately
+subscribed for, the government taking five thousand shares, two millions
+of dollars, under the right reserved in the charter. The subscription of
+the United States was paid in ten equal annual installments. A large
+proportion of the stock was held abroad, and the shares soon rose above
+par. By an act of March 2, 1791, the funded three per cents. were also
+made receivable in payment of subscriptions to the bank, whence it has
+been said that out of the funding system sprung the bank, as three
+fourths of its capital consisted of public stocks. Authority was given
+the bank to establish offices of discount and deposit within the United
+States. The chief bank was placed in Philadelphia, and branches were
+established in eight cities, with capitals in proportion to their
+commercial importance.
+
+In 1809 the stockholders of the Bank of the United States memorialized
+the government for a renewal of their charter, which would expire on
+March 4, 1811; and on March 9, 1809, Mr. Gallatin sent in a report in
+which he reviewed the operations of the bank from its organization. Of
+the government shares, five million dollars at par, two thousand four
+hundred and ninety-three shares were sold in 1796 and 1797 at an advance
+of 25 per cent., two hundred and eighty-seven in 1797 at an advance of
+20 per cent., and the remaining 2220 shares in 1802, at an advance of 45
+per cent., making together, exclusive of the dividends, a profit of
+$671,680 to the United States. Eighteen thousand shares of the bank
+stock were held abroad, and seven thousand shares, or a little more than
+one fourth part of the capital, in the United States. A table of all the
+dividends made by the bank showed that they had on the average been at
+the rate of 8-3/8 (precisely 8-13/34) per cent. a year, which proved
+that the bank had not in any considerable degree used the public
+deposits for the purpose of extending its discounts. From a general view
+of the debits and credits, as presented, it appeared that the affairs of
+the Bank of the United States, considered as a moneyed institution, had
+been wisely and skillfully managed. The advantages derived by the
+government Mr. Gallatin stated to be, 1, safekeeping of the public
+moneys; 2, transmission of the public moneys; 3, collection of the
+revenue; 4, loans. The strongest objection to the renewal of the charter
+lay in the great portion of the bank stock held by foreigners. Not on
+account of any influence over the institution, since they had no vote;
+but because of the high rate of interest payable by America to foreign
+countries. If the charter were not renewed the principal of that
+portion, amounting to $7,200,000, must at once be remitted abroad; but
+if the charter were renewed, dividends equal to an interest of about
+8-1/2 per cent. per annum must be remitted. Mr. Gallatin's report closed
+with the following suggestions:--
+
+I. That the bank should pay an interest to the United States on the
+public deposits above a certain sum.
+
+II. That it should be bound to lend the United States a sum not
+exceeding three fifths of its capital.
+
+III. That the capital stock of the bank should be increased to thirty
+millions of dollars, to be subscribed for, 1, five millions by citizens
+of the United States; 2, fifteen millions by the States; a branch to be
+established in each subscribing State; 3, payments by either individuals
+or States to be in specie or public stock of the United States at rates
+to be fixed by law; the subscribing States to pay in ten annual
+installments.
+
+IV. That some share should be given in the direction to the general and
+state governments by appointment of directors in the general direction
+and branches.
+
+The result of this plan would be, 1st, that the United States might,
+from the interest on the public deposits, accumulate during years of
+peace and prosperity a treasure sufficient to meet periods of war and
+calamity; 2d, that they might rely on a loan of eighteen millions of
+dollars in any sudden emergency; 3d, that by the payment in ten
+installments the increase in capital would be in proportion to the
+progressive state of the country; 4th, that the bank itself would form
+an additional bond of common interest and union amongst the several
+States. But these arguments availed not against the blind and ignorant
+jealousy of the Republican majority in the House. The days of the bank
+were numbered. Congress refused to prolong its existence, and the
+institution was dissolved. Fortunately for the country, it wound up its
+affairs with such deliberation and prudence as to allow of the
+interposition of other bank credits in lieu of those withdrawn, and
+thus prevented a serious shock to the interests of the community. In the
+twenty years of its existence from 1791 to 1811 its management was
+irreproachable. Its annual dividends from 1791 to 1809 were 8-2/3 per
+cent., and its stock, always above par, from 1805 to 1809 ranged from 20
+to 40 per cent. premium.
+
+In its numerous and varied relations to the government it had been a
+useful and faithful servant, and its directors had never assumed the
+attitude of money kings, of which the Jeffersonian democracy pretended
+to stand in hourly dread. To the general and important nature of its
+financial service Mr. Gallatin gave his testimony in 1830; after his own
+direct participation in public affairs had ended.
+
+     "Experience, however, has since confirmed the great utility and
+     importance of a bank of the United States in its connection with
+     the Treasury. The first great advantage derived from it consists in
+     the safekeeping of the public moneys, securing in the first
+     instance the immediate payment of those received by the principal
+     collectors, and affording a constant check on all their
+     transactions; and afterwards rendering a defalcation in the moneys
+     once paid, and whilst nominally in the treasury, absolutely
+     impossible. The next, and not less important, benefit is to be
+     found in the perfect facility with which all the public payments
+     are made by checks or treasury drafts, payable at any place where
+     the bank has an office; all those who have demands against
+     government are paid in the place most convenient to them; and the
+     public moneys are transferred through our extensive territory at a
+     moment's warning without any risk or expense, to the places most
+     remote from those of collection, and wherever public exigencies may
+     require."
+
+Late in life, in a letter to John M. Botts, June 14, 1841, Mr. Gallatin
+expressed the same opinions with regard to the usefulness of a
+government bank as an aid to the Treasury Department, but limited his
+approval to that use. "Except in its character of fiscal agent to the
+general government I attach much less importance to a national bank than
+several of those who are in favor of it." "Did I believe," he adds in
+the same letter, "that a bank of the United States would effectually
+secure us a sound currency, I would think it a duty at all hazards to
+promote the object."
+
+The reason for his doubts in 1841 is easily seen in the impossibility of
+annihilating or controlling the three hundred distinct currencies of as
+many banks, each nominally convertible into specie at its point of
+issue; a financial puzzle which Mr. Chase solved in the device and
+organization of the present national banking system, which, without
+involving the government in banking operations, affords to the people a
+homogeneous currency of uniform value, and secures its convertibility by
+reasonable but absolute restrictions, upon conformity to which the
+existence of the banks depends. The exigencies of war compelled an
+acquiescence in the plans of Mr. Chase, which, at the time when Mr.
+Gallatin expressed his doubts, could not have been had in any system
+whatever which involved the subordination of the banks.
+
+The wide spread of the state bank system, with its irresponsible and
+unlimited issues, occurring subsequent to Mr. Gallatin's withdrawal from
+the Treasury, was a consequence of the failure to renew the charter of
+the Bank of the United States; and if ever there were a system by which
+the inhabitants of States whose floating capital was small were placed
+at the mercy of moneyed corporations of the States where it was
+abundant, it was the state bank system. The experience of the old
+confederation had not taught this lesson. The colonial system was
+continued by the several States, and bills of credit were issued on
+their faith. The continental system was a compound of the main features
+of this plan. The bills were issued by the Congress, but the States were
+relied upon for their ultimate redemption.
+
+The collapse of the entire fabric of finance led to the establishment of
+the Bank of North America, the notes of which were redeemable and
+redeemed at the bank counters. The article in the Constitution of 1787,
+prohibiting the issue of bills of credit by the States, was evidently
+intended to secure a uniform currency to the people of the United
+States, and it has been by a strange perversion of this manifest
+intention that the power has been conceded to the States to charter
+corporations to do that which was forbidden to themselves in their
+sovereign capacity; namely, to issue bills of credit, which bank-notes
+are. It is idle to say that, because such bills were not a "legal
+tender," they were therefore not of the character which the Constitution
+forbade. Necessity knows no law, and in the absence of any other
+currency the people were perforce compelled to take what they could get.
+Experience later showed that large amounts of paper money manufactured
+in one State were easily put in circulation in far distant communities,
+and considerable sums, through the operations of wear and tear and the
+vicissitudes incident to its fragile nature, never returned to plague
+the inventor.
+
+At the time of the organization of the National Bank by Hamilton, there
+were but three banks in the United States: the Bank of North America,
+the Bank of New York, and the Bank of Massachusetts. Their added capital
+amounted to two millions of dollars, and their issues were
+inconsiderable.
+
+Mr. Gallatin estimated that in January, 1811, just before the expiration
+of the bank charter, there were in the United States eighty-eight state
+banks with a capital of $42,612,000.
+
+--------------------------+-------------+---------------+------------
+                          |             |    Notes in   |
+                          |   Capital.  |  Circulation. |   Specie.
+--------------------------+-------------+---------------+------------
+Bank of the United States | $10,000,000 |  $5,400,000   |  $5,800,000
+Eighty-eight State Banks  |  42,610,601 |  22,700,000   |   9,600,000
+--------------------------+-------------+---------------+------------
+                          | $52,610,601 | $28,100,000   | $15,400,000
+--------------------------+-------------+---------------+------------
+
+Over the local institutions the Bank of the United States always
+exercised a salutary control, checking any disposition to overtrade by
+restraining their issues and holding them to a proper specie reserve;
+and this by no other interference except its countenance or ill favor,
+as such banks severally observed or disregarded the ordinary rules of
+financial prudence. The immediate effect of the refusal of Congress to
+recharter the Bank of the United States was to bring the Treasury to the
+verge of bankruptcy. The interference of Parish, Girard, and Astor alone
+saved the credit of the government, and this interference was no doubt
+prompted by self-interest. That Mr. Astor was hostile to the bank is
+certain. Gallatin wrote to Madison in January, 1811, that Mr. Astor had
+sent him a verbal message, "that in case of non-renewal of the charter
+of the Bank of the United States, all his funds and those of his
+friends, to the amount of two millions of dollars, would be at the
+command of government, either in importing specie, circulating
+government paper, or in any other way best calculated to prevent any
+injury arising from the dissolution of the bank," and he added that Mr.
+Bentson, Mr. Astor's son-in-law, in communicating this message said,
+"that in this instance profit was not Mr. Astor's object, and that he
+would go great lengths, partly from pride and partly from wish, to see
+the bank down." In 1813, when the bank was "down," Mr. Gallatin was no
+longer master of the situation. He offered to treat directly with
+Parish, Girard, and Astor for ten millions of dollars, but finding some
+hesitation, he opened the loan for subscription. When the subscription
+failed, he was at the mercy of the capitalists.
+
+Another immediate effect of the dissolution of the bank was the
+withdrawal from the country of the foreign capital invested in the bank,
+more than seven millions of dollars. This amount was remitted, in the
+twelve months preceding the war, in specie. Specie was at that time a
+product foreign to the United States, and by no means easy to obtain.
+Specie, as Mr. Gallatin profoundly observed, does not precede, but
+follows wealth. The want of it nearly destroyed Morris's original plan
+for the Bank of North America, and was only made up by the fortunate
+receipt of the French remittances. In 1808 the specie in the vaults of
+the treasury reached fourteen millions of dollars, but during the
+operation of the Embargo Act, the banks of New England had gradually
+accumulated a specie reserve, and that of Richmond, Virginia, pursued
+the same policy. Together they held one third of the entire specie
+reserve of the banks. The amount of specie in the Bank of the United
+States, January 1, 1811, had fallen to $5,800,000, which soon found its
+way abroad.
+
+The notes of the Bank of the United States, payable on demand in gold
+and silver at the counters of the bank, or any of its branches, were,
+by its charter, receivable in all payments to the United States; but
+this quality was also stripped from them on March 19, 1812, by a repeal
+of the act according it. To these disturbances of the financial
+equilibrium of the country was added the necessary withdrawal of fifteen
+millions of bank credit and its transfer to other institutions. This
+gave an extraordinary impulse to the establishment of local banks, each
+eager for a share of the profits. The capital of the country, instead of
+being concentrated, was dissipated. Between January 1, 1811, and 1815,
+one hundred and twenty new banks were chartered, and forty millions of
+dollars were added to the banking capital. To realize profits, the
+issues of paper were pushed to the extreme of possible circulation.
+Meanwhile New England kept aloof from the nation. The specie in the
+vaults of the banks of Massachusetts rose from $1,706,000 on June 1,
+1811, to $7,326,000 on June 1, 1814. This was a consequence of the New
+England policy of opposition. Mr. Gallatin estimated that the proceeds
+of loans, exclusive of treasury notes and temporary loans, paid into the
+treasury from the commencement of the war to the end of the year 1814
+were $41,010,000: of which sum the Eastern States lent $2,900,000; the
+Middle States, $35,790,000; Southwestern States, $2,320,000.
+
+The floating debt of the United States, consisting of treasury notes
+and temporary loans unpaid, amounted, January 1, 1815, to $11,250,000,
+of which nearly four fifths were loaned by the cities of New York,
+Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and the District of Columbia. The
+suspension of the banks was precipitated by the capture of Washington.
+It began in Baltimore, which was threatened by the British, and was at
+once followed in Philadelphia and New York. Before the end of September
+all the banks south and west of New England had suspended specie
+payment. In his "Considerations on the Currency," Mr. Gallatin expressed
+his--
+
+     "deliberate opinion that the suspension might have been prevented
+     at the time when it took place, had the Bank of the United States
+     been in existence. The exaggerated increase of state banks,
+     occasioned by the dissolution of that institution, would not have
+     occurred. That bank would _as before_ have restrained them within
+     proper bounds and checked their issues, and through the means of
+     its offices it would have been in possession of the earliest
+     symptoms of the approaching danger. It would have put the Treasury
+     Department on its guard; both, acting in concert, would certainly
+     have been able, at least, to retard the event; and as the treaty of
+     peace was ratified within less than six months after the suspension
+     took place, that catastrophe would have been avoided."
+
+But within fifteen months the bank issues increased from forty-five and
+a half to sixty millions.
+
+----------------------+-------------+--------------+------------
+                      | Capital.    | Circulation. |   Specie.
+----------------------+-------------+--------------+------------
+Banks of New England. | $15,690,000 |  $5,320,000  |  $8,200,000
+Other Banks           |  66,930,000 |  44,730,000  |   8,600,000
+----------------------+-------------+--------------+------------
+1815. 208 State Banks.| $82,620,000 | $50,050,000  | $16,800,000
+1816. 246 State Banks.|  89,822,422 |  68,000,000  |  19,000,000
+----------------------+-------------+--------------+------------
+
+The depression of the local currencies ranged from seven to twenty-five
+per cent. In New York and Charleston it was seven to ten per cent. below
+the par of coin. At Philadelphia from seventeen to eighteen per cent. At
+Washington and Baltimore from twenty to twenty-two, and at Pittsburgh
+and on the frontier, twenty-five per cent. below par. The circulating
+medium, or measure of values, being doubled, the price of commodities
+was doubled. The agiotage, of course, was the profit of the bankers and
+brokers; a sum estimated at six millions of dollars a year, or ten per
+cent. on the exchanges of the country, which McDuffie, in his celebrated
+report, estimated at sixty millions annually.
+
+In November the Treasury Department found itself involved in the common
+disaster. The refusal of the banks, in which the public moneys were
+deposited, to pay their notes or the drafts upon them in specie deprived
+the government of its gold and silver; and their refusal, likewise, of
+credit and circulation to the issues of banks in other States deprived
+the government also of the only means it possessed for transferring its
+funds to pay the dividends on the debt and discharge the treasury notes.
+Mr. Dallas found himself compelled to appeal to the banks by circular to
+subscribe for sufficient treasury notes to secure them such advances as
+might be asked of them for the discharge of the public obligations.
+
+"In the latter end of the year 1814," says Mr. Gallatin, "Mr. Jefferson
+suggested the propriety of a gradual issue by government of two hundred
+millions of dollars in paper;" commenting upon which Mr. Gallatin
+remarks that Mr. Jefferson, from the imperfect data in his possession,
+"greatly overrated the amount of paper currency which could be sustained
+at par; and he had, on the other hand, underrated the great expenses of
+the war;" but at "all events," he adds, "the issue of government paper
+ought to be kept in reserve for extraordinary circumstances." But here
+it may be remarked that the evolution of the systems of American finance
+seems to lead slowly but surely to an entire divorce of banking from
+currency, and the day is not far distant when the circulating medium of
+the United States will consist of gold and silver, and of government
+issues restricted, according to the English principle, to the minimum of
+circulation, and kept equivalent to coin by a specie reserve in the
+treasury; while the banks, their circulation withdrawn and the
+institutions freed from any tax, will be confined to their legitimate
+business of receiving deposits and making loans and discounts.
+
+On October 14, 1814, Alexander J. Dallas, Mr. Gallatin's old friend, who
+had been appointed secretary of the treasury on the 6th of the same
+month, in a report of a plan to support the public credit, proposed the
+incorporation of a national bank. A bill was passed by Congress, but
+returned to it by Madison with his veto on January 15, 1815. In this
+peculiar document Madison "waived the question of the constitutional
+authority of the legislature to establish an incorporated bank, as being
+precluded, in his judgment, by repeated recognitions, under varied
+circumstances, of the validity of such an institution in acts of the
+legislative, executive, and judicial branches of the government." But he
+objected for reasons of detail. Mr. Dallas again, as a last resort,
+insisted on a bank as the only means by which the currency of the
+country could be restored to a sound condition. In December, 1815,
+Dallas reported to the committee of the House of Representatives on the
+national currency, of which John C. Calhoun was chairman, a plan for a
+national bank, and on March 3, 1816, the second Bank of the United
+States was chartered by Congress. The capital was thirty-five millions,
+of which the government held seven millions in seventy thousand shares
+of one hundred dollars each. Mr. Madison approved the bill. This
+completed the abandonment of every shred of principle claimed by the
+Republican party as their rule of action. They struggled through the
+rest of their existence without a political conviction. The national
+bank, and the system of internal taxation which had been scorned by
+Jefferson and Madison as unconstitutional, were accepted actually under
+Madison's administration. Gallatin's success, owing to the development
+and application of Hamilton's plans, was a complete vindication of the
+theory and practice of the Federalists which they abhorred; Jefferson's
+plan of a government issue of paper money was a higher flight into the
+upper atmosphere of implied powers than Hamilton ever dreamed of.
+
+The second national bank of the United States was also located at
+Philadelphia, and chartered for twenty years. The manner in which it
+performed its financial service is admirably set forth in Mr. Gallatin's
+"Considerations on the Currency," already mentioned. It acted as a
+regulator upon the state banks, checked excessive issues on their part,
+and brought the paper currency of the country down from sixty-six to
+less than forty millions, before the year 1820.
+
+In April, 1816, Mr. Dallas having signified his intention to resign the
+Treasury, Mr. Madison wrote to Gallatin, offering him his choice between
+the mission to France and the Treasury Department. Mr. Gallatin's reply
+was characteristic. He declined the Treasury, but with reluctance, since
+he thought he would be more useful at home than abroad, and because he
+preferred to be in America rather than in Europe. One of his
+preponderating reasons was that, although he felt himself competent to
+the higher duties of the office, there was, for what he conceived "a
+proper management of the Treasury, a necessity for a mass of mechanical
+labor connected with details, forms, calculating, etc., which having
+lost sight of the thread and routine, he could not think of again
+learning and going through." He was aware that there was "much confusion
+due to the changes of office and the state of the currency, and thought
+that an active young man could alone reinstate and direct properly that
+department."
+
+In June of the same year, while waiting for the Peacock, which was to
+carry him across the sea, Gallatin wrote Mr. Madison an urgent letter,
+impressing upon him the necessity of restoring specie payment, and his
+perfect conviction that nothing but the will of the government was
+wanted to reinstate the country in its moral character in that respect.
+He dreaded the "paper taint," which he found spreading as he journeyed
+northward.
+
+In January 1817, delegates from the banks of New York, Philadelphia,
+Baltimore and Virginia met in Philadelphia and agreed to a general and
+simultaneous resumption of specie payments. The Bank of the United
+States proposed a compact which was accepted by the state banks and
+ratified by the secretary of the treasury. That institution engaged, to
+a reasonable extent, to support any bank menaced. This engagement and
+the importation of seven millions of specie from abroad by the Bank of
+the United States secured a general restoration of specie payment. In
+1822 Mr. Gallatin was tendered and declined the office of president of
+the Bank of the United States.
+
+In 1829 he prepared for Mr. Ingham, then secretary of the treasury, a
+masterly statement of the relative value of gold and silver. In 1830 Mr.
+Gallatin wrote for the "American Quarterly Review" his essay,
+"Considerations on the Currency and Banking System of the United
+States." Appearing at the time when the renewal of the charter of the
+Bank of the United States was an absorbing question, this essay was
+equally sought for by both the friends and opponents of the bank. It is
+not confined, however, to this subject, but covers the entire field of
+American finance. His treatment of the currency question was novel. He
+analyzed the systems of Europe, compared them with those which prevailed
+in the United States, and reached the conclusion, the general
+correctness of which has been justified by the experience of all other
+nations, and sooner or later will be accepted by our own; namely, the
+necessity of a currency strong in the precious metals, and the
+restriction of paper money to notes of one hundred dollars to be issued
+by the government. This limit is higher than that adopted in France and
+England, but the general principle that a circulating medium is sound
+only as it is strong in gold and silver, and that gold and silver can
+only be retained permanently by making a place for them in the
+circulating medium by a restriction of paper issues, will yet find
+favor even in this paper-loving country.
+
+In 1832 Mr. Gallatin accepted the presidency of a bank in New York, the
+subscription to the stock of which, $750,000, was completed by Mr. John
+Jacob Astor on condition that Mr. Gallatin should manage its affairs.
+The direction of its concerns, without absorbing his time, kept him in
+the financial current. The bank was called the National Bank of New
+York. But not in this modest post was he to find the financial path
+smooth. It is true he had lived in the flesh to see the financial
+millennium. The rapid growth of the country and the faithful adherence
+of his successors in the Treasury Department to the funding principle
+had at last realized his dream. The national debt was extinguished. The
+last dollar was paid. Louis McLane, secretary of the treasury, on
+December 5, 1832, in his report on the finances, said that the dividends
+derived from the bank shares held by the United States were more than
+was required to pay the interest, and that the _debt_ might therefore be
+considered as substantially extinguished after January 1, 1833.
+
+On December 3, 1833, Roger B. Taney, secretary of the treasury, reported
+to Congress that he had directed the removal of the deposits of the
+government from the Bank of the United States and placed them in banks
+of his own selection. He gave a number of reasons for this extraordinary
+exercise of the power which he obtained by his appointment on September
+23, 1833. He received his reward in June, 1834, being then transferred
+by President Jackson to the seat of chief justice of the Supreme Court.
+In his annual report Taney named, among his elaborate reasons for the
+removal, that the bank had used its money for electioneering purposes,
+and that he "had always regarded the result of the last election of
+President of the United States as the declaration of a majority of the
+people that the charter ought not to be renewed." He further expressed
+the opinion "that a corporation of that description was not necessary
+either for the fiscal operations of the government or the general
+convenience of the people." It mattered little to him that Mr. Gallatin
+had only recently pointed out that from the year 1791 the operations of
+the Treasury had, without interruption, been carried on through the
+medium of banks; during the years 1811 to 1814, by the state banks, with
+a result which no one had as yet forgotten; before and since that brief
+interval through the Bank of the United States. Enough for Taney, that
+it was the will of his imperious master, 'the pugnacious animal,' as
+Gallatin aptly termed him.
+
+In October, 1834, Taney's successor in the Treasury, Levi Woodbury, gave
+notice that the remaining debt, unredeemed after January 1, 1835, would
+cease to bear interest and be promptly paid on application to the
+commissioners of loans in the several States. On December 8, 1835, Mr.
+Woodbury reported "an unprecedented spectacle presented to the world of
+a government virtually without any debts and without any direct
+taxation." The surplus revenues, about thirty-seven and a half millions
+of dollars, had by an act of the previous session been distributed among
+the several States. But the secretary and the country soon found that
+they were on dangerous ground. In December, 1837, the same secretary,
+alarmed at his responsibility, said to Congress, in warning words, "We
+are without any national debt to absorb and regulate surpluses, or any
+adequate supply of banking institutions which provide a sound currency
+for general purposes by paying specie on demand, or which are in a
+situation fully to command confidence for keeping, disbursing, and
+transferring the public funds in a satisfactory manner."
+
+The Bank of the United States, on the expiration of its charter in
+March, 1836, accepted a charter from the State of Pennsylvania; but,
+though its influence continued to be as great, its direction was no
+longer the same. Abandoning its legitimate business, it speculated in
+merchandise, and even kept an agent in New Orleans to compete with the
+Barings in purchases of the cotton crop as a basis for exchange.
+Precisely as in 1811, after the withdrawal of the control of the Bank of
+the United States, the state banks ran a wild career of speculation.
+From 1830 to 1837 three hundred new banks sprang up with an additional
+capital of one hundred and forty-five millions, doubling, as twenty
+years before, the banking capital of the country. This volume the
+deposits of the Treasury continued to swell. Mr. Woodbury was the first
+to take alarm. In December, 1836, he reported the specie in the country
+to have increased from thirty millions in 1833 to seventy-three millions
+at the date of his report, and the paper circulation, in the same
+period, to have advanced, since the removal of the deposits from the
+Bank of the United States, from eighty millions to one hundred and
+twenty millions, or forty millions in eighteen months; and the bank
+capital, in the same period, to have increased from two hundred to three
+hundred millions. Importation augmented; the balance of trade suddenly
+turned against the United States to the extent of one hundred and fifty
+millions, and coin began to flow abroad to liquidate the account. There
+was no debt to attract foreign investment and arrest the export of
+specie. Added to this was the withdrawal of the government deposits from
+the pet banks, which compelled an immediate contraction. The result was
+inevitable. On May 10, 1837, the New York banks suspended, Mr.
+Gallatin's institution being of course dragged down with the rest. It is
+idle to suppose that any single bank can hold out against a general
+suspension. It may liquidate or become a bank of deposits, but it cannot
+maintain its relations with its sister institutions except on a basis of
+common accord.
+
+A general suspension followed. Mr. Woodbury proved himself equal to the
+emergency, and recommended a plan of "keeping the public money under new
+legislative provisions without using banks at all as fiscal agents."
+This was the beginning of the sub-treasury system, a new departure in
+treasury management, and a further evolution in American finance. It
+still remains, and will no doubt be permanent. Its establishment was
+necessary because of the absence of a national bank.
+
+Mr. Gallatin at once turned his attention to bring about first a
+liquidation and then a resumption. It was a favorite maxim with him,
+that "the agonies of resumption are far harder to endure than those of
+suspension," as it is easier to refrain from lapse of virtue than to
+restore moral integrity once impaired. But in resumption the suffering
+falls where it belongs, on the careless, the improvident, and the
+over-trader.
+
+On August 15, 1837, the officers of the banks of New York city, in a
+general meeting, appointed a committee of three to call a convention of
+the principal banks to agree upon a time for a resumption of specie
+payments. This committee, of which Mr. Gallatin was chairman, on August
+18 addressed a circular to the principal banks in the United States,
+inviting the expression of their wishes as to the time and place for a
+convention, suggesting New York as the place, and October, 1837, as the
+time. They said, in addition, that the banks of New York city, in view
+of the law of the State dissolving them as legal corporations in case
+of suspension for one year, must resume at some time between January 1
+and March 15, 1838. The circular committed the New York banks to no
+definite action, but expressed the opinion that the fall in the rate of
+exchanges indicated an early return of specie to par, when resumption
+could be effected without danger. The banks of Philadelphia held a
+meeting on August 29, and adopted resolutions declaring it inexpedient
+to appoint delegates to the proposed convention. Aware of the reasons
+for this action, the chief of which was the extended and perhaps
+insolvent condition of the United States Bank of Pennsylvania, the New
+York committee invited the banks in the several States to appoint
+delegates to meet on November 27, 1837, in New York. Delegates from
+banks of seventeen States and the District of Columbia appeared. On the
+30th resolutions were brought in recommending a general resumption on
+July 1, without precluding an earlier resumption on the part of such
+banks as might find it necessary. The Pennsylvania banks opposed this
+action with resolutions condemning the idea of immediate resumption as
+impracticable, and also, in the absence of delegates from the banks of
+Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Tennessee, as unwise. The
+convention met again on December 2, when an adjournment was carried to
+April 11, 1838, when delegates from the banks not represented were
+invited to attend. Mr. Gallatin saw that the combination of the
+Philadelphia and Boston banks, under the lead of Mr. Biddle, would
+certainly force a further postponement. Exchange on London, which had
+been as high as 121, the true par being about 109-1/2, nominal, had
+fallen to 111-1/2, which, considering that the city bank paper was at a
+discount of five per cent., was at the rate of 2-1/2 per cent. below
+specie par. The exportation of specie had entirely ceased.
+
+On December 15 Mr. Gallatin and his committee appointed at the general
+convention submitted a report which he had drafted, which, though
+addressed to the New York banks, covered the whole ground. Meanwhile the
+highest authority in Pennsylvania had given it as his opinion "that the
+banks of Pennsylvania were in a much sounder state than before the
+suspension, and that the resumption of specie payments, so far as it
+depends on their situation and resources, may take place at any time."
+
+On February 28, 1838, Mr. Gallatin's committee made a further report
+showing that the liabilities of the New York banks had been reduced more
+than twelve millions and a half, or fifty per cent., and asserting that
+with the support of the community and the state authorities they could
+resume on an equal footing on May 10. This declaration was welcomed with
+great satisfaction by a general meeting of the citizens of New York. On
+April 11 the general convention again met in New York. The Philadelphia
+banks declined to attend. A letter from Mr. Woodbury promised the
+support of the Treasury Department. A committee of one from each State
+was appointed, which recommended the first Monday in October as the
+earliest day for a general resumption. The convention could not,
+however, be brought to fix upon so early a day, but finally fixed upon
+January 1, 1839, and adjourned. The New York banks would have accepted
+July 1, 1838, but this being refused they resumed alone on May 10, and
+the force of public opinion compelled resumption by nearly all the banks
+of the country on July 1.
+
+The terrible contraction was fatal to the United States Bank of
+Pennsylvania, which after a vain struggle closed its doors in October,
+1839, and carried with it the entire banking system of the Southern and
+Southwestern States. Although in no way similar to the semi-governmental
+institutions which preceded it, yet, from its similarity of name and
+identity of location, its disastrous failure added to the blind popular
+distrust of its predecessors, which narrow-minded politicians had
+fostered for their own selfish purposes. Fortunately the sub-treasury
+plan of Mr. Woodbury supplied the need of a safe place of deposit which,
+since the refusal of Congress to renew the charter of the old bank, had
+been sorely felt.
+
+In 1838, on the foundation of the Bank of Commerce under the free
+banking law of the State of New York, the presidency of it was first
+tendered to Mr. Gallatin. The directors of this bank were among the most
+distinguished financiers of the city, and its object was to provide a
+conservative institution with sufficient power and capital to act as a
+regulator upon the New York banks. Profit to the stockholders was
+secondary to the reserve power for general advantage.
+
+In June, 1839, Mr. Gallatin resigned his post as president of the
+National Bank of New York. In 1841 he published a financial essay, which
+he entitled "Suggestions on the Banks and Currency of the United
+States," a paper full of information, but from the nature of the subject
+not to be compared in general interest with his earlier paper, which is
+as fresh to-day as when it was written. Mr. Gallatin condemned paper
+currency as an artificial stimulus, and the ultimate object of his
+essays was to annihilate what he termed the "dangerous instrument." He
+admitted its utility and convenience, when used with great sobriety, but
+he deprecated its tendency to degenerate into a depreciated and
+irredeemable currency. This tendency the present national banking law
+arrests, but the law rather invites than prohibits the stimulus of
+increased issues. The last word has not yet been said on national
+currency, which, though the basis of all commercial transactions, has
+necessarily no other relation to banks than that which it holds to any
+individual in the community.
+
+Economic questions have interested the highest order of mind on the two
+continents. Sismondi published a paper on commercial wealth in 1803, and
+in 1810 a memoir on paper money, which he prepared to show how it might
+be suppressed in the Austrian dominions; Humboldt made a special study
+of the sources and quantity of the precious metals in the world, in
+which Mr. Gallatin aided him by investigation in America. Michel
+Chevalier was interested in the same subjects; surviving his two masters
+in the art and witnessing the marvelous effects of the additions made by
+America to the store of precious metals, he continued the study in the
+spirit of his predecessors, and favored the world with instructive
+papers. Mr. Gallatin's contributions to this science are remarkable for
+minute research and careful deductions.
+
+In 1843 President Tyler tendered the Treasury portfolio to Mr. Gallatin.
+The venerable financier looked upon the offer as an act of folly to
+which a serious answer seemed hardly necessary. Yet as silence might be
+misconstrued, he replied that he wanted no office, and to accept at his
+age that of secretary of the treasury would "be an act of insanity." He
+was then in his eighty-third year. The offer of the post was but an
+ill-considered caprice of Mr. Tyler.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 10: Cents are omitted as confusing figures.]
+
+[Footnote 11: The first Annual Report of the Secretary of the Treasury.
+This was under the Supplementary Treasury Act.]
+
+[Footnote 12: Excess of receipts, notwithstanding the purchase of
+Louisiana and payments on account of principal and interest of the
+debt.]
+
+[Footnote 13: These were the banks of New York, Boston, Philadelphia,
+and Baltimore. Seven presidents formed the committee. John A. Stevens of
+New York was chairman, by request of the Secretary of the Treasury. The
+other members were named by him. The sum advanced to the government was
+one hundred and fifty millions of dollars in coin.]
+
+[Footnote 14: At Portland, $120,000; Salem, $183,600; Boston, $75,300;
+Providence, $67,800; Richmond, $49,000; Norfolk, $103,000; Charleston,
+$354,000.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Report of Secretary Dallas, September 20, 1816.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Act of March 3, 1817.]
+
+[Footnote 17: _Democratic Review_, xii. 641.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+IN THE CABINET
+
+
+The general principles which Mr. Jefferson proposed to apply in his
+conduct of the government were not principles of organization but of
+administration. The establishments devised by Hamilton, in accordance
+with or in development of the provisions of the Constitution, were
+organic. The new policy was essentially restrictive and economic. The
+military and naval establishments were to be kept at their lowest
+possible limit. The Treasury Department was to be conducted on strictly
+business principles. The debt was to be reduced and finally paid by a
+fixed annual appropriation. The revenue was to be raised by imposts on
+importation and tonnage, and by direct taxation, if necessary. The
+public land system was to be developed. A scheme of internal
+improvements by land and water highways was to be devised. All these
+purposes except the last had been declared by the opposition during the
+last part of Washington's second term and during Adams's presidency, and
+had been lucidly expounded by Madison, Gallatin, Giles, Nicholas, and
+others of the Republican leaders. On all these subjects Mr. Gallatin
+was in accord with his chief. Only upon the bank question were they at
+issue. Mr. Jefferson detested or feared the aristocracy of money, while
+Gallatin, with a clearer insight into commercial and financial
+questions, recognized that in a young country where capital was limited,
+and specie in still greater disproportion to the increasing demands of
+trade, a well-ordered, well-managed money institution was an enormous
+advantage, if not an imperative necessity to the government and the
+people.
+
+Peace was necessary to the success of this general policy of internal
+progress, but peace was not to be had for the asking. It was not till
+half a century later that the power of the western continent as a
+food-producing country was fully felt by Europe, and peace with the
+United States became almost a condition of existence to millions in the
+old world, while this country became independent, in fact as in name, to
+the fullest meaning of the word. Peace was not menaced during
+Jefferson's first administration, for the Federalists had left no legacy
+of diplomatic discord to embarrass their successors. The divisions of
+opinion were on home affairs. The Republican party was the first
+opposition which had reached power since the formation of the
+government. The Federalists had not hesitated to confine the patronage
+of the executive to men of their own way of thinking. The Republicans
+had attacked that principle. There were men even in the ranks of
+Jefferson's administration who scouted the idea that the President of
+the United States could become "the President of a party." But practice
+and principle are not always in accord, even in administrations of
+sentimental purity, and the pressure for office was as great in 1800 as
+it has ever since been on the arrival of a new party to power. Beyond
+all other departments of government, the Treasury depends for its proper
+service upon business capacity and a knowledge of the principles of
+accounting and office routine. Mr. Gallatin was well aware of the
+difficulties his predecessors had encountered in finding and retaining
+competent examining and auditing clerks. As there was no reason to
+suppose that all this talent was to be found in the ranks of the
+Republican party, and his common sense pointed out the folly of limiting
+the market of supply, he early (July 25, 1801) prepared a circular to
+collectors, in which he informed them "that the door of office was no
+longer to be shut against any man because of his political opinions, but
+that integrity and capacity suitable to the station were to be the only
+qualifications required; and further, the President, considering freedom
+of opinion or freedom of suffrage at public elections imprescriptible
+rights of citizens, would regard any exercise of official influence to
+sustain or control the same rights in others as injurious to the public
+administration and practically destructive of the fundamental principles
+of a republican Constitution." But Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Madison
+opposed this simple declaration of a principle which has since been the
+base of every attempt at reform in the civil service. Mr. Jefferson
+answered that after one half of the subordinates were exchanged, talents
+and worth might alone be inquired into in the case of new vacancies.
+This was a miserable shuffling policy which defeated itself. For a
+Federalist to retain office when such a discrimination was applied was
+of itself a degradation. Mr. Jefferson here threw away and forever lost
+the power to establish the true system, and fixed the curse of patronage
+upon American administration. The true principle may be stated in the
+form of an axiom. Administrations should rely for continuation upon
+measures, not on patronage. Gallatin yielded with reluctance to the
+spirit of persecution which he did not hesitate to say disgraced the
+Republican cause, and sank them to a level with their predecessors.
+Notwithstanding his aversion, he was compelled to follow the policy of
+the cabinet. Its first result was to divide the Republican party, and to
+alienate Burr, whose recommendation of Matthew L. Davis for the naval
+office at New York was disregarded. Had the new administration declined
+to make removals except for cause, such a dispute would have been
+avoided. As it was, the friends of Burr considered the refusal as a
+declaration of war. Appointments became immediately a part of the
+machinery of Republican administration, as it had been part of that of
+their predecessors, and each was carefully weighed and considered in
+its reference to party quite as much as to public service.
+
+Already looking forward to the next presidential election, Gallatin was
+anxious for an agreement upon Jefferson's successor, and even before the
+meeting of the first Congress of his term he advised the President on
+this point, and he also proposed the division of every State into
+election districts by a general constitutional provision.
+
+Jefferson submitted the draft of his annual messages to the head of each
+department, and invited their comments. Gallatin was minute in his
+observations, and it is interesting to note the peculiar precision and
+caution of his character in the nice criticisms of language and style,
+sometimes declaratory, sometimes non-committal, but always and obviously
+reasonable, and often presenting a brief argument for the change
+proposed. In these days of woman's rights it is curious to read "Th. J.
+to Mr. Gallatin. The appointment of a woman to office is an innovation
+for which the public is not prepared, nor am I."
+
+Gallatin suggested a weekly general conference of the President and the
+secretaries at what is now styled a cabinet meeting, and private
+conferences of the President with each of the secretaries once or twice
+a week on certain days and at fixed hours. The business to come before
+the House was also to be considered, and the policy to be pursued
+determined upon. Unfortunately in this case again Jeffersonian theory
+did not accord with Jeffersonian practice. Even erratic Randolph
+complained of the want of system at these cabinet meetings, where each
+was at liberty to do and say as he chose; a severe trial, this, to
+Gallatin. In 1845 Mr. Gallatin wrote to Edward Coles that it was "quite
+unusual to submit to the cabinet the manner in which the land or naval
+forces authorized by Congress, and for which appropriations had been
+made, should be employed," and added that on no occasion, in or out of
+cabinet, was he ever consulted on those subjects prior to the year 1812.
+
+In the difficulty which arose with the Barbary powers Mr. Gallatin
+earnestly urged the payment of an annuity to Tripoli, if necessary for
+peace. He considered it a mere matter of calculation whether the
+purchase of peace was not cheaper than the expense of a war. This policy
+was to be continued for eight years, at the end of which he hoped that a
+different tone might be assumed. In a note on the message of 1802,
+Gallatin expressed the hope to Jefferson that his administration would
+"afford but few materials for historians." He would never sacrifice
+permanent prosperity to temporary glitter.
+
+Mr. Gallatin's counsel was sought, and his opinion deferred to, on
+subjects which did not fall directly within the scope of administration.
+Even on questions of fundamental constitutional law his judgment was not
+inferior to that of Madison himself. In one notable instance he differed
+from Mr. Lincoln, the attorney-general, whom he held in high esteem as
+a good lawyer, a fine scholar, "a man of great discretion and sound
+judgment." This was in 1803, when the acquisition of East Louisiana and
+West Florida was a cabinet question. Mr. Lincoln considered that there
+was a difference between a power to acquire territory for the United
+States and the power to extend by treaty the territory of the United
+States, and held that the first was unconstitutional. Mr. Gallatin held
+that the United States as a nation have an inherent right to acquire
+territory, and that, when acquisition is by treaty, the same constituted
+authorities in whom the treaty power is vested have a constitutional
+right to sanction the acquisition, and that when the territory has been
+acquired Congress has the power either of admitting into the Union as a
+new State or of annexing to a State, with the consent of that State, or
+of making regulations for the government of the territory. Mr. Jefferson
+concurred in this opinion, while at the same time he thought it safer
+not to permit the enlargement of the Union except by amendment of the
+Constitution. Mr. Gallatin's view was practically applied in the cases
+named, and later in the annexation of Texas, although he disapproved of
+the latter as contrary to good faith and the law of nations. He advised
+Jefferson, also, not to lay the treaty by which Louisiana was acquired
+before the House until after its ratification by the Senate, taking the
+ground that until then it was not a treaty, and urging that great care
+should be taken to do nothing which might be represented as containing
+any idea of encroachment on the rights of the Senate. He personally
+interested himself in the arrangements for taking possession of New
+Orleans, and, considering the expense as trifling compared with the
+object, urged the dispatch of an imposing force of not less than fifteen
+thousand men, which would add to the opinion entertained abroad of our
+power, resources, and energy; five thousand of these to be active
+troops; ten thousand an enrolled reserve. The acquisition of Louisiana
+was the grand popular feature of the foreign policy of the first term of
+Jefferson's administration. The internal management left much to be
+desired.
+
+While his general views were exalted, and his principles would stand the
+nicest examination in their application, Mr. Jefferson was not fortunate
+in his choice of methods or men. It is not enough for an administration
+to be pure; it should be above suspicion. This his was not. Time has not
+washed out the stain of his intimacy with William Duane, the editor of
+the infamous "Aurora." Citizen Duane, as he styled himself in the first
+days of the administration, quarreled with Gallatin because he would not
+apply the official guillotine, and thereafter pursued him with
+uncompromising hostility. Of favoritism in appointments Mr. Gallatin
+could not be accused. During his twelve years in the Treasury he
+procured places for but two friends; one was given an obscure clerkship
+in the department; the other, John Badollet, was made register in the
+land office at Vincennes, against whom Gallatin said in the application
+for appointment which he reluctantly made, there was but one objection,
+"that of being his personal and college friend."
+
+The dispositions for the sale of lands in the western territory, the
+extinguishment of titles, and the surveys fell under Mr. Gallatin's
+general supervision, and were the objects of his particular care. So
+also was the establishment of the authority of the United States in the
+Louisiana territory. In the course of these arrangements he was brought
+into contact with Mr. Pierre Chôteau of St. Louis, who controlled the
+Indian trade of a vast territory. The foundation of an intimate
+acquaintance was then laid. The influence of this remarkable man over
+the Western Indians and the extent of his trading operations with them
+was great, and has never since been equaled. About this period Mr. John
+Jacob Astor informed the government that he had an opportunity, of which
+he intended to take advantage, to purchase one half of the interest of
+the Canadian Fur Company, which, notwithstanding the treaty of 1794,
+engrossed the trade by way of Michilimackinac with our own Indians.
+Before that period this lucrative traffic had been exclusively in
+British hands, and the hostility of the Indian tribes rendered any
+interference in it by Americans dangerous to life and property, and
+their participation since had been merely nominal. Jefferson's cabinet
+received the proposal with satisfaction, but, in their strict
+interpretation of the Constitution, could find no way of giving any aid
+to the scheme beyond the _official_ promise of protection, which it fell
+to Mr. Gallatin to draft. Mr. Jefferson wrote to Mr. Astor a letter to
+the same effect. Mr. Astor, however, was not deterred from his
+enterprise, but, under the charter of the American Fur Company granted
+by the State of New York, extended his project to the Indians west of
+the Rocky Mountains, and made of it an immense business, employing
+several vessels at the mouth of the Columbia River and a large land
+party beyond the Rocky Mountains. He finally founded the establishment
+of Astoria. This settlement fell into the hands of the British during
+the war of 1812. Mr. Astor sought to persuade the American government to
+permit him to renew the establishment at its close, only asking a flag
+and a lieutenant's command, but Mr. Madison would not commit himself to
+the plan.
+
+Among Mr. Jefferson's pet schemes was that of a substitution of gunboats
+for fortifications, and for supporting the authority of the laws within
+harbors. The mind of Mr. Jefferson had no doubt been favorably disposed
+to this mode of offensive defense by the experience of Lafayette at
+Annapolis, in his southern expedition in the spring of 1781, when his
+entire flotilla, ammunition of war, and even the city of Annapolis,
+were saved from destruction by two improvised gunboats, which, armed
+with mortars and hot shot, drove the British blockading vessels out of
+the harbor. Jefferson first suggested the scheme in his annual message
+of 1804, and Gallatin did not interfere; but when, in 1807, the
+President insisted, in a special message, on the building of two hundred
+vessels of this class, Mr. Gallatin objected, because of the expense in
+construction and maintenance, and secondly, of their infallible decay.
+Mr. Jefferson persisted, and Mr. Gallatin's judgment was vindicated by
+the result. Two years later, of one hundred and seventy-six gunboats
+constructed, only twenty-four were in actual service. In his letter of
+criticism, Mr. Gallatin gave as his opinion, that "it would be an
+economical measure for every naval nation to burn their navy at the end
+of a war and to build a new one when again at war, if it was not that
+time was necessary to build ships of war." The principle was the same as
+to gunboats, and the objection of time necessary for building did not
+exist.
+
+This year he also laid before the President a memorandum of preparatory
+measures for defense against Great Britain, from whom an attack was
+expected by land and sea, and a second plan for offensive operations on
+the northern frontier, which is complete in its geographical and
+topographical information, and its estimate of resources in men,
+material, and money. At the same time he urged upon Mr. Jefferson to
+moderate the tone of his message, so as not to widen the breach by
+hurting the pride of Great Britain.
+
+In connection with the land system, Mr. Jefferson favored, and Mr.
+Gallatin devised, an extensive plan of internal improvements. The route
+of the Cumberland road from the Potomac to the Ohio was reported to
+Congress in 1807; a coast survey was ordered in the same year. The first
+superintendent was Hassler, a Swiss, whom Mr. Gallatin brought to the
+notice of Mr. Jefferson. In 1808 a general plan of improvement was
+submitted to the Senate. This included canals parallel with the
+seacoast, making a continuous line of inland navigation from the Hudson
+to Cape Fear; a great turnpike from Maine to Georgia; the improvement of
+the Susquehanna, Potomac, James, and Santee rivers to serve the slope
+from the Alleghanies to the Atlantic; of the Alleghany, Monongahela, and
+Kanawha, to serve the country westward to the Mississippi, the head
+waters of these rivers to be connected by four roads across the
+Appalachian range; a canal at the falls of the Ohio; a connection of the
+Hudson with Lake Champlain, and of the same river with Lake Ontario at
+Oswego; and a canal around Niagara Falls. The entire expense he
+estimated at $20,000,000, to be met by an appropriation of $2,000,000 a
+year for ten years; the stock created for turnpikes and canals to be a
+permanent fund for repairs and improvements.
+
+A national university for education in the higher sciences was also
+recommended by Jefferson in his message of 1806, but Mr. Gallatin had
+little faith in the popularity of this scheme. After the convulsion of
+1794 in Geneva, Gallatin's old college mate, D'Yvernois, conceived the
+plan of transporting the entire University of Geneva to the United
+States, and wrote on the subject to Jefferson and Adams; but his idea
+was based on the supposition that fifteen thousand dollars' income could
+be had from the United States in support of the institution, which was,
+of course, at the time impracticable. Jefferson believed that these
+plans of national improvement could be carried into effect only by an
+amendment to the Constitution; but Mr. Gallatin, as in the bank
+question, was disturbed by no such scruples, and he recommended Mr.
+Jefferson to strike from his message the words "general welfare," as
+questionable in their nature, and because the proposition seemed to
+acknowledge that the words are susceptible of a very dangerous meaning.
+
+To a permanent embargo act Mr. Gallatin was from the beginning opposed.
+He recognized the mischief of government prohibitions, and thought that
+statesmen might well hesitate before they took the hazard of regulating
+the concerns of individuals. The sequel proved the correctness of this
+judgment. But Mr. Jefferson could not bring his mind to any more
+decisive measure, indeed, it may justly be said, to any measure
+whatever. Taking advantage of Mr. Madison's election to the presidency,
+he simply withdrew from the triumvirate, and, passing over the subject
+in silence in his last message, he ignominiously left to Mr. Madison and
+Mr. Gallatin the entire responsibility which the threatening state of
+the foreign relations of the country imposed on the Republican party.
+
+The question was now between the enforcement of the Embargo Act and war.
+To take off the embargo seemed a declaration of weakness. To add to it a
+non-importation clause was the only alternative. In November, 1808, Mr.
+Gallatin prepared for George W. Campbell, chairman of the Committee on
+Foreign Relations of the House, the declaration known as Campbell's
+report, which recited, in clear, compact form, the injuries done to the
+United States by Great Britain, and closed with resolutions to the
+effect that the United States could not submit to the edicts of Great
+Britain and France, and with a recommendation of non-intercourse and for
+placing of the country in a state of defense. After long debate the
+resolutions were adopted by large majorities, and the policy of
+resistance was finally determined upon--resistance, not war. Thus the
+United States resorted, as the colonies had resorted in 1774, to a
+policy of non-importation. But the condition of the States was not that
+of the colonies. Then all the colonies were commercial, and the entire
+population was on the seaboard; the prohibition fell with equal weight
+upon all. Now there were large interior communities whom restrictions
+upon commerce would rather benefit than injure. Yet neither the Sons of
+Liberty nor the non-importation associations had been able to enforce
+their voluntary agreements either before or after the Congress of 1774.
+If this were to be the mode of resistance, stringent measures must be
+adopted to make it effective. Mr. Gallatin accordingly called upon
+Congress for the necessary powers. They at once responded with the
+Enforcement Act, which Mr. Gallatin proceeded to apply with
+characteristic administrative vigor, and summoned Jefferson to authorize
+the collectors of revenue to call the military force of the United
+States to support them in the exercise of their restrictive authority.
+There was to be no evasion under the systems which Hamilton devised and
+Gallatin knew so well how to administer.
+
+His annual report made to Congress on December 10 had clearly set forth
+the situation, and, without recommending war, had pointed out how it
+might be carried on. Macon wrote of him on December 4 to their mutual
+friend, Joseph H. Nicholson, "Gallatin is decidedly for war." After his
+report was sent in the situation became still more perplexing. Rumors
+came of an intention to call a convention of the five New England
+States, with New York, if possible, to take ground against the embargo.
+As these indications of dissatisfaction became manifest, and the
+contingency of the employment of force at home presented itself,
+Gallatin made a careful balance of the advantages and inconveniences of
+embargo, non-intercourse, and letters of marque. This paper, dated
+February, 1809, and entitled, "Notes on the Political Situation," no
+doubt served as a brief for consultation with Madison upon his inaugural
+message, it being then understood that Gallatin was to be secretary of
+state. As he states one of the advantages of letters of marque to be "a
+greater chance of unity at home," this measure he probably preferred.
+The Senate had already, on January 4, passed a bill ordering out the
+entire naval force of the country, and on the 10th the House adopted the
+same bill by a vote of 64 to 59. Mr. Gallatin opposed this action
+strenuously. On February 2 the House voted by a large majority to remove
+the embargo on March 4. Non-intercourse with Great Britain and France
+and trade everywhere else were now the conditions. This significant
+expression of the feeling of Congress no doubt determined Mr. Gallatin
+to suggest letters of marque. Whether he pressed them upon Mr. Madison
+or not is uncertain. Meanwhile Mr. Gallatin suffered the odium of
+opposition to the will of Congress, and Mr. Madison's power was broken
+before he took his seat. A few Republican senators inaugurated an
+opposition to their chief after the fashion of modern days, and Mr.
+Madison was given to understand that Mr. Gallatin would not be confirmed
+if nominated as secretary of state. Mr. Madison yielded to this
+dictation, and from that day forward was, as he deserved to be,
+perplexed and harassed by a petty oligarchy. Mr. John Quincy Adams, in a
+note on this affair, says that, "had Mr. Gallatin been appointed
+secretary of state, it is highly probable war with Great Britain would
+not have taken place." But it is improbable that any step in foreign
+intercourse was taken without Mr. Gallatin's knowledge and approbation.
+Such are the traditions of the triumvirate.
+
+The first term of Madison's administration was not eventful. There was
+discord in the cabinet. In the Senate the "invisibles," as the faction
+which supported Robert Smith, the secretary of state, was aptly termed,
+rejected Madison's nominations and opposed Gallatin's financial policy
+as their interests or whims prompted. Randolph said of Madison at this
+time, that he was "President _de jure_ only." Besides this domestic
+strife, the cabinet was engaged in futile efforts to resist the
+gradually tightening cordon of British aggression. Erskine's amateur
+negotiations, quickly disavowed by the British government, and the short
+and impertinent mission of Jackson, who succeeded him and was dismissed
+from the United States, well served Canning's policy of delay. Madison,
+whose prejudices were as strongly with Englishmen and English ways as
+those of Jefferson were with the men and manners of France, averse to
+war and withheld also by Gallatin's persistent objections, negotiated
+and procrastinated until there was little left to argue about. In
+December, 1809, Macon made an effort to pass a stringent navigation act
+to meet the British Orders in Council and the French decrees. The bill
+passed the House but was emasculated in the Senate, the Republican cabal
+voting with the Federalists to strike out the effective clauses. The act
+interdicting commercial intercourse with Great Britain and France
+expired in May, 1810, and was not revived. A new act was passed, which
+was a virtual surrender of every point in dispute. Resistance was
+abandoned, and our ships and seamen were left to the mercy of both
+belligerents.
+
+Mr. Gallatin's entire energies were bent upon strengthening the Treasury
+and opposing reckless expenditures. His most grievous disappointment,
+however, was in the refusal of Congress to renew the charter of the Bank
+of the United States. He used every possible effort to save this
+institution, which, in the condition of the country, was indispensable
+to a sound currency and the maintenance of specie payment. But with the
+dead weight of Mr. Madison's silence, if not indifference, the struggle
+was unequal and the bank fell. The course of Mr. Madison can hardly be
+excused. Political history records few examples of a more cruel
+desertion of a cabinet minister by his chief. Mr. Gallatin felt it
+deeply and tendered his resignation. The administration was going to
+pieces by sheer incapacity. The leaders took alarm and the cabinet was
+reconstructed, Monroe being called to the Department of State. But the
+enemies of Mr. Gallatin still clung to his skirts, determined to drag
+him to the dust. Duane attacked him in the most dangerous manner.
+Probably no man in America has ever been abused, vilified, maligned with
+such deliberate persistency as was Gallatin in the "Aurora" from the
+beginning of 1811 until the cabinet crisis, when Mr. Madison was
+compelled to choose between Smith and himself. Day after day leaders
+were devoted to personal assault upon him and to indirect insinuations
+of his superiority to Madison, by which the artful editor sought to
+arouse the jealousy of the President. The "Atlas at the side of the
+President," the "Great Treasury Law Giver," the "First Lord of the
+Treasury," the "Dagon of the Philistines," were favorite epithets. He
+was charged by turns with betraying cabinet secrets to Randolph, with
+amateur negotiation with Erskine, and with subserviency to British gold
+in the support of the Bank of the United States. Here is an instance of
+Duane's style: "We can say with perfect conviction that, if Mr. Madison
+suffer this man to lord it over him, Mr. Gallatin will drag him down,
+for no honest man in the country can support an administration of which
+he is a member with consistency or a pure conscience." It was charged
+upon Gallatin that his friends considered him as the real, while Madison
+was the nominal, president. More than this, he was accused of
+embezzlement and enormous speculations in the public lands. Gallatin's
+party pride must have been strong indeed to have induced him to stay an
+hour in an administration which granted its favors to the author of such
+assaults upon one of its chosen leaders.
+
+Jefferson wrote to Mr. Wirt in May following, that, because of the bank,
+endeavors were made to drive from the administration (of Mr. Madison)
+the ablest man, except the President, who ever was in it, and to beat
+down the President himself because he was unwilling to part with such a
+counselor.
+
+Monroe was appointed secretary of state in Smith's place in April, 1811.
+Other changes followed in the cabinet, but brought little relief to Mr.
+Gallatin. Financial affairs now occupied his entire attention; on the
+one hand was a diminishing treasury; on the other an expenditure
+reckless in itself and beyond the demands of the administration. Without
+the sympathy of either the Senate or House, Mr. Gallatin's position
+became daily more irksome, until at last he abandoned all attempt to
+control the drift of party policy, took the war party at their word, and
+sent in to the House a war budget.
+
+Unfortunately for the country, the Republican party knew neither how to
+prepare for war, nor how to keep the peace. Mr. Madison had none of the
+qualifications of a war President; neither executive ability, decision
+of character, nor yet that more important faculty, knowledge of men. In
+his attachment to Mr. Madison and in loyalty to what remained of the
+once proud triumvirate of talent and power, Mr. Gallatin supplied the
+deficiencies of his fellows as best he could, until an offer of
+mediation between the United States and Great Britain on the part of the
+emperor of Russia presented an opportunity for honorable withdrawal and
+service in another and perhaps more congenial field. In March, 1813, the
+Russian minister, in a note to the secretary of state, tendered this
+offer. Mr. Gallatin had completed his financial arrangements for the
+year, and requested Mr. Madison to send him abroad on this mission.
+Unwilling to take the risk of new appointments, the President acceded to
+this proposal, and gave him leave of absence from his post in the
+Treasury. Mr. Gallatin did not anticipate a long absence, and felt, as
+he said to his old friend Badollet, that he could nowhere be more
+usefully employed than in this negotiation. Certainly he could have no
+regret in leaving a cabinet which had so little regard to his own
+feelings and so little political decency as to confer the appointment of
+adjutant-general in the United States army on his malignant assailant,
+William Duane of the "Aurora."
+
+Mr. Gallatin's mission, followed by the resignation of his post in the
+cabinet, finally dissolved the political triumvirate, but not the
+personal friendship of the men. Numerous attempts were made to alienate
+both Jefferson and Madison from Gallatin while he held the portfolio of
+the Treasury, but one and all they signally and ignominiously failed.
+For Mr. Jefferson Mr. Gallatin had a regard near akin to reverence. A
+portrait of the venerable sage was always on his study table. When about
+setting out for France in 1816 he tendered his services to his old chief
+and wrote to him that 'in every country and in all times he should never
+cease to feel gratitude, respect, and attachment for him.' Jefferson
+fully reciprocated this regard. From Monticello he wrote to Gallatin in
+1823: "A visit from you to this place would indeed be a day of jubilee,
+but your age and distance forbid the hope. Be this as it will, I shall
+love you forever, and rejoice in your rejoicings and sympathize in your
+ails. God bless and have you ever in His holy keeping." Nor does Mr.
+Gallatin seem to have allowed any feeling of disappointment or
+dissatisfaction at Mr. Madison's weakness to disturb their kindly
+relations. Their letters close with the reciprocal assurance of
+affection as well as of esteem.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+IN DIPLOMACY
+
+_The Treaty of Ghent_
+
+
+On May 9, 1813, the ship Neptune sailed from New Castle on the Delaware,
+having on board Albert Gallatin and James A. Bayard, ministers of the
+United States, with their four secretaries, of whom were Mr. Gallatin's
+son James, and George M. Dallas, son of his old Pennsylvania friend.
+They were accompanied to sea by a revenue cutter. Off Cape Henlopen they
+were overhauled by the British frigate on the station, and their
+passport was countersigned by the English captain. On June 20 they
+reached the mouth of the river Gotha. Here the vessel lay at quarantine
+for forty-eight hours, during which the gentlemen paid a flying visit to
+Gottenburg. At dusk, on the 24th, the Neptune anchored in Copenhagen
+inner roads, the scene of Nelson's attack in 1801. Mr. Gallatin's brief
+memoranda of his voyage contain some crisp expressions. He found
+"despotism and no oppression. Poverty and no discontent. Civility and no
+servile obsequiousness amongst the people. Decency and sobriety."
+
+St. Petersburg was reached on July 21. Here Gallatin and Bayard found
+John Quincy Adams, then minister to Russia. He was one of the three
+commissioners appointed to treat for peace under the mediation which the
+Emperor Alexander had offered to the United States. Bayard and Adams
+were Federalists. To the moderate counsels of the former Jefferson owed
+his peaceable election. Gallatin and Adams had the advantage of thorough
+acquaintance with European politics. To Gallatin the study of history
+was a passion. He was familiar with the facts and traditions of
+diplomacy. He knew the purpose, the tenor, and the result of every
+treaty made for centuries between the great powers; even their dates
+were at ready command in his wonderful memory. But, excepting the few
+Frenchmen of distinction who in the exile which political revulsions
+imposed upon them had crossed the sea, he had no acquaintance with
+Europeans of high position, and none whatever with the diplomatic
+personnel of European courts. In this Adams was more fortunate. Educated
+abroad, while his father was minister to the court of St. James, he was
+from youth familiar with courts and their ways. To be the son of a
+president of the United States was no small matter at that day. The
+conjunction of these two men was rare. One of European birth and trained
+to American politics, the other of American birth and brought up in the
+atmosphere of European diplomacy. In their natural characteristics they
+were the opposite of one another. Adams was impetuous, overbearing,
+impatient of contradiction or opposition. Gallatin was calm,
+self-controlled, persistent; not jealous of his opinions, but ready to
+yield or abandon his own methods, if those of others promised better
+success; never blinded by passion or prejudice, but holding the end
+always in view. That end was peace; "peace at all times desirable," as
+Mr. Gallatin said a few days before his departure on his mission, but
+much more so, 'because of the incapacity shown in the conduct of the
+war, its inefficiency when compared with its expense, and the open
+hostility to it of a large number of the American people.' In the face
+of the disasters which had befallen the country Mr. Gallatin must have
+felt some qualms of conscience for his persistent opposition to the
+military and naval establishments. Their reorganization had place in his
+desire for peace. He said, May 5, 1813: "Taught by experience, we will
+apply a part of our resources to such naval preparations and
+organization of the public force as will, within less than five years,
+place us in a commanding situation." With the particulars of the dispute
+between the two countries he was perfectly familiar. His report prepared
+in 1808 for Mr. Campbell, chairman of the Committee on Foreign
+Relations, covered the whole ground of the American argument.
+
+At the outset there seemed good ground for hope of an early agreement.
+European politics were at a critical point, and England naturally
+wished to husband her resources for a sudden emergency. The mediation of
+Russia Mr. Gallatin considered a salve to the pride of England. This
+reasoning seemed sound enough, but it had not taken account of one
+important element: the jealousy of England of any outside interference
+between herself and her ancient dependencies. Mr. Gallatin did not hold
+English diplomacy in very high regard. Late in life he said that the
+history of the relations of England and France was a story of the
+triumphs of English arms and of French diplomacy; that England was
+always victorious, but France had as often negotiated her out of the
+fruits of success. True as this remark was in general, it cannot be said
+of the policy of England in American affairs. She pushed to the utmost
+her exclusion of France from the American continent when the States were
+colonies, and now that they were free and independent she would listen
+to no foreign intervention. Neither in peace nor war should any third
+government stand between the two nations. This was and ever has been the
+true policy of Great Britain, and that it was not lost sight of in the
+heat of war is to the credit of her diplomacy. The offer of Russia to
+mediate was not welcome, and was set aside by Lord Castlereagh in a note
+of discouragement. There was no ground for the commissioners to stand
+upon; moreover the emperor and Count Nesselrode were absent from St.
+Petersburg, Count Romanzoff being left in charge of the foreign
+relations. The offer of mediation had originated with him. His policy
+was to curb the maritime power of England, and to secure in the
+negotiation a modification at least of the offensive practice of Great
+Britain in her assumed police of the sea.
+
+The war was in fact a legacy of the necessarily incomplete diplomacy of
+Washington's administration and the Jay treaty. The determining cause
+was the enforcement of the right of search and the impressment of seamen
+from American vessels; a practice at variance with the rights and the
+law of nations. Monroe, Madison's secretary of state, urged the clear
+and distinct forbearance of this British practice as the one object to
+be obtained. An article in the treaty giving security in that respect
+was by Gallatin, as well as by Monroe, considered a _sine qua non_
+condition; while Mr. Bayard viewed an informal arrangement as equally
+efficient and more practicable than a solemn article. But there was no
+doubt of Bayard's determination to reach the result prescribed in their
+instructions.
+
+Mr. Gallatin's first act after setting foot on European shores was to
+write to Baring Brothers & Co. at London. This he did from Gottenburg,
+requesting a passport for the Neptune, which the commission proposed to
+retain at St. Petersburg until their return. At the same time he
+intimated that he wished the British government to be informed of the
+object of the mission. For the expenses of the commission the
+ambassadors had authority to draw on the Barings. The reply of Mr.
+Alexander Baring must at once have opened Mr. Gallatin's eyes to the
+futility of the errand of the commissioners. His words clearly state the
+British grounds of objection: "The mediation of Russia was offered, not
+sought,--it was fairly and frankly accepted,--I do not see how America
+could with any consistency refuse it; but to the eyes of a European
+politician it was clear that such an interference could produce no
+practical benefit. The only question now seriously at issue between us
+is one purely of a domestic nature in each country respectively; no
+foreign government can fairly judge of it." Pointing out the difficulty
+of establishing any distinction between the great masses of the
+seafaring population of Great Britain and America, he finds that no
+other country can judge of the various positions of great delicacy and
+importance which spring from such a state of things; and says: "This is
+not the way for Great Britain and America really to settle their
+disputes; intelligent persons of the two countries might devise mutual
+securities and concessions which perhaps neither country would offer in
+the presence of a third party. It is a sort of family quarrel where
+foreign interference can only do harm and irritate at any time, but more
+especially in the present state of Europe, when attempts would be made
+to make a tool of America." These, he said he had good reason to know,
+were the sentiments of the British cabinet on the question of place of
+negotiation and foreign mediation. He also informed Mr. Gallatin that
+the mediation of Russia had been refused, and that the British
+government would express its desire to treat separately and directly
+either at London or Gottenburg. He warned Mr. Gallatin that an opinion
+prevailed in the British public that the United States were engaged to
+France by a secret political connection, which belief, though perhaps
+not shared by the government, would lead it to consider the persevering
+of the American commission upon bringing the insulated question before
+the powers of the Continent as a touchstone of their sincerity. He hoped
+that the American commissioners would come at once in contact with the
+British ministers, and pointed out the hesitation that every minister
+would feel at giving instructions on a matter so delicate as that
+"involving the rights and duties of sovereign and subject." He then
+declared that there was in England a strong desire for peace and for
+ending a contest in which the "two countries could only tease and weaken
+each other without any practical result," and at a time when England
+desired to carry her resources into the "more important field of
+European contest." He then gave Castlereagh's assurance, that the
+cartel-ship, the Neptune, should be respected, and expressed his own
+personal hope that he should ere long be gratified by seeing it bring,
+with the commissioners, the hope of peace to the shores of England.
+
+Meanwhile Mr. Gallatin was engaged in explaining the American case to
+Romanzoff by conversation and by a written statement of the facts in
+the form of an unofficial note to the emperor. On August 10 word was
+received from the Emperor Alexander authorizing the renewal of the offer
+of mediation; and shortly after a letter from General Moreau, written to
+Mr. Gallatin from the imperial headquarters at Hrushova, assured him of
+his sympathy and assistance. His relations with Gallatin were of long
+standing and of an intimate nature. Moreau, after a long residence in
+America, to which he was warmly attached, had lately crossed the ocean
+and tendered his able sword to the coalition against Bonaparte. He
+informed Gallatin that one of the British ministers had said to him in
+Germany that England would not treat of her maritime rights under any
+mediation. He feared that American vanity would hardly consent to treat
+directly with Great Britain, and foresaw that the political adversaries
+of Madison and Gallatin would blame the precipitation of the United
+States government in sending over the envoys before the adhesion of
+England to the proposed arbitration was secured. He assured Gallatin of
+the interest of the Emperor Alexander in the Americans.
+
+On August 24 Count Romanzoff read to the envoys his dispatch to Count
+Lieven, the Russian minister at London, renewing the offer of mediation.
+The commissioners considering their authority as limited to treating
+under the mediation of Russia, Mr. Gallatin wrote to Monroe, inclosing
+a copy of Baring's letter, which he looked upon as an informal
+communication of the views of the British government, and asked for
+contingent powers and instructions. These they could not expect to
+receive before February. Gallatin replied to Mr. Baring that no
+information of the refusal of Great Britain to the mediation had been
+received, but, even if it had, the commission was not authorized to
+negotiate in any other manner. They were, however, competent to treat of
+commerce without mediation. He declined to discuss the objection of
+Great Britain to the mediation of Russia, confining himself to an
+expression of ignorance in America of any such feeling on the part of
+the British ministry, and of the confidence placed in the personal
+character of the emperor, which was considered a sufficient pledge of
+impartiality; while the selection of a sovereign at war with France was
+clear evidence that America neither had nor wished to have any political
+connection with that power. That he himself believed an arrangement to
+be practicable, he said to Mr. Baring, was evident from the fact that he
+had given up his political existence, and separated himself from his
+family. His opinion was, that while neither nation would be induced to
+abandon its rights or pretensions in the matter of impressment, an
+arrangement might be made by way of experiment which would reserve to
+both their respective abstract rights, real or assumed.
+
+To Moreau he wrote stating his hope that, notwithstanding the first
+objections of Great Britain, the mediation of the emperor would be
+accepted, and he asked the general for his personal interposition to
+this end. France and England he held to be equally at fault in the great
+European contest; the one usurping and oppressing the land, the other
+dominating and tyrannizing the sea. They alone, said he, have gained, if
+not happiness, at least power. Russia, he was firmly persuaded, was the
+only power at heart friendly to America. History has shown the sagacity
+of this judgment. This letter was never answered. Moreau was at death's
+door.
+
+Early in October Mr. Dallas was sent to London to open relations with
+the British ministry. His presence there would save two months at least
+in each correspondence which involved communication between Washington,
+London, and St. Petersburg. Count Romanzoff gave the necessary letter of
+introduction to Count Lieven. Gallatin's instructions to the young
+secretary were explicit as to the caution he should exercise in a
+country where he could consider himself as only on sufferance. Hardly
+were these preliminaries concluded, and Dallas had not started on his
+journey, when Mr. Gallatin received word from America that the Senate
+had refused to confirm him in his position as commissioner. Mr. Gallatin
+had not resigned his position of secretary of the treasury. The Senate
+refused to sanction the cumulative appointment.
+
+Stripped of his official character, he now felt himself at liberty to
+follow his own inclination. His first impulse was to go to London, where
+he was sure that Baring's friendship would open to him a means of
+usefulness in the matter on which he was engaged. The death of Moreau
+cut off the medium of approach to the emperor. This event was of no
+consequence, however, in the negotiation, as the emperor had been
+positively informed in July that England would not countenance even the
+appearance of foreign intervention in her dispute with America. But as
+yet no official information of his rejection had been received by Mr.
+Gallatin, nor did any reach him until March. Without it he could not
+well leave St. Petersburg. Meanwhile a diplomatic imbroglio, caused by
+the failure of the emperor to inform Romanzoff of Castlereagh's second
+refusal to accept the offer of mediation, embarrassed the commission all
+winter. Nor yet were they aware that the British minister, driven to the
+wall by the second offer of the emperor, had made proposals to Monroe to
+treat directly with the United States government. The British note with
+this offer was written on November 4. Mr. Gallatin was apprised of it by
+Mr. Dallas in January, 1814. Mr. Baring urged him, if he should return
+to America during the winter, to take his way through England, as good
+effects might result from even a passing visit. Gallatin was then, as he
+expressed it, "chained for the winter to St. Petersburg," nor had he
+any way of reaching home, except by a cartel from a British port.
+
+No word coming from the emperor, the envoys concluded to withdraw from
+St. Petersburg. Before leaving, Mr. Gallatin addressed a letter of
+thanks to Count Romanzoff, and requested him to communicate any
+information he might receive from the emperor. It was supposed that the
+offer of England to treat directly with America might be inclosed in
+Castlereagh's letter of refusal to accept Russian mediation. On January
+25, 1814, Mr. Gallatin and Mr. Bayard left St. Petersburg and traveled
+by land to Amsterdam, which they reached after a tedious journey on
+March 4. The captain of the Neptune was ordered to bring his vessel to a
+port of Holland. At Amsterdam, where the envoys remained four weeks,
+they learned that Mr. Madison had at once accepted Castlereagh's offer
+and appointed a new commission, consisting of Messrs. Adams, Bayard,
+Henry Clay, and Jonathan Russell. Mr. Gallatin was not included, as he
+was supposed to be on his way home to resume his post in the Treasury
+Department, the duties of which had been performed in his absence by Mr.
+Jones, the secretary of the navy. When correct information did reach Mr.
+Madison, on February 8, he immediately added Mr. Gallatin to the
+commission, and appointed Mr. G. W. Campbell to be secretary of the
+treasury. Thus it happened that Mr. Gallatin, whom Mr. Madison intended
+for the head of the commission, was the last named of those who
+conducted the negotiations.
+
+[Illustration: J. A. Bayard]
+
+On April 1, 1814, Mr. Gallatin concluded to pass through England on his
+return, and leaving orders for the Neptune on its arrival to proceed to
+Falmouth, he took the packet to Harwich, whither he requested Mr. Baring
+to send him the requisite passports to enable him to reach London with
+his suite without delay.
+
+In company with Mr. Bayard, Mr. Gallatin reached the English capital on
+April 9, 1814. There they heard some days later of the arrival of
+Messrs. Clay and Russell at Gottenburg. The situation of Great Britain
+had greatly changed. Intoxicated with the success of their arms and the
+abdication of Napoleon, the English people were quite ready to undertake
+the punishment of the United States, while the release of a large body
+of trained troops in France, Italy, Holland, and Portugal enabled the
+ministry immediately to throw a large force into Canada for the summer
+campaign. In the British cabinet a belief was said to be entertained
+that a continuance of the war would bring about a separation of the
+American Union, and perhaps a return of New England to the mother
+country. In this emergency Gallatin availed himself of the opportunity
+which presented itself of addressing Lafayette in sending to that
+officer the patents for the Louisiana land granted to him by the
+American government, and urged the use of his influence to promote an
+accommodation between England and the United States.
+
+To Clay he wrote on April 22, proposing that the place of negotiation be
+changed from "that corner" Gottenburg, either to London, or some neutral
+place more accessible to the friendly interference of those among the
+European powers upon which they must greatly rely. The Emperor Alexander
+was expected in London, and Castlereagh, who had recently returned from
+France where he had been in direct intercourse with him, was understood
+to be of all the cabinet the best disposed to the United States. From
+Clay Gallatin heard in reply that the British _chargé d'affaires_ at
+Stockholm had already asked the sanction of the Swedish government to
+the negotiation at Gottenburg. While Clay was unwilling to go to London
+he gave his consent to carry on the negotiations in Holland, if the
+arrangement could be made in such a manner as to avoid any ill feeling
+at the Swedish court by the change from Gottenburg. In May Gallatin and
+Bayard asked of Monroe, who was then secretary of state, authority for
+the commissioners to remove the negotiation to any place which their
+judgment should prefer. In May, also, the British government was
+officially notified by the American commissioners of their appointment.
+Lord Bathurst answered with an assurance that commissioners would be
+forthwith appointed for Great Britain, and with a proposal of Ghent as
+the place for negotiation. This was at once acceded to.
+
+Meanwhile Mr. Crawford, the United States minister at Paris, was
+endeavoring, at the instance of Mr. Gallatin, to secure the friendly
+interposition of the Emperor Alexander, not as a mediator, but as a
+common friend and in the interest of peace to the civilized world.
+Crawford was unable to obtain an audience of the emperor, or even an
+interview with Count Nesselrode, but Lafayette took up the cause with
+his hearty zeal for everything that concerned the United States, and, in
+a long interview with the emperor at the house of Madame de Staël,
+submitted to him the view taken by the United States of the controversy,
+and obtained from him his promise to exert his personal influence with
+the British government on his arrival at London. Baron von Humboldt, the
+Prussian minister at Paris, who had been influenced by British
+misrepresentation, was also won over by Lafayette, and now tendered his
+services to Mr. Gallatin in any way in which he might be made useful.
+Lafayette's letter was brought by Humboldt in person. Gallatin and
+Humboldt had met in 1804, when the great traveler passed through
+Washington on his return from Peru and Mexico.
+
+The Treaty of Paris having been signed, Lord Castlereagh reached London
+early in June, and the emperor arrived a few days later. Mr. Gallatin
+had an audience of the emperor on June 17, and on the 19th submitted an
+official statement of the American case and an appeal for the
+interposition of his imperial majesty, "the liberator and pacifier of
+Europe." From the interview Mr. Gallatin learned that the emperor had
+made three attempts in the interest of peace, but that he had no hope
+that his representations had been of any service. England would not
+admit a third party to interfere, and he thought that, with respect to
+the conditions of peace, the difficulty would be with England and not
+with America.
+
+On June 13 Gallatin warned Monroe of the preparations England was making
+which would enable her to land fifteen to twenty thousand men on the
+Atlantic coast; that the capture of Washington and New York would most
+gratify the British people, and that no help need be expected from the
+countries of Europe, all which were profoundly desirous of peace.
+
+The ministry informing Mr. Gallatin that the British commissioners would
+start for Ghent on July 1, he improved the interval by a visit to Paris.
+He left London, where he had passed nearly three months in the uncertain
+preliminaries of negotiation, and after a few days in the French capital
+reached Ghent on July 6. The British commissioners only appeared on
+August 6. They were Lord Gambier, Henry Goulburn, and William Adams, all
+second-rate men, but for this reason suited to the part they had to
+play. After the overturn of Napoleon the British cabinet had no desire
+for peace, or at least not until they had secured by war some material
+advantages in the United States, which a treaty would confirm. The
+business of their representatives at Ghent was to make exorbitant
+demands of the Americans and delay negotiations pending the military
+operations in progress.
+
+In June Gallatin was satisfied of the general hostile spirit of Great
+Britain and of its wish to inflict serious injury on the United States.
+He notified Monroe of his opinion and warned him that the most favorable
+terms to be expected were the _status ante bellum_, and not certainly
+that, unless the American people were united and the country able to
+stand the shock of the campaign. Mr. Madison's administration had
+already humbled itself to an abandonment, or at least to an adjournment,
+of the principle to establish which they had resorted to arms. But in
+the first stages of the negotiation it was clear that the British
+cabinet had more serious and dangerous objects in view, and looked
+beyond aggression and temporary injury to permanent objects. At the
+first meeting on August 8, the British commissioners demanded, as a
+preliminary to any negotiation, that the United States should set apart
+to the Indian tribes the entire territory of the Northwest to be held by
+them forever in sovereignty under the guaranty of Great Britain. The
+absurdity of such a demand is sufficient evidence that it was never
+seriously entertained. There could have been no idea that the military
+power of Great Britain was able to enforce, or that the United States
+would abjectly submit to, such a mutilation of its territory and such a
+limitation of its expansion. Behind this cover Mr. Gallatin
+instinctively detected the real design of the cabinet to be the conquest
+of New Orleans and the mouths of the Mississippi. If to the territory
+thus acquired that of Florida should be added by cession from Spain,
+which could hardly refuse any compensation asked of her by Great Britain
+in return for the liberation of the Peninsula, a second British dominion
+would be set up on the American continent. These views Gallatin
+communicated to Monroe in a private dispatch of August 20, 1814, by the
+hands of Mr. Dallas. To the _sine qua non_ of the British commissioners
+no answer was made by the Americans. The negotiation was abruptly
+suspended, and only by informal conversation was Mr. Goulburn given to
+understand that reference had been had to America for instructions. Mr.
+Gallatin was of opinion that the negotiations were at an end, and in his
+despair of peace took consolation in the belief that the insolence of
+the demand would unite America from Maine to Georgia in defense of her
+rights, of her territory, and indeed of her independence. The American
+commissioners made no secret of their belief that their mission was
+closed. Two of the secretaries started from Ghent on a continental tour,
+and notice was given to the landlord of the house where the
+commissioners resided of their intention to quit it on October 1. On
+August 2, while matters were still at this deadlock, Lord Castlereagh
+passed through Ghent on his way to the Congress at Vienna. Goulburn was
+ordered to change his tone and Lord Liverpool was advised to moderate
+his demands; to use Castlereagh's words, to "a letting down of the
+question." Lord Liverpool replied on September 2, that he had already
+given Goulburn to understand that the commission had taken a very
+erroneous view of British policy. In this communication he betrays the
+hope, which the cabinet had entertained, of the outcome of American
+dissensions, by his expression of the opinion that if the negotiation
+had broken off on the notes already presented by the British commission,
+or the answer that the Americans were disposed to make, the war would
+have become popular in America.
+
+Lord Bathurst reopened the negotiations, but his modification was of
+tone rather than of matter. The surrender of the control of the Lakes to
+Great Britain, and of the Northwest Territory to the Indians, was still
+adhered to. The reply of the American commissioners was drawn chiefly by
+Mr. Gallatin. It absolutely rejected the proposals respecting the
+boundary and the military flag on the Lakes, and refused even to refer
+them to the American government, but offered to pursue the negotiation
+on the other points. To Monroe Mr. Gallatin explained his reason for
+assenting to discuss the Indian article, and therein his colleagues
+concurred with him, to be: that they had little hope of peace, but
+thought it desirable, if there were to be a breach, that it should be on
+other grounds than that of Indian pacification. The reply of the
+commission on this point, also drafted by Mr. Gallatin, was sent in on
+September 26. It merely guaranteed the Indians in all their old rights,
+privileges, and possessions.
+
+The destruction of the public buildings at Washington by the British
+troops, known in London on October 1, caused a great sensation in
+England. As Gallatin said in a letter to Madame de Staël, it was "an act
+of vandalism to which no parallel could be found in the twenty years of
+European war from the frontiers of Russia to Paris, and from those of
+Denmark to Naples." "Was it (he asked), because, with the exception of a
+few cathedrals, England had no public buildings comparable to them, or
+was it to console the London mob for their disappointment that Paris was
+neither pillaged nor burned?" It can hardly be doubted that the flames
+which consumed the American capital lighted the way to peace. The
+atrocity of war was again brought vividly to the view of nations whose
+sole yearning was for peace. Far from discouraging the American
+commissioners, it fortified their resolution. They knew that it would
+unite the people of the States as one man. It in no way disturbed
+Gallatin's confidence either in the present or future of his adopted
+country. To those who asked his opinion of the securities of the United
+States, he said: "If I have not wholly misunderstood America, its
+resources and its political morality, I am not wrong in the belief that
+its public funds are more secure than those of all European powers."
+
+In spite of the protests of Mr. Goulburn, who felt the ground on which
+he stood daily less stable, and in his letters to his chief was
+unsparing in his denunciations, Lord Liverpool accepted the proposed
+settlement of the Indian question. Nothing remained but to incorporate
+in a treaty form the points agreed upon. Lord Bathurst, who seems
+throughout the negotiation to have forgotten the old adage, that "fine
+words butter no parsnips," and with true British blindness never to have
+appreciated how thoroughly he was overmatched by Mr. Gallatin, submitted
+a preliminary notification that the British terms would be based on the
+principle of _uti possidetis_, which involved a rectification of the
+boundaries on the Canadian frontier. To this the Americans returned a
+peremptory refusal. They would not go one step farther except on the
+basis of the _status quo ante bellum_. Lord Liverpool considered this as
+conclusive. A vigorous prosecution of the war was resolved upon by the
+cabinet. Only for reasons of expediency was a show of negotiation still
+kept up.
+
+But when the cabinet took a survey of the general field they felt little
+complacency in the prospect of a struggle which sooner or later must
+interest the maritime powers. France, compelled by the peace of Vienna
+to withdraw from what even Lafayette considered as her natural frontier,
+was restive, and there was a large party in Russia who would gladly see
+the emperor take up the American cause. Moreover the chancellor of the
+exchequer saw before him an inevitable addition of ten millions of
+pounds sterling to his budget, the only avowable reason for which was
+the rectification of the Canadian frontier. In their distress the
+cabinet proposed to Wellington to go to the United States with the
+olive-branch and the sword, to negotiate or conquer a peace. The desire
+of the cabinet to bring the war to an honorable conclusion was avowed.
+But Wellington, before accepting this proposal, gave Lord Liverpool a
+very frank opinion of the mistake made in exacting territorial
+concessions, since the British held no territory of the United States in
+other than temporary possession, and had no right to make any such
+demand. Lord Liverpool was not tenacious. He was never, he wrote Lord
+Bathurst, much inclined to give way to the Americans, but the cabinet
+felt itself compelled to withdraw from its extreme ground. He accepted
+his defeat and acknowledged it.
+
+The Americans meanwhile arranged a draft of a treaty. The articles on
+impressment and other maritime rights, absolutely rejected by the
+British, were set aside. There only remained the question of the
+boundaries, the fisheries, and the navigation of the Mississippi. Here
+Mr. Gallatin had as much difficulty in maintaining harmony between Adams
+and Clay as in obtaining a peace from Liverpool and Bathurst. Adams was
+determined to save the fisheries; Clay would not hear of opening the
+Mississippi to British vessels. A compromise was effected by which it
+was agreed that no allusion should be made to either subject. Mr.
+Gallatin terminated the dispute by adding a declaration that the
+commissioners were willing to sign a treaty applying the principle of
+the _status quo ante bellum_ to _all_ the subjects of difference. This
+was in strict conformity with the instructions from the home government.
+On November 10 the American draft was sent in. On the 25th the British
+replied with a counter-draft which made no allusion to the fisheries,
+but stipulated for the free navigation of the Mississippi. The Americans
+replied that they would give up the navigation of the river for a
+surrender of the fisheries. This proposal was at once refused by the
+British. The matter was settled by an offer of the Americans to
+negotiate under a distinct reservation of all American rights. All
+stipulations on either subject were in the end omitted, the British
+government on December 22 withdrawing the article referring to these
+points. In the course of the negotiation Mr. Gallatin proposed that in
+case of a future war both nations should engage never to employ the
+savages as auxiliaries, but this article does not appear. To the credit
+of civilization, however, the last article contained a mutual engagement
+to put an end to the trade in slaves. An agreement entered into in
+perfect faith, but which the jealousy of the exercise of search in any
+form rendered nugatory for half a century. On Christmas day the treaty
+was signed. Mr. Henry Adams[19] justly says, "Far more than
+contemporaries ever supposed, or than is now imagined, the Treaty of
+Ghent was the special work and the peculiar triumph of Mr. Gallatin."
+His own correspondence shows how admirably he was constituted for the
+nice work of diplomatic negotiation. In the self-poise which he
+maintained in the most critical situations, the unerring sagacity with
+which he penetrated the purposes of his adversaries, the address with
+which he soothed the passions and guided the judgments of his
+colleagues, it is impossible to find a single fault. If he had a fault,
+says his biographer, it was that of using the razor when he would have
+done better with the axe. But the axe is not a diplomatic weapon. The
+simulation of temper may serve an occasional purpose, but temper itself
+is a mistake; and to Mr. Gallatin's credit be it said, it was a mistake
+never committed by him in the course of this long and sometimes painful
+negotiation. Looking back upon its shifting scenes, it is clear that
+even the pertinacity of Adams and the irascibility of Clay served to
+advance the purpose of the mission. From the first to the last Mr.
+Gallatin had his own way, not because it was his own way, but because it
+was the best way and was so recognized by the majority of the commission
+at every turn of difference. Fortunately for the interests of peace the
+battle of New Orleans had not yet been fought. There seems a justice in
+this final act of the war. The British attack upon the Chesapeake[20]
+was committed before war had been declared. The battle of New Orleans
+was fought a fortnight after the Treaty of Ghent was signed. The burning
+of Washington was avenged by the most complete defeat which the British
+had ever encountered in their long career of military prowess.
+
+By his political life Mr. Gallatin acquired an American reputation; by
+his management of the finances of the United States he placed himself
+among the first political economists of the day; but his masterly
+conduct of the Treaty of Ghent showed him the equal of the best of
+European statesmen on their own peculiar ground of diplomacy. No one of
+American birth has ever rivaled him in this field. Europeans recognized
+his pre-eminent genius. Sismondi praised him in a public discourse.
+Humboldt addressed him as his illustrious friend. Madame de Staël
+expressed to him her admiration for his mind and character. Alexander
+Baring gave him more than admiration, his friendship.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Upon the separation of the commissioners, Mr. Gallatin paid a flying
+visit to Geneva. His fame, or "glory," to use the words of Humboldt,
+preceded him. Of his old intimates, Serre was under the sod in a West
+Indian island; Badollet was leading a quiet life at Vincennes in the
+Indiana Territory, where Gallatin had obtained for him an appointment in
+the land office; Dumont was in England. Of Gallatin's family few
+remained. But he received the honors due to him as a Genevan who had
+shed a lustre on his native city. On his way to England, where he had
+made an appointment with his colleagues to attempt a commercial treaty
+with Great Britain, he stopped at Paris. Here he saw Napoleon, returned
+from Elba, his star in full blaze before its final extinction. Here he
+heard in April (1815) of his appointment by Madison as minister to
+France. His colleagues also had been honored by similar advancements.
+Adams was transferred from Russia to England. Bayard was named minister
+to Russia, but illness prevented his taking possession of his post.
+
+In April, Mr. Gallatin and Mr. Clay opened negotiations with Lord
+Castlereagh in London, where they were quickly joined by Adams. Lord
+Castlereagh bore no malice against Mr. Gallatin for the treaty. On the
+contrary, he wrote of it to Lord Liverpool as "a most auspicious and
+seasonable event," and wished him joy at "being released from the
+millstone of an American war." With Lord Castlereagh Mr. Gallatin
+arranged in the course of the summer a convention regulating commercial
+intercourse between the United States and Great Britain, the only truly
+valuable part of which was that which abolished all discriminating
+duties. Mr. Gallatin considered this concession as an evidence of
+friendly disposition, and rightly judged that British antipathy and
+prejudice were modified, and that in the future friendly relations would
+be preserved and a rupture avoided. Beyond this, there was little
+gained. The old irritating questions of impressment and blockade and the
+exclusion of the United States from the West Indies trade remained.
+
+In July Mr. Gallatin parted from Mr. Baring and his London friends on
+his homeward journey. From New York, on September 4, he wrote Madison,
+thanking him for the appointment of minister to France as an "evidence
+of undiminished attachment and of public satisfaction for his services;"
+but he still held his acceptance in abeyance. To Jefferson, two days
+later, he had also the satisfaction to say with justice, that the
+character of the United States stood as "high as ever it did on the
+European continents, and higher than ever it did in Great Britain;" and
+that the United States was considered "as the nation designed to check
+the naval despotism of England." To Jefferson he naturally spoke of that
+France from which they had drawn some of their inspirations and their
+doctrines.
+
+He thus describes the condition of the people:--
+
+     "The revolution (the political change of 1789) has not, however,
+     been altogether useless. There is a visible improvement in the
+     agriculture of the country and the situation of the peasantry. The
+     new generation belonging to that class, freed from the petty
+     despotism of nobles and priests, and made more easy in their
+     circumstances by the abolition of tithes, and the equalization of
+     taxes, have acquired an independent spirit, and are far superior to
+     their fathers in intellect and information; they are not
+     republicans and are still too much dazzled by military glory; but I
+     think that no monarch or ex-nobles can hereafter oppress them long
+     with impunity."
+
+And again, "Exhausted, degraded, and oppressed as France now is, I do
+not despair of her ultimate success in establishing her independence and
+a free form of government." But it was not till half a century later
+that Gambetta, the Mirabeau of the Republic, led France to the full
+possession of her material forces, and reëstablished in their original
+vigor the principles of 1789. That Gallatin was not blinded by
+democratic prejudices appears in the letter he wrote to Lafayette after
+Napoleon's abdication, in which he said: "My attachment to the form of
+government under which I was born and have ever lived never made me
+desirous that it should, by way of experiment, be applied to countries
+which might be better fitted for a limited monarchy."
+
+
+_Minister to France_
+
+Strange as it appears, there is no doubt that Mr. Gallatin was at this
+time heartily weary of political life, and seriously contemplated a
+permanent retirement to the banks of the Monongahela. He naturally
+enough declined a nomination to Congress, which was tendered him by the
+Philadelphia district. His tastes were not for the violence and
+turbulence of the popular house.
+
+Madison left him full time to decide whether he could arrange his
+private affairs so as to accept the mission to Paris. In November he
+positively declined. He considered the compensation as incompetent to
+the support of a minister in the style in which he was expected to live.
+His private income was at this time about twenty-five hundred dollars a
+year. Monroe pressed him earnestly not to quit the public service, but
+the year closed and Mr. Gallatin had not made up his mind. In the
+situation of France, which he considered "would under her present
+dynasty be for some years a vassal of her great rival," he did not
+consider the mission important, and his private fortune was limited to a
+narrow competence. "I do not wish," he wrote to Monroe, "to accumulate
+any property. I will not do my family the injury of impairing the little
+I have. My health is frail; they may soon lose me, and I will not leave
+them dependent on the bounty of others." But being again earnestly
+pressed, he on January 2, 1816, accepted the appointment. To Jefferson
+he wrote that he would not conceal 'that he did not feel yet old enough
+nor had philosophy enough to go into retirement and abstract himself
+wholly from public affairs.'
+
+In April, Madison notified Mr. Gallatin of Dallas's probable retirement
+from the Treasury, and offered him the post if he cared to return to it.
+He was perfectly aware of his supreme fitness for the direction of the
+Treasury, and he declined with reluctance, because he was disturbed by
+the suspension of specie payments. Remembering Madison's weakness in
+1812 on the subject of the renewal of the bank charter, which Gallatin
+considered necessary in the situation of the finances, he could hardly
+have felt a desire to return to the cabinet in that or indeed in any
+other capacity. He was perfectly conscious that as leader of the House
+of Representatives, as secretary of the treasury, and as negotiator of
+the Ghent treaty, he had brought into the triumvirate all its practical
+statesmanship. His short career abroad had opened to him a new source of
+intellectual pleasure. He had earned a right to some hours of ease.
+Diplomacy at that period, when communication was uncertain and
+difficult, was perforce less restricted than in these latter days, when
+ambassadors are little more than foreign clerks of the State Department
+without even the freedom of a chief of bureau. Gallatin felt entirely at
+home, and was happy in this peculiar sphere. There was no time in his
+life when he would not have gladly surrendered all political power for
+the enjoyment of intellectual ease, the pursuit of science, and the
+atmosphere of society of the higher order of culture in whatever field.
+And Paris was then, as it is still, the centre of intellectual and
+social civilization.
+
+Jefferson rejoiced in Gallatin's appointment to France, and rightly
+judged that he would be of great service there. Of Louis XVIII.,
+however, Jefferson had a poor opinion. He thought him 'a fool and a
+bigot, but, bating a little duplicity, honest and meaning well.'
+Jefferson could give Gallatin no letters. He had 'no acquaintances left
+in France; some were guillotined, some fled, some died, some are exiled,
+and he knew of nobody left but Lafayette.' With Destutt de Tracy, an
+intimate friend of Lafayette, Jefferson was in correspondence. Indeed,
+he was engaged on the translation of Tracy's work on political economy,
+the best, in Jefferson's opinion, that had ever appeared.[21]
+
+Gallatin reached Paris with his family on July 9, 1816, and had an
+interview with the Duc de Richelieu, the minister of Louis XVIII., two
+days later. The conversation turned upon the sympathy for Bonaparte in
+the United States, which Richelieu could not understand; but Gallatin
+explained that it was not extended to him as the despot of France, but
+as the most formidable enemy of England. Richelieu warned him of the
+prejudices which might be aroused against the reigning family 'by
+ex-kings and other emigrants of the same description' who had lately
+removed to the United States. This was an allusion to Jerome, who had
+fled from the throne of Westphalia to the banks of the Delaware. The
+king gave Gallatin an audience on the 11th, when he presented his
+credentials. His reception both by his majesty and the princes was, he
+wrote to Monroe, "what is called gracious." Louis the Eighteenth was a
+Bourbon to the ends of his fingers. He had the _bonhommie_ dashed with
+malice which characterized the race. None could better appreciate than
+he the vein of good-natured satire, the acquired tone of French society,
+which was to Mr. Gallatin a natural gift. Mr. Gallatin was not only
+kindly but familiarly received at court; and at the _petits soupers_,
+which were the delight of the epicurean king, his majesty on more than
+one occasion shelled the crawfish for the youthful daughter of the
+republican ambassador. An anecdote is preserved of the king's courteous
+malice. To a compliment paid Mr. Gallatin on his French, the king added,
+"but I think my English is better than yours."
+
+Gallatin's first negotiations were to obtain indemnity for the captures
+under the Berlin and Milan decrees; but although the Duc de Richelieu
+never for a moment hinted that the government of the Restoration was not
+responsible for the acts of Napoleon, yet he stated that the mass of
+injuries for which compensation was demanded by other governments was so
+great that indemnity must be limited to the most flagrant cases. They
+would pay for vessels burnt at sea, but would go no farther. In spite of
+Mr. Gallatin's persistency no advance was made in the negotiation. A
+minor matter gave him some annoyance. On July 4, 1816, at a public
+dinner, the postmaster at Baltimore proposed a toast which, by its
+disrespect, gave umbrage to the king. Hyde de Neuville, the French
+minister to the United States, demanded the dismissal of the offender.
+If our institutions and habits as well as public opinion had not
+forbidden compliance with this request, the dictatorial tone of De
+Neuville was sufficient bar. Richelieu could not be made to understand
+the reason for the refusal, and while disclaiming any idea of using
+force, said that the government would show its dissatisfaction in its
+own way. This seemed to intimate an indefinite postponement of a
+consideration of American demands, and would have rendered Mr.
+Gallatin's further residence useless as well as unpleasant; but French
+dignity got the better of what Gallatin termed, "the sickly
+sentimentality which existed on the subject of personal abuse of the
+king," and the insignificant incident was not allowed to interfere with
+friendly intercourse.
+
+In 1817 Mr. Gallatin was engaged not only in advising Mr. Adams at
+London upon the points of a commercial treaty with Great Britain, but
+also, together with Mr. William Eustis, minister to the Netherlands, in
+a negotiation with that government.
+
+The commission met at the Hague, Mr. Goldberg and Mr. Van der Kemp
+representing Holland. The subjects were the treaty of 1782 between the
+States-general of the Netherlands and the United States, the repeal of
+discriminating duties, and the participation of the United States in the
+trade with the Dutch East Indies. The basis of a treaty could not be
+agreed upon, and the whole matter was referred back to the two
+governments, the American commissioners recommending to the President a
+repeal of duties discriminating against vessels of the Netherlands,
+which would no doubt prevent future exaction of extra tonnage duties
+imposed on American vessels by that government. These negotiations
+occupied the late summer months. At the end of September Mr. Gallatin
+was again at his post in Paris.
+
+In June, 1818, Mr. Richard Rush, who owed his introduction into public
+life to Mr. Gallatin, was appointed minister to England, Adams returning
+to the United States to take the portfolio of State in President
+Monroe's cabinet. Gallatin was joined to Rush, for the conduct of
+negotiations with Great Britain, rendered necessary by the approaching
+expiration of the commercial convention of July 3, 1815, which had been
+limited to four years. The general field of disputed points was again
+entered. It included the questions of impressment, the fisheries, the
+boundaries, and indemnity for slaves. The commissioners were supported
+by a temper of the American people different from that which prevailed
+when Jay and Gallatin respectively undertook the delicate work of
+negotiation in 1794 and 1814. A compromise was arrived at, which was
+signed on October 20, 1818. The articles on maritime rights and
+impressment were set aside. A convention was made for ten years in
+regard to the fisheries, the northwest boundary, and other points, and
+the commercial convention of 1815 was renewed. The English claim to the
+navigation of the Mississippi was finally disposed of, and the article
+concerning the West India trade was referred to the President. The
+arrangement of the fishery question disturbed Mr. Gallatin, who found
+himself compelled to sign an agreement which left the United States in a
+worse situation in that respect than before the war of 1812. But as the
+British courts would certainly uphold the construction by their
+government of the treaty of 1783, our vessels, when seized, would be
+condemned and a collision would immediately ensue. This, and the
+critical condition of our Spanish relations, left no choice between
+concession and war. A short time afterward Lord Castlereagh and the Duke
+of Wellington expressed friendly dispositions, and the mooted points of
+impressment and the West India trade were considered by them to be near
+an arrangement. The right of British armed vessels to examine American
+crews was abandoned in the convention itself.
+
+In July, 1818, the capture of Fort St. Mark and the occupation of
+Pensacola in Florida by General Jackson made some stir in the quiet
+waters of our foreign diplomacy. Uncertain as to whether the act would
+be disavowed or justified by the American government, Mr. Gallatin
+explained to the European ministers that the forcible occupation of the
+Spanish province was an act of self-defence and protection against the
+Indians, but Richelieu replied that the United States "had adopted the
+game laws and pursued in foreign ground what was started in its own."
+Yet, to the astonishment of Mr. Gallatin, Richelieu was moderate and
+friendly in language, and urged a speedy amicable arrangement of
+differences with Spain, in whose affairs France took an interest, and
+who had asked her good offices. But Gallatin at once rejected any idea
+that the United States would join France in any mediation between Spain
+and her revolted colonies. It seems rather singular that, to the
+suggestion that a Spanish prince might be sent over to America as an
+independent monarch, Gallatin contented himself with expressing a doubt
+as to the efficacy of such a course to preserve their independence. Mr.
+Adams was informed that public recognition of the independence of the
+insurgent colony of Buenos Ayres would shock the feelings and prejudices
+of the French ministers, but that notwithstanding this displeasure,
+France would not join Spain in a war on this account. England, however,
+would see such a war without regret, and privateers under Spanish
+commissions would instantly be fitted out, both in France and England.
+Under the existing convention with Great Britain three hundred American
+vessels arrived at Liverpool in the first nine months of 1818 from the
+United States and only thirty English, an advantage to the United States
+which war would at once destroy. Russia also was displeased with the
+recognition of the independence of the Spanish colonies. At the Congress
+of Aix la Chapelle various plans of mediation were proposed, but England
+refusing to engage to break off all commercial relations with such of
+the insurgent colonies as should reject the proposals agreed to, the
+whole project was abandoned. An agreement between the five great powers
+for the suppression of the slave trade was also proposed at this
+Congress, but France declined to recognize the right to visit French
+vessels in time of peace, and Russia making a similar declaration, this
+plan also fell to the ground, and even an association against the
+exactions of the Barbary powers was prevented by jealousy of the naval
+preponderance of Great Britain.
+
+While Mr. Gallatin was still actively engaged in an endeavor to put our
+commercial relations with France on a satisfactory basis, and
+negotiating with M. Pasquier, the new French minister for foreign
+affairs, both with regard to indemnities for captures and the new
+Spanish relations involved in the cession of Florida to the United
+States, a serious trouble arose in which Mr. Gallatin and Mr. Adams
+were at direct difference. In the spring of 1821 a French vessel, the
+Apollon, was seized on the St. Mary's River, on the Spanish side, and
+condemned for violation of the United States navigation laws. Mr. Adams
+sustained the seizure and Mr. Gallatin did his best to defend it, on the
+ground that the place where the vessel was seized was embraced in the
+occupation of the United States. To Adams he wrote that the doctrine
+assumed by the State Department with respect to the non-ratified treaty
+with Spain was not generally admitted in Europe, and that "he thought it
+equally dangerous and inconsistent with our general principles to assert
+that we had a right to seize a vessel for any cause short of piracy in a
+place where we did not previously claim jurisdiction." Mr. Gallatin
+succeeded in satisfying M. Pasquier that the seizure was not in
+violation of the law of nations or an insult to the French flag, and the
+captain having instituted a suit for redress against the seizing
+officers, the French minister allowed the matter to rest. Adams,
+however, was indignant at having his arguments set aside. He complained
+of it to Calhoun, and asked what Mr. Gallatin meant. Calhoun answered
+that perhaps it was "the pride of opinion." But when Adams got to his
+diary, which was the safety-valve of his ill-temper, he set a black mark
+against Mr. Gallatin's name in these words: "Gallatin is a man of
+first-rate talents, conscious and vain of them, and mortified in his
+ambition, checked as it has been, after attaining the last step to the
+summit; timid in great perils, tortuous in his paths; born in Europe,
+disguising and yet betraying a superstitious prejudice of European
+superiority of intellect, and holding principles pliable to
+circumstances, occasionally mistaking the left for the right handed
+wisdom." Against this judgment, Gallatin's estimate of Adams may be here
+set down. It was expressed to his intimate friend Badollet in 1824:
+"John Q. Adams is a virtuous man, whose temper, which is not the best,
+might be overlooked; he has very great and miscellaneous knowledge, and
+he is with his pen a powerful debater; but he wants, to a deplorable
+degree, that most essential quality, a sound and correct judgment. Of
+this I have had in my official connection and intercourse with him
+complete and repeated proofs; and although he may be useful when
+controlled and checked by others, he ought never to be trusted with a
+place where, unrestrained, his errors might be fatal to the country."
+Crawford complained of the difficulty he encountered in the cabinet of
+softening the asperities which invariably predominated in the official
+notes of the State Department while under Adams's direction, and said
+that, had they been allowed to remain as originally drafted, the
+government would have been "unembarrassed by diplomatic relations with
+more than one power." But it must be remembered that there was no love
+lost between Adams and Crawford--political rivals and not personal
+friends.
+
+The commercial negotiations, and the discussion of French pretensions
+under the eighth article of the Louisiana treaty, opened with M.
+Pasquier, were continued with the Vicomte de Montmorenci, who succeeded
+him as minister of foreign affairs. In September, 1821, Mr. Gallatin had
+communicated to Mr. Adams his intention of returning home in the spring;
+but there appearing a chance of success in the negotiation of a treaty,
+he wrote in February, 1822, to President Monroe that if no successor had
+been appointed, he was desirous to remain some time longer. He was loath
+to return without having succeeded in any one subject intrusted to his
+care. Meanwhile Mr. Adams and M. de Neuville, the French minister, had
+been busy in the United States. A commercial convention was signed at
+Washington on June 24, 1822. Concerning this agreement Mr. Gallatin
+wrote to Adams that the terms were much more favorable to France than he
+had been led to presume would be acceded to, and more so than had been
+hoped for by the French government. He nevertheless expressed the wish
+that, as it had been signed, it should be ratified, in anticipation that
+the superior activity of our ship-owners and seamen would enable America
+to stand the competition.
+
+In January, 1823, Montmorenci resigned and was succeeded by M. de
+Chateaubriand. The change of ministers made no change in the French
+persistence in connecting the discussion of the American claims with
+that of the eighth article of the Louisiana treaty, an arrangement to
+which Mr. Gallatin would not consent. As a last resort he so informed M.
+de Chateaubriand, but receiving an unsatisfactory answer he concluded
+that there was at that time no disposition in France to do us justice;
+and as his protracted stay could be of no service to the United States,
+he determined to return home in the course of the spring. In April he
+received leave of absence from the President. On May 13 he had a final
+conference with Chateaubriand, in which he could get no promise of any
+redress, but did obtain the explicit declaration that France would in no
+manner interfere in American questions.
+
+Mr. Gallatin took passage at Havre, and arrived in New York on June 24,
+1823. His political friends, especially Crawford, were eager for his
+return. Crawford wished him to stand for vice-president in the coming
+presidential campaign. After a short visit to Washington he went to his
+home at New Geneva. The real value of perfect public service, or indeed
+of any service, is only appreciated when it ceases, and friction takes
+the place of smooth and noiseless order. Hardly was Mr. Gallatin settled
+at Friendship Hill when a letter from President Monroe (October 15)
+arrived, urging him to return to Paris, if only for the winter, or until
+the crisis brought on by the rupture between France and Spain should be
+over. Mr. Gallatin replied, that the deranged state of his private
+affairs rendered his return to Europe extremely improbable.
+
+Goethe says in his "Elective Affinities" that we cannot escape the
+atmosphere we breathe. The natural atmosphere of Mr. Gallatin was public
+life. In November, 1825, Mr. Clay, Adams's secretary of state, offered,
+and, meeting a refusal, pressed upon Mr. Gallatin the post of
+representative of the United States at the proposed Congress of American
+Republics at Panama. Mr. Clay was right in considering it the most
+important mission ever sent from the United States, and had Mr. Gallatin
+accepted it, relations with these interesting countries might have been
+improved to an immeasurable degree of happiness to them, and of benefit
+to both continents. But his family would not hear of his exposure in the
+fatal climate of the American Isthmus. Moreover, he pleaded his
+ignorance of the Spanish language as a sufficient excuse for declining
+the mission,--an example which has not been followed in later days.
+
+
+_Minister to England_
+
+In the spring of 1826 Mr. Rufus King, who had taken the place of Mr.
+Rush at London, that gentleman having been called to the Treasury by
+President Adams, fell ill, and requested the assistance of an
+extraordinary envoy. Mr. Gallatin accepted the mission. Before his
+nomination reached the Senate Mr. King's resignation was received and
+accepted. President Adams wishing to intrust Mr. Gallatin alone with
+the pending negotiations, and unwilling to make the two nominations of
+minister and envoy, proposed to Mr. Gallatin to take the post of
+minister, with powers to negotiate, and liberty to return when the
+negotiations should be finished. Personal expenses at London were so
+great that the post of resident minister was ruinous. Mr. Adams promised
+Mr. Gallatin _carte blanche_ as to his instructions. But instead of
+latitude and discretionary power he received at New York voluminous
+directions which he engaged faithfully to execute, while regretting that
+they had not been made known to him sooner. Nevertheless, in the three
+days which intervened before his sailing, he wrote to Mr. Clay a lucid
+statement of the points in issue, and mentioned the modifications he
+desired. The points were: 1. The northeastern boundary. Upon this he was
+only authorized to obtain a reference of the subject to a direct
+negotiation at Washington. He asked consent, in case it should be
+desirable, to open a negotiation on this point at London. Should Great
+Britain refuse to open a negotiation at either place, or to agree to a
+joint statement, then he was not to be bound to propose an immediate
+reference to a third power. 2. The boundary west of the Stony Mountains.
+The instructions limited British continuance on settlements south of the
+49th parallel to five years. Mr. Gallatin thought this insufficient, and
+proposed fifteen years. 3. The St. Lawrence navigation, and the
+intercourse with Canada, as to which he suggested alternate plans. 4.
+Colonial trade, on which he asked precise instructions as to what was
+desired. To the President he complained of his instructions as 'of the
+most peremptory nature, leaving no discretion on unimportant points, and
+making of him a mere machine,' and he requested that it be officially
+announced to him 'that the instructions were intended to guide but not
+absolutely to bind him.' He was not afraid of incurring responsibility
+where discretion was allowed, but he would not do it in the face of
+strict and positive injunctions. Mr. Gallatin sailed from New York with
+his wife and daughter July 1, 1826. Mr. William Beach Lawrence, then a
+youth, accompanied him as his secretary. They reached London on August
+7.
+
+Canning was then at the head of the foreign office, and the temper of
+the ministry was not that of Castlereagh and Wellington. Mr. Gallatin
+did not like French diplomacy, nor did he admire that of England. He
+wrote to his son: 'Some of the French statesmen occasionally say what is
+not true; here (in London) they conceal the truth.' But while in
+diplomacy he found strength and the opinion of that strength to be the
+only weapons, he felt satisfaction that the country could support its
+rights and pretensions by assuming a different attitude. In the course
+of the negotiations Mr. Gallatin learned that one of the king's
+ministers had complained of the tone of United States diplomacy towards
+England, and had added, that it was time to show that it was felt and
+resented. No such fault could attach to the correspondence of Mr. Rush
+and Mr. King, or to that of Mr. Clay, which Mr. Addington had found
+quite acceptable; but it was ascribed to Mr. Adams's instructions to Mr.
+Rush, printed by order of the Senate. Mr. Gallatin later discovered that
+the offensive remarks were in Baylies's report on the territory west of
+the Stony Mountains. Mr. Gallatin explained the independence of the
+House committees in the United States, but as a diplomatist he felt the
+need of a concert between the executive and the committees of Congress
+in all that concerns foreign relations. Government, after all, is a
+complex science.
+
+The simple directness with which Mr. Gallatin dealt with Lord Liverpool
+could not serve with a man of Canning's disposition. Mr. Gallatin did
+not fail to bring to bear the pressure of a possible change in the
+relations of the United States and Great Britain, which might arise from
+the war which seemed imminent between that power and Spain. The new
+questions of Cuba, and the old habit of impressment, might at once bring
+the United States into collision with England. But the war did not take
+place, and the close of the year found the negotiations not far
+advanced. Only the convention of 1815 would no doubt be renewed. He
+asked for further instructions on that subject, the joint occupancy of
+western territory, and impressments, all of which he hoped to arrange
+in the spring and summer, and return home. Mr. Lawrence he found to be a
+secretary more capable in the current business of the legation than any
+of his predecessors. Mr. Gallatin could safely leave him there as
+_chargé d'affaires_.
+
+In December, Chateaubriand used in the House of Peers the words which
+Mr. Gallatin had said to him, 'that England could not take Cuba without
+making war on the United States, and that she knew it.' Mr. Gallatin so
+informed Adams, and added, that France would no doubt agree, as
+Chateaubriand would have agreed, to a tripartite instrument if England
+were of the same opinion.
+
+In March, 1827, Adams warned Gallatin that the sudden and unexpected
+determination of Great Britain to break off all negotiation concerning
+the colonial trade, and the contemporaneous interdiction of the vessels
+of the United States from all British ports in the West Indies, had put
+a new face on matters. A renewal of the convention of 1818 would
+probably be agreed to by the Senate, but no concession in the form of a
+treaty would be acceptable. His words were emphatic. "One inch of ground
+yielded on the northwest coast,--one step backward from the claim to the
+navigation of the St. Lawrence,--one hair's breadth of compromise upon
+the article of impressment would be certain to meet the reprobation of
+the Senate." In this temper of parties, Adams added, "All we can hope to
+accomplish will be to adjourn controversies which we cannot adjust, and
+say to Britain as the Abbé Bernis said to Cardinal Fleuri: 'Monseigneur,
+j'attendrai.'"
+
+But changes now occurred in the British ministry: Lord Liverpool died in
+February, 1827--Mr. Canning in the following August. Lord Goderich
+became prime minister. The new administration returned from Canning's
+eccentric course to the old and quiet path. The commercial convention of
+1815 was renewed indefinitely, each party being at liberty to abrogate
+it at twelve months' notice. The joint occupancy of the Oregon
+Territory, agreed to in 1818, was continued in a similar manner. On
+September 29 a convention was signed, referring the northeast boundary
+to the arbitration of a friendly sovereign. Mr. Gallatin believed that,
+had Canning lived, he would have opened a negotiation on the subject of
+impressment. Huskisson considered that 'the right, even if well founded,
+was one the exercise of which was intolerable, but that this was not the
+time to take up the subject.' The new British administration did not
+dare to encounter the clamor of the navy, the opposition of the Tories,
+and the pride of the nation on this question.
+
+Having accomplished all that was practicable, completed all the current
+business, and leaving the British government in a better temper than he
+found it, Mr. Gallatin returned to the United States, reaching New York
+on November 29, 1827. Nothing remained in foreign relations in respect
+to which Mr. Gallatin felt that he could be of much use except the
+northeast boundary. In a letter of congratulation to Mr. Gallatin on his
+arrival, President Adams made ample amends for all his harsh judgments,
+expressed or withheld. The three conventions were entirely satisfactory
+to him. Of the negotiation he said, in words as graceful as warm, "I
+shall feel most sensibly the loss of your presence at London, and can
+form no more earnest wish than that your successor may acquire the same
+influence of reason and good temper which you did exercise, and that it
+may be applied with as salutary effect to the future discussions between
+the two governments." During his visit to London Mr. Gallatin was
+overwhelmed with civilities. Canning was courteous to a degree, and
+rarely a day passed that the American ambassador had not to choose
+between half a dozen invitations to dinner. At the house of the Russian
+minister, the Count de Lieven, he was always welcome, and the Countess
+de Lieven, the autocrat of foreign society in London, without whose pass
+no stranger could cross the sacred threshold of Almack's, was his fast
+friend. To each circle he carried that which each most prized. Whether
+the conversation turned upon government or science, the dry figures of
+finance, or the more genial topic of diplomatic intrigue, Mr. Gallatin
+was its easy master, and his words never fell on inattentive ears.
+
+With this mission to London Mr. Gallatin's diplomatic service closed. He
+would have accepted the French mission in 1834, and so informed Van
+Buren, but General Jackson, who was President, had his own plans, and
+'ran his machine' without consulting other than his own prejudices or
+whims. But although Mr. Gallatin was no longer in the field of
+diplomacy, his counsels were eagerly sought. The northeastern boundary
+was a troublesome question, indeed in the new phases of American
+politics an imminent danger. The extension of the commercial relations
+of Great Britain and the United States rendered it imperative that no
+point of dispute should remain which could be determined. For two years
+after his return from England, Mr. Gallatin was employed in the
+preparation of an argument to be laid before the king of the
+Netherlands, who had been selected as the arbiter between the United
+States and Great Britain on the boundary. The king undertook to press a
+conventional line, which the United States, not being bound to accept,
+refused. In 1839 Mr. Gallatin prepared, and put before the world, a
+statement of the facts in the case. This, revised, together with the
+speech of Mr. Webster, a copy of the Jay treaty, and eight maps, he
+published at his own expense in 1840.
+
+At this time conflicts on the Maine frontier brought the subject up in a
+manner not to be ignored. Popular feeling was at high pitch. In this
+condition of affairs Alexander Baring, who had been raised to the
+peerage as Lord Ashburton, was sent to America on a mission of
+friendship and peace. As a young man he had listened to the debate on
+Jay's treaty in 1795. He was now to be received by Webster in Washington
+in the same spirit in which Grenville received Jay in London, when it
+was mutually understood that they should discuss the matter as friends
+and not as diplomatists, and leave their articles as records of
+agreement, not as compromises of discord. Gallatin eagerly awaited the
+arrival of his old friend, and was grievously disappointed when contrary
+winds blew the frigate which carried him to Annapolis. Letters were
+immediately exchanged; Lord Ashburton engaging before he left the
+country to find Gallatin out, and, as he said, to "_draw a little wisdom
+from the best well_." After the treaty was signed, Lord Ashburton went
+from Washington to New York, and the old friends met once more: Mr.
+Gallatin was in his 82d year, but in the full possession of his
+faculties; Lord Ashburton in his 68th year: a memorable meeting of two
+great men, whose lives had much in common; the one the foremost banker
+of England, the other the matchless financier of America; and to this
+sufficient honor was added for each the singular merit of having
+negotiated for his country the most important treaty in its relation to
+the other since the separation of 1783,--Mr. Gallatin, the Treaty of
+Ghent, which gave peace to America; Lord Ashburton, that treaty which
+is known by his name and which secured peace to Great Britain.
+
+In 1846 Mr. Gallatin rendered his last diplomatic service by the
+publication of a pamphlet on the Oregon question, which was then as
+threatening as that of the northeastern boundary had been. This
+admirable exposition, which put before the people as well as the
+negotiators the precise merits of the controversy, powerfully
+contributed to the ultimate peaceful settlement.
+
+Still once more Mr. Gallatin threw his authoritative words into the
+scale of justice. His last appearance in public had been when he
+presided on April 24, 1844, at a meeting in New York city to protest
+against the annexation of Texas. He then held that the resolution of the
+House declaring the treaty of annexation between the United States of
+America and the Republic of Texas to be the fundamental law of union
+between them, without and against the consent of the Senate, was a
+direct and undisguised usurpation of power and a violation of the
+Constitution. In the storm of opposition he lifted his feeble voice in
+condemnation of the violation of treaties, and the disregard of the
+sacred obligations of mankind. "I am highly gratified," were his final
+words, "I am highly gratified that the last public act of a long life
+should have been that of bearing testimony against this outrageous
+attempt. It is indeed a consolation that my almost extinguished voice
+has been on this occasion raised in defense of liberty, of justice, and
+of our country." Of the war with Mexico, he was wont to say, "that it
+was the only blot upon the escutcheon of the United States." Aged as he
+was, he would not rest until he had made his last appeal for peace with
+Mexico. He also prepared supplementary essays on war expenses: the first
+of these was published in 1847, the second in 1848. For months all his
+faculties, all his feelings were absorbed in this one subject. These
+pamphlets were widely circulated by the friends of peace. The venerable
+sage had the comfort of knowing that his words were not in vain. Peace
+with Mexico was signed on February 2, 1848.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mr. Gallatin was no believer in the doctrine of 'manifest destiny,'--the
+policy of bringing all North America into the occupation of a race
+speaking the same language, and under a single government. On February
+16, 1848, before news of the signature of the treaty at Guadalupe
+Hidalgo, by Mr. Trist, the American negotiator, was known in New York,
+Mr. Gallatin condemned this idea in a remarkable passage, in a letter to
+Garrett Davis:--
+
+     "What shall be said of the notion of an empire extending from the
+     Atlantic to the Pacific and from the North Pole to the Equator? Of
+     the destiny of the Anglo-Saxon race, of its universal monarchy over
+     the whole of North America? Now, I will ask, which is the portion
+     of the globe that has attained the highest degree of civilization
+     and even of power--Asia, with its vast empires of Turkey, India,
+     and China, or Europe divided into near twenty independent
+     sovereignties? Other powerful causes have undoubtedly largely
+     contributed to that result; but this, the great division into ten
+     or twelve distinct languages, must not be neglected. But all these
+     allegations of superiority of race and destiny neither require nor
+     deserve any answer. They are but pretences under which to disguise
+     ambition, cupidity, or silly vanity."
+
+The justice of these reflections was assuredly borne out by the
+experience of history, but manifest destiny takes no account of past
+lessons.
+
+Before these lines of Mr. Gallatin were penned, on January 19, 1848,
+gold was discovered in California. The announcement startled the world
+and opened a new era, not only to Europe, but to mankind. Extending the
+metallic basis, which no man better than Mr. Gallatin recognized and
+held to be the true solvent of money transactions, it postponed for a
+half century the inevitable conflict between capital and labor, the
+first outbreaks of which in Europe had been with difficulty suppressed,
+when the news of good tidings gave promise of unexpected relief. Credit
+revived, new enterprises of colossal magnitude were undertaken, and the
+demand for labor quickly exceeded the supply. Emigration to America rose
+to incredible proportions. Had Mr. Gallatin lived, he would have found
+new elements to be weighed in his nice balance of probabilities. He
+would no longer, as in 1839, have been compelled to say that "specie is
+a foreign product," but would have given to us inestimable advice as to
+the proper use to be made of the vast sums taken out from our own soil.
+He would have been also brought to face the ethnologic problem of a
+continent inhabited by a single race, not Anglo-Saxon, nor Teutonic, nor
+yet Latin, but a composite race in which all these will be merged and
+blended; a new American race which, springing from a broader surface,
+shall rise to higher summits of intellectual power and, with a greater
+variety of natural qualities, achieve excellence in more numerous ways.
+This vision was denied to Mr. Gallatin. He died at the threshold of the
+new era--of the golden age. A half century has not passed since his
+death, and the United States has taken from her soil a value of over
+three thousand millions of dollars, in gold and silver (gold two
+thousand millions, silver one thousand millions), more than two thirds
+of the total amount estimated by Mr. Gallatin as the store of Europe in
+1839; and has also added to her population, by immigration alone, ten
+millions of people, of whom but a small proportion are of the
+Anglo-Saxon race.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 19: _Life of Albert Gallatin_, p. 546.]
+
+[Footnote 20: The frigate Chesapeake was captured by the British
+man-of-war Leopard in June, 1807.]
+
+[Footnote 21: A translation of this work, _Economie Politique_, was
+published under Jefferson's supervision in 1818.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+CANDIDATE FOR THE VICE-PRESIDENCY
+
+
+During the twelve years that Mr. Gallatin was in the Treasury he was
+continually looking for some man who could take his place in that
+office, and aid in the direction of national politics; to use his own
+words, "who could replace Mr. Jefferson, Mr. Madison, and himself."
+Breckenridge of Kentucky only appeared and died. The eccentricities of
+John Randolph unfitted him for leadership. William H. Crawford of
+Georgia, Monroe's secretary of the treasury, alone filled Gallatin's
+expectations. To a powerful mind Crawford "united a most correct
+judgment and an inflexible integrity. Unfortunately he was neither
+indulgent nor civil, and, consequently, was unpopular." Andrew Jackson,
+Gallatin said, "was an honest man, and the idol of the worshipers of
+military glory, but from incapacity, military habits, and habitual
+disregard of laws and constitutional provisions, entirely unfit for the
+office of president." John C. Calhoun he looked upon as "a smart fellow,
+one of the first amongst second-rate men, but of lax political
+principles and an inordinate ambition, not over-delicate in the means of
+satisfying itself." Clay he considered to be a man of splendid talents
+and a generous mind; John Quincy Adams to be 'wanting to a deplorable
+degree in that most essential quality, a sound and correct judgment.'
+
+The contest lay between Adams and Crawford. Crawford was the choice of
+Jefferson and Madison as well as of Gallatin. The principles of the
+Republican party had so changed that Nathaniel Macon could say in 1824,
+in reply to a request from Mr. Gallatin to take part in a caucus for the
+purpose of forwarding Mr. Crawford's nomination, that there were "not
+five members of Congress who entertained the opinions which those did
+who brought Mr. Jefferson into power." But Macon was of the Brutus stamp
+of politicians; of that stern cast of mind which does not 'alter when it
+alteration finds or bend with the remover to remove,' and held yielding
+to the compulsion of circumstances to be an abandonment of principle.
+
+Jefferson still held the consolidation of power to be the chief danger
+of the country, and the barrier of state rights, great and small, to be
+its only protection even against the Supreme Court. Gallatin took
+broader ground, and found encouragement in the excellent working of
+universal suffrage in the choice of representatives to legislative
+bodies. But he was opposed to the extension of the principle to
+municipal officers having the application of the proceeds of taxes,
+forgetting that universal suffrage is the lever by which capital is
+moved to educate labor and relieve it from the burdens of injury,
+disease, and physical incapacity at the expense of the whole. Without
+stopping to argue these debatable questions, Mr. Gallatin, with
+practical statesmanship, determined to maintain in power the only agency
+by which he could at all shape the political future, and he threw
+himself into the canvass with zeal.
+
+Crawford had unfortunately been stricken with paralysis, and the choice
+of a vice-president became a matter of grave concern. Mr. Gallatin was
+selected to take this place on the ticket. To this tender he replied
+that he did not want the office, but would dislike to be proposed and
+not elected, and he honestly felt that as a foreigner and a residuary
+legatee of Federal hatred his name could not be of much service to the
+cause. Still, he followed the only course by which any party can be held
+together, and surrendered his prejudices and fears to the wishes of his
+friends. The Republican caucus met on February 14, 1824, in the chamber
+of the House of Representatives. Of the 216 members of the party only 66
+attended. Martin Van Buren, then senator from New York, managed this,
+the last congressional caucus for the selection of candidates.
+
+The solemnity given to the congressional nominations, and the publicity
+of the answers of candidates, Mr. Gallatin held to be political
+blunders. In fact the plan was adroitly denounced as an attempt to
+dictate to the people.
+
+Crawford was nominated for president by 64 votes, Gallatin for
+vice-president by 57. This nomination Mr. Gallatin accepted in a note to
+Mr. Ruggles, United States senator, on May 10, 1824. But there were
+elements of which party leaders of the old school had not taken
+sufficient account. Macon was right when he said that "every generation,
+like a single person, has opinions of its own, as much so in politics as
+anything else," and that 'the opinions of Jefferson and those who were
+with him were forgotten.' And Jefferson himself, in his complacent
+reflection that even the name of Federalist was "extinguished by the
+battle of New Orleans," did not see that the Republican party of the old
+school had been snuffed out by the same event. The new democracy, whose
+claims to rule were based, not on the policy of peace or restricted
+powers, but on the seductive glitter of military glory, was in the
+ascendant, and General Jackson was the favorite of the hour. New
+combinations became necessary, and Mr. Gallatin was requested to
+withdraw from the ticket, and make room for Mr. Clay, whose great
+western influence it was hoped would save it from defeat. This he gladly
+did in a declaration of October 2, addressed to Martin Van Buren, dated
+at his Fayette home, and published in the "National Intelligencer." The
+result of the election was singular. Calhoun was elected vice-president
+by the people. The presidential contest was decided in the House, Adams
+being chosen over Jackson and Crawford, by the influence of Clay. Mr.
+Gallatin quickly discerned in the failure of the people to elect a
+president the collapse of the Republican party. He considered it as
+"fairly defunct."
+
+Jackson had already announced the startling doctrine that no regard was
+to be had to party in the selection of the great officers of government,
+which Mr. Gallatin considered as tantamount to a declaration that
+principles and opinions were of no importance in its administration. To
+lose sight of this principle was to substitute men for measures.
+Jackson's idea of party, however, was personal fealty. He engrafted the
+_pouvoir personnel_ on the Democratic party as thoroughly as Napoleon
+could have done in his place. Moreover, Gallatin considered Jackson's
+assumption of power in his collisions with the judiciary at New Orleans
+and Pensacola, and his orders to take St. Augustine without the
+authority of Congress, as dangerous assaults upon the Constitution of
+the country and the liberties of the people, and he dreaded the
+substitution of the worship of a military chieftain for the maintenance
+of that liberty, the last hope of man. Ten years later he uttered the
+same opinion in a conversation with Miss Martineau, and he expressed a
+preference for an annual president, a cipher, so that all would be done
+by the ministry. But in the impossibility of this plan, he would have
+preferred a four years' term without renewal or an extension of six
+years; an idea adopted by Davis in his plan of disintegration by
+secession. The presidency, Mr. Gallatin thought, was "too much power
+for one man; therefore it fills all men's thoughts to the detriment of
+better things."
+
+When Mr. Gallatin visited Washington in 1829, he found a state of
+society, political and social, widely at variance with his own
+experience. The ways of Federalist and Republican cabinets were
+traditions of an irrevocable past. Jackson was political dictator, and
+took counsel only from his prejudices. The old simplicity had given way
+to elegance and luxury of adornment. The east room of the presidential
+mansion was covered with Brussels carpeting. There were silk curtains at
+the windows, French mirrors of unusual size, and three splendid English
+crystal chandeliers. In the dining-room were a hundred candles and
+lamps, and silver plate of every description, and presiding over this
+magnificence the strange successors of Washington and his stately dame,
+of Madison and his no less elegant wife,--the Tennessee backwoodsman and
+Peggy O'Neil.
+
+When, it is not too soon to ask, in the general reform of civil service,
+shall the possibility of such anomalies be entirely removed by
+restricting the executive mansion to an executive bureau, and entirely
+separating social ceremony from official state, to the final suppression
+of back stairs influence and kitchen cabinets?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+SOCIETY--LITERATURE--SCIENCE
+
+
+Mr. Gallatin's land speculations were not profitable. His plan of Swiss
+colonization did not result in any pecuniary advantage to himself. His
+little patrimony, received in 1786, he invested in a plantation of about
+five hundred acres on the Monongahela. Twelve years later, in 1798, he
+was neither richer nor poorer than at the time of his investment. The
+entire amount of claims which he held with Savary he sold in 1794,
+without warranty of title, to Robert Morris, then the great speculator
+in western lands, for four thousand dollars, Pennsylvania currency. This
+sum, his little farm, and five or six hundred pounds cash were then his
+entire fortune. In 1794, the revolution in Switzerland having driven out
+numbers of his compatriots, he formed a plan of association consisting
+of one hundred and fifty shares of eight hundred dollars each, of which
+the Genevans in Philadelphia, Odier, Fazzi, the two Cazenove, Cheriot,
+Bourdillon, Duby, Couronne, Badollet, and himself took twenty-five each.
+Twenty-five were offered to Americans, which were nearly all taken up,
+and one hundred were sent to Geneva, Switzerland, to D'Yvernois and his
+friends. The project was to purchase land, and Mr. Gallatin had decided
+upon a location in the northeast part of Pennsylvania, or in New York,
+on the border. In the summer Gallatin made a journey through New York to
+examine lands with the idea of occupation. In July, 1795, he made a
+settlement with Mr. Morris, taking his notes for three thousand five
+hundred dollars. Balancing his accounts, Mr. Gallatin then found himself
+worth seven thousand dollars, in addition to which he had about
+twenty-five thousand acres of waste lands and the notes of Mr. Morris.
+In 1798 Mr. Morris failed, and, under the harsh operations of the old
+law, was sent to jail. Mr. Gallatin never recovered the three thousand
+dollars owed to him in the final balance of his real estate operations.
+
+After Mr. Gallatin left the Treasury he located patents for seventeen
+hundred acres of Virginia military lands in the State of Ohio, on
+warrants purchased in 1784. In 1815 he valued his entire estate,
+exclusive of his farm on the Monongahela, at less than twelve thousand
+dollars. Forty years later he complained of his investment as a
+troublesome and unproductive property, which had plagued him all his
+life. Besides the purchase of lands, Mr. Gallatin invested part of his
+little capital in building houses on his farm, and in the country store
+which Badollet managed. The one yielded no return, and the sum put in
+the other was lost through the incompetency of his honest but
+inexperienced friend. His wife brought him a small property, but at no
+time in his life was he possessed of more than a modest competency. But
+he had never any discontent with his fortune nor any desire to be rich.
+
+Mrs. Gallatin, who had always until her marriage lived in cities, was
+entirely unfit for frontier life. In these days of railroads it is not
+easy to measure the isolation of their country home. Pittsburgh was
+nearly five days' journey from Philadelphia, and the crossing of the
+Alleghanies took a day and a half more. Before his marriage Mr. Gallatin
+had seen very little of society. Though in early manhood he felt no
+embarrassment among men, he said 'that he never yet was able to divest
+himself of an anti-Chesterfieldian awkwardness in mixed companies.' He
+did not take advantage of his residence in Philadelphia to accustom
+himself to the ways of the world. There he lived in lodgings and met the
+leading public characters of both parties. But when he took his seat in
+the cabinet, he found it necessary to enter upon housekeeping and to
+take a prominent part in society, for which his wife was admirably
+suited, both by temperament and education. Washington Irving wrote of
+her in November, 1812, that she was 'the most stylish woman in the
+drawing-room that session, and that she dressed with more splendor than
+any other of the noblesse;' and again the same year compared her with
+the wife of the President, whose courtly manners and consummate tact
+and grace are a tradition of the republican court. "Tell your good
+lady," mother Irving wrote to James Renwick, "that Mrs. Madison has been
+much indisposed, and at last Wednesday's evening drawing-room Mrs.
+Gallatin presided in her place. I was not present, but those who were
+assure me that she filled Mrs. Madison's chair to a miracle." This is in
+the sense of dignity, for Mrs. Gallatin was of small stature.
+
+Mr. Gallatin's house shared the fate of the public buildings and was
+burned by the British when Washington was captured in 1814. He was then
+abroad on the peace mission. On his return from France Mr. Gallatin made
+one more attempt to realize his early idea of a country home, and with
+his family went in the summer of 1823 to Friendship Hill. Here an Irish
+carpenter built for him a house which he humorously described as being
+in the 'Hyberno-teutonic style,--the outside, with its port-hole-looking
+windows, having the appearance of Irish barracks, while the inside
+ornaments were similar to those of a Dutch tavern, and in singular
+contrast to the French marble chimney-pieces, paper, mirrors, and
+billiard-table.' In the summer Friendship Hill was an agreeable
+residence, but Mr. Gallatin found it in winter too isolated even for his
+taste.
+
+One exciting circumstance enlivened the spring of 1825. This was the
+passage of Lafayette, the guest of the nation, through western
+Pennsylvania on his famous tour. Mr. Gallatin welcomed him in an
+address before the court-house of Uniontown, the capital of Fayette
+County, on May 26. In his speech Mr. Gallatin reviewed the condition of
+the liberal cause in Europe, and the emancipation of Greece, then
+agitating both continents. In this all scholars as well as all liberals
+were of one mind and heart. After the proceedings Lafayette drove with
+Mr. Gallatin to Friendship Hill, where he passed the night; crowds of
+people pouring down the valley from the mountain roads to see the
+adopted son of the United States, the friend of Washington, the
+liberator of France. The intimacy between these two great men, who had
+alike devoted the flower of their youth to the interests of civilization
+and the foundation of the new republic, was never broken.
+
+Mr. Gallatin passed only one winter at New Geneva. On his return from
+his last mission to England he settled permanently in New York, and in
+1828 took a house at No. 113 Bleecker Street, then in the suburbs of the
+city. He wrote to Badollet in March, 1829, that "it was an ill-contrived
+plan to think that the banks of the Monongahela, where he was perfectly
+satisfied to live and die in retirement, could be borne by the female
+part of his family, or by children brought up at Washington and Paris."
+The population of New York has always been migratory, and Mr. Gallatin
+was no exception to the rule. In the ten years which followed his first
+location he changed his residence on four May days, finally settling at
+No. 57 Bleecker Street, nearly opposite to Crosby Street. His life in
+New York is a complete period in his intellectual as in his physical
+existence, and the most interesting of his career. His last twenty years
+were in great measure devoted to scientific studies.
+
+The National Bank, over which he presided for the first ten years, took
+but a small part of his time. The remainder was given up to study and
+conversation, an art in which he had no superior in this country and
+probably none abroad. Soon after his arrival in New York, Mr. Gallatin
+was chosen a member of "The Club," an association famous in its day. As
+no correct account of this social organization has ever appeared, the
+letter of invitation to Mr. Gallatin is of some interest. It was written
+by Dr. John Augustine Smith, on November 2, 1829. An extract gives the
+origin of the club.
+
+     "Nearly two years ago some of the literary gentlemen of the city,
+     feeling severely the almost total want of intercourse among
+     themselves, determined to establish an association which should
+     bring them more frequently into contact. Accordingly they founded
+     the 'Club' as it is commonly called, and which I believe I
+     mentioned to you when I had the pleasure of seeing you in Bond
+     Street. Into this 'Club' twelve persons only are admitted, and
+     there are at present three gentlemen of the Bar, Chancellor Kent,
+     Messrs. Johnston and Jay, three professors of Columbia College,
+     Messrs. McVickar, Moore, and Renwick, the Rev. Drs. Wainwright and
+     Mathews, the former of the Episcopal Church, the latter of the
+     Presbyterian Church, two merchants, Messrs. Brevoort and Goodhue,
+     and I have the honor to represent the medical faculty. Our twelfth
+     associate was Mr. Morse, of the National Academy of Design, of
+     which he was president, and his departure for Europe has caused a
+     vacancy. For agreeableness of conversation there is nothing in New
+     York at all comparable to our institution. We meet once a week; no
+     officers, no formalities; invitations, when in case of intelligent
+     and distinguished strangers, and after a plain and light repast,
+     retire about eleven o'clock."
+
+At this club Mr. Gallatin, with his wonderful conversational powers,
+became at once the centre of interest. The club met at the houses of
+members in the winter evenings. There was always a supper, but the rule
+was absolute that there should be only one hot dish served, a regulation
+which the ladies endeavored to evade when the turn of their husbands
+arrived to supply the feast. Among the later members were Professor
+Anderson, John A. Stevens, Mr. Gallatin's countryman De Rham, John
+Wells, Samuel Ward, Gulian C. Verplanck, and Charles King. No literary
+symposium in America was ever more delightful, more instructive, than
+these meetings. On these occasions Mr. Gallatin led the conversation,
+which usually covered a wide field. His memory was marvelous, and his
+personal acquaintance with the great men who were developed by the
+French Revolution, emperors and princes, heroes, statesmen, and men of
+science, gave to the easy flow of his speech the zest of anecdote and
+the spice of epigram. Once heard he was never forgotten. And this rare
+faculty he preserved undiminished to the close of his life. Washington
+Irving, himself the most genial of men, and the most graceful of
+talkers, wrote of him, after meeting him at dinner, in 1841: "Mr.
+Gallatin was in fine spirits and full of conversation. He is upwards of
+eighty, yet has all the activity and clearness of mind and gayety of
+spirits of a young man. How delightful it is to see such intellectual
+and joyous old age: to see life running out clear and sparkling to the
+last drop! With such a blessed temperament one would be content to
+linger and spin out the last thread of existence."
+
+At the close of the year 1829 Mr. Gallatin attempted to carry out his
+old and favorite plan of the "establishment of a general system of
+rational and practical education fitted for all, and gratuitously open
+to all." The want of an institution for education, combining the
+advantages of a European university with the recent improvements in
+instruction, was seriously felt. New York, already a great city, and
+rapidly growing, offered the most promising field for the national
+university on a broad and liberal foundation correspondent to the spirit
+of the age. The difficulty of obtaining competent teachers of even the
+lower branches of knowledge in the public schools, the system of which
+was in its infancy, was great. Persons could be found with learning
+enough, but they were generally deficient in the art of teaching.
+Governor Throop noticed this deficiency in his message of January, 1830,
+without, however, the recommendation of any remedy by legislation. The
+existing colleges could not supply the want. At this period religious
+prejudice controlled the actions of men in every walk of life; for the
+old colonial jealousies of Episcopalian and Presbyterian survived the
+Revolution. The religious distrust of scientific investigation was also
+at its height. Columbia College, the successor of old King's College,
+was governed in the Episcopalian interest. Private zeal could alone be
+relied upon to establish the new enterprise on a foundation free from
+the influence of clergy; an indispensable condition of success. These
+were the views of Mr. Jefferson in 1807. These were the views of Mr.
+Gallatin. In response to his request abundant subscriptions in money and
+material were at once forthcoming.
+
+The project of a national university at New York was received by the
+literary institutions of the United States with great enthusiasm. In
+October, 1830, a convention of more than a hundred literary and
+scientific gentlemen, delegates from different parts of the country, and
+of the highest distinction, was held in the common-council chamber. The
+outcome of their deliberations was the foundation of the New York
+University. Mr. Gallatin was the president of the first council, but
+his connection with the institution was of short continuance. The
+reasons for his withdrawal were set forth in a letter to his old friend,
+John Badollet, written February 7, 1833. Beginning with an expression of
+his desire to devote what remained of his life "to the establishment in
+this immense and growing city (New York) of a general system of rational
+and practical education fitted for all and gratuitously opened to all,"
+he said, "but finding that the object was no longer the same, that a
+certain portion of the clergy had obtained the control, and that their
+object, though laudable, was special and quite distinct from mine, I
+resigned at the end of one year rather than to struggle, probably in
+vain for what was nearly unattainable." The history of the university
+through its precarious existence of half a century amply justifies Mr.
+Gallatin's previsions and retirement. Instead of an American Sorbonne,
+of which he dreamed, it has never been more than a local institution,
+struggling to hold a place in a crowded field.
+
+Mr. Gallatin followed the evolutions of French politics with interest.
+His friend Lafayette, who, during the Empire, lived in almost enforced
+retirement at his estate of La Grange, was a voluntary exile from the
+court of Charles X., whose autocratic principles and aggressive course
+were rapidly driving France into fresh revolution. In July, 1830, the
+crisis was precipitated by the royal decrees published in the
+"Moniteur." Lafayette, who was on his estate, hurried instantly to
+Paris, where he became a rallying point, and himself signed the note to
+the king, announcing that he had ceased to reign. In September following
+it fell to him to write to Mr. Gallatin on the occasion of the marriage
+of Gallatin's daughter. In this union Lafayette had a triple interest.
+Besides his personal attachment for Mr. Gallatin, each of the young
+couple was descended from one of his old companions-in-arms. The groom,
+Mr. Byam Kerby Stevens, was a son of Colonel Ebenezer Stevens, of the
+continental service, who was Lafayette's chief of artillery in his
+expedition against Arnold in Virginia, in the spring of 1781; the bride,
+Frances Gallatin, was, on the mother's side, the granddaughter of
+Commodore James Nicholson, who commanded the gunboats which, improvised
+by Colonel Stevens, drove out the British vessels from Annapolis Bay and
+opened the route to the blockaded American flotilla.[22]
+
+     "PARIS, _September_ 8, 1830.
+
+     "MY DEAR FRIEND:--A long time has elapsed since I had the pleasure
+     to hear from you. I need not, I hope, add, that my affectionate
+     feelings have been continually with you, especially in what related
+     to my young friend whose change of name has more deeply interested
+     every member, and in a very particular manner, the younger part of
+     the family. Let me hear of you all, and receive my tender regards
+     and wishes, with those of my children and grandchildren.
+     LAFAYETTE."
+
+Both of the young people had the honor of Lafayette's acquaintance,--Mr.
+Stevens during a visit to Paris, and Miss Gallatin during her father's
+residence there as minister, when she was much admired, and was, in the
+words of Madame Bonaparte (Miss Patterson), 'a beauty.' In this letter
+Lafayette gives a picturesque account of the three days' fighting at the
+barricades, and of the departure of the ex-king and the royal army,
+accompanied by "some twenty thousand Parisians, in coaches, hacks, and
+omnibus.... The royal party, after returning the jewels of the crown,
+went slowly to Cherbourg with their own escort, under the protection of
+three commissioners, and were there permitted quietly to embark for
+England."
+
+In 1834 Mr. Gallatin's sympathies were greatly excited by the arrival at
+New York of a number of Poles, many of them educated men, and among them
+Etsko, a nephew of Kosciusko. A public committee was raised, called the
+Polish committee, of which Mr. Gallatin was chosen chairman. Besides
+superintending the collection of funds, he arranged and carried out in
+the minutest details a plan to quarter the exiles upon the inhabitants.
+A list of names ending in _ski_ still remains among his papers; to each
+was assigned a number, and they were allotted by streets and
+numbers,--number 182, one Szelesegynski, was taken by Mr. Gallatin
+himself, to look after horses. These unfortunate men were then
+distributed through the country, as occupations could be found. In
+October Mr. Gallatin's notes show that all had been provided for except
+fourteen boys, for whom a subscription was taken up. A tract of land in
+Illinois was assigned by Congress to these political exiles.
+
+Mr. Gallatin's first acquaintance with the American Indian was made at
+Machias. In the neighborhood of this frontier town, across the Canadian
+border, there were still remnants of the Abenaki and Etchemin tribes.
+They were French in sympathy, and all converts to the Roman Catholic
+faith. Mr. Lesdernier, with whom Gallatin lodged, had influence over
+them from the trade he established with them in furs, and as their
+religious purveyor. He had paid a visit to Boston at the time the French
+fleet was there in 1781, and brought home a Capuchin priest for their
+service. To the young Genevan, brought up in the restrictions of
+European civilization, the history of the savage was a favorite study.
+In the winter evenings, in the quiet of the log hut, with the aid of one
+familiar with the customs and traditions of the race, the foundations
+were laid of a permanent interest in this almost untrodden branch of
+human science. The Canadian Indians, however, hemmed in by French and
+English settlements, were semi-civilized. The Miamis and Shawnees, who
+ranged the valley of the Ohio, were the tribes nearest to Gallatin's
+home on the Monongahela. These, though for a long time under the
+influence of the French, retained their original wildness, and were,
+during the first years of his residence, the dread of the frontier.
+
+The interest aroused in the mind of Mr. Gallatin by personal observation
+was quickened by his intimacy with Jefferson, whose "Notes on Virginia,"
+published in 1801, contained the first attempt at a classification and
+enumeration of American tribes. The earlier work of Colden was confined
+to the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy. The arrangement of the
+Louisiana territory, ceded by France, brought Mr. Gallatin into contact
+with Pierre Louis Chouteau, and an intimacy formed with John Jacob
+Astor, who was largely concerned in the fur trade of the Northwest,
+widened the field of interest, which included the geography of the
+interior and the customs of its inhabitants. Mr. Gallatin's examination
+of the subject was general, however, and did not take a practical
+scientific turn until the year 1823, when, at the request of Baron
+Alexander von Humboldt, he set forth the results of his studies in the
+form of a Synopsis of the Indian tribes. This essay, communicated by
+Humboldt to the Italian geographer Balbi, then engaged upon his "Atlas
+Ethnographique du Globe,"--a classification by languages of ancient and
+modern peoples,--was quoted by him in his volume introductory to that
+remarkable work published in 1826, in a manner to attract the attention
+of the scientific world. Vater, in his "Mithridates," first attempted a
+classification of the languages of the globe, but the work of Mr.
+Gallatin, though confined in subject, was original in its conception and
+treatment. In the winter of 1825-26 a large gathering of southern
+Indians at Washington enabled him to obtain good vocabularies of several
+of the tribes. Uniting these to those already acquired, he published a
+table of all the existing tribes, and at the same time, at his instance,
+the War Department circulated through its posts a vocabulary containing
+six hundred words of verbal forms and of selected sentences, and a
+series of grammatical queries, to which answers were invited. He also
+opened an elaborate correspondence with such persons as were best
+acquainted with the Indian tribes in different sections of the
+country.[23] The replies to these various queries were few in number,
+but the practical plan, adhered to in substance, has resulted in the
+collection by the Smithsonian Institution of a very large number of
+Indian vocabularies.[24]
+
+This class of investigation, in its ample scope for original research
+and the ascertainment of principles by analysis and analogic expression,
+was peculiarly agreeable to Mr. Gallatin. His friend, du Ponceau,[25]
+who served in the American war as the secretary of Steuben, and was now
+established in Philadelphia, was likewise deeply engaged in philologic
+studies; in 1819 he had published a memoir of the construction of the
+languages of the North American Indians, which he followed later with
+other papers of a similar nature, among which were a "Grammar of the
+Languages of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians," and a memoir on the
+grammatical system of the languages of the Indian tribes of North
+America, a learned and highly instructive paper, which took the Volney
+prize at Paris.
+
+In 1836 Mr. Gallatin's original paper, contributed to Balbi, amplified
+by subsequent acquisitions, was published by the American Antiquarian
+Society of Worcester, in the first volume of its Transactions. It was
+entitled "A Synopsis of the Indian Tribes, within the United States east
+of the Rocky Mountains, and in the British and Russian Possessions in
+North America." This elaborate inquiry, the foundation of the science in
+America, was intended originally to embrace all the tribes north of the
+Mexican semi-civilized nations. From the want of material, however, it
+was confined at the southward to the territory of the United States, and
+eastward of the Rocky Mountains. It included eighty-one tribes, divided
+into twenty-eight families, and was accompanied by a colored map, with
+tribal indications. The result of the investigation Mr. Gallatin held to
+be proof that all the languages, not only of our own Indian tribes, but
+of the nations inhabiting America from the Arctic Ocean to Cape Horn,
+have a distinct character common to all. This paper attracted great
+attention in Europe. It was reviewed by the Count de Circourt, whose
+interest in the subject was heightened by personal acquaintance with the
+author. John C. Calhoun, acknowledging receipt of a copy of the
+Synopsis, said in striking phrase 'that he had long thought that the
+analogy of languages is destined to recover much of the lost history of
+nations just as geology has of the globe we inhabit.'
+
+In 1838, Congress having accepted the trust of John Smithson of
+£100,000, and pledged the faith of the United States for its purposes,
+Mr. Forsyth, the secretary of state, addressed Mr. Gallatin, at the
+request of the President, requesting his views as to its proper
+employment; but Mr. Gallatin does not appear to have answered the
+communication. The programme of the Smithsonian Institution, inclosed to
+the board of regents in its first report, stated its object to be the
+increase and diffusion of knowledge, and bears marks of the general
+views which Mr. Gallatin had for many years urged on public attention.
+The first of the Smithsonian "Contributions to Knowledge" was the memoir
+of Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, by Squier and Davis.
+Before its publication was undertaken, however, it was submitted to the
+Ethnological Society. Mr. Gallatin returned it, with the approval of the
+society, and some words of commendation of his own addressed to
+Professor Henry, the learned superintendent of the Smithsonian
+Institution.
+
+The period of temporary political repose, which followed the peace of
+Vienna and the establishment of the balance of power by the allied
+sovereigns, was an era in human knowledge. Science made rapid progress,
+and in its turn showed the broad and liberal influence of the great
+revolution. In 1842 societies were founded in Paris and London to
+promote the study of ethnology. Mr. Gallatin would not be behindhand in
+this important work for which America offered a virgin field. Drawing
+about him a number of gentlemen of similar tastes with his own, he
+founded in New York, in 1842, the American Ethnological Society. Among
+his associates were Dr. Robinson, the famous explorer of Palestine,
+Schoolcraft, Bartlett, and Professor Turner, noted for their researches
+in the history and languages of the Indian races. Messrs. Atwater,
+Bradford, Hawks, Gibbs, Mayer, Dr. Morton, Pickering, Stephens, Ewbank,
+and Squier were also, either in the beginning or soon after, members of
+this select and learned institution, of which Mr. Gallatin was the
+central figure. One of its members said in 1871, 'Mr. Gallatin's house
+was the true seat of the society, and Mr. Gallatin himself its
+controlling spirit. His name gave it character, and from his purse
+mainly was defrayed the cost of the two volumes of the "Transactions"
+which constitute about the only claim the society possesses to the
+respect of the scientific world.' To the first of these volumes,
+published in 1845, Mr. Gallatin contributed an "Essay on the
+semi-civilized nations of Mexico and Central America, embracing
+elaborate notes on their languages, numeration, calendars, history, and
+chronology, and an inquiry into the probable origin of their
+semi-civilization." In this he included all existing certain knowledge
+of the languages, history, astronomy, and progress in art of these
+peoples. A copy of this work he sent to General Scott, then in the city
+of Mexico after his triumphant campaign, inclosing a memorandum which he
+urged the general to hand to civilians attached to the army. This was a
+request to purchase books, copies of documents, printed grammars, and
+vocabularies of the Mexican languages, and he authorized the general to
+spend four hundred dollars in this purpose on his account. In the second
+volume, published in 1848, he printed the result of his continued
+investigations on the subject which first interested him, as an
+introduction to a republication of a work by Mr. Hale on the "Indians of
+Northwest America." This consisted of geographical notices, an account
+of Indian means of subsistence, the ancient semi-civilization of the
+Northwest, Indian philology, and analogic comparisons with the Chinese
+and Polynesian languages. These papers Mr. Gallatin modestly described
+to Chevalier as the 'fruits of his leisure,' and to Sismondi he wrote
+that he had not the requisite talent for success in literature or
+science. They nevertheless entitle him to the honorable name of the
+Father of American Ethnography.
+
+In 1837 Mr. Wheaton, the American minister at Berlin, requested Mr.
+Gallatin to put the Baron von Humboldt in possession of authentic data
+concerning the production of gold in the United States. Humboldt had
+visited the Oural and Siberian regions in 1829, at the request of the
+Emperor of Russia, to make investigations as to their production of the
+precious metals. Mr. Gallatin was the only authority in the United
+States on the subject. Later von Humboldt wrote to Mr. Gallatin of the
+interest felt abroad, and by himself, in the gold of the mountains of
+Virginia and Tennessee, a country which rivaled on a small scale the
+Dorado of Siberia. The treasures of the Pacific coast were not yet
+dreamed of.
+
+Mr. Gallatin perfectly understood the range of his own powers. He said
+of himself:--
+
+     "If I have met with any success, either in public bodies, as an
+     executive officer, or in foreign negotiations, it has been
+     exclusively through a patient and most thorough investigation of
+     all the attainable facts, and a cautious application of these to
+     the questions under discussion.... Long habit has given me great
+     facility in collating, digesting, and extracting complex documents,
+     but I am not hasty in drawing inferences; the arrangement of the
+     facts and arguments is always to me a considerable labor, and
+     though aiming at nothing more than perspicuity and brevity, I am a
+     very slow writer."
+
+Mr. Gallatin's manuscripts and drafts show long and minute labor in
+their well considered and abundant alterations. Referring on one
+occasion to his habit of reasoning, Mr. Gallatin remarked, that of all
+processes that of analogy is the most dangerous, yet that which he
+habitually used; that it required the greatest possible number of facts.
+This is the foundation of philology, and his understanding of its method
+and its dangers is the reason of his success in this branch of science.
+
+The difficulty experienced in establishing any literary or scientific
+institutions in New York was very great. An effort made in 1830, which
+Mr. Gallatin favored, to establish a literary periodical failed, not on
+account of the pecuniary difficulties, but from the impossibility of
+uniting a sufficient number of able coöperators. But Mr. Gallatin's
+interest in literature was not as great as in science.[26]
+
+In 1841 a national institution for the promotion of science was
+organized at Washington. The coöperation of Mr. Gallatin was invited,
+but the society had a short existence. In 1843 Mr. Gallatin was chosen
+president of the New York Historical Society. His inaugural address is
+an epitome of political wisdom. Pronounced at any crisis of our history,
+it would have become a text for the student. In this sketch he analyzed
+the causes which contributed to form our national character and to
+establish a government founded on justice and on equal rights. He showed
+how, united by a common and imminent danger, the thirteen States
+succeeded in asserting and obtaining independence without the aid of a
+central and efficient government, and the difficulties which were
+encountered when a voluntary surrender of a part of their immense
+sovereignty became necessary as a condition of national existence. He
+said that the doctrine that all powers should emanate from the people is
+not a question of expediency.
+
+In this address he summed up the reasons why Washington exercised such a
+beneficial influence upon the destinies of his country. In a
+confidential letter to his wife in 1797, he expressed an opinion that
+the father of his country was not a good-natured and amiable man, but
+time had mellowed these recollections and softened the asperity of this
+judgment. Washington had not, he said (in 1843), 'an extraordinary
+amount of acquired knowledge; he was neither a classical scholar nor a
+man of science, nor was he endowed with the powers of eloquence, nor
+with other qualities more strong than solid, which might be mentioned;
+but he had a profound and almost innate sense of justice, on all public
+occasions a perfect control of his strong passions,[27] above all a most
+complete and extraordinary self-abnegation. Personal consequences and
+considerations were not even thought of, they never crossed his mind,
+they were altogether obliterated.' Mr. Gallatin held that "the Americans
+had a right to be proud of Washington, because he was selected and
+maintained during his whole career by the people--never could he have
+been thus chosen and constantly supported had he not been the type and
+representative of the American people."
+
+The commemoration of the fortieth anniversary of the foundation of the
+New York Historical Society, November, 1844, was an occasion of unusual
+interest. John Romeyn Brodhead, who had just returned from the Hague
+with the treasures of New Netherland history gathered during his
+mission, was the orator of the day. The venerable John Quincy Adams, Mr.
+Gallatin's old associate at Ghent, was present. After the address, which
+was delivered at the Church of the Messiah on Broadway, the society and
+its guests crossed the street to the New York Hotel, where a banquet
+awaited them. Mr. Gallatin retired early, leaving the chair to the first
+vice-president, Mr. Wm. Beach Lawrence. After he had left the room, Mr.
+Adams, speaking to a toast to the archæologists of America, said: "Mr.
+Gallatin, in sending to me the invitations of the society, added the
+expression of his desire 'to shake hands with me once more in this
+world.'" Mr. Adams could not but respond to his request. In his remarks
+he said:
+
+     "I have lived long, sir, in this world, and I have been connected
+     with all sorts of men, of all sects and descriptions. I have been
+     in the public service for a great part of my life, and filled
+     various offices of trust, in conjunction with that venerable
+     gentleman, Albert Gallatin. I have known him half a century. In
+     many things we differed; on many questions of public interest and
+     policy we were divided, and in the history of parties in this
+     country there is no man from whom I have so widely differed as from
+     him. But in other things we have harmonized; and now there is no
+     man with whom I more thoroughly agree on all points than I do with
+     him. But one word more let me say, before I leave you and him,
+     birds of passage as we are, bound to a warmer and more congenial
+     clime,--that among all public men with whom I have been associated
+     in the course of my political life, whether agreeing or differing
+     in opinion from him, I have always found him to be an honest and
+     honorable man."
+
+In the road to harmony Mr. Adams had to do the traveling. Mr. Gallatin
+never changed his political opinions. The political career of the two
+men offered this singular contrast: Adams, dissatisfied with his party,
+passed into opposition; Gallatin, though at variance with the policy of
+the administration of which he made a part, held his fealty, and
+confined himself to the operations of his own bureau.
+
+For a period far beyond the allotted years of man Mr. Gallatin retained
+the elasticity of his physical nature as well as his mental
+perspicacity. In middle age he was slight of figure, his height about
+five feet ten inches, his form compact and of nervous vigor. His
+complexion was Italian;[28] his expression keen; his nose long,
+prominent; his mouth small, fine cut, and mobile; his eyes hazel, and
+penetrative; his skull a model for the sculptor. Thus he appears in the
+portrait painted by Gilbert Stuart about the time that he took charge of
+the Treasury Department; he was then about forty years of age. In the
+fine portrait by William H. Powell, taken from life in 1843, and
+preserved in the gallery of the New York Historical Society, these
+characteristics appear in stronger outline. Monsieur de Bacourt,[29] the
+literary executor of Talleyrand, who was the French Ambassador to the
+United States in 1840, paid a visit to Mr. Gallatin in that year, and
+describes him as a "beau vieillard de quatre-vingt ans," who has fully
+preserved his faculties. Bacourt alludes to his remarkable face, with
+its clear, fine cut features, and his "physiognomie pleine de finesse;"
+and dwells also upon the ease and charm of his conversation.
+
+As his life slowly drew to its close, one after another of the few of
+his old friends who remained dropped from the road. Early in 1848 Adams
+fell in harness, on the floor of the House of Representatives; Lord
+Ashburton died in May. Finally, nearest, dearest of all, the companion
+of his triumphs and disappointments, the sharer of his honors and his
+joys, his wife, was taken from him by the relentless hand. The summer of
+1849 found him crushed by this last affliction, and awaiting his own
+summons of release. He was taken to Mount Bonaparte, the country-seat of
+his son-in-law, at Astoria on Long Island, where he died in his
+daughter's arms on Sunday, August 12, 1849. The funeral services were
+held in Trinity Church on the Tuesday following, and his body was laid
+to rest in the Nicholson vault,[30] in the old graveyard adjoining. The
+elegant monument erected during his lifetime is one of the attractive
+features of this venerable cemetery, in whose dust mingle the remains of
+the temple of no more elevated spirit than his own. The season was a
+terrible one--the cholera was raging, the city was deserted. In the
+general calamity private sorrow disappeared, or the occasion would have
+been marked by a demonstration of public grief and of public honor. As
+the tidings went from city to city, and country to country, the friends
+of science, of that universal wisdom which knows neither language nor
+race, paused in their investigations to pay respectful homage to his
+character, his intellect, and to that without which either or both in
+combination are inadequate to success--his labor in the field.
+
+On October 2, 1849, at the first meeting of the Historical Society
+after the death of Mr. Gallatin, Mr. Luther Bradish, the presiding
+officer, spoke of him in impressive words, as the last link connecting
+the present with the past. He dwelt upon the peculiar pleasure with
+which the presence of Mr. Gallatin was always hailed, and the peculiar
+interest it gave to the proceedings of the society, and many an eye was
+dimmed, as he recalled the venerable form, the beautifully classic head,
+the countenance ever beaming with intelligence, and summed up the long
+and useful career of the departed sage in these impressive words:--
+
+     "The name of Albert Gallatin is emphatically a name of history. Few
+     men have lived in any age whose biographies have been so intimately
+     connected with the history of their country. Living in one of the
+     most interesting periods of the world, a period of great events, of
+     the discussion of great principles and the settlement of great
+     interests, almost the whole of his long and active life was passed
+     in public service amidst those events and in those discussions....
+     For nearly half a century he was almost constantly employed in the
+     public service; almost every department of that service has
+     received the benefit of his extraordinary talents and his varied
+     and extensive and accurate knowledge. Whether in legislation, in
+     finance, or in diplomacy, he has been equally distinguished in all.
+     In all or in either he has had few equals and still fewer
+     superiors."
+
+To Jeremy Bentham Mr. Gallatin acknowledged himself indebted, as his
+master in the art of legislation; but from whatever ground he drew his
+maxims of government, they were reduced to harmony in the crucible of
+his own intelligence by the processes of that brain which Spurzheim
+pronounced capital,[31] and Dumont held to be the best head in America.
+In that massive and profound structure lay faculties of organization and
+administration which mark the Latin and Italian mind in its highest form
+of intellectual development.
+
+His moral excellence was no less conspicuous than his intellectual
+power. He had a profound sense of justice, a love of liberty, and an
+unfaltering belief in the capacity of the human race for self-rule.
+Versed in the learning of centuries, and familiar with every experiment
+of government, he was full of the liberal spirit of his age. To a higher
+degree than any American, native or foreign born, unless Franklin, with
+whose broad nature he had many traits in common, Albert Gallatin
+deserves the proud title, aimed at by many, reached by few, of Citizen
+of the World.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 22: An account of this expedition may be found in the
+publications of the Maryland Historical Society.]
+
+[Footnote 23:
+
+WASHINGTON, 29_th May_, 1826.
+
+SIR,--Mr. Stewart communicated to me your answer of 4th April last to
+the letter which, at my request, he had addressed to you; and I return
+you my thanks for your kind offer to forward the object in view,--one
+which is not, however, of a private nature but connected with what is
+intended to be a National work; and I have delayed writing in order to
+be able to send at the same time the papers herewith transmitted.
+
+It is at my suggestion that the Secretary of War has, with the
+approbation of the President, taken measures to collect comparative
+vocabularies of all the languages and dialects of the Indian tribes
+still existing within the United States. The circular is addressed to
+all the Indian superintendents and agents, and to the missionaries with
+whom the Department corresponds. But they have no agent with the
+Nottoways, and we are fortunate that you should have been disposed to
+lend your aid on this occasion.
+
+It is the intention of government that the result of these researches
+should be published, giving due credit to every individual who shall
+have assisted in a work that has been long expected from us, and which
+will be equally honorable to the persons concerned and to the country.
+It had been my intention to contribute my share in its further progress:
+this my approaching departure for Europe forbids. The inclosed papers,
+attending to the Notes and to the circular, are so full that I need not
+add any further explanation, and have only to request that you will have
+the goodness to transmit whatever vocabulary and other information you
+may obtain to Colonel Tho. L. McKinney, Office of Indian Affairs, under
+cover directed to the Secretary of War. Mr. McKinney will also be happy
+to answer any queries on the subject you may have to propose.
+
+I have the honor to be respectfully, sir,
+Your most obedient servant,
+ALBERT GALLATIN
+
+Mr. James Rochelle,
+Jerusalem, Southampton County, Virginia.
+_Communicated by J. H. Rochelle, Jerusalem, Virginia._]
+
+[Footnote 24: Among the most distinguished of those who have followed
+the pathway indicated by Mr. Gallatin was the late George Gibbs, an
+indefatigable student and an admirable ethnologist. His Chinook jargon
+was published by the Smithsonian Institution.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Mr. du Ponceau became president of the learned societies
+of Pennsylvania: the Historical Society and the American Philosophical
+Society.]
+
+[Footnote 26: His favorite novel was _The Antiquary_, which he read once
+a year. Novels, he said, should be read, the last chapter first, in
+order that appreciation of the style should not be lost in the interest
+excited by the story.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Mr. Gallatin's assertion, which corresponded with that of
+Jefferson, that Washington had naturally strong passions, but had
+attained complete mastery over them, is quoted by the Earl of Stanhope
+(Lord Mahon) in his famous eulogy of Washington's attributes.]
+
+[Footnote 28: The Gallatins claim to descend from one Callatinus, a
+Roman Consul.]
+
+[Footnote 29: _Souvenirs d'un Diplomate._ Paris, 1882.]
+
+[Footnote 30: This was the vault of the Witter family, a daughter of
+which Commodore Nicholson married.]
+
+[Footnote 31: "In my youth the fashion was to decide in conformity
+with Lavater's precepts; then came Camper's facial angle, which gave a
+decided superiority to the white man and monkey; and both have been
+superseded by the bumps of the skull. This criterion is that which suits
+me best, for Spurzheim declared I had a _capital_ head, which he might
+without flattery say to everybody." _Gallatin to Lewis T. Cist of
+Cincinnati, November_ 21, 1837.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Adams, Henry, calls treaty of Ghent the work of Gallatin, 324.
+
+Adams, John, announces election of Gallatin as senator, 60;
+  convenes Congress to consider relations with France, 132;
+  his message, 133; replies coolly to resolution of House, 136, 137;
+  remarks of McClanachan to, 138;
+  his message in 1797, 139;
+  visited by House to present answer, 140;
+  wishes to establish new foreign missions, 141;
+  informs Congress of French outrages, 147;
+  and of preparations for war, 147;
+  sends in X Y Z dispatches, 149;
+  sends message on French relations, 152, 153;
+  urges preparation for war, 155;
+  thanks House for support, 155;
+  delighted with support of Congress in 1799, 158;
+  congratulates Congress on settlement at Washington, 162;
+  supported for President by New England, 163;
+  in election of 1800, 165;
+  attributes distresses of Confederation to financial ignorance, 174;
+  his breach with Hamilton, 177.
+
+Adams, John Quincy, on results of Gallatin's proposed appointment as
+ secretary of state, 295;
+  meets Gallatin and Bayard at St. Petersburg, 302;
+  his training, comparison with Gallatin, 302, 303;
+  given new commission, 312;
+  differs with Clay over fisheries and Mississippi navigation, 323;
+  appointed minister to England, 326;
+  advised by Gallatin concerning commercial treaty, 333;
+  appointed secretary of state, 334;
+  informed by Gallatin of disadvantages of a war with Spain, 336, 337;
+  his arguments in Apollon case disregarded by Gallatin, 338;
+  his indignation, 338;
+  writes opinion of Gallatin in his diary, 333, 339;
+  described by Gallatin to Badollet, 339, 356;
+  his pugnacity complained of by Crawford, 339;
+  negotiates treaty with De Neuville, 340;
+  comments of Gallatin upon, 340;
+  appoints Rush secretary of treasury, 342;
+  offers mission to England to Gallatin, 342, 343;
+  promises Gallatin _carte blanche_, but gives him full instructions, 343;
+  his instructions to Rush printed, 345;
+  warns Gallatin to yield nothing, 346;
+  congratulates Gallatin on his success, 348;
+  candidate for presidency, 356;
+  elected by House of Representatives, 358;
+  at meeting of New York Historical Society, 384;
+  Gallatin's friendly greeting to, 384;
+  eulogizes Gallatin, 384, 385;
+  his changing party compared with Gallatin's steadiness, 385;
+  death, 386.
+
+Adams, William, on English peace commission, 316.
+
+Addington, Henry, on Clay's tone as diplomat, 345.
+
+Adet, P. A., French minister, imperils sympathy for France by impudence
+ to Washington, 128;
+  condemned by Federalists, 134;
+  recommends tricolor, 153.
+
+Aix-la-Chapelle, Congress of, 337.
+
+Alexander, Emperor of Russia, authorizes renewal of mediation, 308;
+  fails to inform Romanzoff of Castlereagh's refusal, 311, 312;
+  vain efforts of Crawford to secure interview with, 315;
+  promises Lafayette to use influence in behalf of United States, 315;
+  has interview with Gallatin, 315;
+  informs Gallatin that he can do nothing more, 316.
+
+Algiers, treaty with, 117, 118.
+
+Alien Bill, debate and passage in House, 152;
+  petitions against, in Congress, 157.
+
+Allegheny County, its part in Whiskey Insurrection, 49, 68, 78, 96;
+  elects Gallatin to Congress, 93, 127.
+
+Allègre, Sophie, marries Gallatin, her character and death, 30.
+
+Allègre, William, father-in-law of Gallatin, 30.
+
+Allen, ----, in debate on French relations, 136;
+  attacks Gallatin as a French agent, 150.
+
+Allston, Joseph W., at free trade convention, 1831, 241.
+
+American Ethnological Society, founded by Gallatin, 379;
+  its transactions, 379, 380.
+
+Ames, Fisher, leading orator of Federalists, 99;
+  his speech on the Jay treaty, 120, 121;
+  reports answer to President's Message, 128;
+  defends it against Giles, 129;
+  leaves Congress, his oratory, 133.
+
+Anderson, Professor, member of "The Club," 367.
+
+Anti-Federalists, call convention to organize in favor of amending
+ Constitution, 37;
+  adopt resolutions to organize throughout the State, 39, 40;
+  recommend amendments by petition, 40.
+
+Apollon, seizure of, explained by Gallatin and Adams, 338.
+
+Army, reduction of, advocated by Gallatin, 108, 123, 129, 130, 186, 188;
+  his course defended, 216.
+
+Arnold, Benedict, effect of his treason, 12;
+  campaign of Lafayette against, 371.
+
+Ashburton, Lord. See Baring, Alexander.
+
+Astor, John Jacob, assists Gallatin to float loan, 214;
+  wishes destruction of United States Bank, 259;
+  subscribes capital of bank on condition that Gallatin manage its
+   affairs, 269;
+  his fur enterprise, 287;
+  offered protection by Jefferson, 288;
+  his settlement at Astoria, 288;
+  unable to persuade Madison to support him, 288.
+
+Astoria, foundation and history of, 288.
+
+Atwater, ----, member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+
+Bache, Franklin, educated at Geneva, 4;
+  attacks Washington as a defaulter, in "Aurora," 104.
+
+Bache, Richard, letter to, furnished by Franklin to Gallatin, 11.
+
+Bacourt, M. de, describes Gallatin in old age, 386.
+
+Badollet, Jean, college friend of Gallatin, 5;
+  Arcadian schemes of, 9;
+  letter of Gallatin to, 9;
+  letters of Serre to, on life in Maine, 15, 25;
+  informs Gallatin of troubles in Geneva, 25;
+  at Gallatin's invitation, joins him in America, 25, 26;
+  established at Greensburg, 27;
+  letter of Gallatin to, 43;
+  with Gallatin at anti-excise convention, 52;
+  advised by Gallatin to avoid United States marshal, 55;
+  letter of Gallatin to, on French Revolution, 56;
+  letter of Gallatin to, on his wife, 59;
+  instructed by Gallatin to secure reëlection of unseated members of
+   legislature, 95;
+  given an office by Gallatin, 287, 326;
+  remark of Gallatin to, 299;
+  letter of Gallatin to, on J. Q. Adams, 339;
+  takes shares in Gallatin's land scheme, 361;
+  manages store for Gallatin, 362;
+  letters of Gallatin to, 365, 370.
+
+Balbi, quotes Gallatin in his Atlas, 374.
+
+Baldwin, Abraham, on committee on finance, 106.
+
+Bank of North America, established by Morris, 172, 248;
+  its purpose, 248;
+  organization, 248, 249;
+  difficulties of starting, 249, 260;
+  its services, 249;
+  jealousy of Pennsylvania toward, 250.
+
+Bank of United States, established by Hamilton, 175, 250, 251;
+  its organization, 251, 252;
+  borrowed from, by Gallatin, 204;
+  petitions for a re-charter, 252;
+  Gallatin's report in favor of, 252-254;
+  a re-charter refused, 231, 254;
+  its value, 255;
+  opinion of Gallatin on, 255;
+  controls state banks, 259;
+  desire of Astor to crush, 259;
+  remits specie to foreign stockholders, 260;
+  its dissolution causes panic, 262, 263;
+  reincorporation proposed, 265;
+  vetoed, then approved, by Madison, 265;
+  its subsequent history, 266;
+  helps resumption of specie payments, 267;
+  presidency of, declined by Gallatin, 268;
+  deposits removed from, by Taney, 269;
+  accepts charter from Pennsylvania, 271;
+  its subsequent career, 271;
+  fails in 1839, 276;
+  weakness of Madison in 1812 in allowing its dissolution, 296.
+
+Bank, National, of New York, connection of Gallatin with, 269-277.
+
+Banks, state, difficulty of controlling their issues, 256;
+  their evil effects, 257;
+  status in 1811, 258;
+  increase after termination of Bank of United States, 261, 262;
+  suspend payment in 1815, 262;
+  agree to resume, 267;
+  supported by second Bank of United States, 267;
+  Gallatin's "Considerations on," etc., 268;
+  connection of Gallatin with, 269-277;
+  speculation craze of, in 1836, 271, 272;
+  suspend payment in 1837, 272;
+  conventions of, to prepare for resumption, 273-275;
+  aided by Treasury, 275; "Suggestions" of Gallatin, 277.
+
+Barbour, Philip P., presides over free trade convention in 1831, 241.
+
+Baring, Alexander, explains to Gallatin British reasons for refusing
+ Russian mediation, 306, 307;
+  reply of Gallatin, 309;
+  urges Gallatin to visit England, 311;
+  requested by Gallatin to send passports, 313;
+  his mission to America, 349, 350;
+  his manner of negotiation with Webster, 350;
+  visits Gallatin, 350;
+  comparison with Gallatin, 350;
+  his death, 386.
+
+Barings, connection with Louisiana purchase, 193, 195;
+  competition of Bank of United States with, 271;
+  letter of Gallatin to, 305.
+
+Barras, Comte, encouraged by Napoleon's success to bold measures against
+ United States, 132.
+
+Bartlett, John Russell, gives anecdotes of Gallatin, 13, 22.
+
+Bartlett, ----, member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+Bathurst, Lord, promises to appoint peace commissioners, 314;
+  reopens negotiations, 319;
+  insists on possession of part of Maine, 321.
+
+Bayard, James A., elected to Congress, 132;
+  on legislative encroachments on executive, 143;
+  on resolution to furnish foreign correspondence, 156;
+  defends Sedition Law by a clever amendment, 159;
+  moves committee to arrange for balloting in 1800, 166;
+  accompanies Gallatin as peace commissioner, 301, 302;
+  willing to accept an informal renunciation of impressment, 305;
+  goes to Amsterdam, 312;
+  on new commission to treat directly, 312;
+  visits London, 313;
+  asks Monroe for authority to negotiate anywhere, 314;
+  appointed minister to Russia, 326.
+
+Baylies, ----, his report on Western territory complained of by England,
+ 345.
+
+Bentham, Jeremy, works translated by Dumont, 5;
+  influences Gallatin, 388.
+
+Bentson, ----, on Astor's hostility to United States Bank, 259.
+
+Berlin and Milan decrees, negotiations for compensation for seizures
+ under, 333.
+
+Biddle, C. C., at free trade convention in 1831, 241.
+
+Biddle, Nicholas, in panic of 1837, 275.
+
+Blount, William, on committee on finance, 107;
+  impeached, 138.
+
+Bonaparte, Jerome, his flight to America, 332.
+
+Bonaparte, Napoleon, his precocity compared to that of Gallatin, 32;
+  effect of his Italian successes on French policy, 132, 139;
+  adopts conciliatory tone, 160;
+  issues Milan decree, 229;
+  seen by Gallatin during Hundred Days, 326;
+  American sympathy for, explained by Gallatin, 331.
+
+Boorman, James, at free trade convention in 1831, 241.
+
+Borgo, Pozzo di, compared to Gallatin, 32.
+
+Boston, visit of Gallatin to, 12-14, 17;
+  Puritanical society in, 13;
+  prejudice against French, 13;
+  Gallatin's opinion of, 18;
+  protests against Jay treaty, 103.
+
+Botts, John M., letter of Gallatin to, on bank, 256.
+
+Boundary, northeast, in treaty of Ghent, 321, 322;
+  discussed in 1826, 343;
+  referred to arbitration, 347;
+  argument concerning, prepared by Gallatin, 349;
+  decision of King of Netherlands rejected by United States, 349;
+  documents concerning, published by Gallatin, 349;
+  settled by Ashburton treaty, 350.
+
+Bourdillon, ----, takes share in Gallatin's land scheme, 361.
+
+Bourne, Shearjashub, on committee on finance, 106.
+
+Brackenridge, Judge H. H., on Gallatin's part in anti-excise agitation,
+ 50;
+  in Washington County, advises moderation, 69;
+  an authority for history of insurrection, 71;
+  his character and policy, 71;
+  leads Pittsburgh committee to urge moderation upon rioters, 72;
+  describes Bradford's behavior, 72;
+  his estimate of numbers under arms, 72;
+  compares excitement with that in 1765 and 1775, 74;
+  at Parkinson's Ferry meeting, 78;
+  supports Gallatin's efforts to prevent rebellion, 80, 82;
+  on committee to confer with United States commissioners, 81;
+  describes Gallatin's speech, 82;
+  claims credit for preventing civil war, 84;
+  on threats of secession, 86;
+  defeated by Gallatin for Congress, 93.
+
+Bradford, David, represents Washington County in anti-excise
+ proceedings, 51;
+  elected to legislature, 54;
+  low opinion of Gallatin concerning, 54;
+  tries to shirk responsibility, 69;
+  then determines on extreme measures, robs mail, 69;
+  calls for armed resistance, 70;
+  unable to countermand order, 70;
+  assumes office of major-general, 72;
+  his harangue to the insurgents, 73;
+  at meeting at Parkinson's Ferry, 78;
+  advocates armed resistance, 79;
+  on committee on resolutions, 80;
+  named to confer with United States commissioners, 81;
+  urges rejection of their terms, 81, 82;
+  excepted from amnesty, flies from the country, 84, 85.
+
+Bradford, James, in anti-excise convention, 52.
+
+Bradford, ----, member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+Bradish, Luther, his eulogy of Gallatin, 388.
+
+Breading, Nicholas, in Pennsylvania ratifying convention, 35.
+
+Breckenridge, John, his brief career, 355.
+
+Brevoort, ----, member of "The Club," 367.
+
+Brodhead, John Romeyn, orator at fortieth anniversary of New York
+ Historical Society, 384.
+
+Buck, Daniel, on committee on finance, 107.
+
+Burke, Edmund, on place of revenue in the state, 218.
+
+Burr, Aaron, his connection with Dayton, 104;
+  in presidential election of 1800, 163, 164, 166, 167;
+  alienated from Jefferson by refusal to appoint Davis, 282.
+
+
+Cabinet, its lack of financial coöperation under Jefferson, 188;
+  criticises Jefferson's messages, 283;
+  weekly meetings of, suggested by Gallatin, 283;
+  absence of system in, 284;
+  dissensions and reorganization under Madison, 296, 297.
+
+Cabot, George, on committee to consider Gallatin's eligibility to
+ senate, 61.
+
+Calhoun, John C., reports plan for a national bank, 265;
+  ascribes Gallatin's disregard of Adams's arguments in Apollon case to
+   "pride," 338;
+  Gallatin's opinion of, 355;
+  elected Vice-President, 358;
+  on Gallatin's ethnological studies, 378.
+
+California, discovery of gold in, 353, 354.
+
+Campbell, George W., furnished with report by Gallatin on injuries of
+ Great Britain, 292, 303;
+  secretary of treasury, 312.
+
+Canning, George, his policy toward United States, 225, 295, 344;
+  attitude of Gallatin toward, in negotiation, 345;
+  death, 347.
+
+Carnahan, Dr., describes entry of Whiskey Rebellion prisoners into
+ Cannonsburg, 91.
+
+Castlereagh, Lord, discourages offer of Russia to mediate, 304;
+  gives assurance of safety to cartel-ship, 307;
+  refuses second offer of mediation, 311;
+  offers to deal directly, 312;
+  member of cabinet most favorable to America, 314;
+  advises English commissioners to moderate demands, 319;
+  approves treaty of Ghent, 326;
+  arranges commercial convention with Gallatin, 326;
+  expresses friendly feelings, 335.
+
+Cazenove, ----, takes shares in Gallatin's land scheme, 361.
+
+Charles X., in Revolution of 1830, 370, 372.
+
+Chase, Salmon P., negotiations with Treasury Note Committee, 196 and
+ note;
+  follows Gallatin's treasury-note plan, 209;
+  organizes national banking system, 256.
+
+Chateaubriand, succeeds Montmorenci, 340;
+  negotiates unsuccessfully with Gallatin, 341;
+  quotes Gallatin's statement of Cuban question, 346.
+
+Cheriot, ----, takes share in Gallatin's land scheme, 361.
+
+Chesapeake, captured by Leopard, 224.
+
+Chevalier, Michel, his studies on money, 278.
+
+Cheves, Langdon, at free trade convention in 1831, 241.
+
+Chôteau, Pierre Louis, meets Gallatin, his influence over Indians, 287,
+ 374.
+
+Circourt, Count de, reviews Gallatin's "Synopsis of the Indian Tribes,"
+ 378.
+
+Civil service, monopolized by Federalists, 280;
+  demands of Republicans for a share in, 281;
+  Gallatin's opinion of appointments to and conduct of, 281;
+  intention of Jefferson to give one half of, to Republicans, 282.
+
+Clare, Thomas, his house the headquarters of Gallatin in 1784, 22, 24;
+  rents Gallatin a house, 25.
+
+Clay, Henry, denounces Gallatin for advocating free trade, 242;
+  apologizes, 242;
+  on peace commission, 312;
+  arrives at Gottenburg, 313;
+  corresponds with Gallatin concerning place of negotiation, 314;
+  differs with Adams over Mississippi navigation and fisheries, 323;
+  joins Gallatin in England, 326;
+  urges Gallatin to accept mission to Panama Congress, 342;
+  letter of Gallatin to, on instructions as minister to England, 343;
+  tone of his diplomatic correspondence, 345;
+  Gallatin's opinion of, 356;
+  resignation of Gallatin in his favor, 358;
+  secures election of Adams, 358.
+
+Clinton, George, marriage of his daughter to Genet, 102.
+
+"Club, The," in New York, Gallatin's membership of, 366, 367.
+
+Coast survey, established, 290.
+
+Coinage, debate concerning, in Congress, 140;
+  regulated by Morris, 172.
+
+Coles, Edward, letter of Gallatin to, 284.
+
+Confederation, Articles of, political conditions under, 33, 34.
+
+Congress, adopts amendments to Constitution suggested by New York and
+ Virginia, 40;
+  passes excise law, 49;
+  modifies it, 52;
+  gives state courts jurisdiction in excise cases, 67;
+  receives tricolor from France, 130;
+  complained of by Jefferson as weak, 138;
+  suspends commercial intercourse with France, 151;
+  passes acts authorizing naval defense, 153;
+  presence of Washington, Pinckney, and Hamilton at, in 1798, 155;
+  speech of Adams to, 155;
+  responsibility for war thrown upon, by Madison, 205;
+  authorizes loan in 1812, 209, 212;
+  damages Treasury by procrastination, 212;
+  supports Gallatin's policy of extinguishing debt, 215;
+  repeals internal revenue act, 221;
+  passes embargo, 225;
+  extends terms of credit on revenue bonds, 226;
+  refuses to recharter the bank, 231, 254;
+  declares war, imposes increased duties, 234;
+  reimposes internal taxes, 236;
+  adopts non-importation against England and France, 292;
+  orders out naval force, 294;
+  repeals embargo, 294.
+
+Constable, John, at free trade convention in 1831, 241.
+
+Constellation, defeats La Vengeance, 160.
+
+Constitution of Pennsylvania, convention called to revise, 40, 41;
+  its membership and ability, 42, 43.
+
+Constitution of the United States, adopted, 35;
+  struggle over ratification in Pennsylvania, 35;
+  movement in favor of new convention to amend, 36-40;
+  amended, 40;
+  power of Representatives to appropriate, 109;
+  debate in Congress on relation of treaty power to House of
+   Representatives, 110-115;
+  argument of Washington on treaty power, 114, 115;
+  debate in House on relation of Executive to Congress, 142-147;
+  power of Senate to require treasury reports, 161;
+  in relation to state bills of credit, 257;
+  question of power of United States to acquire territory, 285;
+  in relation to National University, 291;
+  to annexation of Texas, 351.
+
+Cook, Edward, presides over meeting of whiskey insurgents at Parkinson's
+ Ferry, 79;
+  indorses resolution to submit to terms of United States commissioners,
+   83.
+
+Cooper, Dr. Samuel, interested in Gallatin through Madame Pictet, 17.
+
+Couronne, ----, takes shares in Gallatin's land scheme, 361.
+
+Crawford, William H., follows Gallatin's treasury policy, 215;
+  at Gallatin's suggestion, urges Emperor
+  again to mediate, 315;
+  complains of Adams's pugnacity, 339;
+  wishes Gallatin to stand for Vice-President, 341;
+  looked upon by Gallatin as strongest leader after the triumvirate,
+   355;
+  supported by Gallatin, Jefferson, and Madison against Adams, 356;
+  stricken with paralysis, 357;
+  nominated for President by caucus, 357;
+  defeated by Adams, 358.
+
+Cuba, avowed intention of United States to prevent English seizure of,
+ by war if necessary, 346.
+
+Cumberland Road, reported to Congress in 1807, 290.
+
+
+Dallas, Alexander J., his career compared to that of Gallatin, 28, 58;
+  his parentage, 58;
+  secretary of state for Pennsylvania, 58;
+  friendship with Gallatin, 58;
+  excursion with Gallatin, 58, 59;
+  describes to Gallatin his experiences with militia in suppressing
+   Whiskey Rebellion, 92;
+  follows Gallatin's loan policy, 215;
+  regrets absence of internal taxes, 236;
+  proposes a national bank, 265;
+  resigns, 266.
+
+Dallas, Mrs. A. J., on excursion with her husband and Gallatin, 58, 59.
+
+Dallas, George M., accompanies Gallatin to Europe, 301;
+  sent to London, his instructions, 310;
+  informs Gallatin of English offer to treat directly, 311;
+  takes dispatch to Monroe, 318.
+
+Davis, Garrett, letter of Gallatin to, on manifest destiny, 352.
+
+Davis, Matthew L., quarrel between Jefferson and Burr over his
+ appointment, 282.
+
+Dawson, John, on Sedition Law, 162.
+
+Dayton, Jonathan, elected speaker of House by Democrats, 98;
+  anti-British in feeling, 104;
+  not influenced by connection with Burr, 104;
+  reëlected speaker, 132;
+  introduces resolution on Adams's message, 134;
+  joins Federalists after X Y Z affair, 149;
+  refuses to answer Gallatin, 153;
+  vote of thanks to, 158.
+
+Debt, public, payment by public lands urged by Gallatin, 122;
+  its permanence condemned by Gallatin, 126;
+  controversy between Gallatin and Smith as to increase of, 126;
+  attempt of Continental Congress to investigate, 171;
+  attempts of Morris to secure its funding, 172, 173;
+  funded by Hamilton, 174, 175;
+  increased under Wolcott, 178;
+  creation of domestic loans, 178;
+  Gallatin's subdivision of, 184, 185;
+  its extinction Gallatin's main desire, 186, 188, 198, 203, 208;
+  stated by Gallatin in 1801-2, 191;
+  plan for its discharging, 191;
+  actual reduction of, 192;
+  increased through Louisiana purchase, 192, 193, 195;
+  new funds, 195, 196;
+  funding of debt in 1807, 198;
+  statement regarding, in 1808, 202;
+  its increase during war foreseen by Gallatin, 203;
+  reduction in 1812, 205;
+  loan of 1812, 209;
+  declines below par, 210;
+  revives, 211;
+  loan of twenty-one millions, 212;
+  increase in 1816, 215;
+  Gallatin's policy toward, continued by Dallas and Crawford, 215;
+  eventually extinguished, 215, 269, 271;
+  absence regretted by Woodbury, 271.
+
+De Fersen, his correspondence proves guilt of Louis XVI., 57.
+
+De Lolme, ----, school companion of Gallatin, 5.
+
+Democratic party. See Republican party especially, 358-360.
+
+De Neuville, Hyde, French minister, demands dismissal of insolent
+ postmaster, 333;
+  negotiates commercial convention with Adams, 340.
+
+De Rham, ----, member of "The Club," 367.
+
+Dexter, Samuel, succeeds Wolcott in Treasury Department, 177;
+  consents to hold over until appointment of successor, 181.
+
+Diplomatic history, mission of Genet to United States, 57, 102;
+  Jay's treaty with England, 102, 103, 117;
+  Fauchet's dealings with Randolph, 103;
+  Wayne's treaty with Indians, 117;
+  Pinckney's treaty with Spain, 117;
+  expulsion of Pinckney from France, 132;
+  X Y Z affair and consequences, 149, 152, 153;
+  events leading up to war of 1812, 295;
+  offer of Russia to mediate, 299;
+  mission of Gallatin, Bayard, and Adams to Russia, 301, 303;
+  correspondence of Gallatin with Baring, 305-307, 309;
+  renewed offers by Russia, 308;
+  again refused by England, 311;
+  offer of England to treat directly, 311;
+  appointment of a new commission, 312;
+  place of negotiation, 314;
+  futile appeal of Lafayette to Emperor to mediate, 315, 316;
+  appointment of English commissioners, 316;
+  exorbitant English demands, 317;
+  suspension of negotiations, 318;
+  alteration of British tone, 319;
+  resumption of negotiations and refusal by Americans of English demands,
+   319;
+  further English demands for cession of territory refused, 321;
+  discussion over boundaries, fisheries, and Mississippi navigation, 322,
+   323;
+  these points abandoned, 323;
+  article against slave trade adopted, 323;
+  conclusion of treaty, 324;
+  part played by Gallatin, 324, 325;
+  commercial convention with England, 326, 327;
+  mission of Gallatin to France, 330-341;
+  negotiations over French captures under Berlin and Milan decrees, 332,
+   333;
+  over an impudent postmaster, 333;
+  negotiations with Holland, 334;
+  commercial convention with England, 334, 335;
+  negotiations with France over Apollon case, 338;
+  commercial convention with France, 340;
+  failure to settle American claims, 341;
+  Gallatin's mission to England, 343-347;
+  instructions, 343;
+  negotiations with Canning, 345, 346;
+  conclusion of convention with Goderich's ministry, 347;
+  Ashburton treaty negotiations, 349, 350.
+
+Disunion, threatened in 1795, 116;
+  planned by New England in 1812, 213.
+
+Duane, William, intimate with Jefferson, 286;
+  abuses Gallatin in "Aurora," 286, 297;
+  appointed adjutant-general by Madison, 299.
+
+Duby, ----, takes shares in Gallatin's land scheme, 361.
+
+Dumont, Etienne, college friend of Gallatin, his subsequent career, 5;
+  Gallatin's opinion of, 5;
+  invited by Gallatin to come to America, 26;
+  on shape of Gallatin's head, 389.
+
+Du Ponceau, Peter Stephen, friend of Gallatin, his philological studies
+ upon Indians, 376, 377.
+
+D'Yvernois, proposes to transport University of Geneva to United States,
+ 291;
+  receives shares in Gallatin's land scheme, 362.
+
+
+Edgar, James, on committee of whiskey insurgents to confer with United
+  States commissioners, 81;
+  supports Gallatin, 82;
+  presides over last meeting at Parkinson's Ferry, 89.
+
+Elliott, ----, on controversy between Wolcott and Gallatin, as to
+  surplus, 190, 191.
+
+Ellsworth, Oliver, on committee to consider Gallatin's eligibility to
+  Senate, 61.
+
+Embargo, opposed by Gallatin, 201;
+  its effect stated by him, 201, 202;
+  adopted as answer to Orders in Council, 225;
+  its enforcement or abandonment urged by Gallatin, 228, 229, 230, 291;
+  enforced, 292;
+  repealed, 294.
+
+Emlen, George, at free trade convention in 1831, 241.
+
+England, anger against, at time of Jay treaty, 103;
+  renews provision order, 103;
+  danger of war with, 116, 118, 120;
+  hard pressed by France in 1797, 139;
+  its friendship more dangerous than France's enmity, 163;
+  adopts Orders in Council, 201, 225;
+  commercial policy toward United States, 224, 225, 295;
+  danger of war with, 224, 229;
+  Madison's preference for, 295;
+  events leading up to war with, 295, 296;
+  mistaken view of Gallatin concerning its diplomacy, 304;
+  unwilling to tolerate Russian mediation, 304, 306, 311;
+  its policy explained by Baring, 306, 307;
+  offers to treat directly, 311;
+  willing to push on war after fall of Napoleon, 313, 316;
+  hopes to divide United States, 313;
+  appoints commissioners, 316;
+  makes exorbitant demands, 317;
+  its policy modified by Castlereagh, 319;
+  demands cession of territory, 321;
+  loses interest in war, 322;
+  rejects article on impressment, 322;
+  negotiation of convention with, in 1815, 334, 335;
+  at Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, 337;
+  mission of Gallatin to, 343-347;
+  complains of tone of American diplomacy, 344, 345;
+  negotiations with, 345, 346;
+  agrees to renew commercial convention, 347;
+  refuses to negotiate on impressment, 347;
+  makes Ashburton treaty, 349, 350.
+
+Eppes, John W., letter of Gallatin to, on public lands, 239.
+
+Erskine, D. M., his negotiations, 295.
+
+Etsko, ----, Polish refugee, helped by Gallatin, 372.
+
+Eustis, William, advised by Gallatin concerning treaty with Netherlands,
+ 333, 334.
+
+Ewbank, ----, member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+Excise (see Whiskey Insurrection), recommended by Hamilton, 175.
+
+
+Fauchet, his dealings with Randolph, 103;
+  condemned by Federalists, 134.
+
+Fayette County, settlement of Gallatin, 22, 26, 27;
+  life in, 28, 43, 67;
+  elects Gallatin to legislature, 44;
+  in Whiskey Insurrection, 49, 51, 52, 68, 78, 85, 96;
+  reëlects Gallatin, 93, 95;
+  visited by Lafayette, 365.
+
+Fazzi, ----, takes share in Gallatin's land scheme, 361.
+
+Federalist party, its origin, 57;
+  prejudiced against Gallatin by his resolution demanding information from
+   Hamilton, 64, 65;
+  opposes his election to Congress, 95;
+  reconstructs cabinet, 97, 98;
+  its leaders in House, 98, 99;
+  attitude toward France and England, 100, 101;
+  charged with being bribed by England, 103;
+  in debate on appropriating power, 108, 109;
+  in debate on treaty power, 111-115;
+  defends Jay treaty, 118;
+  strengthened in fourth Congress, 128;
+  retains nominal majority in fifth Congress, 133;
+  in debate on French relations, 134-136;
+  in debate on checks on executive, 143-147;
+  strengthened by X Y Z affair, 149;
+  commits mistakes, 151, 152; its badge, 153;
+  controls sixth Congress, 158;
+  refuses to repeal Sedition Law, 159;
+  defeated in 1800, 163;
+  forced to choose between Burr and Jefferson, 164;
+  bargain with Jefferson, 164;
+  its possible plans for defeating any choice, 165;
+  and for nominating a president pro tempore, 165;
+  allows Jefferson's election, 166, 167;
+  its share in building country, 169;
+  breach in, 177;
+  enjoys Republican inconsistency, 237;
+  monopolizes offices, 280;
+  extinguished by battle of New Orleans, 358.
+
+Few, William, connected by marriage with Gallatin, 59.
+
+Finances, efforts of Gallatin to secure minute supervision of by
+ Congress, 64, 106, 107;
+  efforts to establish permanent appropriations, 107;
+  appropriations, power of Congress over, 108, 109;
+  their necessity to successful government, 170;
+  finances of the Revolution under Morris, 170-174;
+  under treasury board, 173, 174;
+  under Hamilton, 174-176;
+  under Wolcott, 176-178;
+  under Gallatin, 186-215;
+  sketch of, by Gallatin, 184;
+  "View of," by Gallatin, 185;
+  preliminary sketch on Gallatin's assuming office, 186;
+  estimate of sources of wealth, 187;
+  estimate for 1801, 190;
+  denial of a surplus, 190, 191;
+  plan for discharging debt, 191, 192;
+  its execution, 192, 194;
+  report for 1803 on reduction of debt, 195;
+  Louisiana purchase, 193, 195;
+  place of payment of principal and interest, 195, 196;
+  addition to sinking fund, 196;
+  report for first four years, 197;
+  estimates of revenue for Jefferson's second term, 198;
+  conversion of debt, 198;
+  full treasury in 1807, 198;
+  Gallatin's consideration of military value of surplus, 199;
+  on war revenue, 200, 201;
+  effect of embargo, 201;
+  sources of revenue, 204;
+  deficiency in 1809, 204;
+  report of 1811, 205;
+  demand of Gallatin for internal revenue, 206;
+  war estimates, 206-209;
+  including "treasury notes," 207, 210;
+  loan of 1812, 209;
+  estimates for 1812, 210;
+  report for 1812, 211;
+  success of loan, 210, 211;
+  report of loan of twenty-one millions, 212;
+  stock not taken by New England and Southern States, 213;
+  saved by Parish, Girard, and Astor, 213, 214;
+  review of Gallatin's influence, 215-216;
+  table of revenue and expenditure, 217;
+  revenue established by Hamilton, 217;
+  its character, 218;
+  and amount, 219;
+  permanent estimate of, 220;
+  internal revenue retained by Gallatin, 220;
+  his proposed expenditures, 220;
+  repeal of internal revenue, 221;
+  increased income, 221;
+  establishment of Mediterranean fund, 222;
+  income during Jefferson's first term, 223;
+  increased estimates of Gallatin, 223;
+  internal improvements planned, 224;
+  doubling of duties recommended as a war measure, 225;
+  effect of embargo on revenue, 225, 227;
+  review of revenue during Jefferson's administrations, 226, 227;
+  surplus in 1808, 226;
+  internal improvements advocated by Jefferson, 226, 227;
+  estimates of receipts for 1809, 228;
+  report of Gallatin to Congress on need for new revenues, 229;
+  vagueness of Madison concerning, 229, 230;
+  report for 1809, 230;
+  refusal of Congress to re-charter bank, 231;
+  report for 1810, 231;
+  report of Gallatin in January, 1812, 232;
+  proposal to impose internal taxes, 234;
+  increased war duties, 234;
+  war budget for 1813, 235;
+  internal taxes, their history, 235;
+  reimposed by Congress, 236;
+  receipts from, 237;
+  public lands, receipts from, 238, 239;
+  administration of Treasury under
+  Gallatin, 244-246;
+  history of Bank of North America, 248-250;
+  of Bank of United States, 250-255;
+  panic of 1815, 262-264;
+  second United States Bank, 265-268;
+  resumption of specie payment, 267;
+  report of Gallatin on ratio of gold and silver, 268;
+  "Considerations on Currency and Banking," 268;
+  diminution of debt in 1832, 269;
+  removal of deposits from Bank of United States, 269, 270;
+  extinction of debt by Woodbury, 270, 271;
+  distribution of surplus among States, 271;
+  inflation in 1836, 272;
+  panic of 1837, 272, 273.
+
+Findley, James, in Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention, 43;
+  represents Fayette County in legislature, 44.
+
+Findley, William, describes Whiskey Insurrection, 71;
+  at Parkinson's Ferry meeting, 78;
+  describes Gallatin's speech, 83;
+  on threats of secession, 86;
+  takes resolutions to Washington urging him to stop march of troops,
+   89;
+  describes seizure of prisoners, 90.
+
+Fish, Preserved, at free trade convention in 1831, 241.
+
+Fisheries, discussed in treaty of Ghent, 322, 323;
+  unfavorable settlement of question in 1818, 335.
+
+Florida, question of its annexation, 285.
+
+Forsyth, John, asks Gallatin's advice as to Smithson's bequest, 378.
+
+Fox, C. J., his precocity compared to Gallatin's, 32.
+
+France, sympathy of Republicans for, 116;
+  sends tricolor to Congress, 130;
+  its policy in Revolution, 131;
+  situation in 1796, 131;
+  endeavors to get aid of United States, 131;
+  determines to coerce it, 132;
+  refuses to receive Pinckney, 132;
+  policy of Adams toward, 137;
+  success in 1797, 139;
+  danger of war with, in 1798, 147;
+  question of war with, debated in Congress, 148-151;
+  non-intercourse with, 151, 159, 160;
+  adopts conciliatory measures, 160;
+  commercial convention with, 162;
+  adopts Milan decree, 229;
+  mission of Gallatin to, 331-341;
+  refuses to pay for seizures under Berlin and Milan decrees, 333;
+  urges peace with Spain, 336;
+  offers to mediate with United States between Spain and her colonies,
+   336;
+  conduct at Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, 337;
+  Apollon case, 338;
+  commercial convention with, 340;
+  fails to settle claims, 340, 341;
+  Revolution of 1830 in, 370, 371, 372.
+
+Franklin, Benjamin, gives Gallatin letter to Richard Bache, 11;
+  compared to Gallatin, 389.
+
+Frederick, Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, friend of Madame Voltaire, 7;
+  sends her a portrait, 7;
+  sells troops to England in American war, 8;
+  called a tyrant by Gallatin, 8.
+
+Free trade, advocated by Gallatin, 240;
+  becomes a party question in 1832, 240;
+  convention in favor of, 241;
+  Gallatin's memorial in behalf of, 241, 242;
+  subsequent history of, 242, 243.
+
+French Revolution, premonitions of, in Europe, 6;
+  Gallatin's opinion of, in 1794, 56, 57;
+  its reaction on America, 57, 100;
+  attitude of parties toward, 101, 102;
+  its effect described by Gallatin, 327, 328.
+
+
+Gallatin, Abraham, grandfather of Albert, 2;
+  lives at Pregny, 7;
+  friend of Voltaire, 7.
+
+Gallatin, Albert, his place in United States history, 1;
+  birth and ancestry, 2;
+  adopted by Mlle. Pictet, 2;
+  his schooling and home training, 2, 3;
+  benefits from cosmopolitan society of Geneva, 4;
+  academic friendships, 4, 5;
+  restless, although not ambitious, 5;
+  discontented with political conditions, 6;
+  visits Voltaire, 7, 8;
+  refuses offer of commission in Hessian service, 8;
+  quarrels with grandmother, 8;
+  plans to find freedom in America, 9, 10;
+  leaves Geneva secretly, 9;
+  plans to rise by land speculation and commerce, 10;
+  at Nantes receives letters from family, 10, 11;
+  relations with guardian, 11;
+  invests money in tea, 12;
+  voyage to Boston, 12;
+  finds difficulty in selling tea, 12;
+  finds Boston bigoted and unfriendly, 13;
+  his walk to Blue Hill, 13;
+  encounter with inquisitive landlord, 13, 14;
+  persuaded by Madame De Lesdernier, makes trading voyage to Machias,
+   14;
+  frontier life there, 15, 16;
+  commands earthwork at Passamaquoddy, 16;
+  meets La Pérouse, 16;
+  returns to Boston and teaches French, 17;
+  recommended by Mlle. Pictet to Dr. Cooper, 17;
+  teaches French successfully in Harvard College, 17, 18;
+  glad to leave Boston at conclusion of war, 18;
+  visits New York, 18;
+  meets Savary, 19;
+  dissolves partnership with Serre, 19;
+  meets Pelatiah Webster at Philadelphia, 19;
+  accompanies Savary to Richmond, 19;
+  decides definitely not to return to Geneva, 20;
+  joins Savary in land speculations in West Virginia, 20, 21;
+  his aversion to debt, 21;
+  returns to Philadelphia and leads exploring party down Ohio, 21;
+  at George's Creek builds log-house and opens store, 22;
+  encounters Washington, 22;
+  declines Washington's offer to become land agent, 23;
+  enjoys a winter in Richmond society, 23;
+  his gratitude for hospitality and kindness, 24;
+  commissioned by Henry, locates lands in Western Virginia, 24;
+  interrupted by Indian troubles, 24;
+  takes oath of allegiance to Virginia, 25;
+  invites Badollet to join him from Geneva, 25, 26;
+  purchases Friendship Hill, 26;
+  rumor of his death causes inquiries from Geneva, 27;
+  attains majority and calls for property, 28;
+  difficulties of his life on frontier, 28;
+  not to be blamed for his choice of location, 28, 29;
+  offered place in office by Marshall, 29;
+  advised by Patrick Henry to begin in West, 29;
+  visits Richmond and Philadelphia, 29;
+  journey to Maine, 29, 30;
+  kindness towards Lesdernier, 30;
+  marries Sophie Allègre, her sudden death, 30;
+  disheartened, wishes to abandon Western lands, 30, 31;
+  his maturity in political thought, 32;
+  early an advocate of democracy, 32, 33;
+  probably dislikes the Federal Constitution, 34, 36;
+  an opponent of centralization, 34;
+  influences arguments of Smilie in Pennsylvania ratifying convention,
+   36;
+  represents Fayette County at convention of anti-Federalists, 37;
+  friendship with Smilie, 38;
+  drafts resolutions providing for vigorous organization against
+   Constitution, 38, 39.
+
+_In Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention._
+  Elected a delegate from Fayette County, 40;
+  his opposition to alteration of form of government, 41;
+  advocates enlarged popular representation, manhood suffrage, easy
+   naturalization, 42;
+  takes minor part in convention, his high opinion of its ability, 42,
+   43;
+  after convention, falls into melancholy, 43;
+  wishes to leave America, 43;
+  reproached by Genevese friends with indolence, 43, 44.
+
+_In Pennsylvania Legislature._
+  Elected to represent Fayette County, 44;
+  describes his legislative career, 45-47;
+  his influence and activity, 45;
+  advocates improved education, 45;
+  supports turnpike, 45;
+  gains reputation by report of Ways and Means Committee, 46;
+  advocates redemption of paper money and financial reform, 46;
+  reports a resolution for abolition of slavery, 47;
+  at first dislikes Philadelphia, later prefers it to New York for
+   democracy, 47, 48;
+  drafts resolutions condemning Hamilton's excise bill, 48;
+  takes part in public meeting in Washington County against the bill, 50;
+  secretary of convention of western counties at Pittsburgh, 52;
+  signs resolutions advocating resistance, 53;
+  draws petition to Congress, 53;
+  returns to Philadelphia to find cause damaged by action of counties,
+   54;
+  advises evasion of federal writs to arrest, 55;
+  in legislature proposes a township veto on taxation and popular
+   education, 55;
+  wishes to visit Geneva in 1793, 56, 57;
+  views on French Revolution, 56, 57;
+  elected senator in spite of insufficient residence, 58;
+  acquaintance with Dallas, 58;
+  on journey with him, meets Hannah Nicholson, 59;
+  marriage, 59;
+  his family connections by marriage, 59;
+  later business connections with brother-in-law, J. W. Nicholson, 60;
+  takes seat as United States senator, 60;
+  his election protested on ground of insufficient residence, 60, 61;
+  complains of membership of committee to consider case, 61;
+  his exact status, 62;
+  submits statement of facts to Senate, 62;
+  is declared disqualified by narrow majority, 62, 63;
+  his dignified conduct of case, 63;
+  pending the decision, introduces resolution calling upon Hamilton to
+   make a minutely itemized report, 64;
+  probably causes his own expulsion by thus irritating Federalists, 64,
+   65;
+  later obliged to answer a similar demand from Federalists, 65;
+  not cast down by exclusion, 65;
+  gains increased popularity in Pennsylvania, 65, 66.
+
+_In Whiskey Insurrection._
+  Takes wife to Fayette County, 67;
+  at outbreak of violence advises distillers to submit to law, 69;
+  his estimate of numbers of insurgents in arms, 73;
+  remains at first aloof from excitement, 75;
+  determines to take control of movement, 75, 76;
+  alarmed at probable excesses of mob and danger of repression, 76;
+  delegate to convention at Parkinson's Ferry, 78;
+  confers with Marshall, 78;
+  chosen secretary, 79;
+  opposes resolution to resist by force, and moves reference of
+   resolutions to a committee, 80;
+  succeeds in modifying resolutions not to obey excise and trial laws,
+   80;
+  on committee on resolutions, 80;
+  on committee to confer with government commissioners, 81;
+  points out folly of resistance, 81;
+  counsels submission, 81;
+  his eloquent speech, 82, 83;
+  prevents anarchy, 82;
+  charged by J. C. Hamilton with cowardice, 84;
+  his real courage, 84;
+  hastens submission of Fayette County, 85;
+  secures adoption of declaration defending county's action, 85;
+  secretary of meeting at Parkinson's Ferry, which makes complete
+   submission, 89;
+  considered by Federalists to be chief instigator of the insurrection,
+   90;
+  describes conversation with Dallas, 92;
+  again chosen to legislature and also to Congress, 93;
+  his election to Assembly contested and declared void, 93, 94;
+  in his speech during debate admits error of his course, 94;
+  urges Badollet to secure reëlection of all Western assemblymen, 95;
+  re-elected to legislature, 95;
+  witness before grand jury in trial of prisoners, 96;
+  draws petition to Washington for pardon of offenders, 96;
+  his loyalty to constituents, 96.
+
+_Member of Congress._
+  Moves appointment of committee on finance to control Treasury, 106;
+  appointed upon it, 106;
+  wishes to put appropriations on permanent footing, 107, 108;
+  refuses to devote military funds to establishing Indian trading posts,
+   108;
+  opposes habit of appropriating without debate, even to objects already
+   approved, 109;
+  supports resolutions calling for papers in Jay treaty, 110;
+  upholds power of House of Representatives, 111, 112;
+  denies that treaties override discretion of House, 112, 113;
+  appointed to carry call to Washington, 114;
+  claims right of House to participate in treaties, 114;
+  stands beside Madison as leader of debate, 115;
+  insists on separate consideration of treaties, 118;
+  objects to Federalists' threats of war with England, 118, 119;
+  complains of abandonment of "free ships" principle in Jay's treaty,
+   119;
+  low opinion of Indians, 122;
+  urges resistance to impressment, 122;
+  suggests plan for advantageous sale of public lands, 122;
+  and their use to pay debt, 122;
+  views on taxation, 123;
+  opposes military establishment and navy, 123, 124;
+  laments necessity of payment to United States Bank, 124;
+  attacked for participation in Whiskey Insurrection, 124;
+  makes no reply, 125;
+  criticises conduct of Treasury Department, 125;
+  opposes principle of a national debt, 125;
+  asserts a great increase in public debt, 126;
+  defends assertion against W. Smith, 126;
+  objects to adjournment to pay respects to Washington on birthday, 126;
+  recognized as leader of opposition by Federalists, 127;
+  does not expect or desire renomination, 127;
+  reëlected to Congress, 127;
+  becomes leader of Republicans in House, 128;
+  wishes House to compliment Washington personally on his retirement,
+   but not his administration, 129;
+  describes Andrew Jackson's appearance, 129 n.;
+  insists on payment of indebtedness of States to government, 129;
+  chairman of conference committee, 129;
+  opposes army and navy expenditure, 129, 130;
+  secures passage of bill confining treasury expenditures, 130;
+  in sympathy and confidence of Jefferson, 133;
+  deprecates debating foreign relations, 134;
+  wishes to treat France like other nations, 134;
+  opposes threatening France, 135;
+  joins moderate Republicans in voting with Federalists for address to
+   President, 136;
+  opposes appropriation for defense, 137;
+  objects to employment of frigates, 137;
+  favors defense of ports and harbors only, 137;
+  opposes salt duty, 137;
+  and excessive loans, 137;
+  points out method of impeachment in Blount case, 138;
+  describes his desire for moderation, 138;
+  calls Federalists aristocrats, 139;
+  votes against presenting answer to message in person, 140;
+  now acknowledged leader of Republicans, 140;
+  presents anti-slavery petitions from Pennsylvania, 140;
+  his opinion of use of foreign coins, 140;
+  estimate of specie in United States, 141;
+  opposes proposal to expel Lyon, 141;
+  on executive power of appointment, 142;
+  wishes to abandon foreign political intercourse, 143;
+  upholds power of House to check executive through appropriations, 143;
+  makes elaborate speech on checks of legislature on executive, 144-146;
+  and on necessity of abstention from European politics, 145;
+  practical drawbacks to his theory, 147;
+  his speech circulated by party, 147;
+  opposes war measures against France, 148;
+  supports call for papers of envoys to France, 148;
+  presents petition against authorizing private citizens to arm vessels,
+   149;
+  opposes bill to authorize President to arm convoys, 149;
+  prefers submission to French outrages rather than war, 150, 151;
+  attacked by Allen of Connecticut, his reply, 150, 151;
+  opposes non-intercourse with France, 151;
+  declares Sedition Bill unconstitutional, 152;
+  high words with Harper over Alien Bill, 152;
+  taunted by Harper, 152;
+  opposes declaration of state of relations by Congress, 153;
+  votes against abrogating treaty with France, 154;
+  continues to harass Wolcott in the Treasury, 154;
+  his even temper, 154;
+  opposes bill to punish correspondence with foreign princes, 155, 156;
+  opposes bill to incite French West Indies to revolt, 156, 157;
+  opposes authorization of President to suspend commerce in certain
+   cases, 157;
+  opposes building ships of the line, 157;
+  tries to defeat or ameliorate Alien and Sedition Laws, 157, 158;
+  aided in sixth Congress by Nicholas and Macon, 159;
+  votes with Federalists to suspend commercial intercourse with France,
+   159;
+  opposes proposal to amend Foreign Intercourse Act, 160, 161;
+  opposes bill requiring report from secretary of treasury, because
+   originating in Senate, 161;
+  opposes continuance of non-intercourse, 162;
+  his position in presidential contest in 1800, 164;
+  irritated by influence of S. Smith over Jefferson and Madison, 164;
+  reasons that attempt of Federalists to defeat an election by the House
+   is constitutional, 164, 165;
+  but any president pro tempore would be unconstitutional, 165;
+  suggests course of action for Republicans, 165;
+  probably expects to use violence against Federalists, 166;
+  review of his congressional career, 167;
+  leader of party, yet not a partisan, 167, 168;
+  one of Republican triumvirate, 168;
+  his departure leaves party without a legislative leader, 168.
+
+_Secretary of the Treasury: Funding._
+  His place as financier in United States history, 170;
+  Jefferson's choice for secretary of treasury, 178, 179;
+  hated by Federalists in Senate, 178;
+  assigned to Treasury by public opinion, 179;
+  doubts his abilities and chances of confirmation by Senate, 180;
+  plans to move to New York, 180;
+  refuses to accept until confirmed by Senate, 181;
+  finally agrees to serve, 181;
+  brings family to Washington and enters on duties, 181, 182;
+  his thoroughness, 182;
+  exhausts himself by his energy, 182;
+  sketch of his financial career in Pennsylvania and in Congress, 183,
+   184;
+  his one principle the extinguishment of debt, 184;
+  publishes sketch of the finances in 1796, 184;
+  publishes in July, 1800, "Views of Public Debt," etc., 184, 185;
+  ability of these essays, 185;
+  outlines policy of expenditures and receipts to Jefferson, 186;
+  endeavors to systematize treasury statements, 186;
+  points out economic reasons for increase of revenue, 187;
+  urges specific appropriations by Congress and absence of departmental
+   discretion, 187;
+  urges reduction, both of debt and of taxes, 188;
+  unable to work with other departments because of Jefferson's habits,
+   188;
+  lack of elasticity in his plans, 189;
+  embarrassed by complications in department, 189;
+  his first report to Congress, 190;
+  denies existence of any surplus, 190;
+  explains plan for extinction of debt by 1817, 191;
+  given authority by Congress, 192;
+  table showing success of his measures, 192;
+  in spite of Louisiana purchase, reduces debt by one third, 192, 194;
+  dissatisfied with financial terms of Louisiana purchase, 193;
+  novelty of his distinction between place of payment of interest and
+   principal, 195;
+  arranges that Louisiana debt shall not retard payment of old debt, 196,
+   197;
+  his report of 1805, 107;
+  proposes funding of outstanding obligations in 1807, 198;
+  reports a full Treasury on occasion of threatened war with England,
+   198;
+  discusses application of surplus to war expenses, 199;
+  suggests methods of war taxation, 200;
+  prefers war to embargo, 201;
+  draws the embargo bill, 201;
+  discusses its financial effect, 201, 202;
+  confident attitude as to war loans, 202;
+  his policy supported by Jefferson, 203;
+  realizes that war will prevent reduction of debt, 203, 204;
+  relies on customs, tonnage dues, and land sales for revenue, 204;
+  reports deficiency owing to embargo, 204;
+  forced to borrow, 204;
+  reviews situation in 1811 with satisfaction, 205, 206;
+  asks for increase of revenue in case of war, 206;
+  proposes war loans, 207;
+  and interest-bearing treasury notes, 207;
+  insists on actual increased receipts, not apparent measures, 207, 208;
+  on necessity of upholding credit, 209;
+  receives authority from Congress, 209;
+  submits war budget, 209, 210;
+  his last annual statement in 1812, 211;
+  reports need of new loans, 212;
+  his personal friends, Parish, Girard, and Astor, save government credit,
+   213, 214;
+  fails to negotiate loan at par, 214;
+  failure of his hopes to extinguish debt, 215;
+  his policy vindicated by successors, 215;
+  charged with sacrificing defenses of country to reduction of debt, 216;
+  attempted defense of his course by "Democratic Review," 216;
+  his determination to follow financial principles and not a partisan
+   course, 216, 218;
+  does not invent new sources of revenue, 218;
+  his estimates follow those of Hamilton, 219;
+  estimates permanent revenue, 220;
+  unable to abandon internal revenue, 220;
+  does not protest against its abolition by Congress, 221;
+  does not alter estimates in spite of increase of revenue, 221;
+  proposes additional tax to meet war with Tripoli, 222;
+  applies surplus as far as possible to Louisiana purchase, 222;
+  political effect of his success during Jefferson's first term, 223;
+  in 1805 raises estimate of permanent revenue, 223;
+  impresses economy upon other departments, 223;
+  prepares scheme of internal improvements, 224;
+  after Chesapeake affair recommends borrowing, 224;
+  and doubling duties in case of war, 225;
+  receipts during his second term, 226;
+  his warning of diminished resources in future ignored by Jefferson,
+   226;
+  estimates for 1809, 228;
+  points out necessity of submitting to war or loss of foreign trade,
+   228, 229;
+  promises not to use internal taxes, 229;
+  reports diminished income and deficiency in 1809, 230;
+  declares for a strict enforcement or abandonment of embargo, 230;
+  disgusted at refusal of Congress to recharter United States Bank, 231;
+  tenders resignation to Madison, 231;
+  obliged to remain for lack of possible successor, 231;
+  continues to advocate increased customs, 232;
+  points out that, had his recommendations been followed in 1809, there
+   would have been a large surplus, 232, 233;
+  forces Congress to choose between a bank or internal taxes, 233, 234;
+  himself proposes internal taxes, 234;
+  his last report predicts deficiency and asks a loan, 235;
+  his recommendations of internal taxes disregarded, 235;
+  his previous use of Hamilton's internal taxes, 235;
+  his suggestions followed in 1813, 236;
+  connection with sale of public lands, 238;
+  unable fully to utilize this resource, 239;
+  earliest public advocate of free trade, 240;
+  later in career becomes leader of cause, 241;
+  his part in convention of 1831, 241;
+  draws memorial to Congress, 242;
+  his views followed in tariff of 1846, 242;
+  opposed to protection, 242;
+  violently attacked by Clay, who apologizes, 242;
+  introduces reforms in annual report, 245;
+  tries to induce Congress and departments to adopt scheme of minute
+   appropriations, 245, 246;
+  carries system into his own household, 246;
+  effects of his methods, 247;
+  on Jefferson's dislike of banks, 251;
+  his report of 1809 on Hamilton's bank, 252, 253;
+  suggests its renewal, with modifications, 253, 254;
+  his testimony as to its value, 255, 256;
+  estimate as to state banks in 1811, 258;
+  describes hostility of Astor to bank, 259;
+  left, by failure to renew bank charter, at mercy of capitalists, 260;
+  his opinion that absence of bank caused suspension of specie payments
+   in 1815, 262;
+  on Jefferson's proposal to issue paper money, 264;
+  his success a vindication of Federalist finance, 266;
+  opinion of services of second national bank, 266;
+  declines offer of secretaryship in 1816, 266, 267;
+  urges Madison to restore specie payment, 267;
+  declines position as president of Bank of United States in 1822, 268;
+  prepares statement of relative value of gold and silver, 268;
+  writes "Considerations on Currency and Banking," 268;
+  advocates use of specie and limited use of paper money, 268;
+  accepts presidency of National Bank of New York, 269;
+  his opinion of Jackson, 270;
+  his bank involved in panic of 1837, 272;
+  conducts resumption, 273;
+  chairman of committee of banks, 273;
+  submits reports, 275;
+  declines presidency of Bank of Commerce, 276;
+  resigns presidency of National Bank, 277;
+  publishes "Suggestions on Banks and Currency," 277;
+  condemns paper money, 277;
+  declines offer of Treasury Department from Tyler, 278;
+  in the cabinet, agrees with Republican leaders on all points except
+   bank, 279, 280;
+  prepares circular announcing disregard of party in appointments, 281;
+  and condemning political influence of officials, 281;
+  his policy opposed by Jefferson, 282;
+  obliged to follow cabinet in policy of partisan appointments, 282;
+  advises early preparation for campaign of 1804, 283;
+  wishes States divided into election districts, 283;
+  criticises annual messages of Jefferson, 283;
+  his proposal to appoint a woman to office condemned by Jefferson, 283;
+  suggests in vain regular cabinet consultations, 283, 284;
+  urges payment of tribute to Tripoli rather than war, 284;
+  opinion asked on points of constitutional law, 284;
+  holds inherent right of United States to acquire territory, 285;
+  disapproves of Texas annexation, 285;
+  advises Jefferson concerning Louisiana treaty, 285, 286;
+  attacked by Duane, for not turning out Federalists, 286;
+  absence of favoritism in his appointments, 286, 287;
+  supervises sale of lands, 287;
+  acquaintance with Chôteau, 278;
+  drafts promise of protection for Astor's fur trade, 288;
+  opposes vainly Jefferson's gunboat scheme, 289;
+  submits plan of defense against England, 289;
+  urges moderate tone in message, 290;
+  devises scheme of internal improvements, 290;
+  doubts success of a National University, 291;
+  opposes a permanent embargo, 291;
+  prepares Campbell's report urging resistance, 292;
+  receives authority from Congress to enforce non-intercourse, 293;
+  favors war, 293;
+  submits "Notes on Political Situation," 294;
+  opposes ordering out naval force in favor of letters of marque, 294;
+  his appointment as secretary of state prevented by Republican
+   opponents in Senate, 294, 295;
+  continues to advise Madison, 295;
+  his measures meet opposition in Senate, 295;
+  deserted by Madison in his attempt to secure re-chartering of bank,
+   296;
+  tenders resignation, 296;
+  bitterly attacked in "Aurora," 297;
+  accused of dominating Madison and of corruption, 297, 298;
+  considered by Jefferson ablest man in administration except Madison,
+   298;
+  unable to command support in Congress, submits to war policy, 298,
+   299;
+  asks leave of absence and appointment as minister to Russia, 299;
+  attempts made to alienate him from Jefferson and Madison, 299;
+  his high regard for Jefferson, 300;
+  continued good terms with Madison, 300.
+
+_Minister to Russia; Treaty of Ghent._
+  His voyage with Bayard, 301;
+  visits Gottenburg and Copenhagen, 301;
+  at St. Petersburg meets J. Q. Adams, 302;
+  his knowledge of history, 302;
+  lack of diplomatic experience as compared with Adams, 302;
+  contrast in character with Adams, 303;
+  considers peace necessary because of inefficiency in conduct of war,
+   303;
+  abandons his former opposition to a navy, 303;
+  low opinion of English diplomacy, 304;
+  view of necessity of an English renunciation of impressment, 305;
+  writes to Barings, 305;
+  receives Baring's reply, 306, 307;
+  explains case to Romanzoff, 307;
+  assured by Moreau of imperial sympathy, 308;
+  warned by him of England's purposes, 308;
+  writes to Monroe asking instructions, 308, 309;
+  informs Baring of inability to negotiate except through Russia, 309;
+  writes to Moreau, 309, 310;
+  instructs Dallas as to duties in London, 310;
+  receives news of refusal of Senate to confirm his nomination, 310;
+  contemplates visit to London, 311;
+  hears that British government proposes to treat directly, 311;
+  unable to return home, 312;
+  journey to Amsterdam, 312;
+  not at first included in second commission, but later added, 312;
+  visits London, 313;
+  learns of arrival of Clay and Russell, 313;
+  urges Lafayette to mediate, 313;
+  wishes to change place of negotiation from Gottenburg, 314;
+  urges Crawford to secure interposition of emperor, 315;
+  receives letter from Lafayette through Humboldt, promising aid, 315;
+  makes official appeal to emperor, 315;
+  learns of refusal of England to admit intervention, 316;
+  warns Monroe of English preparations, 316;
+  visits Paris, 316;
+  meets British commissioners at Ghent, 316;
+  notifies Monroe of determination of England to dismember United States
+   and attack New Orleans, 317, 318;
+  despairs of peace, 318;
+  draws reply of commissioners rejecting British demands, 319;
+  explains reasons for willingness to discuss Indian article, 319, 320;
+  condemns burning of public buildings at Washington, 320;
+  expresses confidence in American securities, 320;
+  has difficulty in mediating between Clay and Adams on fisheries and
+   Mississippi navigation, 322, 323;
+  proposes engagement to abandon use of savages in future war, 323;
+  the credit of treaty due to him, 324;
+  his diplomatic skill, 324;
+  wins European admiration, 325;
+  visits Geneva, 325, 326;
+  sees Napoleon during Hundred Days, 326;
+  appointed minister to France, 326;
+  with Clay and Adams negotiates commercial convention, 326, 327;
+  friendly attitude of Castlereagh toward, 326;
+  on value of abolition of discriminating duties, 327;
+  returns to New York, 327;
+  withholds acceptance of French mission, 327;
+  describes to Jefferson European opinion of United States, 327;
+  describes condition of France after Revolution, 327, 328;
+  does not consider republican form of government suitable everywhere,
+   328;
+  weary of politics, declines nomination to Congress, 329;
+  declines French mission on ground of poverty, 329;
+  finally yields to Monroe's requests, 329;
+  refuses offer of Treasury Department, his reasons, 330;
+  rejoicings of Jefferson over his appointment, 331.
+
+_Minister to France._
+  Received by Richelieu, 331;
+  discusses American sympathy for Bonaparte, 331, 332;
+  received by Louis XVIII., 332;
+  familiar relations with royal family, 332;
+  negotiates for indemnity for seizures, 332;
+  annoyed by French demand for dismissal of a disrespectful American
+   postmaster, 333;
+  advises Adams and Eustis in negotiations, 333;
+  returns to Paris, 334;
+  with Rush conducts negotiations with England, 334, 335;
+  tries to explain Jackson's occupation of Pensacola, 336;
+  refuses to mediate with France between Spain and revolted colonies,
+   336;
+  points out disadvantages of war with Spain, 337;
+  succeeds in pacifying French indignation at seizure of Apollon, 338;
+  does not adopt Adams's line of defense, 338;
+  Adams's opinion of, in diary, 338, 339;
+  his opinion of Adams, 329;
+  continues to negotiate with regard to commerce, 340;
+  loath to return without success, 340;
+  criticises Adams's terms of French treaty as unfavorable, but advises
+   signing, 340;
+  fails to secure satisfaction and returns to America, 341;
+  settles at Friendship Hill, 341;
+  pressed by Monroe to return to France, 341, 342;
+  declines mission to Panama Congress, 342.
+
+_Minister to England._
+  Appointed envoy and minister, with liberty to return on completion of
+   negotiations, 342, 343;
+  secures modification of instructions, 343;
+  complains of peremptory character of instructions, 344;
+  his voyage, 344;
+  dislike of English and French diplomacy, 344;
+  learns of English resentment at tone of American ministers, 344, 345;
+  negotiates with Canning, 345;
+  asks for instructions as to renewal of convention of 1815, 345;
+  pleased with ability of Lawrence as _chargé d'affaires_, 346;
+  his threat of war quoted by Chateaubriand, 346;
+  warned by Adams to yield nothing, 346;
+  concludes negotiation with Goderich, 347;
+  thinks Canning meant to discuss impressment, 247;
+  returns to America, congratulated by Adams, 348;
+  his social life in London, 348;
+  ready to accept French mission in 1834, 349;
+  prepares argument in Northeastern boundary arbitration, 349;
+  publishes an account of facts in the case, 349;
+  visited by Ashburton, 350;
+  publishes pamphlet on Oregon question, 351;
+  presides at meeting to protest against annexation of Texas, 351;
+  condemns Mexican war, 352;
+  publishes pamphlet concerning it, 352;
+  condemns "manifest destiny" talk, 352, 353.
+
+_Republican Leader._
+  His opinion of contemporary political leaders, 355, 356;
+  prefers Crawford to Adams, 356;
+  requests Macon to take
+  part in caucus for Crawford, 356;
+  thinks universal suffrage compensates for dangers of consolidation, 356;
+  accepts reluctantly nomination for vice-president, 357;
+  dislikes formality of nomination, 357;
+  withdraws to help ticket, 358;
+  considers the election to prove decease of Republican party, 359;
+  condemns Jackson's violations of law, 359;
+  favors an insignificant or weak executive, 359;
+  visits Washington in 1829, notes disappearance of old régime, 330.
+
+_Society, Literature, Science._
+  His land speculations not profitable, 351;
+  plans Genevese Colonization Association, 361;
+  loses money through Morris's failure, 362;
+  speculates in Virginia military lands, 362;
+  estimates value of estates, 362, 363;
+  ill at ease in general society, 363;
+  his establishment at Washington described by Irving, 363;
+  house burned by British, 364;
+  builds at Friendship Hill, finds it lonely in winter, 364;
+  visited by Lafayette in 1825, 364, 365;
+  settles permanently in New York, 365;
+  frequent changes of residence, 365;
+  devotes last years to scientific studies, 366;
+  conversational ability, 366;
+  chosen member of "The Club," 366, 367;
+  leads conversation, 367;
+  described by Irving, 368;
+  wishes to establish free university in New York, 368;
+  presides over council of New York University, 369;
+  resigns, owing to clerical opposition, 370;
+  continued interest in French politics, 370;
+  letter of Lafayette to, on marriage of his daughter, 371;
+  assists Polish refugees, 372;
+  interested in Indian customs, 373, 374;
+  writes for Humboldt a synopsis of Indian tribes, 374;
+  publishes Indian vocabularies, 375;
+  issues circulars inviting information, 375;
+  correspondence with individuals, 375, 376;
+  republishes Synopsis, 377;
+  scientific character of his results, 377, 378;
+  his advice requested concerning Smithson's bequest, 378;
+  its publications submitted to him, 378, 379;
+  founds American Ethnological Society, 379;
+  defrays cost of publishing its transactions, 379;
+  essay on nations of Mexico and Central America, 380;
+  authorizes General Scott to purchase documents in Mexico, 380;
+  writes introduction to Hale's "Indians  of Northwest America," 380;
+  gathers information regarding gold in America for Humboldt, 381;
+  describes his reasons for success, 381;
+  his caution in reasoning, 382;
+  fails to establish a literary periodical, 382;
+  chosen president of New York Historical Society, 382;
+  his inaugural address on course of United States History, 382-384;
+  opinion of Washington, 383, 384;
+  friendly greeting to Adams in 1844, 384;
+  eulogized by Adams, 384, 385;
+  his party career contrasted with that of Adams, 385;
+  personal appearance and portraits, 385, 386;
+  crushed by loss of wife, 387;
+  death, 387;
+  eulogized by Bradish before Historical Society, 388;
+  acknowledges indebtedness to Bentham, 388;
+  his brain, 389;
+  summary of character and services, 389.
+
+_Characteristics._
+  General estimates, 1, 388, 389;
+  unfriendly views of, 90, 297, 338;
+  his own estimate, 381;
+  ambition, 5, 10, 58, 127, 180, 328;
+  business ability, 28, 60, 361, 362;
+  cosmopolitanism, 7, 389;
+  courage, 75, 76, 84;
+  debt, aversion to, 21;
+  diplomatic ability, 303, 324, 325, 330, 345;
+  financial ability, 45, 179, 185, 215;
+  friendliness, 24, 30, 300, 372;
+  geography, love of, 16;
+  history, love of, 3, 302;
+  indolence, 43;
+  leadership, 128, 133, 159, 167, 357;
+  literary interest, 382;
+  maturity, early, 31;
+  partisanship, 140, 147, 167;
+  personal appearance, 385, 386, 389;
+  political shrewdness, 76, 95, 128, 357;
+  social habits, 44, 348, 363, 367, 368;
+  temper, evenness of, 65, 152, 154, 303, 324;
+  thoroughness, 182, 381.
+
+_Political Opinions._
+  Alien Bill, 152, 158;
+  appointments to office, 281, 282, 286, 359;
+  army, 108, 123, 129, 180, 303;
+  Bank of United States, 231, 252-256, 262, 266, 296;
+  banking, 256, 268, 273, 277;
+  cabinet, 188, 222, 245, 283;
+  coinage, 140, 268;
+  Congress, powers of, 109, 110, 112, 143, 144, 153, 161;
+  constitution of Pennsylvania, 41, 42;
+  debt, public, 45, 125, 126, 191, 203, 205, 208, 222, 269;
+  democracy, 6, 8, 10, 33, 34, 42, 48, 55, 126, 389;
+  education, 45, 291, 368-370;
+  election of 1800, 164-166;
+  embargo, 201, 206, 230, 291;
+  England, diplomacy of, 304, 344;
+  England, policy toward, 228, 292, 310, 327, 337, 343-347;
+  ethnology, 373-381;
+  excise, 53, 80; executive, 144-146, 359;
+  Federalist party, 119, 129, 139, 140, 164, 179;
+  financial measures of Hamilton, 184, 185;
+  foreign correspondence bill, 155;
+  foreign ministers, 142, 143, 145, 147;
+  France, diplomacy of, 304, 344;
+  France, policy toward, 134, 135, 148, 149, 157, 159, 167, 310, 332,
+   333, 338, 340;
+  free trade, 240-243;
+  French Revolution, 56, 76, 139, 328;
+  gunboat scheme, 289;
+  impeachment, 138;
+  Indians, 108, 122, 320, 323, 373-381;
+  internal improvements, 45, 224, 290;
+  Jacksonian democracy, 359;
+  Jay treaty, 119, 136;
+  manifest destiny, 352;
+  Mexican war, 352;
+  military matters, 137, 289;
+  money, relation to wealth, 260;
+  navy, 123, 124, 130, 137, 186, 303;
+  northeastern boundary, 347-349;
+  northwest boundary, 343, 347, 351;
+  panic of 1815, 262;
+  paper money, 46, 207, 264, 267, 268;
+  party management, 38, 41, 95, 128, 164, 359;
+  peace, 149, 150, 167, 284;
+  public lands, 46, 122, 238, 239;
+  Republican party, 355, 359;
+  revenue, internal, 221, 233, 234;
+  revenue, sources of, 187, 223, 232;
+  Sedition Act, 152, 158, 159;
+  slavery, 47, 140;
+  Spain, policy toward, 336, 337;
+  suffrage, 42;
+  surplus, use of, 206, 216;
+  taxation, 123, 199, 200;
+  Texas annexation, 351;
+  territory, constitutional power to acquire, 285;
+  Treasury, administration of, 64, 106-108, 125, 130, 154, 189, 205,
+   208, 217, 245-247;
+  treaty of Ghent, 317, 318, 319, 323;
+  treaty power, 114;
+  United States, history of, 382, 383;
+  war of 1812, 320;
+  war finances, 190, 200, 203, 207, 208, 222, 224, 229, 232, 234, 298;
+  Whiskey Insurrection, 94.
+
+Gallatin family, 2;
+  prominence in Geneva, 2;
+  military reputation, 2;
+  interest in all its members, 8;
+  on oligarchic side in Genevese politics, 10;
+  alarmed at report of Gallatin's death, 27;
+  visited by Gallatin in 1814, 326;
+  claims Roman descent, 386 n.
+
+Gallatin, Frances, marries B. K. Stevens, 371;
+  Lafayette's letter of congratulation to, 371;
+  considered "a beauty" at French court, 372.
+
+Gallatin, James, accompanies his father to Europe, 301.
+
+Gallatin, Jean, father of Albert Gallatin, 2;
+  his death, 2.
+
+Gallatin, P. M., guardian of Albert, 10;
+  his kindness on Gallatin's departure for America, 11;
+  promises to aid him, and forwards letters of recommendation, 11.
+
+Gallatin, Susanne Vaudenet, grandmother of Gallatin, her character, 7;
+  friend of Frederick of Hesse-Cassel and of Voltaire, 7;
+  controlling spirit of family, 8;
+  quarrels with Albert over his refusal of a Hessian commission, 8.
+
+Gambier, Lord, on English peace commission, 316.
+
+Gardner, John L., at free-trade convention, 241.
+
+Genet, Edmond C., effect of his intemperance on parties, 57;
+  marries daughter of George Clinton, 102;
+  aids Democratic societies, 102;
+  condemned by Federalists, 134.
+
+Geneva, place of Gallatin family in, 2;
+  education in, 2, 3;
+  religious spirit of, 3;
+  a resort of foreigners, 4;
+  political situation in, 6, 7, 10;
+  parties in, 10;
+  revolutions in, 20, 361;
+  government of, 33;
+  visited by Gallatin, 325, 326;
+  colonization from, planned by Gallatin, 361.
+
+Geneva Academy, studies of Gallati in, 2, 3;
+  his friends at, 4, 5.
+
+Germans, in Pennsylvania, oppose improvement of education, 45.
+
+Gerry, Elbridge, on French mission, 139;
+  remains to negotiate loan, 152.
+
+Gibbs, ----, member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+Gilbert, Ezekiel, on Committee on Finance, 107.
+
+Giles, William B., Republican leader in debate, his character, 100, 133;
+  bitterly opposes address to Washington, 128, 129;
+  in debate on relations with France, 135;
+  loses leadership to Gallatin, 140.
+
+Gilman, Nicholas, on Committee on Finance, 106.
+
+Girard, Stephen, assists Gallatin to float loan, 213, 214;
+  his reasons, 259.
+
+Goderich, Lord, renews convention of 1815 with Gallatin, 347.
+
+Goldberg, ----, Dutch commissioner to make commercial treaty, 334.
+
+Goodhue, Jonathan, at free-trade convention of 1831, 241.
+
+Goodhue, ----, member of "The Club," 367.
+
+Goodrich, Chauncy, in Congress, 99;
+  in debate on foreign relations, 143;
+  on resolution to punish foreign correspondence, 156.
+
+Goulburn, Henry, on English peace commission, 316;
+  informed of American request for instructions, 318;
+  told by Castlereagh and Liverpool to moderate his demands, 319;
+  protests against acceptance of Indian article, 321.
+
+Grenville, Lord, sends Fauchet letter to Washington, 103;
+  connection with Jay treaty, 117, 350;
+  his proposition to Pinckney, 134.
+
+Griswold, Roger, attacks Gallatin's account of sinking fund, 65;
+  leader of Federalists in House, 98, 133;
+  replies to Gallatin in debate on treaty power, 113;
+  his collision with Lyon, 141;
+  on doctrine of checks, 143;
+  on bill to punish foreign correspondence, 156;
+  on Senate bill to require annual financial reports, 161.
+
+Gunboats, Jefferson's scheme for,  288;
+  origin of his idea, 288;
+  opposed by Gallatin, 289.
+
+Gurney, ----, in Pennsylvania legislature, 183.
+
+
+Hale, ----, introduction to his work on Indians written by Gallatin,
+  380.
+
+Hamilton, Alexander, his career compared to that of Gallatin, 28, 32;
+  amends excise law, 52;
+  demands punishment of Pittsburgh leaders of opposition, 53, 54;
+  drafts proclamation against them, 54;
+  attacked by Gallatin in Senate, 64;
+  deprecates demand for minute information, 64, 65;
+  submits plan for crushing insurgents, 76, 77;
+  impatient at delay, writes as "Tully" advocating punishment, 87;
+  accompanies army to Pittsburgh, 88;
+  investigates insurrection, 90;
+  fails to find indictment against Gallatin, 90;
+  dissuades troops from violence, 92;
+  resigns from Treasury, 97;
+  continues to lead party, 99;
+  stoned in defending Jay treaty, 103;
+  letters of Wolcott to, complaining of Republican opposition, 126, 154;
+  attends Congress as general, 155;
+  his influence on government, 168, 169;
+  review of his career in the Treasury,
+  174-176;
+  his place in history, 176;
+  his enmity to Gallatin, 179;
+  attacks of Gallatin upon his system, 184, 185;
+  his revenue system maintained by Gallatin, 218, 234;
+  and reënacted by Democrats in 1813, 235;
+  his report on public lands, 237, 238;
+  his organization of Treasury Department, 243;
+  his financial reports, 245;
+  on Bank of North America, 249;
+  his report on national bank, 250, 251.
+
+Hamilton, J. C., accuses Gallatin of cowardice in Whiskey Rebellion, 84.
+
+Harper, Robert Goodloe, leader of Federalists in House, 98, 133;
+  denounces call for Jay treaty papers as unconstitutional, 111, 112;
+  closes argument on Federalist side, 114;
+  recognizes Gallatin as leader of Republicans, 115;
+  in debate on relations with France, 134, 135;
+  called a "bungler" by Gallatin, 140;
+  moves appropriation for foreign intercourse, 141;
+  his share in debate, 142, 146;
+  introduces bill to suspend intercourse with France, 151;
+  altercation with Gallatin over Alien Bill, 152;
+  on resolution to furnish foreign correspondence, 156;
+  on Senate bill to require annual financial reports, 161.
+
+Harvard College, gives Gallatin permission to teach French, 17;
+  his connection with, 18;
+  gives Gallatin certificate, 18.
+
+Hassler, Ferdinand Rudolph, superintendent of coast survey, 290.
+
+Hawks, ----, member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+Henry, Patrick, recommends Gallatin to county surveyor and commissions
+ him to locate lands, 24;
+  advises Gallatin to go West, predicts success, 29.
+
+Henry, Prof. Joseph, letter of Gallatin to, on Squier and Davis's
+ "Ancient Monuments," 379.
+
+Hillhouse, James, Federalist in Congress, 99;
+  on committee on finance, 107.
+
+Holland, vain attempt to sign commercial treaty with, 334;
+  arbitrates northeast boundary, 347, 349;
+  its decision rejected, 349.
+
+House of Representatives, leaders of, in 1795, 98-100;
+  debate in, over conduct of Washington's administration, 104-106;
+  appoints Committee on Finance, 106, 107;
+  debate in, on principle of appropriations, 108, 109;
+  motion of Livingston to call for papers in Jay treaty brings on debate
+   on treaty power, 109-114;
+  asserts right to withhold appropriations, 115;
+  considers foreign treaties separately, 118;
+  debates Jay treaty, 118-121;
+  votes to carry treaty into effect, 121;
+  but condemns it, 121;
+  refuses to adjourn on Washington's birthday, 126;
+  adopts address complimentary to Washington, 129;
+  new members in fifth Congress, 132;
+  debates President's message on relations with France, 133-136;
+  votes to support administration, 136;
+  considers measures of defense, 137;
+  impeaches Blount, 138;
+  entertained by Adams, 140;
+  encounter in, between Lyon and Griswold, 141;
+  debate in, on foreign missions, 141, 142;
+  on relation of executive to Congress, 142-147;
+  rejects amendment to abolish foreign missions, 147;
+  debates war with France, 148;
+  requests President to furnish correspondence of envoys to France, 148;
+  receives X Y Z dispatches, 149;
+  altercation in, between Gallatin and Allen, 150;
+  passes Alien Bill, 152;
+  message of Adams to, on resumption of diplomatic intercourse
+  with France, 152; passes bill abrogating treaty with France, 154;
+  debates and passes bill to punish foreign correspondence, 155, 156;
+  debates and passes bills to favor French West Indies, and punish Spanish
+   and Dutch ports, 156, 157;
+  refuses to repeal Sedition Act, 157;
+  new members in sixth Congress, 158;
+  replies to President's address, 158;
+  refuses to repeal Sedition Law, 159;
+  passes bill to suspend intercourse with France, 159, 160;
+  votes a medal to Truxton, 160;
+  refuses to amend Foreign Intercourse Act, 160, 161;
+  debates and passes Senate bill to require annual Treasury reports, 161;
+  refuses to continue non-intercourse, 162;
+  again rejects bill to amend Sedition Act, 162;
+  part played by Gallatin in, 167, 168;
+  investigates Wolcott's management of Treasury, 177.
+
+Howell, Richard, leads New Jersey militia against Whiskey Rebellion, 88.
+
+Humboldt, Baron Alexander von, aided in study of precious metals in
+ America by Gallatin, 278, 374, 381;
+  brings Lafayette's letter to Gallatin, 315;
+  meets Gallatin in Washington, 315;
+  speaks of Gallatin's "glory," 325;
+  letter to Gallatin, 381.
+
+Husbands, Herman, on committee on resolutions of Parkinson's Ferry
+ meeting, 80.
+
+Huskisson, William, on impressment, 347.
+
+
+Impressment, Gallatin's opinion of, 122;
+  its abandonment by England insisted on by Monroe, 305;
+  refused consideration by England, 322, 327, 335, 347.
+
+Indians, relations of Gallatin with, at Machias, 15;
+  trading posts with, opposed by Gallatin, 108;
+  Wayne's treaty with, 117, 118;
+  danger of war with, in 1795, 120, 121;
+  Gallatin's opinion of, 122;
+  influence of Chôteau over, 287;
+  fur trade of Astor with, 288;
+  proposals of England concerning, in treaty of Ghent, 317, 319, 321;
+  studies of Gallatin concerning, 373-378;
+  the Canadian Indians, 373;
+  tribes of, classified by Jefferson, 374;
+  "Synopsis of Indian Tribes" by Gallatin, 374;
+  vocabularies collected by Gallatin, 375, 376;
+  studies of Du Ponceau concerning, 377;
+  republication of Gallatin's "Synopsis," 377;
+  his essay on Indian civilization, 380;
+  his introduction to Hale's work on, 380.
+
+Ingham, Samuel D., report of Gallatin to, on gold and silver, 268.
+
+Internal improvements, Gallatin's scheme for, 224, 290;
+  urged by Jefferson, 226, 227, 290;
+  inconsistency of Jefferson, 227.
+
+Irish, petition against Sedition Act, 157.
+
+Irving, Washington, describes Mrs. Gallatin's manners and appearance,
+  363, 364;
+  describes Gallatin in old age, 368.
+
+
+Jackson, Andrew, votes against complimentary address to Washington, 129;
+  his appearance described by Gallatin, 129 n.;
+  orders removal of deposits, 270;
+  Gallatin's opinion of, 270, 355;
+  occupies Pensacola, 336;
+  refuses to appoint Gallatin to French mission, 349;
+  candidate for president in 1824, 358;
+  defeated for president by Adams, 358;
+  his idea of party, 359;
+  Gallatin's opinion of, 359;
+  character of his presidency, 360.
+
+Jackson, F. J., his mission to United States, 295.
+
+Jay, John, asked by Jefferson for information concerning Gallatin, 27;
+  drafts letter for New York Convention calling for a new convention,
+   37 n.;
+  burnt in effigy after his treaty, 103;
+  his purpose in making treaty, 117;
+  said by Sheffield to have duped Grenville, 117;
+  his warning remark to Randolph during negotiations, 118;
+  attacked by Gallatin, 119.
+
+Jay, William, member of "The Club," 366.
+
+Jay treaty, ratified, 102;
+  made public by Mason, 103;
+  popular dissatisfaction with, 103, 116;
+  sent to House, 109;
+  condemned in England, 117;
+  debate over, 118-121.
+
+Jefferson, Thomas, in behalf of Gallatin family writes to Jay for
+ information concerning Albert Gallatin, 27;
+  countersigns Washington's proclamation against excise rioters, 54;
+  retires from cabinet, 97, 99;
+  rupture with Hamilton, 99;
+  imbued with French principles, 102;
+  ridiculed as a sans-culotte, 104;
+  influence complained of by Wolcott, 127;
+  tries to moderate bitterness of Republicans, 128;
+  Gallatin known to be in his confidence, 133;
+  complains of weakness of Congress, 138;
+  unable to influence Senate, 139;
+  loses taste for French alliance, 139;
+  thinks Sedition Bill aimed at Gallatin, 152;
+  praises Gallatin's courage, 158;
+  receives tie vote with Burr, 163;
+  probably makes bargain with Federalists, 164;
+  his inexplicable submission to Smith, 164;
+  elected, 167;
+  in triumvirate with Madison and Gallatin, 168;
+  represents social equality, 169;
+  his suggestions on coinage, 172;
+  urges Gallatin to accept Treasury Department, 178-180;
+  letter to Macon, 182;
+  suggestions of Gallatin to, on financial policy, 186;
+  not a practical statesman, 188;
+  does not consult cabinet as a whole, 188;
+  letters of Gallatin to, on finances, 189, 193, 201, 203, 216;
+  summons Congress to ratify Louisiana purchase, 195;
+  reëlection helped by finances and Louisiana treaty, 197, 198, 223;
+  urges Gallatin to retain post until extinction of debt, 203;
+  wishes reduction of army and navy, 220;
+  advocates application of surplus to internal improvement, 226;
+  in so doing abandons his principles, 227;
+  detests bank, 233, 251, 280;
+  proposes impracticable economies in Treasury Department, 244;
+  suggests issue of paper money, 264;
+  an abandonment of republican principles, 266;
+  introduces new principles of administration into government, 279;
+  opposes Gallatin's civil service circular, 281;
+  proposes to fill one half of offices with partisans, 282;
+  submits draft of annual message to cabinet, 283;
+  objects to appointing a woman to office, 283;
+  lack of system in his cabinet, 284;
+  does not consult Gallatin on military matters, 284;
+  agrees with Gallatin's view on acquisition of territory, 285
+  advised by Gallatin concerning Louisiana treaty, 285;
+  unfortunate in choice of political methods, 286;
+  friendly with Duane, 286;
+  promises to protect Astor, 288;
+  his gunboat scheme, 288, 289;
+  origin of his views on gunboats, 288;
+  his plan of internal improvements, 290;
+  recommends national university, 291;
+  wishes amendments to Constitution, 291;
+  advised by Gallatin not to rely on "general welfare" clause of
+   Constitution, 291;
+  shirks responsibility of decision with regard to English policy, 291,
+   292;
+  urged by Gallatin to enforce non-intercourse, 293;
+  calls Gallatin ablest man in administration except Madison, 298;
+  regard of Gallatin for, 300;
+  his love for Gallatin, 300;
+  letters of Gallatin to, on reputation of United States in Europe, 327;
+  on France, 327, 328;
+  letter of Gallatin to, on difficulty of withdrawal from public service,
+   329;
+  rejoices in Gallatin's acceptance of French mission, 331;
+  his opinion of Louis XVIII., 331;
+  relations with de Tracy, 331;
+  supports Crawford for presidency, 356;
+  favors state rights, 356;
+  does not appreciate decay of his party, 358;
+  on non-sectarian education, 369;
+  his remarks on Indians in "Notes on Virginia," 374;
+  on Washington's strong passions, 383 n.
+
+Johannot, ----, educated at Geneva, 4, 17.
+
+Johnston, ----, member of "The Club," 366.
+
+Jones, William, secretary of navy, 312.
+
+
+Kent, Chancellor James, member of "The Club," 366.
+
+King, Charles, member of "The Club," 367.
+
+King, Rufus, resigns mission to England, 342;
+  tone of his correspondence, 345.
+
+Kinloch, Francis, educated at Geneva, 4;
+  letter to, given by Mlle. Pictet to Gallatin, 11.
+
+Kirkpatrick, Major, defends United States marshal in Whiskey
+ Insurrection, 68;
+  his farm burnt by rioters, 73.
+
+Kittera, Thomas, moves hostile amendment to pro-French resolution, 135.
+
+Knox, Henry, resigns from War Department, 97.
+
+Kosciusko, his nephew helped by Gallatin, 372.
+
+Kramer brothers, in business with Gallatin, 60.
+
+
+Lands, public, in Pennsylvania, 46;
+  suggestions of Gallatin as to improved methods of sale, 122, 123;
+  how acquired, 237;
+  sales under Hamilton and successors, 238;
+  organization of sales by Gallatin, 238, 239, 287.
+
+Land speculation, in Virginia, 20, 21, 24, 361;
+  in Ohio, 362.
+
+Lafayette, Marquis de, his motives for aiding colonies, 9;
+  his imprisonment, 102;
+  saved by gunboats in 1781, 288, 289, 371;
+  urged by Gallatin to help mediate between England and United States,
+   313;
+  urges emperor of Russia to exert personal influence with England, 315;
+  sends letter to Gallatin, 315;
+  letter of Gallatin to, on French government, 328;
+  visits Pennsylvania, 364;
+  entertained by Lafayette at Friendship Hill, 365;
+  his part in Revolution of 1830, 370, 371, 372;
+  interested in marriage of Gallatin's daughter, 371;
+  letter to Gallatin, 371, 372.
+
+La Pérouse, meets Gallatin at Machias, 16;
+  later meets him in Boston, 16.
+
+Laurens, John, educated at Geneva, 4.
+
+La Vengeance, captured by Constellation, 160.
+
+Lawrence, William B., gives anecdote of Washington and Gallatin, 22;
+  accompanies Gallatin to England, 344;
+  his ability as secretary, 346;
+  presides at anniversary meeting of New York Historical Society, 384.
+
+Lee, Henry, commands militia against Whiskey Rebellion, 88;
+  requires oath of allegiance, 89;
+  orders seizure of leaders, 90.
+
+Lee, Thomas, founder of Ohio company, 20.
+
+Legislature of Pennsylvania, calls Constitutional Convention, 40;
+  Gallatin's career in, 45-47, 55, 60;
+  rejects bill to improve education, 45;
+  discharges paper money and other debt, 46;
+  elects Gallatin senator, 47, 58;
+  adopts resolutions condemning excise, 48, 49;
+  protests against authorizing vessels to arm, 149;
+  divides electoral vote between Adams and Jefferson, 163;
+  Gallatin's financial report to, 183, 184;
+  offers to take two millions of United States bonds, 214;
+  interferes to regulate Bank of North America, 250;
+  charters Bank of United States, 271.
+
+Leopard, captures Chesapeake, 224.
+
+Lesdernier, M. de, flies from Nova Scotia to Machias, 14;
+  welcomes Gallatin, 14;
+  on good terms with Indians, 16;
+  attempt of Gallatin to obtain a pension for, 30;
+  letter of Gallatin to, 154;
+  introduces Gallatin to Indians, 373.
+
+Lesdernier, Madame de, persuades Gallatin to visit Machias, 14.
+
+Lieven, Count, Russian minister at London, 308;
+  his friendship with Gallatin, 348.
+
+Lincoln, Levi, views on unconstitutionality of acquiring territory, 285.
+
+Livermore, E. S., on committee to consider Gallatin's eligibility to
+  Senate, 61.
+
+Liverpool, Lord, advised by Castlereagh to moderate his demands, 319;
+  does so for fear of healing American dissensions, 319;
+  accepts settlement of Indian question, 321;
+  resolves to prosecute war vigorously, 321;
+  abandons claim to territory and admits defeats, 322;
+  letter of Castlereagh to, 326;
+  death, 347.
+
+Livingston, Edward, prominent Republican in Congress, 100;
+  his precocity, 100;
+  calls for instructions for Jay, 109, 110;
+  votes against complimentary address to Washington, 129;
+  attacks Adams's foreign policy, 135, 136;
+  presents petitions against Alien and Sedition Laws, 157.
+
+Livingston, Robert R., arranges terms of Louisiana purchase, 193.
+
+Lorillard, Jacob, at free trade convention, 1831, 241.
+
+Loring, Captain, takes Gallatin to America, 11.
+
+Louis XVI., executed, 56.
+
+Louis XVIII., Jefferson's opinion of, 331;
+  gives audience to Gallatin, 332;
+  his intimacy with Gallatin and his sarcasm, 332.
+
+Louisiana, financial effect of its purchase, 192, 193, 195, 196, 222;
+  effect of its acquisition on England, 224;
+  constitutional question involved, 285, 286;
+  occupation of, arranged by Gallatin, 286, 287.
+
+Lynn, Mary, keeps boarding-house in Philadelphia, 19.
+
+Lyon, Matthew, his collision with Griswold, 141;
+  defended by Gallatin, 141.
+
+
+Machias, expedition of Gallatin to, 14, 15;
+  life at, 15, 16, 17.
+
+Macon, Nathanael, votes against complimentary address to Washington,
+ 129;
+  aids Gallatin in sixth Congress, 159;
+  moves repeal of Sedition Law, 159;
+  opposes non-intercourse with France, 159, 160;
+  letter of Jefferson to, 182;
+  letter to Nicholson, 293;
+  tries to pass Navigation Act against English and French decrees, 296;
+  on decay of democratic principles in 1824, 356, 358.
+
+Madison, James, secures adoption of ten amendments, 40;
+  abandons Federalists through Jefferson's influence, 99;
+  leads Republicans in House, 100;
+  weakness in debate, 100;
+  drafts address to Washington, 105;
+  on Committee on Finance, 106;
+  advocates bill to establish trading posts with Indians, 108;
+  moves to amend call for Jay papers, 111;
+  interprets treaty power
+  in Constitution in Jay treaty debate, 113, 115;
+  attacks Jay treaty, 118;
+  influence complained of by Wolcott, 127;
+  not reëlected to Congress, 133;
+  his inexplicable submission to Smith, 164;
+  in triumvirate with Jefferson and Gallatin, 168;
+  his weakness as financier, 179;
+  summons Congress, 205;
+  anxious to evade responsibility for peace or war, 205;
+  communications on finance from Gallatin, 212, 259;
+  his indecision as to financial situation, 230;
+  does not accept Gallatin's resignation, 231;
+  realizes indispensableness of Gallatin to him, 231;
+  agrees with Gallatin as to minute appropriations, 245;
+  vetoes bill to incorporate national bank, 265;
+  signs a second bill, 265;
+  his inconsistency, 266;
+  urged by Gallatin to restore specie payment, 267;
+  opposes Gallatin's civil service circular, 281;
+  not superior on constitutional points to Gallatin, 284;
+  refuses to support Astor's plans, 288;
+  consults with Gallatin on inaugural address, 294;
+  forced by senators to abandon plan to make Gallatin secretary of
+   state, 294, 295;
+  unable to control party, 295;
+  favors England as against France, 295;
+  fails to support Gallatin, his inexcusable weakness, 296;
+  compelled to choose between Smith and Gallatin, 297;
+  efforts of Duane to poison his mind against Gallatin, 297;
+  not qualified to be a war president, 298, 299;
+  sends Gallatin on Russian mission with leave of absence, 299;
+  appoints Duane adjutant-general, 299;
+  continues on good terms with Gallatin, 300;
+  accepts English offer of direct negotiation, 312;
+  appoints a new commission, 312;
+  intends Gallatin for head of commission, 312;
+  names Gallatin minister to France, 326;
+  thanked by Gallatin, 327;
+  leaves him at liberty to decide, 329;
+  offers Gallatin secretaryship of treasury, 330;
+  favors Crawford for presidency, 356.
+
+Malesherbes, C. G. de L. de, his courage compared to that of Gallatin,
+  84.
+
+"Manifest Destiny," Gallatin's opinion of, 352, 353.
+
+Marie Antoinette, executed, 56.
+
+Marshall, James, represents Fayette County in anti-excise proceedings,
+  51, 52, 69;
+  joins Bradford in calling out militia, 70;
+  his resolutions at Parkinson's Ferry meeting disapproved by Gallatin,
+   78, 79;
+  withdraws them, 80;
+  on committee to confer with United States commissioners, 81.
+
+Marshall, John, offers Gallatin a place in his office, 29;
+  on French mission, 139, 152;
+  elected to Congress, 158;
+  announces death of Washington, 158;
+  draws reply to Adams's address, 158.
+
+Mason, S. T., makes Jay treaty public, 103.
+
+Mathews, Rev. Mr., member of "The Club," 367.
+
+Mayer, member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+McClanachan, Blair, chairman of anti-Federalist Conference, 38;
+  his ultra-democratic remarks to Adams, 138.
+
+McDuffie, George, estimates profits of bankers on state bank circulation,
+  263.
+
+McKean, Thomas, in Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention, 43;
+  suggests sending a commission to confer with Whiskey insurgents, 77;
+  asked to prevent civil war in 1800, 166.
+
+McLane, Louis, reports extinction of national debt, 269.
+
+McVickar, ----, member of "The Club," 366.
+
+Mexico, war with, Gallatin's opinion of, 352.
+
+Middleton, Henry, at free trade convention of 1831, 241.
+
+Mifflin, Thomas, in Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention, 43;
+  deprecates use of force against Whiskey Rebellion, 77;
+  summons legislature and obtains authority to employ militia, 88;
+  succeeds by personal influence in filling ranks, 88.
+
+Mirabeau, Vicomte de, friend of Dumont, 5.
+
+Mississippi navigation, discussed in treaty of Ghent, 322, 323;
+  in 1818, 335.
+
+Mitchell, S. L., on committee to consider Gallatin's eligibility to
+ Senate, 61.
+
+Monroe, James, presents flag to French Convention, 132;
+  arranges terms of Louisiana purchase, 193;
+  supplants Smith as secretary of state, 296, 298;
+  on necessity of renunciation of impressment in treaty of peace, 305;
+  asked by Gallatin for further instructions, 308;
+  receives proposals from England for direct negotiation, 311;
+  asked by commissioners for authority to treat in any place, 314;
+  warned by Gallatin of English war plans, 316, 317, 318;
+  communications of Gallatin to, during negotiations, 319;
+  urges Gallatin not to withdraw from public service, 329;
+  appoints Adams secretary of state, 334;
+  gives Gallatin leave of absence, 341;
+  urges him to return to France, 341.
+
+Montgomery, John, connected by marriage with Gallatin, 59, 60.
+
+Montmorenci, Vicomte, negotiates with Gallatin, 340;
+  succeeded by Chateaubriand, 340.
+
+Moore, ----, member of "The Club," 366.
+
+Moreau, General Jean Victor, career in America and France, 308;
+  assures Gallatin of emperor's friendliness and warns him of British
+   obstinacy, 308;
+  reply of Gallatin, 309;
+  his death, 310, 311.
+
+Morgan, Daniel, leads militia against Whiskey Rebellion, 88, 93.
+
+Morris, Gouverneur, snubbed by Washington for familiarity, 23;
+  his precocity compared to Gallatin's, 32;
+  suggests decimal system, 172.
+
+Morris, Robert, receives drafts for Gallatin, 28;
+  in United States Senate announces intention of neutrality on question
+   of Gallatin's eligibility, 61;
+  but votes against it, 63 n.;
+  his rank as financier, 170-173;
+  plans Bank of North America, 248, 249;
+  buys land of Gallatin, 361;
+  settles with Gallatin, 362;
+  fails and is imprisoned, 362.
+
+Morse, ----, member of "The Club," 367.
+
+Morton, Dr., member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+Muhlenberg, Frederick A., defeated for speaker by Dayton, 98;
+  gives casting vote in favor of Jay treaty appropriations, 121.
+
+Müller, Johann von, teaches Gallatin history, 3.
+
+Murray, William Vans, prominent Federalist in House, 99;
+  on finance committee, 106;
+  denies discretionary power of House over Jay treaty, 110.
+
+
+Navy, opposed by Gallatin, 123, 124, 130, 137, 157, 186, 188;
+  his course defended, 216;
+  gunboat scheme, 288, 289.
+
+Nesselrode, Count, leaves Russian foreign affairs in charge of
+ Romanzoff, 304;
+  inability of Crawford to secure audience with, 315.
+
+New England, supports Adams in 1800, 163;
+  refuses to support popular loan, 212, 213;
+  plans disunion, 213;
+  hoards specie, 260, 261;
+  opposes embargo, 293;
+  its secession hoped for by England, 313.
+
+New York, calls for a second Federal Convention, 36, 37;
+  Republican in 1800, 163.
+
+New York city, first visit of Gallatin to, 18;
+  abandoned by Congress for Philadelphia, 47;
+  protests against Jay treaty, 103;
+  settlement of Gallatin in, 365, 366;
+  social life in, 366-368;
+  attempt of Gallatin to establish a university in, 368, 369.
+
+New York Historical Society, presidency of Gallatin, 382;
+  his inaugural address to, 382-384;
+  celebration of its fortieth anniversary, 384;
+  honors Gallatin's memory, 388.
+
+Nicholas, John, Republican leader in
+  House, 100;
+  on treaty power, 111;
+  supports Gallatin in advocating specific appropriations, 130;
+  moves amendment to Adams's message, 134;
+  in debate on French relations, 135;
+  desires to limit executive through power over appropriations, 143;
+  aids Gallatin in sixth Congress, 159;
+  opposes non-intercourse with France, 159;
+  resists supposed encroachment of Senate on House, 161;
+  confers with Jefferson and Gallatin on election of 1800, 164.
+
+Nicholson family, connected by marriage with Gallatin, 59.
+
+Nicholson, Hannah, marries Gallatin, 59;
+  described by him,  59;
+  her relations to her husband, 59;
+  letters of Gallatin to, 138, 180;
+  unhappy in Fayette County, 180;
+  her property, 363;
+  unfit for frontier life, 363;
+  her success in Washington society, 363, 364;
+  her death, 386, 387.
+
+Nicholson, Commodore James, father-in-law of Gallatin, his family, 59;
+  visited by Gallatin after marriage, 60;
+  on Gallatin's political moderation, 138;
+  commands gunboats in Lafayette's campaign of 1781, 371.
+
+Nicholson, James Witter, in business with Gallatin, 60.
+
+Nicholson, Joseph H., letter of Gallatin to, on war revenue, 224;
+  furnished by Gallatin with questions to ask himself, 246;
+  letter of Macon to, 293.
+
+Non-importation, difficulty of enforcement in 1774, 293;
+  enforced by Gallatin in 1808, 293.
+
+Norris, Isaac W., at free trade convention, 241.
+
+
+Odier, ----, takes shares in Gallatin's land scheme, 361.
+
+Ohio Company, its formation and lands, 20.
+
+Oregon question, discussion over, in 1818, 335;
+  discussed in 1826, 343;
+  determination of Adams not to give way in, 346;
+  joint occupation of, continued, 347;
+  views of Gallatin on, 351.
+
+Otis, Harrison Gray, elected to Congress, 132;
+  denounces Gallatin for attacking Federalist administration, 136;
+  on resolution to punish foreign correspondence, 156;
+  reports investigation of Wolcott's management of Treasury, 177.
+
+
+Panama Congress, its importance, 342;
+  mission to, declined by Gallatin, 342.
+
+Paper money, its issue suggested by Jefferson, 264;
+  Gallatin's opinion of, 268, 277.
+
+Parish, David, assists Gallatin to float loan, 213, 214;
+  his reasons, 259, 260.
+
+Parker, Josiah, amends resolution to punish foreign correspondence, 156;
+  offers resolution to amend non-intercourse, 160.
+
+Pasquier, M., negotiates with Gallatin, 337;
+  pacified by Gallatin after seizure of Apollon, 338.
+
+Patton, John, on Committee on Finance, 107.
+
+Peabody, George, at free trade convention of 1831, 241.
+
+Pendleton Society of Virginia, adopts secession resolutions, 116.
+
+Penn, John, letter to, given Gallatin by Lady Penn, 11.
+
+Penn, Lady Juliana, gives Gallatin letter to John Penn, 11.
+
+Penns, proprietors of Pennsylvania, educated at Geneva, 4.
+
+Pennsylvania, ratifies federal Constitution, 35;
+  movement in, to call a second convention, 37-40;
+  education in, efforts of Gallatin to improve, 45;
+  opposition to excise in, 48-55;
+  Whiskey Rebellion in, 67-96;
+  popularity of Gallatin in, 65;
+  its law regarding slavery, 140;
+  petitions against Alien and Sedition Acts, 157.
+
+Pensacola, its seizure by Jackson, 336.
+
+Philadelphia, visit of Gallatin to, 19, 21;
+  removal of Congress to, 47;
+  society in, 47, 48;
+  angry feeling in, against Whiskey Insurrection, 92;
+  protests against Jay treaty, 103;
+  petitions legislature to repeal charter of Bank of North America, 250;
+  nominates Gallatin for Congress, 329.
+
+Pickering, Timothy, in Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention, 43;
+  secretary of war and postmaster-general under Washington, 97.
+
+Pickering, ---- member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+Pictet, Mademoiselle, adopts Gallatin, her kindness, 2;
+  her nephew taught by Gallatin, 5;
+  regard of Gallatin for, 9;
+  pained at Gallatin's departure, 11;
+  gives him letter to Kinloch, 11;
+  sends him money and secures interest of Dr. Cooper, 17;
+  his ingratitude toward, regretted by Gallatin, 20;
+  supposes his failure to write due to misfortune, 27;
+  accuses Gallatin of indolence and ennui, 43, 44.
+
+Pictet, ----, naturalist, relative of Gallatin, 5.
+
+Pinckney, Charles C., refused reception as minister by France, 132;
+  on second mission, 139;
+  returns, 152;
+  attends Congress as general, 155.
+
+Pinckney, Thomas, makes treaty with Spain, 117.
+
+Pitt, William, his precocity compared to Gallatin's, 32.
+
+Poles, in New York, befriended by Gallatin, 372.
+
+Powell, William H., his portrait of Gallatin, 386.
+
+Preston, William C., at free trade convention in 1831, 241.
+
+
+Quakers, in Pennsylvania, oppose general education, 45;
+  petition against seizure of fugitive slaves, 140.
+
+
+Randolph, Edmund, deprecates force against Whiskey Rebellion, on ground
+ that only Washington's influence prevents civil war, 77;
+  retires from cabinet, 97;
+  damages reputation by dealings with Fauchet, 103;
+  remark of Jay to, during negotiations with England, 118.
+
+Randolph, John, elected to Congress, 158;
+  opposes non-intercourse with France, 159;
+  opposes giving a gold medal to Truxton, 160;
+  advocates abolition of internal duties, 221;
+  complains of want of system in Jefferson's cabinet, 284;
+  on Madison's weakness, 295;
+  unfitted to lead a party, 355.
+
+Renwick, James, letter of Mrs. Irving to, on Mrs. Gallatin, 364;
+  member of "The Club," 366.
+
+Republican party, its origin, 57;
+  its leaders in House of Representatives in 1795, 99, 100;
+  its attitude toward France and Revolution, 101, 102;
+  imitates Jacobins, 102;
+  opposes resolution complimenting Washington's administration, 104-106;
+  attacks administration of Treasury, 106;
+  asserts right of House to share in treaty power, 110-114;
+  leadership of Gallatin in, 115, 128, 133, 159;
+  attacks Jay treaty, 118-121;
+  objects to adjournment on Washington's birthday, 126;
+  attacks Washington, 128;
+  reluctant to affront France, 133-136;
+  opposes increase of foreign missions, 141-147;
+  attacks Alien and Sedition Laws, 159;
+  profits by popular dislike of England and of Alien and Sedition Laws,
+   163;
+  gives equal vote to Jefferson and Burr, 163;
+  its policy to resist any Federalist usurpation by force, 166;
+  success due to Gallatin's leadership, 167, 168;
+  its share in building country, 169;
+  opposes internal revenue, 221;
+  its principles violated by Jefferson in suggesting internal
+   improvements, 227;
+  refuses to renew charter of bank, 231, 254;
+  violates principles in chartering second bank, 265;
+  introduces new principles of administration into government, 279;
+  demands share of offices, 281, 282;
+  refuses to confirm Gallatin for secretary of state, 294;
+  factions in, under Madison, 295;
+  incompetent to manage war, 298;
+  lacks leaders after Gallatin, 355;
+  its condition in 1824, 356;
+  its caucus nominates Crawford and Gallatin, 357, 358;
+  new developments of, under Jackson, 358, 359, 360.
+
+Revenue, 218-238. See Finances.
+
+Richelieu, Duc de, seeks explanation from Gallatin of American sympathy
+ for Bonaparte, 331;
+  declares impossibility of making full compensation for captures under
+   Berlin and Milan decrees, 332;
+  angered at American refusal to dismiss an impudent postmaster, 333;
+  on Jackson's seizure of Pensacola, 336;
+  urges peace with Spain, 336.
+
+Richmond, society in, 23, 24.
+
+Robinson, Dr., associate of Gallatin in founding American Ethnological
+ Society, 379.
+
+Rochefoucauld, D'Enville, Duc de, obtains letters for Gallatin from
+ Franklin, 11.
+
+Rollaz, Sophie Albertine, mother of Gallatin, 2;
+  assumes husband's share in business, 2;
+  death, 2.
+
+Romanzoff, Count, originates plan of Russian mediation, 304;
+  dealings of Gallatin with, 307;
+  renews offer of mediation, 308;
+  gives Dallas letter to Count Lieven, 310;
+  thanked by Gallatin, 312.
+
+Ross, James, appeals to Whiskey insurgents not to use violence, 70;
+  on commission to confer with insurgents, 85.
+
+Rousseau, J. J., Gallatin's opinion of, 6.
+
+Ruggles, Benjamin, letter of Gallatin to, accepting nomination for
+ vice-president, 358.
+
+Rush, Richard, introduced to public life by Gallatin, 334;
+  named minister to England, 334;
+  joined with Gallatin to negotiate concerning convention of 1815, 334,
+   335;
+  secretary of Treasury, 342;
+  tone of his correspondence, 345.
+
+Russell, Jonathan, on peace commission, 312;
+  arrives at Gottenburg, 313.
+
+Russia, offers to mediate between England and United States, 299;
+  mission of Gallatin and Bayard to, 299, 301-312;
+  refusal of England to accept its mediation, 306, 307;
+  dealings of Gallatin with Romanzoff, 307, 308;
+  renews its offer, 308, 315;
+  displeased with recognition of Spanish colonies, 337.
+
+Rutherford, John, on committee to consider Gallatin's eligibility to
+ Senate, 61.
+
+Rutledge, John, Jr., elected to Congress, 133.
+
+
+Savary de Valcoulon, has claims against Virginia, 19;
+  meets Gallatin at Philadelphia and uses him as interpreter, 19;
+  goes with Gallatin to Richmond, 19;
+  interests him in land speculation, 21;
+  joins Gallatin in locating claims, 24.
+
+Schoolcraft, Henry R., member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+Scott, General Winfield, requested by Gallatin to aid in collecting
+ ethnological data in Mexico, 380.
+
+Scott, Thomas, appeals to Whiskey insurgents, 70.
+
+Sedgwick, Theodore, leader of Federalists in House, 98;
+  on committee to draft address to Washington, 105;
+  on Committee on Finance, 106;
+  offers resolution to execute four treaties, 118;
+  taunts Gallatin with instigating Whiskey Rebellion, 124;
+  elected speaker, 158;
+  at free trade convention of 1831, 241.
+
+Sedition Law, condemned by Gallatin, 152;
+  petitions against, 157.
+
+Senate of United States, election of Gallatin to, 58;
+  appoints committees to consider his eligibility, 61, 62;
+  votes to exclude him, 62, 63;
+  prejudiced against him by his actions, 64, 65;
+  ratifies Jay treaty, 102, 103;
+  yields to House regarding specific appropriations, 130;
+  controlled by Federalists, 139;
+  passes bill authorizing convoys, 149;
+  passes bill abrogating treaty with France, 154;
+  amends House Bill to suspend intercourse with France, 160;
+  debate over its bill to require annual treasury reports, 161;
+  ratifies commercial convention with France, 162;
+  still controlled by Federalists, 178;
+  its hostility to Gallatin, 181;
+  refuses to confirm his appointment as peace commissioner, 310.
+
+Seney, Joshua, connected by marriage with Gallatin, 59.
+
+Serre, Henri, friendship with Gallatin, 5;
+  sails with him for America, 9;
+  doings in Boston with Gallatin, 12-14;
+  at Machias, 14;
+  enjoys life in wilderness, 15, 17;
+  returns to Boston, 17;
+  teaches there, 19;
+  joins Gallatin and dissolves partnership, 19;
+  goes to Jamaica and dies, 19;
+  his debt subsequently paid, 19;
+  his letters to Badollet, 25.
+
+Sewall, Samuel, elected to Congress, 132.
+
+Shays's Rebellion, an argument for Federalist party, 101.
+
+Sheffield, Lord, says Jay duped Grenville, 117.
+
+Sherman, John, on accounting in Treasury Department, 247.
+
+Sismondi, J. C. L. Simonde de, on paper money, 277;
+  praises Gallatin, 325;
+  letter of Gallatin to, 380.
+
+Sitgreaves, Samuel, Federalist in Congress, 99;
+  on committee to draft address to Washington, 105.
+
+Slavery, resolutions concerning, in Pennsylvania legislature, 47;
+  petitions concerning, in Congress, 140;
+  negotiations concerning slave trade in treaty of Ghent, 323;
+  at Congress of Aix la Chapelle, 337.
+
+Smilie, John, represents Fayette County in Pennsylvania ratification
+ convention, 35;
+  leads opposition to Constitution, 36;
+  in anti-Federalist convention, 37;
+  his career and friendship with Gallatin, 37, 38;
+  in Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention, 43;
+  member of state Senate, 44, 54;
+  at anti-excise convention, 52;
+  advises submission to law, 69.
+
+Smith, Isaac, on Committee on Finance, 107.
+
+Smith, John Augustine, invites Gallatin to join "The Club," 366.
+
+Smith, Robert, head of faction of "invisibles," 295;
+  leaves cabinet, 296, 297.
+
+Smith, Samuel, leads Maryland troops against Whiskey Insurrection, 88;
+  moves to continue non-intercourse, 162;
+  probably makes bargain to secure election of Jefferson, 164;
+  his inexplicable power over Jefferson and Madison, 164.
+
+Smith, William, educated at Geneva, 4;
+  Federalist in Congress, 99;
+  on Committee on Finance, 106;
+  controversy with Gallatin over increase of public debt, 126.
+
+Smithson, John, his bequest to United States, 378.
+
+Smithsonian Institution, connection of Gallatin with, 378, 379.
+
+Southern States, Republican in 1800, 163;
+  refuse to support loan of 1813, 213.
+
+Spain, Pinckney's treaty with, 117;
+  danger of war with, 335;
+  peace with, urged by France, 336;
+  negotiations over its revolted colonies, 336, 337;
+  rupture with France in 1823, 341.
+
+Spurzheim, on Gallatin's brain, 389.
+
+Squier, E. G., member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+Staël, Madame de, interview of Lafayette with emperor at her house, 315;
+  letter of Gallatin to, 320;
+  expresses admiration for Gallatin, 325.
+
+Stephens, ----, member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+Stevens, Byam Kerby, marries Frances Gallatin, 371;
+  interest of Lafayette in, 371;
+  meets Lafayette, 372.
+
+Stevens, Colonel Ebenezer, Lafayette's chief of staff, 371.
+
+Stevens, John A., at free trade convention of 1831, 241;
+  member of "The Club," 367.
+
+Stokely, ----, appeals to Whiskey insurgents, 70.
+
+Stuart, Gilbert, his portrait of Gallatin, 386.
+
+Swanwick, John, on Jay treaty debate, 111.
+
+Szelesegynski, ----, Polish refugee, helped by Gallatin, 372.
+
+
+Tahon, ----, keeps French café in Boston, 12.
+
+Talleyrand, Prince, demands bribe in X Y Z affair, 149;
+  makes overtures for reconciliation, 152, 153.
+
+Taney, Roger B., removes deposits from bank, 269, 270;
+  appointed chief justice, 270;
+  his reasons for the removal, 270.
+
+Texas, annexation of, protested against by Gallatin, 351.
+
+Throop, Governor, recommends University for training teachers, 369.
+
+Tracy, Destutt, his "Economie Politique" translated by Jefferson, 331.
+
+Tracy, Uriah, leader of Federalists in House, 98;
+  taunts Gallatin with connection with Whiskey Rebellion, 119;
+  obliged to apologize, 120.
+
+Treasury Department, Hamilton's management of, attacked by Gallatin, 64;
+  resigned by Hamilton, taken by Wolcott, 97;
+  management of, supervised by Committee of Finance, 106-108, 130;
+  condition of, deplored by Gallatin, 125;
+  charged with arbitrary action, 130, 154;
+  annual reports from, required by Congress, 161;
+  Morris's connection with, 171-173;
+  organization under Hamilton, 174, 243;
+  management by Wolcott, 176-178;
+  appointment of Gallatin to, 179, 181;
+  exalted idea of, held by Gallatin, 189;
+  difficulty of learning management of, 189, 190;
+  relieved of responsibility for other departments' expenditure, 223;
+  administration of, by Gallatin, 244-246;
+  reports from, 245;
+  efforts of Gallatin to secure precision in, 245, 246;
+  subsequent management of, 247;
+  damaged by failure to re-charter bank, 259;
+  in panic of 1815, 263;
+  declined by Gallatin in 1816, 266, 330;
+  in panic of 1837, 272-276;
+  sub-treasury system invented, 273;
+  aids resumption, 276;
+  declined by Gallatin in 1843, 278;
+  absence of partisanship in Gallatin's appointments to, 281, 282, 286,
+   287.
+
+Treaty of Ghent, 316-325. See Diplomatic History.
+
+Tripoli, war with, 222;
+  tribute to, preferred by Gallatin to war with, 284.
+
+Trist, N. P., negotiates treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 352.
+
+Truxton, Captain, voted a medal by Congress, 160.
+
+Turner, Professor, member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+Tyler, John, as president, offers Treasury portfolio to Gallatin, 278.
+
+
+University, National, proposed by Jefferson, 291;
+  attempt to start one in New York, 368, 369;
+  success prevented by clerical influence, 370.
+
+
+Van Buren, Martin, told by Gallatin of willingness to accept French
+ mission, 349;
+  manages caucus of Republican Congresssmen, 357;
+  letter of Gallatin to, withdrawing from nomination, 358.
+
+Van der Kemp, ----, Dutch commissioner to make commercial treaty, 334.
+
+Verplanck, Gulian C., member of "The Club," 367.
+
+Virginia, claims of Savary against, 19;
+  Gallatin's opinion of society in, 24;
+  movement in, to secure amendment of Constitution, 36;
+  disunion threats in, 116;
+  ready to attack Federalists by force in 1801, 166.
+
+Voltaire, friendship with Gallatin family, 7;
+  writes verses for Madame Gallatin, 7;
+  influence over Albert Gallatin, 7, 8.
+
+
+Wainwright, Rev. Dr., member of "The Club," 367.
+
+War of 1812, estimates of Gallatin as to cost of operations in, 289,
+ 290;
+  preparation for, advocated by Gallatin, 292;
+  events leading to, 295; questions at issue in, 305;
+  English hopes in, 313, 316;
+  sack of Washington, 320.
+
+Ward, Samuel, member of "The Club," 367.
+
+Washington, Augustine, founder of Ohio Company, 20.
+
+Washington, George, his military inactivity in 1780, 12;
+  meets Gallatin in 1784, 22;
+  snubs him for forwardness, 23;
+  later wishes him to be his land agent, 23;
+  his election as president disconcerts anti-Federalists, 40;
+  unwilling to go to extremes against Whiskey Rebellion, 54;
+  issues proclamation, 54;
+  Randolph's opinion of his influence, 77;
+  combines conciliation with force, 77;
+  issues proclamation, calls out militia, and appoints commission to
+   confer, 77, 78;
+  accompanies army as far as Bedford, 88;
+  refuses to stop march of troops, 89;
+  dissuades troops from violence, 92;
+  pardons convicted offenders, 96;
+  reconstructs his cabinet, 97, 98; his influence, 102;
+  convenes Senate to ratify Jay treaty, 102;
+  attacked by Bache, 104;
+  addresses Congress, 104;
+  his administration criticised in debate over reply in House, 104-106;
+  refuses call of House for Jay treaty papers, 114;
+  refusal of House to adjourn on his birthday, 126;
+  obtains surrender of Western posts, 128;
+  issues Farewell Address, 128;
+  attacked by Giles, 128;
+  proposal of Gallatin concerning reply to his message, 129;
+  sends tricolor to Congress, 130, 132;
+  attends Congress as lieutenant-general, 155;
+  his death announced by Marshall, 158;
+  invites Wolcott to succeed Hamilton, 176;
+  Gallatin's opinion of his character, 383, 384;
+  and of his strong passions, 383 n.
+
+Washington, Lawrence, founder of Ohio Company, 20.
+
+Washington city, removal of Congress to, 161, 162;
+  sack of, by English, 320.
+
+Washington County, Pennsylvania, in Whiskey Insurrection, 49, 50, 51,
+ 70, 71, 78, 94, 96;
+  elects Gallatin to Congress, 93, 127.
+
+Wayne, Anthony, makes treaty with Indians, 117.
+
+Webster, Daniel, his speech on northeastern boundary published by
+ Gallatin, 349;
+  his manner of negotiating with Ashburton, 350.
+
+Webster, Pelatiah, describes Gallatin at Philadelphia in 1783, 19.
+
+Wellington, Lord, asked by cabinet to conquer a peace, 322;
+  advises cabinet not to insist on cession of territory, 322;
+  expresses friendly feelings, 335.
+
+Wells, John, member of "The Club," 367.
+
+Westmoreland County, in Whiskey Insurrection, 49, 51, 74, 78, 96.
+
+Wheaton, Henry, requests Gallatin to furnish Humboldt with data on gold
+ in United States, 381.
+
+Whiskey Insurrection, opposition to excise in Pennsylvania, 48, 49;
+  reasons for opposition, 49, 50;
+  first meetings against excise in Washington County, 50, 51;
+  combined meeting of four counties at Pittsburgh, 51;
+  violence against inspectors, 51;
+  modification of law, 52;
+  second convention at Pittsburgh, 52;
+  resolutions against collectors, 52, 53;
+  petition to Congress, 53;
+  proclamation issued by Washington and cabinet, 54;
+  arrests and riots, 55;
+  attempts to serve writs, 67, 68;
+  rioting, burning of Marshall's house, 68, 69;
+  flight of officers, 68;
+  meetings of distillers, 69;
+  efforts of Gallatin and others to prevent violence, 69, 70;
+  stoppage of mails, 69;
+  call for meeting of militia, 70;
+  leaders of, 70, 71;
+  meeting of militia at Parkinson's Ferry, 72, 73;
+  estimates of numbers, 72;
+  violence of feeling, 73, 74;
+  renewed outrages, 74;
+  use of liberty poles, 74;
+  attitude of Gallatin toward, 75, 76;
+  plans of Washington and Hamilton to suppress, 77;
+  proclamation against carrying arms, 77;
+  commissioners appointed, 77;
+  convention of distillers at Parkinson's Ferry, 78, 79;
+  proposals to raise troops, 79;
+  efforts of moderates, 80, 81;
+  committee of sixty appointed, 80;
+  arrival of commissioners, their offer, 81;
+  conference of committee at Red Stone Old Fort, 81, 82;
+  vote to accept terms, 83;
+  influence of Gallatin, 84;
+  meetings for submission in counties, 85;
+  apparent failure of terms of amnesty, 86;
+  threats of secession, 86;
+  Hamilton writes "Tully" letter, 87;
+  report of commissioners, 87;
+  proclamation calls out troops, 87;
+  march of militia, 88;
+  committee of sixty passes conciliatory resolutions, 88, 89;
+  refusal of Washington to turn back, 89;
+  final meeting at Parkinson's Ferry votes entire submission, 89;
+  occupation of western counties by troops, 89, 90;
+  arrest of rebels, 90, 91;
+  journey of prisoners to Philadelphia, 91, 92;
+  end of disturbances, 93;
+  return of army, 93;
+  confession of Gallatin, 94;
+  trial of prisoners, 96;
+  its effect on Federalist party, 101;
+  Gallatin taunted with participation in, 119, 124.
+
+Wirt, William, letter of Jefferson to, 298.
+
+Wolcott, Oliver, succeeds Hamilton in Treasury Department, 97;
+  his situation deplored by Gallatin, 125;
+  complains to Hamilton of Republican opposition, 126;
+  complains of Gallatin's purpose to break down department, 154;
+  his career as Hamilton's successor, 176-178;
+  his statement of a surplus denied by Gallatin, 190, 191.
+
+Woodbury, Levi, reports extinction of debt, 270, 271;
+  then deplores its absence, 271;
+  alarmed at increase of circulation in 1836, 272;
+  begins sub-treasury system, 273;
+  promises to support resumption of payment by banks, 275.
+
+X Y Z dispatches, 149.
+
+The Riverside Press
+
+CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U. S. A.
+
+ELECTROTYPED AND PRINTED BY
+
+H. O. HOUGHTON AND CO.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Albert Gallatin, by John Austin Stevens
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ALBERT GALLATIN ***
+
+***** This file should be named 20873-8.txt or 20873-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/2/0/8/7/20873/
+
+Produced by Thomas Strong and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/20873-8.zip b/20873-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aa54159
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-8.zip
diff --git a/20873-h.zip b/20873-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d6f54c2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-h.zip
diff --git a/20873-h/20873-h.htm b/20873-h/20873-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d940f80
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-h/20873-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,13478 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
+    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Albert Gallatin, by John Austin Stevens.
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+/*<![CDATA[  XML blockout */
+<!--
+    p {  margin-top: .75em;
+         text-align: justify;
+         margin-bottom: .75em;
+         }
+    h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {
+         text-align: center; /* all headings centered */
+         clear: both;
+         }
+    hr { width: 33%;
+	 margin-top: 2em;
+	 margin-bottom: 2em;
+         margin-left: auto;
+         margin-right: auto;
+         clear: both;
+       }
+
+    table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;}
+
+    body{margin-left: 10%;
+         margin-right: 10%;
+        }
+         div.centered {text-align: center;} /* work around for IE centering with CSS problem part 1 */
+         div.centered table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left;} /* work around for IE centering with CSS problem part 2 */
+         .tdr      {text-align: right; padding-right: .25em; white-space: nowrap;} /* aligning cell content to the right */
+         .tdc      {text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;} /* aligning cell content to the center */
+         .tdl      {text-align: left; padding-left: .25em; white-space: nowrap;}  /* aligning cell content to the left */
+
+        div.trans-note {border-style: solid; border-width: 1px;
+            margin: 3em 15%; padding: 1em; text-align: center;}
+
+    .totoc    {position: absolute; right: 2%; font-size: 75%; text-align: right;} /* Table of contents anchor */
+
+    .pagenum  { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */
+                visibility: hidden;
+                position: absolute;
+                left: 92%;
+                font-size: smaller;
+                text-align: right;
+              } /* page numbers */
+
+    .linenum  {position: absolute; top: auto; left: 4%;} /* poetry number */
+    .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;}
+
+    .bb       {border-bottom: solid 2px;}
+    .bl       {border-left: solid 2px;}
+    .bt       {border-top: solid 2px;}
+    .br       {border-right: solid 2px;}
+    .bbox     {border: solid 2px;}
+
+    td.stylet { border-left: 1pt solid black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-top: 1pt solid black; padding-top: .25em; }
+    td.styleb { border-left: 1pt solid black; border-right: 1pt solid black; border-bottom: 1pt solid black; padding-bottom: .25em; }
+    td.styleo { border-left: 1pt solid black; border-right: 1pt solid black; padding-bottom: .25em; }
+
+    .center   {text-align: center;}
+    .smcap    {font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .u        {text-decoration: underline;}
+    .right    {text-align: right;}
+    .caption  {font-weight: bold;}
+
+    .figcenter   {margin: auto; text-align: center;}
+
+    .figleft     {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top:
+                 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;}
+
+    .figright    {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;
+                 margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;}
+
+    .footnotes        {border: dashed 1px;}
+    .footnote         {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;}
+    .footnote .label  {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;}
+    .fnanchor         {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;}
+
+    .poem             {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;}
+    .poem br          {display: none;}
+    .poem .stanza     {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;}
+    .poem span.i0     {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;}
+    .poem span.i2     {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;}
+    .poem span.i4     {display: block; margin-left: 4em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;}
+
+    div.index { /* styles that apply to all text in an index */
+		font-size: 90%;  /*small type for compactness */
+		}
+	ul.IX {
+		list-style-type: none;
+		font-size:inherit; /* i.e. from the div class="index" container */
+		}
+	.IX li { /* list items in an index: compressed vertically */
+		margin-top: 0;
+		}
+
+    // -->
+    /* XML end  ]]>*/
+    </style>
+  </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Albert Gallatin, by John Austin Stevens
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Albert Gallatin
+       American Statesmen Series, Vol. XIII
+
+Author: John Austin Stevens
+
+Release Date: March 22, 2007 [EBook #20873]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ALBERT GALLATIN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Thomas Strong and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<h3>Standard Library Edition</h3>
+
+<h1>AMERICAN STATESMEN</h1><br />
+
+<h3>EDITED BY</h3><br />
+
+<h2>JOHN T. MORSE, JR.</h2>
+
+<h3>IN THIRTY-TWO VOLUMES VOL. XIII.</h3>
+
+<h1>THE JEFFERSONIAN DEMOCRACY</h1>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[Pg i]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><i>ALBERT GALLATIN</i></h3>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[Pg ii]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="image-1" id="image-1"><!-- Image 1 --></a>
+<img src="images/illus-003-1.jpg" height="305" width="229" alt="Albert Gallatin" /></p>
+<h2><span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+<p class="center"><a name="image-2" id="image-2"><!-- Image 2 --></a>
+<img src="images/illus-003-2.jpg" height="57" width="182" alt="Signature of Albert Gallatin" /></p>
+<p class="center"><a href="#ILLUS">Click for list of Illustrations</a></p>
+<h2>American Statesmen</h2>
+
+<h5>STANDARD LIBRARY EDITION</h5>
+
+<h3><i>The Home of Albert Gallatin</i></h3>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="image-3" id="image-3"><!-- Image 3 --></a>
+<img src="images/illus-004-1.jpg" height="178" width="210" alt="The Home of Albert Gallatin" /></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p><h3>HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN &amp; CO.</h3>
+
+<h4>American Statesmen</h4>
+
+<h1>ALBERT GALLATIN</h1>
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2>JOHN AUSTIN STEVENS</h2>
+
+<h3>BOSTON AND NEW YORK</h3>
+<h2>HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY</h2>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span><h4>The Riverside Press, Cambridge</h4>
+<h5>Copyright, 1883 and 1898</h5>
+<h3>BY HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN &amp; CO.</h3>
+
+<h5><i>All rights reserved</i></h5>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span>
+
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p>Every generation demands that history shall be rewritten. This is not
+alone because it requires that the work should be adapted to its own
+point of view, but because it is instinctively seeking those lines which
+connect the problems and lessons of the past with its own questions and
+circumstances. If it were not for the existence of lines of this kind,
+history might be entertaining, but would have little real value. The
+more numerous they are between the present and any earlier period, the
+more valuable is, for us, the history of that period. Such
+considerations establish an especial interest just at present in the
+life of Gallatin.</p>
+
+<p>The Monroe Doctrine has recently been the pivot of American
+statesmanship. With that doctrine Mr. Gallatin had much to do, both as
+minister to France and envoy to Great Britain. Indeed, in 1818, some
+years before the declaration of that doctrine, when the Spanish colonies
+of South America were in revolt, he declared that the United States
+would not even aid France in a mediation. Later, in May, 1823, six
+months before the famous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span> message of President Monroe, Mr. Gallatin had
+already uttered its idea; when about leaving Paris, on his return from
+the French mission, he said to Chateaubriand, the French minister of
+foreign affairs (May 13, 1823): &ldquo;The United States would undoubtedly
+preserve their neutrality, provided it were respected, and avoid any
+interference with the politics of Europe.... On the other hand, they
+would not suffer others to interfere against the emancipation of
+America.&rdquo; With characteristic vanity Canning said that it was he himself
+who &ldquo;called the new world into existence to redress the balance of the
+old.&rdquo; Yet precisely this had already for a long while been a cardinal
+point of the policy of the United States. So early as 1808, Jefferson,
+alluding to the disturbed condition of the Spanish colonies, said: &ldquo;We
+consider their interest and ours as the same, and that the object of
+both must be to exclude all European influence in this hemisphere.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Matters of equal interest are involved in the study of Mr. Gallatin's
+actions and opinions in matters of finance. Every one knows that he
+ranks among the distinguished financiers of the world, and problems
+which he had to consider are still agitating the present generation. He
+was opposed alike to a national debt and to paper money. Had the
+metallic basis of the United<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span> States been adequate, he would have
+accepted no other circulating medium, and would have consented to the
+use of paper money only for purposes of exchange and remittance. In 1830
+he urged the restriction of paper money to notes of one hundred dollars
+each, which were to be issued by the government. Obviously these must be
+used chiefly for transmitting funds, and would be of little use for the
+daily transactions of the people. Yet even this concession was due to
+the fact that the United States was then a debtor country, and so late
+as 1839, as Mr. Gallatin said, &ldquo;specie was a foreign product.&rdquo; For
+subsidiary money he favored silver coins at eighty-five per cent. of the
+dollar value, a sufficient alloy to hold them in the country. Silver was
+then the circulating medium of the world, the people's pocket money, and
+gold was the basis and the solvent of foreign exchanges.</p>
+
+<p>Great interest attaches to the application of some other of Gallatin's
+financial principles to more modern problems; and a careful study of his
+papers may fairly enable us to form a few conclusions. It may be safely
+said that he would not have favored a national bank currency based on
+government bonds. This, however, would not have been because of any
+objection to the currency itself, but because the scheme would insure
+the continuance of a national debt. He was too practical, also, not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span> to
+see that the ultimate security is the faith of the government, and that
+no filtering of that responsibility through private banks could do
+otherwise than injure it. Further, it is reasonably safe to say that he
+would favor the withdrawal both of national bank notes and of United
+States notes, the greenbacks so-called; and that he would consent to the
+use of paper only in the form of certificates directly representing the
+precious metals, gold and silver; also that he would limit the use of
+silver to its actual handling by the people in daily transactions. He
+would feel safe to disregard the fluctuations of the intrinsic value of
+silver, when used in this limited way as a subordinate currency, on the
+ground that the stamp of the United States was sufficient for conferring
+the needed value, when the obligation was only to maintain the parity,
+not of the silver, but of the coin, with gold. He understood that, in
+the case of a currency which is merely subordinate, parity arises from
+the guaranty of the government, and not from the quality of the coin;
+and that only such excess of any subordinate currency as is not needed
+for use in daily affairs can be presented for redemption. This
+principle, well understood by him, is recognized in European systems,
+wherein the minimum of circulation is recognized as a maximum limit of
+uncovered issues of paper. The circulation of silver,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span> or of
+certificates based upon it, comes within the same rule.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of the publication of this volume objection was taken to the
+author's statement that, until the publication of Gallatin's writings,
+his fame as a statesman and political leader was a mere tradition. Yet
+in point of fact, not only is his name hardly mentioned by the early
+biographers of Jefferson, Madison, and J. Q. Adams, but even by the
+later writers in this very Series, his work, varied and important as it
+was, has been given but scant notice. The historians of the United
+States, and those who have made a specialty of the study of political
+parties, have been alike indifferent or derelict in their investigations
+to such a degree that it required months of original research in the
+annals of Congress to ascertain Gallatin's actual relations towards the
+Federalist party which he helped to overthrow, and towards the
+Republican party which he did so much to found, and of which he became
+the ablest champion, in Congress by debate, and in the cabinet by
+administration.</p>
+
+<p>Invited by the publishers of the Statesmen Series to bring this study
+&ldquo;up to date,&rdquo; the author has found no important changes to make in his
+work as he first prepared it. In the original investigation every source
+of information was carefully ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span>plored, and no new sources have since
+then been discovered. Mr. Gallatin's writings, carefully preserved in
+originals and copies, and well arranged, supplied the details; while the
+family traditions, with which the author was familiar, indicated the
+objects to be obtained. But so wide was the general field of Mr.
+Gallatin's career, so varied were his interests in all that pertained to
+humanity, philanthropy, and science, and so extensive were his relations
+with the leaders of European and American thought and action, that the
+subject could only be treated on the broadest basis. With this apology
+this study of one of the most interesting characters of American life is
+again commended to the indulgence of the American people.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Newport</span>, April, 1898.</p>
+
+<a name="toc" id="toc"></a><hr />
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of Contents" style="width: 80%;">
+  <tr>
+  <td align='left' style="width: 10%;"><span class="smcap">Chap</span>.</td>
+  <td align='right' style="width: 70%;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="width: 20%;"><span class="smcap">Page</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td align='right'>I.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">Early Life</a></span></td>
+  <td align='right'>1</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td align='right'>II.</td>
+  <td align='left'> <span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">Pennsylvania Legislature</a></span></td>
+  <td align='right'>2</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td align='right'>III.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">United States Senate</a></span></td>
+  <td align='right'>56</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td align='right'>IV.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">The Whiskey Insurrection</a></span></td>
+  <td align='right'>67</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td align='right'>V.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">Member Of Congress</a></span></td>
+  <td align='right'>97</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td align='right'>VI.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">Secretary Of The Treasury</a></span></td>
+  <td align='right'>170</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td align='right'>VII.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">In The Cabinet</a></span></td>
+  <td align='right'>279</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td align='right'>VIII.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">In Diplomacy</a></span></td>
+  <td align='right'>301</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td align='right'>IX.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">Candidate For The Vice-Presidency</a></span></td>
+  <td align='right'>355</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td align='right'>X.</td>
+  <td align='left'><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">Society--Literature--Science</a></span></td>
+  <td align='right'>361</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td align='right'>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left'><span class="smcap"><a href="#INDEX">Index</a></span></td>
+  <td align='right'>391</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<h2><a name="ILLUS" id="ILLUS">ILLUSTRATIONS</a></h2>
+
+<div class='centered'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="List of Illustrations" style="width: 75%;">
+  <tr>
+  <td align='left' style="width: 75%;"><span class="smcap"><a href="#image-1">Albert Gallatin</a></span></td>
+  <td align='right' style="width: 25%;"><i>Frontispiece</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;From the original painting by Gilbert Stuart, in the
+    possession of Frederic W. Stevens, Esq., New York, N. Y.<br />
+    &nbsp;&nbsp;Autograph from the Chamberlain collection, Boston Public Library.<br />
+    &nbsp;&nbsp;The vignette of &ldquo;Friendship Hill,&rdquo; Mr. Gallatin's
+    home at New Geneva, Pa., is from a photograph.</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>Page</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class="smcap"><a href="#image-4">Robert Goodloe Harper</a></span></td>
+  <td align='right'><i>facing</i>&nbsp; 98</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td align='left' style="padding-bottom: .75em;">&nbsp;&nbsp;From a painting by St. Mémin, in the possession of
+    Harper's granddaughter, Mrs. William C. Pennington, Baltimore, Md.<br />
+    &nbsp;&nbsp;Autograph from a MS. in the New York Public Library, Lenox Building.</td>
+  <td style="padding-bottom: .75em;">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class="smcap"><a href="#image-6">Alexander J. Dallas</a></span></td>
+  <td align='right'><i>facing</i>&nbsp; 236</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td align='left' style="padding-bottom: .75em;">&nbsp;&nbsp;From the original painting by Gilbert Stuart, in the
+    possession of Mrs. W. H. Emory, Washington, D. C.<br />
+    &nbsp;&nbsp;Autograph from the Chamberlain collection, Boston Public Library.</td>
+  <td style="padding-bottom: .75em;">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td align='left'><span class="smcap"><a href="#image-8">James A. Bayard</a></span></td>
+  <td align='right'><i>facing</i>&nbsp; 312</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td align='left' style="padding-bottom: .75em;">&nbsp;&nbsp;From a painting by Wertmüller, owned by the late
+    Thomas F. Bayard, Wilmington, Del.<br />
+    &nbsp;&nbsp;Autograph from the Chamberlain collection, Boston Public Library.</td>
+  <td style="padding-bottom: .75em;">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span>
+<h1>ALBERT GALLATIN</h1>
+<br />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+<h3>EARLY LIFE</h3>
+
+<p>Of all European-born citizens who have risen to fame in the political
+service of the United States, Albert Gallatin is the most distinguished.
+His merit in legislation, administration, and diplomacy is generally
+recognized, and he is venerated by men of science on both continents.
+Not, however, until the publication of his writings was the extent of
+his influence upon the political life and growth of the country other
+than a vague tradition. Independence and nationality were achieved by
+the Revolution, in which he bore a slight and unimportant part; his
+place in history is not, therefore, among the founders of the Republic,
+but foremost in the rank of those early American statesmen, to whom it
+fell to interpret and administer the organic laws which the founders
+declared and the people ratified in the Constitution of the United
+States. A study of his life shows that, from the time of the peace until
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>his death, his influence, either by direct action or indirect counsel,
+may be traced through the history of the country.</p>
+
+<p>The son of Jean Gallatin and his wife, Sophie Albertine Rollaz, he was
+born in the city of Geneva on January 29, 1761, and was baptized by the
+name of Abraham Alfonse Albert Gallatin. The name Abraham he received
+from his grandfather, but it was early dropped, and he was always known
+by his matronymic Albert. The Gallatin family held great influence in
+the Swiss Republic, and from the organization of the State contributed
+numerous members to its magistracy; others adopted the military
+profession, and served after the manner of their country in the Swiss
+contingents of foreign armies. The immediate relatives of Albert
+Gallatin were concerned in trade. Abraham, his grandfather, and Jean,
+his father, were partners. The latter dying in 1765, his widow assumed
+his share in the business. She died in March, 1770, leaving two
+children,&mdash;Albert, then nine years of age, and an invalid daughter who
+died a few years later. The loss to the orphan boy was lessened, if not
+compensated, by the care of a maiden lady&mdash;Mademoiselle Pictet&mdash;who had
+taken him into her charge at his father's death. This lady, whose
+affection never failed him, was the intimate friend of his mother as
+well as a distant relative of his father. Young Gallatin remained in
+this kind care until January, 1773, when he was sent to a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>boarding-school, and in August, 1775, to the academy of Geneva, from
+which he was graduated in May, 1779. The expenses of his education were
+in great part met by the trustees of the Bourse Gallatin,&mdash;a sum left in
+1699 by a member of the family, of which the income was to be applied to
+its necessities. The course of study at the academy was confined to
+Latin and Greek. These were taught, to use the words of Mr. Gallatin,
+&ldquo;Latin thoroughly, Greek much neglected.&rdquo; Fortunately his preliminary
+home training had been careful, and he left the academy the first in his
+class in mathematics, natural philosophy, and Latin translation. French,
+a language in general use at Geneva, was of course familiar to him.
+English he also studied. He is not credited with special proficiency in
+history, but his teacher in this branch was Muller, the distinguished
+historian, and the groundwork of his information was solid. No American
+statesman has shown more accurate knowledge of the facts of history, or
+a more profound insight into its philosophy, than Mr. Gallatin.</p>
+
+<p>Education, however, is not confined to instruction, nor is the influence
+of an academy to be measured by the extent of its curriculum, or the
+proficiency of its students, but rather by its general tone, moral and
+intellectual. The Calvinism of Geneva, narrow in its religious sense,
+was friendly to the spread of knowledge; and had this not been the case,
+the side influences of Roman Catholicism on the one hand, and the
+liberal spirit of the age on the other, would have tempered its
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>exclusive tendency.</p>
+
+<p>While the academy seems to have sent out few men of extraordinary
+eminence, its influence upon society was happy. Geneva was the resort of
+distinguished foreigners. Princes and nobles from Germany and the north
+of Europe, lords and gentlemen from England, and numerous Americans went
+thither to finish their education. Of these Mr. Gallatin has left
+mention of Francis Kinloch and William Smith, who later represented
+South Carolina in the Congress of the United States; Smith was
+afterwards minister to Portugal; Colonel Laurens, son of the president
+of Congress, and special envoy to France during the war of the American
+Revolution; the two Penns, proprietors of Pennsylvania; Franklin Bache,
+grandson of Dr. Franklin; and young Johannot, grandson of Dr. Cooper of
+Boston. Yet no one of these followed the academic course. To use again
+the words of Mr. Gallatin, &ldquo;It was the Geneva society which they
+cultivated, aided by private teachers in every branch, with whom Geneva
+was abundantly supplied.&rdquo; &ldquo;By that influence,&rdquo; he says, he was himself
+&ldquo;surrounded, and derived more benefit from that source than from
+attendance on academical lectures.&rdquo; Considered in its broader sense,
+education is quite as much a matter of association as of scholarly
+acquirement. The influence of the companion is as strong and enduring as
+that of the master. Of this truth the career of young Gallatin is a
+notable example. During his academic course he formed ties of intimate
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>friendship with three of his associates. These were Henri Serre, Jean
+Badollet, and Etienne Dumont. This attachment was maintained unimpaired
+throughout their lives, notwithstanding the widely different stations
+which they subsequently filled. Serre and Badollet are only remembered
+from their connection with Gallatin. Dumont was of different mould. He
+was the friend of Mirabeau, the disciple and translator of Bentham,&mdash;a
+man of elegant acquirement, but, in the judgment of Gallatin, &ldquo;without
+original genius.&rdquo; De Lolme was in the class above Gallatin. He had such
+facility in the acquisition of languages that he was able to write his
+famous work on the English Constitution after the residence of a single
+year in England. Pictet, Gallatin's relative, afterwards celebrated as a
+naturalist, excelled all his fellows in physical science.</p>
+
+<p>During his last year at the academy Gallatin was engaged in the tuition
+of a nephew of Mademoiselle Pictet, but the time soon arrived when he
+felt called upon to choose a career. His state was one of comparative
+dependence, and the small patrimony which he inherited would not pass to
+his control until he should reach his twenty-fifth year,&mdash;the period
+assigned for his majority. It would be hardly just to say that he was
+ambitious. Personal distinction was never an active motor in his life.
+Even his later honors, thick and fast though they fell, were rather
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>thrust upon than sought by him. But his nature was proud and sensitive,
+and he chafed under personal control. The age was restless. The spirit
+of philosophic inquiry, no longer confined within scholastic limits, was
+spreading far and wide. From the banks of the Neva to the shores of the
+Mediterranean, the people of Europe were uneasy and expectant. Men
+everywhere felt that the social system was threatened with a cataclysm.
+What would emerge from the general deluge none could foresee. Certainly,
+the last remains of the old feudality would be engulfed forever. Nowhere
+was this more thoroughly believed than at the home of Rousseau. Under
+the shadow of the Alps, every breeze from which was free, the Genevese
+philosopher had written his &ldquo;Contrat social,&rdquo; and invited the rulers and
+the ruled to a reorganization of their relations to each other and to
+the world. But nowhere, also, was the conservative opposition to the new
+theories more intense than here.</p>
+
+<p>The mind of young Gallatin was essentially philosophic. The studies in
+which he excelled in early life were in this direction, and at no time
+in his career did he display any emotional enthusiasm on subjects of
+general concern. But, on the other hand, he was unflinching in his
+adherence to abstract principle. Though not carried away by the
+extravagance of Rousseau, he was thoroughly discontented with the
+political state of Geneva. He was by early conviction a Democrat in the
+broadest sense of the term. Indeed, it would be difficult to find a more
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>perfect example of what it was then the fashion to call a <i>citoyen du
+monde</i>. His family seem, on the contrary, to have been always
+conservative, and attached to the aristocratic and oligarchic system to
+which they had, for centuries, owed their position and advancement.</p>
+
+<p>Abraham Gallatin, his grandfather, lived at Pregny on the northern shore
+of the lake, in close neighborhood to Ferney, the retreat of Voltaire.
+Susanne Vaudenet Gallatin, his grandmother, was a woman of the world, a
+lady of strong character, and the period was one when the influence of
+women was paramount in the affairs of men; among her friends she counted
+Voltaire, with whom her husband and herself were on intimate relations,
+and Frederick, Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, with whom she corresponded. So
+sincere was this latter attachment that the sovereign sent his portrait
+to her in 1776, an honor which, at her instance, Voltaire acknowledged
+in a verse characteristic of himself and of the time:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 4.75em;">&ldquo;J'ai bais&eacute; ce portrait charmant,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">Je vous l'avo&ucirc;rai sans myst&egrave;re,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">Mes filles en out fait autant,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">Mais c'est un secret qu'il faut taire.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">Vous trouverez bon qu'une m&egrave;re</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">Vous parle un peu plus hardiment,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">Et vous verrez qu'&eacute;galement,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 5em;">En tous les temps vous savez plaire.&rdquo;</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>At Pregny young Gallatin was the constant guest of his nearest relatives
+on his father's side, and he was a frequent visitor at Ferney. Those
+whose fortune it has been to sit at the feet of Mr.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> Gallatin himself,
+in the serene atmosphere of his study, after his retirement from active
+participation in public concerns, may well imagine the influence which
+the rays of the prismatic character of Voltaire must have had upon the
+philosophic and receptive mind of the young student.</p>
+
+<p>There was and still is a solidarity in European families which can
+scarcely be said to have ever had a counterpart in those of England, and
+of which hardly a vestige remains in American social life. The fate of
+each member was a matter of interest to all, and the honor of the name
+was of common concern. Among the Gallatins, the grandmother, Madame
+Gallatin-Vaudenet, as she was called, appears to have been the
+controlling spirit. To her the profession of the youthful scion of the
+stock was a matter of family consequence, and she had already marked out
+his future course. The Gallatins, as has been already stated, had
+acquired honor in the military service of foreign princes. Her friend,
+the Landgrave of Hesse, was engaged in supporting the uncertain fortunes
+of the British army in America with a large military contingent, and she
+had only to ask to obtain for her grandson the high commission of
+lieutenant-colonel of one of the regiments of Hessian mercenaries. To
+the offer made to young Gallatin, and urged with due authority, he
+replied, that &ldquo;he would never serve a tyrant;&rdquo; a want of respect which
+was answered by a cuff on the ear. This incident determined his career.
+Whether it crystallized long-cherished<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> fancies into sudden action, or
+whether it was of itself the initial cause of his resolve, is now mere
+matter of conjecture; probably the former. The three friends, Gallatin,
+Badollet, and Serre seem to have amused their leisure in planning an
+ideal existence in some wilderness. America offered a boundless field
+for the realization of such dreams, and the spice of adventure could be
+had for the seeking. Here was the forest primeval in its original
+grandeur. Here the Indian roamed undisputed master; not the tutored
+Huron of Voltaire's tale, but the savage of torch and tomahawk. The
+continent was as yet unexplored. In uncertainty as to motives for man's
+action the French magistrate always searches for the woman,&mdash;&ldquo;cherchez
+la femme!&rdquo; One single allusion in a letter written to Badollet, in 1783,
+shows that there was a woman in Gallatin's horoscope. Who she was, what
+her relation to him, or what influence she had upon his actions, nowhere
+appears. He only says that besides Mademoiselle Pictet there was one
+friend, &ldquo;une amie,&rdquo; at Geneva, from whom a permanent separation would be
+hard.</p>
+
+<p>Confiding his purpose to his friend Serre, Gallatin easily persuaded
+this ardent youth to join him in his venturesome journey, and on April
+1, 1780, the two secretly left Geneva. It certainly was no burning
+desire to aid the Americans in their struggle for independence, such as
+had stirred the generous soul of Lafayette, that prompted this act. In
+later life he repeatedly disclaimed any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> such motive. It was rather a
+longing for personal independence, for freedom from the trammels of a
+society in which he had little faith or interest. Nor were his political
+opinions at this time matured. He had a just pride in the Swiss Republic
+as a free State (Etat libre), and his personal bias was towards the
+&ldquo;N&eacute;gatif&rdquo; party, as those were called who maintained the authority of
+the Upper Council (Petit Conseil) to reject the demands of the people.
+To this oligarchic party his family belonged. In a letter written three
+years later, he confesses that he was &ldquo;N&eacute;gatif&rdquo; when he abandoned his
+home, and conveys the idea that his emigration was an experiment, a
+search for a system of government in accordance with his abstract
+notions of natural justice and political right. To use his own words, he
+came to America to &ldquo;drink in a love for independence in the freest
+country of the universe.&rdquo; But there was some method in this madness. The
+rash scheme of emigration had a practical side; land speculation and
+commerce were to be the foundation and support of the settlement in the
+wilderness where they would realize their political Utopia.</p>
+
+<p>From Geneva the young adventurers hurried to Nantes, on the coast of
+France, where Gallatin soon received letters from his family, who seem
+to have neglected nothing that could contribute to their comfort or
+advantage. Monsieur P. M. Gallatin, the guardian of Albert, a distant
+relative in an elder branch of the family, addressed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> him a letter
+which, in its moderation, dignity, and kindness, is a model of
+well-tempered severity and reproach. It expressed the pain Mademoiselle
+Pictet had felt at his unceremonious departure, and his own affliction
+at the ingratitude of one to whom he had never refused a request.
+Finally, as the trustee of his estate till his majority, the guardian
+assures the errant youth that he will aid him with pecuniary resources
+as far as possible, without infringing upon the capital, and within the
+sworn obligation of his trust. Letters of recommendation to
+distinguished Americans were also forwarded, and in these it is found,
+to the high credit of the family, that no distinction was made between
+the two young men, although Serre seems to have been considered as the
+originator of the bold move. The intervention of the Duke de la
+Rochefoucauld d'Enville was solicited, and a letter was obtained by him
+from Benjamin Franklin&mdash;then American minister at the Court of
+Versailles&mdash;to his son-in-law, Richard Bache. Lady Juliana Penn wrote in
+their behalf to John Penn at Philadelphia, and Mademoiselle Pictet to
+Colonel Kinloch, member of the Continental Congress from South Carolina.
+Thus supported in their undertaking the youthful travelers sailed from
+L'Orient on May 27, in an American vessel, the Kattie, Captain Loring.
+Of the sum which Gallatin, who supplied the capital for the expedition,
+brought from Geneva, one half had been expended in their land journey
+and the payment of the pas<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>sages to Boston; one half, eighty louis
+d'or&mdash;the equivalent of four hundred silver dollars&mdash;remained, part of
+which they invested in tea. Reaching the American coast in a fog, or bad
+weather, they were landed at Cape Ann on July 14. From Gloucester they
+rode the next day to Boston on horseback, a distance of thirty miles.
+Here they put up at a French caf&eacute;, &ldquo;The Sign of the Alliance,&rdquo; in Fore
+Street, kept by one Tahon, and began to consider what step they should
+next take in the new world.</p>
+
+<p>The prospects were not encouraging; the military fortunes of the
+struggling nation were never at a lower ebb than during the summer which
+intervened between the disaster of Camden and the discovery of Arnold's
+treason. Washington's army lay at New Windsor in enforced inactivity;
+enlistments were few, and the currency was almost worthless. Such was
+the stagnation in trade, that the young strangers found it extremely
+difficult to dispose of their little venture in tea. Two months were
+passed at the caf&eacute;, in waiting for an opportunity to go to Philadelphia,
+where Congress was in session, and where they expected to find the
+influential persons to whom they were accredited; also letters from
+Geneva. But this journey was no easy matter. The usual routes of travel
+were interrupted. New York was the fortified headquarters of the British
+army, and the Middle States were only to be reached by a d&eacute;tour through
+the American lines above the Highlands and behind the Jersey Hills.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The homesick youths found little to amuse or interest them in Boston,
+and grew very weary of its monotonous life and Puritanic tone. They
+missed the public amusements to which they were accustomed in their own
+country, and complained of the superstitious observance of Sunday, when
+&ldquo;singing, fiddling, card-playing and bowling were forbidden.&rdquo; Foreigners
+were not welcome guests in this town of prejudice. The sailors of the
+French fleet had already been the cause of one riot. Gallatin's letters
+show that this aversion was fully reciprocated by him.</p>
+
+<p>The neighboring country had some points of interest. No Swiss ever saw a
+hill without an intense desire to get to its top. They soon felt the
+magnetic attraction of the Blue Hills of Milton, and, descrying from
+their summit the distant mountains north of Worcester, made a pedestrian
+excursion thither the following day. Mr. Gallatin was wont to relate
+with glee an incident of this trip, which Mr. John Russell Bartlett
+repeats in his &ldquo;Reminiscences.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;The tavern at which he stopped on his journey was kept by a man
+who partook in a considerable degree of the curiosity even
+now-a-days manifested by some landlords in the back parts of New
+England to know the whole history of their guests. Noticing Mr.
+Gallatin's French accent he said, 'Just from France, eh! You are a
+Frenchman, I suppose.' 'No!' said Mr. Gallatin, 'I am not from
+France.' 'You can't be from England, I am sure?' 'No!' was the
+reply. 'From<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> Spain?' 'No!' 'From Germany?' 'No!' 'Well, where on
+earth are you from then, or what are you?' eagerly asked the
+inquisitive landlord. 'I am a Swiss,' replied Mr. Gallatin. 'Swiss,
+Swiss, Swiss!' exclaimed the landlord, in astonishment. 'Which of
+the ten tribes are the Swiss?'&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>Nor was this an unnatural remark. At this time Mr. Gallatin did not
+speak English with facility, and indeed was never free from a foreign
+accent.</p>
+
+<p>At the little caf&eacute; they met a Swiss woman, the wife of a Genevan, one De
+Lesdernier, who had been for thirty years established in Nova Scotia,
+but, becoming compromised in the attempt to revolutionize the colony,
+was compelled to fly to New England, and had settled at Machias, on the
+northeastern extremity of the Maine frontier. Tempted by her account of
+this region, and perhaps making a virtue of necessity, Gallatin and
+Serre bartered their tea for rum, sugar, and tobacco, and, investing the
+remainder of their petty capital in similar merchandise, they embarked
+October 1, 1780, upon a small coasting vessel, which, after a long and
+somewhat perilous passage, reached the mouth of the Machias River on the
+15th of the same month. Machias was then a little settlement five miles
+from the mouth of the stream of the same name. It consisted of about
+twenty houses and a small fortification, mounting seven guns and
+garrisoned by fifteen or twenty men. The young travelers were warmly
+received by the son of Lesdernier, and made their home under his roof.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+This seems to have been one of the four or five log houses in a large
+clearing near the fort. Gallatin attempted to settle a lot of land, and
+the meadow where he cut the hay with his own hands is still pointed out.
+This is Frost's meadow in Perry, not far from the site of the Indian
+village. A single cow was the beginning of a farm, but the main
+occupation of the young men was woodcutting. No record remains of the
+result of the merchandise venture. The trade of Machias was wholly in
+fish, lumber, and furs, which, there being no money, the settlers were
+ready enough to barter for West India goods. But the outlet for the
+product of the country was, in its unsettled condition, uncertain and
+precarious, and the young traders were no better off than before. One
+transaction only is remembered, the advance by Gallatin to the garrison
+of supplies to the value of four hundred dollars; for this he took a
+draft on the state treasury of Massachusetts, which, there being no
+funds for its payment, he sold at one fourth of its face value.</p>
+
+<p>The life, rude as it was, was not without its charms. Serre seems to
+have abandoned himself to its fascination without a regret. His
+descriptive letters to Badollet read like the &ldquo;Idylls of a Faun.&rdquo; Those
+of Gallatin, though more tempered in tone, reveal quiet content with the
+simple life and a thorough enjoyment of nature in its original wildness.
+In the summer they followed the tracks of the moose and deer through the
+primitive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> forests, and explored the streams and lakes in the light
+birch canoe, with a woodsman or savage for their guide. In the winter
+they made long journeys over land and water on snowshoes or on skates,
+occasionally visiting the villages of the Indians, with whom the
+Lesderniers were on the best of terms, studying their habits and
+witnessing their feasts. Occasional expeditions of a different nature
+gave zest and excitement to this rustic life. These occurred when alarms
+of English invasion reached the settlement, and volunteers marched to
+the defence of the frontier. Twice Gallatin accompanied such parties to
+Passamaquoddy, and once, in November, 1780, was left for a time in
+command of a small earthwork and a temporary garrison of whites and
+Indians at that place. At Machias Gallatin made one acquaintance which
+greatly interested him, that of La P&eacute;rouse, the famous navigator. He was
+then in command of the Amazone frigate, one of the French squadron on
+the American coast, and had in convoy a fleet of fishing vessels on
+their way to the Newfoundland banks. Gallatin had an intense fondness
+for geography, and was delighted with La P&eacute;rouse's narrative of his
+visit to Hudson's Bay, and of his discovery there (at Fort Albany, which
+he captured) of the manuscript journal of Samuel Hearne, who some years
+before had made a voyage to the Arctic regions in search of a northwest
+passage. Gallatin and La P&eacute;rouse met subsequently in Boston.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The winter of 1780-81 was passed in the cabin of the Lesderniers. The
+excessive cold does not seem to have chilled Serre's enthusiasm. Like
+the faun of Hawthorne's mythical tale, he loved Nature in all her moods;
+but Gallatin appears to have wearied of the confinement and of his
+uncongenial companions. The trading experiment was abandoned in the
+autumn, and with some experience, but a reduced purse, the friends
+returned in October to Boston, where Gallatin set to work to support
+himself by giving lessons in the French language. What success he met
+with at first is not known, though the visits of the French fleet and
+the presence of its officers may have awakened some interest in their
+language. However this may be, in December Gallatin wrote to his good
+friend, Mademoiselle Pictet, a frank account of his embarrassments.
+Before it reached her, she had already, with her wonted forethought,
+anticipated his difficulties by providing for a payment of money to him
+wherever he might be, and had also secured for him the interest of Dr.
+Samuel Cooper, whose grandson, young Johannot, was then at school in
+Geneva. Dr. Cooper was one of the most distinguished of the patriots in
+Boston, and no better influence could have been invoked than his. In
+July, 1782, by a formal vote of the President and Fellows of Harvard
+College, Mr. Gallatin was permitted to teach the French language. About
+seventy of the students availed themselves of the privilege. Mr.
+Gallatin re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>ceived about three hundred dollars in compensation. In this
+occupation he remained at Cambridge for about a year, at the expiration
+of which he took advantage of the close of the academic course to
+withdraw from his charge, receiving at his departure a certificate from
+the Faculty that he had acquitted himself in his department with great
+reputation.</p>
+
+<p>The war was over, the army of the United States was disbanded, and the
+country was preparing for the new order which the peace would introduce
+into the habits and occupations of the people. The long-sought
+opportunity at last presented itself, and Mr. Gallatin at once embraced
+it. He left Boston without regret. He had done his duty faithfully, and
+secured the approbation and esteem of all with whom he had come in
+contact, but there is no evidence that he cared for or sought social
+relations either in the city or at the college. Journeying southward he
+passed through Providence, where he took sail for New York. Stopping for
+an hour at Newport for dinner, he reached New York on July 21, 1783. The
+same day the frigate Mercury arrived from England with news of the
+signature of the definitive treaty of peace. He was delighted with the
+beauty of the country-seats above the city, the vast port with its
+abundant shipping, and with the prospect of a theatrical entertainment.
+The British soldiers and sailors, who were still in possession, he found
+rude and insolent, but the returning refugees civil and honest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> people.
+At Boston Gallatin made the acquaintance of a French gentleman, one
+Savary de Valcoulon, who had crossed the Atlantic to prosecute in person
+certain claims against the State of Virginia for advances made by his
+house in Lyons during the war. He accompanied Gallatin to New York, and
+together they traveled to Philadelphia; Savary, who spoke no English,
+gladly attaching to himself as his companion a young man of the ability
+and character of Gallatin.</p>
+
+<p>At Philadelphia Gallatin was soon after joined by Serre, who had
+remained behind, engaged also in giving instruction. The meeting at
+Philadelphia seems to have been the occasion for the dissolution of a
+partnership in which Gallatin had placed his money, and Serre his
+enthusiasm and personal charm. A settlement was made; Serre giving his
+note to Gallatin for the sum of six hundred dollars,&mdash;one half of their
+joint expenses for three years,&mdash;an obligation which was repaid more
+than half a century later by his sister. Serre then joined a
+fellow-countryman and went to Jamaica, where he died in 1784. At
+Philadelphia Gallatin and Savary lodged in a house kept by one Mary
+Lynn. Pelatiah Webster, the political economist, who owned the house,
+was also a boarder. Later he said of his fellow-lodgers that &ldquo;they were
+well-bred gentlemen who passed their time conversing in French.&rdquo;
+Gallatin, at the end of his resources, gladly acceded to Savary's
+request to accompany him to Richmond.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Whatever hesitation Gallatin may have entertained as to his definitive
+expatriation was entirely set at rest by the news of strife between the
+rival factions in Geneva and the interposition of armed force by the
+neighboring governments. This interference turned the scale against the
+liberal party. Mademoiselle Pictet was the only link which bound him to
+his family. For his ingratitude to her he constantly reproached himself.
+He still styled himself a citizen of Geneva, but this was only as a
+matter of convenience and security to his correspondence. His
+determination to make America his home was now fixed. The lands on the
+banks of the Ohio were then considered the most fertile in America,&mdash;the
+best for farming purposes, the cultivation of grain, and the raising of
+cattle. The first settlement in this region was made by the Ohio
+Company, an association formed in Virginia and London, about the middle
+of the century, by Thomas Lee, together with Lawrence and Augustine,
+brothers of George Washington. The lands lay on the south side of the
+Ohio, between the Monongahela and Kanawha rivers. These lands were known
+as &ldquo;Washington's bottom lands.&rdquo; In this neighborhood Gallatin determined
+to purchase two or three thousand acres, and prepare for that ideal
+country home which had been the dream of his college days. Land here was
+worth from thirty cents to four dollars an acre. His first purchase was
+about one thousand acres, for which he paid one hundred pounds,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+Virginia currency. Land speculation was the fever of the time. Savary
+was early affected by it, and before the new friends left Philadelphia
+for Richmond he bought warrants for one hundred and twenty thousand
+acres in Virginia, in Monongalia County, between the Great and Little
+Kanawha rivers, and interested Gallatin to the extent of one quarter in
+the purchase. Soon after the completion of this transaction the sale of
+some small portions reimbursed them for three fourths of the original
+cost. This was the first time when, and Savary was the first person to
+whom, Gallatin was willing to incur a pecuniary obligation. Throughout
+his life he had an aversion to debt; small or large, private or public.
+It was arranged that Gallatin's part of the purchase money was not to be
+paid until his majority,&mdash;January 29, 1786,&mdash;but in the meanwhile he
+was, in lieu of interest money, to give his services in personal
+superintendence. Later Savary increased Gallatin's interest to one half.
+Soon after these plans were completed, Savary and Gallatin moved to
+Richmond, where they made their residence.</p>
+
+<p>In February, 1784, Gallatin returned to Philadelphia, perfected the
+arrangements for his expedition, and in March crossed the mountains,
+and, with his exploring party, passed down the Ohio River to Monongalia
+County in Virginia. The superior advantages of the country north of the
+Virginia line determined him to establish his headquarters there. He
+selected the farm of Thomas<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> Clare, at the junction of the Monongahela
+River and George's Creek. This was in Fayette County, Pennsylvania,
+about four miles north of the Virginia line. Here he built a log hut,
+opened a country store, and remained till the close of the year. It was
+while thus engaged at George's Creek, in September of the year 1784,
+that Gallatin first met General Washington, who was examining the
+country, in which he had large landed interests, to select a route for a
+road across the Alleghanies. The story of the interview was first made
+public by Mr. John Russell Bartlett, who had it from the lips of Mr.
+Gallatin. The version of the late Hon. William Beach Lawrence, in a
+paper prepared for the New York Historical Society, differs slightly in
+immaterial points. Mr. Lawrence says:&mdash;</p>
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;Among the incidents connected with his (Mr. Gallatin's) earliest
+explorations was an interview with General Washington, which he
+repeatedly recounted to me. He had previously observed that of all
+the inaccessible men he had ever seen, General Washington was the
+most so. And this remark he made late in life, after having been
+conversant with most of the sovereigns of Europe and their prime
+ministers. He said, in connection with his office, he had a cot-bed
+in the office of the surveyor of the district when Washington, who
+had lands in the neighborhood, and was desirous of effecting
+communication between the rivers, came there. Mr. Gallatin's bed
+was given up to him,&mdash;Gallatin lying on the floor, immediately
+below the table at which Wash<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>ington was writing. Washington was
+endeavoring to reduce to paper the calculations of the day.
+Gallatin, hearing the statement, came at once to the conclusion,
+and, after waiting some time, he himself gave the answer, which
+drew from Washington such a look as he never experienced before or
+since. On arriving by a slow process at his conclusion, Washington
+turned to Gallatin and said, 'You are right, young man.'&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>The points of difference between the two accounts of this interview are
+of little importance. The look which Washington is said to have given
+Mr. Gallatin has its counterpart in that with which he is also said to
+have turned upon Gouverneur Morris, when accosted by him familiarly with
+a touch on the shoulder. Bartlett, in his recollection of the anecdote,
+adds that Washington, about this period, inquired after the forward
+young man, and urged him to become his land agent,&mdash;an offer which
+Gallatin declined.</p>
+
+<p>The winter of 1784-85 was passed in Richmond, in the society of which
+town Mr. Gallatin began to find a relief and pleasure he had not yet
+experienced in America. At this period the Virginia capital was the
+gayest city in the Union, and famous for its abundant hospitality,
+rather facile manners, and the liberal tendency of its religious
+thought. Gallatin brought no prudishness and no orthodoxy in his
+Genevese baggage. One of the last acts of his life was to recognize in
+graceful and touching words the kindness he then met with:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;I was received with that old proverbial Virginia hospitality to
+which I know no parallel anywhere within the circle of my travels.
+It was not hospitality only that was shown to me. I do not know how
+it came to pass, but every one with whom I became acquainted
+appeared to take an interest in the young stranger. I was only the
+interpreter of a gentleman, the agent of a foreign house, that had
+a large claim for advances to the State, and this made me known to
+all the officers of government, and some of the most prominent
+members of the Legislature. It gave me the first opportunity of
+showing some symptoms of talent, even as a speaker, of which I was
+not myself aware. Every one encouraged me, and was disposed to
+promote my success in life. To name all those from whom I received
+offers of service would be to name all the most distinguished
+residents at that time in Richmond.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>In the spring of 1785, fortified with a certificate from Governor
+Patrick Henry, commending him to the county surveyor, and intrusted by
+Henry with the duty of locating two thousand acres of lands in the
+western country for a third party, he set out from Richmond, on March
+31, alone, on horseback. Following the course of the James River he
+crossed the Blue Ridge at the Peaks of Otter, and reached Greenbrier
+Court House on April 18. On the 29th he arrived at Clare's, on George's
+Creek, where he was joined by Savary. Their surveying operations were
+soon begun, each taking a separate course. An Indian rising broke up the
+operations of Savary, and both parties<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> returned to Clare's. Gallatin
+appeared before the court of Monongalia County, at its October term, and
+took the &ldquo;oath of allegiance and fidelity to the Commonwealth of
+Virginia.&rdquo; Clare's, his actual residence, was north of the Virginia
+line, but his affections were with the old Dominion. In November the
+partners hired from Clare a house at George's Creek, in Springfield
+township, and established their residence, after which they returned to
+Richmond by way of Cumberland and the Potomac. In February, 1786,
+Gallatin made his permanent abode at his new home.</p>
+
+<p>Mention has been made of the intimacy of the young emigrants with Jean
+Badollet, a college companion. When they left Geneva he was engaged in
+the study of theology, and was now a teacher. He was included in the
+original plan of emigration, and the first letters of both Gallatin and
+Serre, who had for him an equal attachment, were to him, and year by
+year, through all the vicissitudes of their fortune, they kept him
+carefully informed of their movements and projects. For two years after
+their departure no word was received from him. At last, spurred by the
+sharp reproaches of Serre, he broke silence. In a letter written in
+March, 1783, informing Gallatin of the troubles in Switzerland, he
+excused himself on the plea that their common friend, Dumont, retained
+him at Geneva. In answer, Gallatin opened his plans of western
+settlement, which included the employment of his fortune in the
+establishment<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> of a number of families upon his lands. He suggested to
+Badollet to bring with him the little money he had, to which enough
+would be added to establish him independently. Dumont was invited to
+accompany him. But with a prudence which shows that his previous
+experience had not been thrown away upon him, Gallatin recommends his
+friend not to start at once, but to hold himself ready for the next, or,
+at the latest, the year succeeding, at the same time suggesting the idea
+of a general emigration of such Swiss malcontents as were small
+capitalists and farmers; that of manufacturers and workmen he
+discouraged. It was not, however, until the spring of 1785, on the eve
+of leaving Richmond with some families which he had engaged to establish
+on his lands, that he felt justified in asking his old friend to cross
+the seas and share his lot. This invitation was accepted, and Badollet
+joined him at George's Creek.</p>
+
+<p>The settlement beginning to spread, Gallatin bought another farm higher
+up the river, to which he gave the name of Friendship Hill. Here he
+later made his home.</p>
+
+<p>The western part of Pennsylvania, embracing the area which stretches
+from the Alleghany Mountains to Lake Erie, is celebrated for the wild,
+picturesque beauty of its scenery. Among its wooded hills the head
+waters of the Ohio have their source. At Fort Duquesne, or Pittsburgh,
+where the river takes a sudden northerly bend before finally settling in
+swelling volume on its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> southwesterly course to the Mississippi, the
+Monongahela adds its mountain current, which separates in its entire
+course from the Virginia line the two counties of Fayette and
+Washington. The Monongahela takes its rise in Monongalia County,
+Virginia, and flows to the northward. Friendship Hill is one of the
+bluffs on the right bank of the river, and faces the Laurel Ridge to the
+eastward. Braddock's Road, now the National Road, crosses the mountains,
+passing through Uniontown and Red Stone Old Fort (Brownsville), on its
+course to Pittsburgh. The county seat of Fayette is the borough of Union
+or Uniontown. Gallatin's log cabin, the beginning of New Geneva, was on
+the right bank of the Monongahela, about twelve miles to the westward of
+the county seat. Opposite, on the other side of the river, in Washington
+County, was Greensburg, where his friend Badollet was later established.</p>
+
+<p>Again for a long period Gallatin left his family without any word
+whatever. His most indulgent friend, Mademoiselle Pictet, could hardly
+excuse his silence, and did not hesitate to charge that it was due to
+misfortunes which his pride prompted him to conceal. In the early days
+of 1786 a rumor of his death reached Geneva, and greatly alarmed his
+family. Mr. Jefferson, then minister at Paris, wrote to Mr. Jay for
+information. This was Jefferson's first knowledge of the existence of
+the young man who was to become his political associate, his philosophic
+companion, and his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> truest friend. Meanwhile Gallatin had attained his
+twenty-fifth year and his majority. His family were no longer left in
+doubt as to his existence, and in response to his letters drafts were at
+once remitted to him for the sum of five thousand dollars, through the
+banking-house of Robert Morris. This was, of course, immediately applied
+to his western experiment. The business of the partnership now called
+for his constant attention. It required the exercise of a great variety
+of mental powers, a cool and discriminating judgment, combined with an
+incessant attention to details. Nature, under such circumstances, is not
+so attractive as she appears in youthful dreams; admirable in her
+original garb, she is annoying and obstinate when disturbed. The view of
+country which Friendship Hill commands is said to rival Switzerland in
+its picturesque beauty, but years later, when the romance of the
+Monongahela hills had faded in the actualities of life, Gallatin wrote
+of it that &ldquo;he did not know in the United States any spot which afforded
+less means to earn a bare subsistence for those who could not live by
+manual labor.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Gallatin has been blamed for &ldquo;taking life awry and throwing away the
+advantages of education, social position, and natural intelligence,&rdquo; by
+his removal to the frontier, and his career compared with that of
+Hamilton and Dallas, who, like him, foreign born, rose to eminence in
+politics, and became secretaries of the treasury of the United States.
+But both of these were of English-speak<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>ing races. No foreigner of any
+other race ever obtained such distinction in American politics as Mr.
+Gallatin, and he only because he was the choice of a constituency, to
+every member of which he was personally known. It is questionable
+whether in any other condition of society he could have secured
+advancement by election&mdash;the true source of political power in all
+democracies. John Marshall, afterwards Chief Justice, recognized
+Gallatin's talent soon after his arrival in Richmond, offered him a
+place in his office without a fee, and assured him of future distinction
+in the profession of the law; but Patrick Henry was the more sagacious
+counselor; he advised Gallatin to go to the West, and predicted his
+success as a statesman. Modest as the beginning seemed in the country he
+had chosen, it was nevertheless a start in the right direction, as the
+future showed. It was in no sense a mistake.</p>
+
+<p>Neither did the affairs of the wilderness wholly debar intercourse with
+the civilized world. Visiting Richmond every winter, he gradually
+extended the circle of his acquaintance, and increased his personal
+influence; he also occasionally passed a few weeks at Philadelphia. Two
+visits to Maine are recorded in his diary, but whether they were of
+pleasure merely does not appear. One was in 1788, in midwinter, by stage
+and sleigh. On this excursion he descended the Androscoggin and crossed
+Merrymeeting Bay on the ice, returning by the same route in a snowstorm,
+which concealed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> the banks on either side of the river, so that he
+governed his course by the direction of the wind. With the intellect of
+a prime minister he had the constitution of a pioneer. On one of these
+occasions he intended to visit his old friends and hosts, the
+Lesderniers, but the difficulty of finding a conveyance, and the rumor
+that the old gentleman was away from home, interfered with his purpose.
+He remembered their kindness, and later attempted to obtain pensions for
+them from the United States government.</p>
+
+<p>But the time now arrived when the current of his domestic life was
+permanently diverted, and set in other channels. In May, 1789, he
+married Sophie All&egrave;gre, the daughter of William All&egrave;gre of a French
+Protestant family living at Richmond. The father was dead, and the
+mother took lodgers, of whom Gallatin was one. For more than a year he
+had addressed her and secured her affections. Her mother now refused her
+consent, and no choice was left to the young lovers but to marry without
+it. Little is known of this short but touching episode in Mr. Gallatin's
+life. The young lady was warmly attached to him, and the letter written
+to her mother asking forgiveness for her marriage is charmingly
+expressed and full of feeling. They passed a few happy months at
+Friendship Hill, when suddenly she died. From this time Mr. Gallatin
+lost all heart in the western venture, and his most earnest wish was to
+turn his back forever upon Fayette County. In his suffering he would<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+have returned to Geneva to Mademoiselle Pictet, could he have sold his
+Virginia lands. But this had become impossible at any price, and he had
+no other pecuniary resource but the generosity of his family.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the revolution had broken out in France. The rights of man had
+been proclaimed on the Champ de Mars. All Europe was uneasy and alarmed,
+and nowhere offered a propitious field for peaceful labor. But Gallatin
+did not long need other distraction than he was to find at home.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>PENNSYLVANIA LEGISLATURE</h3>
+
+<p>Political revolutions are the opportunity of youth. In England, Pitt and
+Fox; in America, Hamilton and Gouverneur Morris; in Europe, Napoleon and
+Pozzo di Borgo, before they reached their thirtieth year, helped to
+shape the political destiny of nations. The early maturity of Gallatin
+was no less remarkable. In his voluminous correspondence there is no
+trace of youth. At nineteen his habits of thought were already formed,
+and his moral and intellectual tendencies were clearly marked in his
+character, and understood by himself. His tastes also were already
+developed. His life, thereafter, was in every sense a growth. The germs
+of every excellence, which came to full fruition in his subsequent
+career, may be traced in the preferences of his academic days. From
+youth to age he was consistent with himself. His mind was of that rare
+and original order which, reasoning out its own conclusions, seldom has
+cause to change.</p>
+
+<p>His political opinions were early formed. A letter written by him in
+October, 1783, before he had completed his twenty-third year, shows the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+maturity of his intellect, and his analytic habit of thought. An extract
+gives the nature of the reasons which finally determined him to make his
+home in America:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;This is what by degrees greatly influenced my judgment. After my
+arrival in this country I was early convinced, upon a comparison of
+American governments with that of Geneva, that the latter is
+founded on false principles; that the judicial power, in civil as
+well as criminal cases, the executive power wholly, and two thirds
+of the legislative power being lodged in two bodies which are
+almost self-made, and the members of which are chosen for life,&mdash;it
+is hardly possible but that this formidable aristocracy should,
+sooner or later, destroy the equilibrium which it was supposed
+could be maintained at Geneva.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>The period from the peace of 1783 to the adoption of the federal
+Constitution in 1787 was one of political excitement. The utter failure
+of the old Confederation to serve the purposes of national defense and
+safety for which it was framed had been painfully felt during the war.
+Independence had been achieved under it rather than by it, the patriotic
+action of some of the States supplying the deficiencies of others less
+able or less willing. By the radical inefficiency of the Confederation
+the war had been protracted, its success repeatedly imperiled, and, at
+its close, the results gained by it were constantly menaced. The more
+perfect union which was the outcome of the deliberations of the federal
+convention was therefore joyfully<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> accepted by the people at large.
+Indeed, it was popular pressure, and not the arguments of its advocates,
+that finally overcame the formidable opposition in and out of the
+convention to the Constitution. No written record remains of Mr.
+Gallatin's course during the sessions of the federal convention. He was
+not a member of the body, nor is his name connected with any public act
+having any bearing upon its deliberations. Of the direction of his
+influence, however, there can be no doubt. He had an abiding distrust of
+strong government,&mdash;a dread of the ambitions of men. Precisely what form
+he would have substituted for the legislative and executive system
+adopted nowhere appears in his writings, but certainly neither president
+nor senate would have been included. They bore too close a resemblance
+to king and lords to win his approval, no matter how restricted their
+powers. He would evidently have leaned to a single house, with a
+temporary executive directly appointed by itself; or, if elected by the
+people, then for a short term of office, without renewal; and he would
+have reduced its legislative powers to the narrowest possible limit. The
+best government he held to be that which governs least; and many of the
+ablest of that incomparable body of men who welded this Union held these
+views. But the yearning of the people was in the other direction. They
+felt the need of government. They wanted the protection of a strong arm.
+It must not be forgotten that the thirteen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> colonies which declared
+their independence in 1776 were all seaboard communities, each with its
+port. They were all trading communities. The East, with its fisheries
+and timber; the Middle States, with their agricultural products and
+peltries; the South, with its tobacco; each saw, in that freedom from
+the restrictions of the English navigation laws which the treaty of
+peace secured, the promise of a boundless commerce. To protect commerce
+there must be a national power somewhere. Since the peace the government
+had gained neither the affection of its own citizens nor the respect of
+foreign powers.</p>
+
+<p>The federal Constitution was adopted September 17, 1787. The first State
+to summon a convention of ratification was Pennsylvania. No one of the
+thirteen original States was more directly interested than herself. The
+centre of population lay somewhere in her limits, and there was
+reasonable ground for hope that Philadelphia would become once more the
+seat of government. The delegates met at Philadelphia on November 2. An
+opposition declared itself at the beginning of the proceedings.
+Regardless of the popular impatience, the majority allowed full scope to
+adverse argument, and it was not until December 12 that the final vote
+was taken and the Constitution ratified, without recommendations, by a
+majority of two to one. In this body Fayette County was represented by
+Nicholas Breading and John Smilie. The latter gentleman, of Scotch-Irish
+birth, an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> adroit debater, led the opposition. In the course of his
+criticisms he enunciated the doctrines which were soon to become a party
+cry; the danger of the Constitution &ldquo;in inviting rather than guarding
+against the approaches of tyranny;&rdquo; &ldquo;its tendency to a consolidation,
+not a confederation, of the States.&rdquo; Mr. Gallatin does not appear to
+have sought to be a delegate to this body, but his hand may be traced
+through the speeches of Smilie in the precision with which the
+principles of the opposition were formulated and declared; and his
+subsequent course plainly indicates that his influence was exerted in
+the interest of the dissatisfied minority. The ratification was received
+by the people with intense satisfaction, but the delay in debate lost
+the State the honor of precedence in the honorable vote of
+acquiescence,&mdash;the Delaware convention having taken the lead by a
+unanimous vote. For the moment the Pennsylvania Anti-Federalists clung
+to the hope that the Constitution might yet fail to receive the assent
+of the required number of States, but as one after another fell into
+line, this hope vanished.</p>
+
+<p>One bold expedient remained. The ratification of some of the States was
+coupled with the recommendation of certain amendments. Massachusetts led
+the way in this, Virginia followed, and New York, which, in the language
+of the day, became the eleventh pillar of the federal edifice, on July
+26, 1788, accompanied her ratification with a circular letter to the
+governors of all the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> States, recommending that a general convention be
+called.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p>The argument taken in this letter was the only one which had any chance
+of commending itself to popular favor. It was in these words: &ldquo;that the
+apprehension and discontents which the articles occasion cannot be
+removed or allayed unless an act to provide for the calling of a new
+convention be among the first that shall be passed by the next
+Congress.&rdquo; This document, made public at once, encouraged the
+Pennsylvania Anti-Federalists to a last effort to bring about a new
+convention, to undo or radically alter the work of the old. A conference
+held at Harrisburg, on September 3, 1788, was participated in by
+thirty-three gentlemen, from various sections of the State, who
+assembled in response to the call of a circular letter which originated
+in the county of Cumberland in the month of August. The city of
+Philadelphia and thirteen counties were represented; six of the
+dissenting members of the late convention were present, among whom was
+Smilie. He and Gallatin represented the county of Fayette.</p>
+
+<p>Smilie, Gallatin's earliest political friend, was born in 1742, and was
+therefore about twenty years his senior. He came to the United States in
+youth, and had grown up in the section he now represented. His
+popularity is shown by his ser<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>vice in the state legislature, and during
+twelve years in Congress as representative or as senator. In any
+estimate of Mr. Gallatin, this early influence must be taken into
+account. The friendship thus formed continued until Smilie's death in
+1816. From the adviser he became the ardent supporter of Mr. Gallatin.</p>
+
+<p>Blair McClanachan, of Philadelphia County, was elected chairman of the
+conference. The result of this deliberation was a report in the form of
+a series of resolutions, of which two drafts, both in Mr. Gallatin's
+handwriting, are among his papers now in the keeping of the New York
+Historical Society. The original resolutions were broad in scope, and
+suggested a plan of action of a dual nature; the one of which failing,
+resort could be had to the other without compromising the movement by
+delay. In a word, it proposed an opposition by a party organization. The
+first resolution was adroitly framed to avoid the censure with which the
+people at large, whose satisfaction with the new Constitution had grown
+with the fresh adhesions of State after State to positive enthusiasm,
+would surely condemn any attempt to dissolve the Union formed under its
+provisions. This resolution declared that it was in order to <i>prevent</i> a
+dissolution of the Union and to secure liberty, that a revision was
+necessary. The second expressed the opinion of the conference to be,
+that the safest manner to obtain such revision was to conform to the
+request of the State of New York,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> and to urge the calling of a new
+convention, and recommended that the Pennsylvania legislature be
+petitioned to apply for that purpose to the new Congress. These were
+declaratory. The third and fourth provided, first, for an organization
+of committees in the several counties to correspond with each other and
+with similar committees in other States; secondly, invited the friends
+to amendments in the several States to meet in conference at a fixed
+time and place. This plan of committees of correspondence and of a
+meeting of delegates was simply a revival of the methods of the Sons of
+Liberty, from whose action sprung the first Continental Congress of
+1774.</p>
+
+<p>The formation of such an organization would surely have led to
+disturbance, perhaps to civil war. During the progress of the New York
+convention swords and bayonets had been drawn, and blood had been shed
+in the streets of Albany, where the Anti-Federalists excited popular
+rage by burning the new Constitution. But the thirty-three gentlemen who
+met at Harrisburg wisely tempered these resolutions to a moderate tone.
+Thus modified, they recommended, first, that the people of the State
+should acquiesce in the organization of the government, while holding in
+view the necessity of very considerable amendments and alterations
+essential to preserve the peace and harmony of the Union. Secondly, that
+a revision by general convention was necessary. Thirdly, that the
+legislature should be requested to apply to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> Congress for that purpose.
+The petition recommended twelve amendments, selected from those already
+proposed by other States. These were of course restrictive. The report
+was made public in the &ldquo;Pennsylvania Packet&rdquo; of September 15. With this
+the agitation appears to have ceased. On September 13 Congress notified
+the States by resolution to appoint electors under the provisions of the
+Constitution. The unanimous choice of Washington as president hushed all
+opposition, and for a time the Anti-Federalists sunk into
+insignificance.</p>
+
+<p>The persistent labors of the friends of revision were not without
+result. The amendments proposed by Virginia and New York were laid
+before the House of Representatives. Seventeen received the two thirds
+vote of the House. After conference with the Senate, in which Mr.
+Madison appeared as manager for the House, these, reduced in number to
+twelve by elimination and compression, were adopted by the requisite two
+thirds vote, and transmitted to the legislatures of the States for
+approval. Ratified by a sufficient number of States, they became a part
+of the Constitution. They were general, and declaratory of personal
+rights, and in no instance restrictive of the power of the general
+government.</p>
+
+<p>In 1789, the Assembly of Pennsylvania calling a convention to revise the
+Constitution of the State, Mr. Gallatin was sent as a delegate from
+Fayette County. To the purposes of this conven<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>tion he was opposed, as a
+dangerous precedent. He had endeavored to organize an opposition to it
+in the western counties, by correspondence with his political friends.
+His objections were the dangers of alterations in government, and the
+absurdity of the idea that the Constitution ever contemplated a change
+by the will of a mere majority. Such a doctrine, once admitted, would
+enable not only the legislature, but a majority of the more popular
+house, were two established, to make another appeal to the people on the
+first occasion, and, instead of establishing on solid foundations a new
+government, would open the door to perpetual change, and destroy that
+stability which is essential to the welfare of a nation; since no
+constitution acquires the permanent affection of the people, save in
+proportion to its duration and age. Finally, such changes would sooner
+or later conclude in an appeal to arms,&mdash;the true meaning of the popular
+and dangerous words, &ldquo;an appeal to the people.&rdquo; The opposition was begun
+too late, however, to admit of combined effort, and was not persisted
+in; and Mr. Gallatin himself, with practical good sense, consented to
+serve as a delegate. Throughout his political course the pride of
+mastery never controlled his actions. When debarred from leadership he
+did not sulk in his tent, but threw his weight in the direction of his
+principles. The convention met at Philadelphia on November 24, 1789, and
+closed its labors on September 2, 1790. This was Galla<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>tin's
+apprenticeship in the public service. Among his papers are a number of
+memoranda, some of them indicating much elaboration of speeches made, or
+intended to be made, in this body. One is an argument in favor of
+enlarging the representation in the House; another is against a plan of
+choosing senators by electors; another concerns the liberty of the
+press. There is, further, a memorandum of his motion in regard to the
+right of suffrage, by virtue of which &ldquo;every freeman who has attained
+the age of twenty-one years, and been a resident and inhabitant during
+one year next before the day of election, every naturalized freeholder,
+every naturalized citizen who had been assessed for state or county
+taxes for two years before election day, or who had resided ten years
+successively in the State, should be entitled to the suffrage, paupers
+and vagabonds only being excluded.&rdquo; Certainly, in his conservative
+limitations upon suffrage, he did not consult his own interest as a
+large landholder inviting settlement, nor pander to the natural desires
+of his constituency.</p>
+
+<p>In an account of this convention, written at a later period, Mr.
+Gallatin said that it was the first public body to which he was elected,
+and that he took but a subordinate share in the debates; that it was one
+of the ablest bodies of which he was ever a member, and with which he
+was acquainted, and, excepting Madison and Marshall, that it embraced as
+much talent and knowledge as any Congress from 1795 to 1812, beyond
+which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> his personal knowledge did not extend. Among its members were
+Thomas McKean, signer of the Declaration of Independence and president
+of the Continental Congress, Thomas Mifflin and Timothy Pickering, of
+the Revolutionary army, and Smilie and Findley, Gallatin's political
+friends. General Mifflin was its president.</p>
+
+<p>But mental distraction brought Mr. Gallatin no peace of heart at this
+period, and when the excitement of the winter was over he fell into a
+state of almost morbid melancholy. To his friend Badollet he wrote from
+Philadelphia, early in March, that life in Fayette County had no more
+charms for him, and that he would gladly leave America. But his lands
+were unsalable at any price, and he saw no means of support at Geneva.
+Some one has said, with a profound knowledge of human nature, that no
+man is sure of happiness who has not the capacity for continuous labor
+of a disagreeable kind. The occasional glimpses into Mr. Gallatin's
+inner nature, which his correspondence affords, show that up to this
+period he was not supposed by his friends or by himself to have this
+capacity. In the letter which his guardian wrote to him after his flight
+from home, he was reproached with his &ldquo;natural indolence.&rdquo; His good
+friend, Mademoiselle Pictet, accused him of being hard to please, and
+disposed to <i>ennui</i>; and again, as late as 1787, repeats to him, in a
+tone of sorrow, the reports brought to her of his &ldquo;continuance in his
+old habit of indolence,&rdquo; his indif<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>ference to society, his neglect of
+his dress, and general indifference to everything but study and reading,
+tastes which, she added, he might as well have cultivated at Geneva as
+in the new world; and he himself, in the letter to Badollet just
+mentioned, considers that his habits and his laziness would prove
+insuperable bars to his success in any profession in Europe. In
+estimation of this self-condemnation, it must be borne in mind that the
+Genevans were intellectual Spartans. Gallatin must be measured by that
+high standard. But if the charge of indolence could have ever justly
+lain against Gallatin,&mdash;a charge which his intellectual vigor at
+twenty-seven seems to challenge,&mdash;it certainly could never have been
+sustained after he fairly entered on his political and public career. In
+October, 1790, he was elected by a two thirds majority to represent
+Fayette County in the legislature of the State of Pennsylvania; James
+Findley was his colleague, John Smilie being advanced to the state
+Senate. Mr. Gallatin was re&euml;lected to the Assembly in 1791 and 1792,
+without opposition.</p>
+
+<p>Among his papers there is a memorandum of his legislative service during
+these three years, and a manuscript volume of extracts from the Journals
+of the House, from January 14, 1791, to December 17, 1794. They form
+part of the extensive mass of documents and letters which were collected
+and partially arranged by himself, with a view to posthumous
+publication. Here is an extract from the memorandum:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;I acquired an extraordinary influence in that body [the
+Pennsylvania House of Representatives]; the more remarkable as I
+was always in a party minority. I was indebted for it to my great
+industry and to the facility with which I could understand and
+carry on the current business. The laboring oar was left almost
+exclusively to me. In the session of 1791-1792, I was put on
+thirty-five committees, prepared all their reports, and drew all
+their bills. Absorbed by those details, my attention was turned
+exclusively to administrative laws, and not to legislation properly
+so called.... I failed, though the bill I had introduced passed the
+House, in my efforts to lay the foundation for a better system of
+education. Primary education was almost universal in Pennsylvania,
+but very bad, and the bulk of schoolmasters incompetent, miserably
+paid, and held in no consideration. It appeared to me that in order
+to create a sufficient number of competent teachers, and to raise
+the standard of general education, intermediate academical
+education was an indispensable preliminary step, and the object of
+the bill was to establish in each county an academy, allowing to
+each out of the treasury a sum equal to that raised by taxation in
+the county for its support. But there was at that time in
+Pennsylvania a Quaker and a German opposition to every plan of
+general education.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The spirit of internal improvements had not yet been awakened.
+Still, the first turnpike-road in the United States was that from
+Philadelphia to Lancaster, which met with considerable opposition.
+This, as well as every temporary improvement in our communications
+(roads and rivers) and preliminary surveys, met, of course, with my
+warm support. But it was in the fiscal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> department that I was
+particularly employed, and the circumstances of the times favored
+the restoration of the finances of the State.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The report of the Committee of Ways and Means of the session
+1790-91 was entirely prepared by me, known to be so, and laid the
+foundation of my reputation. I was quite astonished at the general
+encomiums bestowed upon it, and was not at all aware that I had
+done so well. It was perspicuous and comprehensive; but I am
+confident that its true merit, and that which gained me the general
+confidence, was its being founded in strict justice, without the
+slightest regard to party feelings or popular prejudices. The
+principles assumed, and which were carried into effect, were the
+immediate reimbursement and extinction of the state paper-money,
+the immediate payment in specie of all the current expenses, or
+warrants on the treasury (the postponement and uncertainty of which
+had given rise to shameful and corrupt speculations), and provision
+for discharging without defalcation every debt and engagement
+previously recognized by the State. In conformity with this, the
+State paid to its creditors the difference between the nominal
+amount of the state debt assumed by the United States and the rate
+at which it was funded by the act of Congress.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The proceeds of the public lands, together with the arrears, were
+the fund which not only discharged all the public debts, but left a
+large surplus. The apprehension that this would be squandered by
+the legislature was the principal inducement for chartering the
+Bank of Pennsylvania, with a capital of two millions of dollars, of
+which the State subscribed one half. This, and similar subsequent
+investments, enabled Pennsylvania to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> defray, out of the dividends,
+all the expenses of government without any direct tax during the
+forty ensuing years, and till the adoption of the system of
+internal improvement, which required new resources.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;It was my constant assiduity to business, and the assistance
+derived from it by many members, which enabled the Republican party
+in the legislature, then a minority on a joint ballot, to elect me,
+and no other but me of that party, senator of the United States.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>Among the reports enumerated by Mr. Gallatin, as those of which he was
+the author, is one made by a committee on March 22, 1793, that they ...
+are of opinion slavery is inconsistent with every principle of humanity,
+justice, and right, and repugnant to the spirit and express letter of
+the Constitution of the Commonwealth. Added to this was a resolution for
+its abolition in the Commonwealth.</p>
+
+<p>The seat of government was changed from New York to Philadelphia in
+1790, and the first Congress assembled there in the early days of
+December for its final session. Philadelphia was in glee over the
+transfer of the departments. The convention which framed the new state
+Constitution met here in the fall, and the legislature was also holding
+its sessions. The atmosphere was political. The national and local
+representatives met each other at all times and in all places, and the
+public affairs were the chief topic in and out of doors. In this busy
+whirl Gallatin made many friends, but Philadelphia was no more to his
+taste<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> as a residence than Boston. He was disgusted with the
+ostentatious display of wealth, the result not of industry but of
+speculation, and not in the hands of the most deserving members of the
+community. Later he became more reconciled to the tone of Pennsylvania
+society, comparing it with that of New York; he was especially pleased
+with its democratic spirit, and the absence of <i>family influence</i>. &ldquo;In
+Pennsylvania,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;not only we have neither Livingstons, nor
+Rensselaers, but from the suburbs of Philadelphia to the banks of the
+Ohio I do not know a single family that has any extensive influence. An
+equal distribution of property has rendered every individual
+independent, and there is amongst us true and real equality. In a word,
+as I am lazy, I like a country where living is cheap; and as I am poor,
+I like a country where no person is very rich.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Hamilton's excise bill was a bone of contention in the national and
+state legislatures throughout the winter. Direct taxation upon anything
+was unpopular, that on distilled spirits the most distasteful to
+Pennsylvania, where whiskey stills were numerous in the Alleghanies. To
+the bill introduced into Congress a reply was immediately made January
+14, 1791, by the Pennsylvania Assembly in a series of resolutions which
+are supposed to have been drafted by Mr. Gallatin, and to have been the
+first legislative paper from his pen. They distinctly charged that the
+obnoxious bill was &ldquo;subversive of the peace, liberty, and rights of the
+citizen.&rdquo;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Tax by excise has always been offensive to the American people, as it
+was to their ancestors across the sea. It was characterized by the first
+Continental Congress of 1774 as &ldquo;the horror of all free States.&rdquo;
+Notwithstanding their warmth, these resolutions passed the Assembly by a
+vote of 40 to 16. The course of this excitement must be followed; as it
+swept Mr. Gallatin in its mad current, and but for his self-control,
+courage, and adroitness would have wrecked him on the breakers at the
+outset of his political voyage. The excise law passed Congress on March
+3, 1791. On June 22 the state legislature, by a vote of 36 to 11,
+requested their senators and representatives in Congress to oppose every
+part of the bill which &ldquo;shall militate against the rights and liberties
+of the people.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The western counties of Pennsylvania&mdash;Westmoreland, Fayette, Washington,
+and Allegheny&mdash;lie around the head-waters of the Ohio in a radius of
+more than a hundred miles. At this time they contained a population of
+about seventy thousand souls. Pittsburgh, the seat of justice, had about
+twelve hundred inhabitants. The Alleghany Mountains separate this wild
+region from the eastern section of the State. There were few roads of
+any kind, and these lay through woods. The mountain passes could be
+traveled only on foot or horseback. The only trade with the East was by
+pack-horses, while communication with the South was cut off by hostile
+Indian tribes who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> held the banks of the Ohio. This isolation from the
+older, denser, and more civilized settlements bred in the people a
+spirit of self-reliance and independence. They were in great part
+Scotch-Irish Presbyterians, a religious and warlike race to whom the
+hatred of an exciseman was a tradition of their forefathers. Having no
+market for their grain, they were compelled to preserve it by converting
+it into whiskey. The still was the necessary appendage of every farm.
+The tax was light, but payable in money, of which there was little or
+none. Its imposition, therefore, coupled with the declaration of its
+oppressive nature by the Pennsylvania legislature, excited a spirit of
+determined opposition near akin to revolution.</p>
+
+<p>Unpopular in all the western part of the State, Hamilton's bill was
+especially odious to the people of Washington County. The first meeting
+in opposition to it was held at Red Stone Old Fort or Brownsville, the
+site of one of those ancient remains of the mound-builders which abound
+in the western valleys. It was easily reached by Braddock's Road, the
+chief highway of the country. Here gathered on July 27, 1791, a number
+of persons opposed to the law, when it was agreed that county committees
+should be convened in the four counties at the respective seats of
+justice. Brackenridge, in his &ldquo;Incidents of the Western Insurrection,&rdquo;
+says that Albert Gallatin was clerk of the meeting. One of these
+committees met in the town of Washington on August 23, when vio<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>lent
+resolutions were adopted. Gallatin, engaged at Philadelphia, was not
+present at this assemblage, three of whose members were deputed to meet
+delegates from the counties of Westmoreland, Fayette, and Allegheny, at
+Pittsburgh, on the first Tuesday in September following, to agree upon
+an address to the legislature on the subject of excise and other
+grievances. At the Pittsburgh meeting eleven delegates appeared for the
+four counties. The resolutions adopted by them, general in character,
+read more like a declaration of grievances as a basis for revolution
+than a petition for special redress. No wonder that the secretary of the
+treasury stigmatized them as &ldquo;intemperate.&rdquo; They charge that in the laws
+of the late Congress hasty strides had been made to all that was unjust
+and oppressive. They complain of the increase in the salaries of
+officials, of the unreasonable interest of the national debt, of the
+non-discrimination between original holders and transferees of the
+public securities, of the National Bank as a base offspring of the
+funding system; finally, in detail, of the excise law of March 3, 1791.
+At this meeting James Marshall and David Bradford represented Washington
+County.</p>
+
+<p>In August government offices of inspection were opened. The spirit of
+resistance was now fully aroused, and in the early days of September the
+collectors for Washington, Westmoreland, and Fayette were treated with
+violence. Unwilling to proceed to excessive measures, and no doubt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
+swayed by the attitude of the Pennsylvania legislature, Congress in
+October referred the law back to Hamilton for revision. He reported an
+amended act on March 6, 1792, which was immediately passed, and became a
+law March 8. It was to take effect on the last day of June succeeding.
+By it the rate of duty was reduced, a privilege of time as to the
+running of licenses of stills granted, and the tax ordered only for such
+time as they were actually used.</p>
+
+<p>But these modifications did not satisfy the malcontents of the four
+western counties, and they met again on August 21, 1792, at Pittsburgh.
+Of this second Pittsburgh meeting Albert Gallatin was chosen secretary.
+Badollet went up with Gallatin. John Smilie, James Marshall, and James
+Bradford of Washington County were present. Bradford, Marshall,
+Gallatin, and others were appointed to draw up a remonstrance to
+Congress. In order to carry out with regularity and concert the measures
+agreed upon, a committee of correspondence was appointed, and the
+meeting closed with the adoption of the violent resolutions passed at
+the Washington meeting of 1791:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;Whereas, some men may be found among us so far lost to every sense
+of virtue and feeling for the distresses of this country as to
+accept offices for the collection of the duty.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Resolved, therefore, that in future we will consider such persons
+as unworthy of our friendship; have no intercourse or dealings with
+them; withdraw from them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> every assistance, and withhold all the
+comforts of life which depend upon those duties that as men and
+fellow citizens we owe to each other; and upon all occasions treat
+them with that contempt they deserve; and that it be, and it is
+hereby, most earnestly recommended to the people at large, to
+follow the same line of conduct towards them.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>If such an excommunication were to be meted out to an offending
+neighbor, what measure would the excise man receive if he came from
+abroad on his unwelcome errand?</p>
+
+<p>These resolutions were signed by Mr. Gallatin as clerk, and made public
+through the press. Resolutions of this character, if not criminal, reach
+the utmost limit of indiscretion, and political indiscretion is quite as
+dangerous as crime. The petition to Congress, subscribed by the
+inhabitants of western Pennsylvania, was drawn by Gallatin; while
+explicit in terms, it was moderate in tone. It represented the unequal
+operation of the act. &ldquo;A duty laid on the common drink of a nation,
+instead of taxing the citizens in proportion to their property, falls as
+heavy on the poorest class as on the rich;&rdquo; and it ingeniously pointed
+out that the distance of the inhabitants of the western counties from
+market prevented their bringing the produce of their lands to sale,
+either in grain or meal. &ldquo;We are therefore distillers through necessity,
+not choice; that we may comprehend the greatest value in the smallest
+size and weight.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Hamilton, indignant, reported the proceedings<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> to the President on
+September 9, 1792, and demanded instant punishment. Washington, who was
+at Mount Vernon, was unwilling to go to extremes, but consented to issue
+a proclamation, which, drafted by Hamilton, and countersigned by
+Jefferson, was published September 15, 1792. It earnestly admonished all
+persons to desist from unlawful combinations to obstruct the operations
+of the laws, and charged all courts, magistrates, and officers with
+their enforcement. There was no mistaking Hamilton's intention to
+enforce the law. Prosecutions in the Circuit Court, held at Yorktown in
+October, were ordered against the Pittsburgh offenders, but no proof
+could be had to sustain an indictment.</p>
+
+<p>The President's proclamation startled the western people, and some
+uneasiness was felt as to how such of their representatives as had taken
+part in the Pittsburgh meeting would be received when they should go up
+to the legislature in the winter. Bradford and Smilie accompanied
+Gallatin; Smilie to take his seat in the state Senate, and Bradford to
+represent Washington County in the House, where he &ldquo;cut a poor figure.&rdquo;
+Gallatin despised him, and characterized him as a &ldquo;tenth-rate lawyer and
+an empty drum.&rdquo; Gallatin found, however, that although the Pittsburgh
+meeting had hurt the general interest of his party throughout the State,
+and &ldquo;rather defeated&rdquo; the repeal of the excise law, his eastern friends
+did not turn the cold shoulder to him. He said to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> every one whom he
+knew that the resolutions were perhaps too violent and undoubtedly
+highly impolitic, but, in his opinion, contained nothing illegal.
+Meanwhile federal officers proceeded to enforce the law in Washington
+County. A riot ensued, and the office was forcibly closed. Bills were
+found against two of the offenders in the federal court, and warrants to
+arrest and bring them to Philadelphia for trial were issued. Gallatin
+believed the men innocent, and did not hesitate to advise Badollet to
+keep them out of the way when the marshal should go to serve the writs,
+but deprecated any insult to the officer. He thought &ldquo;the precedent a
+very dangerous one to drag people such a distance in order to be tried
+on governmental prosecutions.&rdquo; Here the matter rested for a season.</p>
+
+<p>At this session of the legislature Gallatin introduced a new system of
+county taxation, proposed a clause providing for &ldquo;trustees yearly
+elected, one to each township, without whose consent no tax is to be
+raised, nor any above one per cent. on the value of lands,&rdquo; which he
+hoped would &ldquo;tend to crush the aristocracy of every town in the State.&rdquo;
+Also he proposed a plan to establish a school and library in each
+county, with a sufficient immediate sum in money, and a yearly allowance
+for a teacher in the English language.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The drafting of this letter was, notwithstanding his
+protest, intrusted to John Jay, one of the strongest of the Federal
+leaders, and a warm supporter of the Constitution as it stood.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>UNITED STATES SENATE</h3>
+
+<p>The death of the grandfather of Mr. Gallatin, and soon after of his
+aunt, strongly tempted him to make a journey to Geneva in the summer of
+1793. The political condition of Europe at that time was of thrilling
+interest. On January 21 the head of Louis XVI. fell under the
+guillotine, to which Marie Antoinette soon followed him. The armies of
+the coalition were closing in upon France. Of the political necessity
+for these state executions there has always been and will always be
+different judgments. That of Mr. Gallatin is of peculiar value. It is
+found expressed in intimate frankness in a letter to his friend
+Badollet, written at Philadelphia, February 1, 1794.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;France at present offers a spectacle unheard of at any other
+period. Enthusiasm there produces an energy equally terrible and
+sublime. All those virtues which depend upon social or family
+affections, all those amiable weaknesses, which our natural
+feelings teach us to love or respect, have disappeared before the
+stronger, the only, at present, powerful passion, the <i>Amor
+Patri&aelig;</i>. I must confess my soul is not enough steeled, not
+sometimes to shrink at the dreadful executions which have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> restored
+at least apparent internal tranquillity to that republic. Yet upon
+the whole, as long as the combined despots press upon every
+frontier, and employ every engine to destroy and distress the
+interior parts, I think they, and they alone, are answerable for
+every act of severity or injustice, for every excess, nay for every
+crime, which either of the contending parties in France may have
+committed.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>Within a few years the publication of the correspondence of De Fersen,
+the agent of the king and queen, has supplied the proof of the charge
+that they were in secret correspondence with the allied sovereigns to
+introduce foreign troops upon the soil of France,&mdash;a crime which no
+people has ever condoned.</p>
+
+<p>The French Revolution, which from its beginning in 1789 reacted upon the
+United States with fully the force that the American Revolution exerted
+upon France, had become an important factor in American politics. The
+intemperance of Genet, the minister of the French Convention to the
+United States on the one hand, and the breaches of neutrality by England
+on the other, were dividing the American people into English and French
+parties. The Federalists sympathized with the English, the late enemies,
+and the Republicans with the French, the late allies, of the United
+States.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin had about made up his mind to visit Europe, when an
+unexpected political honor changed his plans. The Pennsylvania
+legislature<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> elected him a senator of the United States on joint ballot,
+a distinction the more singular in that the legislature was Federalist
+and Mr. Gallatin was a representative of a Republican district, and
+strong in that faith. Moreover, he was not a candidate either of his own
+motion or by that of his friends, but, on the contrary, had doubts as to
+his eligibility because of insufficient residence. This objection, which
+he himself stated in caucus, was disregarded, and on February 28, 1793,
+by a vote of 45 to 37, he was chosen senator. Mr. Gallatin had just
+completed his thirty-second year, and now a happy marriage came
+opportunely to stimulate his ambition and smooth his path to other
+honors.</p>
+
+<p>Among the friends made at Philadelphia was Alexander J. Dallas, a
+gentleman two years Gallatin's senior, whose career, in some respects,
+resembled his own. He was born in Jamaica, of Scotch parents; had been
+thoroughly educated at Edinburgh and Westminster, and, coming to the
+United States in 1783, had settled in Philadelphia. He now held the post
+of secretary of state for Pennsylvania. Mr. Gallatin's constant
+committee service brought him into close relations with the secretary,
+and the foundation was laid of a lasting political friendship and social
+intimacy. In the recess of the legislature, Mr. Gallatin joined Mr.
+Dallas and his wife in an excursion to the northward. Mr. Gallatin's
+health had suffered from close confinement and too strict attention to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
+business, and he needed recreation and diversion. In the course of the
+journey the party was joined by some ladies, friends of Mrs. Dallas,
+among whom was Miss Hannah Nicholson. The excursion lasted nearly four
+weeks. The result was that Mr. Gallatin returned to Philadelphia the
+accepted suitor of this young lady. He describes her in a letter to
+Badollet as &ldquo;a girl about twenty-five years old, who is neither handsome
+nor rich, but sensible, well-informed, good-natured, and belonging to a
+respectable and very amiable family.&rdquo; Nor was he mistaken in his
+choice,&mdash;a more charming nature, a more perfect, well-rounded character
+than hers is rarely found. They were married on November 11, 1793. She
+was his faithful companion throughout his long and honorable career, and
+death separated them but by a few months. This alliance greatly widened
+his political connection.</p>
+
+<p>Commodore James Nicholson, his wife's father, famous in the naval annals
+of the United States as the captain of the Trumbull, the first of
+American frigates, at the time resided in New York, and was one of the
+acknowledged leaders of the Republican party in the city. His two
+brothers&mdash;Samuel and John&mdash;were captains in the naval service. His two
+elder daughters were married to influential gentlemen;&mdash;Catharine to
+Colonel Few, senator from Georgia; Frances, to Joshua Seney, member of
+Congress from Maryland; Maria later (1809) married John Montgomery, who
+had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> been member of Congress from Maryland, and was afterwards mayor of
+Baltimore. A son, James Witter Nicholson, then a youth of twenty-one,
+was, in 1795, associated with Mr. Gallatin in his Western Company, and,
+removing to Fayette, made his home in what was later and is now known as
+New Geneva. Here, in connection with Mr. Gallatin and the brothers
+Kramer, Germans, he established extensive glass works, which proved
+profitable.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin's election to the United States Senate did not disqualify
+him for his unfinished legislative term, and, on his return to
+Philadelphia, he was again plunged in his manifold duties. The few days
+which intervened between his marriage and the meeting of Congress&mdash;a
+short honeymoon&mdash;were spent under the roof of Commodore Nicholson in New
+York.</p>
+
+<p>On February 28, 1793, the Vice-President laid before the Senate a
+certificate from the legislature of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania to
+the election of Albert Gallatin as senator of the United States. Mr.
+Gallatin took his seat December 2, 1793. The business of the session was
+opened by the presentation of a petition signed by nineteen individuals
+of Yorktown, Pennsylvania, stating that Mr. Gallatin had not been nine
+years a citizen of the United States. This petition had been handed to
+Robert Morris, Mr. Gallatin's colleague for Pennsylvania, by a member of
+the legislature<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> for the county of York, but he had declined to present
+it, and declared to Mr. Gallatin his intention to be perfectly neutral
+on the occasion&mdash;at least so Mr. Gallatin wrote to his wife the next
+day; but Morris did not hold fast to this resolution, as the votes in
+the sequel show. The petition was ordered to lie upon the table. On
+December 11 Messrs. Rutherford, Cabot, Ellsworth, Livermore, and
+Mitchell were appointed a committee to consider the petition. These
+gentlemen, Gallatin wrote, were undoubtedly &ldquo;the worst for him that
+could have been chosen, and did not seem to him to be favorably
+disposed.&rdquo; He himself considered the legal point involved as a nice and
+difficult one, and likely to be decided by a party vote. The fourth
+article of the Constitution of the first Confederation of the United
+States reads as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;The better to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and
+intercourse among the people of the different States in this Union,
+the free inhabitants of each of these States, paupers, vagabonds,
+and fugitives from justice excepted, shall be entitled to all
+privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>Article 1, section 3, of the new Constitution declares:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the
+age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United
+States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that
+State for which he shall be chosen.&rdquo;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin landed in Massachusetts in July, 1780, while still a minor.
+His residence, therefore, which had been uninterrupted, extended over
+thirteen years. He took the oath of citizenship and allegiance to
+Virginia in October, 1785, since which, until his election in 1793, nine
+years, the period called for by the United States Constitution, had not
+elapsed. On the one hand, his actual residence exceeded the required
+period of citizenship; on the other, his legal and technical residence
+as a citizen was insufficient. In point of fact, his intention to become
+a citizen dated from the summer of 1783.</p>
+
+<p>To take from the case the air of party proscription, which it was
+beginning to assume, the Senate discharged its special committee, and
+raised a general committee on elections to consider this and other
+cases. On February 10, 1794, the report of this committee was submitted,
+and a day was set for a hearing by the Senate, with open doors. On that
+day Mr. Gallatin exhibited a written statement of facts, agreed to
+between himself and the petitioners, and the case was left to the Senate
+on its merits. On the 28th a test vote was taken upon a motion to the
+effect that &ldquo;Albert Gallatin, returned to this House as a member for the
+State of Pennsylvania, is duly qualified for and elected to a seat in
+the Senate of the United States,&rdquo; and it was decided in the
+negative&mdash;yeas, 12; nays, 14.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>Motion being made that the election of Albert Gallatin to be a senator
+of the United States was void,&mdash;he not having been a citizen of the
+United States for the term of years required as a qualification to be a
+senator of the United States,&mdash;it was further moved to divide the
+question at the word &ldquo;void;&rdquo; and the question being then taken on the
+first paragraph, it passed in the affirmative&mdash;yeas, 14; nays, 12. The
+yeas and nays were required, and the Senate divided as before. The
+resolution was then put and adopted by the same vote. Thus Mr. Gallatin,
+thirteen years a resident of the country, a large land-holder in
+Virginia, and for several terms a member of the Pennsylvania
+legislature, was excluded from a seat in the Senate of the United
+States.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin conducted his case with great dignity. On being asked
+whether he had any testimony to produce, he replied, in writing, that
+there was not sufficient matter charged in the petition and proved by
+the testimony to vacate his seat, and declined to go to the expense of
+collecting evidence until that preliminary question was settled.</p>
+
+<p>Short as the period was during which Mr. Gallatin held his seat, it was
+long enough for him<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> seriously to annoy the Federal leaders. Indeed, it
+is questionable whether, if he had delayed his embarrassing motion, a
+majority of the Senate could have been secured against him. Certain it
+is that the Committee on Elections, appointed on December 11, did not
+send in its report until the day after Mr. Gallatin moved his
+resolution, calling upon the secretary of the treasury for an elaborate
+statement of the debt on January 1, 1794, under distinct heads,
+including the balances to creditor States, a statement of loans,
+domestic and foreign, contracted from the beginning of the government,
+statements of exports and imports; finally for a summary statement of
+the receipts and expenditures to the last day of December, 1790,
+<i>distinguishing the moneys received under each branch of the revenue and
+the moneys expended under each of the appropriations, and stating the
+balances of each branch of the revenue remaining unexpended on that
+day</i>, and also calling for similar and separate statements for the years
+1791, 1792, 1793. This resolution, introduced on January 8, was laid
+over. On the 20th it was adopted. It was not until February 10 that a
+reply from the secretary of the treasury was received by the Senate, and
+on the 11th submitted to Gallatin, Ellsworth, and Taylor for
+consideration and report. In this letter (February 6, 1794) Hamilton
+stated the difficulty of supplying the precise information called for,
+with the clerical forces of the department, the interruption it would
+cause in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> daily routine of the service, and deprecated the practice
+of such unexpected demands.</p>
+
+<p>With this response of the secretary the inquiry fell to the ground, but
+it was neither forgotten nor forgiven by his adherents, and Mr. Gallatin
+paid the penalty on at least one occasion. This was years later, when he
+himself was secretary of the treasury. On March 2, 1803, the day before
+the adjournment of Congress, Mr. Griswold, Federalist from Connecticut,
+attacked the correctness of the accounts of the sinking fund, and
+demanded an answer to a resolution of the House on the management of
+this bureau. Had such been his desire, Mr. Gallatin was foreclosed from
+Hamilton's excuse. On the night of the 3d he sent in an elaborate
+statement which set accusation at rest and criticism at defiance.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin's short stay in the Senate revealed to the Federalists the
+character of the man, who, disdaining the lesser flight, checked only at
+the highest game. He accepted his exclusion with perfect philosophy.
+Soon after the session opened he said, &ldquo;My feelings cannot be much hurt
+by an unfavorable decision, since having been elected is an equal proof
+of the confidence the legislature of Pennsylvania reposed in me, and not
+being qualified, if it is so decided, cannot be imputed to me as a
+fault.&rdquo; His exclusion was by no means a disadvantage to him. It made
+common cause of the honor of Pennsylvania and his own; it endeared him
+to the Republicans of his State as a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> martyr to their principles. It
+&ldquo;secured him,&rdquo; to use his own words, &ldquo;many staunch&rdquo; friends throughout
+the Union, and extended his reputation, hitherto local and confined,
+over the entire land; more than all, it led him to the true field of
+political contest&mdash;the House of Representatives of the people of the
+United States.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The yeas and nays being required by one fifth of the
+senators present, there were: <i>Affirmative</i>.&mdash;Bradley, Brown, Burr,
+Butler, Edwards, Gunn, Jackson, Langdon, Martin, Monroe, Robinson,
+Taylor; 12.
+</p><p>
+<i>Negative</i>.&mdash;Bradford, Cabot, Ellsworth, Foster, Frelinghuysen, Hawkins,
+Izard, King, Livermore, Mitchell, Morris, Potts, Strong, Vining; 14.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>THE WHISKEY INSURRECTION</h3>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin was now out of public life. For eighteen months since he
+came up to the legislature with his friends of the Pittsburgh
+convention, he had not returned to Fayette. His private concerns were
+suffering in his absence. Neither his barn, his meadow, nor his house
+was finished at the close of 1793. In May, 1794, he took his wife to his
+country home. Their hopes of a summer of recreation and domestic comfort
+in the wild beauties of the Monongahela were not to be realized. Before
+the end of June the peaceful country was in a state of mad agitation.</p>
+
+<p>The seeds of political discontent, sown at Pittsburgh in 1792, had
+ripened to an abundant harvest. An act passed by Congress June 5, 1794,
+giving to the state courts concurrent jurisdiction in excise cases,
+removed the grievance of which Gallatin complained, the dragging of
+accused persons to Philadelphia for trial, but was not construed to be
+retroactive in its operation. The marshal, accordingly, found it to be
+his duty to serve the writs of May 31 against those who had fallen under
+their penalties. These writs were return<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>able in Philadelphia. They were
+served without trouble in Fayette County. Not so in Allegheny. Here on
+July 15, 1794, the marshal had completed his service, when, while still
+in the execution of his office, and in company with the inspector, he
+was followed and fired upon. The next day a body of men went to the
+house of the marshal and demanded that he should deliver up his
+commission. They were fired upon and dispersed, six were wounded, and
+the leader killed. A general rising followed. The marshal's house,
+though defended by Major Kirkpatrick, with a squad from the Pittsburgh
+garrison, was set on fire, with the adjacent buildings, and burned. On
+July 18 the insurgents sent a deputation of two or three to Pittsburgh,
+to require of the marshal a surrender of the processes in his
+possession, and of the inspector the resignation of his office. These
+demands were, of course, rejected; but the officers, alarmed for their
+personal safety, left the town, and, descending the Ohio by boat to
+Marietta, proceeded by a circuitous route to Philadelphia, and made
+their report to the United States authorities.</p>
+
+<p>This was the outbreak of the Western or Whiskey Insurrection. The
+excitement spread rapidly through the western counties. Fayette County
+was not exempt from it. The collector's house was broken into, and his
+commission taken from him by armed men; the sheriff refused to serve the
+writs against the rioters of the spring. Since<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> these disturbances there
+had been no trouble in this county. But the malcontents elsewhere rose
+in arms, riots ensued, and the safety of the whole community was
+compromised. The news reaching Fayette, the distillers held a meeting at
+Uniontown, the county seat, on July 20. Both Gallatin and Smilie were
+present, and by their advice it was agreed to submit to the laws. The
+neighboring counties were less fortunate. On July 21 the Washington
+County committee was summoned to meet at Mingo Creek Meeting-house. On
+the 23d there was a large assemblage of people, including a number of
+those who had been concerned in burning the house of the Pittsburgh
+inspector. James Marshall, the same who opposed the ratification of the
+federal Constitution, David Bradford, the &ldquo;empty drum,&rdquo; and Judge
+Brackenridge of Pittsburgh, attended this meeting. Bradford, the most
+unscrupulous of the leaders, sought to shirk his responsibility, but was
+intimidated by threats, and thereafter did not dare to turn back.
+Brackenridge was present to counsel the insurgents to moderation. In
+spite of his efforts the meeting ended in an invitation, which the
+officers had not the boldness to sign, to the townships of the four
+western counties of Pennsylvania and the adjoining counties of Virginia
+to send representatives to a general meeting on August 14, at
+Parkinson's Ferry on the Monongahela, in Washington County. Bradford,
+determined to aggravate the disturbance, stopped the mail at Greensburg,
+on the road be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>tween Pittsburgh and Philadelphia, and robbed it of the
+Washington and Pittsburgh letters, some of which he published, to the
+alarm of their authors.</p>
+
+<p>On July 28 a circular signed by Bradford, Marshall, and others was sent
+out from Cannonsburg to the militia of the county, whom it summoned for
+personal service, and likewise called for volunteers to rendezvous the
+following Wednesday, July 30, at their respective places of meeting,
+thence to march to Braddock's Field, on the Monongahela, the usual
+rendezvous of the militia, about eight miles south of Pittsburgh, by two
+o'clock of Friday, August 1. It closed in these words, &ldquo;Here is an
+expedition proposed in which you will have an opportunity for displaying
+your military talents and of rendering service to your country.&rdquo; Nothing
+less was contemplated by the more extreme of these men than an attack
+upon Fort Pitt and the sack of Pittsburgh. Thoroughly aroused at last,
+the moderate men of Washington determined to breast the storm. A meeting
+was held; James Ross of the United States Senate made an earnest appeal,
+and was supported by Scott of the House of Representatives and Stokely
+of the Senate of Pennsylvania. Marshall and Bradford yielded, and
+consented to countermand the order of rendezvous. But the excited
+population poured into the town from all quarters, and Bradford, who
+found that he had gone too far to retreat, again took the lead of the
+movement, already beyond restraint.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There are accounts of this formidable insurrection by H. H. Brackenridge
+and William Findley, eye-witnesses. These supply abundant details.
+Findley says that he knew that the movement would not stop at the limit
+apparently set for it. &ldquo;The opposing one law would lead to oppose
+another; they would finally oppose all, and demand a new modeling of the
+Constitution, and there would be a revolution.&rdquo; There was great alarm in
+Pittsburgh. A meeting was held there Thursday evening, July 31, at which
+a message from the Washington County insurgents was read, violent
+resolutions adopted, and the 9th of August appointed as the day for a
+town meeting for election of delegates to a general convention of the
+counties at Parkinson's Ferry; Judge Brackenridge of Pittsburgh, a man
+of education, influence, and infinite jest and humor, was present at
+this meeting. Of Scotch-Irish birth himself, his sympathies of race were
+with his countrymen, but in political sentiments he was not in harmony
+with their leaders. They were nearly all Republicans, while he had sided
+with the Federalists in the convention which adopted the new
+Constitution of the United States. He was a man of peace, and of too
+much sagacity not to foresee the inevitable ruin upon which they were
+rushing. At Mingo Creek he had thwarted the plans of immediate
+revolution. The evident policy of moderate men was to prevent any
+violence before the convention at Parkinson's Ferry should meet, and to
+bend all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> their energies to control the deliberations of that body. The
+people of Pittsburgh were intensely excited by the armed gathering
+almost at their doors.</p>
+
+<p>Brackenridge felt that the only safe issue from the situation was to
+take part in and shape the action of that gathering. Under his lead a
+committee from the Pittsburgh meeting, followed by a large body of the
+citizens, went out to the rendezvous. Here they found a motley
+assemblage, arrayed in the picturesque campaign costume which the
+mountaineers wore when they equipped themselves to meet the
+Indians,&mdash;yellow hunting-shirts, handkerchiefs tied about their heads,
+and rifles on the shoulder; the militia were on foot, and the light
+horse of the counties were in military dress. Conspicuous about the
+field, &ldquo;haughty and pompous,&rdquo; as Gallatin described him in the
+legislature, was David Bradford, who had assumed the office of
+major-general. Brackenridge draws a lifelike picture of him as, mounted
+on a superb horse in splendid trappings, arrayed in full uniform, with
+plume floating in the air and sword drawn, he rode over the ground, gave
+orders to the military, and harangued the multitude. On the historic
+ground where Washington plucked his first military laurels were gathered
+about seven thousand men, of whom two thousand militia were armed and
+accoutred as for a campaign,&mdash;a formidable and remarkable assemblage,
+when it is considered that the entire male population of sixteen years
+of age<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> and upwards of the four counties did not exceed sixteen
+thousand, and was scattered over a wide and unsettled country. This is
+Brackenridge's estimate of the numbers. Later, Gallatin, on comparison
+of the best attainable information, estimated the whole body at from
+fifteen hundred to two thousand men. Whatever violence Bradford may have
+intended, none was accomplished. That he read aloud the Pittsburgh
+letters, taken from the mail, shows his purpose to inflame the people to
+vindictive violence. He was accused by contemporary authorities of
+imitation of the methods of the French Jacobins, which were fresh
+examples of revolutionary vigor. But the mass was not persuaded. After
+desultory conversation and discussion, the angry turn of which was at
+times threatening to the moderate leaders, the meeting broke up on
+August 2; about one third dispersed for their homes, and the remainder,
+marching to Pittsburgh, paraded through the streets, and finally
+crossing the river in their turn scattered. They did no damage to the
+town beyond the burning of a farm belonging to Major Kirkpatrick of the
+garrison. The taverns were all closed, but the citizens brought whiskey
+to their doors. Judge Brackenridge reports that his sacrifice to peace
+on this occasion cost him four barrels of his best old rye.</p>
+
+<p>This moderation was no augury of permanent quiet. Brackenridge, who was
+a keen observer of men, says of the temper of the western popula<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>tion at
+this period: &ldquo;I had seen the spirit which prevailed at the Stamp Act,
+and at the commencement of the revolution from the government of Great
+Britain, but it was by no means so general and so vigorous amongst the
+common people as the spirit which now existed in the country.&rdquo; Nor did
+the armed bands all return peaceably to their homes. The house of the
+collector for Fayette and Washington counties was burned, and warnings
+were given to those who were disposed to submit to the law. The
+disaffected were called &ldquo;Tom the tinker&rdquo; men, from the signature affixed
+to the threatening notices. From a passage in one of Gallatin's letters
+it appears that there was a person of that name, a New England man, who
+had been concerned in Shays's insurrection. Liberty poles, with the
+device, &ldquo;An equal tax and no excise law,&rdquo; were raised, and the trees
+placarded with the old revolutionary motto, &ldquo;United we stand, divided we
+fall,&rdquo; with a divided snake as an emblem. Mr. Gallatin's neighborhood
+was not represented at Braddock's Field, and not more than a dozen were
+present from the entire county. But now the flame spread there also, and
+liberty poles were raised. Mr. Gallatin himself, inquiring as to their
+significance and expressing to the men engaged the hope that they would
+not behave like a mob, was asked, in return, if he was not aware of the
+Westmoreland resolution that any one calling the people a mob should be
+tarred and feathered,&mdash;an amusing example of that mob logic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> which
+proves the affirmative of the proposition it denies.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin did not attend the meeting at Braddock's Field. Somewhat
+isolated at his residence at the southerly border of the county, engaged
+in the care of his long neglected farm, and in the full enjoyment of
+release from the bustle and excitement of public life, he had paid
+little attention to passing events. He was preparing definitively to
+abandon political pursuits and to follow some kind of mercantile
+business, or take up some land speculation and study law in his
+intervals of leisure. It was not a year since he had given hostages to
+fortune. He was now in the full tide of domestic happiness, which was
+always to him the dearest and most coveted. He might well have hesitated
+before again engaging upon the dangerous and uncertain task of
+controlling an excited and aggrieved population. But he did not
+hesitate.</p>
+
+<p>The people among whom he had made his home, and whose confidence had
+never failed him, were his people. By them he would stand in their
+extremity, and if hurt or ruin befell them, it should not be for want of
+the interposition of his counsel. He knew his powers, and he determined
+to bring them into full play. He knew the danger also, but it only
+nerved him to confront and master it. He knew his duty, and did not
+swerve one hair from the line it prompted. In no part of his long,
+varied, and useful political life does he appear to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> better advantage
+than in this exciting episode of the Whiskey Insurrection. His
+self-possession, his cool judgment, swayed neither by timidity nor
+rashness, never for a moment failed him. Here he displayed that
+remarkable combination of persuasion and control,&mdash;the indispensable
+equipment of a political chief,&mdash;which, in later days, gave him the
+leadership of the Republican party. With intuitive perception of the
+political situation he saw that the only path to safety, beset with
+difficulty and danger though it were, was through the convention at
+Parkinson's Ferry. He did not believe that any revolutionary proceedings
+had yet been taken, or that the convention was an illegal body, but he
+was determined to separate the wheat from the chaff, and disengage the
+moderate and the law-abiding from the disorderly. By the light of his
+own experience he had learned wisdom. He also had drawn a lesson from
+the French Revolution, and knew the uncontrollable nature of large
+popular assemblages. The news from Philadelphia, the seat of government,
+was of a kind to increase his alarm. Washington was not the man to
+overlook such an insult to authority as the resistance to the marshal
+and inspector; nor was it probable that Hamilton would let pass such an
+occasion for showing the strength and vigor of the government.</p>
+
+<p>Before the meeting at Braddock's Field, the secretary's plans for a
+suppression of the insurrection were matured. On August 2 he laid
+before<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> the President an estimate of the probable armed force of the
+insurgents, and of that with which he proposed to reduce them to
+submission. When the question of the use of force came before the
+cabinet, Edmund Randolph, who was secretary of state, opposed it in a
+written opinion, one phrase of which deserves repetition:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;It is a fact well known that the parties in the United States are
+highly inflamed against each other, and that there is but one
+character which keeps both in awe. As soon as the sword shall be
+drawn, who shall be able to retain them.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>Mifflin, the governor of Pennsylvania, deprecated immediate resort to
+force; the venerable Chief Justice McKean suggested the sending of
+commissioners on the part of the federal and state governments.
+Washington, with perfect judgment, combined these plans, and happily
+allied conciliation with force. A proclamation was issued on August 7
+summoning all persons involved in the disturbance to lay down their arms
+and repair to their homes by September 1. Requisitions were made upon
+the governors of Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and New Jersey for
+fifteen thousand men in all, and a joint commission of five was
+raised,&mdash;three of whom on the part of the United States were appointed
+by the President, and two on the part of the State of Pennsylvania. This
+news was soon known at Pittsburgh, and rapidly spread through the
+adjacent country;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> and it was clear that in the proceedings to be taken
+at Parkinson's Ferry the question of resistance or submission must be
+definitively settled. On August 14, 1794, the convention assembled; two
+hundred and twenty-six delegates in all, of whom ninety-three were from
+Washington, forty-nine from Westmoreland, forty-three from Allegheny,
+thirty-three from Fayette, two from Bedford, five from Ohio County in
+Virginia, with spectators to about the same number.</p>
+
+<p>Parkinson's Ferry, later called Williamsport, and now Monongahela City,
+is on the left bank of the Monongahela, about half way between
+Pittsburgh and Red Stone Old Fort or Brownsville. Brackenridge pictures
+the scene with his usual local color: &ldquo;Our hall was a grove, and we
+might well be called 'the Mountain' (an allusion to the radical left of
+the French convention), for we were on a very lofty ground overlooking
+the river. We had a gallery of lying timber and stumps, and there were
+more people collected there than there was of the committee.&rdquo; In full
+view of the meeting stood a liberty pole, raised in the morning by the
+men who signed the Braddock's Field circular order, and it bore the
+significant motto, &ldquo;Liberty and no excise and no asylum for cowards.&rdquo;
+Among the delegates, or the committee, to use their own term, were
+Bradford, Marshall, Brackenridge, Findley, and Gallatin. Before the
+meeting was organized, Marshall came to Gallatin and showed him the
+resolutions which he intended to move,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> intimating at the same time that
+he wished Mr. Gallatin to act as secretary. Mr. Gallatin told him that
+he highly disapproved the resolutions, and had come to oppose both him
+and Bradford, and therefore did not wish to serve. Marshall seemed to
+waver; but soon the people met, and Edward Cook of Fayette, who had
+presided at Braddock's Field, was chosen chairman, with Gallatin for
+secretary. Bradford opened the proceedings with a summary sketch of the
+action previously taken, declared the purpose of the committee to be to
+determine on a course of action, and his own views to be the appointment
+of committees to raise money, purchase arms, enlist volunteers, or draft
+the militia: in a word, though he did not use it, to levy war.</p>
+
+<p>At this point in the proceedings the arrival of the commissioners from
+the President was announced, but the progress of the meeting was not
+interrupted. The commissioners were at a house near the meeting, but
+there were serious objections against holding a conference at this
+place.</p>
+
+<p>Marshall then moved his resolutions. The first, declaratory of the
+grievance of carrying citizens great distances for trial, was
+unanimously agreed to. The second called for a committee of public
+safety &ldquo;to call forth the resources of the western country to repel any
+hostile attempts that may be made against the rights of the citizens, or
+of the body of the people.&rdquo; Had this resolution been adopted, the people
+were definitively committed to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> overt rebellion. This brought Mr.
+Gallatin at once to his feet. He denied that any hostile attempts
+against the rights of the people were threatened, and drew an adroit
+distinction between the regular army, which had not been called out, and
+the militia, who were a part of the people themselves; and to gain time
+he moved a reference of the resolutions to a committee who should be
+instructed to wait the action of the government. In the course of his
+speech Gallatin denied the assertion that resistance to the excise law
+was legal, or that coercion by the government was necessarily hostile.
+He was neither supported by his own friends nor opposed by those of
+Bradford. He stood alone.</p>
+
+<p>But Marshall withdrew his resolution, and a committee of sixty was
+appointed, with power to summon the people. The only other objectionable
+resolution was that which pledged the people to the support of the laws,
+except the excise law and the taking of citizens out of their counties
+for trial,&mdash;an exception which Gallatin succeeded in having stricken
+out. He then urged the adoption of the resolution, without the
+exception, as necessary &ldquo;to the establishment of the laws and the
+conservation of the peace,&rdquo; and here he was supported by Brackenridge.
+The entire resolutions were finally referred to a committee of
+four,&mdash;Gallatin, Bradford, Husbands, and Brackenridge. The meeting then
+adjourned. The next morning a standing committee of sixty was chosen,
+one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> from each township. From these a committee of twelve was selected
+to confer with the government commissioners. Upon this committee were
+Cook, the chairman, Bradford, Marshall, Gallatin, Brackenridge, and
+Edgar. The meeting then adjourned.</p>
+
+<p>Upon this representative body there seems to have been no outside
+pressure. The proclamation of the President, which arrived while it was
+in session, showed the determination, while the appointment of the
+commission showed the moderation, of the government. Gallatin availed of
+each circumstance with consummate adroitness, pointing out to the
+desperate the folly of resistance, and to the moderate an issue for
+honorable retreat.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the commissioners reached Pittsburgh, where on August 20 the
+committee of conference was received by them, and an informal
+understanding arrived at, which was put in writing. The laws were to be
+enforced with as little inconvenience to the people as possible. All
+criminal suits for indictable offenses were to be dropped, but civil
+suits were to take their course. Notice was given that a definitive
+submission must be made by September 1 following. On the 22d the
+conference committee answered that they must consult with the committee
+of sixty. Thursday the 28th was appointed for a meeting at Red Stone Old
+Fort, the very spot where the original resolutions of opposition were
+passed in 1791. In the report drawn up every member of the twelve,
+except Bradford, favored submission.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The hour was critical, the deliberations were in the open air, and under
+the eyes of a threatening party of seventy riflemen accidentally present
+from Washington County across the stream. Bradford, who instinctively
+felt that he had placed himself beyond the pale of pardon, and to whom
+there was no alternative to revolution but flight, pressed an instant
+decision and rejection of the written terms of the commissioners. In the
+presence of personal danger, the conferrees only dared to move that part
+of their report which advised acceptance of the proffered terms. The
+question of submission they left untouched. An adjournment was obtained.
+The next day, to quote the words of Brackenridge, &ldquo;the committee having
+convened, Gallatin addressed the chair in a speech of some hours. It was
+a piece of perfect eloquence, and was heard with attention and without
+disturbance.&rdquo; Never was there a more striking instance of intellectual
+control over a popular assemblage. He saved the western counties of
+Pennsylvania from anarchy and civil war. He was followed by
+Brackenridge, who, warned by the example of his companion, or encouraged
+by the quiet of the assemblage, supported him with vigor. Bradford, on
+the other hand, faced the issue with directness and savage vehemence. He
+repelled the idea of submission, and insisted upon an independent
+government and a declaration of war. Edgar of Washington rejoined in
+support of the report. Gallatin now demanded a vote, but the twelve
+conferrees<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> alone supported him. He then proposed an informal vote, but
+without result. Finally a secret ballot was proposed by a member. A hat
+was passed, and when the slips of paper were taken out, there were
+thirty-four yeas and twenty-three nays. The report was declared to be
+adopted, and amid the scowls of the armed witnesses the meeting
+adjourned; not, however, before a new committee of conference had been
+appointed. On this new committee not one of the old leaders was named.
+They evidently knew the folly of further delay, or of attempting to
+secure better terms. As his final act Colonel Cook, the chairman of the
+standing committee of sixty, indorsed the resolution adopted. It
+declared it to be &ldquo;to the interest of the people of the country to
+accede to the proposals made by the commissioners on the part of the
+United States.&rdquo; This was duly forwarded, with request for a further
+conference. The commissioners consented, but declined to postpone the
+time of taking the sense of the people beyond September 11.</p>
+
+<p>William Findley said of the famous and critical debate at Red Stone: &ldquo;I
+had never heard speeches that I more ardently desired to see in print
+than those delivered on this occasion. They would not only be valuable
+on account of the oratory and information displayed in all the three,
+and especially in Gallatin's, who opened the way, but they would also
+have been the best history of the spirit and the mistakes which then
+actuated men's minds.&rdquo;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> Findley, in his allotment of the honors of the
+day, considers that &ldquo;the verbal alterations made by Gallatin saved the
+question.&rdquo; Brackenridge thought that his own seeming to coincide with
+Bradford prevented the declaration of war; and he has been credited with
+having saved the western counties from the horrors of civil war,
+Pittsburgh from destruction, and the Federal Union from imminent danger.</p>
+
+<p>Historians have agreed in according to Gallatin the honor of this field
+day. It was left to John C. Hamilton, half a century later, to charge a
+want of courage upon Gallatin,&mdash;a baseless charge.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Not Malesherbes,
+the noble advocate defending the accused monarch before the angry French
+convention, with the certainty of the guillotine as the reward of his
+generosity, is more worthy of admiration than Gallatin boldly pleading
+the cause of order within rifle range of an excited band of lawless
+frontiersmen. If, as he confessed later, in his part in the Pittsburgh
+resolutions he was guilty of &ldquo;a political sin,&rdquo; he nobly atoned for it
+under circumstances that would have tried the courage of men bred to
+danger and to arms. Sin it was, and its consequences were not yet summed
+up. For although the back of the insurrection was broken at Red Stone
+Old Fort, there was much yet to be done before submission could be
+completed.</p>
+
+<p>Bradford attempted to sign, but found that his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> course at Red Stone Old
+Fort had placed him outside the amnesty. Well might the moderate men say
+in their familiar manner of Scripture allusion, &ldquo;Dagon is fallen.&rdquo; He
+fled down the Ohio and Mississippi to Louisiana, then foreign soil. The
+commissioners waited at Pittsburgh for the signatures of adhesion on
+September 10, which was the last day allowed by the terms of amnesty.
+They required that meetings should be held on this day in the several
+townships; the presiding officers to report the result to commissioner
+Ross at Uniontown the 16th of the same month, on which day he would set
+out for Philadelphia. The time was inadequate, but there was no help.
+Gallatin hastened the submission of Fayette, and a meeting of committees
+from the several townships met at the county seat, Uniontown, on
+September 10, 1794, when a declaration drawn by Mr. Gallatin was
+unanimously adopted. A passage in this admirable paper shows the
+comparative order which prevailed in Fayette County during this period
+of trouble. It is an appeal to the people of the neighboring counties,
+who, under the influence of their passions and resentment, might blame
+those of Fayette for their moderation.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;The only reflection we mean to suggest to them is the
+disinterestedness of our conduct upon this occasion. The indictable
+offences to be buried in oblivion were committed amongst them, and
+almost every civil suit that has been instituted under the revenue
+law, in the federal court, was commenced against citizens of this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
+county. By the terms proposed, the criminal prosecutions are to be
+dropped, but no condition could be obtained for the civil suits. We
+have been instrumental in obtaining an amnesty, from which those
+alone who had a share in the riots derive a benefit, and the other
+inhabitants of the western country have gained nothing for
+themselves.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>This declaration was forwarded on September 17 to Governor Mifflin, with
+reasons for the delay, and advice that signatures were fast being
+obtained, not only in the neighboring counties, but even in Fayette,
+where this formality had not been thought necessary. It closes with a
+forcible appeal to delay the sending of troops until every conciliatory
+measure should have proved abortive.</p>
+
+<p>But the commissioners, unfortunately, were not favorably impressed with
+the reception they met with or the scenes they witnessed on their
+western mission. They had heard of Bradford's threat to establish an
+independent government west of the mountains, and they had seen a
+liberty pole raised upon which the people with the greatest difficulty
+had been dissuaded from hoisting a flag with six stripes&mdash;emblematic of
+the six counties represented in the committee. The flag was made, but
+set aside for the fifteen stripes with reluctance. This is Findley's
+recollection, but Brackenridge says that it was a flag of seven stars
+for the four western counties, Bedford, and the two counties of
+Virginia. This, he adds, was the first and only manifestation among any
+class of a desire to sepa<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>rate from the Union. But here his memory
+failed him.</p>
+
+<p>Hamilton had long been impatient. Again, as in old days, he presented
+his arguments directly to the people. Under the heading, &ldquo;Tully to the
+people of the United States,&rdquo; he printed a letter on August 26, of which
+the following is a passage:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;Your representatives in Congress, pursuant to the commission
+derived from you, and with a full knowledge of the public
+exigencies, have laid an excise. At three succeeding sessions they
+have revised that act ... and <i>you</i> have actually paid more than a
+million of dollars on account of it. But the four western counties
+of Pennsylvania undertake to rejudge and reverse your decrees.
+<i>You</i> have said, 'The Congress <i>shall have power</i> to lay
+<i>excises</i>.' They say, 'The Congress shall <i>not have</i> this power;'
+or, what is equivalent, they shall not exercise it, for a <i>power</i>
+that may not be exercised is a nullity. Your representatives have
+said, and four times repeated it, 'An excise on distilled spirits
+<i>shall</i> be collected;' they say, 'It <i>shall not</i> be collected. We
+will punish, expel, and banish the officers who shall attempt the
+collection.'&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>The peace commissioners returned to Philadelphia and made their report
+on September 24. The next day, September 25, Washington issued a
+proclamation calling out the troops. In it he again warned the
+insurgents. The militia, already armed, accoutred, and equipped, and
+awaiting marching orders, moved at once. Governor Mifflin at first<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+hesitated about his power to call out the militia, but when the
+President's requisition was made, he summoned the legislature in special
+session, and obtained from it a hearty support, with authority to accept
+volunteers and offer a bounty. Thus fortified, he made a tour through
+the lower counties of the State, and by his extraordinary popular
+eloquence soon filled up the ranks. The old soldier led his troops in
+person. Those of New Jersey were commanded by their governor, Richard
+Howell of Revolutionary fame. These formed the right wing and marched to
+rendezvous at Bedford to cross the mountains by the northern and
+Pennsylvania route. The left wing, composed of the Virginia troops,
+under the veteran Morgan, and those of Maryland, under Samuel Smith, a
+brigadier-general in the army of the Revolution, assembled at Cumberland
+to cross the mountains by Braddock's Road. The chief command was
+confided to Governor Henry Lee of Virginia. Washington accompanied the
+army as far as Bedford. Hamilton continued with it to Pittsburgh, which
+was reached in the last days of October and the first of November, after
+a wearisome march across the mountains in heavy weather. Arrived in the
+western counties, the army found no opposition.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, on October 2, the standing committee met again at Parkinson's
+Ferry, and unanimously adopted resolutions declaring the general
+submission, and explaining the reasons why signatures to the amnesty had
+not been general. Find<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>ley and Redick were appointed to take these
+resolutions to the President, and to urge him to stop the march of the
+troops. They met the left wing at Carlisle. Washington received them
+courteously, but did not consent to countermand the march. They hurried
+back for more unequivocal assurances, which they hoped to be able to
+carry to meet Washington on his way to review the right wing. On October
+14, the day of the autumn elections, general submissions were
+universally signed, and finally, on October 24, a third and last meeting
+was held at Parkinson's Ferry, at which a thousand people attended,
+when, with James Edgar, chairman, and Albert Gallatin, secretary, it was
+resolved, first, that the civil authority was fully competent to punish
+both past and future breaches of the law; secondly, that surrender
+should be made of all persons charged with offenses, in default of which
+the committee would aid in bringing them to justice; thirdly, that
+offices of inspection might be opened, and that the distillers were
+willing and ready to enter their stills.</p>
+
+<p>These resolutions were published in the &ldquo;Pittsburgh Gazette.&rdquo; Findley
+carried them to Bedford, but before he reached the army the President
+had returned to Philadelphia. The march of the army was not stopped. The
+two wings made a junction at Uniontown. Companies of horse were
+scattered through the country. New submissions were made, and the oath
+of allegiance, required by General Lee, was generally taken.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Hamilton now investigated the whole matter of the insurrection, and it
+was charged against him, and the charge is supported by Findley, with
+names of persons, that he spared no effort to secure evidence to bring
+Gallatin within the pale of an indictment. Of course he failed in this
+purpose, if indeed it were ever seriously entertained. But the belief
+that Gallatin was the arch-fiend, who instigated the Whiskey
+Insurrection, had already become a settled article in the Federalist
+creed, and for a quarter of a century, long after the Federalist party
+had become a tradition of the past, the Genevan was held up to scorn and
+hatred, as an incarnation of deviltry&mdash;an enemy of mankind.</p>
+
+<p>On the 8th of November, Hamilton, who remained with the army, wrote to
+the President that General Lee had concluded to take hold of all who are
+worth the trouble by the military arm, and then to deliver them over to
+the disposition of the judiciary. In the mean time, he adds, &ldquo;all
+possible means are using to obtain evidence, and accomplices will be
+turned against the others.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The night of November 13, 1794, was appointed for the arrests; a
+dreadful night Findley describes it to have been. The night was frosty;
+at eight o'clock the horse sallied forth, and before daylight arrested
+in their beds about two hundred men. The New Jersey horse made the
+seizures in the Mingo Creek settlement, the hot-bed of the insurrection
+and the scene of the early excesses. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> prisoners were taken to
+Pittsburgh, and thence, mounted on horses, and guarded by the
+Philadelphia Gentlemen Corps, to the capital. Their entrance into
+Cannonsburg is graphically described by Dr. Carnahan, president of
+Princeton College, in his account of the insurrection.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;The contrast between the Philadelphia horsemen and the prisoners
+was the most striking that can be imagined. The Philadelphians were
+some of the most wealthy and respectable men of that city. Their
+uniform was blue, of the finest broadcloth. Their horses were large
+and beautiful, all of a bay color, so nearly alike that it seemed
+that every two of them would make a good span of coach horses.
+Their trappings were superb. Their bridles, stirrups, and
+martingales glittered with silver. Their swords, which were drawn,
+and held elevated in the right hand, gleamed in the rays of the
+setting sun. The prisoners were also mounted on horses of all
+shapes, sizes, and colors; some large, some small, some long tails,
+some short, some fat, some lean, some every color and form that can
+be named. Some had saddles, some blankets, some bridles, some
+halters, some with stirrups, some with none. The riders also were
+various and grotesque in their appearance. Some were old, some
+young, some hale, respectable looking men; others were pale,
+meagre, and shabbily dressed. Some had great coats,&mdash;others had
+blankets on their shoulders. The countenance of some was downcast,
+melancholy, dejected; that of others, stern, indignant, manifesting
+that they thought themselves undeserving such treatment. Two
+Philadelphia horsemen rode in front and then two prisoners, and two
+horsemen and two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> prisoners, actually throughout a line extending
+perhaps half a mile.... If these men had been the ones chiefly
+guilty of the disturbance, it would have been no more than they
+deserved. But the guilty had signed the amnesty, or had left the
+county before the army approached.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>Dallas, the secretary of state, Gallatin's friend, was one of this
+troop. Gallatin saw him soon after his return. In a letter to his wife
+of December 3, Gallatin relates the experience of the trooper who had
+little stomach for the work he had to do.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;I saw Dallas yesterday. Poor fellow had a most disagreeable
+campaign of it. He says the spirits, I call it the madness, of the
+Philadelphia Gentlemen's Corps was beyond conception before the
+arrival of the President. He saw a list (handed about through the
+army by officers, nay, by a general officer) of the names of those
+persons who were to be destroyed at all events, and you may easily
+guess my own was one of the most conspicuous. Being one day at
+table with sundry officers, and having expressed his opinion that,
+if the army were going only to support the civil authority, and not
+to do any military execution, one of them (Dallas did not tell me
+his name, but I am told it was one Ross of Lancaster, aide-de-camp
+to Mifflin) half drew a dagger he wore instead of a sword, and
+swore any man who uttered such sentiments ought to be dagged. The
+President, however, on his arrival, and afterwards Hamilton, took
+uncommon pains to change the sentiments, and at last it became
+fashionable to adopt, or at least to express, sentiments similar to
+those inculcated by them.&rdquo;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<p>Randolph was, perhaps, not far out of the way in his fear of a civil war
+should blood be drawn, and in his conviction that the influence of
+Washington was the only sedative for the fevered political pulse. On
+November 17 general orders were issued for the return of the army, a
+detachment of twenty-five hundred men only remaining in the West, under
+command of General Morgan. There were no further disturbances. The army
+expenses gave a circulating medium, and the farmers, having now the
+means to pay their taxes, made no further complaints of the excise law.
+The total expense of the insurrection to the government was $800,000.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin returned with his wife from his western home early in
+November. He had been again chosen at the October elections to represent
+Fayette in the Pennsylvania Assembly. Moreover, at the same time, he was
+elected to represent the congressional district of Washington and
+Allegheny in the House of Representatives of the United States. Of four
+candidates Gallatin led the poll. Judge Brackenridge was next in order.
+No better proof is needed of the firm hold Gallatin had in the esteem
+and affection of the people. No doubt, either, that they understood his
+principles, and relied upon his sincere attachment to the country he had
+made his home.</p>
+
+<p>When he appeared to take his seat in the Assembly he found that his
+election was contested. A petition was presented from thirty-four
+persons<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> calling themselves peaceable citizens of Washington County,
+which stated that their votes had not been cast, because of the
+disturbed condition of the country, and requested the Assembly to
+declare the district to have been in a state of insurrection at the time
+of the election, and to vacate the same. Mr. Gallatin knew the person
+who procured the signatures, and also that the business originated in
+the army. It was couched in terms insulting to all the members elect
+from that district. After a protracted debate the election was declared
+void on January 9, 1795. It was during this debate that Mr. Gallatin
+made the celebrated speech called &ldquo;The speech on the western elections,&rdquo;
+in which occurs the confession already alluded to. Speaking of the
+Pittsburgh resolutions of 1792, he said:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;I might say that those resolutions did not originate at
+Pittsburgh, as they were almost a transcript of the resolutions
+adopted at Washington the preceding year; and I might even add that
+they were not introduced by me at the meeting. But I wish not to
+exculpate myself where I feel I have been to blame. The sentiments
+thus expressed were not illegal or criminal; yet I will freely
+acknowledge that they were violent, intemperate, and reprehensible.
+For, by attempting to render the office contemptible, they tended
+to diminish that respect for the execution of the laws which is
+essential to the maintenance of a free government; but whilst I
+feel regret at the remembrance, though no hesitation in this open
+confession of that <i>my only political sin</i>, let me add that the
+blame ought to fall where it is deserved.&rdquo;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<p>This was the first speech of Gallatin that appeared in print&mdash;simple,
+lucid, convincing. The result of the new Assembly election would
+naturally determine the right of the representatives of the contested
+district to their seats in Congress. Word had gone forth from the
+Treasury Department that Gallatin must not take his seat in Congress,
+and the whippers-in took heed of the desire of their chief. A line of
+instruction to Badollet, who lived at Greensburg in Washington County,
+across the river from Gallatin's residence, determined the matter.
+Gallatin warned him against the attempt that would be made to disaffect
+that district because none of the representatives whose seats had been
+vacated were residents of it. &ldquo;Fall not into the snare,&rdquo; he wrote; &ldquo;take
+up nobody from your own district; re&euml;lect unanimously the same members,
+whether they be your favorites or not. It is necessary for the sake of
+our general character.&rdquo; Here is an instance of that true political
+instinct which made of him &ldquo;the ideal party leader.&rdquo; His advice was
+followed, and all the members were re&euml;lected but one, who declined. Mr.
+Gallatin returned to his seat in the Assembly on February 14, and
+retained it until March 12, when he asked and obtained leave of absence.
+He does not appear to have taken further part in the session. The
+subjects, personal to himself, which occupied his attention during the
+summer will be touched upon elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>The pitiful business of the trial of the western<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> prisoners needs only
+brief mention. In May Gallatin was summoned before the grand jury as a
+witness on the part of the government. The inquiry was finished May 12,
+and twenty-two bills were found for treason. Against Fayette two bills
+were found; one for misdemeanor in raising the liberty pole in
+Uniontown. The petit jury was composed of twelve men from each of the
+counties of Fayette, Washington, Allegheny, and Northumberland, but none
+from Westmoreland. One man, a German from Westmoreland, who was
+concerned in a riot in Fayette, was found guilty and condemned to death.
+Mr. Gallatin, at the request of the jury, drew a petition to the
+President, who granted a pardon. Washington extended mercy to the only
+other offender who incurred the same penalty.</p>
+
+<p>To the close of this national episode, which, in its various phases of
+incident and character, is of dramatic interest, Gallatin, through good
+repute and ill repute, stood manfully by his constituents and friends.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Hamilton's <i>History of the Republic</i>, vi. 96.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>MEMBER OF CONGRESS</h3>
+
+<p>The first session of the fourth Congress began at Philadelphia on
+Monday, December 7, 1795. Washington was president, John Adams
+vice-president. No one of Washington's original constitutional advisers
+remained in his cabinet. Jefferson retired from the State Department at
+the beginning of the first session of the third Congress. Edmund
+Randolph, appointed in his place, resigned in a cloud of obloquy on
+August 19, 1795, and the portfolio was temporarily in charge of Timothy
+Pickering, secretary of war. Hamilton resigned the department of the
+Treasury on January 31, 1795, and Oliver Wolcott, Jr., succeeded him in
+that most important of the early offices of the government. General
+Henry Knox, the first secretary of war, pressed by his own private
+affairs and the interests of a large family, withdrew on December 28,
+1794, and Timothy Pickering, the postmaster-general, had been appointed
+in his stead January 2, 1795. The Navy Department was not as yet
+established (the act creating it was passed April 30, 1798), but the
+affairs which concerned this branch of the public service were under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+the direction of the secretary of war. The administration of Washington
+was drawing to a close. In the lately reconstructed cabinet, honest,
+patriotic, and thorough in administration, there was no man of shining
+mark. The Senate was still in the hands of the Federal party. The bare
+majority which rejected Gallatin in the previous Congress had increased
+to a sufficient strength for party purposes, but neither in the ranks of
+the administration nor the opposition was there in this august
+assemblage one commanding figure.</p>
+
+<p>The House was nearly equally divided. The post of speaker was warmly
+contested. Frederick A. Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania, who had presided
+over the House at the sessions of the first Congress, 1789-1791, and
+again over the third, 1793-1795, was the candidate of the Federalists,
+but was defeated by Jonathan Dayton of New Jersey, whose views in the
+last session had drifted him into sympathy with the Republican
+opposition. The House, when full, numbered one hundred and five members,
+among whom were the ablest men in the country, veterans of debate versed
+in parliamentary law and skilled in the niceties of party fence. In the
+Federal ranks, active, conscious of their power, and proud of the great
+party which gloried in Washington as their chief, were Robert Goodloe
+Harper of South Carolina, Theodore Sedgwick of Massachusetts, Roger
+Griswold and Uriah Tracy of Connecticut, who led the front and held the
+wings of debate; while in reserve, broken in health but still in the
+prime of life, the pride of his party and of the House, was Fisher Ames,
+the orator of his day, whose magic tones held friend and foe in rapt
+attention, while he mastered the reason or touched the heart. Upon these
+men the Federal party relied for the vindication of their principles and
+the maintenance of their power. Supporting them were William Vans Murray
+of Maryland, Goodrich and Hillhouse of Connecticut, William Smith of
+South Carolina, Sitgreaves of Pennsylvania, and in the ranks a
+well-trained party. Opposed to this formidable array of Federal talent
+was the Republican party, young, vigorous, and in majority, bold in
+their ideas but as yet hesitating in purpose under the controlling if
+not overruling influence of the name and popularity of Washington.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span></p><h3><i>Rob. G. Harper</i></h3>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="image-4" id="image-4"><!-- Image 4 --></a>
+<img src="images/illus-117-1.jpg" height="303" width="232"
+alt="Rob. G. Harper" /></p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="image-5" id="image-5"><!-- Image 5 --></a>
+<img src="images/illus-117-2.jpg" height="38" width="175"
+alt="Signature of Rob. G. Harper" /></p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="#ILLUS">Click for list of Illustrations</a></p>
+
+<p>Hamilton watched the shifting fortunes of his party from a distance, and
+found time in the pressure of a large legal practice to aid each branch
+of administration in turn with his advice. But though he still inspired
+its councils, he no longer directed its course. In his Monticello home
+Jefferson waited till the fruit was ripe for falling, occasionally
+impatient that his followers did not more roughly shake the tree.</p>
+
+<p>The open rupture of Jefferson with Hamilton was the first great break in
+the Federal administration; the lukewarmness of Madison, whose leanings
+were always towards Jefferson, followed.</p>
+
+<p>At the head of the Republican opposition was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> Madison. Wise in council,
+convincing in argument, an able and even adroit debater, he was an
+admirable leader, but his tactics were rather of the closet than the
+field. He was wanting in the personal vigor which, scorning defense,
+delights in bold attack upon the central position of the enemy, and
+carries opposition to the last limit of parliamentary aggression. With
+this mildness of character, though recognized as the leader of his
+party, he, as a habit, waived his control upon the floor of the House,
+and, reserving his interference for occasions when questions of
+constitutional interpretation arose, left the general direction of
+debate to William B. Giles of Virginia, a skillful tactician and a ready
+debater, keen, bold, and troubled by no scruples of modesty, respect, or
+reverence for friend or foe. Of equal vigor, but of more reserve, was
+John Nicholas of Virginia&mdash;a man of strong intellect, reliable temper,
+and with the dignity of the old school. To these were now added Albert
+Gallatin and Edward Livingston. Edward Livingston, from New York, was
+young, and as yet inexperienced in debate, but of remarkable powers. He
+was another example of that early intellectual maturity which was a
+characteristic of the time.</p>
+
+<p>When Congress met, the all-disturbing question was the foreign policy of
+the United States. The influence of the French Revolution upon American
+politics was great. The Federalists, conservative in their views, held
+the new democratic doctrines<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> in abhorrence, and used the terrible
+excesses of the French Revolution with telling force against their
+Republican adversaries. The need of a strong government was held up as
+the only alternative to anarchy. In the struggle which now united Europe
+against the French republic, the sympathies of the Federalists were with
+England. Hence they were accused of a desire to establish a monarchy in
+the United States, and were ignominiously called the British party.
+Shays's Rebellion in Massachusetts and the Whiskey Insurrection in
+Pennsylvania gave point to their arguments.</p>
+
+<p>On the other side was the large and powerful party which, throughout the
+war in the Continental Congress, under the confederation in the national
+convention which framed and in the state conventions which ratified the
+Constitution, had opposed the tendency to centralization, but had been
+defeated by the yearning of the body of the plain people for a
+government strong enough at least to secure them peace at home and
+protection abroad. This natural craving being satisfied, the old
+aversion to class distinctions returned. The dread of an aristocracy,
+which did not exist even in name, threw many of the supporters of the
+Constitution into the ranks of its opponents, who were democrats in name
+and in fact. The proclamation of the rights of man awoke this latent
+sentiment, and aroused an intense sympathy for the people of France.
+This again was strengthened by the memory, still warm, of the services
+of France in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> the cause of independence. Lafayette, who represented the
+true French republican spirit, and held a place in the affections of the
+American people second only to that of Washington, was languishing, a
+prisoner to the coalition of sovereigns, in an Austrian dungeon.</p>
+
+<p>Jefferson returned from France deeply imbued with the spirit of the
+French Revolution. His views were warmly received by his political
+friends, and the principles of the new school of politics were rapidly
+spread by an eager band of acolytes, whose ranks were recruited until
+the feeble opposition became a powerful party. Democratic societies,
+organized on the plan of the French Jacobin clubs, extended French
+influence, and no doubt were aided in a practical way by Genet, whose
+recent marriage with the daughter of George Clinton, the head of the
+Republican party in New York, was an additional link in the bond of
+alliance.</p>
+
+<p>During the second session of the third Congress Madison had led the
+opposition in a mild manner; party lines were not yet strongly defined,
+and the influence of Washington was paramount. In the interim between
+its expiration and the meeting of the fourth Congress in December, the
+country was wildly agitated by the Jay treaty. This document not
+reaching America until after the adjournment of Congress in March,
+Washington convened the Senate in extra and secret session on June 1,
+and the treaty was ratified by barely two thirds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> majority. Imprudently
+withheld for a time, it was at last made public by Senator Mason of
+Virginia, one of the ten who voted against its ratification. It
+disappointed the people, and was denounced as a weak and ignominious
+surrender of American rights. The merchants of Boston, New York,
+Philadelphia, and Charleston protested against it in public meetings. It
+was burned, and the English flag was trailed in the dust before the
+British minister's house at the capital. Jay was hung in effigy, and
+Hamilton, who ventured to defend the treaty at a public meeting, was
+stoned. To add to the popular indignation that the impressment of
+American seamen had been ignored in the instrument, came the alarming
+news that the British ministry had renewed their order to seize vessels
+carrying provisions to France, whither a large part of the American
+grain crop was destined. On the other hand, Randolph, the secretary of
+state, had compromised the dignity of his official position in his
+intercourse with Fauchet, the late French ambassador, whose
+correspondence with his government, thrown overboard from a French
+packet, had been fished up by a British man-of-war, and forwarded to
+Grenville, by whom it was returned to America. Thus petard answered
+petard, and the charge by the Republicans upon the Federalists of taking
+British gold was returned with interest, and the accusation of receiving
+bribe money was brought close home to Randolph, if not proved.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Hard names were not wanting either; Jefferson was ridiculed as a
+<i>sans-culotte</i> and red-legged Democrat. Nor was Washington spared. He
+was charged with an assumption of royal airs, with political hypocrisy,
+and even with being a public defaulter; a charge which no one dared to
+father, and which was instantly shown to be false and malicious. It was
+made by Bache in &ldquo;The Aurora,&rdquo; a contemptible sheet after the fashion of
+&ldquo;L'Ami du Peuple,&rdquo; Marat's Paris organ.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the temper of the people when the House of Representatives met
+on December 7, 1795. The speaker, Dayton, was strongly anti-British in
+feeling. He was a family connection of Burr, but there is no reason to
+suppose that he was under the personal influence of that adroit and
+unscrupulous partisan. On the 8th President Washington, according to his
+custom, addressed both houses of Congress. This day for the first time
+the gallery was thrown open to the public. When the reply of the Senate
+came up for consideration, the purpose of the Republicans was at once
+manifest. They would not consent to the approbation it expressed of the
+conduct of the administration. They would not admit that the causes of
+external discord had been extinguished &ldquo;on terms consistent with our
+national honor and safety,&rdquo; or indeed extinguished at all, and they
+would not acknowledge that the efforts of the President to establish the
+peace, freedom, and prosperity of the country had been "enlightened<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> and
+firm." Nevertheless the address was agreed to by a vote of 14 to 8.</p>
+
+<p>In the House a resolution was moved that a respectful address ought to
+be presented. The opposition immediately declared itself. Objection was
+made to an address, and in its stead the appointment of a committee to
+wait personally on the President was moved. The covert intent was
+apparent through the thin veil of expediency, but the Republicans as a
+body were unwilling to go this length in discourtesy, and did not
+support the motion. Only eighteen members voted for it. Messrs. Madison,
+Sedgwick, and Sitgreaves, the committee to report an address, brought in
+a draft on the 14th which was ordered to be printed for the use of the
+members. The next day the work of dissection was begun by an objection
+to the words &ldquo;probably unequaled spectacle of national happiness&rdquo;
+applied to the country, and the words &ldquo;undiminished confidence&rdquo; applied
+to the President. The words &ldquo;probably unequaled&rdquo; were stricken out
+without decided opposition by a vote of forty-three to thirty-nine.
+Opinions were divided on that subject even in the ranks of the
+Federalists. The cause of dissatisfaction was the Jay treaty. The
+address was recommitted without a division. The next day Madison brought
+in the address with a modification of the clause objected to. In its new
+form the &ldquo;very great share&rdquo; of Washington's zealous and faithful
+services in securing the national happiness was ac<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>knowledged. The
+address thus amended was unanimously adopted. In this encounter nothing
+was gained by the Republicans. The people would not have endured an open
+declaration of want of confidence in Washington. But the entering wedge
+of the new policy was driven. The treaty was to be assailed. It was,
+however, the pretext, not the cause of the struggle, the real object of
+which was to extend the powers of the House, and subordinate the
+executive to its will. Before beginning the main attack the Republicans
+developed their general plan in their treatment of secondary issues; of
+these the principal was a tightening of the control of the House over
+the Treasury Department.</p>
+
+<p>In this Mr. Gallatin took the lead. His first measure was the
+appointment of a standing Committee of Finance to superintend the
+general operations of this nature,&mdash;an efficient aid to the Treasury
+when there is accord between the administration and the House, an
+annoying censor when the latter is in opposition. This was the beginning
+of the Ways and Means Committee, which soon became and has since
+continued to be the most important committee of the House. To it were to
+be referred all reports from the Treasury Department, all propositions
+relating to revenue, and it was to report on the state of the public
+debt, revenue, and expenditures. The committee was appointed without
+opposition. It consisted of fourteen members, William Smith, Sedgwick,
+Madison, Baldwin, Gallatin, Bourne, Gilman, Murray,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> Buck, Gilbert,
+Isaac Smith, Blount, Patten, and Hillhouse, and represented the strength
+of both political parties. To this committee the estimates of
+appropriations for the support of the government for the coming year
+were referred. The next step was to bring to the knowledge of the House
+the precise condition of the Treasury. To this end the secretary was
+called upon to furnish comparative views of the commerce and tonnage of
+the country for every year from the formation of the department in 1789,
+with tables of the exports and imports, foreign and domestic, separately
+stated, and with a division of the nationality of the carrying vessels.
+Later, comparative views were demanded of the receipts and expenditures
+for each year; the receipts under the heads of Loans, Revenue in its
+various forms, and others in their several divisions; the expenditures,
+also, to be classified under the heads of Civil List, Foreign
+Intercourse, Military Establishment, Indian Department, Naval, etc.
+Finally a call was made for a statement of the annual appropriations and
+the applications of them by the Treasury. The object of Mr. Gallatin was
+to establish the expenses of the government in each department of
+service on a permanent footing for which annual appropriations should be
+made, and for any extraordinary expenditure to insist on a special
+appropriation for the stated object and none other. By keeping
+constantly before the House this distinction between the permanent fund
+and temporary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> exigencies, he accustomed it to take a practical business
+view of its legislative duties, and the people to understand the
+principles he endeavored to apply.</p>
+
+<p>In a debate at the beginning of the session, on a bill for establishing
+trading houses with the Indians, Mr. Gallatin showed his hand by
+declaring that he would not consent to appropriate any part of the war
+funds for the scheme; nor, in view of the need of additional permanent
+funds for the discharge of the public debt, would he vote for the bill
+at all, unless there was to be a reduction in the expense of the
+military establishment; and he would not be diverted from his purpose
+although Mr. Madison advocated the bill because of its extremely
+benevolent object. The Federal leaders saw clearly to what this doctrine
+would bring them, and met it in the beginning. The first struggle
+occurred when the appropriations for the service of 1796 were brought
+before the House. Beginning with a discussion upon the salaries of the
+officers of the mint, the debate at once passed to the principle of
+appropriations. The Federalists insisted that a discussion of the merits
+of establishments was not in order when the appropriations were under
+consideration; that the House ought not, by withholding appropriations,
+to destroy establishments formed by the whole legislature, that is, by
+the Senate and House; that the House should vote for the appropriations
+agreeably to the laws already made. This view was sanc<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>tioned by
+practice. Mr. Gallatin immediately opposed this as an alarming and
+dangerous principle. He insisted that there was a certain discretionary
+power in the House to appropriate or not to appropriate for any object
+whatever, whether that object were authorized or not. It was a power
+vested in the House for the purpose of checking the other branches of
+government whenever necessary. He claimed that this power was shown in
+the making of yearly instead of permanent appropriations for the civil
+list and military establishments, yet when the House desired to
+strengthen public credit it had rendered the appropriation for those
+objects permanent and not yearly. It was, therefore, &ldquo;contradictory to
+suppose that the House was bound to do a certain act at the same time
+that they were exercising the discretionary power of voting upon it.&rdquo;
+The debate determined nothing, but it is of interest as the first
+declaration in Congress of the supremacy of the House of
+Representatives.</p>
+
+<p>The great debate which, from the principles involved in it as well as
+the argument and oratory with which they were discussed, made this
+session of the House famous, was on the treaty with Great Britain. This
+was the first foreign treaty made since the establishment of the
+Constitution. The treaty was sent in to the House &ldquo;for the information
+of Congress,&rdquo; by the President, on March 1, with notice of its
+ratification at London in October. The next day Mr. Edward Livingston
+moved<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> that the President be requested to send in a copy of the
+instructions to the minister of the United States who negotiated the
+treaty, together with the correspondence and other documents. A few days
+later he amended his resolution by adding an exception of such of said
+papers as any existing negotiations rendered improper to disclose. The
+Senate in its ratification of the treaty suspended the operation of the
+clause regulating the trade with the West Indies, on which Great Britain
+still imposed the old colonial restriction, and recommended the
+President to open negotiations on this subject; and in fact such
+negotiations were in progress. The discussion was opened on the Federal
+side by a request to the gentlemen in favor of the call to give their
+reasons. Mr. Gallatin supported the resolution, and expressed surprise
+at any objection, considering that the exception of the mover rendered
+the resolution of itself unexceptionable. The President had not informed
+the House of the reasons upon which the treaty was based. If he did not
+think proper to give the information sought for, he would say so to
+them. A question might arise whether the House should get at those
+secrets even if the President refused the request, but that was not the
+present question. In reply to Mr. Murray, who asserted that the treaty
+was the supreme law of the land, and that there was no discretionary
+power in the House except on the question of its constitutionality, Mr.
+Gallatin said that Congress possessed the power<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> of regulating
+trade,&mdash;perhaps the treaty-making power clashed with that,&mdash;and
+concluded by observing that the House was the grand inquest of the
+nation, and that it had the right to call for papers on which to ground
+an impeachment. At present he did not contemplate an exercise of that
+right. Mr. Madison said it was now to be decided whether the general
+power of making treaties supersedes the powers of the House of
+Representatives, particularly specified in the Constitution, so as to
+give to the executive all deliberative will and leave the House only an
+executive and ministerial instrumental agency; and he proposed to amend
+the resolution so as to read, &ldquo;except so much of said papers as in his
+(the President's) judgment it may be inconsistent with the interest of
+the United States at this time to disclose.&rdquo; But his motion was defeated
+by a vote of 47 nays to 37 yeas.</p>
+
+<p>The discussion being resumed in committee of the whole, the expressions
+of opinion were free on both sides, but so moderate that one of the
+members made comment on the calmness and temper of the discussion.
+Nicholas said that, if the treaty were not the law of the land, the
+President should be impeached. But the parts of the treaty into which
+the President had not the right to enter, he could not make law by
+proclamation. Swanwick supported the call as one exercised by the House
+of Commons. On the Federal side, Harper said that the papers were not
+necessary, and, being<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> unnecessary, the demand was an improper and
+unconstitutional interference with the executive department. If he
+thought them necessary, he would change the milk and water style of the
+resolutions. In that case the House had a right to them and he had no
+idea of requesting as a favor what should be demanded as a right.
+Gallatin, he said, had declared that it was a request, but that in case
+of refusal it might be considered whether demand should not be made, and
+he charged that when, at the time the motion was made, the question had
+been asked, what use was to be made of the papers, Gallatin did not and
+could not reply. Mr. Gallatin answered that whether the House had a
+discretionary power, or whether it was bound by the instrument, there
+was no impropriety in calling for the papers. He hoped to have avoided
+the constitutional question in the motion, but as the gentlemen had come
+forward on that ground, he had no objection to rest the decision of the
+constitutional power of Congress on the fate of the present question. He
+would therefore state that the House had a right to ask for the papers.</p>
+
+<p>The constitutional question being thus squarely introduced, Mr. Gallatin
+made an elaborate speech, which, from its conciseness in statement,
+strength of argument, and wealth of citations of authority, was, to say
+the least, inferior to no other of those drawn out in this memorable
+struggle. In its course he compared the opinion of those who had opposed
+the resolution to the saying of an English<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> bishop, that the people had
+nothing to do with the law but to obey it, and likened their conduct to
+the servile obedience of a Parliament of Paris under the old order of
+things. He concluded with the hope that the dangerous doctrine, that the
+representatives of the people have not the right to consult their
+discretion when about exercising powers delegated by the Constitution,
+would receive its death-blow. Griswold replied in what by common consent
+was the strongest argument on the Federal side. The call, at first view
+simple, had, he said, become a grave matter. The gist of his objection
+to it was that the people in their Constitution had made the treaty
+power paramount to the legislative, and had deposited that power with
+the President and Senate.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Madison once more rose to the constitutional question. He said that,
+if the passages of the Constitution be taken literally, they must clash.
+The word <i>supreme</i>, as applied to treaties, meant as over the state
+Constitutions, and not over the Constitution and laws of the United
+States. He supported Mr. Gallatin's view of the congressional power as
+co&ouml;perative with the treaty power. A construction which made the treaty
+power omnipotent he thought utterly inadmissible in a constitution
+marked throughout with limitations and checks.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin again claimed the attention of the House, as the original
+question of a call for papers had resolved itself into a discussion on
+the treaty-making<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> power. In the treaty of peace of 1783 there were
+three articles which might be supposed to interfere with the legislative
+powers of the several States: 1st, that which related to the payment of
+debts; 2d, the provision for no future confiscations; 3d, the
+restitution of estates already confiscated. The first could not be
+denied. &ldquo;Those,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;might be branded with the epithet of
+disorganizers, who threatened a dissolution of the Union in case the
+measures they dictated were not obeyed; and he knew, although he did not
+ascribe it to any member of the House, that men high in office and
+reputation had industriously spread an alarm that the Union would be
+dissolved if the present motion was carried.&rdquo; He took the ground that a
+treaty is not valid, and does not bind the nation as such, till it has
+received the sanction of the House of Representatives. Mr. Harper closed
+the argument on the Federal side. On March 24 the resolution calling for
+the papers was carried by a vote of yeas 62, nays 37, absent 5, the
+speaker 1 (105). Livingston and Gallatin were appointed to present the
+request to the President.</p>
+
+<p>On March 30 the President returned answer to the effect that he
+considered it a dangerous precedent to admit this right in the House;
+that the assent of the House was not necessary to the validity of a
+treaty; and he absolutely refused compliance with the request. The
+letter of instructions to Jay would bear the closest examination,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> but
+the cabinet scorned to take shelter behind it, and it was on their
+recommendation that the President's refusal was explicit. This message,
+in spite of the opposition of the Federalists, was referred, by a vote
+of 55 yeas to 37 nays, to the committee of the whole. This reference
+involved debate. In his opposition to this motion, Mr. Harper said that
+the motives of the friends of the resolution had been avowed by the
+&ldquo;gentleman who led the business, from Pennsylvania;&rdquo; whereby it appears
+that Mr. Gallatin led the Republicans in the first debate. During this
+his first session he shared this distinction with Mr. Madison. At the
+next he became the acknowledged leader of the Republican party.</p>
+
+<p>On April 3 the debate was resumed. This second debate was led by Mr.
+Madison, who considered two points: 1st, the application for papers; 2d,
+the constitutional rights of Congress. His argument was of course calm
+and dispassionate after his usual manner. The contest ended on April 7,
+with the adoption of two resolutions: 1st, that the power of making
+treaties is exclusively with the President and Senate, and the House do
+not claim an agency in making them, or ratifying them when made; 2d,
+that when made a treaty must depend for the execution of its
+stipulations on a law or laws to be passed by Congress; and the House
+have a right to deliberate and determine the expediency or inexpediency
+of carrying treaties into effect. These resolutions were carried by a
+vote of 63 to 27.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There was now a truce of a few days. In the meanwhile the country was
+agitated to an extent which, if words mean anything, really threatened
+an attempt at dissolution of the Union, if not civil war itself. The
+objections on the part of the Republicans were to the treaty as a whole.
+Their sympathies were with France in her struggle for liberty and
+democratic institutions and against England, and their real and proper
+ground of antipathy to the instrument lay in its concession of the right
+of capture of French property in American vessels, whilst the treaty
+with France forbade her to seize British property in American vessels.
+The objections in detail had been formulated at the Boston public
+meeting the year before. The commercial cities were disturbed by the
+interference with the carrying trade; the entire coast, by the search of
+vessels and the impressment of seamen; the agricultural regions, by the
+closing of the outlet for their surplus product; the upland districts,
+by the stoppage of the export of timber. But the country was without a
+navy, was ill prepared for war, and the security of the frontier was
+involved in the restoration of the posts still held by the British.</p>
+
+<p>The political situation was uncertain if not absolutely menacing. The
+threats of disunion were by no means vague. The Pendleton Society in
+Virginia had passed secession resolutions, and a similar disposition
+appeared in other States. While the treaty was condemned in the United<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
+States, British statesmen were not of one opinion as to the advantages
+they had gained by Grenville's diplomacy. Jay's desire, expressed to
+Randolph, &ldquo;to manage so that in case of wars our people should be united
+and those of England divided,&rdquo; was not wholly disappointed. And there is
+on record the expression of Lord Sheffield, when he heard of the rupture
+in 1812, &ldquo;We have now a complete opportunity of getting rid of that most
+impolitic treaty of 1794, when Lord Grenville was so perfectly duped by
+Jay.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> Washington's ratification of the treaty went far to correct the
+hasty judgment of the people, and to reconcile them to it as a choice of
+evils. Supported by this modified tone of public opinion, the
+Federalists determined to press the necessary appropriation bills for
+carrying the treaties into effect. Besides the Jay treaty there were
+also before the House the Wayne treaty with the Indians, the Pinckney
+treaty with Spain, and the treaty with Algiers. With these three the
+House was entirely content, and the country was impatient for their
+immediate operation. Wayne's treaty satisfied the inhabitants on the
+frontier. The settlers along the Ohio, among whom was Gallatin's
+constituency, were eager to avail themselves of the privileges granted
+by that of Pinckney, which was a triumph of diplomacy; and all America,
+while ready to beard the British lion, seems to have been in terror of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
+the Dey of Algiers. Mr. Sedgwick offered a resolution providing for the
+execution of the four treaties. Mr. Gallatin insisted on and received a
+separate consideration of each. That with Great Britain was reserved
+till the rest were disposed of. It was taken up on April 14. Mr. Madison
+opened the debate. He objected to the treaty as wanting in real
+reciprocity; 2d, in insufficiency of its provisions as to the rights of
+neutrals; 3d, because of its commercial restrictions. Other Republican
+leaders followed, making strong points of the position in which the
+treaty placed the United States with regard to France, to whom it was
+bound by a treaty of commercial alliance, which was a part of the
+contract of aid in the Revolutionary War; and also of the possible
+injustice which would befall American claimants in the British courts of
+admiralty.</p>
+
+<p>The Federalists clung to their ground, defended the treaty as the best
+attainable, and held up as the alternative a war, for which the refusal
+of the Republicans to support the military establishment and build up a
+navy left the country unprepared. In justice to Jay, his significant
+words to Randolph, while doubtful of success in his negotiation, should
+be remembered: &ldquo;Let us hope for the best and prepare for the worst.&rdquo; To
+the red flag which the Federalists held up, Mr. Gallatin replied,
+accepting the consequences of war if it should come, and gave voice to
+the extreme dissatisfaction of the Virginia radicals with Jay and the
+negotiation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> He charged that the cry of war and threats of a
+dissolution of the government were designed for an impression on the
+timidity of the House. &ldquo;It was through the fear of being involved in a
+war that the negotiation with Great Britain had originated; under the
+impression of fear the treaty had been negotiated and signed; a fear of
+the same danger, that of war, had promoted its ratification; and now
+every imaginary mischief which could alarm our fears was conjured up in
+order to deprive us of that discretion which this House thought they had
+a right to exercise, and in order to force us to carry the treaty into
+effect.&rdquo; He insisted on the important principle that 'free ships make
+free goods,' and complained of its abandonment by the negotiators.</p>
+
+<p>In a reply to this attack upon Jay, whose whole life was a refutation of
+the charge of personal or moral timidity, Mr. Tracy passed the limits of
+parliamentary courtesy. &ldquo;The people,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;where he was most
+acquainted, whatever might be the character of other parts of the Union,
+were not of the stamp to cry hosannah to-day and crucify to-morrow; they
+will not dance around a whiskey pole to-day and curse their government,
+and upon hearing of a military force sneak into a swamp. No,&rdquo; said he,
+&ldquo;my immediate constituents, whom I very well know, understand their
+rights and will defend them, and if they find the government will not
+protect them, they will attempt at least to protect themselves;&rdquo; and he
+con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>cluded, &ldquo;I cannot be thankful to that gentleman for coming all the
+way from Geneva to give Americans a character for pusillanimity.&rdquo; He
+held it madness to suppose that if the treaty were defeated war could be
+avoided. Called to order, he said that he might have been too personal,
+and asked pardon of the gentleman and of the House.</p>
+
+<p>The brilliant crown of the debate was the impassioned speech of Fisher
+Ames, the impression of which upon the House and the crowded gallery is
+one of the traditions of American oratory. The scene, as it has been
+handed down to us, resembles, in all save its close, that which
+Parliament presented when Chatham made his last and dying appeal. Like
+the great earl, Ames rose pale and trembling from illness to address a
+House angry and divided. Defending himself and the Federal party against
+the charge of being in English interest, he said, &ldquo;Britain has no
+influence, and can have none. She has enough&mdash;and God forbid she ever
+should have more. France, possessed of popular enthusiasm, of party
+attachments, has had and still has <i>too much influence</i> on our
+politics,&mdash;any foreign influence is too much and ought to be destroyed.
+I detest the man and disdain the spirit that can ever bend to a mean
+subserviency to the views of any nation. It is enough to be American.
+That character comprehends our duties and ought to engross our
+attachments.&rdquo; Considering the probable influence on the Indian tribes of
+the rejection of the treaty, he said, "By rejecting the Posts we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> light
+the savage fires, we bind the victims.... I can fancy that I listen to
+the yells of savage vengeance and shrieks of torture. Already they seem
+to sigh in the west wind,&mdash;already they mingle with every echo from the
+mountains." His closing words again bring Chatham to mind. &ldquo;Yet I have
+perhaps as little personal interest in the event as any one here. There
+is, I believe, no member who will not think his chance to be a witness
+of the consequences greater than mine. If, however, the vote should pass
+to reject, and a spirit should rise, as rise it will, with the public
+disorders to make confusion worse confounded, even I, slender and almost
+broken as my hold upon life is, may outlive the government and
+Constitution of my country.&rdquo; This appeal, supported by the petitions and
+letters which poured in upon the House, left no doubt of the result. An
+adjournment was carried, but the speech was decisive. The next day,
+April 29, it was resolved to be expedient to make the necessary
+appropriations to carry the treaty into effect. The vote stood 49 ayes
+to 49 nays, and was decided in the affirmative by Muhlenberg, who was in
+the chair. But the House would not be satisfied without an expression of
+condemnation of the instrument. On April 30 it was resolved that in the
+opinion of the House the treaty was objectionable.</p>
+
+<p>While Mr. Gallatin in this debate rose to the highest rank of
+statesmanship, he showed an equal mastery of other important subjects
+which engaged<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> the attention of the House during the session. He was
+earnest for the protection of the frontier, but had no good opinion of
+the Indians. &ldquo;Twelve years had passed,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;since the peace of
+1783; ever since that time he had lived on the frontier of Pennsylvania.
+Not a year of this period had passed, whether at war or peace, that some
+murders had not been committed by the Indians, and yet not an act of
+invasion or provocation by the inhabitants.&rdquo; In the matter of
+impressment of American seamen, he urged the lodging of sufficient power
+in the executive. Men had been impressed, and he held it to be the duty
+of the House to take notice of it by war or negotiation. In the
+establishment of land offices for the sale of the western lands he
+brought to bear upon legislation his practical experience. He urged that
+the tracts for sale be divided, and distinctions be made between large
+purchasers and actual settlers&mdash;proposing that the large tracts be
+sold at the seat of government, and the small on the territory itself.
+He instanced the fact that in 1792 all the land west of the Ohio was
+disposed of at 1<i>s</i>. 6<i>d</i>. the acre, and a week afterwards was resold at
+$1.50, so that the money which should have gone into the treasury went
+to the pockets of speculators. He also suggested that the proceeds of
+the sales should be a fund to pay the public debt, and that the public
+stock should always be received at its value in payment for land; a plan
+by which the land would be brought directly to the payment<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> of the debt,
+as foreigners would gladly exchange the money obligations of the
+government for land. On the question of taxation he declared himself in
+favor of direct taxes, and held that a tax on houses and lands could be
+levied without difficulty. He would satisfy the people that it was to
+pay off the public debt, which he held to be a public curse. He
+supported the excise duty on stills under regulations which would avoid
+the watching of persons and houses and inspection by officers, and
+proposed that licenses be granted for the time applied for.</p>
+
+<p>The military establishment he opposed in every way, attacked the
+principle on which it was based, and fought every appropriation in
+detail, from the pay of a major-general to the cost of uniforms for the
+private soldiers. He was not afraid of the army, he said, but did not
+think that it was necessary for the support of the government or
+dangerous to the liberties of the people; moreover, it cost six hundred
+thousand dollars a year, which was a sum of consequence in the condition
+of the finances.</p>
+
+<p>The navy found no more favor in his eyes. He denied that fleets were
+necessary to protect commerce. He challenged its friends to show, from
+the history of any nation in Europe as from our own, that commerce and
+the navy had gone hand in hand. There was no nation except Great
+Britain, he said, whose navy had any connection with commerce. Navies
+were instruments of power more calculated to annoy the trade of other
+nations<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> than to protect that of the nations to which they belonged. The
+price England had paid for her navy was a debt of three hundred millions
+of pounds sterling. He opposed appropriations even for the three
+frigates, United States, Constitution, and Constellation,&mdash;the
+construction of which had been ordered,&mdash;the germs of that navy which
+was later to set his theory at naught, redeem the honor of the flag,
+protect our commerce, and release the country and the civilized world
+from ignominious tribute to the Mediterranean pirates, who were
+propitiated in this very session only at the cost of a million of
+dollars to the Treasury of the United States, and by the gift of a
+frigate.</p>
+
+<p>In the debate over the payment of the sum of five millions, which the
+United States Bank had demanded from the government, the greatest part
+of which had been advanced on account of appropriations, he lamented the
+necessity, but urged the liquidation. This was the occasion of another
+personal encounter. In reply to a charge of Gallatin that the
+Federalists were in favor of debt, Sedgwick alluded to Gallatin's part
+in the Whiskey Insurrection, and said that none of those gentlemen whom
+Gallatin had charged with &ldquo;an object to perpetuate and increase the
+public debt&rdquo; had been known to have combined &ldquo;in every measure which
+might obstruct the operation of law,&rdquo; nor had declared to the world
+"that the men who would accept of the offices to perform the necessary
+functions of government were lost to every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> sense of virtue;" &ldquo;that from
+them was to be withheld every comfort of life which depended on those
+duties which as men and fellow-citizens we owe to each other. If,&rdquo; he
+said, &ldquo;the gentlemen had been guilty of such nefarious practices, there
+would have been a sound foundation for the charge brought against them.&rdquo;
+Gallatin made no reply. This was the one political sin he had
+acknowledged. His silence was his expiation.</p>
+
+<p>The Treasury Department and its control, past and present, was the
+object of his unceasing criticism. In April, 1796, he said, &ldquo;The
+situation of the gentleman at the head of the department [Wolcott] was
+doubtless delicate and unpleasant; it was the more so when compared with
+that of his predecessor [Hamilton]. Both indeed had the same power to
+borrow money when necessary; but that power, which was efficient in the
+hands of the late secretary and liberally enough used by him, was become
+useless at present. He wished the present secretary to be extricated
+from his present difficulty. Nothing could be more painful than to be at
+the head of that department with an empty treasury, a revenue inadequate
+to the expenses, and no means to borrow.&rdquo; Nevertheless he feared that if
+it were declared that the payment of the debt incurred by themselves
+were to be postponed till the present generation were over, it might
+well be expected that the principle thus adopted by them would be
+cherished, that succeeding legislatures and administrations would follow
+in their steps,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> and that they were laying the foundations of that
+national curse,&mdash;a growing and perpetual debt.</p>
+
+<p>On the last day of the session W. Smith had challenged the correctness
+of Gallatin's charge that there had been an increase of the public debt
+by five millions under the present administration, and claimed that
+there were errors in Gallatin's statement of more than four and a half
+millions. Gallatin defended his figures. At this day it is impossible to
+determine the merits of this dispute.</p>
+
+<p>One incident of this session deserves mention as showing the distaste of
+Gallatin for anything like personal compliment, stimulated in this
+instance, perhaps, by his sense of Washington's dislike to himself. It
+had been the habit of the House since the commencement of the government
+to adjourn for a time on February 22, Washington's birthday, that
+members might pay their respects to the President. When the motion was
+made that the House adjourn for <i>half an hour</i>, the Republicans
+objected, and Gallatin, nothing loath to &ldquo;bell the cat,&rdquo; moved that the
+words &ldquo;half an hour&rdquo; be struck out. His amendment was lost without a
+division. The motion to adjourn was then put and lost by a vote of 50
+nays to 38 ayes. The House waited on the President at the close of the
+business of the day. On June 1 closed this long and memorable session,
+in which the assaults of the Republicans upon the administration were so
+persistent and embarrassing as to justify Wolcott's private note to
+Hamilton, April 29, 1796,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> that &ldquo;unless a radical change of opinion can
+be effected in the Southern States, the existing establishments will not
+last eighteen months. The influence of Messrs. Gallatin, Madison, and
+Jefferson must be diminished, or the public affairs will be brought to a
+stand.&rdquo; Here is found an early recognition of the political
+&ldquo;triumvirate,&rdquo; and Gallatin is the first named.</p>
+
+<p>Gallatin seems to have had some doubts as to his re&euml;lection to Congress.
+As he did not reside in the Washington and Allegheny district, his name
+was not mentioned as a candidate, and, to use his own words, he expected
+to &ldquo;be gently dropped without the parade of a resignation.&rdquo; In his
+distaste at separation from his wife, the desire to abandon public life
+grew upon him. But personal abuse of him in the newspapers exasperating
+his friends, he was taken up again in October, and he arrived on the
+scene, he says, too late to prevent it. He had no hope, however, of
+success, and was resolved to resign a seat to which he was in every way
+indifferent. &ldquo;Ambition, love of power,&rdquo; he wrote to his wife on October
+16, he had never felt, and he added, if vanity ever made one of the
+ingredients which impelled him to take an active part in public life, it
+had for many years altogether vanished away. He was nevertheless
+re&euml;lected by the district he had represented.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>The second session of the fourth Congress began on December 5, 1796. At
+the beginning of this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> session Mr. Gallatin took the reins of the
+Republican party, and held them till its close. The position of the
+Federalists had been strengthened before the country by the energy of
+Washington, who, impatient of the delays which Great Britain opposed to
+the evacuation of the posts, marched troops to the frontier and obtained
+their surrender. Adet, the new French minister, had dashed the feeling
+of attachment for France by his impudent notice to the President that
+the dissatisfaction of France would last until the executive of the
+United States should return to sentiments and measures more conformable
+to the interests and friendships of the two nations. In September
+Washington issued his Farewell Address, in which he gave the famous
+warning against foreign complications, which, approved by the country,
+has since remained its policy; but neither the prospect of his final
+withdrawal from the political and official field, nor the advice of
+Jefferson to moderate their zeal, availed to calm the bitterness of the
+ultra Republicans in the House.</p>
+
+<p>The struggle over the answer to the President's message, which Fisher
+Ames on this occasion reported, was again renewed. An effort was made to
+strike out the passages complimentary to Washington and expressing
+regret at his approaching retirement. Giles, who made the motion, went
+so far as to say that he 'wished him to retire, and that this was the
+moment for his retirement, that the government could do very well
+without him,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> and that he would enjoy more happiness in his retirement
+than he possibly could in his present situation.' For his part he did
+not consider Washington's administration either &ldquo;wise or firm,&rdquo; as the
+address said. Gallatin made a distinction between the administration and
+the legislature, and in lieu of the words, wise, firm, and patriotic
+administration, proposed to address the compliment directly to the
+wisdom, firmness, and patriotism of Washington. But Ames defended his
+report, and it was adopted by a vote of 67 to 12. Gallatin voted with
+the majority, but Livingston, Giles, and Macon held out with the small
+band of disaffected, among whom it is amusing also to find Andrew
+Jackson, who took his seat at this Congress to represent Tennessee,
+which had been admitted as a State at the last session.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<p>The indebtedness of the States to the general government, in the old
+balance sheet, on the payment of which Gallatin insisted, was a subject
+of difference between the Senate and the House. Gallatin was appointed
+chairman of the committee of conference on the part of the House. The
+reduction of the military establishment, which he wished to bring down
+to the footing of 1792, was again insisted upon. Gallatin here
+ingeniously<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> argued against the necessity for the number of men
+proposed, that it was a mere matter of opinion, and if it was a matter
+of opinion, it was not strictly necessary, because if necessary it was
+no longer a matter of opinion. Naval appropriations were also opposed,
+on the ground that a navy was prejudicial to commerce. Taxation, direct
+and indirect, and compensation to public officers were also subjects of
+debate at this session. On the subject of appropriations, general or
+special, he was uncompromising. He charged upon the Treasury Department
+that notwithstanding the distribution of the appropriations they thought
+themselves at liberty to take money from an item where there was a
+surplus and apply it to another where it was wanted. To check such
+irregularity, he secured the passage of a resolution ordering that &ldquo;the
+several sums shall be solely applied to the objects for which they are
+respectively appropriated,&rdquo; and tacked it to the appropriation bill. The
+Senate added an amendment removing the restriction, but Gallatin and
+Nicholas insisting on its retention, the House supported them by a vote
+of 52 to 36, and the Senate receded.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the apparent enthusiasm of the House in the early part
+of the session, when the tricolor of France, a present from the French
+government to the United States, was sent by Washington to Congress, to
+be deposited with the archives of the nation, French influence was on
+the wane. The common sense of the country got the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> better of its
+passion. In the reaction the Federalists regained the popular favor for
+a season.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever latent sympathy the French people may have had for America as
+the nation which set the example of resistance to arbitrary rule, the
+French government certainly was moved by no enthusiasm for abstract
+rights. Its only object was to check the power of their ancient enemy,
+and deprive it of its empire beyond the seas. Nevertheless, France did
+contribute materially to American success. The American government and
+people acknowledged the value of her assistance, and, in spite of the
+prejudices of race, there was a strong bond of sympathy between the two
+nations; and when, in her turn, France, in 1789, threw off the feudal
+yoke, she expected and she received the sympathy of America. Beyond this
+the government and the people of the United States could not and would
+not go. The position of France in the winter of 1796-97 was peculiar.
+She was at war with the two most formidable powers of Europe,&mdash;Austria
+and England, the one the mistress of Central Europe, the other supreme
+ruler of the seas. The United States was the only maritime power which
+could be opposed to Great Britain. The French government determined to
+secure American aid by persuasion, if possible, otherwise by threat. The
+Directory indiscreetly appealed from the American government to the
+American people, forgetting that in representative governments these are
+one. Nor was the precedent cited<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> in defense of this unusual
+proceeding&mdash;namely, the appeal of the American colonists to the people
+of England, Ireland, and Canada to take part in the struggle against the
+British government&mdash;pertinent; for that was an appeal to sufferers under
+a common yoke.</p>
+
+<p>The enthusiasm awakened in France by the dramatic reception of the
+American flag, presented by Monroe to the French Convention, was
+somewhat dampened by the cooler manner with which Congress received the
+tricolor, and was entirely dashed by the moderation of the reply of the
+House to Washington's message. The consent of the House to the
+appropriations to carry out the Jay Treaty decided the French Directory
+to suspend diplomatic relations with the United States. The marvelous
+successes of Bonaparte in Italy over the Austrian army encouraged Barras
+to bolder measures. The Directory not only refused to receive Charles C.
+Pinckney, the new American minister, but gave him formal notice to
+retire from French territory, and even threatened him with subjection to
+police jurisdiction. In view of this alarming situation, President Adams
+convened Congress.</p>
+
+<p>The first session of the fifth Congress began at Philadelphia on Monday,
+May 15, 1797. Jonathan Dayton was re&euml;lected speaker of the House. Some
+new men now appeared on the field of national debate: Samuel Sewall and
+Harrison Gray Otis from Massachusetts, James A. Bayard from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> Delaware,
+and John Rutledge, Jr., from South Carolina. Madison and Fisher Ames did
+not return, and their loss was serious to their respective parties.
+Madison was incontestably the finest reasoning power, and Ames, as an
+orator, had no equal in our history until Webster appeared to dwarf all
+other fame beside his matchless eloquence. Parties were nicely balanced,
+the nominal majority being on the Federal side. Harper and Griswold
+retained the lead of the administration party. Giles still led the
+Republican opposition, but Gallatin was its main stay, always ready,
+always informed, and already known to be in the confidence of Jefferson,
+its moving spirit. The President's message was, as usual, the touchstone
+of party. The debate upon it unmasked opinions. It was to all intents a
+war message, since it asked provision for war. The action of France left
+no alternative. The Republicans recognized this as well as the
+Federalists. They must either respond heartily to the appeal of the
+executive to maintain the national honor, or come under the charge they
+had brought against the Federalists of sympathy with an enemy. At first
+they sought a middle ground. Admitting that the rejection of our
+minister and the manner of it, if followed by a refusal of all
+negotiation on the subject of mutual complaints, would put an end to
+every friendly relation between the two countries, they still hoped that
+it was only a suspension of diplomatic intercourse. Hence, in response
+to the assurance in the message<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> that an attempt at negotiation would
+first be made, Nicholas moved an amendment in this vein. The Federalists
+opposed all interference with the executive, but the Republicans took
+advantage of the debate to clear themselves of any taint of unpatriotic
+motives in their semi-opposition. The Federalists, repudiating the
+charge of British influence, held up Genet to condemnation, as making an
+appeal to the people, Fauchet as fomenting an insurrection, and Adet as
+insulting the government. The Republicans retorted upon them Grenville's
+proposition to Mr. Pinckney, to support the American government against
+the dangerous Jacobin factions which sought to overturn it. Gallatin
+deprecated bringing the conduct of foreign relations into debate, and
+hoped that the majority would resist the rashness which would drive the
+country into war; he claimed that a disposition should be shown to put
+France on an equal footing with other nations. He would offer an
+ultimatum to France. Harper closed the debate in a powerful and
+brilliant speech, opposing the amendment because he was for peace, and
+because peace could only be maintained by showing France that we were
+preparing for war. So the rival leaders based their opposite action on a
+common ground. Dayton, the speaker, now embodied Gallatin's idea in
+another form, and introduced a paragraph to the effect that "the House
+receive with the utmost satisfaction the information of the President
+that a fresh attempt at negotiation will be instituted,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> and cherish the
+hope that a mutual spirit of conciliation and a disposition on the part
+of the United States to place France on grounds as favorable as other
+countries will produce an accommodation compatible with the engagements,
+rights, and honor of our nation.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Kittera, who was one of the committee on the address, then moved to add
+after &ldquo;mutual spirit of conciliation&rdquo; the clause, &ldquo;to compensate for any
+injury done to our neutral rights,&rdquo; etc. This both Harper and Gallatin
+opposed. Gallatin objected to being forced to this choice. To vote in
+its favor was a threat, if compensation were refused; to vote against it
+was an abandonment of the claim. But he should oppose it, if forced to a
+choice. The Federal leaders insisted; the previous question was ordered,
+51 to 48. Here Mr. Gallatin showed himself the leader of his party. He
+stated that, the majority having determined the question, it was now a
+choice of evils, and he should vote for the amendment, and it was
+adopted, 78 ayes to 21 nays. Among the nays were Harper, the Federalist
+leader, Giles, the nominal chief of the Republicans, and Nicholas, high
+in rank in that party. But the last word was not yet said. Edward
+Livingston, who day by day asserted himself more positively, denied that
+the conduct of the executive had been &ldquo;just and impartial to foreign
+nations,&rdquo; and moved to strike out the statement; Gallatin was more
+moderate. Though he did not believe that in every instance the
+government had been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> just and impartial, yet, generally speaking, it had
+been so. He did not approve the British treaty, though he attributed no
+bad motives to its makers; but he did not think that the laws respecting
+the subordinate departments of the executive and judiciary had been
+fairly executed. He therefore would not consent to the sentence in the
+answer to the address, that the House did not hesitate to declare that
+&ldquo;they would give their most cordial support to principles so
+deliberately and uprightly established.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>What, he asked, were these principles? Otis denounced this as an artful
+attempt to cast a censure, not only on the executive, but on all the
+departments of government, and Allen of Connecticut declared &ldquo;that there
+was American blood enough in the House to approve this clause and
+American accent enough to pronounce it.&rdquo; The rough prejudice of the
+Saxon against the Latin race showed itself in this language, and
+expressed the antagonism which Mr. Gallatin found to increase with his
+political progress. Both the resolution and the amendment were defeated,
+53 nays to 45 yeas. But when the final vote came upon the address, Mr.
+Gallatin, with that practical sense which made him the sheet anchor of
+his party in boisterous weather, voted with the Federalists and carried
+the moderate Republicans with him. The vote was 62 to 36. Among the
+irreconcilables the name of Edward Livingston is recorded.</p>
+
+<p>The answer of the President was a model of good<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> sense. &ldquo;No event can
+afford me so much cordial satisfaction as to conduct a negotiation with
+the French Republic to a removal of prejudices, a correction of errors,
+a dissipation of umbrages, an accommodation of all differences, and a
+restoration of harmony and affection to the mutual satisfaction of both
+nations.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>This was the leading debate of the session. The situation was too grave
+for trifling. On June 5, two days after the President's reply,
+resolutions were introduced to put the country in a state of defense.
+Gallatin struggled hard to keep down the appropriations, and opposed the
+employment of the three frigates, which as yet had not been equipped or
+manned. If they got to sea, the President would have no option except to
+enforce the disputed articles of the French treaty. Gallatin laid down
+also the law of search in accordance with the law of nations, and
+pointed out that resistance to search or capture by merchantmen would
+not only lead to war, but was war. In the remaining acts of the session
+he was in favor of the defense of ports and harbors, with no preference
+as to fortification on government territory; in favor of a prohibition
+of the export of arms; against raising an additional corps of artillery;
+against expatriation of persons who took service under foreign
+governments. He opposed the duty on salt as unequal and unnecessary, and
+sought to have the loan, which became necessary, cut down to the exact
+sum of the deficiency in the appropriations; and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> finally, on the
+impeachment of William Blount, Senator of the United States, charged
+with having conspired with the British government to attack the
+Spaniards of St. Augustine, he pointed out the true method of procedure
+in the preparation of the bill of impeachment and the arraignment of the
+offender.</p>
+
+<p>The House adjourned on July 10. Jefferson complained of the weakness and
+wavering of this Congress, the majority of which shifted with the breeze
+of &ldquo;panic or prowess.&rdquo; This was, however, a very narrow view; for at
+this session the House fairly represented the prevailing sentiment of
+the country, which was friendly to France as a nation, but indignant
+with the insolence of her rulers. Gallatin, in the middle of the
+session, wrote to his wife that the Republicans &ldquo;were beating and beaten
+by turns.&rdquo; He supposed that her father, Commodore Nicholson, 'thought
+him too moderate and about to trim,' and then declared, 'Moderation and
+firmness hath ever been, and ever will be, my motto.' Gallatin tells a
+story of his colleague from Pennsylvania, the old Anti-Federalist, Blair
+McClanachan, which shows the warmth of party feeling. They were both
+dining with President Adams, who entertained the members of Congress in
+turn. &ldquo;McClanachan told the President that, by God, he would rather see
+the world annihilated than this country united with Great Britain; that
+there would not remain a single king in Europe within six months, etc.,
+all in the loudest and most decisive tone.&rdquo;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Jefferson, who, as vice-president, presided over the debates in the
+Senate, had no cause to complain of any hesitation in that body, in
+which the Federalists had regained a clear working majority, giving him
+no chance of a deciding vote.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>The second session of the fifth Congress began on November 13, 1797. The
+words of the President's address, &ldquo;We are met together at a most
+interesting period, the situation of the powers of Europe is singular
+and portentous,&rdquo; was not an idle phrase. The star of Bonaparte already
+dominated the political firmament. Europe lay prostrate at the feet of
+the armies of the Directory. England, who was supposed to be the next
+object of attack, was staggering under the load of debt; and the sailors
+of her channel fleet had risen in mutiny. Even the Federalists, the
+aristocrats as Mr. Gallatin delighted to call them, believed that she
+was gone beyond recovery. But the admirers of France were no better
+satisfied with the threatening attitude of the Directory towards
+America, and eagerly waited news of the reception given to the envoys
+extraordinary, Gerry, Pinckney, and Marshall, whom Adams with the
+consent of the Senate dispatched to Paris in the summer. Even Jefferson
+lost his taste for a French alliance, and almost wished there were &ldquo;an
+ocean of fire between the new and the old world.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The tone of the President's address was considered wise on all sides,
+and it was agreed that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> answer should be general and not a subject
+of contention. One of the members asked to be excused from going with
+the House to the President, but Gallatin showed that, as there was no
+power to compel attendance, no formal excuse was necessary. When the
+motion was put as to whether they should go in a body as usual to
+present their answer, Mr. Gallatin voted in the negative. He
+nevertheless accompanied the members, who were received pleasantly by
+President Adams and &ldquo;treated to cake and wine.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Harper was made the chairman of the Ways and Means Committee. Though of
+high talents and a fine speaker, Gallatin found him a &ldquo;great bungler&rdquo; in
+the business of the House, a large share of which fell upon his own
+shoulders as well as the direction of the Republicans, of whom,
+notwithstanding the jealousy of Giles, he now was the acknowledged
+leader. As a member for Pennsylvania, Mr. Gallatin presented a memorial
+from the Quakers with regard to the arrest of fugitive slaves on her
+soil; the law of Pennsylvania declaring all men to be free who set foot
+in that State except only servants of members of Congress. There was
+already an opposition to hearing any petition with regard to slaves, but
+Gallatin insisted on the memorial taking the usual course of reference
+to a committee. He directed the House also in the correct path in its
+legislation as to foreign coins. It was proposed to take from them the
+quality of legal tender; but he showed that it was policy not to
+discriminate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> against such coins until the mint could supply a
+sufficiency for the use of the country. In this argument he estimated
+the entire amount of specie in the United States at eight millions of
+dollars. At this early period in his political career he was acquiring
+that precise knowledge of the facts of American finance which later
+served to establish the principles upon which it is based.</p>
+
+<p>This session was noteworthy by reason of the first personal encounter on
+the floor of the House. It was between two Northern members, Lyon of
+Vermont and Griswold of Connecticut. Gallatin stood by Lyon, who was of
+his party, and showed that the House could not expel him, since it was
+not at the time in organized session. As the Federalists would not
+consent to censure Griswold, both offenders escaped even a formal
+reproof. The general bitterness of feeling which marked the summer
+session was greatly modified in the expectant state of foreign politics;
+but the occasion for display of political divergence was not long
+delayed.</p>
+
+<p>On January 18, 1798, Mr. Harper, who led the business of the House,
+moved the appropriation for foreign intercourse. This was seized upon by
+the opposition to advance still further their line of attack by a
+limitation of the constitutional prerogative of the President. In
+addition to the usual salaries of the envoys to Great Britain and
+France, appropriations were asked for the posts at Madrid, Lisbon, and
+Berlin, which last Mr. Adams had designated as a first-class mission.
+The discussion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> on the powers of the President, and the extent to which
+they might be controlled by paring down the appropriations, lifted the
+debate from the narrow ground of economy in administration to the
+higher plane of constitutional powers. Nicholas opened on the
+Republican side by announcing that it was seasonable to bring back the
+establishment of the diplomatic corps to the footing it had been on
+until the year 1796. In all governments like our own he declared that
+there was a tendency to a union and consolidation of all its parts into
+the executive, and the limitation and annexion of the parts with each
+other as settled by the Constitution would be destroyed by this
+influence unless there were a constant attention on the part of the
+legislature to resist it. The appointment of a minister plenipotentiary
+to Prussia, with which we had little or no commercial intercourse,
+offered an opportunity to determine this limitation. Harper said that
+this was a renewal of the old charge that foreign intercourse was
+unnecessary, and the old suggestion that our commerce ought to be given
+up or left to shift for itself. Mr. Gallatin laid down extreme theories
+which have never yet found practical application. He took the question
+at once from party or personal ground by admitting that the government
+was essentially pure, its patronage not extensive, or its effect upon
+the legislative or any other branch of the government as yet material.
+The Constitution had placed the patronage in the executive. There he
+thought it was wisely placed. The leg<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>islature would be more corrupt
+than the executive were it placed with them. While not willing at once
+to give up political foreign intercourse, he thought that it should by
+degrees be altogether declined. To it he ascribed the critical situation
+of the country. Commercial intercourse could be protected by the
+consular system. He then argued that the power to provide for expenses
+was the check intended by the Constitution. To this Griswold answered
+that this doctrine of checks contained more mischief than Pandora's box;
+Bayard, that the checks were all directed to the executive, and that
+they would check and counter-check until they <i>stopped the wheels of
+government</i>.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> When the President was manacled and at the mercy of the
+House they would be satisfied. He held the executive to be the weakest
+branch of the government, because its powers are defined; but the limits
+of the House are undefined.</p>
+
+<p>As the debate advanced, Nicholas declared that the purpose of the
+Republicans was to define the executive power and to put an end to its
+extension through their power over appropriations. Later he would bring
+in a motion to do away with all foreign intercourse. Goodrich answered
+that the office of foreign minister was created by the Constitution
+itself, and the power of appointment was placed in the President. The
+House might speculate upon the propriety of doing away with all
+in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>tercourse with foreign powers, but could not decide on it, for
+political intercourse did not depend on the sending of ministers abroad.
+Foreign ministers would come here and the Constitution required their
+reception. The idea that we should have no foreign intercourse was taken
+from Washington's Farewell Address, but his words applied only to
+alliances offensive and defensive. If ministers were abandoned, envoys
+extraordinary must be sent, a much more dangerous practice; the only
+choice was between ministers and spies. In conclusion he accused the
+Republicans of making one continuous attack upon the administration, and
+charged that the opposition to the appropriation bill was not a single
+measure, but connected with others, and intended to clog the wheels of
+government.</p>
+
+<p>The purpose of the Republicans being thus declared by Nicholas and
+squarely met by the friends of the administration, Mr. Gallatin, March
+1, 1798, summed up the opposition arguments in an elaborate speech three
+hours and a quarter in length. He denied the novel doctrine that each
+department had checks within itself, but none upon others; he claimed
+that the principle of checks is admitted in all mixed governments.
+Commercial intercourse, he said, is regulated by the law of nations, by
+the municipal law of respective countries and by treaties of commerce,
+the application of which is the province of consuls. What advantages, he
+asked, had our commercial<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> treaties given us, either that with France or
+that with England? He excepted that part of the treaty with Great
+Britain which arranged our difference with that power, as foreign to the
+discussion. He claimed that the restriction which we had laid upon
+ourselves by our commercial treaties had been attended with political
+consequences fatal to our tranquillity. Washington had advised a
+separation of our political from our commercial relations. The message
+of President Adams intimated a different policy and alluded to the
+balance of power in Europe as not to be forgotten or neglected.
+Interesting as that balance may be to Europe, how does it concern us? We
+shall never throw our weight into the scale. Passing from this to the
+danger of the absorption of powers by the executive, he cited the
+examples of the C&oacute;rtes of Spain, the &Eacute;tats G&eacute;n&eacute;raux of France, the Diets
+of Denmark. In all these countries the executive is in possession of
+legislative, of absolute powers. The fate of the European republics was
+similar. Venice, Switzerland, and Holland had shown the legislative
+powers merging into the executive. The object of the Constitution of the
+United States is to divide and distribute the powers of government. With
+uncontrolled command over the purse of the people the executive tends to
+prodigality, to taxes, and to wars. He closed with a hope that a fixed
+determination to prevent the increase of the national expenditure, and
+to detach the country from any connection with European poli<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>tics, would
+tend to reconcile parties, promote the happiness of America, and
+conciliate the affection of every part of the Union. No such admirable
+exposition of the true American doctrine of non-interference with
+European politics had at that time been heard in Congress.</p>
+
+<p>In reply, Harper insisted on the admission that the purpose of the
+amendment of Nicholas was to restrain the President; that it was a
+question of power, not of money. Mr. Gallatin admitted the right of
+appointment, but denied that the House was bound to appropriate. Harper
+rejoined that the offices did not originate with the President but with
+the Constitution, and that they could not be destroyed by the action of
+the House, and, leaving the general ground of debate, made a brilliant
+attack upon the Republicans as revolutionists, whom he divided into
+three classes: the philosophers, the Jacobins, and the <i>sans-culottes</i>.
+The philosophers are most to be dreaded. &ldquo;They declaim with warmth on
+the miseries of mankind, the abuses of government, and the vices of
+rulers; all which they engage to remove, providing their theories should
+once be adopted. They talk of the perfectibility of man and of the
+dignity of his nature; and, entirely forgetting what he is, declaim
+perpetually about what he should be.&rdquo; Of Jacobins there are plenty. They
+profit by the labors of others; tyrants in power, demagogues when not.
+Fortunately for America there are few or no <i>sans-culottes</i> among her
+inhabitants.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> Jefferson, he said, returned from France a missionary to
+convert Americans to the new faith, and he charged that the system of
+French alliance and war with Great Britain by the United States was a
+part of the scheme of the French revolutionists, and was imported into
+this country. Gallatin and his friends he regarded in the light of an
+enemy who has commenced a siege against the fortress of the
+Constitution.</p>
+
+<p>The restricting amendment was lost, and the bill passed by a vote of 52
+yeas to 43 nays. Nor is it easy to see how the theory of Mr. Gallatin
+with regard to diplomatic relations could have been applied successfully
+with the existing channels of intercourse. Now that the ocean cable
+brings governments into direct relation with each other, there is a
+tendency to restrict the authority of ambassadors, for whom there is no
+longer need, and the entire system will no doubt soon disappear. Mr.
+Gallatin's speech was the delight of his party and his friends. He was
+called upon to write it out, and two thousand copies of it were
+circulated as the best exposition of Republican doctrine.</p>
+
+<p>Early in February the President informed Congress of certain captures
+and outrages committed by a French privateer within the limits of the
+United States, including the burning of an English merchantman in the
+harbor of Charleston. On March 19, in a further special message, he
+communicated dispatches from the American envoys in France, and also
+informed Congress that he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> should withdraw his order forbidding merchant
+vessels to sail in an armed condition. A collision might, therefore,
+occur at any moment.</p>
+
+<p>On March 27, 1798, a resolution was introduced that it is not now
+expedient for the United States to resort to war against the French
+Republic; a second, to restrict the arming of merchant vessels; and a
+third, to provide for the protection of the seacoast and the internal
+defense of the country. Speaking to the first resolution, Mr. Gallatin
+said that the United States had arrived at a crisis at which a stand
+must be made, when the House must say whether it will resort to war or
+preserve peace. If to war, the expense and its evils must be met; if
+peace continue, then the country must submit: in either case American
+vessels would be taken. It was a mere matter of calculation which course
+would best serve the interest and happiness of the country. If he could
+separate defensive from offensive war, he should be in favor of it; but
+he could not make the distinction, and therefore he should be in favor
+of measures of peace. The act of the President was a war measure.
+Members of the House so designated it in letters to their constituents.</p>
+
+<p>On April 2 the President was requested to communicate the instructions
+and dispatches from the envoys extraordinary, mention of which he had
+made in his message of March 19. Gallatin supported the call. He said
+that the President was not afraid of communicating information, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> he
+had shown in the preceding session, and that to withhold it would
+endanger the safety of our commerce, or prevent the happy issue of
+negotiation. On April 3 Mr. Gallatin presented a petition against
+hazarding the neutrality and peace of the nation by authorizing private
+citizens to arm and equip vessels. This was signed by forty members of
+the Pennsylvania legislature. Protests of a similar character were
+presented from other parts of the country. On the same day the President
+sent in the famous X Y Z dispatches, in confidence. These letters
+represented the names of Hottinguer, Bellamy, and Hauteval, the agents
+of Talleyrand, the foreign minister of the First Consul, which were
+withheld by the President. The mysterious negotiations contained a
+distinct demand by Talleyrand of a douceur of 1,200,000 livres to the
+French officials as a condition of peace. The effect was immediately to
+strengthen the administration, Dayton, the speaker, passing to the ranks
+of the Federalists.</p>
+
+<p>On the 18th the Senate sent down a bill authorizing the President to
+procure sixteen armed vessels to act as convoys. Gallatin still held
+firm. He admitted that from the beginning of the European contest the
+belligerent powers had disregarded the law of nations and the
+stipulations of treaties, but he still opposed the granting of armed
+convoys, which would lead to a collision. Let us not, he said, act on
+speculative grounds; if our present situation is better than war, let us
+keep it. Better<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> even, he said, suffer the French to go on with their
+depredations than to take any step which may lead to war.</p>
+
+<p>Allen of Connecticut read a passage from the dispatches which envenomed
+the debate. By it one of the French agents appears to have warned the
+American envoys that they were mistaken in supposing that an exposition
+of the unreasonable demands of France would unite the people of the
+United States. He said, &ldquo;You should know that the <i>diplomatic skill</i> of
+France and the <i>means</i> she possesses in your country are sufficient to
+enable her, with the <i>French party</i> in America, to throw the blame which
+will attend the rupture of the negotiations on the <i>Federalists</i>, as you
+term yourselves, but on the <i>British party</i>, as France terms you, and
+you may assure yourselves this will be done.&rdquo; Allen then charged upon
+Gallatin that his language was that of a foreign agent. Gallatin replied
+that the representatives of the French Republic in this country had
+shown themselves to be the worst diplomatists that had ever been sent to
+it, and he asked why the gentlemen who did not come forward with a
+declaration of war (though they were willing to go to war without the
+declaration) charge their adversaries with meaning to submit to France.
+France might declare war or give an order to seize American vessels, but
+as long as she did not, some hope remained that the state of peace might
+not be broken; and he said in conclusion "that, notwithstanding all the
+vio<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>lent charges and personal abuse which had been made against him, it
+would produce no difference in his manner of acting, neither prevent him
+from speaking against every measure which he thought injurious to the
+public interest, nor, on the other hand, inflame his mind so as to
+induce him to oppose measures which he might heretofore have thought
+proper.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The war feeling ran high in the country; &ldquo;Millions for defense, but not
+one cent for tribute,&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> was the popular cry. On May 28 Mr. Harper
+introduced a bill to suspend commercial intercourse with France.
+Gallatin thought this a doubtful measure. Its avowed purpose was to
+distress France in the West Indies, but he said that in six months that
+entire trade would be by neutral vessels. In the discussion on the bill
+to regulate the arming of merchant vessels, he showed that it was the
+practice of neutral European nations to allow such vessels to arm, but
+not to regulate their conduct. Bonds are required in cases of letter of
+marque, and the merchant who arms is bound not to break the laws of
+nations or the agreements of treaties. Restriction was therefore
+unnecessary. Government should not interfere. Commercial intercourse
+with France was suspended June 13.</p>
+
+<p>In the pride of their new triumph and the intensity of their personal
+feeling the Federalists overleaped their mark, and began a series of
+measures which ultimately cost them the possession of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> government
+and their political existence. The first of these was the Sedition Bill,
+which Jefferson believed to be aimed at Gallatin in person. Mr. Gallatin
+met it at its inception with a statement of the constitutional
+objections, viz., 1st, that there was no power to make such a law, and
+2d, the special provision in the Constitution that the writ of <i>habeas
+corpus</i> shall not be suspended except in cases of rebellion and
+invasion. There was neither. The second, the Alien Bill, gave the
+President power to expel from the country all aliens. Over this measure
+Gallatin and Harper had hot words. Gallatin charged upon Harper not only
+a misrepresentation of the arguments of his opponents, but an
+arraignment of the motives of others, while claiming all purity for his
+own. Harper answered in words which show that Gallatin, for once, had
+met warmth with warmth, and anger with anger. When, Harper said, a
+gentleman, who is usually so cool, all at once assumes such a tone of
+passion as to forget all decorum of language, it would seem as if the
+observation had been properly applied. On the vote to strike out the
+obnoxious sections, the Federalists defeated their antagonists, and on
+June 21 the bill itself was passed with all its odious features by 46 to
+40.</p>
+
+<p>On June 21 President Adams sent in a message with letters from Gerry,
+who had remained at Paris after the return of Marshall and Pinckney, on
+the subject of a loan. They contained an intimation from Talleyrand that
+he was ready to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> resume negotiations. In this message Adams said, &ldquo;I
+will never send another minister to France without assurances that he
+will be received, respected, and honored as the representative of a
+great, free, powerful, and independent nation.&rdquo; On the 25th an act was
+passed authorizing the commanders of merchant vessels to defend
+themselves against search and seizure under regulations by the
+President. On June 30 a further act authorized the purchase and
+equipment of twelve vessels as an addition to the naval armament. To all
+intents and purposes a state of war between the two countries already
+existed.</p>
+
+<p>The 4th of July (1798) was celebrated with unusual enthusiasm all over
+the United States, and the black cockade was generally worn. This was
+the distinctive badge of the Federalists, and a response to the tricolor
+which Adet had recommended all French citizens to wear in 1794.</p>
+
+<p>On July 5 a resolution was moved to appoint a committee to consider the
+expediency of declaring, by legislative act, the state of relations
+between the United States and the French Republic. Mr. Gallatin asked if
+a declaration of war could not be moved as an amendment, but the
+speaker, Mr. Dayton, made no reply. Mr. Gallatin objected that Congress
+could not declare a state of facts by a legislative act. But this view,
+if tenable then, has long since been abandoned. In witness of which it
+is only necessary to name the celebrated resolution of the Congress of
+1865 with regard to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> the recognition of a monarchy in Mexico. July 6 the
+House went into committee of the whole on the state of the Union to
+consider a bill sent down by the Senate abrogating the treaty with
+France. The bill was passed on the 16th by a vote of 47 ayes to 37 nays,
+Gallatin voting in the negative. The House adjourned the same day.</p>
+
+<p>While thus engaged in debates which called into exercise his varied
+information and displayed not only the extent of his learning but his
+remarkable powers of reasoning and statement, Mr. Gallatin never lost
+sight of reform in the administration of the finances of the government.
+To the success of his efforts to hold the Treasury Department to a
+strict conformity with his theory of administration, Mr. Wolcott, the
+secretary, gave ample if unwilling testimony. To Hamilton he wrote on
+April 5, 1798, &ldquo;The management of the Treasury becomes more and more
+difficult. The legislature will not pass laws in gross; their
+appropriations are minute. Gallatin, to whom they yield, is evidently
+intending to break down this department by charging it with an
+impracticable detail.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>During these warm discussions Gallatin rarely lost his self-control.
+Writing to his old friend Lesdernier at this period, he said, &ldquo;You may
+remember I am blessed with a very even temper; it has not been altered
+by time or politics.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>The third session of the fifth Congress opened on December 3, 1798. On
+the 8th, when the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> President was expected, Lieutenant-General Washington
+and Generals Pinckney and Hamilton entered the hall and took their
+places on the right of the speaker's chair. They had been recently
+appointed to command the army of defense.</p>
+
+<p>The President's speech announced no change in the situation. &ldquo;Nothing,&rdquo;
+he said, &ldquo;is discoverable in the conduct of France which ought to change
+or relax our measures for defense. On the contrary, to extend and
+invigorate them is our true policy. An efficient preparation for war can
+alone insure peace. It must be left to France, if she is indeed desirous
+of accommodation, to take the requisite steps. The United States will
+steadily observe the maxims by which they have hitherto been governed.&rdquo;
+The reply to this patriotic sentiment was unanimously agreed to, and was
+most grateful to Adams, who thanked the House for it as &ldquo;consonant to
+the characters of representatives of a great and free people.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>On December 27 a peculiar resolution was introduced to punish the
+usurpation of the executive authority of the government of the United
+States in carrying on correspondence with the government of any foreign
+prince or state. Gallatin thought this resolution covered too much
+ground. The criminality of such acts did not lie in their being
+usurpations, but in the nature of the crime committed. There was no
+authority in the Constitution for a grant of such a power to the
+President. To afford aid and comfort to the enemy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> was treason, but
+there was no war, and therefore no enemy. He claimed the right to
+himself and others to do all in his power to secure a peace, even by
+correspondence abroad, and he would not admit that the ground taken by
+the friends of the measure was a proper foundation for a general law. A
+committee was, however, appointed, in spite of this remonstrance, to
+consider the propriety of including in the general act all persons who
+should commence or carry on a correspondence, by a vote of 65 to 23. A
+bill was reported on January 9, when Gallatin endeavored to attach a
+proviso that the law should not operate upon persons seeking justice or
+redress from foreign governments; but his motion was defeated by a vote
+of 48 to 37. Later, however, a resolution of Mr. Parker, that nothing in
+the act should be construed to abridge the rights of any citizen to
+apply for such redress, was adopted by a vote of 69 yeas to 27 nays. On
+this vote Harper voted yea. Griswold, Otis, Bayard, and Goodrich were
+found among the nays. Gallatin succeeded in carrying an amendment
+defining the bill, after which it was passed by a vote of 58 to 36.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the close of January, 1799, a bill was brought in authorizing
+the President to discontinue the restraints of the act suspending
+intercourse with the French West India Islands, whenever any persons in
+authority or command should so request. This was to invite a secession
+of the French colonies from the mother country. Galla<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>tin deprecated any
+action which might induce rebellion against authority, or lead to
+self-government among the people of the islands who were unfit for it.
+Moreover, such action would remove still further every expectation of an
+accommodation with France. The bill was passed by a vote of 55 to 37. He
+objected to the bill to authorize the President to suspend intercourse
+with Spanish and Dutch ports which should harbor French privateers, as
+placing an unlimited power to interdict commerce in the hands of the
+executive. The bill was carried by 55 to 37. On the question of the
+augmentation of the navy he opposed the building of the seventy-fours.</p>
+
+<p>In February Edward Livingston presented a petition from aliens, natives
+of Ireland, against the Alien and Sedition laws. Numerous similar
+petitions followed; one was signed by 18,000 persons in Pennsylvania
+alone. To postpone consideration of the subject, the Federalists sent
+these papers to a select committee, against the protests of Livingston
+and Gallatin. This course was the more peculiar because of the reference
+of petitions of a similar character in the month previous to the
+committee of the whole. The Federalists were abusing their majority, and
+precipitating their unexpected but certain ruin. One more effort was
+made to repeal the offensive penal act; the constitutional objection was
+again pleaded, but the repeal was defeated by a vote of 52 in the
+affirmative. Mr. Gallatin opposed these laws in all their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> stages, but,
+failing in this, persistently endeavored to make them as good as
+possible before they passed. Jefferson later said that nothing could
+obliterate from the recollection of those who were witnesses of it the
+courage of Gallatin in the &ldquo;Days of Terror.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> The vote of thanks to
+Mr. Dayton, the speaker, was carried by a vote of 40 to 22. On March 3,
+1800, this Congress adjourned.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>The sixth Congress met at Philadelphia on December 2, 1799. The
+Federalists were returned in full majority. Among the new members of the
+House, John Marshall and John Randolph appeared for Virginia. Theodore
+Sedgwick was chosen speaker. President Adams came down to the House on
+the 3d and made the usual speech. The address in reply, reported by a
+committee of which Marshall was chairman, was agreed to without
+amendment. Adams was again delighted with the very respectful terms
+adopted at the &ldquo;first assembly after a fresh election, under the strong
+impression of the public opinion and national sense at this interesting
+and singular crisis.&rdquo; At this session it was the sad privilege of
+Marshall to announce the death of Washington, &ldquo;the Hero, the Sage, and
+the Patriot of America.&rdquo; In the shadow of this great grief, party
+passion was hushed for a while.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Gallatin again led the Republican opposition; Nicholas and Macon were
+his able lieutenants. The line of attack of the Republicans was clear.
+If war could be avoided, the growing unpopularity of the Alien and
+Sedition laws would surely bring them to power. The foreign-born voter
+was already a factor in American politics. In January the law providing
+for an addition to the army was suspended. Macon then moved the repeal
+of the Sedition Law. He took the ground that it was a measure of
+defense. Bayard adroitly proposed as an amendment that &ldquo;the offenses
+therein specified shall remain punishable as at common law, provided
+that upon any prosecution it shall be lawful for the defendant to give
+as his defense the truth of the matter charged as a libel.&rdquo; Gallatin
+called upon the chair to declare the amendment out of order, as intended
+to destroy the resolution, but the speaker declined, and the amendment
+was carried by a vote of 51 to 47. The resolution thus amended was then
+defeated by a vote of 87 to 1. The Republicans preferred the odious act
+in its original form rather than accept the Federal interpretation of
+it.</p>
+
+<p>On February 11, 1800, a bill was introduced into Congress further to
+suspend commercial intercourse with France. It passed the House after a
+short debate by a vote of 68 yeas to 28 nays. On this bill the
+Republican leaders were divided. Nicholas, Macon, and Randolph opposed
+it; but Gallatin, separating from his friends, carried<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> enough of his
+party with him to secure its passage. Returned by the Senate with
+amendments, it was again objected to by Macon as fatal to the interests
+of the Southern States, but the House resolved to concur by a vote of 50
+to 36.</p>
+
+<p>In March the country was greatly excited by the news of an engagement on
+the 1st of February, off Guadaloupe, between the United States frigate
+Constellation, thirty-eight guns, and a French national frigate, La
+Vengeance, fifty-four guns. The House of Representatives called on the
+secretary of the navy for information, and, by 84 yeas to 4 nays, voted
+a gold medal to Captain Truxton, who commanded the American ship. John
+Randolph's name is recorded in the negative.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding this collision, the relations of the United States and
+France were gradually assuming a kindlier phase. The Directory had
+sought to drive the American government into active measures against
+England. Bonaparte, chosen First Consul, at once adopted a conciliatory
+tone. Preparing for a great continental struggle, he was concentrating
+the energies and the powers of France. In May Mr. Parker called the
+attention of the House to this change of conduct in the French
+government and offered a resolution instructing the Committee on
+Commerce to inquire if any amendments to the Foreign Intercourse Act
+were necessary. Macon moved to amend so that the inquiry should be
+whether it were not expedient to repeal the act. Gallatin opposed the
+reso<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>lution on the ground that it was highly improper to take any
+measures at the present time which would change the defensive system of
+the country. The resolution was negatived,&mdash;43 nays to 40 yeas.</p>
+
+<p>One singular opposition of Gallatin is recorded towards the close of the
+session; the Committee on the Treasury Department reported an amendment
+to the act of establishment, providing that the secretary of the
+treasury shall lay before Congress, at the commencement of every
+session, a report on finance with plans for the support of credit, etc.
+Gallatin and Nicholas opposed this bill, because it came down from the
+Senate, which had no constitutional right to originate a money bill; but
+Griswold and Harper at once took the correct ground that it was not a
+bill, but a report on the state of the finances, in which the Senate had
+an equal share with the House. The bill was passed by a vote of 43 to
+39. It is worthy of note that the first report on the state of the
+finances communicated under this act was by Mr. Gallatin himself the
+next year, and that it was sent in to the Senate. The House adjourned on
+May 14, 1800.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>The second session of the sixth Congress was held at the city of
+Washington, to which the seat of government had been removed in the
+summer interval. After two southerly migrations they were now
+definitively established at a national<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> capital. The session opened on
+November 17, 1800. On the 22d President Adams congratulated Congress on
+&ldquo;the prospect of a residence not to be changed.&rdquo; The address of the
+House in reply was adopted by a close vote.</p>
+
+<p>The situation of foreign relations was changed. The First Consul
+received the American envoys cordially, and a commercial convention was
+made but secured ratification by the Senate only after the elimination
+of an article and a limitation of its duration to eight years. While the
+bill was pending in the Senate, Mr. Samuel Smith moved to continue the
+act to suspend commercial intercourse with France. Mr. Gallatin opposed
+this motion; at the last session he had voted for this bill because
+there was only the appearance of a treaty. Now that the precise state of
+negotiation was known, why should the House longer leave this matter to
+the discretion of the President? The House decided to reject the
+indiscreet bill by a vote of 59 to 37. An effort was also made to repeal
+a part of the Sedition Law, and continue the rest in force, but the
+House refused to order the engrossing of the bill, taking wise counsel
+of Dawson, who said that, supported by the justice and policy of their
+measures, the approaching administration would not need the aid of
+either the alien, sedition, or common law. The opponents of the bill
+would not consent to any modification. The last scenes of the session
+were of exciting interest.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Freed from the menace of immediate war, the people of plain common sense
+recognized that the friendship of Great Britain was more dangerous than
+the enmity of France. They dreaded the fixed power of an organized
+aristocracy far more than the ephemeral anarchy of an ill-ordered
+democracy; they were more averse to class distinctions protected by law
+than even to military despotism which destroyed all distinctions, and
+they preferred, as man always has preferred and always will prefer,
+personal to political equality. The Alien and Sedition laws had borne
+their legitimate fruit. The foreign-born population held the balance of
+power; a general vote would have shown a large Republican or, it is more
+correct to say, anti-Federalist majority. But the popular will could not
+be thus expressed. Under the old system each elector in the electoral
+college cast his ballot for president and vice-president without
+designation of his preference as to who should fill the first place. New
+England was solid for Adams, who, however, had little strength beyond
+the limits of this Federal stronghold. New York and the Southern States
+with inconsiderable exceptions were Republican. Pennsylvania was so
+divided in the legislature that her entire vote would have been lost but
+for a compromise which gave to the Republicans one vote more than to the
+Federalists. Adams being out of the question, the election to the first
+place lay between Jefferson and Burr, both Republicans. The Federalists,
+therefore, had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> their option between the two Republican candidates, and
+the result was within the reach of that most detestable of combinations,
+a political bargain. Mr. Gallatin's position in this condition of
+affairs was controlling. His loyalty to Jefferson was unquestioned,
+while Burr was the favorite of the large Republican party in New York
+whose leaders were Mr. Gallatin's immediate friends and warm supporters.
+Both Jefferson and Burr were accused of bargaining to secure enough of
+the Federalist vote to turn the scale. That Mr. Jefferson did make some
+sacrifice of his independence is now believed. Whether Mr. Gallatin was
+aware of any such compromise is uncertain. If such bargain were made,
+General Samuel Smith was the channel of arrangement, and in view of the
+inexplicable and ignominious deference of Jefferson and Madison to his
+political demands, there is little doubt that he held a secret power
+which they dared not resist. Gallatin felt it, suffered from it,
+protested against it, but submitted to it.</p>
+
+<p>The fear was that Congress might adjourn without a conclusion. To meet
+this emergency Mr. Gallatin devised a plan of balloting in the House,
+which he communicated to Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Nicholas. It stated the
+objects of the Federalists to be, 1st, to elect Burr; 2d, to defeat the
+present election and order a new one; 3d, to assume <i>executive</i> power
+during the interregnum. These he considers, and suggests alternative
+action in case of submission or resistance on the part of the
+Re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>publicans. The Federalists, holding three branches of government,
+viz., the presidency, a majority in the Senate, and a majority in the
+House, might pass a law declaring that one of the great officers
+designated by the Constitution should act as president pro tempore,
+which would be constitutional. But while Mr. Gallatin in this paragraph
+admitted such a law to be constitutional, in the next he argued that the
+act of the person designated by law, or of the president pro tempore,
+assuming the power is clearly &ldquo;unconstitutional.&rdquo; By this ingenious
+process of reasoning, to which the strict constructionists have always
+been partial, it might be unconstitutional to carry out constitutional
+law. The assumption of such power was therefore, Mr. Gallatin held,
+usurpation, to be resisted in one of two ways; by declaring the interval
+till the next session of Congress an interregnum, allowing all laws not
+immediately connected with presidential powers to take their course, and
+opposing a silent resistance to all others; or by the Republicans
+assuming the executive power by a joint act of the two candidates, or by
+the relinquishment of all claims by one of them. On the other hand, the
+proposed outlines of Republican conduct were, 1st, to persevere in
+voting for Mr. Jefferson; 2d, to use every endeavor to defeat any law on
+the subject; 3d, to try to persuade Mr. Adams to refuse his consent to
+any such law and not to call the Senate on any account if there should
+be no choice by the House.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In a letter written in 1848 Mr. Gallatin said that a provision by law,
+that if there should be no election the executive power be placed in the
+hands of some public officer, was a revolutionary act of usurpation
+which would have been put down by force if necessary. It was threatened
+that, if any man should be thus appointed President he should instantly
+be put to death, and bodies of men were said to be organized, in
+Maryland and Virginia, ready to march to Washington on March 4 for that
+purpose. The fears of violence were so great that to Governor McKean of
+Pennsylvania was submitted the propriety of having a body of militia in
+readiness to reach the capital in time to prevent civil war. From this
+letter of Mr. Gallatin, then the last surviving witness of the election,
+only one conclusion can be drawn: that the Republicans would have
+preferred violent resistance to temporary submission, even though the
+officer exercising executive powers was appointed in accordance with
+law. Fortunately for the young country there was enough good sense and
+patriotism in the ranks of the Federalists to avert the danger.</p>
+
+<p>On the suggestion of Mr. Bayard it was agreed by a committee of sixteen
+members, one from each State, that if it should appear that the two
+persons highest on the list, Jefferson and Burr, had an equal number of
+votes, the House should immediately proceed in their own chamber to
+choose the president by ballot, and should not adjourn until<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> an
+election should have been made. On the first ballot there was a tie
+between Jefferson and Burr; the deadlock continued until February 17,
+when the Federalists abandoned the contest, and Mr. Jefferson received
+the requisite number of votes. Burr, having the second number, became
+vice-president.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin's third congressional term closed with this Congress. In
+his first term he asserted his power and took his place in the councils
+of the party. In his second, he became its acknowledged chief. In the
+third, he led its forces to final victory. But for his opposition, war
+would have been declared against France, and the Republican party would
+have disappeared in the political chasm. But for his admirable
+management, Mr. Jefferson would have been relegated to the study of
+theoretical government on his Monticello farm, or to play second fiddle
+at the Capitol to the music of Aaron Burr.</p>
+
+<p>In the foregoing analysis of the debates and resolutions of Congress,
+and the recital of the part taken in them by Mr. Gallatin, attention has
+only been paid to such of the proceedings as concerned the
+interpretation of the Constitution or the forms of administration with
+which Mr. Gallatin interested himself. From the day of his first
+appearance he commanded the attention and the respect of his fellows.
+The leadership of his party fell to him as of course. It was not grasped
+by him. He was never a partisan. He never waived his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> entire
+independence of judgment. His ingenuity and adroitness never tempted him
+to untenable positions. Hence his party followed him with implicit
+confidence. Yet while the debates of Congress, imperfectly reported as
+they seem to be in its annals, show the deference paid to him by the
+Republican leaders, and display the great share he took in the
+definition of powers and of administration as now understood, his name
+is hardly mentioned in history. Jefferson and Madison became presidents
+of the United States. They, with Gallatin, formed the triumvirate which
+ruled the country for sixteen years. Gallatin was the youngest of the
+three.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> To this political combination Gallatin brought a knowledge of
+constitutional law equal to their own, a knowledge of international law
+superior to that of either, and a habit of practical administration of
+which they had no conception. The Republican party lost its chief when
+Gallatin left the House; from that day it floundered to its close.</p>
+
+<p>In the balance of opinion there are no certain weights and measures. The
+preponderance of causes cannot be precisely ascertained. The freedom
+which the people of the United States enjoy to-day is not the work of
+any one party. Those who are descended from its original stock, and
+those whom its free institutions have since invited to full membership,
+owe that freedom to two causes:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> the one, formulated by Hamilton, a
+strong, central power, which, deriving its force from the people,
+maintains its authority at home and secures respect abroad; the other,
+the spirit of liberty which found expression in the famous declaration
+of the rights of man. This influence Jefferson represented. It taught
+the equality of man; not equality before the law alone, nor yet
+political equality, but that absolute freedom from class distinction
+which is true social equality; in a word, mutual respect. But for
+Hamilton we might be a handful of petty States, in discordant
+confederation or perpetual war; but for Jefferson, a prey to the class
+jealousy which unsettles the social relations and threatens the
+political existence of European States.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Lord Sheffield to Mr. Abbott, November 6, 1812.
+<i>Correspondence of Lord Colchester</i>, ii. 409.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Gallatin later described Jackson as he first saw him in his
+seat in the House: &ldquo;A tall, lank, uncouth looking individual, with long
+locks of hair hanging over his brows and face, while a queue hung down
+his back tied in an eelskin. The dress of this individual was singular,
+his manners and deportment that of a backwoodsman.&rdquo; Bartlett's
+<i>Reminiscences of Gallatin</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> The phrase &ldquo;stop the wheels of government&rdquo; originated with
+&ldquo;Peter Porcupine&rdquo; (William Cobbett) and was on every tongue.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Charles C. Pinckney, when ambassador to France, 1796.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Jefferson to William Duane, March 28, 1811. Jefferson's
+<i>Works</i>, vol. v. p. 574.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Jefferson was born in 1743, Madison in 1751, Gallatin in
+1761.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY</h3>
+
+<h2><i>Funding</i></h2>
+
+<p>The material comfort of every people depends more immediately upon the
+correct management of its finances than upon any other branch of
+government. <i>Haute finance</i>, to use a French expression for which there
+is no English equivalent, demands in its application the faculties of
+organization and administration in their highest degree. The relations
+of money to currency and credit, and their relations to industry and
+agriculture, or in modern phrase of capital to labor, fall within its
+scope. The history of France, the nation which has best understood and
+applied true principles of finance, supplies striking examples of the
+benefits a finance minister of the first order renders to his country,
+and the dangers of false theories. The marvelous restoration of its
+prosperity by the genius of Colbert, the ruin caused by the malign
+sciolism of Law, are familiar to all students of political economy. Nor
+has the United States been less favored. The names of Morris, Hamilton,
+Gallatin, and Chase shine with equal lustre.</p>
+
+<p>Morris, the Financier of the Revolution, was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> called to the
+administration of the money department of the United States government
+when there was no money to administer. Before his appointment as
+&ldquo;Financier&rdquo; the expenses of the government, military and civil, had been
+met by expedients; by foreign loans, lotteries, and loan office
+certificates; finally by continental money, or, more properly speaking,
+bills of credit emitted by authority of Congress and made legal tender
+by joint action of Congress and the several States. The relation of coin
+to paper in this motley currency appears in the appendix to the &ldquo;Journal
+of Congress&rdquo; for the year 1778, when the government paid out in fourteen
+issues of paper currency, $62,154,842; in specie, $78,666; in French
+livres, $28,525.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> The power of taxation was jealously withheld by the
+States, and Congress could not go beyond recommending to them to levy
+taxes for the withdrawal of the bills emitted by it for their quotas,
+<i>pari passu</i> with their issue. When the entire scheme of paper money
+failed, the necessary supplies for the army were levied in kind. In the
+spring of 1781 the affairs of the Treasury Department were investigated
+by a committee of Congress, and an attempt was made to ascertain the
+precise condition of the public debt. The amount of foreign debt was
+approximately reached, but the record of the domestic debt was
+inextricably involved, and never definitely discovered. Morris soon
+brought order out of this chaos. His plan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> was to liquidate the public
+indebtedness in specie, and fund it in interest-bearing bonds. The Bank
+of North America was established, the notes of which were soon preferred
+to specie as a medium of exchange. Silver, then in general use as the
+measure of value, was adopted as the single standard. The weight and
+pureness of the dollar were fixed by law. The dollar was made the unit
+of account and payment, and subdivisions were made in a decimal ratio.
+This was the dollar of our fathers. Gouverneur Morris, the assistant of
+the Financier, suggested the decimal computation, and Jefferson the
+dollar as the unit of account and payment. The board of treasury, which
+for five years had administered the finances in a bungling way, was
+dissolved by Congress in the fall of 1781, and Morris was left in sole
+control. Semi-annual statements of the public indebtedness were now
+begun. The expenses of the government were steadily and inflexibly cut
+down to meet the diminishing income. A loan was negotiated in Holland,
+and, with the aid of Franklin, the amount of indebtedness to France was
+established.</p>
+
+<p>The public debt on January 1, 1783, was $42,000,375, of which $7,885,088
+was foreign, bearing four and five per cent. interest; and $34,115,290
+was held at home at six per cent. The total amount of interest was
+$2,415,956. No means were provided for the payment of either principal
+or interest. In July of the previous year Morris urged the wisdom of
+funding the public debt, in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> masterly letter to the president of
+Congress. On December 16 a sinking fund was provided for by a
+resolution, which, though inadequate to the purpose, was at least a
+declaration of principle. In February, 1784, Morris notified Congress of
+his intended retirement from office. He may justly be termed the father
+of the American system of finance. In his administration he inflexibly
+maintained the determination, with which he assumed the office, to apply
+the public funds to the purpose to which they were appropriated. He
+declared that he would &ldquo;neither pay the interest of our debts out of the
+moneys which are called for to carry on the war, nor pay the expenses of
+the war from the funds which are called for to pay the interest of our
+debts.&rdquo; One new feature of Morris's administration was the beginning of
+the sale of public lands.</p>
+
+<p>On the retirement of Mr. Morris, November, 1784, a new board of treasury
+was charged with the administration of the finances, and continued in
+control until September 30, 1788, when a committee, raised to examine
+into the affairs of the department, rendered a pitiful report of
+mismanagement for which the board had not the excuse of their
+predecessors during the war. They had only to observe the precepts which
+Morris had enunciated, and to follow the methods he had prescribed, with
+the aid of the assistants he had trained. But the taxes collected had
+not been covered into the Treasury by the receivers. Large<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> sums
+advanced for secret service were not accounted for; and the entire
+system of responsibility had been disregarded. John Adams attributed all
+the distresses at this period to &ldquo;a downright ignorance of the nature of
+coin, credit and circulation;&rdquo; an ignorance not yet dispelled. More
+truly could he have said that our distresses arose from willful neglect
+of the principle of accountability in the public service.</p>
+
+<p>The first Congress under the new Constitution met at New York on March
+4, 1789, but it was not until the autumn that the executive
+administration of the government was organized by the creation of the
+three departments: State, Treasury, and War.</p>
+
+<p>The bill establishing the Treasury Department passed Congress on
+September 2, 1789. Hamilton was appointed secretary by Washington on
+September 11. On September 21 the House directed the secretary to
+examine into and report a financial plan. On the assembling of Congress,
+June 14, 1790, Hamilton communicated to the House his first report,
+known as that on public credit. The boldness of Hamilton's plan startled
+and divided the country. Funding resolutions were introduced into the
+House. The first, relating to the foreign debt, passed unanimously; the
+second, providing for the liquidation of the domestic obligations, was
+sharply debated, but in the end Hamilton's scheme was adopted. The
+resolutions providing for the assumption of the state<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> debts, which he
+embodied in his report, aroused an opposition still more formidable, and
+it was not until August 4 that by political machinery this part of his
+plan received the assent of Congress. To provide for the interest on the
+debt and the expenses of the government, the import and navigation
+duties were raised to yield the utmost revenue available; but, in the
+temper of Congress, the excise law was not pressed at this session. The
+secretary had securely laid the foundations of his policy. Time and
+sheer necessity would compel the completion of his work in essential
+accord with his original design. The President's message at the opening
+of the winter session added greatly to the prestige of Hamilton's policy
+by calling attention to the great prosperity of the country and the
+remarkable rise in public credit. The excise law, modified to apply to
+distilled spirits, passed the House in January. The principle of a
+direct tax was admitted. On December 14, 1790, in obedience to an order
+of the House requiring the secretary to report further provision for the
+public credit, Hamilton communicated his plans for a national bank. Next
+in order came the establishment of a national mint. Thus in two sessions
+of Congress, and in the space of little more than a year from the time
+when he took charge of the Treasury, Hamilton conceived and carried to
+successful conclusion an entire scheme of finance.</p>
+
+<p>One more measure in the comprehensive system of public credit crowned
+the solid structure of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> which the funding of the debt was the
+cornerstone. This was the establishment of the sinking fund for the
+redemption of the debt. Hamilton conformed his plan to the maxim, which,
+to use his words, &ldquo;has been supposed capable of giving immortality to
+credit, namely, that with the creation of debts should be incorporated
+the means of extinguishment, which are twofold. 1st. The establishing,
+at the time of contracting a debt, funds for the reimbursement of the
+principal, as well as for the payment of interest within a determinate
+period. 2d. The making it a part of the contract, that the fund so
+established shall be inviolably applied to the object.&rdquo; The ingenuity
+and skill with which this master of financial science managed the
+Treasury Department for more than five years need no word of comment.
+Nor do they fall within the scope of this outline of the features of his
+policy. His reports are the textbook of American political economy.
+Whoever would grasp its principles must seek them in this limpid source,
+and study the methods he applied to revenue and loans. Well might
+Webster say of him in lofty praise, &ldquo;He smote the rock of national
+resources, and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth; he touched the
+dead corpse of Public Credit, and it sprung upon its feet.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>On the resignation of Hamilton, January 31, 1795, Washington invited
+Wolcott, who was familiar with the views of Hamilton and on such
+intimate terms with him that he could always have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> his advice in any
+difficult emergency, to take the post. Wolcott had been connected with
+the department from its organization, first as auditor, afterwards as
+comptroller of the Treasury. He held the Treasury until nearly the end
+of Adams's administration. On November 8, 1800, upon the open breach
+between Mr. Adams and the Hamilton wing of the Federal party, Wolcott,
+whose sympathies were wholly with his old chief, tendered his
+resignation, to take effect at the close of the year. On December 31 Mr.
+Samuel Dexter was appointed to administer the department. But the days
+of the Federal party were now numbered: it fell of its own dissensions,
+&ldquo;wounded in the house of its friends.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>There is little in the administration of the finances by Wolcott to
+attract comment. He managed the details of the department with integrity
+and skill. On his retirement a committee of the House on the condition
+of the Treasury was appointed. No similar examination had been made
+since May 22, 1794. On January 28, 1801, Mr. Otis, chairman of the
+committee, submitted the results of the investigation in an unanimous
+report that the business of the Treasury Department had been conducted
+with regularity, fidelity, and a regard to economy; that the
+disbursements of money had always been made pursuant to law, and
+generally that the financial concerns of the country had been left by
+the late secretary in a state of good order and prosperity. During his
+six years<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> of administration of the finances Wolcott negotiated six
+loans, amounting in all to $2,820,000. The emergencies were
+extraordinary,&mdash;the expenses of the suppression of the Whiskey
+Insurrection in 1794, and the sum required to effect a treaty of peace
+with Algiers in 1795. To fund these sums Mr. Wolcott had recourse to an
+expedient which marked an era in American finance. This was the creation
+of <i>new stock</i>, subscribed for at home. No loan had been previously
+placed by the government among its own citizens. Between 1795 and 1798,
+four and a half, five, and six per cent. stocks were created. In 1798
+the condition of the country was embarrassing. There was a threatening
+prospect of war. Foreign loans were precarious and improvident; the
+market rate of interest was eight per cent. Under these circumstances an
+eight per cent. stock was created, not redeemable until 1809. An Act of
+March 3, 1795, provided for vesting in the sinking fund the surplus
+revenues of each year.</p>
+
+<p>In the formation of the first Republican cabinet Mr. Gallatin was
+obviously Mr. Jefferson's first choice for the Treasury. The appointment
+was nevertheless attended with some difficulties of a political and
+party nature. The paramount importance of the department was a legacy of
+Hamilton's genius. Its possession was the Federalist stronghold, and the
+Senate, which held the confirming power, was still controlled by a
+Federalist majority. To them Mr. Gallatin was more obnox<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>ious than any
+other of the Republican leaders. In the few days that he held a seat in
+the Senate (1793) he offended Hamilton, and aroused the hostility of the
+friends of the secretary by a call for information as to the condition
+of the Treasury. As member of Congress in 1796 he questioned Hamilton's
+policy, and during Adams's entire administration was a perpetual thorn
+in the sides of Hamilton's successors in the department. The day after
+his election, February 18, 1801, Mr. Jefferson communicated to Mr.
+Gallatin the names of the gentlemen he had already determined upon for
+his cabinet, and tendered him the Treasury. The only alternative was
+Madison; but he, with all his reputation as a statesman and party
+leader, was without skill as a financier, and in the debate on the
+Funding Bill in 1790 had shown his ignorance in the impracticability of
+his plans. If Jefferson ever entertained the thought of nominating
+Madison to the Treasury, political necessity absolutely forbade it. That
+necessity Mr. Gallatin, by his persistent assaults on the financial
+policy of the Federalists, had himself created, and he alone of the
+Republican leaders was competent to carry out the reforms in the
+administration of the government, and to contrive the consequent
+reduction in revenue and taxation, which were cardinal points of
+Republican policy. Public opinion had assigned Gallatin to the post, and
+the newspapers announced his nomination before Mr. Jefferson was
+elected, and before he had given<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> any indication of his purpose. To his
+wife Mr. Gallatin expressed some doubt whether his abilities were equal
+to the office, and whether the Senate would confirm him, and said,
+certainly with sincerity, 'that he would not be sorry nor hurt in his
+feelings if his nomination should be rejected, for exclusively of the
+immense responsibility, labor, etc., attached to the intended office,
+another plan which would be much more agreeable to him and to her had
+been suggested, not by his political friends, but by his New York
+friends.' He was by no means comfortable in his finances, and he had
+already formed a plan of studying law and removing to New York. He had
+made up his mind to leave the western country, which would necessarily
+end his congressional career. His wife was forlorn in his absence, and
+suffered so many hardships in her isolated residence that he felt no
+reluctance to the change. To one of his wife's family he wrote at this
+time:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;As a political situation, the place of secretary of the treasury
+is doubtless more eligible and congenial to my habits; but it is
+more laborious and responsible than any other, and the same
+industry which will be necessary to fulfill its duties, applied to
+another object, would at the end of two years have left me in the
+possession of a profession which I might have exercised either in
+Philadelphia or New York. But our plans are all liable to
+uncertainty, and I must now cheerfully undertake that which had
+never been the object of my ambition or wishes.&rdquo;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<p>Well might he hesitate as he witnessed the distress which had overtaken
+the great party which for twelve years had held the posts of political
+honor. Fortunately, perhaps for himself and certainly for his party and
+the country, the proposition came at a time when he had definitively
+determined upon a change of career. His situation was difficult. The
+hostility of the Federal senators, and the great exertions which were
+being made to defeat the appointment, led him to the opinion that, if
+presented on March 4, it would be rejected. There was the alternative of
+delay until after that date, which would involve a postponement of the
+confirmation until the meeting of Congress in December, but there was no
+certainty that it would then be ratified. Meanwhile he would be
+compelled to remove to Washington at some sacrifice and expense. He
+therefore at first positively refused &ldquo;to come in on any terms but a
+confirmation by the Senate first given.&rdquo; He was finally induced to
+comply with the general wish of his political friends. The appointment
+was withheld by the President that the feeling in the Senate might be
+judged from its action on the rest of the nominations submitted. They
+were all approved, and Mr. Dexter consented to hold over until his
+successor should be appointed. Thus Mr. Gallatin's convenience was
+entirely consulted. He remained in Washington a few days to confer with
+the President as to the general conduct of the administration, and on
+March 14 set out for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> Fayette to put his affairs in order and to bring
+his wife and family to Washington. On May 14 Jefferson wrote to Macon,
+&ldquo;The arrival of Mr. Gallatin yesterday completed the organization of our
+administration.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin soon realized the magnitude of his task. He did nothing by
+halves. To whatever work he had to do, he brought the best of his
+faculty. No man ever better deserved the epithet of &ldquo;thorough.&rdquo; He
+searched till he found the principle of every measure with which he had
+concern and understood every detail of its application. This perfect
+knowledge of every subject which he investigated was the secret of his
+political success. As a committee man, he was incomparable. No one could
+be better equipped for the direction of the Treasury Department than he,
+but he was not satisfied with direction; he would manage also; and he
+went to the work with untiring energy. A quarter of a century later he
+said of it, in a letter to his son, &ldquo;To fill that office in the manner I
+did, and as it ought to be filled, is a most laborious task and labor of
+the most tedious kind. To fit myself for it, to be able to understand
+thoroughly, to embrace and control all its details, took from me, during
+the two first years I held it, every hour of the day and many of the
+night and had nearly brought on a pulmonary complaint. I filled the
+office twelve years and was fairly worn out.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin first drew public attention to his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> knowledge of finance in
+the Pennsylvania legislature. An extract from his memorandum of his
+three years' service gives the best account of this incident. In it
+appear the carefully matured convictions which he inflexibly maintained.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;The report of the Committee of Ways and Means of the session
+1790-1791 (presented by Gurney, chairman) was entirely prepared by
+me, known to be so, and laid the foundation of my reputation. I was
+quite astonished at the general encomiums bestowed upon it, and was
+not at all aware that I had done so well. It was perspicuous and
+comprehensive; but I am confident that its true merit, and that
+which gained me the general confidence, was its being founded in
+strict justice without the slightest regard to party feelings or
+popular prejudices. The principles assumed, and which were carried
+into effect, were the immediate reimbursement and extinction of the
+state paper money, the immediate payment in specie of all the
+current expenses or warrants on the Treasury (the postponement and
+uncertainty of which had given rise to shameful and corrupt
+speculations), and provision for discharging, without defalcation,
+every debt and engagement previously recognized by the State. In
+conformity with this, the State paid to its creditors the
+difference between the nominal amount of the state debt assumed by
+the United States and the rate at which it was funded by the act of
+Congress.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The proceeds of the public lands, together with the arrears, were
+the fund which not only discharged all the public debts, but left a
+large surplus. The apprehension that this would be squandered by
+the Legislature was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> the principal inducement for chartering the
+Bank of Pennsylvania with a capital of two millions of dollars, of
+which the State subscribed one half. This and similar subsequent
+investments enabled Pennsylvania to defray out of the dividends all
+the expenses of government without any direct tax during the forty
+ensuing years, and till the adoption of the system of internal
+improvement, which required new resources.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>This report was printed in the Journal of the House, February 8, 1791.
+The next year he made a report on the same subject which was printed
+February 22, 1792.</p>
+
+<p>But his equal grasp of larger subjects was shown in his sketch of the
+finances of the United States, which he published in November, 1796. It
+presents under three sections the revenues, the expenses, and the debts
+of the United States, each subdivided into special heads. The arguments
+are supported by elaborate tabular statements. No such exhaustive
+examination had been made of the state of the American finances. The one
+cardinal principle which he laid down was the extinguishment of debt. He
+severely criticised Hamilton's methods of funding, and outlined those
+which he himself later applied. He charged upon Hamilton direct
+violations of law in the application of money, borrowed as principal, to
+the payment of interest on that principal. The public funds he regarded
+as three in number: 1st, the sinking fund; 2d, the surplus fund; 3d, the
+general fund.</p>
+
+<p>In July, 1800, Mr. Gallatin published a second<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> pamphlet, &ldquo;Views of the
+Public Debt, Receipts, and Expenditures of the United States,&rdquo; the
+object of the inquiry being to ascertain the result of the fiscal
+operations of the government under the Constitution. The entire field of
+American finance is examined from its beginning. He severely condemns
+the mode of assumption of the state debts in Hamilton's original plan,
+and no doubt his strictures are technically correct. The debts assumed
+for debtor States were not due by the United States, nor was there any
+moral reason for their assumption. But the assumption was sound
+financial policy, and all the cost to the nation was amply repaid by the
+order which their assumption drew out of chaos, and the vigor given to
+the general credit by the strengthening of that of its parts. The course
+of the Federalists and Republicans on this question shows that the
+former had at heart the welfare of all the States, while the latter
+confined their interest to their own body politic.</p>
+
+<p>Had Mr. Gallatin never penned another line on finance, these two
+remarkable papers would place him in the first rank of economists and
+statisticians. There are no errors in his figures, no flaws in his
+reasoning, no faults in his deductions. In construction and detail, as
+parts of a complete financial system of administration, they are beyond
+criticism. Opinions may differ as to the ends sought, but not as to the
+means to those ends.</p>
+
+<p>For a long period Mr. Gallatin found no more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> time for essays; he was
+now to apply his methods. These may be traced in his printed treasury
+reports, which are lucid and instructive. He was appointed to the
+Treasury on May 14, 1801, as appears by the official record in the State
+Department. Before he entered on the duties of the office he submitted
+to Mr. Jefferson, March 14, 1801, some rough sketches of the financial
+situation, and suggested the general outlines of his policy. He insisted
+upon a curtailment in the appropriations for the naval and military
+establishments, the only saving adequate to the repeal of all internal
+duties; and upon the discharge of the foreign debt within the period of
+its obligation. He estimated that the probable receipts and expenditures
+for the year 1801 would leave a surplus of more than two millions of
+dollars applicable to the redemption of the debt.</p>
+
+<p>On taking personal charge of the Treasury Department, his first business
+was to get rid of the arrears of current business which had accumulated
+since the retirement of Wolcott; his next, to perfect the internal
+revenue system, so far as it could be remedied without new legislation.
+The entire summer of 1801 was passed in &ldquo;arranging, or rather procuring
+correct statements amongst the Treasury documents,&rdquo; a task of such
+difficulty that he was unwilling, on November 15, to arrive at an
+estimate of the revenue within half a million, or to commit himself to
+any opinion as to the feasibility of abolishing the internal revenues.
+In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> his &ldquo;notes&rdquo; submitted to Jefferson upon the draft of his first
+message, there are several passages of interest which show Mr.
+Gallatin's logical habit of searching out economic causes. Under the
+head of finances, he remarks, &ldquo;The revenue has increased more than in
+the same ratio with population: 1st, because our wealth has increased in
+a greater ratio than population; 2d, because the seaports and towns,
+which consume imported articles much more than the country, have
+increased in a greater proportion.&rdquo; The final paragraph in these &ldquo;notes&rdquo;
+is a synopsis of his entire scheme of administration.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;There is but one subject not mentioned in the message which I feel
+extremely anxious to see recommended. It is generally that Congress
+should adopt such measures as will effectually guard against
+misapplications of public moneys, by making specific appropriations
+whenever practicable; by providing against the application of
+moneys drawn from the Treasury under an appropriation to any other
+object or to any greater amount than that for which they have been
+drawn; by limiting discretionary power in the application of that
+money; whether by heads of department or by any other agents; and
+by rendering every person who receives public moneys from the
+Treasury as immediately, promptly, and effectually accountable to
+the accounting officer (the comptroller) as practicable. The great
+characteristic, the flagrant vice, of the late administration has
+been total disregard of laws, and application of public moneys by
+the Department to objects for which they were not appropriate.&rdquo;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<p>Outlines for a system of specific appropriations were inclosed.</p>
+
+<p>That the mission of Jefferson's administration was the reduction of the
+debt, Gallatin set forth in his next letter of November 16, 1801. &ldquo;I am
+firmly of opinion that if the present administration and Congress do not
+take the most effective measures for that object, the debt will be
+entailed on us and the ensuing generations, together with all the
+systems which support it, and which it supports.&rdquo; On the other hand he
+says, &ldquo;If this administration shall not reduce taxes, they never will be
+permanently reduced.&rdquo; To reduce both the debt and the taxes was as much
+a political as a financial problem. To solve it required the reduction
+to a minimum of the departments of War and Marine. But Mr. Jefferson was
+not a practical statesman. His individuality was too strong for much
+surrender of opinion. He stated the case very mildly when he wrote in
+his retirement that he sometimes differed in opinion from some of his
+friends, from those whose views were as &ldquo;pure and as sound as his own.&rdquo;
+It was not his habit to consult his entire cabinet except on general
+measures. The heads of each department set their views before him
+separately. Under this system Mr. Gallatin was never able to realize
+that harmonious interdependence of departments and subordination of ways
+to means which were his ideal of cabinet administration.</p>
+
+<p>The successful application of Mr. Gallatin's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> plan would have
+subordinated all the executive departments to the Treasury. The theory
+was perfect, but it took no account of the greed of office, the
+jealousies of friends, the opposition of enemies, and the unknown factor
+of foreign relations. A speck on the horizon would cloud the peaceful
+prospect, a hostile threat derange the intricate machinery by which the
+delicate financial balance was maintained. Mr. Gallatin was fast
+realizing the magnitude of his undertaking, in which he was greatly
+embarrassed by the difficulty of finding faithful examining clerks, on
+whose correctness and fidelity a just settlement of all accounts
+depends. The number of independent offices attached to the Treasury made
+the task still more arduous. He wrote to Jefferson at this time, &ldquo;It
+will take me twelve months before I can thoroughly understand every
+detail of all these several offices. Current business and the more
+general and important duties of the office do not permit me to learn the
+lesser details, but incidentally and by degrees. Until I know them all I
+dare not touch the machine.&rdquo; One of the acquirements which he considered
+indispensable for a secretary of the treasury was a &ldquo;thorough knowledge
+of book-keeping.&rdquo; The recollection of his persistent demands for
+information from Hamilton and Wolcott during his congressional career
+would have stung the conscience of an ordinary man. But Gallatin was not
+an ordinary man. He asked nothing of others which he himself was not
+willing to perform. His<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> ideal was high, but he reached its summit. It
+seems almost as if, in his persistent demand that money accountability
+should be imposed by law upon the Treasury Department, he sought to set
+the measure of his own duty, while in the requirement that it should be
+extended to the other departments, he pledged himself to the perfect
+accomplishment of that duty in his own.</p>
+
+<p>In his first report to Congress,<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> made December 18, 1801, Mr.
+Gallatin submitted his financial estimate for the year 1802.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Budget Figures">
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Revenue</span>.</td><td align='right'></td><td align='right'><span class="smcap">Expenditures</span>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Imposts</td><td align='right'>$9,500,000</td><td align='left'>Int. on debts.</td><td align='right'>$7,100,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Lands}</td><td align='right'>450,000</td><td align='left'>Civil List</td><td align='right'>980,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Postages}</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>Army</td><td align='right'>1,420,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Internal Rev.</td><td align='right'>650,000</td><td align='left'>Navy</td><td align='right'>1,100,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>=========</td><td align='right'></td><td align='right'>=========</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>$10,600,000</td><td align='right'></td><td align='right'>$10,600,000</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Mr. Wolcott, in his last report to the Commissioners of the Sinking
+Fund, stated the amount in the Treasury to its credit at $500,718. Mr.
+Gallatin denied that there was any such surplus, but said that instead
+of a credit balance the treasury books showed a deficiency of $930,128
+on the aggregate revenue from the establishment of the government to the
+close of the year 1799. Elliott, in his &ldquo;Funding System,&rdquo; said
+concerning this once vexed controversy, that it was difficult to
+reconcile such a diversity of opinion on so intricate a subject; and
+concerning the official statements<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> of Hamilton and Wolcott, that it was
+hardly to be credited that they were so superficial or imperfect. Mr.
+Gallatin himself furnishes the apology that the difference might arise
+from &ldquo;entries made or omitted on erroneous principles.&rdquo; To the Federal
+financiers the palliation was as offensive as the charge, and rankled
+long and sore. If it were not possible, when Elliott made an
+examination, to arrive at the precise facts, it is certainly now a
+secret as secure from discovery as the lost sibylline leaves.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin stated the debt of the United States&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Budget Figures">
+<tr><td align='left'>On January 1, 1801, at</td><td align='right'>$80,161,207.60</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>On January 1, 1802, at</td><td align='right'>77,881,890.29</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>===========</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Reduction</td><td align='right'>$2,279,317.31</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>This difference was the amount of principal paid during the year 1801,
+the result of the management of his predecessors. On December 18, 1801,
+Mr. Gallatin entered upon an examination of the time in which the total
+debt might be discharged, and showed that, by the annual application of
+$7,300,000 to the principal and interest the debt would in eight years,
+<i>i. e.</i> on January 1, 1810, be reduced (by the payment of $32,289,000 of
+the principal) to $45,592,739, and that the same annual sum of
+$7,300,000 would discharge the whole debt by the year 1817. The revenues
+of the Union he found sufficient to defray all the current expenses. In
+his report to Congress at the begin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>ning of the session he designated
+
+this sum of $7,300,000 to be set aside from the revenues, and Congress
+gave the requisite authority. An extract from a tabular statement
+submitted to the House of Representatives, April 16, 1810, will show how
+nearly Mr. Gallatin approached the result at which he aimed, and the
+nature of the embarrassment he encountered on the path.</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary="Budget figures" style="border: 1pt black solid; font-size: 90%;">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 5%; border: 1pt black solid;">Years.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 17%; border: 1pt black solid;">Amount of Public Debt January 1st.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 17%; border: 1pt black solid;">Payments on Principal.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 17%; border: 1pt black solid;">Debt Contracted.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 17%; border: 1pt black solid;">Annual Increase.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 17%; border: 1pt black solid;">Annual Decrease.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl stylet">1802</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$80,712,632.25</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$3,657,945.95</td>
+  <td class="tdc stylet">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdc stylet">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$3,657,948.95</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl styleo">1803</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleo">77,054,686.30</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleo">5,627,565.42</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleo">$15,000,000*</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleo">$9,372,434.58</td>
+  <td class="tdc styleo">&mdash;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl styleo">1804</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleo">86,427,120.88</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleo">4,114,970.38</td>
+  <td class="tdc styleo">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdc styleo">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleo">4,114,970.38</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl styleo">1805</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleo">82,312,150.50</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleo">6,588,879.84</td>
+  <td class="tdc styleo">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdc styleo">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleo">6,588,879.84</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl styleo">1806</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleo">75,723,270.66</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleo">6,504,872.02</td>
+  <td class="tdc styleo">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdc styleo">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleo">6,504,872.02</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl styleo">1807</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleo">69,218,398.64</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleo">4,022,080.67</td>
+  <td class="tdc styleo">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdc styleo">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleo">4,022,080.67</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl styleo">1808</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleo">65,196,317.97</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleo">8,173,125.88</td>
+  <td class="tdc styleo">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdc styleo">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleo">8,173,125.88</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl styleo">1809</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleo">57,023,192.09</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleo">3,850,889.77</td>
+  <td class="tdc styleo">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdc styleo">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleo">3,850,889.77</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl styleb">1810</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">53,172,302.32</td>
+  <td class="tdc styleb">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdc styleb">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdc styleb">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdc styleb">&mdash;</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="60%" summary="Debt Figures">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="5" style="padding-bottom: .5em;">*Louisiana Purchase</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" style="width: 22%;">1802</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="width: 21%;">$80,712,632.25</td>
+  <td style="width: 5%;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl" style="width: 21%;">Decrease</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="width: 21%;">$36,912,764.51</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">1810</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black dashed;">53,172,302.32</td>
+  <td> &nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Increase</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black dashed;">9,372,434.58</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black dashed;">$27,540,329.93</td>
+  <td> &nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Decrease in 8 yrs.</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black dashed;">$27,540,329.93</td>
+  </tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>From this it appears that, notwithstanding the extraordinary increase of
+the principal by the amount of the Louisiana purchase, Mr. Gallatin
+contrived a reduction of $27,540,329. But if to this be added the true
+reduction for the year 1803, namely, the difference between the
+Louisiana debt, $15,000,000, and the increase for that year, by reason
+of that purchase, $9,372,434, say $6,627,565, the reduction is found to
+be, and but for that disturbing cause would have reached, $34,167,895,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>
+a sum exceeding by $1,878,895 that estimated by Mr. Gallatin in his
+report of 1801 as the amount of eight years' reduction, namely,
+$32,289,000.</p>
+
+<p>The ways and means of this remarkable example of financial management
+appear in the following extracts from Elliott's synoptical statement
+(table given on page <a href="#Page_194">194</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The purchase of Louisiana was the extraordinary financial measure of
+Jefferson's first presidential term. Though the new obligation for the
+consideration money, fifteen millions of dollars, was a large sum in
+proportion to the total existing debt of the United States, it did not
+in the least derange Gallatin's plan of funding and reduction, but was
+brought without friction within his general scheme. With the terms of
+the contract Gallatin had nothing to do. They were arranged by
+Livingston and Monroe, the American commissioners; the intervention of
+the houses of Hope and the Barings being a part of the understanding
+between the commissioners and the French government. These bankers
+engaged to make the money payments and take six per cent. stock of the
+United States at seventy-eight and one half cents on the dollar. With
+this price Mr. Gallatin does not seem to have been satisfied, though of
+course he interposed no objection to the terms; but to Jefferson he
+wrote, August 31, 1803, that the low price at which that stock had been
+sold, was "not ascribable to the state of public credit nor to any act
+of your administration, and particularly of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> Treasury Department;"
+and he adds in a postscript, &ldquo;at that period our threes were in England
+worth one per cent. more at market than the English.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<h4>RECEIPTS.</h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="105%" summary="Budget figures" style="border: 1pt black solid; font-size: 70%;">
+  <tr style="font-size: 120%;">
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 12%; border: 1pt black solid;">Four years ending<br /> December 31.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Customs.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Internal Revenue.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Direct Taxes.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 9%; border: 1pt black solid;">Postage.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 9%; border: 1pt black solid;">Public Lands.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Loans and Treasury Notes.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Dividends and sales of Bank Stock.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Miscellaneous.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Total.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl stylet">Adams, 1800</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid; padding-top: .25em;">$30,347,093.62</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid; padding-top: .25em;">$2,808,382.37</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid; padding-top: .25em;">$734,223.97</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid; padding-top: .25em;">$223,000.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid; padding-top: .25em;">$95,947.46</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid; padding-top: .25em;">$7,055,791.25</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid; padding-top: .25em;">$607,220.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid; padding-top: .25em;">$168,971.76</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid; padding-top: .25em;">$42,040,630.45</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl styleo">Jefferson, 1804</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">44,766,997.61</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">1,936,053.30</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">862,986.46</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">157,427.26</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">1,009,556.56</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">25,255.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">1,416,360.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">672,148.72</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">50,846,784.91</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl styleo">Jefferson, 1808</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">59,813,257.40</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">63,110.73</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">131,539.54</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">60,074.90</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">2,419,541.86</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">179,534.81</td>
+  <td class="tdc styleb">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">85,782.03</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">62,758,841.27</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl styleb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">104,580,255.01</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">1,999,146.03</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">994,526.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">217,502.10</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">3,429,098.42</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">205,089.81</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">1,416,360.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">757,930.75</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">113,605,626.18</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<h4>EXPENDITURES.</h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="105%" summary="Budget figures" style="border: 1pt black solid; font-size: 70%;">
+  <tr style="font-size: 120%;">
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 12%; border: 1pt black solid;">Four years ending <br />December 31.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Civil List.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Foreign Intercourse including Awards.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Miscellaneous.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 9%; border: 1pt black solid;">Military Forts, etc.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 9%; border: 1pt black solid;">Pensions.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Indian Department.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Naval Establishment.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Public Debt.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Total.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl stylet">Adams, 1800</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid; padding-top: .25em;">$2,329,433.08</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid; padding-top: .25em;">$1,793,879.57</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid; padding-top: .25em;">$621,633.37</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid; padding-top: .25em;">$8,076,750.71</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid; padding-top: .25em;">$356,677.06</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid; padding-top: .25em;">$99,299.88</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid; padding-top: .25em;">$8,070,777.52</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid; padding-top: .25em;">$18,957,962.69</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid; padding-top: .25em;">$40,306,413.88</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl styleo">Jefferson, 1804</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">2,297,648.17</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">3,144,093.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">1,169,601.87</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">4,549,572.11</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">301,968.66</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">279,500.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">5,432,049.15</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">32,258,658.68</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">49,433,091.64</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl styleo">Jefferson, 1808</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">2,616,772.77</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">5,441,669.24</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">1,721,876.87</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">6,126,656.97</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">316,806.16</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">849,700.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">6,853,673.79</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">32,927,739.85</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">56,854,985.65</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl styleb">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">4,914,420.94</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">8,585,762.24</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">2,891,478.74</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">10,676,229.08</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">618,774.82</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">1,129,200.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">12,285,722.94</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">65,186,398.53</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">106,288,077.29</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" style="width: 30%;">Adams&mdash;Receipts</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="width: 15%;">$42,040,630.45</td>
+  <td style="width: 10%;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl" style="width: 30%;">Jefferson&mdash;Receipts</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="width: 15%;">$113,605,626.18</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Adams&mdash;Expenditures</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black dashed;">40,306,413.88</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Jefferson&mdash;Expenditures</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 1pt black dashed;">106,288,077.29</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Under Wolcott, Secretary</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black dashed;">1,734,216.57</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Under Gallatin, Secretary</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-top: 1pt black dashed;">7,317,584.89<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="trans-note">Transcriber's Note: Some of the numbers in the above tables do not add up, but reflect the actual numbers given in the original document.</div><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>
+
+<p>The arrangements being completed, Jefferson called Congress together in
+October, 1803, for a ratification of the treaty; the commissioners, by
+virtue of the authority granted them, had already guaranteed the advance
+by the Barings of ten million livres ($2,000,000). On October 25, 1803,
+Gallatin made a report to Congress on the state of the finances. It
+showed a reduction of the public debt in the two and one half years of
+his management, April 1, 1801, to September 30, 1803, of $12,702,404.
+The only question to be considered was whether any additional revenues
+were wanted to provide for the <i>new debt</i> which would result from the
+purchase of Louisiana.</p>
+
+<p>The sum called for by treaty, fifteen millions, consisted of two items:
+1st, $11,250,000 payable to the government of France in a stock bearing
+an interest of six per cent. payable in Europe, and the principal to be
+discharged at the Treasury of the United States; 2d, a sum which could
+not exceed, but might fall short of, $3,750,000, payable in specie at
+the Treasury of the United States to American citizens having claims of
+a certain description upon the government of France.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting here to note Mr. Gallatin's distinction between the
+place of payment of interest and of principal as a new departure in
+American<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> finance. The principal and interest of foreign loans had up to
+that period been paid abroad. But a United States stock was an
+obligation of a different character and properly payable at home. In the
+large negotiations which Secretary Chase had in 1862 with the Treasury
+Note Committee of the Associated Banks,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> this policy was matter of
+grave debate. The determined American pride of Mr. Chase prevailed, and
+both the principal <i>and interest</i> of the loans created were made payable
+at the Treasury of the United States. These may be small matters in
+their financial result, but are grave points in national policy.</p>
+
+<p>The only financial legislation necessary to carry out the Louisiana
+purchase was a provision that $700,000 of the duties on merchandise and
+tonnage, a sum sufficient to pay the interest on the new debt, be added
+to the annual permanent appropriation for the sinking fund, making a sum
+of $8,000,000 in all.</p>
+
+<p>The new debt would, Gallatin said, neither impede nor retard the payment
+of the principal of the old debt; and the fund would be sufficient,
+besides paying the interest on both, to discharge the principal of the
+old debt before the year 1818, and of the new, within one year and a
+half after<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> that year. In this expectation he relied solely on the
+maintenance of the revenue at the amount of the year 1802, and in no way
+depended on its probable increase as a result of neutrality in the
+European war; nor on any augmentation by reason of increase of
+population or wealth, nor the effect which the opening of the
+Mississippi to free navigation might be expected to have on the sales of
+public lands and the general resources of the country.</p>
+
+<p>In his report of December 9, 1805, Mr. Gallatin reviewed the results of
+his first four years of service, April 1, 1801, to March 31, 1805.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Budget figures">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><span class="smcap">Receipts</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Duties on tonnage and importation of</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;foreign merchandise</td><td align='right'>$45,174,837.22</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>From all other sources</td><td align='right'>5,492,629.82</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>===========</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>$50,667,467.04</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>===========</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'><span class="smcap">Expenditures</span>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Civil list and miscellaneous</td><td align='right'>$3,786,094.79</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Intercourse with foreign nations</td><td align='right'>1,071,437.84</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Military establishment and Indian department</td><td align='right'>4,405,192.26</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Naval establishment</td><td align='right'>4,842,635.15</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Interest on foreign debt</td><td align='right'>16,278,700.95</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Reimbursement of debt from surplus</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;revenue</td><td align='right'>19,281,446.57</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>===========</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>$49,665,507.56</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The Louisiana purchase and the admirable manner of its financial
+arrangement were important<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> factors in Jefferson's re&euml;lection. Mr.
+Gallatin was now sure of four years, at least, for the prosecution of
+his plan of redemption of the public debt. Estimating that with the
+increase of population at the rate of thirty-five per cent. in ten
+years, and the corresponding growth of the revenue, he could count upon
+a net annual surplus of $5,500,000, he now proposed to convert the
+several outstanding obligations into a six per cent. stock amounting,
+January 1, 1809, to less than <i>forty millions of dollars</i>, which the
+continued annual appropriation of $8,000,000 would, besides paying the
+interest on the Louisiana debt, reimburse within a period of less than
+seven years, or before the end of the year 1815. After that year no
+other incumbrance would remain on the revenue than the interest and
+reimbursement of the Louisiana stock, the last payment of which in the
+year 1821 would complete the final extinguishment of the public debt.
+The conversion act was passed February 1, 1807, and books were opened on
+July 1 following. On February 27, 1807, Mr. Gallatin made a special
+report on the state of the debt from 1801 to 1807, showing a diminution,
+notwithstanding the Louisiana purchase, of $14,260,000.</p>
+
+<p>In the summer of 1807 war with England seemed inevitable. Gallatin had
+the satisfaction to report a full treasury,&mdash;the amount of specie
+October 7, 1807, reaching over eight and one half millions,&mdash;and an
+annual unappropriated surplus, which could be confidently relied upon,
+of at least<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> three millions of dollars. On this subject his remarks in
+the light of subsequent history are of extreme interest. While
+refraining from any recommendations as to the application of this
+surplus, either to &ldquo;measures of security and defense,&rdquo; or to &ldquo;internal
+improvements which, while increasing and diffusing the national wealth,
+will strengthen the bonds of union,&rdquo; as &ldquo;subjects which do not fall
+within the province of the Treasury Department,&rdquo; he proceeds to consider
+the advantage of an accumulation in the Treasury. In this report he
+rises with easy flight far above the purely financial atmosphere into
+the higher plane of political economy.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;A previous accumulation of treasure in time of peace might in a
+great degree defray the extraordinary expenses of war and diminish
+the necessity of either loans or additional taxes. It would provide
+during periods of prosperity for those adverse events to which
+every nation is exposed, instead of increasing the burthens of the
+people at a time when they are least able to bear them, or of
+impairing, by anticipations, the resources of ensuing
+generations....</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;That the revenue of the United States will in subsequent years be
+considerably impaired by a war neither can nor ought to be
+concealed. It is, on the contrary, necessary, in order to be
+prepared for the crisis, to take an early view of the subject, and
+to examine the resources which should be selected for supplying the
+deficiency and defraying the extraordinary expenses....</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Whether taxes should be raised to a greater amount or loans be
+altogether relied on for defraying the expenses of the war, is the
+next subject of consideration.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Taxes are paid by the great mass of the citizens, and immediately
+affect almost every individual of the community. Loans are supplied
+by capital previously accumulated by a few individuals. In a
+country where the resources of individuals are not generally and
+materially affected by the war, it is practicable and wise to raise
+by taxes the greater part at least of the annual supplies. The
+credit of the nation may also from various circumstances be at
+times so far impaired as to have no resource but taxation. In both
+respects the situation of the United States is totally
+dissimilar....</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;An addition to the debt is doubtless an evil, but experience
+having now shown with what rapid progress the revenue of the Union
+increases in time of peace, with what facility the debt, formerly
+contracted, has in a few years been reduced, a hope may confidently
+be entertained that all the evils of the war will be temporary and
+easily repaired, and that the return of peace will, without any
+effort, afford ample resources for reimbursing whatever may have
+been borrowed during the war.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>He then enumerates the several branches of revenue which might be
+selected to provide for the interest of war loans and to cover
+deficiencies. First, a considerable increase of the duties on
+importations; and here he says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;Without resorting to the example of other nations, experience has
+proven that this source of revenue is in the United States the most
+productive, the easiest to collect, and the least burthensome to
+the great mass of the people. 2d. Indirect taxes, however
+ineligible, will doubtless be cheerfully paid as <i>war taxes</i>, if
+necessary. 3d. Direct taxes are liable to a particular objection
+aris<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>ing from unavoidable inequality produced by the general rule
+of the Constitution. Whatever differences may exist between the
+relative wealth and consequent ability of paying of the several
+States, still the tax must necessarily be raised in proportion to
+their relative population.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>The Orders in Council of November 11, 1807, avowedly adopted to compel
+all nations to give up their maritime trade or accept it through Great
+Britain, reached Washington on December 18, 1807, and were immediately
+replied to by the United States by an embargo act on December 22. The
+history of the political effect of this measure is beyond the limits of
+this economic study, and will be touched upon in a later chapter, but
+the result of its application upon the Treasury falls within this
+analysis of the methods of Mr. Gallatin's administration.</p>
+
+<p>On December 18 Gallatin wrote Jefferson that &ldquo;in every point of view,
+privations, sufferings, revenue, effect on the enemy, politics at home,
+etc.,&rdquo; he preferred &ldquo;war to a permanent embargo;&rdquo; nevertheless he was
+called upon to draft the bill. The correctness of Mr. Gallatin's
+prevision was soon apparent. In his report of December 10, 1808, he
+reviewed the general effect of the measure. "The embargo has brought
+into and kept in the United States almost all the floating property of
+the nation. And whilst the depreciated value of domestic product
+increases the difficulty of raising a considerable revenue by internal
+taxes,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> at no former time has there been so much specie, so much
+redundant unemployed capital in the country." Again stating his opinion
+that loans should be principally relied on in case of war, he closed
+with the following words: &ldquo;The high price of public stocks (and indeed
+of all species of stocks), the reduction of the public debt, the
+unimpaired credit of the general government, and the large amount of
+existing bank stock in the United States [estimated by him at forty
+millions of dollars], leave no doubt of the practicability of obtaining
+the necessary loans on reasonable terms.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Budget figures">
+<tr><td align='left'>The receipts into the Treasury during the</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;year ending September, 1808, the last of</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;Jefferson's administration, were</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;&nbsp;$17,952,419.90</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The disbursements during the same period</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;were</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;&nbsp;12,635,275.46</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>===========</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Excess of receipts</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;&nbsp;$5,317,144.44</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>And the specie in Treasury, October 1,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;1808</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;&nbsp;$13,846,717.82</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>From January 1, 1791, to January 1, 1808, the debt had fallen from
+$75,169,974 to $57,023,192; during the first ten years it had increased
+nearly seven millions of dollars, in the last eight it had been
+diminished more than twenty millions and Louisiana had been purchased.
+Thus closed the second term of Gallatin's service. Happen what might,
+the credit of the country could not be in a better situation to meet the
+exigencies of a war.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> A letter from Mr. Jefferson to Mr. Gallatin after
+the close of this administration, and Gallatin's reply, show the entire
+accord between them upon the one cardinal point of financial policy. Mr.
+Jefferson, October 11, 1809, wrote from Monticello, &ldquo;I consider the
+fortunes of our republic as depending in an eminent degree on the
+extinction of the public debt before we engage in any war; because, that
+done, we shall have revenue enough to improve our country in peace and
+defend it in war, without incurring either new taxes or new loans.&rdquo; And
+urging Gallatin to retain his post, he closed with the striking words,
+&ldquo;I hope, then, you will abandon entirely the idea you expressed to me,
+and that you will consider the eight years to come as essential to your
+political career. I should certainly consider any earlier day of your
+retirement as the most inauspicious day our new government has ever
+seen.&rdquo; To which Gallatin replied from Washington, on November 10:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;The reduction of the public debt was certainly the principal
+object in bringing me into office, and our success in that respect
+has been due both to the joint and continued efforts of the several
+branches of government and to the prosperous situation of the
+country. I am sensible that the work cannot progress under adverse
+circumstances. If the United States shall be forced into a state of
+actual war, all the resources of the country must be called forth
+to make it efficient and new loans will undoubtedly be wanted. But
+whilst peace is preserved, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> revenue will, at all events, be
+sufficient to pay the interest and to defray necessary expenses. I
+do not ask that in the present situation of our foreign relations
+the debt be reduced, but only that it shall not be increased so
+long as we are not at war.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>In his eight years of service under Jefferson, Gallatin had not found
+the Treasury Department a bed of roses. Under Madison there was an undue
+proportion of thorns.</p>
+
+<p>It has been shown that the entire reliance of Gallatin for the expenses
+of government was on customs, tonnage dues, and land sales. The effect
+of the Embargo Act was soon felt in the falling off of importations, and
+consequently in the revenue from this source. Mr. Gallatin felt the
+strain in the spring of 1809; and on March 18, soon after Mr. Madison's
+inauguration, he gave notice to the commissioners of the sinking fund of
+a probable deficiency. In his annual report to Congress, December, 1809,
+he announced the expenses of government, exclusive of the payments on
+account of the principal of the debt, to have exceeded the actual
+receipts into the Treasury by a sum of near $1,300,000. For this
+deficiency, and the sum required for the sinking fund, Gallatin was
+authorized in May to borrow from the Bank of the United States
+$3,750,000 at six per cent., reimbursable on December 31, 1811. Of this
+sum only $2,750,000 was taken, the expenses having proved less than Mr.
+Gallatin had anticipated.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Madison called Congress together on November 1, 1811. The political
+tension was strong, and he was anxious to throw the responsibility of
+peace or war upon Congress. On November 22, 1811, Mr. Gallatin made his
+report on the finances and the public debt. It was, as usual, explicit
+and in no manner despondent. The actual receipts arising from revenue
+alone exceeded the current expenses, including the interest paid on the
+debt, by a sum of more than five and one half millions of dollars. The
+public debt on January 1, 1812, was $45,154,463. Since Gallatin took
+charge of the department, the United States had in ten years and nine
+months paid in full the purchase money of Louisiana, and increased its
+revenue nearly two millions of dollars. For eight years eight millions
+of dollars had been annually paid on account of the principal and
+interest of the debt. And as though intending to leave as the legacy of
+his service a lesson of financial policy, he said:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;<i>The redemption of principal has been effected without the aid of
+any internal taxes, either direct or indirect, without any addition
+during the last seven years to the rate of duties on importations,
+which on the contrary have been impaired by the repeal of the duty
+on salt, and notwithstanding the great diminution of commerce
+during the last four years.</i> It therefore proves decisively the
+ability of the United States with their ordinary revenue to
+discharge, in ten years of peace, a debt of forty-two millions of
+dollars, a fact which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> considerably lessens the weight of the most
+formidable objection to which that revenue, depending almost solely
+on commerce, appears to be liable. In time of peace it is almost
+sufficient to defray the expenses of a war; in time of war it is
+hardly competent to support the expenses of a peace establishment.
+Sinking at once, under adverse circumstances, from fifteen to six
+or eight millions of dollars, it is only by a persevering
+application of the surplus which it affords us in years of
+prosperity, to the discharge of the debt, that a total change in
+the system of taxation or a perpetual accumulation of debt can be
+avoided. But if a similar application of such surplus be hereafter
+strictly adhered to, forty millions of debt, contracted during five
+or six years of war, may always, without any extraordinary
+exertions, be reimbursed in ten years of peace. This view of the
+subject at the present crisis appears necessary for the purpose of
+distinctly pointing out one of the principal resources within reach
+of the United States. But to be placed on a solid foundation, it
+requires the aid of a revenue sufficient at least to defray the
+ordinary expenses of government, and to pay the interest on the
+public debt, including that on new loans which may be authorized.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>From this plain declaration, it was evident that the sum necessary to
+pay interest on new loans, and provide for their redemption by the
+operation of the sinking fund, could not be obtained from the ordinary
+sources of revenue, and that resort must be had to extraordinary imposts
+or direct taxation. On January 10, 1812, in response to an inquiry of
+the Ways and Means Committee as to an increase of revenue in <i>the event
+of a war</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> Gallatin submitted a project for war loans of ten millions a
+year, irredeemable for ten years. He pointed out that the government had
+never since its organization obtained considerable loans at six per
+cent. per annum, except from the Bank of the United States, and these,
+on a capital of seven millions, never amounted to seven millions in the
+whole. As the amount of prospective loans would naturally raise the
+amount of interest, it seemed prudent not to limit the rate of interest
+by law; ineligible as it seemed to leave that rate discretionary with
+the executive, it was preferable to leaving the public service
+unprovided for. For the same reason the loans should be made
+irredeemable for a term not less than ten years.</p>
+
+<p>He then repeated a former suggestion, that &ldquo;treasury notes,&rdquo; bearing
+interest, might be issued, which would to that extent diminish the
+amount to be directly borrowed and also provide a part of the
+circulating medium, passing as bank notes; but their issue must be
+strictly limited to that amount at which they would circulate without
+depreciation. So long as the public credit is preserved and a sufficient
+revenue provided, he entertained no doubts of the possibility of
+procuring on loan the sums necessary to defray the extraordinary
+expenses of a war. He warned the committee, and through it Congress,
+that "no artificial provisions, no appropriations or investments of
+particular funds in certain persons, <i>no nominal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> sinking fund</i>, however
+constructed, will ever reduce a public debt unless the net annual
+revenue shall exceed the aggregate of the annual expenses, including the
+interest of the debt." He then submitted the following estimates:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;The current or peace expenses have been estimated at nine millions
+of dollars. Supposing the debt contracted during the war not to
+exceed fifty millions and its annual interest to amount to three
+millions, the aggregate of the peace expenditure would be no more
+than twelve millions. And as the peace revenue of the United States
+may at the existing rate of duties be fairly estimated at fifteen
+millions, there would remain from the first outset a surplus of
+three millions applicable to the redemption of the debt. So far,
+therefore, as can be now foreseen, there is the strongest reason to
+believe that the debt thus contracted will be discharged with
+facility and as speedily as the terms of the loans will permit. Nor
+does any other plan in that respect appear necessary than to extend
+the application of the annual appropriation of eight millions (and
+which is amply sufficient for that purpose) to the payment of
+interest and reimbursement of the principal of the new debt.... If
+the national revenue exceeds the national expenditure, a simple
+appropriation for the payment of the principal of the debt and
+coextensive with the object is sufficient and will infallibly
+extinguish the debt. If the expense exceeds the revenue, the
+appropriation of any specific sum and the investment of the
+interest extinguished or of any other fund, will prove altogether
+nugatory; and the national debt will, notwithstanding that
+apparatus, be annually increased by an amount equal to the deficit
+in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> the revenue.... What appears to be of vital importance is that
+<i>the crisis</i> should at once be met by the adoption of efficient
+measures, which will with certainty provide means commensurate with
+the expense, and, by <i>preserving unimpaired instead of abusing that
+public credit on which the public resources so eminently depend,
+will enable the United States to persevere in the contest until an
+honorable peace shall have been obtained</i>.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>On March 14 Congress authorized a public loan of eleven millions of
+dollars, leaving it optional with the banks who subscribed to take
+stock, or to loan the money on special contract. The books were opened
+May 1 and 2, and in the two days $6,118,900 were subscribed: $4,190,000
+by banks and $1,928,000 by individuals. The rate was six per cent. Mr.
+Gallatin reported this result, and proposed the issue of treasury notes
+for such amount as was desired within the limit of the loan to bear
+interest at five and two fifths per cent. a year, equal to a cent and a
+half per day on a hundred dollars' note; 2d, to be payable one year
+after date of issue; 3d, to be in the meanwhile receivable in payment of
+all duties, taxes, or debts due to the United States. The first of these
+ingenious qualifications was adopted by Mr. Chase in his issue of the
+seven-thirties.</p>
+
+<p>On June 18 war was declared. On the 28th Mr. Gallatin submitted his
+estimate of receipts and expenditures for the year.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Budget figures">
+<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="5"><span class="smcap">Expenditures In Round Numbers</span>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Civil and miscellaneous</td><td align='right'>$1,560,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Military establishment, and Indian dept</td><td align='right'>12,800,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Naval establishment</td><td align='right'>3,940,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Public debt</td><td align='right'>8,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>=========</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>$26,300,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>=========</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="5"><span class="smcap">Funds Provided</span>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Balance in Treasury, January 1</td><td align='right'>$2,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Receipts from duties and sales of lands</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;as by estimate of November 22, 1811</td><td align='right'>8,200,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Loan authorized by law</td><td align='right'>11,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Treasury notes as authorized by House</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;of Representatives</td><td align='right'>5,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>=========</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>$26,200,000</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The issue of <i>treasury notes</i> was a novel experiment in the United
+States; but they were favorably received, and Mr. Gallatin calculated
+that the full amount authorized by law, $5,000,000, could be put in
+circulation during the year. The result of a loan seemed more doubtful.
+The old six per cents. and deferred stock had already fallen two or
+three per cent. below par. Mr. Gallatin again recommended the conversion
+of these securities into a new six per cent. stock, which would
+facilitate the new loan, and to prevent the necessity of applying, the
+same years, the large sums required in reimbursement of and purchase of
+the public debt.</p>
+
+<p>On December 1 Mr. Gallatin made his last annual statement.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><i>Treasury Report for Fiscal Year ending September</i> 30, 1812.</h3>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Budget figures, 1812" style="width: 60%;">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Receipts.</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Customs, sales of lands, etc.</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$10,934,946.20</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="2">On account of loan of eleven millions,
+   act 14 March, 1812</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 2px black solid;">5,847,212.50</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" style="width: 50%;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl" style="width: 25%;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="width: 25%;">$16,782,158.70</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Balance in Treasury October 1, 1811</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 2px black solid;">3,947,818.36</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 2pt black double;">$20,729,977.06</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="3" style="padding-top: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Disbursements.</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Civil Department, foreign intercourse</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$1,823,069.35</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Army, militia, forts, etc.</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$7,770,300.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Navy Department</td>
+  <td class="tdr">3,107,501.54</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Indian Department</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 2px black solid;">230,975.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr">11,108,776.54</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Interest on debt</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$2,498,013.19</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">On account of principal</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 2px black solid;">2,938,465.99</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 2px black solid;">5,436,479.18</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>$18,368,325.07</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Leaving in Treasury 30 Sept., 1812</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 2px black solid;">2,361,652.69</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$20,729,977.76</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The sums obtained or secured on loans during the year amounted to
+$13,100,209, and the secretary had the satisfaction to state &ldquo;that
+notwithstanding the addition thus made to the public debt, and although
+a considerable portion has been remitted from England and brought to
+market in America, the public stocks (which had at first experienced a
+slight depression) have been for the last three months, and continue to
+be, at par.&rdquo; His last report to the commissioners of the sinking fund of
+February 5, 1813, stated the usual appli<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>cation of $8,719,773 to the
+principal and interest of the debt.</p>
+
+<p>In his report of December 1, 1812, Mr. Gallatin announced that a loan of
+twenty-one millions was needed for the service of 1813. Congress
+authorized a loan of $16,000,000, having six years to run, and an
+additional issue of $5,000,000 of treasury notes. Congress adjourned on
+March 4. Their procrastination and the pressing demands of the War
+Department nearly beggared the Treasury before the loans could be
+negotiated and covered into it.</p>
+
+<p>On April 17 Mr. Gallatin wrote to the secretaries of the army and of the
+navy, and sent a copy of his letters to Mr. Madison with information
+that the loan had been filled, and the probable receipts of the Treasury
+from ordinary sources for the year ascertained. These he estimated at
+$9,300,000. Deducting the annual appropriation for interest on the debt,
+the sum expended to March 31, and the amount needed for the civil
+service, there remained for the War and Navy Departments together the
+sum of $18,720,000.</p>
+
+<p>The loan of $16,000,000 was obtained in the following places:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Budget figures">
+<tr><td align='left'>States east of New York</td><td align='right'>$486,700</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>State of New York</td><td align='right'>5,720,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Philadelphia, Pa.</td><td align='right'>6,858,400</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Baltimore and District of Columbia</td><td align='right'>2,393,300</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>State of Virginia</td><td align='right'>187,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Charleston, S. C.</td><td align='right'>354,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>===========</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>$16,000,000</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The history of this subscription is not without interest. The extremely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>
+small subscriptions in New England and in the Southern States can hardly
+be explained on any other theory than that of a belief in the collapse
+of the finances of the United States and a dissolution of the Union, for
+which the New England States had certainly been prepared by their
+governing minds.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
+
+<p>Books were opened on March 12 and 13, 1813, at Portsmouth, Salem,
+Boston, Providence, New York, Albany, Philadelphia, Baltimore,
+Washington, Richmond, and Charleston. In the two days the subscriptions
+only reached the sum of $3,956,400. They were again opened on the 25th
+of March at New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington. The New
+England and Southern States seem to have been disregarded because of
+their indifference in the first instance. The books remained open from
+March 25 to 31, during which time there were received $1,881,800, a
+total of $5,838,200.</p>
+
+<p>The pressure fell on the Middle States. In these, fortunately for the
+government, there were three great capitalists whose faith in the future
+prosperity of the United States was unimpaired. All were foreigners:
+David Parish and Stephen Girard in Philadelphia and John Jacob Astor in
+New York. These now came forward, no doubt at the instance of Mr.
+Gallatin, who was a per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span>sonal friend of each. Parish and Girard offered
+on April 5 to take eight millions of the loan at the rate of
+eighty-eight dollars for a certificate of one hundred dollars bearing
+interest at six per cent., redeemable before December 31, 1825, they to
+receive one quarter of one per cent. commission on the amount accepted,
+and in case of a further loan for the service of the year 1813, to be
+placed on an equal footing with its takers. John Jacob Astor on the same
+day and at the same place proposed to take for himself and his friends
+the sum of two million and fifty-six thousand dollars of the loan on the
+same conditions. These offers were accepted and the loan was complete.
+An offer on behalf of the State of Pennsylvania to take one million of
+the loan was received too late. Altogether the offers amounted to about
+eighteen millions, or two millions more than the sum demanded. Mr.
+Gallatin, clinging to his old plan, endeavored to negotiate this loan at
+par, by offering a premium of a thirteen years' annuity of one per
+cent., but found it impracticable. Indeed, the system of annuity,
+general in England, has never found favor as an investment in the United
+States.</p>
+
+<p>This was Mr. Gallatin's last financial transaction. A few weeks later,
+at his own request, he severed his actual connection with the Treasury
+Department and was on his way to St. Petersburg to secure the proffered
+mediation of the emperor of Russia between the United States and Great
+Britain.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Thus ended Mr. Gallatin's administration of the national finances. The
+hour for saving had passed. The imperious necessities of war take no
+heed of economic principles. The work which the secretary had done
+became as the rope of sand. It is not surprising that Gallatin wearied
+of his post; that he watched with vain regret and unavailing sighs the
+unavoidable increase of the national debt, and that he sought relief in
+other services where success was not so evanescent as in the Treasury
+Department. Before the close of Madison's administration, February 12,
+1816, the public debt had run up to over one hundred and twenty-three
+millions,<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> and a sum equal to the entire amount of Mr. Gallatin's
+savings in two terms had been expended in one. But his work had not been
+in vain. The war was the crucial test of the soundness of his financial
+policy. The maxims which he announced, that debt can only be reduced by
+a surplus of revenue over expenditure, and the accompaniment of every
+loan by an appropriation for its extinguishment, became the fundamental
+principle of American finance. Mr. Gallatin was uniformly supported in
+it by Congress and public opinion. It was faithfully adhered to by his
+distinguished successors, Dallas and Crawford, and the impulse thus
+given continued through later administrations, until, in 1837, twenty
+years after the peace, the entire debt had been extinguished. All this
+without any other variation from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> Mr. Gallatin's original plan than an
+increase of the annual appropriation, to the sinking fund for its
+reimbursement, from eight to ten millions.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<p>The only charge which has ever been made against Gallatin's
+administration was, that he reduced the debt at the expense of the
+defenses and security of the country; but, to quote the words of one of
+his biographers:<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> &ldquo;Mr. Gallatin had the sagacity to know that it [the
+redemption of the debt] would make but little difference in the degree
+of preparation of national defense and means of contest, for which it is
+impossible ever to obtain a considerable appropriation before the near
+approach of the danger that may render them necessary. He knew that the
+money thus well and wisely devoted to the payment of the debt was only
+rescued from a thousand purposes of extravagance and mal-application to
+which all our legislative bodies are so prone whenever they have control
+of surplus funds.&rdquo; In our own day the irresistible temptations of a full
+treasury need no labored demonstration. Friend and foe drop political
+differences over the abundant fleshpot. The very thought of catering to
+such appetites disgusted Gallatin. To Jefferson he frankly said, in
+1809, that while he did not pretend to step out of his own sphere and to
+control the internal management of other departments, yet he could not
+"consent to act the part of a mere financier, to become a contriver of
+taxes, a dealer of loans, a seeker of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> resources for the purpose of
+supporting useless baubles, of increasing the number of idle and
+dissipated members of the community, of fattening contractors, pursers,
+and agents, and of introducing in all its ramifications that system of
+patronage, corruption, and rottenness which you justly execrate.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="width:100%; font-size: 100%;" summary="Table Head">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="5">RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES DURING MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="5">FROM ELLIOTT'S SYNOPTICAL EXHIBITS.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Receipts</span>.</h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="105%" summary="Budget figures" style="border: 1pt black solid; font-size: 70%;">
+  <tr style="font-size: 120%;">
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 12%; border: 1pt black solid;">Four years ending<br /> December 31.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Customs.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Internal Revenue.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Direct Taxes.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 9%; border: 1pt black solid;">Postage.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 9%; border: 1pt black solid;">Public Lands.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Loans and Treasury Notes.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Dividends and sales of Bank Stock.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Miscellaneous.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Total.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+<td class="tdl stylet">1812</td>
+<td class="tdr stylet">$38,151,330.15</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$18,674.03</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$28,491.87</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$85,077.40</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$2,889,466.46</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$15,606,201.30</td>
+  <td class="tdc stylet">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$209,309.34</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$56,988,550.55</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl styleb">1816</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">62,813,212.43</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">11,470,507.24</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">8,639,611.38</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">364,787.84</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">4,977,570.54</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">94,321,103.73</td>
+  <td class="tdc styleb">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">672,148.72</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">183,217,041.32</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" style="border: 1pt black solid;">Madison</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">100,964,542.58</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">11,489,181.27</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">8,668,103.25</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">449,865.24</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">7,867,037.00</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">109,927,305.03</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="border: 1pt black solid;">&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">839,557.50</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">240,205,591.87</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Expenditures</span>.</h4>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="105%" summary="Budget figures" style="border: 1pt black solid; font-size: 70%;">
+  <tr style="font-size: 120%;">
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 12%; border: 1pt black solid;">Four years ending <br />December 31.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Civil List.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Foreign Intercourse.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Miscellaneous.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 9%; border: 1pt black solid;">Military Dept.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 9%; border: 1pt black solid;">Pensions.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Indian Depart.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Naval Dept.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Public Debt.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 10%; border: 1pt black solid;">Total.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl stylet">1812</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$2,887,197.98</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$860,281.28</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$1,619,849.12</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$19,480,722.54</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$338,023.68</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$944,848.84</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$10,006,934.54</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$26,920,285.12</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$63,058,143.10</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+<td class="tdl styleb">1816</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">3,768,342.61</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">1,042,633.42</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">5,015,100.92</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">70,809,210.90</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">435,614.48 </td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">1,140,015.30</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">26,326,169.25</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">56,508,652.66</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">165,045,739.54</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" style="border: 1pt black solid;">Madison</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">6,655,540.59</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">1,902,914.70</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">6,634,950.04</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">90,289,933.44</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">773,638.16</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">2,084,864.14</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">36,333,103.79</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">83,428,937.78</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">228,103,882.64</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span><h2><i>Revenue</i></h2>
+
+<p><i>L'&Eacute;tat c'est moi</i> was the autocratic maxim of Louis Quatorze. An
+adherence to it cost the Bourbons their throne. Burke was more
+philosophical when he said, &ldquo;The revenue of the State is the State.&rdquo; Its
+imposition, its collection, and its application involve all the
+principles and all the powers of government, constitutional or
+extraordinary. It is the sole foundation of public credit, the sole
+support of the body politic, its life-blood in peace, its nerve in war.
+The &ldquo;purse and the sword&rdquo; are respectively the resource and defense of
+government and peoples, and they are interdependent powers. With the
+discovery of the sources of revenue, and the establishment of its
+currents, Mr. Gallatin, in the first eight years of his administration
+of the Treasury, had nothing to do. He had only to maintain those
+systems which Hamilton had devised, and which, wisely adapted to the
+growth of the country, proved amply adequate to the ordinary
+expenditures of the government and to the gradual extinguishment of the
+debt. The entire revenue included three dis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>tinct branches: imposts on
+importations and tonnage, internal revenue, sales of public lands. The
+duties on imports of foreign merchandise were alone sufficient to meet
+the current expenses of the various departments of administration on a
+peace establishment, and, increasing with the growth of the country,
+would prove ample in future. The gross amount of imports in the four
+years of Adams's administration, 1796-1800, was about three hundred and
+fourteen millions of dollars, and the customs yielded about thirty
+millions.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin's first annual report, submitted to the House of
+Representatives in December, 1801, exhibited his financial scheme. He
+recapitulated the various sources of permanent revenue. They were those
+of Hamilton's original tariff.</p>
+
+<p>The revenues for the year ended September 30, 1801, were the basis of
+the estimates for future years. These were</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Budget figures">
+<tr><td align='left'>Duties on imports and tonnage</td><td align='right'>$10,126,213.92</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Internal revenue</td><td align='right'>854,000.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Land sales</td><td align='right'>400,000.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>===========</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>$11,380,213.92</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>But the close of the war in Europe sensibly diminished the enormous
+carrying trade which fell to the United States as neutrals, and, as a
+consequence, the revenue from that source; large quantities of goods
+were brought into the United States and re&euml;xported to foreign ports
+under a system of debenture. The revenue on what Mr. Gallatin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> calls
+&ldquo;this accidental commerce&rdquo; was $1,200,000. He therefore <i>estimated the
+permanent revenues at</i></p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Budget figures">
+<tr><td align='left'>Customs duties</td><td align='right'>$9,500,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Land sales</td><td align='right'>400,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Postage</td><td align='right'>50,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Internal revenue</td><td align='right'>650,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>=========</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>$10,600,000</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Or, without the internal revenue, say ten millions of permanent revenue,
+as a basis for <i>the permanent expenditures</i>.</p>
+
+<p>To bring the expenditures within this sum, however, a reduction in the
+army and navy establishments was necessary. This Gallatin soon found to
+be too radical a measure for success, either in the cabinet or Congress,
+however well it may have accorded with Jefferson's utopian views. In the
+budget of 1802 the internal revenue, $650,000, was, therefore, a
+necessary item. The expenditures proposed were</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Budget figures" style="width: 60%;">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Annual appropriation for interest and
+   principal of debt</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$7,100,000</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Civil list</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$780,000</td></tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" style="width: 50%;">Foreign intercourse</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="width: 25%;">200,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="width: 25%;">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Military and Indian Dept</td>
+  <td class="tdr">1,420,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Naval</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 2px black solid;">1,100,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$3,500,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border-bottom: 2px black solid;">3,500,000</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">$10,600,000</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>In this budget the estimate for the military establishment was an
+increase over that of Wolcott for 1801, which was $1,120,000. But the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span>
+Republicans in the House were not content with this arrangement. The
+internal revenues were utterly distasteful to them. They had been laid
+against their protest and collected under military menace. They were of
+those Federal measures of which they would have none. John Randolph,
+chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means, reported, March 2, 1802,
+against the entire system of internal duties, in the old words of the
+Pennsylvania radicals, as vexatious, oppressive, and peculiarly
+obnoxious; as of the nature of an excise which is hostile to the genius
+of a free people, and finally because of their tendency to multiply
+offices and increase the patronage of the executive. The repeal was
+imperative upon the Republican party. On April 6, 1802, the act was
+repealed and the surplus of the budget stripped from it, without Mr.
+Gallatin's consent, certainly, but also without protest from him.</p>
+
+<p>The prosperity of the country continued. The impost duties for the
+fiscal year ending September 30, 1802, rose to $12,280,000, the sales of
+the public lands to $326,000, and the postage to $50,500, a total of
+$12,656,500, and left in the Treasury, September 30, 1802, the sum of
+$4,539,675. This large increase in the Treasury did not in the least
+change Mr. Gallatin's general plan, and his budget for 1803 was based on
+his original scale of a permanent revenue of $10,000,000, to correspond
+with which the estimates of the preceding year were reduced. The fiscal
+year closed Sep<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span>tember 30, 1803, with a balance in the Treasury of
+$5,860,000. This situation of the finances was fortunate in view of
+secret negotiations which the President and Congress were initiating for
+the purchase of Louisiana from France.</p>
+
+<p>The secretaries of war and of the navy had promised to reduce their
+expenditures to a figure approximate to Mr. Gallatin's estimates; but
+the breaking out of hostilities with Tripoli prevented the proposed
+economy, and Mr. Gallatin was called upon to provide for an increased
+expenditure with one certain source of revenue definitively closed. He
+therefore proposed an additional tax of two and one half per cent. on
+all importations which paid an <i>ad valorem</i> duty. This additional
+impost, laid by act of March 25, 1804, called the Mediterranean Fund,
+remained in force long after the war closed and held its place on the
+books of the Treasury under that name.</p>
+
+<p>The bulk of the cost of Louisiana was met by an issue of bonds; but Mr.
+Gallatin, true to his principle, applied the moneys in the Treasury as
+far as they would go. The budget for 1805 was on a different scale. The
+increase in the debt demanded a proportionate increase in the revenue to
+meet the additional sum required for interest and gradual annual
+reimbursement. The Mediterranean Fund was sufficient to meet the
+increased amounts required for the navy. In this manner he held up the
+Navy Department to a strict accountability and made it responsible to
+Congress<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> and not to the cabinet for its administration, and he thus,
+from his own point of view, relieved the Treasury Department from any
+responsibility for extraordinary expenditure.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin closed his four years of administration with flying colors.
+The successful management of the finances was an important factor in the
+election of 1804, which returned Mr. Jefferson to the presidential chair
+and insured to the country the inestimable advantages of Mr. Gallatin's
+practical mind. Order reigned in his department at least, and order
+subordinate to the strictest requirements of law. In the four years,
+1801-1804, Jefferson's first term, the imports aggregated $337,363,510
+and the customs yielded $45,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>The annual report, made December 9, 1805, announced an increasing
+revenue, amounting in all to thirteen and one half millions of dollars,
+chiefly from customs. Still Mr. Gallatin made but small addition to his
+estimates for the coming year. The permanent revenue he raised to twelve
+and one half millions and increased the appropriation for the payment of
+the debt and interest to eight millions. Nothing occurred during the
+next year to check the growth of the country; the revenue continued on a
+rising scale, and reached close upon fifteen millions of dollars.</p>
+
+<p>So far Mr. Gallatin had met but inconsiderable obstacles in his course,
+and these he used to his advantage to impress economy upon the Army and
+Navy Departments, and enforce his principle of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> minute appropriations
+for their government. All that he had already accomplished in the
+establishment of a sound financial system and the support of the credit
+of the United States was but the basis of a broader structure of
+national economy. His extensive scheme of internal improvements was
+hardly matured when the thunder broke in the clear sky.</p>
+
+<p>The acquisition of Louisiana, the large carrying trade which had passed
+under the American flag, and the rapid prosperity of the financial and
+industrial condition of the country aroused the jealousy of Great
+Britain, and determined her to check the further progress of the United
+States by war, if need be. The capture of the American frigate
+Chesapeake by the man-of-war Leopard, June 22, 1807, was only the first
+in a series of outrages which rendered the final collision, though long
+delayed, inevitable. Mr. Gallatin at once recognized that the Treasury
+could no longer be conducted on a peace basis. &ldquo;Money,&rdquo; he wrote to
+Joseph H. Nicholson, &ldquo;we will want to carry on the war; our revenue will
+be cut up; new and internal taxes will be slow and not sufficiently
+productive; we must necessarily borrow. This is not pleasing to me, but
+it must be done.&rdquo; Congress was called together for October 26, 1807, and
+on November 5, Mr. Gallatin sent in his annual report. There was still
+hope that Great Britain would make amends for the outrage, and Congress
+was certainly peaceably disposed. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> the condition of the Treasury
+there was no reason as yet for recommending extraordinary measures. The
+revenues for the year passed the sum of seventeen millions; the balance
+in the Treasury reached eight and one half millions; the surplus on a
+peace footing was twelve millions. Mr. Gallatin recommended that the
+duties should be doubled in case war were threatened. He said, &ldquo;Should
+the revenue fall below seven millions of dollars, not only the duty on
+salt and the Mediterranean duties could be immediately revived, but the
+duties on importation generally be considerably increased, perhaps
+double, with less inconvenience than would arise from any other mode of
+taxation.&rdquo; Experience had proven that this source of revenue is in the
+United States &ldquo;the most productive, the easiest to collect, and least
+burdensome to the great mass of the people.&rdquo; But still the war-cloud did
+not break. Mr. Canning contented himself with war in disguise, and by
+his Order in Council of November 11, 1807, shut the ports of Europe to
+American trade, and wiped away the advantages of the United States as a
+neutral power. The United States answered with the act of embargo on
+December 22, 1807, completing, as far as it was possible for legislation
+to effect it, the blockade of the Treasury Department as regarded
+revenues from foreign imports. The immediate effect, however, of these
+acts in Great Britain and America was an enormous temporary increase of
+importations in the interim from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> time of the passage of the act
+until the date when it took effect. To aid merchants in this peculiar
+condition of affairs an act was passed by Congress, on March 10, 1808,
+extending the terms of credit on revenue bonds.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin's report of December 16, 1808, closed the record of his
+eight years of management of the Department. In the second term of
+Jefferson's administration, 1805-1808, the gross amount of imports had
+risen to $443,990,000, and the customs collected to nearly $60,000,000.
+In the entire eight years, 1800-1808, the gross amount of importations
+was $781,000,000, and the customs yielded $105,000,000. The entire
+expenses of the government in the same period, including $65,000,000 of
+debt, had been liquidated from customs alone.</p>
+
+<p>The specie in the Treasury on September 20, 1808, reached nearly
+$14,000,000. Mr. Jefferson knew of the amount in the Treasury when he
+wrote his last message, November 8, 1808, and he could not have been
+ignorant of Mr. Gallatin's warning of the previous year that a
+continuance of the embargo restriction would reduce the revenue below
+the point of annual expenditures and require an additional impost; yet
+he had the ignorance or the presumption to say in his message, "Shall it
+(the surplus revenue) lie unproductive in the public vaults? Shall the
+revenue be reduced? or shall it not rather be appropriated to the
+improvement of roads, canals, rivers, education, and other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> great
+foundations of prosperity and union under the powers which Congress may
+already possess or such amendments of the Constitution as may be
+approved by the States? While uncertain of the course of things, the
+time may be advantageously employed in obtaining the powers necessary
+for a system of improvement, should it be thought best." In these words
+Jefferson surrendered the vital principle of the Republican party. In
+his satisfaction at the only triumph of his administration, the
+management of the finances and the purchase of a province without a
+ripple on the even surface of national finance, he gave up the very
+basis of the Republican theory, the reduction of the government to its
+possible minimum, and actually proposed a system of administration
+coextensive with the national domain, an increase of the functions of
+government, and consequently of executive power.</p>
+
+<p>The annual report of the Treasury, presented December 16, 1808, showed
+no diminution of resources. The total receipts for the fiscal year were
+nearly eighteen millions. The total receipts for&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Budget figures">
+<tr><td align='left'></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Customs reached</td><td align='right'>$26,126,648</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>On which debentures were allowed</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;on exportations</td><td align='right'>10,059,457</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>=========</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Actual receipts from customs</td><td align='right'>$16,067,191</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>But this source of revenue was now definitively closed by the embargo,
+while the expenditures of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> the government were increased. Mr. Gallatin
+met the situation frankly and notified Congress of the resources of the
+Treasury.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Budget figures">
+<tr><td align='left'></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="5"><span class="smcap">Resources For</span> 1809</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cash in Treasury</td><td align='right'>$13,846,717.52</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bank customs, net</td><td align='right'>2,154,000.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>===========</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Total resources</td><td align='right'>$16,000,717.52</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The receipts from importations and land sales would be offset by
+deductions for bad debts and extensions of credit to importers. The
+expenditures were set at $13,000,000, which would leave in the Treasury
+for extraordinary expenditure $3,000,717. The disbursements had been far
+beyond the estimates; those for the military and naval establishments
+reaching together six millions.</p>
+
+<p>It is not to be supposed that Mr. Gallatin saw this depletion of the
+Treasury, this rapid dissipation of the specie,&mdash;always desirable and
+never more so than in periods of trouble,&mdash;without disappointment and
+regret. His report to Congress was as outspoken politically as it was
+financially, and from a foreign-born citizen to an American Congress
+must have carried its sting. &ldquo;Either America,&rdquo; he wrote, "must accept
+the position of commerce allotted to her by the British edicts, and
+abandon all that is forbidden,&mdash;and it is not material whether this is
+done by legal provisions limiting the commerce of the United States to
+the permitted places, or by acquiescing in the capture of vessels
+stepping beyond the prescribed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> bounds. Or the nation must oppose force
+to the execution of the orders of England; and this, however done, and
+by whatever name called, will be war." He recalled to them his advice of
+the preceding years in a vein of tempered bitterness: &ldquo;Had the duties
+been doubled on January 1, 1808, as was then suggested, in case of war
+the receipts into the Treasury during that and the ensuing year would
+have been increased nine or ten millions of dollars.&rdquo; He then proposed
+to continue the Mediterranean Fund and to double all existing duties on
+importations after January 1, 1809. He informed them that no internal
+taxes, either direct or indirect, were contemplated by him even in the
+case of hostilities against the two belligerent powers; France having
+responded to the Orders in Council by Napoleon's Milan decree, December
+17, 1807, which was quite as offensive to the United States as that of
+Canning. With true statesmanship Mr. Gallatin nerved the country to
+extraordinary exertion by reminding it that the geographical situation
+of the United States and their history since the Revolution removed
+every apprehension of frequent wars.</p>
+
+<p>During the year 1809 the country drifted along apparently without rudder
+or compass, helmsman or course, and the treasury locker was being
+rapidly reduced to remainder biscuit. Mr. Madison was inaugurated in
+March. In his first message, May 23, 1809, he exposed the financial
+situation with an indecision which was as marked a trait of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> his
+character as optimism was of that of Jefferson. In his message of
+November 29, 1809, he said &ldquo;the sums which had been previously
+accumulated in the Treasury, together with the receipts during the year
+ending on September 30 last, and amounting to more than nine millions of
+dollars, have enabled us to fulfill all our engagements and defray the
+current expenses of government without recurring to any loan; but the
+insecurity of our commerce and the consequent demands of the public
+revenue will probably produce a deficiency in the receipts of the
+ensuing year.&rdquo; Beyond this Madison did not venture; Gallatin was left
+alone.</p>
+
+<p>The Treasury report of December 8, 1809, announced the beginning of
+short rations. The expenses of government, exclusively of the payments
+on account of the principal of the debt, had exceeded the actual
+receipts into the Treasury by a sum of near $1,300,000. If the military
+and naval establishments were to be continued at the figures of 1809,
+when six millions were expended, there would result a deficiency of
+$3,000,000, and a loan of $4,000,000 would be necessary. Otherwise the
+Mediterranean Fund would suffice. The cash in the Treasury had fallen
+from nearly fourteen millions on June 2, 1809, to less than six millions
+on September 3, following. In this report Gallatin expressed his
+opinion, that the system of restriction established by the embargo and
+partly relaxed must be entirely reinstated or wholly abandoned. On May
+1, 1810, an act of strict<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> prohibition of importations from Great
+Britain and her dependencies was passed.</p>
+
+<p>While from the incompetency of the administration the country was fast
+approaching the real crisis of open war, the Republicans in Congress
+were deliberately destroying and undermining the basis of national
+credit, by which alone it could be carried on. In February the United
+States Bank, by which, and its branches, the customs were collected
+throughout the country, was destroyed by the refusal of Congress to
+renew its charter. Mr. Gallatin in his combinations never contemplated
+such a contingency as the total destruction of the fiscal agency on
+which the government had relied for twenty years. Unwilling to struggle
+longer against the mean personalities and factious opposition of his own
+party in Congress, he tendered his resignation to Mr. Madison. But the
+Republican party was a party of opposition, not of government. With the
+exception of Mr. Gallatin, no competent administrative head had as yet
+appeared. There was no one in the party or out of it to take his place.
+Mr. Madison knew it. Mr. Gallatin felt it, and remained. Congress met in
+November. On the 25th Mr. Gallatin sent in his annual report; the
+receipts reached thirteen and a half million dollars.</p>
+
+<p>The budget for 1812 left a deficiency to be provided for of $1,200,000.
+This was a small matter. The revenue Mr. Gallatin proposed to increase,
+on the plan before recommended, by ad<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span>ditions of fifty per cent, to the
+imposts on foreign commerce. This he preferred to any internal tax.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the year the country, chafed beyond endurance by the
+indignities put upon it and the sufferings it encountered without
+compensation to its pride, was eager for war. Congress was no way loath
+to try the dangerous path out of its labyrinth of blunders. The near
+contingency imposed the necessity of an immediate examination of the
+sources of revenue. In January, 1812, Mr. Gallatin was requested by the
+chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means to give his opinion as to
+the probable amount of receipts from duties on tonnage and merchandise
+in the event of war. This, in view of the vigorous restrictions laid by
+France under her continental system of exclusion, Mr. Gallatin estimated
+under existing rules as not to exceed $2,500,000. He then stated,
+without hesitation, that it was practicable and advisable to double the
+rate of duties, and to renew the old duty on salt. The sum acquired,
+with this addition, he anticipated, would amount to $5,400,000.</p>
+
+<p>On the basis of annual loans of ten millions of dollars during the
+continuance of the war (the sum assumed by the committee), the
+deficiency for 1814 would amount, by Mr. Gallatin's estimate, to
+$4,200,000. To produce a net revenue equal to this deficiency he stated
+that the gross sum of taxes to be laid must be five millions of dollars.
+He then reverted to his report of December 10,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> 1808, in which he had
+stated that &ldquo;no internal taxes, either direct or indirect, were
+contemplated, even in the case of hostilities carried on against the two
+great belligerent powers.&rdquo; The balance in the Treasury was then nearly
+fourteen millions of dollars, but in view of the daily decrease of the
+revenue he had recommended &ldquo;that all the existing duties be doubled on
+importations subsequent to the first day of January, 1809.&rdquo; As the
+revenues of 1809, 1810, and 1811 had yielded $26,000,000, the sum on
+hand, with the increase thus recommended, would have reached
+$20,000,000, a sum greater than the net amount of the proposed internal
+taxes in four years.</p>
+
+<p>At that time no symptoms had appeared from which the absolute
+dissolution of the Bank of the United States without any substitute
+could have been anticipated. If its charters had been renewed, on the
+conditions suggested by Mr. Gallatin, the necessity for internal taxes
+would have been avoided. The resources of the country, properly applied,
+however, were amply sufficient to meet the emergency; but Mr. Gallatin
+distinctly threw upon Congress, and by implication upon the Republican
+majority, the responsibility for the state of the Treasury, and the
+imperative necessity for a form of taxation which it detested as
+oppressive, and which it was a party shibboleth to declare in and out of
+season, to be unconstitutional. The choice of the administration was
+between the Bank which Jefferson detested and Gallatin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> favored, and the
+internal tax which Mr. Gallatin considered as the most repulsive in its
+operation of any form of revenue.</p>
+
+<p>But necessity knows no law, and the prime mover, if not the original
+author, of the opposition to Hamilton's system was driven to propose the
+renewal of the measures, opposition to which had brought the Republican
+party into power, and had placed himself at the head of the Treasury. He
+now proposed to raise the five millions deficiency by internal
+taxation&mdash;$3,000,000 by direct tax and $2,000,000 by indirect tax.</p>
+
+<p>Continuing his lucid and remarkable report with careful details of the
+methods to be adopted, Gallatin closed with an urgent recommendation
+that the crisis should at once be met by the adoption of efficient
+measures to provide, with certainty, means commensurate with the
+expense, and by preserving unimpaired, instead of abusing, that credit
+on which the public resources eminently depend, to enable the United
+States to persevere in the contest until an honorable peace should be
+obtained. Thus he held the bitter cup to the lips of the Republican
+Congress, which, however, was not yet to drain its full measure. War was
+declared June 18, 1812. On July 1, 1812, an act was passed imposing an
+additional duty of one hundred per cent. on all importations, an
+additional ten per cent. on goods brought in foreign vessels, and also a
+duty of $1.50 per ton on all foreign vessels. The duty was to remain
+until the expira<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span>tion of one year after peace should be made with Great
+Britain. On December 5, 1812, Mr. Gallatin sent in his last report. The
+balance in the treasury was $3,947,818. His estimate for the service of
+the year 1813 was a war budget. Resources, $12,000,000; expenditures,
+$31,926,000; promising a deficiency of $19,925,000. For this and other
+contingencies Mr. Gallatin asked for a loan of twenty millions. The
+authority was granted, but the recommendations of direct and indirect
+taxes were disregarded. Here Mr. Gallatin's direct connection with the
+customs system closed.</p>
+
+<p>The value of foreign importations during Madison's first term was
+$275,230,000, and the customs derived from them thirty-eight millions of
+dollars.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>Congress adjourned March 4, 1813, but was called together again in May,
+when the subject of internal taxes was again forced upon them. The
+internal revenue was a part of Hamilton's general scheme. His original
+bill was passed, and, after numerous amendments suggested by trial, its
+grievances were tempered and the friction removed. In Adams's term it
+yielded nearly three millions of dollars. In Jefferson's first term,
+before the rise in customs revenue allowed of its abandonment, Mr.
+Gallatin drew from this source nearly two millions of dollars, enough to
+pay the interest and provide for the extinguishment of a six per cent.
+loan of thirty millions; a war budget in itself.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> But it had been so
+entirely set aside that in Jefferson's second term, 1808-1812, it had
+fallen to a little over sixty-three thousand; in Madison's first term,
+to a little under nineteen thousand dollars. Was it to this Mr. Dallas
+referred in that passage of his report, made in 1815, on the financial
+operations of the war, in which he expresses his regret &ldquo;that there
+existed no system by which the internal resources of the country could
+be brought at once into action, when the resources of its external
+commerce became incompetent to answer the exigencies of the time? The
+existence of such a system would probably have invigorated the early
+movements of the war, might have preserved the public credit unimpaired,
+and would have rendered the pecuniary contributions of the people more
+equal, as well as more effective.&rdquo; &ldquo;It certainly,&rdquo; to use the words of
+this Mr. Gallatin's oldest and best political friend, &ldquo;furnishes a
+lesson of practical policy.&rdquo; Disagreeable as the necessity was, it could
+not be avoided, and Mr. Gallatin met it manfully. Nay more, he seems to
+have had a grim satisfaction in proposing the measure to the Congress
+which had thwarted him in his plans. In accordance with his suggestions,
+Congress, in the extra session of May, 1813, laid a direct tax of
+$3,000,000 upon the States, and specific duties upon refined sugar,
+carriages, licenses to distillers of spirituous liquors, sales at
+auction, licenses to retailers of wines, and upon notes of banks and
+bankers. These duties, in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span>the beginning temporary, were calculated to
+yield $500,000, and with the direct tax to give a sum of $3,500,000. But
+the increasing expenditures again requiring additional sums of revenue,
+the duties were made permanent and additional taxes were laid; the
+entire revenue for 1815 being raised so as to yield $12,400,000. In the
+second term of Mr. Madison the internal revenue brought in nearly eleven
+and a half millions. The Federalists, who as a party were opposed to the
+war, enjoyed the situation; Mr. Gallatin was compelled to impose the
+internal revenue tax which he detested, and Mr. Dallas was called upon
+to enforce its application.</p>
+
+<h3><i>A. J. Dallas</i></h3>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="image-6" id="image-6"><!-- Image6 --></a>
+<img src="images/illus-257-1.jpg" height="302" width="226"
+alt="A. J. Dallas" /></p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="image-7" id="image-7"><!-- Image 7 --></a>
+<img src="images/illus-257-2.jpg" height="53" width="162"
+alt="Signature of A. J. Dallas" /></p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="#ILLUS">Click for list of Illustrations</a></p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>The only remaining source of revenue was the sale of public lands. This
+also was a part of Hamilton's original scheme. The public lands of the
+United States were acquired in three different ways, namely, 1, by
+cessions from the States of such lands as they claimed, or were entitled
+to by their original grants or charters from the crown, while colonies;
+2, by purchase from Indian tribes; 3, by treaties with foreign
+nations,&mdash;those of 1783 and 1794 with Great Britain, of 1795 with Spain,
+and of 1803 with France. The need of bringing this vast territory under
+the control of the government and disposing of it for settlement was
+early apparent. In July, 1791, Hamilton sent in to the House a report on
+"A uniform system for the disposition of the lands, the property of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>
+United States." In March preceding, grants of the United States had
+confirmed to the actual settlers in the Illinois country the possession
+of their farms. But what with the Indian wars and the rebellion within
+the United States, no action was taken by Congress to carry the
+recommendations of the secretary into effect, until Mr. Gallatin, whose
+residence on the frontier gave him direct interest in the subject,
+brought up the matter at the very first session he attended. In 1796 a
+bill was passed authorizing and regulating the sale of lands northwest
+of the Ohio and above the mouth of the Kentucky River, and a
+surveyor-general was appointed with directions to lay out these lands in
+townships. The sales under Adams's administrations were trifling, the
+total amount received from this source before the year 1800 being
+slightly over one hundred thousand dollars. In May, 1800, sales of the
+same lands were authorized at public vendue at not less than two dollars
+per acre; four land offices were established in the territory; surveyors
+were appointed, and a register of the land office was made a permanent
+official. In March, 1803, an act was passed to regulate the sale of the
+United States lands south of the Tennessee River, two land offices were
+established and public sale provided for at the same price set in the
+act of 1800. In March, 1804, the Indiana lands lying north of the Ohio
+and east of the Mississippi were brought within similar regulations, and
+an act was passed concerning the coun<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>try acquired under Spanish and
+British grants. In the same month Louisiana was erected into two
+territories. The sums received from the sales during the first term of
+Jefferson's administration amounted to little more than one million of
+dollars. In January, 1805, the territory of Indiana was divided into two
+separate governments; that one which was set off received the name of
+Michigan, and in 1808, its territory was brought under the regulations
+of the land office.</p>
+
+<p>The sums received from the sales in the second term of Jefferson's
+administration reached nearly two and one half millions of dollars, and
+in Madison's first term, nearly three millions of dollars. From first to
+last Mr. Gallatin never lost sight of the subject, though occasion did
+not serve for more than organization of the system which, in the four
+years ending 1836, yielded nearly fifty million dollars, and paid more
+than one third of the entire expenses of the government. To John W.
+Eppes<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> Mr. Gallatin wrote in the crisis of 1813, &ldquo;The public lands
+constitute the only great national resource exclusive of loans and
+taxes. They have already been mentioned as a fund for the ultimate
+extinguishment of the public debt.&rdquo; The land offices were then in full
+operation.</p>
+
+<p>In 1810 Mr. Gallatin prepared an &ldquo;Introduction to the collection of
+laws, treaties, and other documents respecting the public lands,&rdquo; which
+was published pursuant to an act of Congress passed in April of that
+year.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><i>Free Trade</i></h2>
+
+<p>While Mr. Gallatin differed from his early Republican associates in many
+of their theories of administration, he was a firm believer in the best
+of their principles, namely, the wisdom of giving free scope to the
+development of national resources with the least possible interference
+on the part of government. One of his purposes in his persistent desire
+for economy in expenditure was to reduce the tariff upon foreign
+importations to the lowest practicable limit. He was the earliest public
+advocate in America of the principles of free trade, and an experience
+of sixty years confirmed him in his convictions.</p>
+
+<p>The extinguishment of the debt rendered a great reduction in the revenue
+possible. On the other hand, it brought the friends of a low tariff face
+to face with the problem of internal improvements. As the election of
+1832 drew near, the advocates of the two systems ranged themselves in
+two great parties precisely as to-day: the advocates of the protective
+or American system with internal improvements as an outlet for
+accumulations of revenue on the one side; on the other the advocates of
+free trade. Between his desire for the advantages of the one with its
+attendant disadvantages of government interference in its prosecution,
+and the freedom of commerce from undue restrictions, Mr. Gallatin did
+not hesitate. He threw the whole force of his experience and character
+into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> the free trade cause, and became the leader of its friends.</p>
+
+<p>On September 30, 1831, a convention of the advocates of free trade,
+without distinction of party, met at the Musical Fund Hall in
+Philadelphia. Two hundred and twelve delegates appeared. Among them were
+Theodore Sedgwick, George Peabody, and John L. Gardner from
+Massachusetts; Preserved Fish, John Constable, John A. Stevens, Jonathan
+Goodhue, James Boorman, Jacob Lorillard, and Albert Gallatin from New
+York; C. C. Biddle, George Emlen, Isaac W. Norris from Pennsylvania;
+Langdon Cheves, Henry Middleton, Joseph W. Allston, and William C.
+Preston from South Carolina; and men of equal distinction, bankers,
+merchants, statesmen, and political economists from other States. Of
+this convention Mr. Gallatin was the soul. He opened its business by
+stating the objects of the meeting, and nominated the Hon. Philip P.
+Barbour of Virginia for president. A general committee of two from each
+State was appointed, which recommended an address to the people of the
+United States and a memorial to Congress. The address to the people
+closed with a declaration that the near extinguishment of the national
+debt, which would be discharged by the available funds of the government
+on January 1, 1833, suggested that the moment was propitious for the
+establishment of the principles of free trade. Thus the people of the
+United States, who had successfully asserted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> the doctrines of free
+government, might add to its claims upon the gratitude of the world by
+being the first also to proclaim the theory of a free and unrestricted
+commerce, the genuine &ldquo;American system.&rdquo; Mr. Gallatin was the chairman
+of the committee of fourteen, one from each State represented in the
+convention, to prepare the memorial which was presented in their behalf
+to Congress, the conclusions of which, presented with his consummate
+ability, demonstrated with mathematical precision that a duty of
+twenty-five per cent. was sufficient for all the legitimate purposes of
+government. Here he found himself in direct opposition to Mr. Clay,
+whose political existence was staked upon the opposite theory. Mr. Clay
+answered in a great speech in the Senate in February, 1832, and forgot
+himself in personal denunciation of Mr. Gallatin as a foreigner with
+European interests at heart, and of utopian ideas; for this he expressed
+his regret to Mr. Gallatin in an interview arranged by mutual friends at
+a much later period. Mr. Gallatin's views were accepted as the policy of
+the country, and after some shifting of parties, in which friends and
+foes changed ground in subordination to other political exigencies, they
+prevailed in the tariff of 1846, the best arranged and most reasonable
+which the United States has yet seen.</p>
+
+<p>It is certain that Mr. Gallatin was opposed to &ldquo;protective&rdquo; revenue. His
+preference was for an &ldquo;even&rdquo; duty on all imports. This is not the place<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span>
+for an economic discussion. The true policy of the United States is
+probably between the extremes of protection and free trade. The nature
+of our population has been changed by the enormous immigration of the
+last fifty years. Moreover, instead of an absolute freedom from debt the
+nation has had to endure the legacy of debt left by the Civil War, to
+meet which a development of all its resources of manufacture as well as
+of agriculture is required.</p>
+
+<h2><i>Administration</i></h2>
+
+<p>To arrive at a correct estimate of Mr. Gallatin's administration of the
+Treasury Department, a cursory review of the establishment as he
+received it from the hands of Mr. Wolcott is necessary. This review is
+confined to administration in its limited sense, namely, the direction
+of its clerical management under the provisions of statute law. The
+organization of the department as originated by Hamilton and established
+by the act of September 2, 1789, provided for a secretary of the
+treasury as head of the department, whose general duty should be to
+supervise the fiscal affairs of the country, and particularly to suggest
+and prepare plans for the improvement and support of the public credit;
+and, under his direction and supervision, a comptroller to adjust and
+preserve accounts; an auditor to receive, examine, and rectify accounts;
+a treasurer to receive, keep, and disburse moneys on warrants signed and
+coun<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span>tersigned; a register to keep the accounts of receipts and
+expenditures; and an assistant to the secretary of the treasury to fill
+any vacancy from absence or other temporary cause. In addition to the
+departments of State, Treasury, and War, a fourth, that of the Navy, was
+established April 30, 1798. The three departments were brought into
+relation with that of the Treasury by an act passed July 16, 1798,
+supplementary to that organizing the Treasury, and which provided, 1st,
+for the appointment of an accountant in each department, who was
+required to report to the accounting officer of the Treasury; 2d, that
+the Treasurer of the United States should only disburse by warrants on
+the Treasury, countersigned by the accountant of the Treasury; 3d, that
+all purchases for supplies for military or naval service should be
+subject to the inspection and revision of the officers of the Treasury.
+Mr. Jefferson, after his usual fashion of economy in the wrong
+direction, proposed to Mr. Gallatin &ldquo;to amalgamate the comptroller and
+auditor into one, and reduce the register to a clerk of accounts: so
+that the organization should consist, as it should at first, of a keeper
+of money, a keeper of accounts, and the head of the department.&rdquo; But in
+the Treasury Department there was no extravagance during Gallatin's
+administration, and the shifting of responsibility would bring no saving
+of salaries.</p>
+
+<p>In May, 1800, an act was passed making it "the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> duty of the secretary of
+the treasury to digest, prepare, and lay before Congress at the
+commencement of every session a report on the subject of finances,
+containing estimates of the public revenue and expenditures, and plans
+for improving and increasing the revenue from time to time, for the
+purpose of giving information to Congress in adopting modes for raising
+the money requisite to meet the expenditures." Hamilton had never sent
+in any other than a statement of expenditure for the past fiscal year,
+together with the estimate of the accountant of the Treasury for the
+proximate wants of the departments of government. Mr. Gallatin
+incorporated in his annual report a balance sheet in accordance with the
+ordinary forms of book-keeping familiar to every accountant and
+indispensable in every business establishment, and such as is presented
+to the public in the monthly and annual statements of the Treasury
+Department at this day.</p>
+
+<p>The statutes show no legislation during Mr. Gallatin's period of
+administration, and to its close he was in continual struggle to force
+upon Congress and the departments an accord with his pet plan of minute
+specific appropriation of the sums estimated for and expended by each.
+Mr. Madison heartily agreed with Mr. Gallatin on this subject, and on
+taking office placed the relations of the State Department upon the
+desired footing. But the heads of the Army and Navy were never willing
+to consent to the strict limitation which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> Mr. Gallatin would have
+imposed on their expenditures. In his notes to Jefferson for the draft
+of his first message in 1801, Mr. Gallatin said that the most important
+reform he could suggest was that of 'specific appropriations,' and he
+inclosed an outline of a form to be enforced in detail. In January,
+1802, he sent to Joseph H. Nicholson a series of inquiries to be
+addressed to himself by a special committee on the subject, with regard
+to the mode by which money was drawn from the Treasury and the situation
+of accounts between that department and those of the Army and Navy. To
+these questions he sent in to the House an elaborate reply, which he
+intended to be the basis of legislation. Strict appropriation was the
+ideal at which he aimed, and this word was so often on his tongue or in
+his messages that it could not be mentioned without a suggestion of his
+personality. He carried the same nicety of detail into his domestic
+life. He managed his own household expenses, and at a time when
+bountiful stores were the fashion in every household he insisted on a
+rigid observance of the more precise French system. He made an
+appropriation of a certain sum each day for his expenses, and required
+from his purveyor a strict daily account of disbursements. An amusing
+story is told of him at his own table. On an occasion when entertaining
+a company at dinner, he was dissatisfied with the menu and expressed his
+disapprobation to his ma&icirc;tre d'h&ocirc;tel, a Frenchman, who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> replied to him
+in broken English, that it was not his fault, but that of the
+&ldquo;mal-appropriations.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The example set by Mr. Gallatin in this particular was never forgotten,
+and from his day to this strict accountability has been the tradition of
+the Treasury Department, now greatly increased in detail, but in
+structure essentially as it was originally organized. Of its management
+Mr. Sherman was able to say in his report of December 1, 1879, "The
+organization of the several bureaus is such, and the system of
+accounting so perfect, that the financial transactions of the government
+during the past two years, aggregating $3,354,345,040, have been
+adjusted without question with the exception of a few small balances,
+now in the process of collection, of which it is believed that the
+government will eventually lose less than $13,000, or less than four
+mills for each $1000 of the amount involved;" and in 1880 he said with
+entire truth, &ldquo;The department is a well organized and well conducted
+business office, depending mainly for its success upon the integrity and
+fidelity of the heads of bureaus and chiefs of divisions.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<h2><i>Banking</i></h2>
+
+<p>There is no more instructive chapter in the history of finance than that
+upon the banking system of the United States. It has its distinct eras
+of radical change, each of which presents a series of tentative
+experiments. The outcome, by a process of development, in which
+political expediency has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> been as effective an agency as financial
+necessity, is the present national banking system. Though the term
+&ldquo;government,&rdquo; or &ldquo;national,&rdquo; bank is constantly used in reference to the
+great banking institutions of England, France, and the United States, no
+one of these is in the true sense of the word a national bank. The Bank
+of England is a chartered corporation, the Bank of France an association
+instituted by law. The Bank of North America, and the Bank of the United
+States which followed it, were founded on the same principle. Both were
+corporations of individuals intimately connected with the government,
+enjoying certain privileges accorded and being under certain
+restrictions, but otherwise independent of government control.</p>
+
+<p>The Bank of North America, the first bank established in the United
+States, was also the first which had any direct relation to the
+government. It was the conception of the comprehensive and original mind
+of Robert Morris, the financier or superintendent of the public finances
+of the United States. Its purpose was not the convenience or profit of
+individuals, but to draw together the scattered financial resources of
+the country and found a public credit. He submitted his plan to
+Congress, which adopted a resolution of approval May 26, 1781. The
+original plan contemplated a capital of ten millions of dollars; but the
+collection of such a sum in gold and silver in one depository was beyond
+the range of possibility at that period,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> and the capital was finally
+fixed at four hundred thousand dollars, in one thousand shares of four
+hundred dollars each. Subscription books were immediately opened, but
+not more than $70,000 was entered during the summer months. The arrival
+at Boston of a French war frigate with a remittance of $470,000 in
+specie, which was brought to Philadelphia and deposited in the vaults of
+the bank, enabled Mr. Morris to mature his plans. He designed to retain
+this sum in the bank as a specie basis; but the necessities of the
+country were so urgent during the critical season of the Yorktown
+campaign, that nearly one half of it was exhausted before an
+organization could be effected. In December Congress passed an ordinance
+of incorporation. Mr. Morris then subscribed the specie remaining in the
+Treasury, about $254,000, for shares for account of the United States,
+which became thereby the principal stockholder. The limit assigned by
+the ordinance remained, however, at ten millions of dollars. There was
+nothing in the acts of Congress which implied any exclusive right of the
+United States government in the bank except during the war of the
+Revolution. A local charter was obtained from the legislature of
+Pennsylvania, and the bank was opened in Philadelphia for the
+transaction of business in January, 1782. Its services to the government
+during the period of the war were inestimable. In the words of Hamilton,
+&ldquo;American independence owes much to it.&rdquo; But after the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> war such were
+the local jealousies, the fears of oppression, and the dread of foreign
+influence, that, on the petition of the inhabitants of Philadelphia and
+some of the neighboring counties, the legislature of Pennsylvania
+repealed its charter on September 13, 1785. The bank continued its
+operations, however, under the charter from Congress. On March 17, 1787,
+the legislature of Pennsylvania renewed the charter for fourteen years
+and limited the capital to two millions of dollars. The charter was
+extended for a similar term of fourteen years on March 26, 1799. Thus in
+the beginning of the American banking system are found that distrust and
+jealousy of money power which seem inherent in democracies. The exercise
+of state jurisdiction over the existence of the Bank of North America
+suggested possible embarrassments, which could not escape the
+discernment of Hamilton, whose policy, as it was also that of the
+Federal party, was to strengthen the powers of the government in every
+vital branch of administration.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>In his comprehensive plan of government Hamilton included a financial
+institution to develop the national resources, strengthen the public
+credit, aid the Treasury Department in its administration, and provide a
+secure and sound circulating medium for the people. On December 13,
+1790, he sent in to Congress a report on the subject of a national bank.
+The Republican party, then in the minor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span>ity, opposed the plan as
+unconstitutional, on the ground that the power of creating banks or any
+corporate body had not been expressly delegated to Congress, and was
+therefore not possessed by it. Washington's cabinet was divided;
+Jefferson opposing the measure as not within the implied powers, because
+it was an expediency and not a paramount necessity. Later he used
+stronger language, and denounced the institution as &ldquo;one of the most
+deadly hostility existing against the principles and form of our
+Constitution,&rdquo; nor did he ever abandon these views. There is the
+authority of Mr. Gallatin for saying that Jefferson &ldquo;died a decided
+enemy to our banking system generally, and specially to a bank of the
+United States.&rdquo; But Hamilton's views prevailed. Washington, who in the
+weary years of war had seen the imperative necessity of some national
+organization of the finances, after mature deliberation approved the
+plan, and on February 25, 1791, the Bank of the United States was
+incorporated. The capital stock was limited to twenty-five thousand
+shares of four hundred dollars each, or ten millions of dollars, payable
+one fourth in gold and silver, and three fourths in public securities
+bearing an interest of six and three per cent. The stock was immediately
+subscribed for, the government taking five thousand shares, two millions
+of dollars, under the right reserved in the charter. The subscription of
+the United States was paid in ten equal annual installments. A large
+proportion of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> stock was held abroad, and the shares soon rose above
+par. By an act of March 2, 1791, the funded three per cents. were also
+made receivable in payment of subscriptions to the bank, whence it has
+been said that out of the funding system sprung the bank, as three
+fourths of its capital consisted of public stocks. Authority was given
+the bank to establish offices of discount and deposit within the United
+States. The chief bank was placed in Philadelphia, and branches were
+established in eight cities, with capitals in proportion to their
+commercial importance.</p>
+
+<p>In 1809 the stockholders of the Bank of the United States memorialized
+the government for a renewal of their charter, which would expire on
+March 4, 1811; and on March 9, 1809, Mr. Gallatin sent in a report in
+which he reviewed the operations of the bank from its organization. Of
+the government shares, five million dollars at par, two thousand four
+hundred and ninety-three shares were sold in 1796 and 1797 at an advance
+of 25 per cent., two hundred and eighty-seven in 1797 at an advance of
+20 per cent., and the remaining 2220 shares in 1802, at an advance of 45
+per cent., making together, exclusive of the dividends, a profit of
+$671,680 to the United States. Eighteen thousand shares of the bank
+stock were held abroad, and seven thousand shares, or a little more than
+one fourth part of the capital, in the United States. A table of all the
+dividends made by the bank showed that they had on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> average been at
+the rate of 8-3/8 (precisely 8-13/34) per cent. a year, which proved
+that the bank had not in any considerable degree used the public
+deposits for the purpose of extending its discounts. From a general view
+of the debits and credits, as presented, it appeared that the affairs of
+the Bank of the United States, considered as a moneyed institution, had
+been wisely and skillfully managed. The advantages derived by the
+government Mr. Gallatin stated to be, 1, safekeeping of the public
+moneys; 2, transmission of the public moneys; 3, collection of the
+revenue; 4, loans. The strongest objection to the renewal of the charter
+lay in the great portion of the bank stock held by foreigners. Not on
+account of any influence over the institution, since they had no vote;
+but because of the high rate of interest payable by America to foreign
+countries. If the charter were not renewed the principal of that
+portion, amounting to $7,200,000, must at once be remitted abroad; but
+if the charter were renewed, dividends equal to an interest of about
+8-1/2 per cent. per annum must be remitted. Mr. Gallatin's report closed
+with the following suggestions:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>I. That the bank should pay an interest to the United States on the
+public deposits above a certain sum.</p>
+
+<p>II. That it should be bound to lend the United States a sum not
+exceeding three fifths of its capital.</p>
+
+<p>III. That the capital stock of the bank should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> be increased to thirty
+millions of dollars, to be subscribed for, 1, five millions by citizens
+of the United States; 2, fifteen millions by the States; a branch to be
+established in each subscribing State; 3, payments by either individuals
+or States to be in specie or public stock of the United States at rates
+to be fixed by law; the subscribing States to pay in ten annual
+installments.</p>
+
+<p>IV. That some share should be given in the direction to the general and
+state governments by appointment of directors in the general direction
+and branches.</p>
+
+<p>The result of this plan would be, 1st, that the United States might,
+from the interest on the public deposits, accumulate during years of
+peace and prosperity a treasure sufficient to meet periods of war and
+calamity; 2d, that they might rely on a loan of eighteen millions of
+dollars in any sudden emergency; 3d, that by the payment in ten
+installments the increase in capital would be in proportion to the
+progressive state of the country; 4th, that the bank itself would form
+an additional bond of common interest and union amongst the several
+States. But these arguments availed not against the blind and ignorant
+jealousy of the Republican majority in the House. The days of the bank
+were numbered. Congress refused to prolong its existence, and the
+institution was dissolved. Fortunately for the country, it wound up its
+affairs with such deliberation and prudence as to allow of the
+interposition of other bank credits<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> in lieu of those withdrawn, and
+thus prevented a serious shock to the interests of the community. In the
+twenty years of its existence from 1791 to 1811 its management was
+irreproachable. Its annual dividends from 1791 to 1809 were 8-2/3 per
+cent., and its stock, always above par, from 1805 to 1809 ranged from 20
+to 40 per cent. premium.</p>
+
+<p>In its numerous and varied relations to the government it had been a
+useful and faithful servant, and its directors had never assumed the
+attitude of money kings, of which the Jeffersonian democracy pretended
+to stand in hourly dread. To the general and important nature of its
+financial service Mr. Gallatin gave his testimony in 1830; after his own
+direct participation in public affairs had ended.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;Experience, however, has since confirmed the great utility and
+importance of a bank of the United States in its connection with
+the Treasury. The first great advantage derived from it consists in
+the safekeeping of the public moneys, securing in the first
+instance the immediate payment of those received by the principal
+collectors, and affording a constant check on all their
+transactions; and afterwards rendering a defalcation in the moneys
+once paid, and whilst nominally in the treasury, absolutely
+impossible. The next, and not less important, benefit is to be
+found in the perfect facility with which all the public payments
+are made by checks or treasury drafts, payable at any place where
+the bank has an office; all those who have demands against
+government are paid in the place most convenient to them;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> and the
+public moneys are transferred through our extensive territory at a
+moment's warning without any risk or expense, to the places most
+remote from those of collection, and wherever public exigencies may
+require.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>Late in life, in a letter to John M. Botts, June 14, 1841, Mr. Gallatin
+expressed the same opinions with regard to the usefulness of a
+government bank as an aid to the Treasury Department, but limited his
+approval to that use. &ldquo;Except in its character of fiscal agent to the
+general government I attach much less importance to a national bank than
+several of those who are in favor of it.&rdquo; &ldquo;Did I believe,&rdquo; he adds in
+the same letter, &ldquo;that a bank of the United States would effectually
+secure us a sound currency, I would think it a duty at all hazards to
+promote the object.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The reason for his doubts in 1841 is easily seen in the impossibility of
+annihilating or controlling the three hundred distinct currencies of as
+many banks, each nominally convertible into specie at its point of
+issue; a financial puzzle which Mr. Chase solved in the device and
+organization of the present national banking system, which, without
+involving the government in banking operations, affords to the people a
+homogeneous currency of uniform value, and secures its convertibility by
+reasonable but absolute restrictions, upon conformity to which the
+existence of the banks depends. The exigencies of war compelled an
+acquiescence in the plans of Mr. Chase, which, at the time when Mr.
+Gallatin expressed his doubts, could<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> not have been had in any system
+whatever which involved the subordination of the banks.</p>
+
+<p>The wide spread of the state bank system, with its irresponsible and
+unlimited issues, occurring subsequent to Mr. Gallatin's withdrawal from
+the Treasury, was a consequence of the failure to renew the charter of
+the Bank of the United States; and if ever there were a system by which
+the inhabitants of States whose floating capital was small were placed
+at the mercy of moneyed corporations of the States where it was
+abundant, it was the state bank system. The experience of the old
+confederation had not taught this lesson. The colonial system was
+continued by the several States, and bills of credit were issued on
+their faith. The continental system was a compound of the main features
+of this plan. The bills were issued by the Congress, but the States were
+relied upon for their ultimate redemption.</p>
+
+<p>The collapse of the entire fabric of finance led to the establishment of
+the Bank of North America, the notes of which were redeemable and
+redeemed at the bank counters. The article in the Constitution of 1787,
+prohibiting the issue of bills of credit by the States, was evidently
+intended to secure a uniform currency to the people of the United
+States, and it has been by a strange perversion of this manifest
+intention that the power has been conceded to the States to charter
+corporations to do that which was forbidden to themselves in their
+sovereign capacity; namely, to issue bills<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> of credit, which bank-notes
+are. It is idle to say that, because such bills were not a &ldquo;legal
+tender,&rdquo; they were therefore not of the character which the Constitution
+forbade. Necessity knows no law, and in the absence of any other
+currency the people were perforce compelled to take what they could get.
+Experience later showed that large amounts of paper money manufactured
+in one State were easily put in circulation in far distant communities,
+and considerable sums, through the operations of wear and tear and the
+vicissitudes incident to its fragile nature, never returned to plague
+the inventor.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of the organization of the National Bank by Hamilton, there
+were but three banks in the United States: the Bank of North America,
+the Bank of New York, and the Bank of Massachusetts. Their added capital
+amounted to two millions of dollars, and their issues were
+inconsiderable.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin estimated that in January, 1811, just before the expiration
+of the bank charter, there were in the United States eighty-eight state
+banks with a capital of $42,612,000.</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="75%" summary="Budget figures" style="border: 1pt black solid; font-size: 80%;">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 40%; border: 1pt black solid;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 20%; border: 1pt black solid;">Capital.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 20%; border: 1pt black solid;">Notes in Circulation.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 20%; border: 1pt black solid;">Specie.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl stylet">Bank of the United<br /> States</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$10,000,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$5,400,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$5,800,000</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl styleb">Eighty-eight state banks</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">42,610,601</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">22,700,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">9,600,000</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" style="border: 1pt black solid;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">52,610,601</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">28,100,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="border: 1pt black solid;">15,400,000</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span><p>Over the local institutions the Bank of the United States always
+exercised a salutary control, checking any disposition to overtrade by
+restraining their issues and holding them to a proper specie reserve;
+and this by no other interference except its countenance or ill favor,
+as such banks severally observed or disregarded the ordinary rules of
+financial prudence. The immediate effect of the refusal of Congress to
+recharter the Bank of the United States was to bring the Treasury to the
+verge of bankruptcy. The interference of Parish, Girard, and Astor alone
+saved the credit of the government, and this interference was no doubt
+prompted by self-interest. That Mr. Astor was hostile to the bank is
+certain. Gallatin wrote to Madison in January, 1811, that Mr. Astor had
+sent him a verbal message, &ldquo;that in case of non-renewal of the charter
+of the Bank of the United States, all his funds and those of his
+friends, to the amount of two millions of dollars, would be at the
+command of government, either in importing specie, circulating
+government paper, or in any other way best calculated to prevent any
+injury arising from the dissolution of the bank,&rdquo; and he added that Mr.
+Bentson, Mr. Astor's son-in-law, in communicating this message said,
+&ldquo;that in this instance profit was not Mr. Astor's object, and that he
+would go great lengths, partly from pride and partly from wish, to see
+the bank down.&rdquo; In 1813, when the bank was &ldquo;down,&rdquo; Mr. Gallatin was no
+longer master of the situation. He offered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> to treat directly with
+Parish, Girard, and Astor for ten millions of dollars, but finding some
+hesitation, he opened the loan for subscription. When the subscription
+failed, he was at the mercy of the capitalists.</p>
+
+<p>Another immediate effect of the dissolution of the bank was the
+withdrawal from the country of the foreign capital invested in the bank,
+more than seven millions of dollars. This amount was remitted, in the
+twelve months preceding the war, in specie. Specie was at that time a
+product foreign to the United States, and by no means easy to obtain.
+Specie, as Mr. Gallatin profoundly observed, does not precede, but
+follows wealth. The want of it nearly destroyed Morris's original plan
+for the Bank of North America, and was only made up by the fortunate
+receipt of the French remittances. In 1808 the specie in the vaults of
+the treasury reached fourteen millions of dollars, but during the
+operation of the Embargo Act, the banks of New England had gradually
+accumulated a specie reserve, and that of Richmond, Virginia, pursued
+the same policy. Together they held one third of the entire specie
+reserve of the banks. The amount of specie in the Bank of the United
+States, January 1, 1811, had fallen to $5,800,000, which soon found its
+way abroad.</p>
+
+<p>The notes of the Bank of the United States, payable on demand in gold
+and silver at the coun<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span>ters of the bank, or any of its branches, were,
+by its charter, receivable in all payments to the United States; but
+this quality was also stripped from them on March 19, 1812, by a repeal
+of the act according it. To these disturbances of the financial
+equilibrium of the country was added the necessary withdrawal of fifteen
+millions of bank credit and its transfer to other institutions. This
+gave an extraordinary impulse to the establishment of local banks, each
+eager for a share of the profits. The capital of the country, instead of
+being concentrated, was dissipated. Between January 1, 1811, and 1815,
+one hundred and twenty new banks were chartered, and forty millions of
+dollars were added to the banking capital. To realize profits, the
+issues of paper were pushed to the extreme of possible circulation.
+Meanwhile New England kept aloof from the nation. The specie in the
+vaults of the banks of Massachusetts rose from $1,706,000 on June 1,
+1811, to $7,326,000 on June 1, 1814. This was a consequence of the New
+England policy of opposition. Mr. Gallatin estimated that the proceeds
+of loans, exclusive of treasury notes and temporary loans, paid into the
+treasury from the commencement of the war to the end of the year 1814
+were $41,010,000: of which sum the Eastern States lent $2,900,000; the
+Middle States, $35,790,000; Southwestern States, $2,320,000.</p>
+
+<p>The floating debt of the United States, consist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span>ing of treasury notes
+and temporary loans unpaid, amounted, January 1, 1815, to $11,250,000,
+of which nearly four fifths were loaned by the cities of New York,
+Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and the District of Columbia. The
+suspension of the banks was precipitated by the capture of Washington.
+It began in Baltimore, which was threatened by the British, and was at
+once followed in Philadelphia and New York. Before the end of September
+all the banks south and west of New England had suspended specie
+payment. In his &ldquo;Considerations on the Currency,&rdquo; Mr. Gallatin expressed
+his&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;deliberate opinion that the suspension might have been prevented
+at the time when it took place, had the Bank of the United States
+been in existence. The exaggerated increase of state banks,
+occasioned by the dissolution of that institution, would not have
+occurred. That bank would <i>as before</i> have restrained them within
+proper bounds and checked their issues, and through the means of
+its offices it would have been in possession of the earliest
+symptoms of the approaching danger. It would have put the Treasury
+Department on its guard; both, acting in concert, would certainly
+have been able, at least, to retard the event; and as the treaty of
+peace was ratified within less than six months after the suspension
+took place, that catastrophe would have been avoided.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>But within fifteen months the bank issues increased from forty-five and
+a half to sixty millions.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="75%" summary="Budget figures" style="border: 1pt black solid; font-size: 80%;">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 40%; border: 1pt black solid;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 20%; border: 1pt black solid;">Capital.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 20%; border: 1pt black solid;">Circulation.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" style="width: 20%; border: 1pt black solid;">Specie.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl stylet">Banks of New England</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">15,690,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$5,320,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$8,200,000</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl styleb">Other Banks</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">66,930,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">44,730,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">8,600,000</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl stylet">1815. 208 State Banks</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$82,620,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$50,050,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr stylet">$16,800,000</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl styleb">1816. 246 State Banks</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">$89,822,422</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">68,000,000</td>
+  <td class="tdr styleb">19,000,000</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The depression of the local currencies ranged from seven to twenty-five
+per cent. In New York and Charleston it was seven to ten per cent. below
+the par of coin. At Philadelphia from seventeen to eighteen per cent. At
+Washington and Baltimore from twenty to twenty-two, and at Pittsburgh
+and on the frontier, twenty-five per cent. below par. The circulating
+medium, or measure of values, being doubled, the price of commodities
+was doubled. The agiotage, of course, was the profit of the bankers and
+brokers; a sum estimated at six millions of dollars a year, or ten per
+cent. on the exchanges of the country, which McDuffie, in his celebrated
+report, estimated at sixty millions annually.</p>
+
+<p>In November the Treasury Department found itself involved in the common
+disaster. The refusal of the banks, in which the public moneys were
+deposited, to pay their notes or the drafts upon them in specie deprived
+the government of its gold and silver; and their refusal, likewise, of
+credit and circulation to the issues of banks in other States deprived
+the government also of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> only means it possessed for transferring its
+funds to pay the dividends on the debt and discharge the treasury notes.
+Mr. Dallas found himself compelled to appeal to the banks by circular to
+subscribe for sufficient treasury notes to secure them such advances as
+might be asked of them for the discharge of the public obligations.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In the latter end of the year 1814,&rdquo; says Mr. Gallatin, &ldquo;Mr. Jefferson
+suggested the propriety of a gradual issue by government of two hundred
+millions of dollars in paper;&rdquo; commenting upon which Mr. Gallatin
+remarks that Mr. Jefferson, from the imperfect data in his possession,
+&ldquo;greatly overrated the amount of paper currency which could be sustained
+at par; and he had, on the other hand, underrated the great expenses of
+the war;&rdquo; but at &ldquo;all events,&rdquo; he adds, &ldquo;the issue of government paper
+ought to be kept in reserve for extraordinary circumstances.&rdquo; But here
+it may be remarked that the evolution of the systems of American finance
+seems to lead slowly but surely to an entire divorce of banking from
+currency, and the day is not far distant when the circulating medium of
+the United States will consist of gold and silver, and of government
+issues restricted, according to the English principle, to the minimum of
+circulation, and kept equivalent to coin by a specie reserve in the
+treasury; while the banks, their circulation withdrawn and the
+institutions freed from any tax, will be confined to their legitimate
+business of receiving deposits and making loans and discounts.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On October 14, 1814, Alexander J. Dallas, Mr. Gallatin's old friend, who
+had been appointed secretary of the treasury on the 6th of the same
+month, in a report of a plan to support the public credit, proposed the
+incorporation of a national bank. A bill was passed by Congress, but
+returned to it by Madison with his veto on January 15, 1815. In this
+peculiar document Madison &ldquo;waived the question of the constitutional
+authority of the legislature to establish an incorporated bank, as being
+precluded, in his judgment, by repeated recognitions, under varied
+circumstances, of the validity of such an institution in acts of the
+legislative, executive, and judicial branches of the government.&rdquo; But he
+objected for reasons of detail. Mr. Dallas again, as a last resort,
+insisted on a bank as the only means by which the currency of the
+country could be restored to a sound condition. In December, 1815,
+Dallas reported to the committee of the House of Representatives on the
+national currency, of which John C. Calhoun was chairman, a plan for a
+national bank, and on March 3, 1816, the second Bank of the United
+States was chartered by Congress. The capital was thirty-five millions,
+of which the government held seven millions in seventy thousand shares
+of one hundred dollars each. Mr. Madison approved the bill. This
+completed the abandonment of every shred of principle claimed by the
+Republican party as their rule of action. They struggled through the
+rest of their existence without a politi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span>cal conviction. The national
+bank, and the system of internal taxation which had been scorned by
+Jefferson and Madison as unconstitutional, were accepted actually under
+Madison's administration. Gallatin's success, owing to the development
+and application of Hamilton's plans, was a complete vindication of the
+theory and practice of the Federalists which they abhorred; Jefferson's
+plan of a government issue of paper money was a higher flight into the
+upper atmosphere of implied powers than Hamilton ever dreamed of.</p>
+
+<p>The second national bank of the United States was also located at
+Philadelphia, and chartered for twenty years. The manner in which it
+performed its financial service is admirably set forth in Mr. Gallatin's
+&ldquo;Considerations on the Currency,&rdquo; already mentioned. It acted as a
+regulator upon the state banks, checked excessive issues on their part,
+and brought the paper currency of the country down from sixty-six to
+less than forty millions, before the year 1820.</p>
+
+<p>In April, 1816, Mr. Dallas having signified his intention to resign the
+Treasury, Mr. Madison wrote to Gallatin, offering him his choice between
+the mission to France and the Treasury Department. Mr. Gallatin's reply
+was characteristic. He declined the Treasury, but with reluctance, since
+he thought he would be more useful at home than abroad, and because he
+preferred to be in America rather than in Europe. One of his
+preponderating reasons was that, although he felt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> himself competent to
+the higher duties of the office, there was, for what he conceived &ldquo;a
+proper management of the Treasury, a necessity for a mass of mechanical
+labor connected with details, forms, calculating, etc., which having
+lost sight of the thread and routine, he could not think of again
+learning and going through.&rdquo; He was aware that there was &ldquo;much confusion
+due to the changes of office and the state of the currency, and thought
+that an active young man could alone reinstate and direct properly that
+department.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In June of the same year, while waiting for the Peacock, which was to
+carry him across the sea, Gallatin wrote Mr. Madison an urgent letter,
+impressing upon him the necessity of restoring specie payment, and his
+perfect conviction that nothing but the will of the government was
+wanted to reinstate the country in its moral character in that respect.
+He dreaded the &ldquo;paper taint,&rdquo; which he found spreading as he journeyed
+northward.</p>
+
+<p>In January 1817, delegates from the banks of New York, Philadelphia,
+Baltimore and Virginia met in Philadelphia and agreed to a general and
+simultaneous resumption of specie payments. The Bank of the United
+States proposed a compact which was accepted by the state banks and
+ratified by the secretary of the treasury. That institution engaged, to
+a reasonable extent, to support any bank menaced. This engagement and
+the importation of seven millions of specie from abroad by the Bank of
+the United States secured a general<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> restoration of specie payment. In
+1822 Mr. Gallatin was tendered and declined the office of president of
+the Bank of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>In 1829 he prepared for Mr. Ingham, then secretary of the treasury, a
+masterly statement of the relative value of gold and silver. In 1830 Mr.
+Gallatin wrote for the &ldquo;American Quarterly Review&rdquo; his essay,
+&ldquo;Considerations on the Currency and Banking System of the United
+States.&rdquo; Appearing at the time when the renewal of the charter of the
+Bank of the United States was an absorbing question, this essay was
+equally sought for by both the friends and opponents of the bank. It is
+not confined, however, to this subject, but covers the entire field of
+American finance. His treatment of the currency question was novel. He
+analyzed the systems of Europe, compared them with those which prevailed
+in the United States, and reached the conclusion, the general
+correctness of which has been justified by the experience of all other
+nations, and sooner or later will be accepted by our own; namely, the
+necessity of a currency strong in the precious metals, and the
+restriction of paper money to notes of one hundred dollars to be issued
+by the government. This limit is higher than that adopted in France and
+England, but the general principle that a circulating medium is sound
+only as it is strong in gold and silver, and that gold and silver can
+only be retained permanently by making a place for them in the
+circulating medium by a restriction of paper<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> issues, will yet find
+favor even in this paper-loving country.</p>
+
+<p>In 1832 Mr. Gallatin accepted the presidency of a bank in New York, the
+subscription to the stock of which, $750,000, was completed by Mr. John
+Jacob Astor on condition that Mr. Gallatin should manage its affairs.
+The direction of its concerns, without absorbing his time, kept him in
+the financial current. The bank was called the National Bank of New
+York. But not in this modest post was he to find the financial path
+smooth. It is true he had lived in the flesh to see the financial
+millennium. The rapid growth of the country and the faithful adherence
+of his successors in the Treasury Department to the funding principle
+had at last realized his dream. The national debt was extinguished. The
+last dollar was paid. Louis McLane, secretary of the treasury, on
+December 5, 1832, in his report on the finances, said that the dividends
+derived from the bank shares held by the United States were more than
+was required to pay the interest, and that the <i>debt</i> might therefore be
+considered as substantially extinguished after January 1, 1833.</p>
+
+<p>On December 3, 1833, Roger B. Taney, secretary of the treasury, reported
+to Congress that he had directed the removal of the deposits of the
+government from the Bank of the United States and placed them in banks
+of his own selection. He gave a number of reasons for this extraordinary
+exercise of the power which he obtained by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> his appointment on September
+23, 1833. He received his reward in June, 1834, being then transferred
+by President Jackson to the seat of chief justice of the Supreme Court.
+In his annual report Taney named, among his elaborate reasons for the
+removal, that the bank had used its money for electioneering purposes,
+and that he &ldquo;had always regarded the result of the last election of
+President of the United States as the declaration of a majority of the
+people that the charter ought not to be renewed.&rdquo; He further expressed
+the opinion &ldquo;that a corporation of that description was not necessary
+either for the fiscal operations of the government or the general
+convenience of the people.&rdquo; It mattered little to him that Mr. Gallatin
+had only recently pointed out that from the year 1791 the operations of
+the Treasury had, without interruption, been carried on through the
+medium of banks; during the years 1811 to 1814, by the state banks, with
+a result which no one had as yet forgotten; before and since that brief
+interval through the Bank of the United States. Enough for Taney, that
+it was the will of his imperious master, 'the pugnacious animal,' as
+Gallatin aptly termed him.</p>
+
+<p>In October, 1834, Taney's successor in the Treasury, Levi Woodbury, gave
+notice that the remaining debt, unredeemed after January 1, 1835, would
+cease to bear interest and be promptly paid on application to the
+commissioners of loans in the several States. On December 8, 1835, Mr.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span>
+Woodbury reported &ldquo;an unprecedented spectacle presented to the world of
+a government virtually without any debts and without any direct
+taxation.&rdquo; The surplus revenues, about thirty-seven and a half millions
+of dollars, had by an act of the previous session been distributed among
+the several States. But the secretary and the country soon found that
+they were on dangerous ground. In December, 1837, the same secretary,
+alarmed at his responsibility, said to Congress, in warning words, &ldquo;We
+are without any national debt to absorb and regulate surpluses, or any
+adequate supply of banking institutions which provide a sound currency
+for general purposes by paying specie on demand, or which are in a
+situation fully to command confidence for keeping, disbursing, and
+transferring the public funds in a satisfactory manner.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Bank of the United States, on the expiration of its charter in
+March, 1836, accepted a charter from the State of Pennsylvania; but,
+though its influence continued to be as great, its direction was no
+longer the same. Abandoning its legitimate business, it speculated in
+merchandise, and even kept an agent in New Orleans to compete with the
+Barings in purchases of the cotton crop as a basis for exchange.
+Precisely as in 1811, after the withdrawal of the control of the Bank of
+the United States, the state banks ran a wild career of speculation.
+From 1830 to 1837 three hundred new banks sprang up with an additional
+capital of one hundred and forty-five mil<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span>lions, doubling, as twenty
+years before, the banking capital of the country. This volume the
+deposits of the Treasury continued to swell. Mr. Woodbury was the first
+to take alarm. In December, 1836, he reported the specie in the country
+to have increased from thirty millions in 1833 to seventy-three millions
+at the date of his report, and the paper circulation, in the same
+period, to have advanced, since the removal of the deposits from the
+Bank of the United States, from eighty millions to one hundred and
+twenty millions, or forty millions in eighteen months; and the bank
+capital, in the same period, to have increased from two hundred to three
+hundred millions. Importation augmented; the balance of trade suddenly
+turned against the United States to the extent of one hundred and fifty
+millions, and coin began to flow abroad to liquidate the account. There
+was no debt to attract foreign investment and arrest the export of
+specie. Added to this was the withdrawal of the government deposits from
+the pet banks, which compelled an immediate contraction. The result was
+inevitable. On May 10, 1837, the New York banks suspended, Mr.
+Gallatin's institution being of course dragged down with the rest. It is
+idle to suppose that any single bank can hold out against a general
+suspension. It may liquidate or become a bank of deposits, but it cannot
+maintain its relations with its sister institutions except on a basis of
+common accord.</p>
+
+<p>A general suspension followed. Mr. Woodbury<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> proved himself equal to the
+emergency, and recommended a plan of &ldquo;keeping the public money under new
+legislative provisions without using banks at all as fiscal agents.&rdquo;
+This was the beginning of the sub-treasury system, a new departure in
+treasury management, and a further evolution in American finance. It
+still remains, and will no doubt be permanent. Its establishment was
+necessary because of the absence of a national bank.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin at once turned his attention to bring about first a
+liquidation and then a resumption. It was a favorite maxim with him,
+that &ldquo;the agonies of resumption are far harder to endure than those of
+suspension,&rdquo; as it is easier to refrain from lapse of virtue than to
+restore moral integrity once impaired. But in resumption the suffering
+falls where it belongs, on the careless, the improvident, and the
+over-trader.</p>
+
+<p>On August 15, 1837, the officers of the banks of New York city, in a
+general meeting, appointed a committee of three to call a convention of
+the principal banks to agree upon a time for a resumption of specie
+payments. This committee, of which Mr. Gallatin was chairman, on August
+18 addressed a circular to the principal banks in the United States,
+inviting the expression of their wishes as to the time and place for a
+convention, suggesting New York as the place, and October, 1837, as the
+time. They said, in addition, that the banks of New York city, in view
+of the law of the State dissolving them as legal corporations<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> in case
+of suspension for one year, must resume at some time between January 1
+and March 15, 1838. The circular committed the New York banks to no
+definite action, but expressed the opinion that the fall in the rate of
+exchanges indicated an early return of specie to par, when resumption
+could be effected without danger. The banks of Philadelphia held a
+meeting on August 29, and adopted resolutions declaring it inexpedient
+to appoint delegates to the proposed convention. Aware of the reasons
+for this action, the chief of which was the extended and perhaps
+insolvent condition of the United States Bank of Pennsylvania, the New
+York committee invited the banks in the several States to appoint
+delegates to meet on November 27, 1837, in New York. Delegates from
+banks of seventeen States and the District of Columbia appeared. On the
+30th resolutions were brought in recommending a general resumption on
+July 1, without precluding an earlier resumption on the part of such
+banks as might find it necessary. The Pennsylvania banks opposed this
+action with resolutions condemning the idea of immediate resumption as
+impracticable, and also, in the absence of delegates from the banks of
+Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Tennessee, as unwise. The
+convention met again on December 2, when an adjournment was carried to
+April 11, 1838, when delegates from the banks not represented were
+invited to attend. Mr. Gallatin saw that the combination of the
+Philadelphia and Boston banks,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> under the lead of Mr. Biddle, would
+certainly force a further postponement. Exchange on London, which had
+been as high as 121, the true par being about 109-1/2, nominal, had
+fallen to 111-1/2, which, considering that the city bank paper was at a
+discount of five per cent., was at the rate of 2-1/2 per cent. below
+specie par. The exportation of specie had entirely ceased.</p>
+
+<p>On December 15 Mr. Gallatin and his committee appointed at the general
+convention submitted a report which he had drafted, which, though
+addressed to the New York banks, covered the whole ground. Meanwhile the
+highest authority in Pennsylvania had given it as his opinion &ldquo;that the
+banks of Pennsylvania were in a much sounder state than before the
+suspension, and that the resumption of specie payments, so far as it
+depends on their situation and resources, may take place at any time.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>On February 28, 1838, Mr. Gallatin's committee made a further report
+showing that the liabilities of the New York banks had been reduced more
+than twelve millions and a half, or fifty per cent., and asserting that
+with the support of the community and the state authorities they could
+resume on an equal footing on May 10. This declaration was welcomed with
+great satisfaction by a general meeting of the citizens of New York. On
+April 11 the general convention again met in New York. The Philadelphia
+banks declined to attend. A letter from Mr. Woodbury promised<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> the
+support of the Treasury Department. A committee of one from each State
+was appointed, which recommended the first Monday in October as the
+earliest day for a general resumption. The convention could not,
+however, be brought to fix upon so early a day, but finally fixed upon
+January 1, 1839, and adjourned. The New York banks would have accepted
+July 1, 1838, but this being refused they resumed alone on May 10, and
+the force of public opinion compelled resumption by nearly all the banks
+of the country on July 1.</p>
+
+<p>The terrible contraction was fatal to the United States Bank of
+Pennsylvania, which after a vain struggle closed its doors in October,
+1839, and carried with it the entire banking system of the Southern and
+Southwestern States. Although in no way similar to the semi-governmental
+institutions which preceded it, yet, from its similarity of name and
+identity of location, its disastrous failure added to the blind popular
+distrust of its predecessors, which narrow-minded politicians had
+fostered for their own selfish purposes. Fortunately the sub-treasury
+plan of Mr. Woodbury supplied the need of a safe place of deposit which,
+since the refusal of Congress to renew the charter of the old bank, had
+been sorely felt.</p>
+
+<p>In 1838, on the foundation of the Bank of Commerce under the free
+banking law of the State of New York, the presidency of it was first
+tendered to Mr. Gallatin. The directors of this bank were among the most
+distinguished financiers of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> city, and its object was to provide a
+conservative institution with sufficient power and capital to act as a
+regulator upon the New York banks. Profit to the stockholders was
+secondary to the reserve power for general advantage.</p>
+
+<p>In June, 1839, Mr. Gallatin resigned his post as president of the
+National Bank of New York. In 1841 he published a financial essay, which
+he entitled &ldquo;Suggestions on the Banks and Currency of the United
+States,&rdquo; a paper full of information, but from the nature of the subject
+not to be compared in general interest with his earlier paper, which is
+as fresh to-day as when it was written. Mr. Gallatin condemned paper
+currency as an artificial stimulus, and the ultimate object of his
+essays was to annihilate what he termed the &ldquo;dangerous instrument.&rdquo; He
+admitted its utility and convenience, when used with great sobriety, but
+he deprecated its tendency to degenerate into a depreciated and
+irredeemable currency. This tendency the present national banking law
+arrests, but the law rather invites than prohibits the stimulus of
+increased issues. The last word has not yet been said on national
+currency, which, though the basis of all commercial transactions, has
+necessarily no other relation to banks than that which it holds to any
+individual in the community.</p>
+
+<p>Economic questions have interested the highest order of mind on the two
+continents. Sismondi published a paper on commercial wealth in 1803, and
+in 1810 a memoir on paper money, which he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> prepared to show how it might
+be suppressed in the Austrian dominions; Humboldt made a special study
+of the sources and quantity of the precious metals in the world, in
+which Mr. Gallatin aided him by investigation in America. Michel
+Chevalier was interested in the same subjects; surviving his two masters
+in the art and witnessing the marvelous effects of the additions made by
+America to the store of precious metals, he continued the study in the
+spirit of his predecessors, and favored the world with instructive
+papers. Mr. Gallatin's contributions to this science are remarkable for
+minute research and careful deductions.</p>
+
+<p>In 1843 President Tyler tendered the Treasury portfolio to Mr. Gallatin.
+The venerable financier looked upon the offer as an act of folly to
+which a serious answer seemed hardly necessary. Yet as silence might be
+misconstrued, he replied that he wanted no office, and to accept at his
+age that of secretary of the treasury would &ldquo;be an act of insanity.&rdquo; He
+was then in his eighty-third year. The offer of the post was but an
+ill-considered caprice of Mr. Tyler.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Cents are omitted as confusing figures.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> The first Annual Report of the Secretary of the Treasury.
+This was under the Supplementary Treasury Act.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Excess of receipts, notwithstanding the purchase of
+Louisiana and payments on account of principal and interest of the
+debt.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> These were the banks of New York, Boston, Philadelphia,
+and Baltimore. Seven presidents formed the committee. John A. Stevens of
+New York was chairman, by request of the Secretary of the Treasury. The
+other members were named by him. The sum advanced to the government was
+one hundred and fifty millions of dollars in coin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> At Portland, $120,000; Salem, $183,600; Boston, $75,300;
+Providence, $67,800; Richmond, $49,000; Norfolk, $103,000; Charleston,
+$354,000.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Report of Secretary Dallas, September 20, 1816.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Act of March 3, 1817.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> <i>Democratic Review</i>, xii. 641.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>IN THE CABINET</h3>
+
+<p>The general principles which Mr. Jefferson proposed to apply in his
+conduct of the government were not principles of organization but of
+administration. The establishments devised by Hamilton, in accordance
+with or in development of the provisions of the Constitution, were
+organic. The new policy was essentially restrictive and economic. The
+military and naval establishments were to be kept at their lowest
+possible limit. The Treasury Department was to be conducted on strictly
+business principles. The debt was to be reduced and finally paid by a
+fixed annual appropriation. The revenue was to be raised by imposts on
+importation and tonnage, and by direct taxation, if necessary. The
+public land system was to be developed. A scheme of internal
+improvements by land and water highways was to be devised. All these
+purposes except the last had been declared by the opposition during the
+last part of Washington's second term and during Adams's presidency, and
+had been lucidly expounded by Madison, Gallatin, Giles, Nicholas, and
+others of the Republican leaders. On all these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> subjects Mr. Gallatin
+was in accord with his chief. Only upon the bank question were they at
+issue. Mr. Jefferson detested or feared the aristocracy of money, while
+Gallatin, with a clearer insight into commercial and financial
+questions, recognized that in a young country where capital was limited,
+and specie in still greater disproportion to the increasing demands of
+trade, a well-ordered, well-managed money institution was an enormous
+advantage, if not an imperative necessity to the government and the
+people.</p>
+
+<p>Peace was necessary to the success of this general policy of internal
+progress, but peace was not to be had for the asking. It was not till
+half a century later that the power of the western continent as a
+food-producing country was fully felt by Europe, and peace with the
+United States became almost a condition of existence to millions in the
+old world, while this country became independent, in fact as in name, to
+the fullest meaning of the word. Peace was not menaced during
+Jefferson's first administration, for the Federalists had left no legacy
+of diplomatic discord to embarrass their successors. The divisions of
+opinion were on home affairs. The Republican party was the first
+opposition which had reached power since the formation of the
+government. The Federalists had not hesitated to confine the patronage
+of the executive to men of their own way of thinking. The Republicans
+had attacked that principle. There were men even in the ranks of
+Jefferson's administra<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span>tion who scouted the idea that the President of
+the United States could become &ldquo;the President of a party.&rdquo; But practice
+and principle are not always in accord, even in administrations of
+sentimental purity, and the pressure for office was as great in 1800 as
+it has ever since been on the arrival of a new party to power. Beyond
+all other departments of government, the Treasury depends for its proper
+service upon business capacity and a knowledge of the principles of
+accounting and office routine. Mr. Gallatin was well aware of the
+difficulties his predecessors had encountered in finding and retaining
+competent examining and auditing clerks. As there was no reason to
+suppose that all this talent was to be found in the ranks of the
+Republican party, and his common sense pointed out the folly of limiting
+the market of supply, he early (July 25, 1801) prepared a circular to
+collectors, in which he informed them &ldquo;that the door of office was no
+longer to be shut against any man because of his political opinions, but
+that integrity and capacity suitable to the station were to be the only
+qualifications required; and further, the President, considering freedom
+of opinion or freedom of suffrage at public elections imprescriptible
+rights of citizens, would regard any exercise of official influence to
+sustain or control the same rights in others as injurious to the public
+administration and practically destructive of the fundamental principles
+of a republican Constitution.&rdquo; But Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Madi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span>son
+opposed this simple declaration of a principle which has since been the
+base of every attempt at reform in the civil service. Mr. Jefferson
+answered that after one half of the subordinates were exchanged, talents
+and worth might alone be inquired into in the case of new vacancies.
+This was a miserable shuffling policy which defeated itself. For a
+Federalist to retain office when such a discrimination was applied was
+of itself a degradation. Mr. Jefferson here threw away and forever lost
+the power to establish the true system, and fixed the curse of patronage
+upon American administration. The true principle may be stated in the
+form of an axiom. Administrations should rely for continuation upon
+measures, not on patronage. Gallatin yielded with reluctance to the
+spirit of persecution which he did not hesitate to say disgraced the
+Republican cause, and sank them to a level with their predecessors.
+Notwithstanding his aversion, he was compelled to follow the policy of
+the cabinet. Its first result was to divide the Republican party, and to
+alienate Burr, whose recommendation of Matthew L. Davis for the naval
+office at New York was disregarded. Had the new administration declined
+to make removals except for cause, such a dispute would have been
+avoided. As it was, the friends of Burr considered the refusal as a
+declaration of war. Appointments became immediately a part of the
+machinery of Republican administration, as it had been part of that of
+their predecessors, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> each was carefully weighed and considered in
+its reference to party quite as much as to public service.</p>
+
+<p>Already looking forward to the next presidential election, Gallatin was
+anxious for an agreement upon Jefferson's successor, and even before the
+meeting of the first Congress of his term he advised the President on
+this point, and he also proposed the division of every State into
+election districts by a general constitutional provision.</p>
+
+<p>Jefferson submitted the draft of his annual messages to the head of each
+department, and invited their comments. Gallatin was minute in his
+observations, and it is interesting to note the peculiar precision and
+caution of his character in the nice criticisms of language and style,
+sometimes declaratory, sometimes non-committal, but always and obviously
+reasonable, and often presenting a brief argument for the change
+proposed. In these days of woman's rights it is curious to read &ldquo;Th. J.
+to Mr. Gallatin. The appointment of a woman to office is an innovation
+for which the public is not prepared, nor am I.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Gallatin suggested a weekly general conference of the President and the
+secretaries at what is now styled a cabinet meeting, and private
+conferences of the President with each of the secretaries once or twice
+a week on certain days and at fixed hours. The business to come before
+the House was also to be considered, and the policy to be pursued
+determined upon. Unfortunately in this case again<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> Jeffersonian theory
+did not accord with Jeffersonian practice. Even erratic Randolph
+complained of the want of system at these cabinet meetings, where each
+was at liberty to do and say as he chose; a severe trial, this, to
+Gallatin. In 1845 Mr. Gallatin wrote to Edward Coles that it was &ldquo;quite
+unusual to submit to the cabinet the manner in which the land or naval
+forces authorized by Congress, and for which appropriations had been
+made, should be employed,&rdquo; and added that on no occasion, in or out of
+cabinet, was he ever consulted on those subjects prior to the year 1812.</p>
+
+<p>In the difficulty which arose with the Barbary powers Mr. Gallatin
+earnestly urged the payment of an annuity to Tripoli, if necessary for
+peace. He considered it a mere matter of calculation whether the
+purchase of peace was not cheaper than the expense of a war. This policy
+was to be continued for eight years, at the end of which he hoped that a
+different tone might be assumed. In a note on the message of 1802,
+Gallatin expressed the hope to Jefferson that his administration would
+&ldquo;afford but few materials for historians.&rdquo; He would never sacrifice
+permanent prosperity to temporary glitter.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin's counsel was sought, and his opinion deferred to, on
+subjects which did not fall directly within the scope of administration.
+Even on questions of fundamental constitutional law his judgment was not
+inferior to that of Madison himself. In one notable instance he differed
+from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> Mr. Lincoln, the attorney-general, whom he held in high esteem as
+a good lawyer, a fine scholar, &ldquo;a man of great discretion and sound
+judgment.&rdquo; This was in 1803, when the acquisition of East Louisiana and
+West Florida was a cabinet question. Mr. Lincoln considered that there
+was a difference between a power to acquire territory for the United
+States and the power to extend by treaty the territory of the United
+States, and held that the first was unconstitutional. Mr. Gallatin held
+that the United States as a nation have an inherent right to acquire
+territory, and that, when acquisition is by treaty, the same constituted
+authorities in whom the treaty power is vested have a constitutional
+right to sanction the acquisition, and that when the territory has been
+acquired Congress has the power either of admitting into the Union as a
+new State or of annexing to a State, with the consent of that State, or
+of making regulations for the government of the territory. Mr. Jefferson
+concurred in this opinion, while at the same time he thought it safer
+not to permit the enlargement of the Union except by amendment of the
+Constitution. Mr. Gallatin's view was practically applied in the cases
+named, and later in the annexation of Texas, although he disapproved of
+the latter as contrary to good faith and the law of nations. He advised
+Jefferson, also, not to lay the treaty by which Louisiana was acquired
+before the House until after its ratification by the Senate, taking the
+ground that until<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> then it was not a treaty, and urging that great care
+should be taken to do nothing which might be represented as containing
+any idea of encroachment on the rights of the Senate. He personally
+interested himself in the arrangements for taking possession of New
+Orleans, and, considering the expense as trifling compared with the
+object, urged the dispatch of an imposing force of not less than fifteen
+thousand men, which would add to the opinion entertained abroad of our
+power, resources, and energy; five thousand of these to be active
+troops; ten thousand an enrolled reserve. The acquisition of Louisiana
+was the grand popular feature of the foreign policy of the first term of
+Jefferson's administration. The internal management left much to be
+desired.</p>
+
+<p>While his general views were exalted, and his principles would stand the
+nicest examination in their application, Mr. Jefferson was not fortunate
+in his choice of methods or men. It is not enough for an administration
+to be pure; it should be above suspicion. This his was not. Time has not
+washed out the stain of his intimacy with William Duane, the editor of
+the infamous &ldquo;Aurora.&rdquo; Citizen Duane, as he styled himself in the first
+days of the administration, quarreled with Gallatin because he would not
+apply the official guillotine, and thereafter pursued him with
+uncompromising hostility. Of favoritism in appointments Mr. Gallatin
+could not be accused. During his twelve years in the Treasury he
+procured places<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> for but two friends; one was given an obscure clerkship
+in the department; the other, John Badollet, was made register in the
+land office at Vincennes, against whom Gallatin said in the application
+for appointment which he reluctantly made, there was but one objection,
+&ldquo;that of being his personal and college friend.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The dispositions for the sale of lands in the western territory, the
+extinguishment of titles, and the surveys fell under Mr. Gallatin's
+general supervision, and were the objects of his particular care. So
+also was the establishment of the authority of the United States in the
+Louisiana territory. In the course of these arrangements he was brought
+into contact with Mr. Pierre Ch&ocirc;teau of St. Louis, who controlled the
+Indian trade of a vast territory. The foundation of an intimate
+acquaintance was then laid. The influence of this remarkable man over
+the Western Indians and the extent of his trading operations with them
+was great, and has never since been equaled. About this period Mr. John
+Jacob Astor informed the government that he had an opportunity, of which
+he intended to take advantage, to purchase one half of the interest of
+the Canadian Fur Company, which, notwithstanding the treaty of 1794,
+engrossed the trade by way of Michilimackinac with our own Indians.
+Before that period this lucrative traffic had been exclusively in
+British hands, and the hostility of the Indian tribes rendered any
+interference in it by Americans dangerous to life<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> and property, and
+their participation since had been merely nominal. Jefferson's cabinet
+received the proposal with satisfaction, but, in their strict
+interpretation of the Constitution, could find no way of giving any aid
+to the scheme beyond the <i>official</i> promise of protection, which it fell
+to Mr. Gallatin to draft. Mr. Jefferson wrote to Mr. Astor a letter to
+the same effect. Mr. Astor, however, was not deterred from his
+enterprise, but, under the charter of the American Fur Company granted
+by the State of New York, extended his project to the Indians west of
+the Rocky Mountains, and made of it an immense business, employing
+several vessels at the mouth of the Columbia River and a large land
+party beyond the Rocky Mountains. He finally founded the establishment
+of Astoria. This settlement fell into the hands of the British during
+the war of 1812. Mr. Astor sought to persuade the American government to
+permit him to renew the establishment at its close, only asking a flag
+and a lieutenant's command, but Mr. Madison would not commit himself to
+the plan.</p>
+
+<p>Among Mr. Jefferson's pet schemes was that of a substitution of gunboats
+for fortifications, and for supporting the authority of the laws within
+harbors. The mind of Mr. Jefferson had no doubt been favorably disposed
+to this mode of offensive defense by the experience of Lafayette at
+Annapolis, in his southern expedition in the spring of 1781, when his
+entire flotilla, ammunition of war,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> and even the city of Annapolis,
+were saved from destruction by two improvised gunboats, which, armed
+with mortars and hot shot, drove the British blockading vessels out of
+the harbor. Jefferson first suggested the scheme in his annual message
+of 1804, and Gallatin did not interfere; but when, in 1807, the
+President insisted, in a special message, on the building of two hundred
+vessels of this class, Mr. Gallatin objected, because of the expense in
+construction and maintenance, and secondly, of their infallible decay.
+Mr. Jefferson persisted, and Mr. Gallatin's judgment was vindicated by
+the result. Two years later, of one hundred and seventy-six gunboats
+constructed, only twenty-four were in actual service. In his letter of
+criticism, Mr. Gallatin gave as his opinion, that &ldquo;it would be an
+economical measure for every naval nation to burn their navy at the end
+of a war and to build a new one when again at war, if it was not that
+time was necessary to build ships of war.&rdquo; The principle was the same as
+to gunboats, and the objection of time necessary for building did not
+exist.</p>
+
+<p>This year he also laid before the President a memorandum of preparatory
+measures for defense against Great Britain, from whom an attack was
+expected by land and sea, and a second plan for offensive operations on
+the northern frontier, which is complete in its geographical and
+topographical information, and its estimate of resources in men,
+material, and money. At the same time he urged<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> upon Mr. Jefferson to
+moderate the tone of his message, so as not to widen the breach by
+hurting the pride of Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with the land system, Mr. Jefferson favored, and Mr.
+Gallatin devised, an extensive plan of internal improvements. The route
+of the Cumberland road from the Potomac to the Ohio was reported to
+Congress in 1807; a coast survey was ordered in the same year. The first
+superintendent was Hassler, a Swiss, whom Mr. Gallatin brought to the
+notice of Mr. Jefferson. In 1808 a general plan of improvement was
+submitted to the Senate. This included canals parallel with the
+seacoast, making a continuous line of inland navigation from the Hudson
+to Cape Fear; a great turnpike from Maine to Georgia; the improvement of
+the Susquehanna, Potomac, James, and Santee rivers to serve the slope
+from the Alleghanies to the Atlantic; of the Alleghany, Monongahela, and
+Kanawha, to serve the country westward to the Mississippi, the head
+waters of these rivers to be connected by four roads across the
+Appalachian range; a canal at the falls of the Ohio; a connection of the
+Hudson with Lake Champlain, and of the same river with Lake Ontario at
+Oswego; and a canal around Niagara Falls. The entire expense he
+estimated at $20,000,000, to be met by an appropriation of $2,000,000 a
+year for ten years; the stock created for turnpikes and canals to be a
+permanent fund for repairs and improvements.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A national university for education in the higher sciences was also
+recommended by Jefferson in his message of 1806, but Mr. Gallatin had
+little faith in the popularity of this scheme. After the convulsion of
+1794 in Geneva, Gallatin's old college mate, D'Yvernois, conceived the
+plan of transporting the entire University of Geneva to the United
+States, and wrote on the subject to Jefferson and Adams; but his idea
+was based on the supposition that fifteen thousand dollars' income could
+be had from the United States in support of the institution, which was,
+of course, at the time impracticable. Jefferson believed that these
+plans of national improvement could be carried into effect only by an
+amendment to the Constitution; but Mr. Gallatin, as in the bank
+question, was disturbed by no such scruples, and he recommended Mr.
+Jefferson to strike from his message the words &ldquo;general welfare,&rdquo; as
+questionable in their nature, and because the proposition seemed to
+acknowledge that the words are susceptible of a very dangerous meaning.</p>
+
+<p>To a permanent embargo act Mr. Gallatin was from the beginning opposed.
+He recognized the mischief of government prohibitions, and thought that
+statesmen might well hesitate before they took the hazard of regulating
+the concerns of individuals. The sequel proved the correctness of this
+judgment. But Mr. Jefferson could not bring his mind to any more
+decisive measure, indeed, it may justly be said, to any measure
+whatever.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> Taking advantage of Mr. Madison's election to the presidency,
+he simply withdrew from the triumvirate, and, passing over the subject
+in silence in his last message, he ignominiously left to Mr. Madison and
+Mr. Gallatin the entire responsibility which the threatening state of
+the foreign relations of the country imposed on the Republican party.</p>
+
+<p>The question was now between the enforcement of the Embargo Act and war.
+To take off the embargo seemed a declaration of weakness. To add to it a
+non-importation clause was the only alternative. In November, 1808, Mr.
+Gallatin prepared for George W. Campbell, chairman of the Committee on
+Foreign Relations of the House, the declaration known as Campbell's
+report, which recited, in clear, compact form, the injuries done to the
+United States by Great Britain, and closed with resolutions to the
+effect that the United States could not submit to the edicts of Great
+Britain and France, and with a recommendation of non-intercourse and for
+placing of the country in a state of defense. After long debate the
+resolutions were adopted by large majorities, and the policy of
+resistance was finally determined upon&mdash;resistance, not war. Thus the
+United States resorted, as the colonies had resorted in 1774, to a
+policy of non-importation. But the condition of the States was not that
+of the colonies. Then all the colonies were commercial, and the entire
+population was on the seaboard; the prohibition fell with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> equal weight
+upon all. Now there were large interior communities whom restrictions
+upon commerce would rather benefit than injure. Yet neither the Sons of
+Liberty nor the non-importation associations had been able to enforce
+their voluntary agreements either before or after the Congress of 1774.
+If this were to be the mode of resistance, stringent measures must be
+adopted to make it effective. Mr. Gallatin accordingly called upon
+Congress for the necessary powers. They at once responded with the
+Enforcement Act, which Mr. Gallatin proceeded to apply with
+characteristic administrative vigor, and summoned Jefferson to authorize
+the collectors of revenue to call the military force of the United
+States to support them in the exercise of their restrictive authority.
+There was to be no evasion under the systems which Hamilton devised and
+Gallatin knew so well how to administer.</p>
+
+<p>His annual report made to Congress on December 10 had clearly set forth
+the situation, and, without recommending war, had pointed out how it
+might be carried on. Macon wrote of him on December 4 to their mutual
+friend, Joseph H. Nicholson, &ldquo;Gallatin is decidedly for war.&rdquo; After his
+report was sent in the situation became still more perplexing. Rumors
+came of an intention to call a convention of the five New England
+States, with New York, if possible, to take ground against the embargo.
+As these indications of dissatisfaction became manifest, and the
+contingency<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> of the employment of force at home presented itself,
+Gallatin made a careful balance of the advantages and inconveniences of
+embargo, non-intercourse, and letters of marque. This paper, dated
+February, 1809, and entitled, &ldquo;Notes on the Political Situation,&rdquo; no
+doubt served as a brief for consultation with Madison upon his inaugural
+message, it being then understood that Gallatin was to be secretary of
+state. As he states one of the advantages of letters of marque to be &ldquo;a
+greater chance of unity at home,&rdquo; this measure he probably preferred.
+The Senate had already, on January 4, passed a bill ordering out the
+entire naval force of the country, and on the 10th the House adopted the
+same bill by a vote of 64 to 59. Mr. Gallatin opposed this action
+strenuously. On February 2 the House voted by a large majority to remove
+the embargo on March 4. Non-intercourse with Great Britain and France
+and trade everywhere else were now the conditions. This significant
+expression of the feeling of Congress no doubt determined Mr. Gallatin
+to suggest letters of marque. Whether he pressed them upon Mr. Madison
+or not is uncertain. Meanwhile Mr. Gallatin suffered the odium of
+opposition to the will of Congress, and Mr. Madison's power was broken
+before he took his seat. A few Republican senators inaugurated an
+opposition to their chief after the fashion of modern days, and Mr.
+Madison was given to understand that Mr. Gallatin would not be confirmed
+if nominated as secretary of state. Mr. Madison<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> yielded to this
+dictation, and from that day forward was, as he deserved to be,
+perplexed and harassed by a petty oligarchy. Mr. John Quincy Adams, in a
+note on this affair, says that, &ldquo;had Mr. Gallatin been appointed
+secretary of state, it is highly probable war with Great Britain would
+not have taken place.&rdquo; But it is improbable that any step in foreign
+intercourse was taken without Mr. Gallatin's knowledge and approbation.
+Such are the traditions of the triumvirate.</p>
+
+<p>The first term of Madison's administration was not eventful. There was
+discord in the cabinet. In the Senate the &ldquo;invisibles,&rdquo; as the faction
+which supported Robert Smith, the secretary of state, was aptly termed,
+rejected Madison's nominations and opposed Gallatin's financial policy
+as their interests or whims prompted. Randolph said of Madison at this
+time, that he was &ldquo;President <i>de jure</i> only.&rdquo; Besides this domestic
+strife, the cabinet was engaged in futile efforts to resist the
+gradually tightening cordon of British aggression. Erskine's amateur
+negotiations, quickly disavowed by the British government, and the short
+and impertinent mission of Jackson, who succeeded him and was dismissed
+from the United States, well served Canning's policy of delay. Madison,
+whose prejudices were as strongly with Englishmen and English ways as
+those of Jefferson were with the men and manners of France, averse to
+war and withheld also by Gallatin's persistent objections, negotiated
+and procrastinated until there was little<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> left to argue about. In
+December, 1809, Macon made an effort to pass a stringent navigation act
+to meet the British Orders in Council and the French decrees. The bill
+passed the House but was emasculated in the Senate, the Republican cabal
+voting with the Federalists to strike out the effective clauses. The act
+interdicting commercial intercourse with Great Britain and France
+expired in May, 1810, and was not revived. A new act was passed, which
+was a virtual surrender of every point in dispute. Resistance was
+abandoned, and our ships and seamen were left to the mercy of both
+belligerents.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin's entire energies were bent upon strengthening the Treasury
+and opposing reckless expenditures. His most grievous disappointment,
+however, was in the refusal of Congress to renew the charter of the Bank
+of the United States. He used every possible effort to save this
+institution, which, in the condition of the country, was indispensable
+to a sound currency and the maintenance of specie payment. But with the
+dead weight of Mr. Madison's silence, if not indifference, the struggle
+was unequal and the bank fell. The course of Mr. Madison can hardly be
+excused. Political history records few examples of a more cruel
+desertion of a cabinet minister by his chief. Mr. Gallatin felt it
+deeply and tendered his resignation. The administration was going to
+pieces by sheer incapacity. The leaders took alarm and the cabinet was
+reconstructed, Monroe being called<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> to the Department of State. But the
+enemies of Mr. Gallatin still clung to his skirts, determined to drag
+him to the dust. Duane attacked him in the most dangerous manner.
+Probably no man in America has ever been abused, vilified, maligned with
+such deliberate persistency as was Gallatin in the &ldquo;Aurora&rdquo; from the
+beginning of 1811 until the cabinet crisis, when Mr. Madison was
+compelled to choose between Smith and himself. Day after day leaders
+were devoted to personal assault upon him and to indirect insinuations
+of his superiority to Madison, by which the artful editor sought to
+arouse the jealousy of the President. The &ldquo;Atlas at the side of the
+President,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Great Treasury Law Giver,&rdquo; the &ldquo;First Lord of the
+Treasury,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Dagon of the Philistines,&rdquo; were favorite epithets. He
+was charged by turns with betraying cabinet secrets to Randolph, with
+amateur negotiation with Erskine, and with subserviency to British gold
+in the support of the Bank of the United States. Here is an instance of
+Duane's style: &ldquo;We can say with perfect conviction that, if Mr. Madison
+suffer this man to lord it over him, Mr. Gallatin will drag him down,
+for no honest man in the country can support an administration of which
+he is a member with consistency or a pure conscience.&rdquo; It was charged
+upon Gallatin that his friends considered him as the real, while Madison
+was the nominal, president. More than this, he was accused of
+embezzlement and enormous speculations in the public<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> lands. Gallatin's
+party pride must have been strong indeed to have induced him to stay an
+hour in an administration which granted its favors to the author of such
+assaults upon one of its chosen leaders.</p>
+
+<p>Jefferson wrote to Mr. Wirt in May following, that, because of the bank,
+endeavors were made to drive from the administration (of Mr. Madison)
+the ablest man, except the President, who ever was in it, and to beat
+down the President himself because he was unwilling to part with such a
+counselor.</p>
+
+<p>Monroe was appointed secretary of state in Smith's place in April, 1811.
+Other changes followed in the cabinet, but brought little relief to Mr.
+Gallatin. Financial affairs now occupied his entire attention; on the
+one hand was a diminishing treasury; on the other an expenditure
+reckless in itself and beyond the demands of the administration. Without
+the sympathy of either the Senate or House, Mr. Gallatin's position
+became daily more irksome, until at last he abandoned all attempt to
+control the drift of party policy, took the war party at their word, and
+sent in to the House a war budget.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately for the country, the Republican party knew neither how to
+prepare for war, nor how to keep the peace. Mr. Madison had none of the
+qualifications of a war President; neither executive ability, decision
+of character, nor yet that more important faculty, knowledge of men.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> In
+his attachment to Mr. Madison and in loyalty to what remained of the
+once proud triumvirate of talent and power, Mr. Gallatin supplied the
+deficiencies of his fellows as best he could, until an offer of
+mediation between the United States and Great Britain on the part of the
+emperor of Russia presented an opportunity for honorable withdrawal and
+service in another and perhaps more congenial field. In March, 1813, the
+Russian minister, in a note to the secretary of state, tendered this
+offer. Mr. Gallatin had completed his financial arrangements for the
+year, and requested Mr. Madison to send him abroad on this mission.
+Unwilling to take the risk of new appointments, the President acceded to
+this proposal, and gave him leave of absence from his post in the
+Treasury. Mr. Gallatin did not anticipate a long absence, and felt, as
+he said to his old friend Badollet, that he could nowhere be more
+usefully employed than in this negotiation. Certainly he could have no
+regret in leaving a cabinet which had so little regard to his own
+feelings and so little political decency as to confer the appointment of
+adjutant-general in the United States army on his malignant assailant,
+William Duane of the &ldquo;Aurora.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin's mission, followed by the resignation of his post in the
+cabinet, finally dissolved the political triumvirate, but not the
+personal friendship of the men. Numerous attempts were made to alienate
+both Jefferson and Madison from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> Gallatin while he held the portfolio of
+the Treasury, but one and all they signally and ignominiously failed.
+For Mr. Jefferson Mr. Gallatin had a regard near akin to reverence. A
+portrait of the venerable sage was always on his study table. When about
+setting out for France in 1816 he tendered his services to his old chief
+and wrote to him that 'in every country and in all times he should never
+cease to feel gratitude, respect, and attachment for him.' Jefferson
+fully reciprocated this regard. From Monticello he wrote to Gallatin in
+1823: &ldquo;A visit from you to this place would indeed be a day of jubilee,
+but your age and distance forbid the hope. Be this as it will, I shall
+love you forever, and rejoice in your rejoicings and sympathize in your
+ails. God bless and have you ever in His holy keeping.&rdquo; Nor does Mr.
+Gallatin seem to have allowed any feeling of disappointment or
+dissatisfaction at Mr. Madison's weakness to disturb their kindly
+relations. Their letters close with the reciprocal assurance of
+affection as well as of esteem.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>IN DIPLOMACY</h3>
+
+<h2><i>The Treaty of Ghent</i></h2>
+
+<p>On May 9, 1813, the ship Neptune sailed from New Castle on the Delaware,
+having on board Albert Gallatin and James A. Bayard, ministers of the
+United States, with their four secretaries, of whom were Mr. Gallatin's
+son James, and George M. Dallas, son of his old Pennsylvania friend.
+They were accompanied to sea by a revenue cutter. Off Cape Henlopen they
+were overhauled by the British frigate on the station, and their
+passport was countersigned by the English captain. On June 20 they
+reached the mouth of the river Gotha. Here the vessel lay at quarantine
+for forty-eight hours, during which the gentlemen paid a flying visit to
+Gottenburg. At dusk, on the 24th, the Neptune anchored in Copenhagen
+inner roads, the scene of Nelson's attack in 1801. Mr. Gallatin's brief
+memoranda of his voyage contain some crisp expressions. He found
+&ldquo;despotism and no oppression. Poverty and no discontent. Civility and no
+servile obsequiousness amongst the people. Decency and sobriety.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>St. Petersburg was reached on July 21. Here<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> Gallatin and Bayard found
+John Quincy Adams, then minister to Russia. He was one of the three
+commissioners appointed to treat for peace under the mediation which the
+Emperor Alexander had offered to the United States. Bayard and Adams
+were Federalists. To the moderate counsels of the former Jefferson owed
+his peaceable election. Gallatin and Adams had the advantage of thorough
+acquaintance with European politics. To Gallatin the study of history
+was a passion. He was familiar with the facts and traditions of
+diplomacy. He knew the purpose, the tenor, and the result of every
+treaty made for centuries between the great powers; even their dates
+were at ready command in his wonderful memory. But, excepting the few
+Frenchmen of distinction who in the exile which political revulsions
+imposed upon them had crossed the sea, he had no acquaintance with
+Europeans of high position, and none whatever with the diplomatic
+personnel of European courts. In this Adams was more fortunate. Educated
+abroad, while his father was minister to the court of St. James, he was
+from youth familiar with courts and their ways. To be the son of a
+president of the United States was no small matter at that day. The
+conjunction of these two men was rare. One of European birth and trained
+to American politics, the other of American birth and brought up in the
+atmosphere of European diplomacy. In their natural characteristics they
+were the opposite of one another. Adams was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> impetuous, overbearing,
+impatient of contradiction or opposition. Gallatin was calm,
+self-controlled, persistent; not jealous of his opinions, but ready to
+yield or abandon his own methods, if those of others promised better
+success; never blinded by passion or prejudice, but holding the end
+always in view. That end was peace; &ldquo;peace at all times desirable,&rdquo; as
+Mr. Gallatin said a few days before his departure on his mission, but
+much more so, 'because of the incapacity shown in the conduct of the
+war, its inefficiency when compared with its expense, and the open
+hostility to it of a large number of the American people.' In the face
+of the disasters which had befallen the country Mr. Gallatin must have
+felt some qualms of conscience for his persistent opposition to the
+military and naval establishments. Their reorganization had place in his
+desire for peace. He said, May 5, 1813: &ldquo;Taught by experience, we will
+apply a part of our resources to such naval preparations and
+organization of the public force as will, within less than five years,
+place us in a commanding situation.&rdquo; With the particulars of the dispute
+between the two countries he was perfectly familiar. His report prepared
+in 1808 for Mr. Campbell, chairman of the Committee on Foreign
+Relations, covered the whole ground of the American argument.</p>
+
+<p>At the outset there seemed good ground for hope of an early agreement.
+European politics were at a critical point, and England naturally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span>
+wished to husband her resources for a sudden emergency. The mediation of
+Russia Mr. Gallatin considered a salve to the pride of England. This
+reasoning seemed sound enough, but it had not taken account of one
+important element: the jealousy of England of any outside interference
+between herself and her ancient dependencies. Mr. Gallatin did not hold
+English diplomacy in very high regard. Late in life he said that the
+history of the relations of England and France was a story of the
+triumphs of English arms and of French diplomacy; that England was
+always victorious, but France had as often negotiated her out of the
+fruits of success. True as this remark was in general, it cannot be said
+of the policy of England in American affairs. She pushed to the utmost
+her exclusion of France from the American continent when the States were
+colonies, and now that they were free and independent she would listen
+to no foreign intervention. Neither in peace nor war should any third
+government stand between the two nations. This was and ever has been the
+true policy of Great Britain, and that it was not lost sight of in the
+heat of war is to the credit of her diplomacy. The offer of Russia to
+mediate was not welcome, and was set aside by Lord Castlereagh in a note
+of discouragement. There was no ground for the commissioners to stand
+upon; moreover the emperor and Count Nesselrode were absent from St.
+Petersburg, Count Romanzoff being left in charge of the foreign<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span>
+relations. The offer of mediation had originated with him. His policy
+was to curb the maritime power of England, and to secure in the
+negotiation a modification at least of the offensive practice of Great
+Britain in her assumed police of the sea.</p>
+
+<p>The war was in fact a legacy of the necessarily incomplete diplomacy of
+Washington's administration and the Jay treaty. The determining cause
+was the enforcement of the right of search and the impressment of seamen
+from American vessels; a practice at variance with the rights and the
+law of nations. Monroe, Madison's secretary of state, urged the clear
+and distinct forbearance of this British practice as the one object to
+be obtained. An article in the treaty giving security in that respect
+was by Gallatin, as well as by Monroe, considered a <i>sine qua non</i>
+condition; while Mr. Bayard viewed an informal arrangement as equally
+efficient and more practicable than a solemn article. But there was no
+doubt of Bayard's determination to reach the result prescribed in their
+instructions.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin's first act after setting foot on European shores was to
+write to Baring Brothers &amp; Co. at London. This he did from Gottenburg,
+requesting a passport for the Neptune, which the commission proposed to
+retain at St. Petersburg until their return. At the same time he
+intimated that he wished the British government to be informed of the
+object of the mission. For the expenses of the commission the
+ambassadors had authority to draw on the Barings. The reply of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> Mr.
+Alexander Baring must at once have opened Mr. Gallatin's eyes to the
+futility of the errand of the commissioners. His words clearly state the
+British grounds of objection: &ldquo;The mediation of Russia was offered, not
+sought,&mdash;it was fairly and frankly accepted,&mdash;I do not see how America
+could with any consistency refuse it; but to the eyes of a European
+politician it was clear that such an interference could produce no
+practical benefit. The only question now seriously at issue between us
+is one purely of a domestic nature in each country respectively; no
+foreign government can fairly judge of it.&rdquo; Pointing out the difficulty
+of establishing any distinction between the great masses of the
+seafaring population of Great Britain and America, he finds that no
+other country can judge of the various positions of great delicacy and
+importance which spring from such a state of things; and says: &ldquo;This is
+not the way for Great Britain and America really to settle their
+disputes; intelligent persons of the two countries might devise mutual
+securities and concessions which perhaps neither country would offer in
+the presence of a third party. It is a sort of family quarrel where
+foreign interference can only do harm and irritate at any time, but more
+especially in the present state of Europe, when attempts would be made
+to make a tool of America.&rdquo; These, he said he had good reason to know,
+were the sentiments of the British cabinet on the question of place of
+negotiation and foreign mediation. He also in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span>formed Mr. Gallatin that
+the mediation of Russia had been refused, and that the British
+government would express its desire to treat separately and directly
+either at London or Gottenburg. He warned Mr. Gallatin that an opinion
+prevailed in the British public that the United States were engaged to
+France by a secret political connection, which belief, though perhaps
+not shared by the government, would lead it to consider the persevering
+of the American commission upon bringing the insulated question before
+the powers of the Continent as a touchstone of their sincerity. He hoped
+that the American commissioners would come at once in contact with the
+British ministers, and pointed out the hesitation that every minister
+would feel at giving instructions on a matter so delicate as that
+&ldquo;involving the rights and duties of sovereign and subject.&rdquo; He then
+declared that there was in England a strong desire for peace and for
+ending a contest in which the &ldquo;two countries could only tease and weaken
+each other without any practical result,&rdquo; and at a time when England
+desired to carry her resources into the &ldquo;more important field of
+European contest.&rdquo; He then gave Castlereagh's assurance, that the
+cartel-ship, the Neptune, should be respected, and expressed his own
+personal hope that he should ere long be gratified by seeing it bring,
+with the commissioners, the hope of peace to the shores of England.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Mr. Gallatin was engaged in explaining the American case to
+Romanzoff by con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span>versation and by a written statement of the facts in
+the form of an unofficial note to the emperor. On August 10 word was
+received from the Emperor Alexander authorizing the renewal of the offer
+of mediation; and shortly after a letter from General Moreau, written to
+Mr. Gallatin from the imperial headquarters at Hrushova, assured him of
+his sympathy and assistance. His relations with Gallatin were of long
+standing and of an intimate nature. Moreau, after a long residence in
+America, to which he was warmly attached, had lately crossed the ocean
+and tendered his able sword to the coalition against Bonaparte. He
+informed Gallatin that one of the British ministers had said to him in
+Germany that England would not treat of her maritime rights under any
+mediation. He feared that American vanity would hardly consent to treat
+directly with Great Britain, and foresaw that the political adversaries
+of Madison and Gallatin would blame the precipitation of the United
+States government in sending over the envoys before the adhesion of
+England to the proposed arbitration was secured. He assured Gallatin of
+the interest of the Emperor Alexander in the Americans.</p>
+
+<p>On August 24 Count Romanzoff read to the envoys his dispatch to Count
+Lieven, the Russian minister at London, renewing the offer of mediation.
+The commissioners considering their authority as limited to treating
+under the mediation of Russia, Mr. Gallatin wrote to Monroe, inclosing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span>
+a copy of Baring's letter, which he looked upon as an informal
+communication of the views of the British government, and asked for
+contingent powers and instructions. These they could not expect to
+receive before February. Gallatin replied to Mr. Baring that no
+information of the refusal of Great Britain to the mediation had been
+received, but, even if it had, the commission was not authorized to
+negotiate in any other manner. They were, however, competent to treat of
+commerce without mediation. He declined to discuss the objection of
+Great Britain to the mediation of Russia, confining himself to an
+expression of ignorance in America of any such feeling on the part of
+the British ministry, and of the confidence placed in the personal
+character of the emperor, which was considered a sufficient pledge of
+impartiality; while the selection of a sovereign at war with France was
+clear evidence that America neither had nor wished to have any political
+connection with that power. That he himself believed an arrangement to
+be practicable, he said to Mr. Baring, was evident from the fact that he
+had given up his political existence, and separated himself from his
+family. His opinion was, that while neither nation would be induced to
+abandon its rights or pretensions in the matter of impressment, an
+arrangement might be made by way of experiment which would reserve to
+both their respective abstract rights, real or assumed.</p>
+
+<p>To Moreau he wrote stating his hope that, not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span>withstanding the first
+objections of Great Britain, the mediation of the emperor would be
+accepted, and he asked the general for his personal interposition to
+this end. France and England he held to be equally at fault in the great
+European contest; the one usurping and oppressing the land, the other
+dominating and tyrannizing the sea. They alone, said he, have gained, if
+not happiness, at least power. Russia, he was firmly persuaded, was the
+only power at heart friendly to America. History has shown the sagacity
+of this judgment. This letter was never answered. Moreau was at death's
+door.</p>
+
+<p>Early in October Mr. Dallas was sent to London to open relations with
+the British ministry. His presence there would save two months at least
+in each correspondence which involved communication between Washington,
+London, and St. Petersburg. Count Romanzoff gave the necessary letter of
+introduction to Count Lieven. Gallatin's instructions to the young
+secretary were explicit as to the caution he should exercise in a
+country where he could consider himself as only on sufferance. Hardly
+were these preliminaries concluded, and Dallas had not started on his
+journey, when Mr. Gallatin received word from America that the Senate
+had refused to confirm him in his position as commissioner. Mr. Gallatin
+had not resigned his position of secretary of the treasury. The Senate
+refused to sanction the cumulative appointment.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Stripped of his official character, he now felt himself at liberty to
+follow his own inclination. His first impulse was to go to London, where
+he was sure that Baring's friendship would open to him a means of
+usefulness in the matter on which he was engaged. The death of Moreau
+cut off the medium of approach to the emperor. This event was of no
+consequence, however, in the negotiation, as the emperor had been
+positively informed in July that England would not countenance even the
+appearance of foreign intervention in her dispute with America. But as
+yet no official information of his rejection had been received by Mr.
+Gallatin, nor did any reach him until March. Without it he could not
+well leave St. Petersburg. Meanwhile a diplomatic imbroglio, caused by
+the failure of the emperor to inform Romanzoff of Castlereagh's second
+refusal to accept the offer of mediation, embarrassed the commission all
+winter. Nor yet were they aware that the British minister, driven to the
+wall by the second offer of the emperor, had made proposals to Monroe to
+treat directly with the United States government. The British note with
+this offer was written on November 4. Mr. Gallatin was apprised of it by
+Mr. Dallas in January, 1814. Mr. Baring urged him, if he should return
+to America during the winter, to take his way through England, as good
+effects might result from even a passing visit. Gallatin was then, as he
+expressed it, &ldquo;chained for the winter to St. Petersburg,&rdquo; nor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> had he
+any way of reaching home, except by a cartel from a British port.</p>
+
+<p>No word coming from the emperor, the envoys concluded to withdraw from
+St. Petersburg. Before leaving, Mr. Gallatin addressed a letter of
+thanks to Count Romanzoff, and requested him to communicate any
+information he might receive from the emperor. It was supposed that the
+offer of England to treat directly with America might be inclosed in
+Castlereagh's letter of refusal to accept Russian mediation. On January
+25, 1814, Mr. Gallatin and Mr. Bayard left St. Petersburg and traveled
+by land to Amsterdam, which they reached after a tedious journey on
+March 4. The captain of the Neptune was ordered to bring his vessel to a
+port of Holland. At Amsterdam, where the envoys remained four weeks,
+they learned that Mr. Madison had at once accepted Castlereagh's offer
+and appointed a new commission, consisting of Messrs. Adams, Bayard,
+Henry Clay, and Jonathan Russell. Mr. Gallatin was not included, as he
+was supposed to be on his way home to resume his post in the Treasury
+Department, the duties of which had been performed in his absence by Mr.
+Jones, the secretary of the navy. When correct information did reach Mr.
+Madison, on February 8, he immediately added Mr. Gallatin to the
+commission, and appointed Mr. G. W. Campbell to be secretary of the
+treasury. Thus it happened that Mr. Gallatin, whom Mr. Madison intended
+for the head of the commission, was the last named of those who
+conducted the negotiations.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span></p><h3><i>J. A. Bayard</i></h3>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="image-8" id="image-8"><!-- Image 8 --></a>
+<img src="images/illus-335-1.jpg" height="305" width="218"
+alt="J.A. Bayard" /></p>
+
+<p class="center"><a name="image-9" id="image-9"><!-- Image 9 --></a>
+<img src="images/illus-335-2.jpg" height="35" width="164" alt="Signature of J.A. Bayard" /></p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="#ILLUS">Click for list of Illustrations</a></p>
+
+<p>On April 1, 1814, Mr. Gallatin concluded to pass through England on his
+return, and leaving orders for the Neptune on its arrival to proceed to
+Falmouth, he took the packet to Harwich, whither he requested Mr. Baring
+to send him the requisite passports to enable him to reach London with
+his suite without delay.</p>
+
+<p>In company with Mr. Bayard, Mr. Gallatin reached the English capital on
+April 9, 1814. There they heard some days later of the arrival of
+Messrs. Clay and Russell at Gottenburg. The situation of Great Britain
+had greatly changed. Intoxicated with the success of their arms and the
+abdication of Napoleon, the English people were quite ready to undertake
+the punishment of the United States, while the release of a large body
+of trained troops in France, Italy, Holland, and Portugal enabled the
+ministry immediately to throw a large force into Canada for the summer
+campaign. In the British cabinet a belief was said to be entertained
+that a continuance of the war would bring about a separation of the
+American Union, and perhaps a return of New England to the mother
+country. In this emergency Gallatin availed himself of the opportunity
+which presented itself of addressing Lafayette in sending to that
+officer the patents for the Louisiana land granted to him by the
+American government, and urged the use of his influence to promote an
+ac<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span>commodation between England and the United States.</p>
+
+<p>To Clay he wrote on April 22, proposing that the place of negotiation be
+changed from &ldquo;that corner&rdquo; Gottenburg, either to London, or some neutral
+place more accessible to the friendly interference of those among the
+European powers upon which they must greatly rely. The Emperor Alexander
+was expected in London, and Castlereagh, who had recently returned from
+France where he had been in direct intercourse with him, was understood
+to be of all the cabinet the best disposed to the United States. From
+Clay Gallatin heard in reply that the British <i>charg&eacute; d'affaires</i> at
+Stockholm had already asked the sanction of the Swedish government to
+the negotiation at Gottenburg. While Clay was unwilling to go to London
+he gave his consent to carry on the negotiations in Holland, if the
+arrangement could be made in such a manner as to avoid any ill feeling
+at the Swedish court by the change from Gottenburg. In May Gallatin and
+Bayard asked of Monroe, who was then secretary of state, authority for
+the commissioners to remove the negotiation to any place which their
+judgment should prefer. In May, also, the British government was
+officially notified by the American commissioners of their appointment.
+Lord Bathurst answered with an assurance that commissioners would be
+forthwith appointed for Great Britain, and with a proposal of Ghent as
+the place for negotiation. This was at once acceded to.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Mr. Crawford, the United States minister at Paris, was
+endeavoring, at the instance of Mr. Gallatin, to secure the friendly
+interposition of the Emperor Alexander, not as a mediator, but as a
+common friend and in the interest of peace to the civilized world.
+Crawford was unable to obtain an audience of the emperor, or even an
+interview with Count Nesselrode, but Lafayette took up the cause with
+his hearty zeal for everything that concerned the United States, and, in
+a long interview with the emperor at the house of Madame de Sta&euml;l,
+submitted to him the view taken by the United States of the controversy,
+and obtained from him his promise to exert his personal influence with
+the British government on his arrival at London. Baron von Humboldt, the
+Prussian minister at Paris, who had been influenced by British
+misrepresentation, was also won over by Lafayette, and now tendered his
+services to Mr. Gallatin in any way in which he might be made useful.
+Lafayette's letter was brought by Humboldt in person. Gallatin and
+Humboldt had met in 1804, when the great traveler passed through
+Washington on his return from Peru and Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>The Treaty of Paris having been signed, Lord Castlereagh reached London
+early in June, and the emperor arrived a few days later. Mr. Gallatin
+had an audience of the emperor on June 17, and on the 19th submitted an
+official statement of the American case and an appeal for the
+interposition of his imperial majesty, "the liberator and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span> pacifier of
+Europe." From the interview Mr. Gallatin learned that the emperor had
+made three attempts in the interest of peace, but that he had no hope
+that his representations had been of any service. England would not
+admit a third party to interfere, and he thought that, with respect to
+the conditions of peace, the difficulty would be with England and not
+with America.</p>
+
+<p>On June 13 Gallatin warned Monroe of the preparations England was making
+which would enable her to land fifteen to twenty thousand men on the
+Atlantic coast; that the capture of Washington and New York would most
+gratify the British people, and that no help need be expected from the
+countries of Europe, all which were profoundly desirous of peace.</p>
+
+<p>The ministry informing Mr. Gallatin that the British commissioners would
+start for Ghent on July 1, he improved the interval by a visit to Paris.
+He left London, where he had passed nearly three months in the uncertain
+preliminaries of negotiation, and after a few days in the French capital
+reached Ghent on July 6. The British commissioners only appeared on
+August 6. They were Lord Gambier, Henry Goulburn, and William Adams, all
+second-rate men, but for this reason suited to the part they had to
+play. After the overturn of Napoleon the British cabinet had no desire
+for peace, or at least not until they had secured by war some material
+advantages in the United States, which a treaty would confirm.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> The
+business of their representatives at Ghent was to make exorbitant
+demands of the Americans and delay negotiations pending the military
+operations in progress.</p>
+
+<p>In June Gallatin was satisfied of the general hostile spirit of Great
+Britain and of its wish to inflict serious injury on the United States.
+He notified Monroe of his opinion and warned him that the most favorable
+terms to be expected were the <i>status ante bellum</i>, and not certainly
+that, unless the American people were united and the country able to
+stand the shock of the campaign. Mr. Madison's administration had
+already humbled itself to an abandonment, or at least to an adjournment,
+of the principle to establish which they had resorted to arms. But in
+the first stages of the negotiation it was clear that the British
+cabinet had more serious and dangerous objects in view, and looked
+beyond aggression and temporary injury to permanent objects. At the
+first meeting on August 8, the British commissioners demanded, as a
+preliminary to any negotiation, that the United States should set apart
+to the Indian tribes the entire territory of the Northwest to be held by
+them forever in sovereignty under the guaranty of Great Britain. The
+absurdity of such a demand is sufficient evidence that it was never
+seriously entertained. There could have been no idea that the military
+power of Great Britain was able to enforce, or that the United States
+would abjectly submit to, such a mutilation of its territory and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> such a
+limitation of its expansion. Behind this cover Mr. Gallatin
+instinctively detected the real design of the cabinet to be the conquest
+of New Orleans and the mouths of the Mississippi. If to the territory
+thus acquired that of Florida should be added by cession from Spain,
+which could hardly refuse any compensation asked of her by Great Britain
+in return for the liberation of the Peninsula, a second British dominion
+would be set up on the American continent. These views Gallatin
+communicated to Monroe in a private dispatch of August 20, 1814, by the
+hands of Mr. Dallas. To the <i>sine qua non</i> of the British commissioners
+no answer was made by the Americans. The negotiation was abruptly
+suspended, and only by informal conversation was Mr. Goulburn given to
+understand that reference had been had to America for instructions. Mr.
+Gallatin was of opinion that the negotiations were at an end, and in his
+despair of peace took consolation in the belief that the insolence of
+the demand would unite America from Maine to Georgia in defense of her
+rights, of her territory, and indeed of her independence. The American
+commissioners made no secret of their belief that their mission was
+closed. Two of the secretaries started from Ghent on a continental tour,
+and notice was given to the landlord of the house where the
+commissioners resided of their intention to quit it on October 1. On
+August 2, while matters were still at this deadlock, Lord Castlereagh
+passed through Ghent on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span> his way to the Congress at Vienna. Goulburn was
+ordered to change his tone and Lord Liverpool was advised to moderate
+his demands; to use Castlereagh's words, to &ldquo;a letting down of the
+question.&rdquo; Lord Liverpool replied on September 2, that he had already
+given Goulburn to understand that the commission had taken a very
+erroneous view of British policy. In this communication he betrays the
+hope, which the cabinet had entertained, of the outcome of American
+dissensions, by his expression of the opinion that if the negotiation
+had broken off on the notes already presented by the British commission,
+or the answer that the Americans were disposed to make, the war would
+have become popular in America.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Bathurst reopened the negotiations, but his modification was of
+tone rather than of matter. The surrender of the control of the Lakes to
+Great Britain, and of the Northwest Territory to the Indians, was still
+adhered to. The reply of the American commissioners was drawn chiefly by
+Mr. Gallatin. It absolutely rejected the proposals respecting the
+boundary and the military flag on the Lakes, and refused even to refer
+them to the American government, but offered to pursue the negotiation
+on the other points. To Monroe Mr. Gallatin explained his reason for
+assenting to discuss the Indian article, and therein his colleagues
+concurred with him, to be: that they had little hope of peace, but
+thought it desirable, if there were to be a breach, that it should be on
+other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> grounds than that of Indian pacification. The reply of the
+commission on this point, also drafted by Mr. Gallatin, was sent in on
+September 26. It merely guaranteed the Indians in all their old rights,
+privileges, and possessions.</p>
+
+<p>The destruction of the public buildings at Washington by the British
+troops, known in London on October 1, caused a great sensation in
+England. As Gallatin said in a letter to Madame de Sta&euml;l, it was &ldquo;an act
+of vandalism to which no parallel could be found in the twenty years of
+European war from the frontiers of Russia to Paris, and from those of
+Denmark to Naples.&rdquo; &ldquo;Was it (he asked), because, with the exception of a
+few cathedrals, England had no public buildings comparable to them, or
+was it to console the London mob for their disappointment that Paris was
+neither pillaged nor burned?&rdquo; It can hardly be doubted that the flames
+which consumed the American capital lighted the way to peace. The
+atrocity of war was again brought vividly to the view of nations whose
+sole yearning was for peace. Far from discouraging the American
+commissioners, it fortified their resolution. They knew that it would
+unite the people of the States as one man. It in no way disturbed
+Gallatin's confidence either in the present or future of his adopted
+country. To those who asked his opinion of the securities of the United
+States, he said: "If I have not wholly misunderstood America, its
+resources and its political morality, I am not wrong in the belief that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span>
+its public funds are more secure than those of all European powers.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the protests of Mr. Goulburn, who felt the ground on which
+he stood daily less stable, and in his letters to his chief was
+unsparing in his denunciations, Lord Liverpool accepted the proposed
+settlement of the Indian question. Nothing remained but to incorporate
+in a treaty form the points agreed upon. Lord Bathurst, who seems
+throughout the negotiation to have forgotten the old adage, that &ldquo;fine
+words butter no parsnips,&rdquo; and with true British blindness never to have
+appreciated how thoroughly he was overmatched by Mr. Gallatin, submitted
+a preliminary notification that the British terms would be based on the
+principle of <i>uti possidetis</i>, which involved a rectification of the
+boundaries on the Canadian frontier. To this the Americans returned a
+peremptory refusal. They would not go one step farther except on the
+basis of the <i>status quo ante bellum</i>. Lord Liverpool considered this as
+conclusive. A vigorous prosecution of the war was resolved upon by the
+cabinet. Only for reasons of expediency was a show of negotiation still
+kept up.</p>
+
+<p>But when the cabinet took a survey of the general field they felt little
+complacency in the prospect of a struggle which sooner or later must
+interest the maritime powers. France, compelled by the peace of Vienna
+to withdraw from what even Lafayette considered as her natural frontier,
+was restive, and there was a large party in Russia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> who would gladly see
+the emperor take up the American cause. Moreover the chancellor of the
+exchequer saw before him an inevitable addition of ten millions of
+pounds sterling to his budget, the only avowable reason for which was
+the rectification of the Canadian frontier. In their distress the
+cabinet proposed to Wellington to go to the United States with the
+olive-branch and the sword, to negotiate or conquer a peace. The desire
+of the cabinet to bring the war to an honorable conclusion was avowed.
+But Wellington, before accepting this proposal, gave Lord Liverpool a
+very frank opinion of the mistake made in exacting territorial
+concessions, since the British held no territory of the United States in
+other than temporary possession, and had no right to make any such
+demand. Lord Liverpool was not tenacious. He was never, he wrote Lord
+Bathurst, much inclined to give way to the Americans, but the cabinet
+felt itself compelled to withdraw from its extreme ground. He accepted
+his defeat and acknowledged it.</p>
+
+<p>The Americans meanwhile arranged a draft of a treaty. The articles on
+impressment and other maritime rights, absolutely rejected by the
+British, were set aside. There only remained the question of the
+boundaries, the fisheries, and the navigation of the Mississippi. Here
+Mr. Gallatin had as much difficulty in maintaining harmony between Adams
+and Clay as in obtaining a peace from Liverpool and Bathurst. Adams was
+determined<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span> to save the fisheries; Clay would not hear of opening the
+Mississippi to British vessels. A compromise was effected by which it
+was agreed that no allusion should be made to either subject. Mr.
+Gallatin terminated the dispute by adding a declaration that the
+commissioners were willing to sign a treaty applying the principle of
+the <i>status quo ante bellum</i> to <i>all</i> the subjects of difference. This
+was in strict conformity with the instructions from the home government.
+On November 10 the American draft was sent in. On the 25th the British
+replied with a counter-draft which made no allusion to the fisheries,
+but stipulated for the free navigation of the Mississippi. The Americans
+replied that they would give up the navigation of the river for a
+surrender of the fisheries. This proposal was at once refused by the
+British. The matter was settled by an offer of the Americans to
+negotiate under a distinct reservation of all American rights. All
+stipulations on either subject were in the end omitted, the British
+government on December 22 withdrawing the article referring to these
+points. In the course of the negotiation Mr. Gallatin proposed that in
+case of a future war both nations should engage never to employ the
+savages as auxiliaries, but this article does not appear. To the credit
+of civilization, however, the last article contained a mutual engagement
+to put an end to the trade in slaves. An agreement entered into in
+perfect faith, but which the jealousy of the exercise of search in any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span>
+form rendered nugatory for half a century. On Christmas day the treaty
+was signed. Mr. Henry Adams<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> justly says, &ldquo;Far more than
+contemporaries ever supposed, or than is now imagined, the Treaty of
+Ghent was the special work and the peculiar triumph of Mr. Gallatin.&rdquo;
+His own correspondence shows how admirably he was constituted for the
+nice work of diplomatic negotiation. In the self-poise which he
+maintained in the most critical situations, the unerring sagacity with
+which he penetrated the purposes of his adversaries, the address with
+which he soothed the passions and guided the judgments of his
+colleagues, it is impossible to find a single fault. If he had a fault,
+says his biographer, it was that of using the razor when he would have
+done better with the axe. But the axe is not a diplomatic weapon. The
+simulation of temper may serve an occasional purpose, but temper itself
+is a mistake; and to Mr. Gallatin's credit be it said, it was a mistake
+never committed by him in the course of this long and sometimes painful
+negotiation. Looking back upon its shifting scenes, it is clear that
+even the pertinacity of Adams and the irascibility of Clay served to
+advance the purpose of the mission. From the first to the last Mr.
+Gallatin had his own way, not because it was his own way, but because it
+was the best way and was so recognized by the majority of the commission
+at every turn of difference. Fortunately for the interests of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span> peace the
+battle of New Orleans had not yet been fought. There seems a justice in
+this final act of the war. The British attack upon the Chesapeake<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a>
+was committed before war had been declared. The battle of New Orleans
+was fought a fortnight after the Treaty of Ghent was signed. The burning
+of Washington was avenged by the most complete defeat which the British
+had ever encountered in their long career of military prowess.</p>
+
+<p>By his political life Mr. Gallatin acquired an American reputation; by
+his management of the finances of the United States he placed himself
+among the first political economists of the day; but his masterly
+conduct of the Treaty of Ghent showed him the equal of the best of
+European statesmen on their own peculiar ground of diplomacy. No one of
+American birth has ever rivaled him in this field. Europeans recognized
+his pre-eminent genius. Sismondi praised him in a public discourse.
+Humboldt addressed him as his illustrious friend. Madame de Sta&euml;l
+expressed to him her admiration for his mind and character. Alexander
+Baring gave him more than admiration, his friendship.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>Upon the separation of the commissioners, Mr. Gallatin paid a flying
+visit to Geneva. His fame, or &ldquo;glory,&rdquo; to use the words of Humboldt,
+pre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span>ceded him. Of his old intimates, Serre was under the sod in a West
+Indian island; Badollet was leading a quiet life at Vincennes in the
+Indiana Territory, where Gallatin had obtained for him an appointment in
+the land office; Dumont was in England. Of Gallatin's family few
+remained. But he received the honors due to him as a Genevan who had
+shed a lustre on his native city. On his way to England, where he had
+made an appointment with his colleagues to attempt a commercial treaty
+with Great Britain, he stopped at Paris. Here he saw Napoleon, returned
+from Elba, his star in full blaze before its final extinction. Here he
+heard in April (1815) of his appointment by Madison as minister to
+France. His colleagues also had been honored by similar advancements.
+Adams was transferred from Russia to England. Bayard was named minister
+to Russia, but illness prevented his taking possession of his post.</p>
+
+<p>In April, Mr. Gallatin and Mr. Clay opened negotiations with Lord
+Castlereagh in London, where they were quickly joined by Adams. Lord
+Castlereagh bore no malice against Mr. Gallatin for the treaty. On the
+contrary, he wrote of it to Lord Liverpool as &ldquo;a most auspicious and
+seasonable event,&rdquo; and wished him joy at &ldquo;being released from the
+millstone of an American war.&rdquo; With Lord Castlereagh Mr. Gallatin
+arranged in the course of the summer a convention regulating commercial
+intercourse between the United States<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span> and Great Britain, the only truly
+valuable part of which was that which abolished all discriminating
+duties. Mr. Gallatin considered this concession as an evidence of
+friendly disposition, and rightly judged that British antipathy and
+prejudice were modified, and that in the future friendly relations would
+be preserved and a rupture avoided. Beyond this, there was little
+gained. The old irritating questions of impressment and blockade and the
+exclusion of the United States from the West Indies trade remained.</p>
+
+<p>In July Mr. Gallatin parted from Mr. Baring and his London friends on
+his homeward journey. From New York, on September 4, he wrote Madison,
+thanking him for the appointment of minister to France as an &ldquo;evidence
+of undiminished attachment and of public satisfaction for his services;&rdquo;
+but he still held his acceptance in abeyance. To Jefferson, two days
+later, he had also the satisfaction to say with justice, that the
+character of the United States stood as &ldquo;high as ever it did on the
+European continents, and higher than ever it did in Great Britain;&rdquo; and
+that the United States was considered &ldquo;as the nation designed to check
+the naval despotism of England.&rdquo; To Jefferson he naturally spoke of that
+France from which they had drawn some of their inspirations and their
+doctrines.</p>
+
+<p>He thus describes the condition of the people:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;The revolution (the political change of 1789) has not, however,
+been altogether useless. There is a vis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span>ible improvement in the
+agriculture of the country and the situation of the peasantry. The
+new generation belonging to that class, freed from the petty
+despotism of nobles and priests, and made more easy in their
+circumstances by the abolition of tithes, and the equalization of
+taxes, have acquired an independent spirit, and are far superior to
+their fathers in intellect and information; they are not
+republicans and are still too much dazzled by military glory; but I
+think that no monarch or ex-nobles can hereafter oppress them long
+with impunity.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>And again, &ldquo;Exhausted, degraded, and oppressed as France now is, I do
+not despair of her ultimate success in establishing her independence and
+a free form of government.&rdquo; But it was not till half a century later
+that Gambetta, the Mirabeau of the Republic, led France to the full
+possession of her material forces, and re&euml;stablished in their original
+vigor the principles of 1789. That Gallatin was not blinded by
+democratic prejudices appears in the letter he wrote to Lafayette after
+Napoleon's abdication, in which he said: &ldquo;My attachment to the form of
+government under which I was born and have ever lived never made me
+desirous that it should, by way of experiment, be applied to countries
+which might be better fitted for a limited monarchy.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<h2><i>Minister to France</i></h2>
+
+<p>Strange as it appears, there is no doubt that Mr. Gallatin was at this
+time heartily weary of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> political life, and seriously contemplated a
+permanent retirement to the banks of the Monongahela. He naturally
+enough declined a nomination to Congress, which was tendered him by the
+Philadelphia district. His tastes were not for the violence and
+turbulence of the popular house.</p>
+
+<p>Madison left him full time to decide whether he could arrange his
+private affairs so as to accept the mission to Paris. In November he
+positively declined. He considered the compensation as incompetent to
+the support of a minister in the style in which he was expected to live.
+His private income was at this time about twenty-five hundred dollars a
+year. Monroe pressed him earnestly not to quit the public service, but
+the year closed and Mr. Gallatin had not made up his mind. In the
+situation of France, which he considered &ldquo;would under her present
+dynasty be for some years a vassal of her great rival,&rdquo; he did not
+consider the mission important, and his private fortune was limited to a
+narrow competence. &ldquo;I do not wish,&rdquo; he wrote to Monroe, &ldquo;to accumulate
+any property. I will not do my family the injury of impairing the little
+I have. My health is frail; they may soon lose me, and I will not leave
+them dependent on the bounty of others.&rdquo; But being again earnestly
+pressed, he on January 2, 1816, accepted the appointment. To Jefferson
+he wrote that he would not conceal 'that he did not feel yet old enough
+nor had philosophy enough to go into retirement and abstract himself
+wholly from public affairs.'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In April, Madison notified Mr. Gallatin of Dallas's probable retirement
+from the Treasury, and offered him the post if he cared to return to it.
+He was perfectly aware of his supreme fitness for the direction of the
+Treasury, and he declined with reluctance, because he was disturbed by
+the suspension of specie payments. Remembering Madison's weakness in
+1812 on the subject of the renewal of the bank charter, which Gallatin
+considered necessary in the situation of the finances, he could hardly
+have felt a desire to return to the cabinet in that or indeed in any
+other capacity. He was perfectly conscious that as leader of the House
+of Representatives, as secretary of the treasury, and as negotiator of
+the Ghent treaty, he had brought into the triumvirate all its practical
+statesmanship. His short career abroad had opened to him a new source of
+intellectual pleasure. He had earned a right to some hours of ease.
+Diplomacy at that period, when communication was uncertain and
+difficult, was perforce less restricted than in these latter days, when
+ambassadors are little more than foreign clerks of the State Department
+without even the freedom of a chief of bureau. Gallatin felt entirely at
+home, and was happy in this peculiar sphere. There was no time in his
+life when he would not have gladly surrendered all political power for
+the enjoyment of intellectual ease, the pursuit of science, and the
+atmosphere of society of the higher order of culture in whatever field.
+And Paris was then,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span> as it is still, the centre of intellectual and
+social civilization.</p>
+
+<p>Jefferson rejoiced in Gallatin's appointment to France, and rightly
+judged that he would be of great service there. Of Louis XVIII.,
+however, Jefferson had a poor opinion. He thought him 'a fool and a
+bigot, but, bating a little duplicity, honest and meaning well.'
+Jefferson could give Gallatin no letters. He had 'no acquaintances left
+in France; some were guillotined, some fled, some died, some are exiled,
+and he knew of nobody left but Lafayette.' With Destutt de Tracy, an
+intimate friend of Lafayette, Jefferson was in correspondence. Indeed,
+he was engaged on the translation of Tracy's work on political economy,
+the best, in Jefferson's opinion, that had ever appeared.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<p>Gallatin reached Paris with his family on July 9, 1816, and had an
+interview with the Duc de Richelieu, the minister of Louis XVIII., two
+days later. The conversation turned upon the sympathy for Bonaparte in
+the United States, which Richelieu could not understand; but Gallatin
+explained that it was not extended to him as the despot of France, but
+as the most formidable enemy of England. Richelieu warned him of the
+prejudices which might be aroused against the reigning family 'by
+ex-kings and other emigrants of the same description' who had lately
+removed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> to the United States. This was an allusion to Jerome, who had
+fled from the throne of Westphalia to the banks of the Delaware. The
+king gave Gallatin an audience on the 11th, when he presented his
+credentials. His reception both by his majesty and the princes was, he
+wrote to Monroe, &ldquo;what is called gracious.&rdquo; Louis the Eighteenth was a
+Bourbon to the ends of his fingers. He had the <i>bonhommie</i> dashed with
+malice which characterized the race. None could better appreciate than
+he the vein of good-natured satire, the acquired tone of French society,
+which was to Mr. Gallatin a natural gift. Mr. Gallatin was not only
+kindly but familiarly received at court; and at the <i>petits soupers</i>,
+which were the delight of the epicurean king, his majesty on more than
+one occasion shelled the crawfish for the youthful daughter of the
+republican ambassador. An anecdote is preserved of the king's courteous
+malice. To a compliment paid Mr. Gallatin on his French, the king added,
+&ldquo;but I think my English is better than yours.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Gallatin's first negotiations were to obtain indemnity for the captures
+under the Berlin and Milan decrees; but although the Duc de Richelieu
+never for a moment hinted that the government of the Restoration was not
+responsible for the acts of Napoleon, yet he stated that the mass of
+injuries for which compensation was demanded by other governments was so
+great that indemnity must be limited to the most flagrant cases. They<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span>
+would pay for vessels burnt at sea, but would go no farther. In spite of
+Mr. Gallatin's persistency no advance was made in the negotiation. A
+minor matter gave him some annoyance. On July 4, 1816, at a public
+dinner, the postmaster at Baltimore proposed a toast which, by its
+disrespect, gave umbrage to the king. Hyde de Neuville, the French
+minister to the United States, demanded the dismissal of the offender.
+If our institutions and habits as well as public opinion had not
+forbidden compliance with this request, the dictatorial tone of De
+Neuville was sufficient bar. Richelieu could not be made to understand
+the reason for the refusal, and while disclaiming any idea of using
+force, said that the government would show its dissatisfaction in its
+own way. This seemed to intimate an indefinite postponement of a
+consideration of American demands, and would have rendered Mr.
+Gallatin's further residence useless as well as unpleasant; but French
+dignity got the better of what Gallatin termed, &ldquo;the sickly
+sentimentality which existed on the subject of personal abuse of the
+king,&rdquo; and the insignificant incident was not allowed to interfere with
+friendly intercourse.</p>
+
+<p>In 1817 Mr. Gallatin was engaged not only in advising Mr. Adams at
+London upon the points of a commercial treaty with Great Britain, but
+also, together with Mr. William Eustis, minister to the Netherlands, in
+a negotiation with that government.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The commission met at the Hague, Mr. Goldberg and Mr. Van der Kemp
+representing Holland. The subjects were the treaty of 1782 between the
+States-general of the Netherlands and the United States, the repeal of
+discriminating duties, and the participation of the United States in the
+trade with the Dutch East Indies. The basis of a treaty could not be
+agreed upon, and the whole matter was referred back to the two
+governments, the American commissioners recommending to the President a
+repeal of duties discriminating against vessels of the Netherlands,
+which would no doubt prevent future exaction of extra tonnage duties
+imposed on American vessels by that government. These negotiations
+occupied the late summer months. At the end of September Mr. Gallatin
+was again at his post in Paris.</p>
+
+<p>In June, 1818, Mr. Richard Rush, who owed his introduction into public
+life to Mr. Gallatin, was appointed minister to England, Adams returning
+to the United States to take the portfolio of State in President
+Monroe's cabinet. Gallatin was joined to Rush, for the conduct of
+negotiations with Great Britain, rendered necessary by the approaching
+expiration of the commercial convention of July 3, 1815, which had been
+limited to four years. The general field of disputed points was again
+entered. It included the questions of impressment, the fisheries, the
+boundaries, and indemnity for slaves. The commissioners were supported
+by a temper of the American people<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span> different from that which prevailed
+when Jay and Gallatin respectively undertook the delicate work of
+negotiation in 1794 and 1814. A compromise was arrived at, which was
+signed on October 20, 1818. The articles on maritime rights and
+impressment were set aside. A convention was made for ten years in
+regard to the fisheries, the northwest boundary, and other points, and
+the commercial convention of 1815 was renewed. The English claim to the
+navigation of the Mississippi was finally disposed of, and the article
+concerning the West India trade was referred to the President. The
+arrangement of the fishery question disturbed Mr. Gallatin, who found
+himself compelled to sign an agreement which left the United States in a
+worse situation in that respect than before the war of 1812. But as the
+British courts would certainly uphold the construction by their
+government of the treaty of 1783, our vessels, when seized, would be
+condemned and a collision would immediately ensue. This, and the
+critical condition of our Spanish relations, left no choice between
+concession and war. A short time afterward Lord Castlereagh and the Duke
+of Wellington expressed friendly dispositions, and the mooted points of
+impressment and the West India trade were considered by them to be near
+an arrangement. The right of British armed vessels to examine American
+crews was abandoned in the convention itself.</p>
+
+<p>In July, 1818, the capture of Fort St. Mark<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span> and the occupation of
+Pensacola in Florida by General Jackson made some stir in the quiet
+waters of our foreign diplomacy. Uncertain as to whether the act would
+be disavowed or justified by the American government, Mr. Gallatin
+explained to the European ministers that the forcible occupation of the
+Spanish province was an act of self-defence and protection against the
+Indians, but Richelieu replied that the United States &ldquo;had adopted the
+game laws and pursued in foreign ground what was started in its own.&rdquo;
+Yet, to the astonishment of Mr. Gallatin, Richelieu was moderate and
+friendly in language, and urged a speedy amicable arrangement of
+differences with Spain, in whose affairs France took an interest, and
+who had asked her good offices. But Gallatin at once rejected any idea
+that the United States would join France in any mediation between Spain
+and her revolted colonies. It seems rather singular that, to the
+suggestion that a Spanish prince might be sent over to America as an
+independent monarch, Gallatin contented himself with expressing a doubt
+as to the efficacy of such a course to preserve their independence. Mr.
+Adams was informed that public recognition of the independence of the
+insurgent colony of Buenos Ayres would shock the feelings and prejudices
+of the French ministers, but that notwithstanding this displeasure,
+France would not join Spain in a war on this account. England, however,
+would see such a war without regret, and privateers under Spanish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span>
+commissions would instantly be fitted out, both in France and England.
+Under the existing convention with Great Britain three hundred American
+vessels arrived at Liverpool in the first nine months of 1818 from the
+United States and only thirty English, an advantage to the United States
+which war would at once destroy. Russia also was displeased with the
+recognition of the independence of the Spanish colonies. At the Congress
+of Aix la Chapelle various plans of mediation were proposed, but England
+refusing to engage to break off all commercial relations with such of
+the insurgent colonies as should reject the proposals agreed to, the
+whole project was abandoned. An agreement between the five great powers
+for the suppression of the slave trade was also proposed at this
+Congress, but France declined to recognize the right to visit French
+vessels in time of peace, and Russia making a similar declaration, this
+plan also fell to the ground, and even an association against the
+exactions of the Barbary powers was prevented by jealousy of the naval
+preponderance of Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>While Mr. Gallatin was still actively engaged in an endeavor to put our
+commercial relations with France on a satisfactory basis, and
+negotiating with M. Pasquier, the new French minister for foreign
+affairs, both with regard to indemnities for captures and the new
+Spanish relations involved in the cession of Florida to the United
+States, a serious trouble arose in which Mr. Gallatin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> and Mr. Adams
+were at direct difference. In the spring of 1821 a French vessel, the
+Apollon, was seized on the St. Mary's River, on the Spanish side, and
+condemned for violation of the United States navigation laws. Mr. Adams
+sustained the seizure and Mr. Gallatin did his best to defend it, on the
+ground that the place where the vessel was seized was embraced in the
+occupation of the United States. To Adams he wrote that the doctrine
+assumed by the State Department with respect to the non-ratified treaty
+with Spain was not generally admitted in Europe, and that &ldquo;he thought it
+equally dangerous and inconsistent with our general principles to assert
+that we had a right to seize a vessel for any cause short of piracy in a
+place where we did not previously claim jurisdiction.&rdquo; Mr. Gallatin
+succeeded in satisfying M. Pasquier that the seizure was not in
+violation of the law of nations or an insult to the French flag, and the
+captain having instituted a suit for redress against the seizing
+officers, the French minister allowed the matter to rest. Adams,
+however, was indignant at having his arguments set aside. He complained
+of it to Calhoun, and asked what Mr. Gallatin meant. Calhoun answered
+that perhaps it was &ldquo;the pride of opinion.&rdquo; But when Adams got to his
+diary, which was the safety-valve of his ill-temper, he set a black mark
+against Mr. Gallatin's name in these words: "Gallatin is a man of
+first-rate talents, conscious and vain of them, and mortified in his
+ambition, checked as it has been,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span> after attaining the last step to the
+summit; timid in great perils, tortuous in his paths; born in Europe,
+disguising and yet betraying a superstitious prejudice of European
+superiority of intellect, and holding principles pliable to
+circumstances, occasionally mistaking the left for the right handed
+wisdom." Against this judgment, Gallatin's estimate of Adams may be here
+set down. It was expressed to his intimate friend Badollet in 1824:
+&ldquo;John Q. Adams is a virtuous man, whose temper, which is not the best,
+might be overlooked; he has very great and miscellaneous knowledge, and
+he is with his pen a powerful debater; but he wants, to a deplorable
+degree, that most essential quality, a sound and correct judgment. Of
+this I have had in my official connection and intercourse with him
+complete and repeated proofs; and although he may be useful when
+controlled and checked by others, he ought never to be trusted with a
+place where, unrestrained, his errors might be fatal to the country.&rdquo;
+Crawford complained of the difficulty he encountered in the cabinet of
+softening the asperities which invariably predominated in the official
+notes of the State Department while under Adams's direction, and said
+that, had they been allowed to remain as originally drafted, the
+government would have been &ldquo;unembarrassed by diplomatic relations with
+more than one power.&rdquo; But it must be remembered that there was no love
+lost between Adams and Crawford&mdash;political rivals and not personal
+friends.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The commercial negotiations, and the discussion of French pretensions
+under the eighth article of the Louisiana treaty, opened with M.
+Pasquier, were continued with the Vicomte de Montmorenci, who succeeded
+him as minister of foreign affairs. In September, 1821, Mr. Gallatin had
+communicated to Mr. Adams his intention of returning home in the spring;
+but there appearing a chance of success in the negotiation of a treaty,
+he wrote in February, 1822, to President Monroe that if no successor had
+been appointed, he was desirous to remain some time longer. He was loath
+to return without having succeeded in any one subject intrusted to his
+care. Meanwhile Mr. Adams and M. de Neuville, the French minister, had
+been busy in the United States. A commercial convention was signed at
+Washington on June 24, 1822. Concerning this agreement Mr. Gallatin
+wrote to Adams that the terms were much more favorable to France than he
+had been led to presume would be acceded to, and more so than had been
+hoped for by the French government. He nevertheless expressed the wish
+that, as it had been signed, it should be ratified, in anticipation that
+the superior activity of our ship-owners and seamen would enable America
+to stand the competition.</p>
+
+<p>In January, 1823, Montmorenci resigned and was succeeded by M. de
+Chateaubriand. The change of ministers made no change in the French
+persistence in connecting the discussion of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span> American claims with
+that of the eighth article of the Louisiana treaty, an arrangement to
+which Mr. Gallatin would not consent. As a last resort he so informed M.
+de Chateaubriand, but receiving an unsatisfactory answer he concluded
+that there was at that time no disposition in France to do us justice;
+and as his protracted stay could be of no service to the United States,
+he determined to return home in the course of the spring. In April he
+received leave of absence from the President. On May 13 he had a final
+conference with Chateaubriand, in which he could get no promise of any
+redress, but did obtain the explicit declaration that France would in no
+manner interfere in American questions.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin took passage at Havre, and arrived in New York on June 24,
+1823. His political friends, especially Crawford, were eager for his
+return. Crawford wished him to stand for vice-president in the coming
+presidential campaign. After a short visit to Washington he went to his
+home at New Geneva. The real value of perfect public service, or indeed
+of any service, is only appreciated when it ceases, and friction takes
+the place of smooth and noiseless order. Hardly was Mr. Gallatin settled
+at Friendship Hill when a letter from President Monroe (October 15)
+arrived, urging him to return to Paris, if only for the winter, or until
+the crisis brought on by the rupture between France and Spain should be
+over. Mr. Gallatin replied, that the deranged state of his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span> private
+affairs rendered his return to Europe extremely improbable.</p>
+
+<p>Goethe says in his &ldquo;Elective Affinities&rdquo; that we cannot escape the
+atmosphere we breathe. The natural atmosphere of Mr. Gallatin was public
+life. In November, 1825, Mr. Clay, Adams's secretary of state, offered,
+and, meeting a refusal, pressed upon Mr. Gallatin the post of
+representative of the United States at the proposed Congress of American
+Republics at Panama. Mr. Clay was right in considering it the most
+important mission ever sent from the United States, and had Mr. Gallatin
+accepted it, relations with these interesting countries might have been
+improved to an immeasurable degree of happiness to them, and of benefit
+to both continents. But his family would not hear of his exposure in the
+fatal climate of the American Isthmus. Moreover, he pleaded his
+ignorance of the Spanish language as a sufficient excuse for declining
+the mission,&mdash;an example which has not been followed in later days.</p>
+
+<h2><i>Minister to England</i></h2>
+
+<p>In the spring of 1826 Mr. Rufus King, who had taken the place of Mr.
+Rush at London, that gentleman having been called to the Treasury by
+President Adams, fell ill, and requested the assistance of an
+extraordinary envoy. Mr. Gallatin accepted the mission. Before his
+nomination reached the Senate Mr. King's resignation was received and
+accepted. President Adams wishing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span> to intrust Mr. Gallatin alone with
+the pending negotiations, and unwilling to make the two nominations of
+minister and envoy, proposed to Mr. Gallatin to take the post of
+minister, with powers to negotiate, and liberty to return when the
+negotiations should be finished. Personal expenses at London were so
+great that the post of resident minister was ruinous. Mr. Adams promised
+Mr. Gallatin <i>carte blanche</i> as to his instructions. But instead of
+latitude and discretionary power he received at New York voluminous
+directions which he engaged faithfully to execute, while regretting that
+they had not been made known to him sooner. Nevertheless, in the three
+days which intervened before his sailing, he wrote to Mr. Clay a lucid
+statement of the points in issue, and mentioned the modifications he
+desired. The points were: 1. The northeastern boundary. Upon this he was
+only authorized to obtain a reference of the subject to a direct
+negotiation at Washington. He asked consent, in case it should be
+desirable, to open a negotiation on this point at London. Should Great
+Britain refuse to open a negotiation at either place, or to agree to a
+joint statement, then he was not to be bound to propose an immediate
+reference to a third power. 2. The boundary west of the Stony Mountains.
+The instructions limited British continuance on settlements south of the
+49th parallel to five years. Mr. Gallatin thought this insufficient, and
+proposed fifteen years. 3. The St. Lawrence navigation, and the
+intercourse<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span> with Canada, as to which he suggested alternate plans. 4.
+Colonial trade, on which he asked precise instructions as to what was
+desired. To the President he complained of his instructions as 'of the
+most peremptory nature, leaving no discretion on unimportant points, and
+making of him a mere machine,' and he requested that it be officially
+announced to him 'that the instructions were intended to guide but not
+absolutely to bind him.' He was not afraid of incurring responsibility
+where discretion was allowed, but he would not do it in the face of
+strict and positive injunctions. Mr. Gallatin sailed from New York with
+his wife and daughter July 1, 1826. Mr. William Beach Lawrence, then a
+youth, accompanied him as his secretary. They reached London on August
+7.</p>
+
+<p>Canning was then at the head of the foreign office, and the temper of
+the ministry was not that of Castlereagh and Wellington. Mr. Gallatin
+did not like French diplomacy, nor did he admire that of England. He
+wrote to his son: 'Some of the French statesmen occasionally say what is
+not true; here (in London) they conceal the truth.' But while in
+diplomacy he found strength and the opinion of that strength to be the
+only weapons, he felt satisfaction that the country could support its
+rights and pretensions by assuming a different attitude. In the course
+of the negotiations Mr. Gallatin learned that one of the king's
+ministers had complained of the tone of United States diplomacy towards
+England, and had added, that it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span> was time to show that it was felt and
+resented. No such fault could attach to the correspondence of Mr. Rush
+and Mr. King, or to that of Mr. Clay, which Mr. Addington had found
+quite acceptable; but it was ascribed to Mr. Adams's instructions to Mr.
+Rush, printed by order of the Senate. Mr. Gallatin later discovered that
+the offensive remarks were in Baylies's report on the territory west of
+the Stony Mountains. Mr. Gallatin explained the independence of the
+House committees in the United States, but as a diplomatist he felt the
+need of a concert between the executive and the committees of Congress
+in all that concerns foreign relations. Government, after all, is a
+complex science.</p>
+
+<p>The simple directness with which Mr. Gallatin dealt with Lord Liverpool
+could not serve with a man of Canning's disposition. Mr. Gallatin did
+not fail to bring to bear the pressure of a possible change in the
+relations of the United States and Great Britain, which might arise from
+the war which seemed imminent between that power and Spain. The new
+questions of Cuba, and the old habit of impressment, might at once bring
+the United States into collision with England. But the war did not take
+place, and the close of the year found the negotiations not far
+advanced. Only the convention of 1815 would no doubt be renewed. He
+asked for further instructions on that subject, the joint occupancy of
+western territory, and impressments, all of which he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span> hoped to arrange
+in the spring and summer, and return home. Mr. Lawrence he found to be a
+secretary more capable in the current business of the legation than any
+of his predecessors. Mr. Gallatin could safely leave him there as
+<i>charg&eacute; d'affaires</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In December, Chateaubriand used in the House of Peers the words which
+Mr. Gallatin had said to him, 'that England could not take Cuba without
+making war on the United States, and that she knew it.' Mr. Gallatin so
+informed Adams, and added, that France would no doubt agree, as
+Chateaubriand would have agreed, to a tripartite instrument if England
+were of the same opinion.</p>
+
+<p>In March, 1827, Adams warned Gallatin that the sudden and unexpected
+determination of Great Britain to break off all negotiation concerning
+the colonial trade, and the contemporaneous interdiction of the vessels
+of the United States from all British ports in the West Indies, had put
+a new face on matters. A renewal of the convention of 1818 would
+probably be agreed to by the Senate, but no concession in the form of a
+treaty would be acceptable. His words were emphatic. &ldquo;One inch of ground
+yielded on the northwest coast,&mdash;one step backward from the claim to the
+navigation of the St. Lawrence,&mdash;one hair's breadth of compromise upon
+the article of impressment would be certain to meet the reprobation of
+the Senate.&rdquo; In this temper of parties, Adams added, "All we can hope to
+accomplish will be to adjourn contro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span>versies which we cannot adjust, and
+say to Britain as the Abb&eacute; Bernis said to Cardinal Fleuri: 'Monseigneur,
+j'attendrai.'&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>But changes now occurred in the British ministry: Lord Liverpool died in
+February, 1827&mdash;Mr. Canning in the following August. Lord Goderich
+became prime minister. The new administration returned from Canning's
+eccentric course to the old and quiet path. The commercial convention of
+1815 was renewed indefinitely, each party being at liberty to abrogate
+it at twelve months' notice. The joint occupancy of the Oregon
+Territory, agreed to in 1818, was continued in a similar manner. On
+September 29 a convention was signed, referring the northeast boundary
+to the arbitration of a friendly sovereign. Mr. Gallatin believed that,
+had Canning lived, he would have opened a negotiation on the subject of
+impressment. Huskisson considered that 'the right, even if well founded,
+was one the exercise of which was intolerable, but that this was not the
+time to take up the subject.' The new British administration did not
+dare to encounter the clamor of the navy, the opposition of the Tories,
+and the pride of the nation on this question.</p>
+
+<p>Having accomplished all that was practicable, completed all the current
+business, and leaving the British government in a better temper than he
+found it, Mr. Gallatin returned to the United States, reaching New York
+on November 29, 1827. Nothing remained in foreign relations in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span> respect
+to which Mr. Gallatin felt that he could be of much use except the
+northeast boundary. In a letter of congratulation to Mr. Gallatin on his
+arrival, President Adams made ample amends for all his harsh judgments,
+expressed or withheld. The three conventions were entirely satisfactory
+to him. Of the negotiation he said, in words as graceful as warm, &ldquo;I
+shall feel most sensibly the loss of your presence at London, and can
+form no more earnest wish than that your successor may acquire the same
+influence of reason and good temper which you did exercise, and that it
+may be applied with as salutary effect to the future discussions between
+the two governments.&rdquo; During his visit to London Mr. Gallatin was
+overwhelmed with civilities. Canning was courteous to a degree, and
+rarely a day passed that the American ambassador had not to choose
+between half a dozen invitations to dinner. At the house of the Russian
+minister, the Count de Lieven, he was always welcome, and the Countess
+de Lieven, the autocrat of foreign society in London, without whose pass
+no stranger could cross the sacred threshold of Almack's, was his fast
+friend. To each circle he carried that which each most prized. Whether
+the conversation turned upon government or science, the dry figures of
+finance, or the more genial topic of diplomatic intrigue, Mr. Gallatin
+was its easy master, and his words never fell on inattentive ears.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>With this mission to London Mr. Gallatin's diplomatic service closed. He
+would have accepted the French mission in 1834, and so informed Van
+Buren, but General Jackson, who was President, had his own plans, and
+'ran his machine' without consulting other than his own prejudices or
+whims. But although Mr. Gallatin was no longer in the field of
+diplomacy, his counsels were eagerly sought. The northeastern boundary
+was a troublesome question, indeed in the new phases of American
+politics an imminent danger. The extension of the commercial relations
+of Great Britain and the United States rendered it imperative that no
+point of dispute should remain which could be determined. For two years
+after his return from England, Mr. Gallatin was employed in the
+preparation of an argument to be laid before the king of the
+Netherlands, who had been selected as the arbiter between the United
+States and Great Britain on the boundary. The king undertook to press a
+conventional line, which the United States, not being bound to accept,
+refused. In 1839 Mr. Gallatin prepared, and put before the world, a
+statement of the facts in the case. This, revised, together with the
+speech of Mr. Webster, a copy of the Jay treaty, and eight maps, he
+published at his own expense in 1840.</p>
+
+<p>At this time conflicts on the Maine frontier brought the subject up in a
+manner not to be ignored. Popular feeling was at high pitch. In this
+condition of affairs Alexander Baring, who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span> had been raised to the
+peerage as Lord Ashburton, was sent to America on a mission of
+friendship and peace. As a young man he had listened to the debate on
+Jay's treaty in 1795. He was now to be received by Webster in Washington
+in the same spirit in which Grenville received Jay in London, when it
+was mutually understood that they should discuss the matter as friends
+and not as diplomatists, and leave their articles as records of
+agreement, not as compromises of discord. Gallatin eagerly awaited the
+arrival of his old friend, and was grievously disappointed when contrary
+winds blew the frigate which carried him to Annapolis. Letters were
+immediately exchanged; Lord Ashburton engaging before he left the
+country to find Gallatin out, and, as he said, to &ldquo;<i>draw a little wisdom
+from the best well</i>.&rdquo; After the treaty was signed, Lord Ashburton went
+from Washington to New York, and the old friends met once more: Mr.
+Gallatin was in his 82d year, but in the full possession of his
+faculties; Lord Ashburton in his 68th year: a memorable meeting of two
+great men, whose lives had much in common; the one the foremost banker
+of England, the other the matchless financier of America; and to this
+sufficient honor was added for each the singular merit of having
+negotiated for his country the most important treaty in its relation to
+the other since the separation of 1783,&mdash;Mr. Gallatin, the Treaty of
+Ghent, which gave peace to America; Lord Ashburton, that treaty which
+is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span> known by his name and which secured peace to Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>In 1846 Mr. Gallatin rendered his last diplomatic service by the
+publication of a pamphlet on the Oregon question, which was then as
+threatening as that of the northeastern boundary had been. This
+admirable exposition, which put before the people as well as the
+negotiators the precise merits of the controversy, powerfully
+contributed to the ultimate peaceful settlement.</p>
+
+<p>Still once more Mr. Gallatin threw his authoritative words into the
+scale of justice. His last appearance in public had been when he
+presided on April 24, 1844, at a meeting in New York city to protest
+against the annexation of Texas. He then held that the resolution of the
+House declaring the treaty of annexation between the United States of
+America and the Republic of Texas to be the fundamental law of union
+between them, without and against the consent of the Senate, was a
+direct and undisguised usurpation of power and a violation of the
+Constitution. In the storm of opposition he lifted his feeble voice in
+condemnation of the violation of treaties, and the disregard of the
+sacred obligations of mankind. &ldquo;I am highly gratified,&rdquo; were his final
+words, "I am highly gratified that the last public act of a long life
+should have been that of bearing testimony against this outrageous
+attempt. It is indeed a consolation that my almost extinguished voice
+has been on this occasion raised in defense of liberty,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span> of justice, and
+of our country." Of the war with Mexico, he was wont to say, &ldquo;that it
+was the only blot upon the escutcheon of the United States.&rdquo; Aged as he
+was, he would not rest until he had made his last appeal for peace with
+Mexico. He also prepared supplementary essays on war expenses: the first
+of these was published in 1847, the second in 1848. For months all his
+faculties, all his feelings were absorbed in this one subject. These
+pamphlets were widely circulated by the friends of peace. The venerable
+sage had the comfort of knowing that his words were not in vain. Peace
+with Mexico was signed on February 2, 1848.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin was no believer in the doctrine of 'manifest destiny,'&mdash;the
+policy of bringing all North America into the occupation of a race
+speaking the same language, and under a single government. On February
+16, 1848, before news of the signature of the treaty at Guadalupe
+Hidalgo, by Mr. Trist, the American negotiator, was known in New York,
+Mr. Gallatin condemned this idea in a remarkable passage, in a letter to
+Garrett Davis:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;What shall be said of the notion of an empire extending from the
+Atlantic to the Pacific and from the North Pole to the Equator? Of
+the destiny of the Anglo-Saxon race, of its universal monarchy over
+the whole of North America? Now, I will ask, which is the portion
+of the globe that has attained the highest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span> degree of civilization
+and even of power&mdash;Asia, with its vast empires of Turkey, India,
+and China, or Europe divided into near twenty independent
+sovereignties? Other powerful causes have undoubtedly largely
+contributed to that result; but this, the great division into ten
+or twelve distinct languages, must not be neglected. But all these
+allegations of superiority of race and destiny neither require nor
+deserve any answer. They are but pretences under which to disguise
+ambition, cupidity, or silly vanity.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>The justice of these reflections was assuredly borne out by the
+experience of history, but manifest destiny takes no account of past
+lessons.</p>
+
+<p>Before these lines of Mr. Gallatin were penned, on January 19, 1848,
+gold was discovered in California. The announcement startled the world
+and opened a new era, not only to Europe, but to mankind. Extending the
+metallic basis, which no man better than Mr. Gallatin recognized and
+held to be the true solvent of money transactions, it postponed for a
+half century the inevitable conflict between capital and labor, the
+first outbreaks of which in Europe had been with difficulty suppressed,
+when the news of good tidings gave promise of unexpected relief. Credit
+revived, new enterprises of colossal magnitude were undertaken, and the
+demand for labor quickly exceeded the supply. Emigration to America rose
+to incredible proportions. Had Mr. Gallatin lived, he would have found
+new elements to be weighed in his nice balance of probabilities. He
+would no longer, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span> in 1839, have been compelled to say that &ldquo;specie is
+a foreign product,&rdquo; but would have given to us inestimable advice as to
+the proper use to be made of the vast sums taken out from our own soil.
+He would have been also brought to face the ethnologic problem of a
+continent inhabited by a single race, not Anglo-Saxon, nor Teutonic, nor
+yet Latin, but a composite race in which all these will be merged and
+blended; a new American race which, springing from a broader surface,
+shall rise to higher summits of intellectual power and, with a greater
+variety of natural qualities, achieve excellence in more numerous ways.
+This vision was denied to Mr. Gallatin. He died at the threshold of the
+new era&mdash;of the golden age. A half century has not passed since his
+death, and the United States has taken from her soil a value of over
+three thousand millions of dollars, in gold and silver (gold two
+thousand millions, silver one thousand millions), more than two thirds
+of the total amount estimated by Mr. Gallatin as the store of Europe in
+1839; and has also added to her population, by immigration alone, ten
+millions of people, of whom but a small proportion are of the
+Anglo-Saxon race.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> <i>Life of Albert Gallatin</i>, p. 546.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> The frigate Chesapeake was captured by the British
+man-of-war Leopard in June, 1807.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> A translation of this work, <i>Economie Politique</i>, was
+published under Jefferson's supervision in 1818.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>CANDIDATE FOR THE VICE-PRESIDENCY</h3>
+
+<p>During the twelve years that Mr. Gallatin was in the Treasury he was
+continually looking for some man who could take his place in that
+office, and aid in the direction of national politics; to use his own
+words, &ldquo;who could replace Mr. Jefferson, Mr. Madison, and himself.&rdquo;
+Breckenridge of Kentucky only appeared and died. The eccentricities of
+John Randolph unfitted him for leadership. William H. Crawford of
+Georgia, Monroe's secretary of the treasury, alone filled Gallatin's
+expectations. To a powerful mind Crawford &ldquo;united a most correct
+judgment and an inflexible integrity. Unfortunately he was neither
+indulgent nor civil, and, consequently, was unpopular.&rdquo; Andrew Jackson,
+Gallatin said, &ldquo;was an honest man, and the idol of the worshipers of
+military glory, but from incapacity, military habits, and habitual
+disregard of laws and constitutional provisions, entirely unfit for the
+office of president.&rdquo; John C. Calhoun he looked upon as &ldquo;a smart fellow,
+one of the first amongst second-rate men, but of lax political
+principles and an inordinate ambition, not over-delicate in the means of
+satisfying itself.&rdquo;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span> Clay he considered to be a man of splendid talents
+and a generous mind; John Quincy Adams to be 'wanting to a deplorable
+degree in that most essential quality, a sound and correct judgment.'</p>
+
+<p>The contest lay between Adams and Crawford. Crawford was the choice of
+Jefferson and Madison as well as of Gallatin. The principles of the
+Republican party had so changed that Nathaniel Macon could say in 1824,
+in reply to a request from Mr. Gallatin to take part in a caucus for the
+purpose of forwarding Mr. Crawford's nomination, that there were &ldquo;not
+five members of Congress who entertained the opinions which those did
+who brought Mr. Jefferson into power.&rdquo; But Macon was of the Brutus stamp
+of politicians; of that stern cast of mind which does not 'alter when it
+alteration finds or bend with the remover to remove,' and held yielding
+to the compulsion of circumstances to be an abandonment of principle.</p>
+
+<p>Jefferson still held the consolidation of power to be the chief danger
+of the country, and the barrier of state rights, great and small, to be
+its only protection even against the Supreme Court. Gallatin took
+broader ground, and found encouragement in the excellent working of
+universal suffrage in the choice of representatives to legislative
+bodies. But he was opposed to the extension of the principle to
+municipal officers having the application of the proceeds of taxes,
+forgetting that universal suffrage is the lever by which capital is
+moved to educate labor and relieve it from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span> burdens of injury,
+disease, and physical incapacity at the expense of the whole. Without
+stopping to argue these debatable questions, Mr. Gallatin, with
+practical statesmanship, determined to maintain in power the only agency
+by which he could at all shape the political future, and he threw
+himself into the canvass with zeal.</p>
+
+<p>Crawford had unfortunately been stricken with paralysis, and the choice
+of a vice-president became a matter of grave concern. Mr. Gallatin was
+selected to take this place on the ticket. To this tender he replied
+that he did not want the office, but would dislike to be proposed and
+not elected, and he honestly felt that as a foreigner and a residuary
+legatee of Federal hatred his name could not be of much service to the
+cause. Still, he followed the only course by which any party can be held
+together, and surrendered his prejudices and fears to the wishes of his
+friends. The Republican caucus met on February 14, 1824, in the chamber
+of the House of Representatives. Of the 216 members of the party only 66
+attended. Martin Van Buren, then senator from New York, managed this,
+the last congressional caucus for the selection of candidates.</p>
+
+<p>The solemnity given to the congressional nominations, and the publicity
+of the answers of candidates, Mr. Gallatin held to be political
+blunders. In fact the plan was adroitly denounced as an attempt to
+dictate to the people.</p>
+
+<p>Crawford was nominated for president by 64<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span> votes, Gallatin for
+vice-president by 57. This nomination Mr. Gallatin accepted in a note to
+Mr. Ruggles, United States senator, on May 10, 1824. But there were
+elements of which party leaders of the old school had not taken
+sufficient account. Macon was right when he said that &ldquo;every generation,
+like a single person, has opinions of its own, as much so in politics as
+anything else,&rdquo; and that 'the opinions of Jefferson and those who were
+with him were forgotten.' And Jefferson himself, in his complacent
+reflection that even the name of Federalist was &ldquo;extinguished by the
+battle of New Orleans,&rdquo; did not see that the Republican party of the old
+school had been snuffed out by the same event. The new democracy, whose
+claims to rule were based, not on the policy of peace or restricted
+powers, but on the seductive glitter of military glory, was in the
+ascendant, and General Jackson was the favorite of the hour. New
+combinations became necessary, and Mr. Gallatin was requested to
+withdraw from the ticket, and make room for Mr. Clay, whose great
+western influence it was hoped would save it from defeat. This he gladly
+did in a declaration of October 2, addressed to Martin Van Buren, dated
+at his Fayette home, and published in the &ldquo;National Intelligencer.&rdquo; The
+result of the election was singular. Calhoun was elected vice-president
+by the people. The presidential contest was decided in the House, Adams
+being chosen over Jackson and Crawford, by the influence of Clay. Mr.
+Gallatin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span> quickly discerned in the failure of the people to elect a
+president the collapse of the Republican party. He considered it as
+&ldquo;fairly defunct.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Jackson had already announced the startling doctrine that no regard was
+to be had to party in the selection of the great officers of government,
+which Mr. Gallatin considered as tantamount to a declaration that
+principles and opinions were of no importance in its administration. To
+lose sight of this principle was to substitute men for measures.
+Jackson's idea of party, however, was personal fealty. He engrafted the
+<i>pouvoir personnel</i> on the Democratic party as thoroughly as Napoleon
+could have done in his place. Moreover, Gallatin considered Jackson's
+assumption of power in his collisions with the judiciary at New Orleans
+and Pensacola, and his orders to take St. Augustine without the
+authority of Congress, as dangerous assaults upon the Constitution of
+the country and the liberties of the people, and he dreaded the
+substitution of the worship of a military chieftain for the maintenance
+of that liberty, the last hope of man. Ten years later he uttered the
+same opinion in a conversation with Miss Martineau, and he expressed a
+preference for an annual president, a cipher, so that all would be done
+by the ministry. But in the impossibility of this plan, he would have
+preferred a four years' term without renewal or an extension of six
+years; an idea adopted by Davis in his plan of disintegration by
+secession. The presidency, Mr. Gal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span>latin thought, was &ldquo;too much power
+for one man; therefore it fills all men's thoughts to the detriment of
+better things.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>When Mr. Gallatin visited Washington in 1829, he found a state of
+society, political and social, widely at variance with his own
+experience. The ways of Federalist and Republican cabinets were
+traditions of an irrevocable past. Jackson was political dictator, and
+took counsel only from his prejudices. The old simplicity had given way
+to elegance and luxury of adornment. The east room of the presidential
+mansion was covered with Brussels carpeting. There were silk curtains at
+the windows, French mirrors of unusual size, and three splendid English
+crystal chandeliers. In the dining-room were a hundred candles and
+lamps, and silver plate of every description, and presiding over this
+magnificence the strange successors of Washington and his stately dame,
+of Madison and his no less elegant wife,&mdash;the Tennessee backwoodsman and
+Peggy O'Neil.</p>
+
+<p>When, it is not too soon to ask, in the general reform of civil service,
+shall the possibility of such anomalies be entirely removed by
+restricting the executive mansion to an executive bureau, and entirely
+separating social ceremony from official state, to the final suppression
+of back stairs influence and kitchen cabinets?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<h3>SOCIETY&mdash;LITERATURE&mdash;SCIENCE</h3>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin's land speculations were not profitable. His plan of Swiss
+colonization did not result in any pecuniary advantage to himself. His
+little patrimony, received in 1786, he invested in a plantation of about
+five hundred acres on the Monongahela. Twelve years later, in 1798, he
+was neither richer nor poorer than at the time of his investment. The
+entire amount of claims which he held with Savary he sold in 1794,
+without warranty of title, to Robert Morris, then the great speculator
+in western lands, for four thousand dollars, Pennsylvania currency. This
+sum, his little farm, and five or six hundred pounds cash were then his
+entire fortune. In 1794, the revolution in Switzerland having driven out
+numbers of his compatriots, he formed a plan of association consisting
+of one hundred and fifty shares of eight hundred dollars each, of which
+the Genevans in Philadelphia, Odier, Fazzi, the two Cazenove, Cheriot,
+Bourdillon, Duby, Couronne, Badollet, and himself took twenty-five each.
+Twenty-five were offered to Americans, which were nearly all taken up,
+and one hundred were sent to Geneva,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span> Switzerland, to D'Yvernois and his
+friends. The project was to purchase land, and Mr. Gallatin had decided
+upon a location in the northeast part of Pennsylvania, or in New York,
+on the border. In the summer Gallatin made a journey through New York to
+examine lands with the idea of occupation. In July, 1795, he made a
+settlement with Mr. Morris, taking his notes for three thousand five
+hundred dollars. Balancing his accounts, Mr. Gallatin then found himself
+worth seven thousand dollars, in addition to which he had about
+twenty-five thousand acres of waste lands and the notes of Mr. Morris.
+In 1798 Mr. Morris failed, and, under the harsh operations of the old
+law, was sent to jail. Mr. Gallatin never recovered the three thousand
+dollars owed to him in the final balance of his real estate operations.</p>
+
+<p>After Mr. Gallatin left the Treasury he located patents for seventeen
+hundred acres of Virginia military lands in the State of Ohio, on
+warrants purchased in 1784. In 1815 he valued his entire estate,
+exclusive of his farm on the Monongahela, at less than twelve thousand
+dollars. Forty years later he complained of his investment as a
+troublesome and unproductive property, which had plagued him all his
+life. Besides the purchase of lands, Mr. Gallatin invested part of his
+little capital in building houses on his farm, and in the country store
+which Badollet managed. The one yielded no return, and the sum put in
+the other was lost through the incompetency of his honest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span> but
+inexperienced friend. His wife brought him a small property, but at no
+time in his life was he possessed of more than a modest competency. But
+he had never any discontent with his fortune nor any desire to be rich.</p>
+
+<p>Mrs. Gallatin, who had always until her marriage lived in cities, was
+entirely unfit for frontier life. In these days of railroads it is not
+easy to measure the isolation of their country home. Pittsburgh was
+nearly five days' journey from Philadelphia, and the crossing of the
+Alleghanies took a day and a half more. Before his marriage Mr. Gallatin
+had seen very little of society. Though in early manhood he felt no
+embarrassment among men, he said 'that he never yet was able to divest
+himself of an anti-Chesterfieldian awkwardness in mixed companies.' He
+did not take advantage of his residence in Philadelphia to accustom
+himself to the ways of the world. There he lived in lodgings and met the
+leading public characters of both parties. But when he took his seat in
+the cabinet, he found it necessary to enter upon housekeeping and to
+take a prominent part in society, for which his wife was admirably
+suited, both by temperament and education. Washington Irving wrote of
+her in November, 1812, that she was 'the most stylish woman in the
+drawing-room that session, and that she dressed with more splendor than
+any other of the noblesse;' and again the same year compared her with
+the wife of the President, whose courtly manners and consummate tact<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span>
+and grace are a tradition of the republican court. &ldquo;Tell your good
+lady,&rdquo; mother Irving wrote to James Renwick, &ldquo;that Mrs. Madison has been
+much indisposed, and at last Wednesday's evening drawing-room Mrs.
+Gallatin presided in her place. I was not present, but those who were
+assure me that she filled Mrs. Madison's chair to a miracle.&rdquo; This is in
+the sense of dignity, for Mrs. Gallatin was of small stature.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin's house shared the fate of the public buildings and was
+burned by the British when Washington was captured in 1814. He was then
+abroad on the peace mission. On his return from France Mr. Gallatin made
+one more attempt to realize his early idea of a country home, and with
+his family went in the summer of 1823 to Friendship Hill. Here an Irish
+carpenter built for him a house which he humorously described as being
+in the 'Hyberno-teutonic style,&mdash;the outside, with its port-hole-looking
+windows, having the appearance of Irish barracks, while the inside
+ornaments were similar to those of a Dutch tavern, and in singular
+contrast to the French marble chimney-pieces, paper, mirrors, and
+billiard-table.' In the summer Friendship Hill was an agreeable
+residence, but Mr. Gallatin found it in winter too isolated even for his
+taste.</p>
+
+<p>One exciting circumstance enlivened the spring of 1825. This was the
+passage of Lafayette, the guest of the nation, through western
+Pennsylvania on his famous tour. Mr. Gallatin welcomed him<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span> in an
+address before the court-house of Uniontown, the capital of Fayette
+County, on May 26. In his speech Mr. Gallatin reviewed the condition of
+the liberal cause in Europe, and the emancipation of Greece, then
+agitating both continents. In this all scholars as well as all liberals
+were of one mind and heart. After the proceedings Lafayette drove with
+Mr. Gallatin to Friendship Hill, where he passed the night; crowds of
+people pouring down the valley from the mountain roads to see the
+adopted son of the United States, the friend of Washington, the
+liberator of France. The intimacy between these two great men, who had
+alike devoted the flower of their youth to the interests of civilization
+and the foundation of the new republic, was never broken.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin passed only one winter at New Geneva. On his return from
+his last mission to England he settled permanently in New York, and in
+1828 took a house at No. 113 Bleecker Street, then in the suburbs of the
+city. He wrote to Badollet in March, 1829, that "it was an ill-contrived
+plan to think that the banks of the Monongahela, where he was perfectly
+satisfied to live and die in retirement, could be borne by the female
+part of his family, or by children brought up at Washington and Paris."
+The population of New York has always been migratory, and Mr. Gallatin
+was no exception to the rule. In the ten years which followed his first
+location he changed his residence on four May days, finally settling at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span>
+No. 57 Bleecker Street, nearly opposite to Crosby Street. His life in
+New York is a complete period in his intellectual as in his physical
+existence, and the most interesting of his career. His last twenty years
+were in great measure devoted to scientific studies.</p>
+
+<p>The National Bank, over which he presided for the first ten years, took
+but a small part of his time. The remainder was given up to study and
+conversation, an art in which he had no superior in this country and
+probably none abroad. Soon after his arrival in New York, Mr. Gallatin
+was chosen a member of &ldquo;The Club,&rdquo; an association famous in its day. As
+no correct account of this social organization has ever appeared, the
+letter of invitation to Mr. Gallatin is of some interest. It was written
+by Dr. John Augustine Smith, on November 2, 1829. An extract gives the
+origin of the club.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;Nearly two years ago some of the literary gentlemen of the city,
+feeling severely the almost total want of intercourse among
+themselves, determined to establish an association which should
+bring them more frequently into contact. Accordingly they founded
+the 'Club' as it is commonly called, and which I believe I
+mentioned to you when I had the pleasure of seeing you in Bond
+Street. Into this 'Club' twelve persons only are admitted, and
+there are at present three gentlemen of the Bar, Chancellor Kent,
+Messrs. Johnston and Jay, three professors of Columbia College,
+Messrs. McVickar, Moore, and Renwick, the Rev. Drs. Wain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span>wright and
+Mathews, the former of the Episcopal Church, the latter of the
+Presbyterian Church, two merchants, Messrs. Brevoort and Goodhue,
+and I have the honor to represent the medical faculty. Our twelfth
+associate was Mr. Morse, of the National Academy of Design, of
+which he was president, and his departure for Europe has caused a
+vacancy. For agreeableness of conversation there is nothing in New
+York at all comparable to our institution. We meet once a week; no
+officers, no formalities; invitations, when in case of intelligent
+and distinguished strangers, and after a plain and light repast,
+retire about eleven o'clock.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>At this club Mr. Gallatin, with his wonderful conversational powers,
+became at once the centre of interest. The club met at the houses of
+members in the winter evenings. There was always a supper, but the rule
+was absolute that there should be only one hot dish served, a regulation
+which the ladies endeavored to evade when the turn of their husbands
+arrived to supply the feast. Among the later members were Professor
+Anderson, John A. Stevens, Mr. Gallatin's countryman De Rham, John
+Wells, Samuel Ward, Gulian C. Verplanck, and Charles King. No literary
+symposium in America was ever more delightful, more instructive, than
+these meetings. On these occasions Mr. Gallatin led the conversation,
+which usually covered a wide field. His memory was marvelous, and his
+personal acquaintance with the great men who were developed by the
+French Revolution, emperors and princes, heroes, states<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span>men, and men of
+science, gave to the easy flow of his speech the zest of anecdote and
+the spice of epigram. Once heard he was never forgotten. And this rare
+faculty he preserved undiminished to the close of his life. Washington
+Irving, himself the most genial of men, and the most graceful of
+talkers, wrote of him, after meeting him at dinner, in 1841: &ldquo;Mr.
+Gallatin was in fine spirits and full of conversation. He is upwards of
+eighty, yet has all the activity and clearness of mind and gayety of
+spirits of a young man. How delightful it is to see such intellectual
+and joyous old age: to see life running out clear and sparkling to the
+last drop! With such a blessed temperament one would be content to
+linger and spin out the last thread of existence.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the year 1829 Mr. Gallatin attempted to carry out his
+old and favorite plan of the &ldquo;establishment of a general system of
+rational and practical education fitted for all, and gratuitously open
+to all.&rdquo; The want of an institution for education, combining the
+advantages of a European university with the recent improvements in
+instruction, was seriously felt. New York, already a great city, and
+rapidly growing, offered the most promising field for the national
+university on a broad and liberal foundation correspondent to the spirit
+of the age. The difficulty of obtaining competent teachers of even the
+lower branches of knowledge in the public schools, the system of which
+was in its infancy, was great. Persons<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span> could be found with learning
+enough, but they were generally deficient in the art of teaching.
+Governor Throop noticed this deficiency in his message of January, 1830,
+without, however, the recommendation of any remedy by legislation. The
+existing colleges could not supply the want. At this period religious
+prejudice controlled the actions of men in every walk of life; for the
+old colonial jealousies of Episcopalian and Presbyterian survived the
+Revolution. The religious distrust of scientific investigation was also
+at its height. Columbia College, the successor of old King's College,
+was governed in the Episcopalian interest. Private zeal could alone be
+relied upon to establish the new enterprise on a foundation free from
+the influence of clergy; an indispensable condition of success. These
+were the views of Mr. Jefferson in 1807. These were the views of Mr.
+Gallatin. In response to his request abundant subscriptions in money and
+material were at once forthcoming.</p>
+
+<p>The project of a national university at New York was received by the
+literary institutions of the United States with great enthusiasm. In
+October, 1830, a convention of more than a hundred literary and
+scientific gentlemen, delegates from different parts of the country, and
+of the highest distinction, was held in the common-council chamber. The
+outcome of their deliberations was the foundation of the New York
+University. Mr. Gallatin was the president of the first council, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span>
+his connection with the institution was of short continuance. The
+reasons for his withdrawal were set forth in a letter to his old friend,
+John Badollet, written February 7, 1833. Beginning with an expression of
+his desire to devote what remained of his life &ldquo;to the establishment in
+this immense and growing city (New York) of a general system of rational
+and practical education fitted for all and gratuitously opened to all,&rdquo;
+he said, &ldquo;but finding that the object was no longer the same, that a
+certain portion of the clergy had obtained the control, and that their
+object, though laudable, was special and quite distinct from mine, I
+resigned at the end of one year rather than to struggle, probably in
+vain for what was nearly unattainable.&rdquo; The history of the university
+through its precarious existence of half a century amply justifies Mr.
+Gallatin's previsions and retirement. Instead of an American Sorbonne,
+of which he dreamed, it has never been more than a local institution,
+struggling to hold a place in a crowded field.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin followed the evolutions of French politics with interest.
+His friend Lafayette, who, during the Empire, lived in almost enforced
+retirement at his estate of La Grange, was a voluntary exile from the
+court of Charles X., whose autocratic principles and aggressive course
+were rapidly driving France into fresh revolution. In July, 1830, the
+crisis was precipitated by the royal decrees published in the
+&ldquo;Moniteur.&rdquo; Lafayette,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span> who was on his estate, hurried instantly to
+Paris, where he became a rallying point, and himself signed the note to
+the king, announcing that he had ceased to reign. In September following
+it fell to him to write to Mr. Gallatin on the occasion of the marriage
+of Gallatin's daughter. In this union Lafayette had a triple interest.
+Besides his personal attachment for Mr. Gallatin, each of the young
+couple was descended from one of his old companions-in-arms. The groom,
+Mr. Byam Kerby Stevens, was a son of Colonel Ebenezer Stevens, of the
+continental service, who was Lafayette's chief of artillery in his
+expedition against Arnold in Virginia, in the spring of 1781; the bride,
+Frances Gallatin, was, on the mother's side, the granddaughter of
+Commodore James Nicholson, who commanded the gunboats which, improvised
+by Colonel Stevens, drove out the British vessels from Annapolis Bay and
+opened the route to the blockaded American flotilla.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;<span class="smcap">Paris</span>, <i>September</i> 8, 1830.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<span class="smcap">My Dear Friend</span>:&mdash;A long time has elapsed since I had the pleasure
+to hear from you. I need not, I hope, add, that my affectionate
+feelings have been continually with you, especially in what related
+to my young friend whose change of name has more deeply interested
+every member, and in a very particular manner, the younger part of
+the family. Let me hear of you all, and receive my tender regards
+and wishes, with those of my children and grandchildren.
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;<span class="smcap">Lafayette</span>.&rdquo;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<p>Both of the young people had the honor of Lafayette's acquaintance,&mdash;Mr.
+Stevens during a visit to Paris, and Miss Gallatin during her father's
+residence there as minister, when she was much admired, and was, in the
+words of Madame Bonaparte (Miss Patterson), 'a beauty.' In this letter
+Lafayette gives a picturesque account of the three days' fighting at the
+barricades, and of the departure of the ex-king and the royal army,
+accompanied by &ldquo;some twenty thousand Parisians, in coaches, hacks, and
+omnibus.... The royal party, after returning the jewels of the crown,
+went slowly to Cherbourg with their own escort, under the protection of
+three commissioners, and were there permitted quietly to embark for
+England.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1834 Mr. Gallatin's sympathies were greatly excited by the arrival at
+New York of a number of Poles, many of them educated men, and among them
+Etsko, a nephew of Kosciusko. A public committee was raised, called the
+Polish committee, of which Mr. Gallatin was chosen chairman. Besides
+superintending the collection of funds, he arranged and carried out in
+the minutest details a plan to quarter the exiles upon the inhabitants.
+A list of names ending in <i>ski</i> still remains among his papers; to each
+was assigned a number, and they were allotted by streets and
+numbers,&mdash;number 182, one Szelesegynski, was taken by Mr. Gallatin
+himself, to look after horses. These unfortunate men were then
+distributed through the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span> country, as occupations could be found. In
+October Mr. Gallatin's notes show that all had been provided for except
+fourteen boys, for whom a subscription was taken up. A tract of land in
+Illinois was assigned by Congress to these political exiles.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin's first acquaintance with the American Indian was made at
+Machias. In the neighborhood of this frontier town, across the Canadian
+border, there were still remnants of the Abenaki and Etchemin tribes.
+They were French in sympathy, and all converts to the Roman Catholic
+faith. Mr. Lesdernier, with whom Gallatin lodged, had influence over
+them from the trade he established with them in furs, and as their
+religious purveyor. He had paid a visit to Boston at the time the French
+fleet was there in 1781, and brought home a Capuchin priest for their
+service. To the young Genevan, brought up in the restrictions of
+European civilization, the history of the savage was a favorite study.
+In the winter evenings, in the quiet of the log hut, with the aid of one
+familiar with the customs and traditions of the race, the foundations
+were laid of a permanent interest in this almost untrodden branch of
+human science. The Canadian Indians, however, hemmed in by French and
+English settlements, were semi-civilized. The Miamis and Shawnees, who
+ranged the valley of the Ohio, were the tribes nearest to Gallatin's
+home on the Monongahela. These, though for a long time under the
+influence of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span> French, retained their original wildness, and were,
+during the first years of his residence, the dread of the frontier.</p>
+
+<p>The interest aroused in the mind of Mr. Gallatin by personal observation
+was quickened by his intimacy with Jefferson, whose &ldquo;Notes on Virginia,&rdquo;
+published in 1801, contained the first attempt at a classification and
+enumeration of American tribes. The earlier work of Colden was confined
+to the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy. The arrangement of the
+Louisiana territory, ceded by France, brought Mr. Gallatin into contact
+with Pierre Louis Chouteau, and an intimacy formed with John Jacob
+Astor, who was largely concerned in the fur trade of the Northwest,
+widened the field of interest, which included the geography of the
+interior and the customs of its inhabitants. Mr. Gallatin's examination
+of the subject was general, however, and did not take a practical
+scientific turn until the year 1823, when, at the request of Baron
+Alexander von Humboldt, he set forth the results of his studies in the
+form of a Synopsis of the Indian tribes. This essay, communicated by
+Humboldt to the Italian geographer Balbi, then engaged upon his "Atlas
+Ethnographique du Globe,"&mdash;a classification by languages of ancient and
+modern peoples,&mdash;was quoted by him in his volume introductory to that
+remarkable work published in 1826, in a manner to attract the attention
+of the scientific world. Vater, in his &ldquo;Mithridates,&rdquo; first at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span>tempted a
+classification of the languages of the globe, but the work of Mr.
+Gallatin, though confined in subject, was original in its conception and
+treatment. In the winter of 1825-26 a large gathering of southern
+Indians at Washington enabled him to obtain good vocabularies of several
+of the tribes. Uniting these to those already acquired, he published a
+table of all the existing tribes, and at the same time, at his instance,
+the War Department circulated through its posts a vocabulary containing
+six hundred words of verbal forms and of selected sentences, and a
+series of grammatical queries, to which answers were invited. He also
+opened an elaborate correspondence with such persons as were best
+acquainted with the Indian tribes in different sections of the
+country.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> The replies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span> to these various queries were few in number,
+but the practical plan, adhered to in substance, has resulted in the
+collection by the Smithsonian Institution of a very large number of
+Indian vocabularies.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>
+
+<p>This class of investigation, in its ample scope for original research
+and the ascertainment of principles by analysis and analogic expression,
+was peculiarly agreeable to Mr. Gallatin. His friend, du Ponceau,<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a>
+who served in the American war as the secretary of Steuben, and was now
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span>established in Philadelphia, was likewise deeply engaged in philologic
+studies; in 1819 he had published a memoir of the construction of the
+languages of the North American Indians, which he followed later with
+other papers of a similar nature, among which were a &ldquo;Grammar of the
+Languages of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians,&rdquo; and a memoir on the
+grammatical system of the languages of the Indian tribes of North
+America, a learned and highly instructive paper, which took the Volney
+prize at Paris.</p>
+
+<p>In 1836 Mr. Gallatin's original paper, contributed to Balbi, amplified
+by subsequent acquisitions, was published by the American Antiquarian
+Society of Worcester, in the first volume of its Transactions. It was
+entitled &ldquo;A Synopsis of the Indian Tribes, within the United States east
+of the Rocky Mountains, and in the British and Russian Possessions in
+North America.&rdquo; This elaborate inquiry, the foundation of the science in
+America, was intended originally to embrace all the tribes north of the
+Mexican semi-civilized nations. From the want of material, however, it
+was confined at the southward to the territory of the United States, and
+eastward of the Rocky Mountains. It included eighty-one tribes, divided
+into twenty-eight families, and was accompanied by a colored map, with
+tribal indications. The result of the investigation Mr. Gallatin held to
+be proof that all the languages, not only of our own Indian tribes, but
+of the nations inhabiting America from the Arctic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span> Ocean to Cape Horn,
+have a distinct character common to all. This paper attracted great
+attention in Europe. It was reviewed by the Count de Circourt, whose
+interest in the subject was heightened by personal acquaintance with the
+author. John C. Calhoun, acknowledging receipt of a copy of the
+Synopsis, said in striking phrase 'that he had long thought that the
+analogy of languages is destined to recover much of the lost history of
+nations just as geology has of the globe we inhabit.'</p>
+
+<p>In 1838, Congress having accepted the trust of John Smithson of
+&pound;100,000, and pledged the faith of the United States for its purposes,
+Mr. Forsyth, the secretary of state, addressed Mr. Gallatin, at the
+request of the President, requesting his views as to its proper
+employment; but Mr. Gallatin does not appear to have answered the
+communication. The programme of the Smithsonian Institution, inclosed to
+the board of regents in its first report, stated its object to be the
+increase and diffusion of knowledge, and bears marks of the general
+views which Mr. Gallatin had for many years urged on public attention.
+The first of the Smithsonian &ldquo;Contributions to Knowledge&rdquo; was the memoir
+of Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, by Squier and Davis.
+Before its publication was undertaken, however, it was submitted to the
+Ethnological Society. Mr. Gallatin returned it, with the approval of the
+society, and some words of commendation of his own addressed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span> to
+Professor Henry, the learned superintendent of the Smithsonian
+Institution.</p>
+
+<p>The period of temporary political repose, which followed the peace of
+Vienna and the establishment of the balance of power by the allied
+sovereigns, was an era in human knowledge. Science made rapid progress,
+and in its turn showed the broad and liberal influence of the great
+revolution. In 1842 societies were founded in Paris and London to
+promote the study of ethnology. Mr. Gallatin would not be behindhand in
+this important work for which America offered a virgin field. Drawing
+about him a number of gentlemen of similar tastes with his own, he
+founded in New York, in 1842, the American Ethnological Society. Among
+his associates were Dr. Robinson, the famous explorer of Palestine,
+Schoolcraft, Bartlett, and Professor Turner, noted for their researches
+in the history and languages of the Indian races. Messrs. Atwater,
+Bradford, Hawks, Gibbs, Mayer, Dr. Morton, Pickering, Stephens, Ewbank,
+and Squier were also, either in the beginning or soon after, members of
+this select and learned institution, of which Mr. Gallatin was the
+central figure. One of its members said in 1871, 'Mr. Gallatin's house
+was the true seat of the society, and Mr. Gallatin himself its
+controlling spirit. His name gave it character, and from his purse
+mainly was defrayed the cost of the two volumes of the &ldquo;Transactions&rdquo;
+which constitute about the only claim the society possesses to the
+respect of the scientific world.'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span> To the first of these volumes,
+published in 1845, Mr. Gallatin contributed an &ldquo;Essay on the
+semi-civilized nations of Mexico and Central America, embracing
+elaborate notes on their languages, numeration, calendars, history, and
+chronology, and an inquiry into the probable origin of their
+semi-civilization.&rdquo; In this he included all existing certain knowledge
+of the languages, history, astronomy, and progress in art of these
+peoples. A copy of this work he sent to General Scott, then in the city
+of Mexico after his triumphant campaign, inclosing a memorandum which he
+urged the general to hand to civilians attached to the army. This was a
+request to purchase books, copies of documents, printed grammars, and
+vocabularies of the Mexican languages, and he authorized the general to
+spend four hundred dollars in this purpose on his account. In the second
+volume, published in 1848, he printed the result of his continued
+investigations on the subject which first interested him, as an
+introduction to a republication of a work by Mr. Hale on the &ldquo;Indians of
+Northwest America.&rdquo; This consisted of geographical notices, an account
+of Indian means of subsistence, the ancient semi-civilization of the
+Northwest, Indian philology, and analogic comparisons with the Chinese
+and Polynesian languages. These papers Mr. Gallatin modestly described
+to Chevalier as the 'fruits of his leisure,' and to Sismondi he wrote
+that he had not the requisite talent for success in literature or
+science. They nevertheless entitle him to the hon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span>orable name of the
+Father of American Ethnography.</p>
+
+<p>In 1837 Mr. Wheaton, the American minister at Berlin, requested Mr.
+Gallatin to put the Baron von Humboldt in possession of authentic data
+concerning the production of gold in the United States. Humboldt had
+visited the Oural and Siberian regions in 1829, at the request of the
+Emperor of Russia, to make investigations as to their production of the
+precious metals. Mr. Gallatin was the only authority in the United
+States on the subject. Later von Humboldt wrote to Mr. Gallatin of the
+interest felt abroad, and by himself, in the gold of the mountains of
+Virginia and Tennessee, a country which rivaled on a small scale the
+Dorado of Siberia. The treasures of the Pacific coast were not yet
+dreamed of.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin perfectly understood the range of his own powers. He said
+of himself:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;If I have met with any success, either in public bodies, as an
+executive officer, or in foreign negotiations, it has been
+exclusively through a patient and most thorough investigation of
+all the attainable facts, and a cautious application of these to
+the questions under discussion.... Long habit has given me great
+facility in collating, digesting, and extracting complex documents,
+but I am not hasty in drawing inferences; the arrangement of the
+facts and arguments is always to me a considerable labor, and
+though aiming at nothing more than perspicuity and brevity, I am a
+very slow writer.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>Mr. Gallatin's manuscripts and drafts show long<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span> and minute labor in
+their well considered and abundant alterations. Referring on one
+occasion to his habit of reasoning, Mr. Gallatin remarked, that of all
+processes that of analogy is the most dangerous, yet that which he
+habitually used; that it required the greatest possible number of facts.
+This is the foundation of philology, and his understanding of its method
+and its dangers is the reason of his success in this branch of science.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulty experienced in establishing any literary or scientific
+institutions in New York was very great. An effort made in 1830, which
+Mr. Gallatin favored, to establish a literary periodical failed, not on
+account of the pecuniary difficulties, but from the impossibility of
+uniting a sufficient number of able co&ouml;perators. But Mr. Gallatin's
+interest in literature was not as great as in science.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1841 a national institution for the promotion of science was
+organized at Washington. The co&ouml;peration of Mr. Gallatin was invited,
+but the society had a short existence. In 1843 Mr. Gallatin was chosen
+president of the New York Historical Society. His inaugural address is
+an epitome of political wisdom. Pronounced at any crisis of our history,
+it would have become a text for the student. In this sketch he analyzed
+the causes which contributed to form our national<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span> character and to
+establish a government founded on justice and on equal rights. He showed
+how, united by a common and imminent danger, the thirteen States
+succeeded in asserting and obtaining independence without the aid of a
+central and efficient government, and the difficulties which were
+encountered when a voluntary surrender of a part of their immense
+sovereignty became necessary as a condition of national existence. He
+said that the doctrine that all powers should emanate from the people is
+not a question of expediency.</p>
+
+<p>In this address he summed up the reasons why Washington exercised such a
+beneficial influence upon the destinies of his country. In a
+confidential letter to his wife in 1797, he expressed an opinion that
+the father of his country was not a good-natured and amiable man, but
+time had mellowed these recollections and softened the asperity of this
+judgment. Washington had not, he said (in 1843), 'an extraordinary
+amount of acquired knowledge; he was neither a classical scholar nor a
+man of science, nor was he endowed with the powers of eloquence, nor
+with other qualities more strong than solid, which might be mentioned;
+but he had a profound and almost innate sense of justice, on all public
+occasions a perfect control of his strong passions,<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> above all a most
+complete<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span> and extraordinary self-abnegation. Personal consequences and
+considerations were not even thought of, they never crossed his mind,
+they were altogether obliterated.' Mr. Gallatin held that &ldquo;the Americans
+had a right to be proud of Washington, because he was selected and
+maintained during his whole career by the people&mdash;never could he have
+been thus chosen and constantly supported had he not been the type and
+representative of the American people.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The commemoration of the fortieth anniversary of the foundation of the
+New York Historical Society, November, 1844, was an occasion of unusual
+interest. John Romeyn Brodhead, who had just returned from the Hague
+with the treasures of New Netherland history gathered during his
+mission, was the orator of the day. The venerable John Quincy Adams, Mr.
+Gallatin's old associate at Ghent, was present. After the address, which
+was delivered at the Church of the Messiah on Broadway, the society and
+its guests crossed the street to the New York Hotel, where a banquet
+awaited them. Mr. Gallatin retired early, leaving the chair to the first
+vice-president, Mr. Wm. Beach Lawrence. After he had left the room, Mr.
+Adams, speaking to a toast to the arch&aelig;ologists of America, said: &ldquo;Mr.
+Gallatin, in sending to me the invitations of the society, added the
+expression of his desire 'to shake hands with me once more in this
+world.'&rdquo; Mr. Adams could not but respond to his request. In his remarks
+he said:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;I have lived long, sir, in this world, and I have been connected
+with all sorts of men, of all sects and descriptions. I have been
+in the public service for a great part of my life, and filled
+various offices of trust, in conjunction with that venerable
+gentleman, Albert Gallatin. I have known him half a century. In
+many things we differed; on many questions of public interest and
+policy we were divided, and in the history of parties in this
+country there is no man from whom I have so widely differed as from
+him. But in other things we have harmonized; and now there is no
+man with whom I more thoroughly agree on all points than I do with
+him. But one word more let me say, before I leave you and him,
+birds of passage as we are, bound to a warmer and more congenial
+clime,&mdash;that among all public men with whom I have been associated
+in the course of my political life, whether agreeing or differing
+in opinion from him, I have always found him to be an honest and
+honorable man.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>In the road to harmony Mr. Adams had to do the traveling. Mr. Gallatin
+never changed his political opinions. The political career of the two
+men offered this singular contrast: Adams, dissatisfied with his party,
+passed into opposition; Gallatin, though at variance with the policy of
+the administration of which he made a part, held his fealty, and
+confined himself to the operations of his own bureau.</p>
+
+<p>For a period far beyond the allotted years of man Mr. Gallatin retained
+the elasticity of his physical nature as well as his mental
+perspicacity. In middle age he was slight of figure, his height<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span> about
+five feet ten inches, his form compact and of nervous vigor. His
+complexion was Italian;<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> his expression keen; his nose long,
+prominent; his mouth small, fine cut, and mobile; his eyes hazel, and
+penetrative; his skull a model for the sculptor. Thus he appears in the
+portrait painted by Gilbert Stuart about the time that he took charge of
+the Treasury Department; he was then about forty years of age. In the
+fine portrait by William H. Powell, taken from life in 1843, and
+preserved in the gallery of the New York Historical Society, these
+characteristics appear in stronger outline. Monsieur de Bacourt,<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> the
+literary executor of Talleyrand, who was the French Ambassador to the
+United States in 1840, paid a visit to Mr. Gallatin in that year, and
+describes him as a &ldquo;beau vieillard de quatre-vingt ans,&rdquo; who has fully
+preserved his faculties. Bacourt alludes to his remarkable face, with
+its clear, fine cut features, and his &ldquo;physiognomie pleine de finesse;&rdquo;
+and dwells also upon the ease and charm of his conversation.</p>
+
+<p>As his life slowly drew to its close, one after another of the few of
+his old friends who remained dropped from the road. Early in 1848 Adams
+fell in harness, on the floor of the House of Representatives; Lord
+Ashburton died in May. Finally, nearest, dearest of all, the companion
+of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span> his triumphs and disappointments, the sharer of his honors and his
+joys, his wife, was taken from him by the relentless hand. The summer of
+1849 found him crushed by this last affliction, and awaiting his own
+summons of release. He was taken to Mount Bonaparte, the country-seat of
+his son-in-law, at Astoria on Long Island, where he died in his
+daughter's arms on Sunday, August 12, 1849. The funeral services were
+held in Trinity Church on the Tuesday following, and his body was laid
+to rest in the Nicholson vault,<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> in the old graveyard adjoining. The
+elegant monument erected during his lifetime is one of the attractive
+features of this venerable cemetery, in whose dust mingle the remains of
+the temple of no more elevated spirit than his own. The season was a
+terrible one&mdash;the cholera was raging, the city was deserted. In the
+general calamity private sorrow disappeared, or the occasion would have
+been marked by a demonstration of public grief and of public honor. As
+the tidings went from city to city, and country to country, the friends
+of science, of that universal wisdom which knows neither language nor
+race, paused in their investigations to pay respectful homage to his
+character, his intellect, and to that without which either or both in
+combination are inadequate to success&mdash;his labor in the field.</p>
+
+<p>On October 2, 1849, at the first meeting of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span> Historical Society
+after the death of Mr. Gallatin, Mr. Luther Bradish, the presiding
+officer, spoke of him in impressive words, as the last link connecting
+the present with the past. He dwelt upon the peculiar pleasure with
+which the presence of Mr. Gallatin was always hailed, and the peculiar
+interest it gave to the proceedings of the society, and many an eye was
+dimmed, as he recalled the venerable form, the beautifully classic head,
+the countenance ever beaming with intelligence, and summed up the long
+and useful career of the departed sage in these impressive words:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&ldquo;The name of Albert Gallatin is emphatically a name of history. Few
+men have lived in any age whose biographies have been so intimately
+connected with the history of their country. Living in one of the
+most interesting periods of the world, a period of great events, of
+the discussion of great principles and the settlement of great
+interests, almost the whole of his long and active life was passed
+in public service amidst those events and in those discussions....
+For nearly half a century he was almost constantly employed in the
+public service; almost every department of that service has
+received the benefit of his extraordinary talents and his varied
+and extensive and accurate knowledge. Whether in legislation, in
+finance, or in diplomacy, he has been equally distinguished in all.
+In all or in either he has had few equals and still fewer
+superiors.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<p>To Jeremy Bentham Mr. Gallatin acknowledged himself indebted, as his
+master in the art of legislation; but from whatever ground he drew his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span>
+maxims of government, they were reduced to harmony in the crucible of
+his own intelligence by the processes of that brain which Spurzheim
+pronounced capital,<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> and Dumont held to be the best head in America.
+In that massive and profound structure lay faculties of organization and
+administration which mark the Latin and Italian mind in its highest form
+of intellectual development.</p>
+
+<p>His moral excellence was no less conspicuous than his intellectual
+power. He had a profound sense of justice, a love of liberty, and an
+unfaltering belief in the capacity of the human race for self-rule.
+Versed in the learning of centuries, and familiar with every experiment
+of government, he was full of the liberal spirit of his age. To a higher
+degree than any American, native or foreign born, unless Franklin, with
+whose broad nature he had many traits in common, Albert Gallatin
+deserves the proud title, aimed at by many, reached by few, of Citizen
+of the World.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> An account of this expedition may be found in the
+publications of the Maryland Historical Society.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a>
+</p>
+<br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Washington</span>, 29<i>th May</i>, 1826.<br />
+</p>
+<p>
+<span class="smcap">Sir</span>,&mdash;Mr. Stewart communicated to me your answer of 4th April last to
+the letter which, at my request, he had addressed to you; and I return
+you my thanks for your kind offer to forward the object in view,&mdash;one
+which is not, however, of a private nature but connected with what is
+intended to be a National work; and I have delayed writing in order to
+be able to send at the same time the papers herewith transmitted.
+</p><p>
+It is at my suggestion that the Secretary of War has, with the
+approbation of the President, taken measures to collect comparative
+vocabularies of all the languages and dialects of the Indian tribes
+still existing within the United States. The circular is addressed to
+all the Indian superintendents and agents, and to the missionaries with
+whom the Department corresponds. But they have no agent with the
+Nottoways, and we are fortunate that you should have been disposed to
+lend your aid on this occasion.
+</p><p>
+It is the intention of government that the result of these researches
+should be published, giving due credit to every individual who shall
+have assisted in a work that has been long expected from us, and which
+will be equally honorable to the persons concerned and to the country.
+It had been my intention to contribute my share in its further progress:
+this my approaching departure for Europe forbids. The inclosed papers,
+attending to the Notes and to the circular, are so full that I need not
+add any further explanation, and have only to request that you will have
+the goodness to transmit whatever vocabulary and other information you
+may obtain to Colonel Tho. L. McKinney, Office of Indian Affairs, under
+cover directed to the Secretary of War. Mr. McKinney will also be happy
+to answer any queries on the subject you may have to propose.
+</p>
+<p><br />
+I have the honor to be respectfully, sir,<br />
+Your most obedient servant,<br />
+<span class="smcap">Albert Gallatin</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<br />
+Mr. James Rochelle,<br />
+Jerusalem, Southampton County, Virginia.<br />
+<i>Communicated by J. H. Rochelle, Jerusalem, Virginia.</i></div><br />
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Among the most distinguished of those who have followed
+the pathway indicated by Mr. Gallatin was the late George Gibbs, an
+indefatigable student and an admirable ethnologist. His Chinook jargon
+was published by the Smithsonian Institution.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Mr. du Ponceau became president of the learned societies
+of Pennsylvania: the Historical Society and the American Philosophical
+Society.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> His favorite novel was <i>The Antiquary</i>, which he read once
+a year. Novels, he said, should be read, the last chapter first, in
+order that appreciation of the style should not be lost in the interest
+excited by the story.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Mr. Gallatin's assertion, which corresponded with that of
+Jefferson, that Washington had naturally strong passions, but had
+attained complete mastery over them, is quoted by the Earl of Stanhope
+(Lord Mahon) in his famous eulogy of Washington's attributes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> The Gallatins claim to descend from one Callatinus, a
+Roman Consul.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> <i>Souvenirs d'un Diplomate.</i> Paris, 1882.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> This was the vault of the Witter family, a daughter of
+which Commodore Nicholson married.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> &ldquo;In my youth the fashion was to decide in conformity
+with Lavater's precepts; then came Camper's facial angle, which gave a
+decided superiority to the white man and monkey; and both have been
+superseded by the bumps of the skull. This criterion is that which suits
+me best, for Spurzheim declared I had a <i>capital</i> head, which he might
+without flattery say to everybody.&rdquo; <i>Gallatin to Lewis T. Cist of
+Cincinnati, November</i> 21, 1837.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX<span class="totoc"><a href="#toc">ToC</a></span></h2>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Adams, Henry, calls treaty of Ghent the work of Gallatin, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+<li>Adams, John, announces election of Gallatin as senator, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>convenes Congress to consider relations with France, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+  <li>his message, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+  <li>replies coolly to resolution of House, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+  <li>remarks of McClanachan to, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+  <li>his message in 1797, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+  <li>visited by House to present answer, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+  <li>wishes to establish new foreign missions, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+  <li>informs Congress of French outrages, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+  <li>and of preparations for war, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+  <li>sends in X Y Z dispatches, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+  <li>sends message on French relations, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+  <li>urges preparation for war, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+  <li>thanks House for support, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+  <li>delighted with support of Congress in 1799, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+  <li>congratulates Congress on settlement at Washington, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+  <li>supported for President by New England, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+  <li>in election of 1800, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+  <li>attributes distresses of Confederation to financial ignorance, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+  <li>his breach with Hamilton, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Adams, John Quincy, on results of Gallatin's proposed appointment as secretary of state, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>meets Gallatin and Bayard at St. Petersburg, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+  <li>his training, comparison with Gallatin, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+  <li>given new commission, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+  <li>differs with Clay over fisheries and Mississippi navigation, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+  <li>appointed minister to England, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+  <li>advised by Gallatin concerning commercial treaty, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+  <li>appointed secretary of state, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li>
+  <li>informed by Gallatin of disadvantages of a war with Spain, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+  <li>his arguments in Apollon case disregarded by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
+  <li>his indignation, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
+  <li>writes opinion of Gallatin in his diary, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+  <li>described by Gallatin to Badollet, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+  <li>his pugnacity complained of by Crawford, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+  <li>negotiates treaty with De Neuville, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
+  <li>comments of Gallatin upon, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
+  <li>appoints Rush secretary of treasury, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li>
+  <li>offers mission to England to Gallatin, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+  <li>promises Gallatin _carte blanche_, but gives him full instructions, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+  <li>his instructions to Rush printed, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+  <li>warns Gallatin to yield nothing, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+  <li>congratulates Gallatin on his success, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li>
+  <li>candidate for presidency, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+  <li>elected by House of Representatives, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+  <li>at meeting of New York Historical Society, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+  <li>Gallatin's friendly greeting to, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+  <li>eulogizes Gallatin, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></li>
+  <li>his changing party compared with Gallatin's steadiness, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></li>
+  <li>death, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Adams, William, on English peace commission, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+<li>Addington, Henry, on Clay's tone as diplomat, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+<li>Adet, P. A., French minister, imperils sympathy for France by impudence to Washington, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>condemned by Federalists, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+  <li>recommends tricolor, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Aix-la-Chapelle, Congress of, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+<li>Alexander, Emperor of Russia, authorizes renewal of mediation, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>fails to inform Romanzoff of Castlereagh's refusal, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+  <li>vain efforts of Crawford to secure interview with, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+  <li>promises Lafayette to use influence in behalf of United States, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+  <li>has interview with Gallatin, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+  <li>informs Gallatin that he can do nothing more, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Algiers, treaty with, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+<li>Alien Bill, debate and passage in House, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>petitions against, in Congress, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Allegheny County, its part in Whiskey Insurrection, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a> <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>elects Gallatin to Congress, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Allègre, Sophie, marries Gallatin, her character and death, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+<li>Allègre, William, father-in-law of Gallatin, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+<li>Allen, ----, in debate on French relations, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>attacks Gallatin as a French agent, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Allston, Joseph W., at free trade convention, 1831, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li>American Ethnological Society, founded by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>its transactions, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Ames, Fisher, leading orator of Federalists, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>his speech on the Jay treaty, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+  <li>reports answer to President's Message, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+  <li>defends it against Giles, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+  <li>leaves Congress, his oratory, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Anderson, Professor, member of &ldquo;The Club,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
+<li>Anti-Federalists, call convention to organize in favor of amending Constitution, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>adopt resolutions to organize throughout the State, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+  <li>recommend amendments by petition, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Apollon, seizure of, explained by Gallatin and Adams, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
+<li>Army, reduction of, advocated by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123></a><a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a> <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>his course defended, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Arnold, Benedict, effect of his treason, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>campaign of Lafayette against, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Ashburton, Lord. See Baring, Alexander.</li>
+<li>Astor, John Jacob, assists Gallatin to float loan, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>wishes destruction of United States Bank, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+  <li>subscribes capital of bank on condition that Gallatin manage its affairs, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+  <li>his fur enterprise, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+  <li>offered protection by Jefferson, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+  <li>his settlement at Astoria, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+  <li>unable to persuade Madison to support him, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Astoria, foundation and history of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+<li>Atwater, ----, member of Ethnological Society, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Bache, Franklin, educated at Geneva, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>attacks Washington as a defaulter, in &ldquo;Aurora,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Bache, Richard, letter to, furnished by Franklin to Gallatin, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+<li>Bacourt, M. de, describes Gallatin in old age, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>
+<li>Badollet, Jean, college friend of Gallatin, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>Arcadian schemes of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li>letter of Gallatin to, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li>letters of Serre to, on life in Maine, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+  <li>informs Gallatin of troubles in Geneva, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+  <li>at Gallatin's invitation, joins him in America, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+  <li>established at Greensburg, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+  <li>letter of Gallatin to, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+  <li>with Gallatin at anti-excise convention, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+  <li>advised by Gallatin to avoid United States marshal, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+  <li>letter of Gallatin to, on French Revolution, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+  <li>letter of Gallatin to, on his wife, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+  <li>instructed by Gallatin to secure reëlection of unseated members of legislature, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+  <li>given an office by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+  <li>remark of Gallatin to, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+  <li>letter of Gallatin to, on J. Q. Adams, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+  <li>takes shares in Gallatin's land scheme, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li>
+  <li>manages store for Gallatin, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
+  <li>letters of Gallatin to, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Balbi, quotes Gallatin in his Atlas, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+<li>Baldwin, Abraham, on committee on finance, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li>Bank of North America, established by Morris, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>its purpose, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+  <li>organization, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+  <li>difficulties of starting, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+  <li>its services, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+  <li>jealousy of Pennsylvania toward, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Bank of United States, established by Hamilton, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>its organization, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+  <li>borrowed from, by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+  <li>petitions for a re-charter, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li>
+  <li>Gallatin's report in favor of, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>-<a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+  <li>a re-charter refused, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+  <li>its value, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
+  <li>opinion of Gallatin on, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
+  <li>controls state banks, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+  <li>desire of Astor to crush, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+  <li>remits specie to foreign stockholders, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+  <li>its dissolution causes panic, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+  <li>reincorporation proposed, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+  <li>vetoed, then approved, by Madison, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+  <li>its subsequent history, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+  <li>helps resumption of specie payments, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+  <li>presidency of, declined by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+  <li>deposits removed from, by Taney, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+  <li>accepts charter from Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+  <li>its subsequent career, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+  <li>fails in 1839, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+  <li>weakness of Madison in 1812 in allowing its dissolution, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Bank, National, of New York, connection of Gallatin with, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>-<a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+<li>Banks, state, difficulty of controlling their issues, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>their evil effects, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+  <li>status in 1811, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+  <li>increase after termination of Bank of United States, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+  <li>suspend payment in 1815, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+  <li>agree to resume, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+  <li>supported by second Bank of United States, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+  <li>Gallatin's &ldquo;Considerations on,&rdquo; etc., <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+  <li>connection of Gallatin with, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>-<a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+  <li>speculation craze of, in 1836, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+  <li>suspend payment in 1837, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+  <li>conventions of, to prepare for resumption, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>-<a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+  <li>aided by Treasury, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+  <li> &ldquo;Suggestions&rdquo; of Gallatin, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Barbour, Philip P., presides over free trade convention in 1831, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li>Baring, Alexander, explains to Gallatin British reasons for refusing Russian mediation, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>reply of Gallatin, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+  <li>urges Gallatin to visit England, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+  <li>requested by Gallatin to send passports, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+  <li>his mission to America, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+  <li>his manner of negotiation with Webster, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+  <li>visits Gallatin, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+  <li>comparison with Gallatin, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+  <li>his death, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Barings, connection with Louisiana purchase, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>competition of Bank of United States with, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+  <li>letter of Gallatin to, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Barras, Comte, encouraged by Napoleon's success to bold measures against United States, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+<li>Bartlett, John Russell, gives anecdotes of Gallatin, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+<li>Bartlett, ----, member of Ethnological Society, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>
+<li>Bathurst, Lord, promises to appoint peace commissioners, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>reopens negotiations, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+  <li>insists on possession of part of Maine, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Bayard, James A., elected to Congress, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>on legislative encroachments on executive, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+  <li>on resolution to furnish foreign correspondence, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+  <li>defends Sedition Law by a clever amendment, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+  <li>moves committee to arrange for balloting in 1800, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+  <li>accompanies Gallatin as peace commissioner, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+  <li>willing to accept an informal renunciation of impressment, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+  <li>goes to Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+  <li>on new commission to treat directly, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+  <li>visits London, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+  <li>asks Monroe for authority to negotiate anywhere, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+  <li>appointed minister to Russia, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Baylies, ----, his report on Western territory complained of by England, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+<li>Bentham, Jeremy, works translated by Dumont, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>influences Gallatin, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Bentson, ----, on Astor's hostility to United States Bank, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+<li>Berlin and Milan decrees, negotiations for compensation for seizures under, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+<li>Biddle, C. C., at free trade convention in 1831, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li>Biddle, Nicholas, in panic of 1837, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+<li>Blount, William, on committee on finance, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>impeached, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Bonaparte, Jerome, his flight to America, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li>
+<li>Bonaparte, Napoleon, his precocity compared to that of Gallatin, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>effect of his Italian successes on French policy, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+  <li>adopts conciliatory tone, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+  <li>issues Milan decree, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+  <li>seen by Gallatin during Hundred Days, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+  <li>American sympathy for, explained by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Boorman, James, at free trade convention in 1831, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li>Borgo, Pozzo di, compared to Gallatin, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+<li>Boston, visit of Gallatin to, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>-<a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>Puritanical society in, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+  <li>prejudice against French, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+  <li>Gallatin's opinion of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+  <li>protests against Jay treaty, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Botts, John M., letter of Gallatin to, on bank, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+<li>Boundary, northeast, in treaty of Ghent, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>discussed in 1826, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+  <li>referred to arbitration, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+  <li>argument concerning, prepared by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+  <li>decision of King of Netherlands rejected by United States, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+  <li>documents concerning, published by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+  <li>settled by Ashburton treaty, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Bourdillon, ----, takes share in Gallatin's land scheme, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li>
+<li>Bourne, Shearjashub, on committee on finance, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li>Brackenridge, Judge H. H., on Gallatin's part in anti-excise agitation, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>in Washington County, advises moderation, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+  <li>an authority for history of insurrection, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+  <li>his character and policy, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+  <li>leads Pittsburgh committee to urge moderation upon rioters, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+  <li>describes Bradford's behavior, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+  <li>his estimate of numbers under arms, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+  <li>compares excitement with that in 1765 and 1775, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+  <li>at Parkinson's Ferry meeting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+  <li>supports Gallatin's efforts to prevent rebellion, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+  <li>on committee to confer with United States commissioners, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+  <li>describes Gallatin's speech, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+  <li>claims credit for preventing civil war, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+  <li>on threats of secession, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+  <li>defeated by Gallatin for Congress, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Bradford, David, represents Washington County in anti-excise proceedings, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>elected to legislature, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  <li>low opinion of Gallatin concerning, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  <li>tries to shirk responsibility, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+  <li>then determines on extreme measures, robs mail, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+  <li>calls for armed resistance, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+  <li>unable to countermand order, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+  <li>assumes office of major-general, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+  <li>his harangue to the insurgents, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+  <li>at meeting at Parkinson's Ferry, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+  <li>advocates armed resistance, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+  <li>on committee on resolutions, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+  <li>named to confer with United States commissioners, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+  <li>urges rejection of their terms, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+  <li>excepted from amnesty, flies from the country, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Bradford, James, in anti-excise convention, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+<li>Bradford, ----, member of Ethnological Society, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>
+<li>Bradish, Luther, his eulogy of Gallatin, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
+<li>Breading, Nicholas, in Pennsylvania ratifying convention, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+<li>Breckenridge, John, his brief career, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
+<li>Brevoort, ----, member of &ldquo;The Club,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
+<li>Brodhead, John Romeyn, orator at fortieth anniversary of New York Historical Society, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+<li>Buck, Daniel, on committee on finance, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+<li>Burke, Edmund, on place of revenue in the state, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+<li>Burr, Aaron, his connection with Dayton, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>in presidential election of 1800, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+  <li>alienated from Jefferson by refusal to appoint Davis, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Cabinet, its lack of financial coöperation under Jefferson, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>criticises Jefferson's messages, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+  <li>weekly meetings of, suggested by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+  <li>absence of system in, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+  <li>dissensions and reorganization under Madison, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Cabot, George, on committee to consider Gallatin's eligibility to senate, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+<li>Calhoun, John C., reports plan for a national bank, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>ascribes Gallatin's disregard of Adams's arguments in Apollon case to &ldquo;pride,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
+  <li>Gallatin's opinion of, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
+  <li>elected Vice-President, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+  <li>on Gallatin's ethnological studies, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>California, discovery of gold in, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li>
+<li>Campbell, George W., furnished with report by Gallatin on injuries of Great Britain, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>secretary of treasury, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Canning, George, his policy toward United States, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>attitude of Gallatin toward, in negotiation, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+  <li>death, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Carnahan, Dr., describes entry of Whiskey Rebellion prisoners into Cannonsburg, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+<li>Castlereagh, Lord, discourages offer of Russia to mediate, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>gives assurance of safety to cartel-ship, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+  <li>refuses second offer of mediation, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+  <li>offers to deal directly, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+  <li>member of cabinet most favorable to America, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+  <li>advises English commissioners to moderate demands, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+  <li>approves treaty of Ghent, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+  <li>arranges commercial convention with Gallatin, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+  <li>expresses friendly feelings, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Cazenove, ----, takes shares in Gallatin's land scheme, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li>
+<li>Charles X., in Revolution of 1830, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
+<li>Chase, Salmon P., negotiations with Treasury Note Committee, 196 and note;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>follows Gallatin's treasury-note plan, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+  <li>organizes national banking system, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Chateaubriand, succeeds Montmorenci, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>negotiates unsuccessfully with Gallatin, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+  <li>quotes Gallatin's statement of Cuban question, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Cheriot, ----, takes share in Gallatin's land scheme, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li>
+<li>Chesapeake, captured by Leopard, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+<li>Chevalier, Michel, his studies on money, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+<li>Cheves, Langdon, at free trade convention in 1831, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li>Chôteau, Pierre Louis, meets Gallatin, his influence over Indians, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+<li>Circourt, Count de, reviews Gallatin's &ldquo;Synopsis of the Indian Tribes,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_378">378</a></li>
+<li>Civil service, monopolized by Federalists, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>demands of Republicans for a share in, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+  <li>Gallatin's opinion of appointments to and conduct of, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+  <li>intention of Jefferson to give one half of, to Republicans, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Clare, Thomas, his house the headquarters of Gallatin in 1784, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>rents Gallatin a house, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Clay, Henry, denounces Gallatin for advocating free trade, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>apologizes, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+  <li>on peace commission, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+  <li>arrives at Gottenburg, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+  <li>corresponds with Gallatin concerning place of negotiation, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+  <li>differs with Adams over Mississippi navigation and fisheries, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+  <li>joins Gallatin in England, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+  <li>urges Gallatin to accept mission to Panama Congress, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li>
+  <li>letter of Gallatin to, on instructions as minister to England, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+  <li>tone of his diplomatic correspondence, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+  <li>Gallatin's opinion of, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+  <li>resignation of Gallatin in his favor, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+  <li>secures election of Adams, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Clinton, George, marriage of his daughter to Genet, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+<li>&ldquo;Club, The,&rdquo; in New York, Gallatin's membership of, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
+<li>Coast survey, established, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+<li>Coinage, debate concerning, in Congress, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>regulated by Morris, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Coles, Edward, letter of Gallatin to, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+<li>Confederation, Articles of, political conditions under, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+<li>Congress, adopts amendments to Constitution suggested by New York and Virginia, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>passes excise law, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+  <li>modifies it, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+  <li>gives state courts jurisdiction in excise cases, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+  <li>receives tricolor from France, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+  <li>complained of by Jefferson as weak, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+  <li>suspends commercial intercourse with France, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+  <li>passes acts authorizing naval defense, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+  <li>presence of Washington, Pinckney, and Hamilton at, in 1798, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+  <li>speech of Adams to, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+  <li>responsibility for war thrown upon, by Madison, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+  <li>authorizes loan in 1812, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+  <li>damages Treasury by procrastination, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+  <li>supports Gallatin's policy of extinguishing debt, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+  <li>repeals internal revenue act, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+  <li>passes embargo, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+  <li>extends terms of credit on revenue bonds, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+  <li>refuses to recharter the bank, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+  <li>declares war, imposes increased duties, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+  <li>reimposes internal taxes, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+  <li>adopts non-importation against England and France, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+  <li>orders out naval force, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+  <li>repeals embargo, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Constable, John, at free trade convention in 1831, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li>Constellation, defeats La Vengeance, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+<li>Constitution of Pennsylvania, convention called to revise, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>its membership and ability, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Constitution of the United States, adopted, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>struggle over ratification in Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+  <li>movement in favor of new convention to amend, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-<a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+  <li>amended, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+  <li>power of Representatives to appropriate, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+  <li>debate in Congress on relation of treaty power to House of Representatives, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>-<a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+  <li>argument of Washington on treaty power, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+  <li>debate in House on relation of Executive to Congress, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-<a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+  <li>power of Senate to require treasury reports, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+  <li>in relation to state bills of credit, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+  <li>question of power of United States to acquire territory, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+  <li>in relation to National University, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+  <li>to annexation of Texas, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Cook, Edward, presides over meeting of whiskey insurgents at Parkinson's Ferry, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>indorses resolution to submit to terms of United States commissioners, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Cooper, Dr. Samuel, interested in Gallatin through Madame Pictet, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+<li>Couronne, ----, takes shares in Gallatin's land scheme, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li>
+<li>Crawford, William H., follows Gallatin's treasury policy, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>at Gallatin's suggestion, urges Emperor again to mediate, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+  <li>complains of Adams's pugnacity, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+  <li>wishes Gallatin to stand for Vice-President, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+  <li>looked upon by Gallatin as strongest leader after the triumvirate, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
+  <li>supported by Gallatin, Jefferson, and Madison against Adams, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+  <li>stricken with paralysis, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>
+  <li>nominated for President by caucus, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>
+  <li>defeated by Adams, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Cuba, avowed intention of United States to prevent English seizure of, by war if necessary, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+<li>Cumberland Road, reported to Congress in 1807, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Dallas, Alexander J., his career compared to that of Gallatin, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>his parentage, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+  <li>secretary of state for Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+  <li>friendship with Gallatin, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+  <li>excursion with Gallatin, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+  <li>describes to Gallatin his experiences with militia in suppressing Whiskey Rebellion, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+  <li>follows Gallatin's loan policy, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+  <li>regrets absence of internal taxes, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+  <li>proposes a national bank, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+  <li>resigns, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Dallas, Mrs. A. J., on excursion with her husband and Gallatin, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+<li>Dallas, George M., accompanies Gallatin to Europe, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>sent to London, his instructions, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+  <li>informs Gallatin of English offer to treat directly, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+  <li>takes dispatch to Monroe, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Davis, Garrett, letter of Gallatin to, on manifest destiny, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+<li>Davis, Matthew L., quarrel between Jefferson and Burr over his appointment, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+<li>Dawson, John, on Sedition Law, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+<li>Dayton, Jonathan, elected speaker of House by Democrats, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>anti-British in feeling, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+  <li>not influenced by connection with Burr, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+  <li>reëlected speaker, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+  <li>introduces resolution on Adams's message, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+  <li>joins Federalists after X Y Z affair, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+  <li>refuses to answer Gallatin, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+  <li>vote of thanks to, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Debt, public, payment by public lands urged by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>its permanence condemned by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+  <li>controversy between Gallatin and Smith as to increase of, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+  <li>attempt of Continental Congress to investigate, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+  <li>attempts of Morris to secure its funding, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+  <li>funded by Hamilton, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+  <li>increased under Wolcott, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+  <li>creation of domestic loans, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+  <li>Gallatin's subdivision of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+  <li>its extinction Gallatin's main desire, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a> <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a> <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+  <li>stated by Gallatin in 1801-<a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+  <li>plan for its discharging, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+  <li>actual reduction of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+  <li>increased through Louisiana purchase, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a> <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+  <li>new funds, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+  <li>funding of debt in 1807, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+  <li>statement regarding, in 1808, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+  <li>its increase during war foreseen by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+  <li>reduction in 1812, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+  <li>loan of 1812, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+  <li>declines below par, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+  <li>revives, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+  <li>loan of twenty-one millions, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+  <li>increase in 1816, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+  <li>Gallatin's policy toward, continued by Dallas and Crawford, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+  <li>eventually extinguished, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+  <li>absence regretted by Woodbury, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>De Fersen, his correspondence proves guilt of Louis XVI., <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+<li>De Lolme, ----, school companion of Gallatin, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+<li>Democratic party. See Republican party especially, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>-<a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+<li>De Neuville, Hyde, French minister, demands dismissal of insolent postmaster, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>negotiates commercial convention with Adams, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>De Rham, ----, member of &ldquo;The Club,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
+<li>Dexter, Samuel, succeeds Wolcott in Treasury Department, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>consents to hold over until appointment of successor, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Diplomatic history, mission of Genet to United States, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>Jay's treaty with England, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a> <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+  <li>Fauchet's dealings with Randolph, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+  <li>Wayne's treaty with Indians, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+  <li>Pinckney's treaty with Spain, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+  <li>expulsion of Pinckney from France, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+  <li>X Y Z affair and consequences, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a> <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+  <li>events leading up to war of 1812, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+  <li>offer of Russia to mediate, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+  <li>mission of Gallatin, Bayard, and Adams to Russia, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+  <li>correspondence of Gallatin with Baring, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>-<a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+  <li>renewed offers by Russia, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+  <li>again refused by England, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+  <li>offer of England to treat directly, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+  <li>appointment of a new commission, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+  <li>place of negotiation, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+  <li>futile appeal of Lafayette to Emperor to mediate, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+  <li>appointment of English commissioners, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+  <li>exorbitant English demands, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+  <li>suspension of negotiations, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+  <li>alteration of British tone, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+  <li>resumption of negotiations and refusal by Americans of English demands, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+  <li>further English demands for cession of territory refused, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+  <li>discussion over boundaries, fisheries, and Mississippi navigation, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+  <li>these points abandoned, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+  <li>article against slave trade adopted, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+  <li>conclusion of treaty, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+  <li>part played by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li>
+  <li>commercial convention with England, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+  <li>mission of Gallatin to France, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>-<a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+  <li>negotiations over French captures under Berlin and Milan decrees, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+  <li>over an impudent postmaster, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+  <li>negotiations with Holland, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li>
+  <li>commercial convention with England, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+  <li>negotiations with France over Apollon case, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
+  <li>commercial convention with France, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
+  <li>failure to settle American claims, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+  <li>Gallatin's mission to England, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>-<a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+  <li>instructions, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+  <li>negotiations with Canning, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+  <li>conclusion of convention with Goderich's ministry, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+  <li>Ashburton treaty negotiations, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Disunion, threatened in 1795, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>planned by New England in 1812, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Duane, William, intimate with Jefferson, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>abuses Gallatin in &ldquo;Aurora,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_286">286</a> <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+  <li>appointed adjutant-general by Madison, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Duby, ----, takes shares in Gallatin's land scheme, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li>
+<li>Dumont, Etienne, college friend of Gallatin, his subsequent career, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>Gallatin's opinion of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+  <li>invited by Gallatin to come to America, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+  <li>on shape of Gallatin's head, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Du Ponceau, Peter Stephen, friend of Gallatin, his philological studies upon Indians, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li>
+<li>D'Yvernois, proposes to transport University of Geneva to United States, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>receives shares in Gallatin's land scheme, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Edgar, James, on committee of whiskey insurgents to confer with United
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>States commissioners, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+  <li>supports Gallatin, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+  <li>presides over last meeting at Parkinson's Ferry, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Elliott, ----, on controversy between Wolcott and Gallatin, as to surplus, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+<li>Ellsworth, Oliver, on committee to consider Gallatin's eligibility to Senate, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+<li>Embargo, opposed by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>its effect stated by him, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+  <li>adopted as answer to Orders in Council, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+  <li>its enforcement or abandonment urged by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a> <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+  <li>enforced, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+  <li>repealed, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Emlen, George, at free trade convention in 1831, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li>England, anger against, at time of Jay treaty, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>renews provision order, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+  <li>danger of war with, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+  <li>hard pressed by France in 1797, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+  <li>its friendship more dangerous than France's enmity, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+  <li>adopts Orders in Council, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+  <li>commercial policy toward United States, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a> <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+  <li>danger of war with, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+  <li>Madison's preference for, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+  <li>events leading up to war with, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+  <li>mistaken view of Gallatin concerning its diplomacy, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+  <li>unwilling to tolerate Russian mediation, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a> <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+  <li>its policy explained by Baring, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+  <li>offers to treat directly, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+  <li>willing to push on war after fall of Napoleon, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+  <li>hopes to divide United States, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+  <li>appoints commissioners, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+  <li>makes exorbitant demands, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+  <li>its policy modified by Castlereagh, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+  <li>demands cession of territory, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+  <li>loses interest in war, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li>
+  <li>rejects article on impressment, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li>
+  <li>negotiation of convention with, in 1815, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+  <li>at Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+  <li>mission of Gallatin to, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>-<a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+  <li>complains of tone of American diplomacy, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+  <li>negotiations with, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+  <li>agrees to renew commercial convention, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+  <li>refuses to negotiate on impressment, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+  <li>makes Ashburton treaty, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Eppes, John W., letter of Gallatin to, on public lands, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+<li>Erskine, D. M., his negotiations, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+<li>Etsko, ----, Polish refugee, helped by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
+<li>Eustis, William, advised by Gallatin concerning treaty with Netherlands, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li>
+<li>Ewbank, ----, member of Ethnological Society, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>
+<li>Excise (see Whiskey Insurrection), recommended by Hamilton, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Fauchet, his dealings with Randolph, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>condemned by Federalists, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Fayette County, settlement of Gallatin, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a> <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>life in, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+  <li>elects Gallatin to legislature, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+  <li>in Whiskey Insurrection, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a> <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a> <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a> <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+  <li>reëlects Gallatin, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+  <li>visited by Lafayette, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Fazzi, ----, takes share in Gallatin's land scheme, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li>
+<li>Federalist party, its origin, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>prejudiced against Gallatin by his resolution demanding information from Hamilton, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+  <li>opposes his election to Congress, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+  <li>reconstructs cabinet, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+  <li>its leaders in House, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+  <li>attitude toward France and England, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+  <li>charged with being bribed by England, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+  <li>in debate on appropriating power, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+  <li>in debate on treaty power, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>-<a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+  <li>defends Jay treaty, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+  <li>strengthened in fourth Congress, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+  <li>retains nominal majority in fifth Congress, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+  <li>in debate on French relations, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>-<a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+  <li>in debate on checks on executive, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-<a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+  <li>strengthened by X Y Z affair, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+  <li>commits mistakes, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+  <li>its badge, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+  <li>controls sixth Congress, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+  <li>refuses to repeal Sedition Law, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+  <li>defeated in 1800, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+  <li>forced to choose between Burr and Jefferson, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+  <li>bargain with Jefferson, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+  <li>its possible plans for defeating any choice, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+  <li>and for nominating a president pro tempore, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+  <li>allows Jefferson's election, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+  <li>its share in building country, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+  <li>breach in, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+  <li>enjoys Republican inconsistency, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+  <li>monopolizes offices, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+  <li>extinguished by battle of New Orleans, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Few, William, connected by marriage with Gallatin, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+<li>Finances, efforts of Gallatin to secure minute supervision of by Congress, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>efforts to establish permanent appropriations, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+  <li>appropriations, power of Congress over, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+  <li>their necessity to successful government, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+  <li>finances of the Revolution under Morris, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>-<a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+  <li>under treasury board, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+  <li>under Hamilton, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-<a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+  <li>under Wolcott, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>-<a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+  <li>under Gallatin, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>-<a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+  <li>sketch of, by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+  <li>&ldquo;View of,&rdquo; by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+  <li>preliminary sketch on Gallatin's assuming office, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+  <li>estimate of sources of wealth, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+  <li>estimate for 1801, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+  <li>denial of a surplus, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+  <li>plan for discharging debt, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+  <li>its execution, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+  <li>report for 1803 on reduction of debt, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+  <li>Louisiana purchase, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+  <li>place of payment of principal and interest, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+  <li>addition to sinking fund, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+  <li>report for first four years, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+  <li>estimates of revenue for Jefferson's second term, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+  <li>conversion of debt, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+  <li>full treasury in 1807, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+  <li>Gallatin's consideration of military value of surplus, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+  <li>on war revenue, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+  <li>effect of embargo, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+  <li>sources of revenue, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+  <li>deficiency in 1809, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+  <li>report of 1811, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+  <li>demand of Gallatin for internal revenue, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+  <li>war estimates, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>-<a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+  <li>including &ldquo;treasury notes,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_207">207</a> <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+  <li>loan of 1812, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+  <li>estimates for 1812, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+  <li>report for 1812, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+  <li>success of loan, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+  <li>report of loan of twenty-one millions, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+  <li>stock not taken by New England and Southern States, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+  <li>saved by Parish, Girard, and Astor, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+  <li>review of Gallatin's influence, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>-<a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+  <li>table of revenue and expenditure, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+  <li>revenue established by Hamilton, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+  <li>its character, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+  <li>and amount, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+  <li>permanent estimate of, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+  <li>internal revenue retained by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+  <li>his proposed expenditures, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+  <li>repeal of internal revenue, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+  <li>increased income, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+  <li>establishment of Mediterranean fund, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+  <li>income during Jefferson's first term, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+  <li>increased estimates of Gallatin, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+  <li>internal improvements planned, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+  <li>doubling of duties recommended as a war measure, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+  <li>effect of embargo on revenue, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+  <li>review of revenue during Jefferson's administrations, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+  <li>surplus in 1808, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+  <li>internal improvements advocated by Jefferson, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+  <li>estimates of receipts for 1809, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+  <li>report of Gallatin to Congress on need for new revenues, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+  <li>vagueness of Madison concerning, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+  <li>report for 1809, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+  <li>refusal of Congress to re-charter bank, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+  <li>report for 1810, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+  <li>report of Gallatin in January, 1812, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+  <li>proposal to impose internal taxes, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+  <li>increased war duties, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+  <li>war budget for 1813, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+  <li>internal taxes, their history, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+  <li>reimposed by Congress, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+  <li>receipts from, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+  <li>public lands, receipts from, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+  <li>administration of Treasury under Gallatin, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>-<a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+  <li>history of Bank of North America, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>-<a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+  <li>of Bank of United States, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>-<a href="#Page_255">255</a></li>
+  <li>panic of 1815, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>-<a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+  <li>second United States Bank, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>-<a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+  <li>resumption of specie payment, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+  <li>report of Gallatin on ratio of gold and silver, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+  <li>&ldquo;Considerations on Currency and Banking,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+  <li>diminution of debt in 1832, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+  <li>removal of deposits from Bank of United States, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+  <li>extinction of debt by Woodbury, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+  <li>distribution of surplus among States, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+  <li>inflation in 1836, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+  <li>panic of 1837, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Findley, James, in Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>represents Fayette County in legislature, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Findley, William, describes Whiskey Insurrection, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>at Parkinson's Ferry meeting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+  <li>describes Gallatin's speech, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+  <li>on threats of secession, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+  <li>takes resolutions to Washington urging him to stop march of troops, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+  <li>describes seizure of prisoners, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Fish, Preserved, at free trade convention in 1831, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li>Fisheries, discussed in treaty of Ghent, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>unfavorable settlement of question in 1818, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Florida, question of its annexation, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+<li>Forsyth, John, asks Gallatin's advice as to Smithson's bequest, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></li>
+<li>Fox, C. J., his precocity compared to Gallatin's, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+<li>France, sympathy of Republicans for, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>sends tricolor to Congress, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+  <li>its policy in Revolution, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+  <li>situation in 1796, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+  <li>endeavors to get aid of United States, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+  <li>determines to coerce it, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+  <li>refuses to receive Pinckney, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+  <li>policy of Adams toward, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+  <li>success in 1797, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+  <li>danger of war with, in 1798, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+  <li>question of war with, debated in Congress, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>-<a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+  <li>non-intercourse with, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+  <li>adopts conciliatory measures, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+  <li>commercial convention with, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+  <li>adopts Milan decree, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+  <li>mission of Gallatin to, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>-<a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+  <li>refuses to pay for seizures under Berlin and Milan decrees, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+  <li>urges peace with Spain, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+  <li>offers to mediate with United States between Spain and her colonies, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+  <li>conduct at Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+  <li>Apollon case, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
+  <li>commercial convention with, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
+  <li>fails to settle claims, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+  <li>Revolution of 1830 in, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Franklin, Benjamin, gives Gallatin letter to Richard Bache, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>compared to Gallatin, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Frederick, Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, friend of Madame Voltaire, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>sends her a portrait, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+  <li>sells troops to England in American war, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+  <li>called a tyrant by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Free trade, advocated by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>becomes a party question in 1832, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+  <li>convention in favor of, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+  <li>Gallatin's memorial in behalf of, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+  <li>subsequent history of, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>French Revolution, premonitions of, in Europe, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>Gallatin's opinion of, in 1794, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+  <li>its reaction on America, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+  <li>attitude of parties toward, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+  <li>its effect described by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Gallatin, Abraham, grandfather of Albert, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>lives at Pregny, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+  <li>friend of Voltaire, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Gallatin, Albert, his place in United States history, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>birth and ancestry, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+  <li>adopted by Mlle. Pictet, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+  <li>his schooling and home training, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+  <li>benefits from cosmopolitan society of Geneva, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+  <li>academic friendships, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+  <li>restless, although not ambitious, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+  <li>discontented with political conditions, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+  <li>visits Voltaire, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+  <li>refuses offer of commission in Hessian service, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+  <li>quarrels with grandmother, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+  <li>plans to find freedom in America, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  <li>leaves Geneva secretly, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li>plans to rise by land speculation and commerce, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  <li>at Nantes receives letters from family, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+  <li>relations with guardian, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+  <li>invests money in tea, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+  <li>voyage to Boston, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+  <li>finds difficulty in selling tea, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+  <li>finds Boston bigoted and unfriendly, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+  <li>his walk to Blue Hill, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+  <li>encounter with inquisitive landlord, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+  <li>persuaded by Madame De Lesdernier, makes trading voyage to Machias, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+  <li>frontier life there, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+  <li>commands earthwork at Passamaquoddy, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+  <li>meets La Pérouse, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+  <li>returns to Boston and teaches French, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+  <li>recommended by Mlle. Pictet to Dr. Cooper, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+  <li>teaches French successfully in Harvard College, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+  <li>glad to leave Boston at conclusion of war, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+  <li>visits New York, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+  <li>meets Savary, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+  <li>dissolves partnership with Serre, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+  <li>meets Pelatiah Webster at Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+  <li>accompanies Savary to Richmond, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+  <li>decides definitely not to return to Geneva, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+  <li>joins Savary in land speculations in West Virginia, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+  <li>his aversion to debt, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+  <li>returns to Philadelphia and leads exploring party down Ohio, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+  <li>at George's Creek builds log-house and opens store, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+  <li>encounters Washington, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+  <li>declines Washington's offer to become land agent, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+  <li>enjoys a winter in Richmond society, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+  <li>his gratitude for hospitality and kindness, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+  <li>commissioned by Henry, locates lands in Western Virginia, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+  <li>interrupted by Indian troubles, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+  <li>takes oath of allegiance to Virginia, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+  <li>invites Badollet to join him from Geneva, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+  <li>purchases Friendship Hill, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+  <li>rumor of his death causes inquiries from Geneva, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+  <li>attains majority and calls for property, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+  <li>difficulties of his life on frontier, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+  <li>not to be blamed for his choice of location, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+  <li>offered place in office by Marshall, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+  <li>advised by Patrick Henry to begin in West, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+  <li>visits Richmond and Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+  <li>journey to Maine, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+  <li>kindness towards Lesdernier, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+  <li>marries Sophie Allègre, her sudden death, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+  <li>disheartened, wishes to abandon Western lands, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+  <li>his maturity in political thought, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+  <li>early an advocate of democracy, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+  <li>probably dislikes the Federal Constitution, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+  <li>an opponent of centralization, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+  <li>influences arguments of Smilie in Pennsylvania ratifying convention, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+  <li>represents Fayette County at convention of anti-Federalists, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+  <li>friendship with Smilie, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+  <li>drafts resolutions providing for vigorous organization against Constitution, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li><i>In Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention.</i>
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>Elected a delegate from Fayette County, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+  <li>his opposition to alteration of form of government, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+  <li>advocates enlarged popular representation, manhood suffrage, easy naturalization, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+  <li>takes minor part in convention, his high opinion of its ability, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+  <li>after convention, falls into melancholy, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+  <li>wishes to leave America, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+  <li>reproached by Genevese friends with indolence, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li><i>In Pennsylvania Legislature.</i>
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>Elected to represent Fayette County, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+  <li>describes his legislative career, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+  <li>his influence and activity, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+  <li>advocates improved education, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+  <li>supports turnpike, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+  <li>gains reputation by report of Ways and Means Committee, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+  <li>advocates redemption of paper money and financial reform, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+  <li>reports a resolution for abolition of slavery, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+  <li>at first dislikes Philadelphia, later prefers it to New York for democracy, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+  <li>drafts resolutions condemning Hamilton's excise bill, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+  <li>takes part in public meeting in Washington County against the bill, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+  <li>secretary of convention of western counties at Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+  <li>signs resolutions advocating resistance, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+  <li>draws petition to Congress, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+  <li>returns to Philadelphia to find cause damaged by action of counties, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  <li>advises evasion of federal writs to arrest, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+  <li>in legislature proposes a township veto on taxation and popular education, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+  <li>wishes to visit Geneva in 1793, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+  <li>views on French Revolution, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+  <li>elected senator in spite of insufficient residence, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+  <li>acquaintance with Dallas, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+  <li>on journey with him, meets Hannah Nicholson, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+  <li>marriage, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+  <li>his family connections by marriage, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+  <li>later business connections with brother-in-law, J. W. Nicholson, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+  <li>takes seat as United States senator, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+  <li>his election protested on ground of insufficient residence, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+  <li>complains of membership of committee to consider case, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+  <li>his exact status, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+  <li>submits statement of facts to Senate, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+  <li>is declared disqualified by narrow majority, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+  <li>his dignified conduct of case, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+  <li>pending the decision, introduces resolution calling upon Hamilton to make a minutely itemized report, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+  <li>probably causes his own expulsion by thus irritating Federalists, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+  <li>later obliged to answer a similar demand from Federalists, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+  <li>not cast down by exclusion, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+  <li>gains increased popularity in Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li><i>In Whiskey Insurrection.</i>
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>Takes wife to Fayette County, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+  <li>at outbreak of violence advises distillers to submit to law, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+  <li>his estimate of numbers of insurgents in arms, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+  <li>remains at first aloof from excitement, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+  <li>determines to take control of movement, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+  <li>alarmed at probable excesses of mob and danger of repression, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+  <li>delegate to convention at Parkinson's Ferry, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+  <li>confers with Marshall, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+  <li>chosen secretary, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+  <li>opposes resolution to resist by force, and moves reference of resolutions to a committee, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+  <li>succeeds in modifying resolutions not to obey excise and trial laws, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+  <li>on committee on resolutions, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+  <li>on committee to confer with government commissioners, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+  <li>points out folly of resistance, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+  <li>counsels submission, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+  <li>his eloquent speech, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+  <li>prevents anarchy, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+  <li>charged by J. C. Hamilton with cowardice, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+  <li>his real courage, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+  <li>hastens submission of Fayette County, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+  <li>secures adoption of declaration defending county's action, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+  <li>secretary of meeting at Parkinson's Ferry, which makes complete submission, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+  <li>considered by Federalists to be chief instigator of the insurrection, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+  <li>describes conversation with Dallas, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+  <li>again chosen to legislature and also to Congress, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+  <li>his election to Assembly contested and declared void, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+  <li>in his speech during debate admits error of his course, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+  <li>urges Badollet to secure reëlection of all Western assemblymen, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+  <li>re-elected to legislature, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+  <li>witness before grand jury in trial of prisoners, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+  <li>draws petition to Washington for pardon of offenders, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+  <li>his loyalty to constituents, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li><i>Member of Congress.</i>
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>Moves appointment of committee on finance to control Treasury, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+  <li>appointed upon it, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+  <li>wishes to put appropriations on permanent footing, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+  <li>refuses to devote military funds to establishing Indian trading posts, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+  <li>opposes habit of appropriating without debate, even to objects already approved, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+  <li>supports resolutions calling for papers in Jay treaty, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+  <li>upholds power of House of Representatives, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+  <li>denies that treaties override discretion of House, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+  <li>appointed to carry call to Washington, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+  <li>claims right of House to participate in treaties, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+  <li>stands beside Madison as leader of debate, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+  <li>insists on separate consideration of treaties, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+  <li>objects to Federalists' threats of war with England, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+  <li>complains of abandonment of &ldquo;free ships&rdquo; principle in Jay's treaty, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+  <li>low opinion of Indians, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+  <li>urges resistance to impressment, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+  <li>suggests plan for advantageous sale of public lands, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+  <li>and their use to pay debt, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+  <li>views on taxation, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+  <li>opposes military establishment and navy, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+  <li>laments necessity of payment to United States Bank, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+  <li>attacked for participation in Whiskey Insurrection, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+  <li>makes no reply, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+  <li>criticises conduct of Treasury Department, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+  <li>opposes principle of a national debt, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+  <li>asserts a great increase in public debt, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+  <li>defends assertion against W. Smith, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+  <li>objects to adjournment to pay respects to Washington on birthday, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+  <li>recognized as leader of opposition by Federalists, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+  <li>does not expect or desire renomination, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+  <li>reëlected to Congress, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+  <li>becomes leader of Republicans in House, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+  <li>wishes House to compliment Washington personally on his retirement, but not his administration, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+  <li>describes Andrew Jackson's appearance, 129 n.;</li>
+  <li>insists on payment of indebtedness of States to government, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+  <li>chairman of conference committee, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+  <li>opposes army and navy expenditure, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+  <li>secures passage of bill confining treasury expenditures, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+  <li>in sympathy and confidence of Jefferson, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+  <li>deprecates debating foreign relations, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+  <li>wishes to treat France like other nations, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+  <li>opposes threatening France, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+  <li>joins moderate Republicans in voting with Federalists for address to President, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+  <li>opposes appropriation for defense, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+  <li>objects to employment of frigates, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+  <li>favors defense of ports and harbors only, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+  <li>opposes salt duty, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+  <li>and excessive loans, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+  <li>points out method of impeachment in Blount case, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+  <li>describes his desire for moderation, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+  <li>calls Federalists aristocrats, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+  <li>votes against presenting answer to message in person, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+  <li>now acknowledged leader of Republicans, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+  <li>presents anti-slavery petitions from Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+  <li>his opinion of use of foreign coins, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+  <li>estimate of specie in United States, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+  <li>opposes proposal to expel Lyon, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+  <li>on executive power of appointment, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+  <li>wishes to abandon foreign political intercourse, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+  <li>upholds power of House to check executive through appropriations, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+  <li>makes elaborate speech on checks of legislature on executive, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-<a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+  <li>and on necessity of abstention from European politics, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+  <li>practical drawbacks to his theory, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+  <li>his speech circulated by party, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+  <li>opposes war measures against France, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+  <li>supports call for papers of envoys to France, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+  <li>presents petition against authorizing private citizens to arm vessels, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+  <li>opposes bill to authorize President to arm convoys, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+  <li>prefers submission to French outrages rather than war, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+  <li>attacked by Allen of Connecticut, his reply, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+  <li>opposes non-intercourse with France, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+  <li>declares Sedition Bill unconstitutional, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+  <li>high words with Harper over Alien Bill, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+  <li>taunted by Harper, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+  <li>opposes declaration of state of relations by Congress, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+  <li>votes against abrogating treaty with France, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+  <li>continues to harass Wolcott in the Treasury, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+  <li>his even temper, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+  <li>opposes bill to punish correspondence with foreign princes, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+  <li>opposes bill to incite French West Indies to revolt, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+  <li>opposes authorization of President to suspend commerce in certain cases, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+  <li>opposes building ships of the line, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+  <li>tries to defeat or ameliorate Alien and Sedition Laws, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+  <li>aided in sixth Congress by Nicholas and Macon, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+  <li>votes with Federalists to suspend commercial intercourse with France, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+  <li>opposes proposal to amend Foreign Intercourse Act, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+  <li>opposes bill requiring report from secretary of treasury, because originating in Senate, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+  <li>opposes continuance of non-intercourse, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+  <li>his position in presidential contest in 1800, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+  <li>irritated by influence of S. Smith over Jefferson and Madison, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+  <li>reasons that attempt of Federalists to defeat an election by the House is constitutional, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+  <li>but any president pro tempore would be unconstitutional, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+  <li>suggests course of action for Republicans, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+  <li>probably expects to use violence against Federalists, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+  <li>review of his congressional career, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+  <li>leader of party, yet not a partisan, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+  <li>one of Republican triumvirate, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+  <li>his departure leaves party without a legislative leader, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li><i>Secretary of the Treasury: Funding.</i>
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>His place as financier in United States history, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+  <li>Jefferson's choice for secretary of treasury, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+  <li>hated by Federalists in Senate, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+  <li>assigned to Treasury by public opinion, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+  <li>doubts his abilities and chances of confirmation by Senate, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+  <li>plans to move to New York, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+  <li>refuses to accept until confirmed by Senate, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+  <li>finally agrees to serve, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+  <li>brings family to Washington and enters on duties, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+  <li>his thoroughness, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+  <li>exhausts himself by his energy, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+  <li>sketch of his financial career in Pennsylvania and in Congress, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+  <li>his one principle the extinguishment of debt, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+  <li>publishes sketch of the finances in 1796, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+  <li>publishes in July, 1800, &ldquo;Views of Public Debt,&rdquo; etc., <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+  <li>ability of these essays, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+  <li>outlines policy of expenditures and receipts to Jefferson, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+  <li>endeavors to systematize treasury statements, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+  <li>points out economic reasons for increase of revenue, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+  <li>urges specific appropriations by Congress and absence of departmental discretion, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+  <li>urges reduction, both of debt and of taxes, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+  <li>unable to work with other departments because of Jefferson's habits, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+  <li>lack of elasticity in his plans, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+  <li>embarrassed by complications in department, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+  <li>his first report to Congress, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+  <li>denies existence of any surplus, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+  <li>explains plan for extinction of debt by 1817, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+  <li>given authority by Congress, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+  <li>table showing success of his measures, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+  <li>in spite of Louisiana purchase, reduces debt by one third, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+  <li>dissatisfied with financial terms of Louisiana purchase, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+  <li>novelty of his distinction between place of payment of interest and principal, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+  <li>arranges that Louisiana debt shall not retard payment of old debt, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+  <li>his report of 1805, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+  <li>proposes funding of outstanding obligations in 1807, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+  <li>reports a full Treasury on occasion of threatened war with England, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+  <li>discusses application of surplus to war expenses, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+  <li>suggests methods of war taxation, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+  <li>prefers war to embargo, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+  <li>draws the embargo bill, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+  <li>discusses its financial effect, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+  <li>confident attitude as to war loans, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+  <li>his policy supported by Jefferson, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+  <li>realizes that war will prevent reduction of debt, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+  <li>relies on customs, tonnage dues, and land sales for revenue, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+  <li>reports deficiency owing to embargo, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+  <li>forced to borrow, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+  <li>reviews situation in 1811 with satisfaction, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+  <li>asks for increase of revenue in case of war, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+  <li>proposes war loans, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+  <li>and interest-bearing treasury notes, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+  <li>insists on actual increased receipts, not apparent measures, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+  <li>on necessity of upholding credit, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+  <li>receives authority from Congress, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+  <li>submits war budget, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+  <li>his last annual statement in 1812, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+  <li>reports need of new loans, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+  <li>his personal friends, Parish, Girard, and Astor, save government credit, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+  <li>fails to negotiate loan at par, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+  <li>failure of his hopes to extinguish debt, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+  <li>his policy vindicated by successors, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+  <li>charged with sacrificing defenses of country to reduction of debt, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+  <li>attempted defense of his course by &ldquo;Democratic Review,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+  <li>his determination to follow financial principles and not a partisan course, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+  <li>does not invent new sources of revenue, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li>
+  <li>his estimates follow those of Hamilton, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+  <li>estimates permanent revenue, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+  <li>unable to abandon internal revenue, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+  <li>does not protest against its abolition by Congress, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+  <li>does not alter estimates in spite of increase of revenue, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+  <li>proposes additional tax to meet war with Tripoli, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+  <li>applies surplus as far as possible to Louisiana purchase, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+  <li>political effect of his success during Jefferson's first term, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+  <li>in 1805 raises estimate of permanent revenue, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+  <li>impresses economy upon other departments, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+  <li>prepares scheme of internal improvements, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+  <li>after Chesapeake affair recommends borrowing, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+  <li>and doubling duties in case of war, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+  <li>receipts during his second term, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+  <li>his warning of diminished resources in future ignored by Jefferson, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+  <li>estimates for 1809, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li>
+  <li>points out necessity of submitting to war or loss of foreign trade, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+  <li>promises not to use internal taxes, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li>
+  <li>reports diminished income and deficiency in 1809, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+  <li>declares for a strict enforcement or abandonment of embargo, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+  <li>disgusted at refusal of Congress to recharter United States Bank, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+  <li>tenders resignation to Madison, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+  <li>obliged to remain for lack of possible successor, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+  <li>continues to advocate increased customs, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+  <li>points out that, had his recommendations been followed in 1809, there would have been a large surplus, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li>
+  <li>forces Congress to choose between a bank or internal taxes, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+  <li>himself proposes internal taxes, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+  <li>his last report predicts deficiency and asks a loan, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+  <li>his recommendations of internal taxes disregarded, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+  <li>his previous use of Hamilton's internal taxes, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+  <li>his suggestions followed in 1813, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+  <li>connection with sale of public lands, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+  <li>unable fully to utilize this resource, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+  <li>earliest public advocate of free trade, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+  <li>later in career becomes leader of cause, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+  <li>his part in convention of 1831, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+  <li>draws memorial to Congress, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+  <li>his views followed in tariff of 1846, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+  <li>opposed to protection, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+  <li>violently attacked by Clay, who apologizes, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+  <li>introduces reforms in annual report, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+  <li>tries to induce Congress and departments to adopt scheme of minute appropriations, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+  <li>carries system into his own household, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+  <li>effects of his methods, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+  <li>on Jefferson's dislike of banks, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+  <li>his report of 1809 on Hamilton's bank, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li>
+  <li>suggests its renewal, with modifications, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+  <li>his testimony as to its value, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+  <li>estimate as to state banks in 1811, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+  <li>describes hostility of Astor to bank, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+  <li>left, by failure to renew bank charter, at mercy of capitalists, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+  <li>his opinion that absence of bank caused suspension of specie payments in 1815, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+  <li>on Jefferson's proposal to issue paper money, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+  <li>his success a vindication of Federalist finance, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+  <li>opinion of services of second national bank, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+  <li>declines offer of secretaryship in 1816, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+  <li>urges Madison to restore specie payment, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+  <li>declines position as president of Bank of United States in 1822, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+  <li>prepares statement of relative value of gold and silver, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+  <li>writes &ldquo;Considerations on Currency and Banking,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+  <li>advocates use of specie and limited use of paper money, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+  <li>accepts presidency of National Bank of New York, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+  <li>his opinion of Jackson, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+  <li>his bank involved in panic of 1837, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+  <li>conducts resumption, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+  <li>chairman of committee of banks, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+  <li>submits reports, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+  <li>declines presidency of Bank of Commerce, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+  <li>resigns presidency of National Bank, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+  <li>publishes &ldquo;Suggestions on Banks and Currency,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+  <li>condemns paper money, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+  <li>declines offer of Treasury Department from Tyler, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+  <li>in the cabinet, agrees with Republican leaders on all points except bank, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+  <li>prepares circular announcing disregard of party in appointments, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+  <li>and condemning political influence of officials, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+  <li>his policy opposed by Jefferson, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+  <li>obliged to follow cabinet in policy of partisan appointments, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+  <li>advises early preparation for campaign of 1804, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+  <li>wishes States divided into election districts, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+  <li>criticises annual messages of Jefferson, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+  <li>his proposal to appoint a woman to office condemned by Jefferson, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+  <li>suggests in vain regular cabinet consultations, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+  <li>urges payment of tribute to Tripoli rather than war, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+  <li>opinion asked on points of constitutional law, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+  <li>holds inherent right of United States to acquire territory, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+  <li>disapproves of Texas annexation, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+  <li>advises Jefferson concerning Louisiana treaty, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+  <li>attacked by Duane, for not turning out Federalists, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+  <li>absence of favoritism in his appointments, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+  <li>supervises sale of lands, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+  <li>acquaintance with Chôteau, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+  <li>drafts promise of protection for Astor's fur trade, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+  <li>opposes vainly Jefferson's gunboat scheme, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+  <li>submits plan of defense against England, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+  <li>urges moderate tone in message, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+  <li>devises scheme of internal improvements, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+  <li>doubts success of a National University, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+  <li>opposes a permanent embargo, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+  <li>prepares Campbell's report urging resistance, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+  <li>receives authority from Congress to enforce non-intercourse, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+  <li>favors war, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+  <li>submits &ldquo;Notes on Political Situation,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+  <li>opposes ordering out naval force in favor of letters of marque, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+  <li>his appointment as secretary of state prevented by Republican opponents in Senate, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+  <li>continues to advise Madison, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+  <li>his measures meet opposition in Senate, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+  <li>deserted by Madison in his attempt to secure re-chartering of bank, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+  <li>tenders resignation, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+  <li>bitterly attacked in &ldquo;Aurora,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+  <li>accused of dominating Madison and of corruption, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+  <li>considered by Jefferson ablest man in administration except Madison, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+  <li>unable to command support in Congress, submits to war policy, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+  <li>asks leave of absence and appointment as minister to Russia, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+  <li>attempts made to alienate him from Jefferson and Madison, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+  <li>his high regard for Jefferson, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+  <li>continued good terms with Madison, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li><i>Minister to Russia; Treaty of Ghent.</i>
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>His voyage with Bayard, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+  <li>visits Gottenburg and Copenhagen, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+  <li>at St. Petersburg meets J. Q. Adams, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+  <li>his knowledge of history, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+  <li>lack of diplomatic experience as compared with Adams, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+  <li>contrast in character with Adams, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+  <li>considers peace necessary because of inefficiency in conduct of war, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+  <li>abandons his former opposition to a navy, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+  <li>low opinion of English diplomacy, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+  <li>view of necessity of an English renunciation of impressment, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+  <li>writes to Barings, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+  <li>receives Baring's reply, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+  <li>explains case to Romanzoff, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+  <li>assured by Moreau of imperial sympathy, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+  <li>warned by him of England's purposes, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+  <li>writes to Monroe asking instructions, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+  <li>informs Baring of inability to negotiate except through Russia, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+  <li>writes to Moreau, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+  <li>instructs Dallas as to duties in London, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+  <li>receives news of refusal of Senate to confirm his nomination, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+  <li>contemplates visit to London, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+  <li>hears that British government proposes to treat directly, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+  <li>unable to return home, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+  <li>journey to Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+  <li>not at first included in second commission, but later added, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+  <li>visits London, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+  <li>learns of arrival of Clay and Russell, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+  <li>urges Lafayette to mediate, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+  <li>wishes to change place of negotiation from Gottenburg, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+  <li>urges Crawford to secure interposition of emperor, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+  <li>receives letter from Lafayette through Humboldt, promising aid, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+  <li>makes official appeal to emperor, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+  <li>learns of refusal of England to admit intervention, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+  <li>warns Monroe of English preparations, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+  <li>visits Paris, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+  <li>meets British commissioners at Ghent, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+  <li>notifies Monroe of determination of England to dismember United States and attack New Orleans, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+  <li>despairs of peace, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+  <li>draws reply of commissioners rejecting British demands, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+  <li>explains reasons for willingness to discuss Indian article, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+  <li>condemns burning of public buildings at Washington, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+  <li>expresses confidence in American securities, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+  <li>has difficulty in mediating between Clay and Adams on fisheries and Mississippi navigation, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+  <li>proposes engagement to abandon use of savages in future war, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+  <li>the credit of treaty due to him, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+  <li>his diplomatic skill, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+  <li>wins European admiration, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li>
+  <li>visits Geneva, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+  <li>sees Napoleon during Hundred Days, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+  <li>appointed minister to France, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+  <li>with Clay and Adams negotiates commercial convention, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+  <li>friendly attitude of Castlereagh toward, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+  <li>on value of abolition of discriminating duties, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+  <li>returns to New York, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+  <li>withholds acceptance of French mission, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+  <li>describes to Jefferson European opinion of United States, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+  <li>describes condition of France after Revolution, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+  <li>does not consider republican form of government suitable everywhere, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+  <li>weary of politics, declines nomination to Congress, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li>
+  <li>declines French mission on ground of poverty, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li>
+  <li>finally yields to Monroe's requests, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li>
+  <li>refuses offer of Treasury Department, his reasons, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li>
+  <li>rejoicings of Jefferson over his appointment, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li><i>Minister to France.</i>
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>Received by Richelieu, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li>
+  <li>discusses American sympathy for Bonaparte, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li>
+  <li>received by Louis XVIII., <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li>
+  <li>familiar relations with royal family, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li>
+  <li>negotiates for indemnity for seizures, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li>
+  <li>annoyed by French demand for dismissal of a disrespectful American postmaster, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+  <li>advises Adams and Eustis in negotiations, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+  <li>returns to Paris, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li>
+  <li>with Rush conducts negotiations with England, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+  <li>tries to explain Jackson's occupation of Pensacola, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+  <li>refuses to mediate with France between Spain and revolted colonies, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+  <li>points out disadvantages of war with Spain, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+  <li>succeeds in pacifying French indignation at seizure of Apollon, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
+  <li>does not adopt Adams's line of defense, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
+  <li>Adams's opinion of, in diary, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+  <li>his opinion of Adams, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li>
+  <li>continues to negotiate with regard to commerce, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
+  <li>loath to return without success, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
+  <li>criticises Adams's terms of French treaty as unfavorable, but advises signing, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
+  <li>fails to secure satisfaction and returns to America, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+  <li>settles at Friendship Hill, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+  <li>pressed by Monroe to return to France, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li>
+  <li>declines mission to Panama Congress, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li><i>Minister to England.</i>
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>Appointed envoy and minister, with liberty to return on completion of negotiations, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+  <li>secures modification of instructions, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+  <li>complains of peremptory character of instructions, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li>
+  <li>his voyage, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li>
+  <li>dislike of English and French diplomacy, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li>
+  <li>learns of English resentment at tone of American ministers, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+  <li>negotiates with Canning, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+  <li>asks for instructions as to renewal of convention of 1815, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+  <li>pleased with ability of Lawrence as _chargé d'affaires_, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+  <li>his threat of war quoted by Chateaubriand, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+  <li>warned by Adams to yield nothing, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+  <li>concludes negotiation with Goderich, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+  <li>thinks Canning meant to discuss impressment, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+  <li>returns to America, congratulated by Adams, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li>
+  <li>his social life in London, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li>
+  <li>ready to accept French mission in 1834, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+  <li>prepares argument in Northeastern boundary arbitration, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+  <li>publishes an account of facts in the case, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+  <li>visited by Ashburton, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+  <li>publishes pamphlet on Oregon question, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+  <li>presides at meeting to protest against annexation of Texas, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+  <li>condemns Mexican war, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+  <li>publishes pamphlet concerning it, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+  <li>condemns &ldquo;manifest destiny&rdquo; talk, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li><i>Republican Leader.</i>
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>His opinion of contemporary political leaders, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+  <li>prefers Crawford to Adams, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+  <li>requests Macon to take</li>
+  <li>part in caucus for Crawford, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+  <li>thinks universal suffrage compensates for dangers of consolidation, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+  <li>accepts reluctantly nomination for vice-president, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>
+  <li>dislikes formality of nomination, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>
+  <li>withdraws to help ticket, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+  <li>considers the election to prove decease of Republican party, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></li>
+  <li>condemns Jackson's violations of law, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></li>
+  <li>favors an insignificant or weak executive, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></li>
+  <li>visits Washington in 1829, notes disappearance of old régime, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li><i>Society, Literature, Science.</i>
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>His land speculations not profitable, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+  <li>plans Genevese Colonization Association, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li>
+  <li>loses money through Morris's failure, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
+  <li>speculates in Virginia military lands, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
+  <li>estimates value of estates, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
+  <li>ill at ease in general society, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
+  <li>his establishment at Washington described by Irving, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
+  <li>house burned by British, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>
+  <li>builds at Friendship Hill, finds it lonely in winter, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>
+  <li>visited by Lafayette in 1825, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>
+  <li>settles permanently in New York, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>
+  <li>frequent changes of residence, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>
+  <li>devotes last years to scientific studies, <a href="#Page_366">366</a></li>
+  <li>conversational ability, <a href="#Page_366">366</a></li>
+  <li>chosen member of &ldquo;The Club,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_366">366</a> <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
+  <li>leads conversation, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
+  <li>described by Irving, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></li>
+  <li>wishes to establish free university in New York, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></li>
+  <li>presides over council of New York University, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></li>
+  <li>resigns, owing to clerical opposition, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></li>
+  <li>continued interest in French politics, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></li>
+  <li>letter of Lafayette to, on marriage of his daughter, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></li>
+  <li>assists Polish refugees, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
+  <li>interested in Indian customs, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+  <li>writes for Humboldt a synopsis of Indian tribes, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+  <li>publishes Indian vocabularies, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
+  <li>issues circulars inviting information, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
+  <li>correspondence with individuals, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
+  <li>republishes Synopsis, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li>
+  <li>scientific character of his results, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></li>
+  <li>his advice requested concerning Smithson's bequest, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></li>
+  <li>its publications submitted to him, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>
+  <li>founds American Ethnological Society, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>
+  <li>defrays cost of publishing its transactions, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>
+  <li>essay on nations of Mexico and Central America, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+  <li>authorizes General Scott to purchase documents in Mexico, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+  <li>writes introduction to Hale's &ldquo;Indians  of Northwest America,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+  <li>gathers information regarding gold in America for Humboldt, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+  <li>describes his reasons for success, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+  <li>his caution in reasoning, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
+  <li>fails to establish a literary periodical, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
+  <li>chosen president of New York Historical Society, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
+  <li>his inaugural address on course of United States History, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>-<a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+  <li>opinion of Washington, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+  <li>friendly greeting to Adams in 1844, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+  <li>eulogized by Adams, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></li>
+  <li>his party career contrasted with that of Adams, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></li>
+  <li>personal appearance and portraits, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>
+  <li>crushed by loss of wife, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
+  <li>death, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
+  <li>eulogized by Bradish before Historical Society, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
+  <li>acknowledges indebtedness to Bentham, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
+  <li>his brain, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+  <li>summary of character and services, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li><i>Characteristics.</i>
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>General estimates, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a> <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+  <li>unfriendly views of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a> <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
+  <li>his own estimate, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+  <li>ambition, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a> <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+  <li>business ability, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a> <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
+  <li>cosmopolitanism, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+  <li>courage, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a> <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+  <li>debt, aversion to, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+  <li>diplomatic ability, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a> <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a> <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+  <li>financial ability, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+  <li>friendliness, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a> <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
+  <li>geography, love of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+  <li>history, love of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+  <li>indolence, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+  <li>leadership, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a> <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a> <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>
+  <li>literary interest, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
+  <li>maturity, early, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+  <li>partisanship, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a> <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+  <li>personal appearance, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a> <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+  <li>political shrewdness, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a> <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>
+  <li>social habits, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></li>
+  <li>temper, evenness of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+  <li>thoroughness, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li><i>Political Opinions.</i>
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>Alien Bill, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+  <li>appointments to office, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></li>
+  <li>army, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+  <li>Bank of United States, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>-<a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+  <li>banking, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+  <li>cabinet, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+  <li>coinage, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+  <li>Congress, powers of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+  <li>constitution of Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+  <li>debt, public, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+  <li>democracy, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+  <li>education, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>-<a href="#Page_370">370</a></li>
+  <li>election of 1800, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>-<a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+  <li>embargo, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+  <li>England, diplomacy of, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li>
+  <li>England, policy toward, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>-<a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+  <li>ethnology, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>-<a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+  <li>excise, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+  <li>executive, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-<a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></li>
+  <li>Federalist party, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+  <li>financial measures of Hamilton, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+  <li>foreign correspondence bill, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+  <li>foreign ministers, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+  <li>France, diplomacy of, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li>
+  <li>France, policy toward, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
+  <li>free trade, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>-<a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+  <li>French Revolution, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+  <li>gunboat scheme, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+  <li>impeachment, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+  <li>Indians, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>-<a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+  <li>internal improvements, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+  <li>Jacksonian democracy, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></li>
+  <li>Jay treaty, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+  <li>manifest destiny, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+  <li>Mexican war, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+  <li>military matters, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+  <li>money, relation to wealth, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+  <li>navy, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+  <li>northeastern boundary, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>-<a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+  <li>northwest boundary, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+  <li>panic of 1815, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+  <li>paper money, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+  <li>party management, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></li>
+  <li>peace, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+  <li>public lands, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+  <li>Republican party, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></li>
+  <li>revenue, internal, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+  <li>revenue, sources of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+  <li>Sedition Act, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+  <li>slavery, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+  <li>Spain, policy toward, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+  <li>suffrage, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+  <li>surplus, use of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+  <li>taxation, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+  <li>Texas annexation, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+  <li>territory, constitutional power to acquire, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+  <li>Treasury, administration of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>-<a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>-<a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+  <li>treaty of Ghent, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+  <li>treaty power, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+  <li>United States, history of, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a></li>
+  <li>war of 1812, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+  <li>war finances, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+  <li>Whiskey Insurrection, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Gallatin family, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>prominence in Geneva, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+  <li>military reputation, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+  <li>interest in all its members, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+  <li>on oligarchic side in Genevese politics, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  <li>alarmed at report of Gallatin's death, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+  <li>visited by Gallatin in 1814, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+  <li>claims Roman descent, 386 n.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Gallatin, Frances, marries B. K. Stevens, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>Lafayette's letter of congratulation to, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></li>
+  <li>considered &ldquo;a beauty&rdquo; at French court, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Gallatin, James, accompanies his father to Europe, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+<li>Gallatin, Jean, father of Albert Gallatin, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>his death, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Gallatin, P. M., guardian of Albert, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>his kindness on Gallatin's departure for America, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+  <li>promises to aid him, and forwards letters of recommendation, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Gallatin, Susanne Vaudenet, grandmother of Gallatin, her character, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>friend of Frederick of Hesse-Cassel and of Voltaire, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+  <li>controlling spirit of family, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+  <li>quarrels with Albert over his refusal of a Hessian commission, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Gambier, Lord, on English peace commission, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+<li>Gardner, John L., at free-trade convention, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li>Genet, Edmond C., effect of his intemperance on parties, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>marries daughter of George Clinton, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+  <li>aids Democratic societies, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+  <li>condemned by Federalists, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Geneva, place of Gallatin family in, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>education in, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+  <li>religious spirit of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+  <li>a resort of foreigners, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+  <li>political situation in, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  <li>parties in, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  <li>revolutions in, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li>
+  <li>government of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+  <li>visited by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+  <li>colonization from, planned by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Geneva Academy, studies of Gallati in, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>his friends at, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Germans, in Pennsylvania, oppose improvement of education, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+<li>Gerry, Elbridge, on French mission, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>remains to negotiate loan, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Gibbs, ----, member of Ethnological Society, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>
+<li>Gilbert, Ezekiel, on Committee on Finance, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+<li>Giles, William B., Republican leader in debate, his character, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>bitterly opposes address to Washington, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+  <li>in debate on relations with France, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+  <li>loses leadership to Gallatin, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Gilman, Nicholas, on Committee on Finance, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+<li>Girard, Stephen, assists Gallatin to float loan, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>his reasons, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Goderich, Lord, renews convention of 1815 with Gallatin, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+<li>Goldberg, ----, Dutch commissioner to make commercial treaty, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li>
+<li>Goodhue, Jonathan, at free-trade convention of 1831, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li>Goodhue, ----, member of &ldquo;The Club,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
+<li>Goodrich, Chauncy, in Congress, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>in debate on foreign relations, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+  <li>on resolution to punish foreign correspondence, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Goulburn, Henry, on English peace commission, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>informed of American request for instructions, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+  <li>told by Castlereagh and Liverpool to moderate his demands, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+  <li>protests against acceptance of Indian article, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Grenville, Lord, sends Fauchet letter to Washington, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>connection with Jay treaty, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+  <li>his proposition to Pinckney, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Griswold, Roger, attacks Gallatin's account of sinking fund, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>leader of Federalists in House, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+  <li>replies to Gallatin in debate on treaty power, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+  <li>his collision with Lyon, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+  <li>on doctrine of checks, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+  <li>on bill to punish foreign correspondence, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+  <li>on Senate bill to require annual financial reports, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Gunboats, Jefferson's scheme for,  <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>origin of his idea, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+  <li>opposed by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Gurney, ----, in Pennsylvania legislature, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Hale, ----, introduction to his work on Indians written by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+<li>Hamilton, Alexander, his career compared to that of Gallatin, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>amends excise law, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+  <li>demands punishment of Pittsburgh leaders of opposition, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  <li>drafts proclamation against them, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  <li>attacked by Gallatin in Senate, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+  <li>deprecates demand for minute information, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+  <li>submits plan for crushing insurgents, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+  <li>impatient at delay, writes as &ldquo;Tully&rdquo; advocating punishment, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+  <li>accompanies army to Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+  <li>investigates insurrection, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+  <li>fails to find indictment against Gallatin, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+  <li>dissuades troops from violence, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+  <li>resigns from Treasury, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+  <li>continues to lead party, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+  <li>stoned in defending Jay treaty, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+  <li>letters of Wolcott to, complaining of Republican opposition, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+  <li>attends Congress as general, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+  <li>his influence on government, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+  <li>review of his career in the Treasury, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-<a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+  <li>his place in history, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+  <li>his enmity to Gallatin, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+  <li>attacks of Gallatin upon his system, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+  <li>his revenue system maintained by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+  <li>and reënacted by Democrats in 1813, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li>
+  <li>his report on public lands, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+  <li>his organization of Treasury Department, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+  <li>his financial reports, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+  <li>on Bank of North America, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+  <li>his report on national bank, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Hamilton, J. C., accuses Gallatin of cowardice in Whiskey Rebellion, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li>Harper, Robert Goodloe, leader of Federalists in House, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>denounces call for Jay treaty papers as unconstitutional, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+  <li>closes argument on Federalist side, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+  <li>recognizes Gallatin as leader of Republicans, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+  <li>in debate on relations with France, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+  <li>called a &ldquo;bungler&rdquo; by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+  <li>moves appropriation for foreign intercourse, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+  <li>his share in debate, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+  <li>introduces bill to suspend intercourse with France, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+  <li>altercation with Gallatin over Alien Bill, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+  <li>on resolution to furnish foreign correspondence, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+  <li>on Senate bill to require annual financial reports, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Harvard College, gives Gallatin permission to teach French, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>his connection with, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+  <li>gives Gallatin certificate, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Hassler, Ferdinand Rudolph, superintendent of coast survey, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+<li>Hawks, ----, member of Ethnological Society, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>
+<li>Henry, Patrick, recommends Gallatin to county surveyor and commissions him to locate lands, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>advises Gallatin to go West, predicts success, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Henry, Prof. Joseph, letter of Gallatin to, on Squier and Davis's &ldquo;Ancient Monuments,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>
+<li>Hillhouse, James, Federalist in Congress, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>on committee on finance, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Holland, vain attempt to sign commercial treaty with, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>arbitrates northeast boundary, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+  <li>its decision rejected, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>House of Representatives, leaders of, in 1795, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>-<a href="#Page_100">100</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>debate in, over conduct of Washington's administration, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>-<a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+  <li>appoints Committee on Finance, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+  <li>debate in, on principle of appropriations, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+  <li>motion of Livingston to call for papers in Jay treaty brings on debate on treaty power, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>-<a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+  <li>asserts right to withhold appropriations, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+  <li>considers foreign treaties separately, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+  <li>debates Jay treaty, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+  <li>votes to carry treaty into effect, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+  <li>but condemns it, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+  <li>refuses to adjourn on Washington's birthday, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+  <li>adopts address complimentary to Washington, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+  <li>new members in fifth Congress, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+  <li>debates President's message on relations with France, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>-<a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+  <li>votes to support administration, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+  <li>considers measures of defense, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+  <li>impeaches Blount, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+  <li>entertained by Adams, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+  <li>encounter in, between Lyon and Griswold, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+  <li>debate in, on foreign missions, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+  <li>on relation of executive to Congress, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-<a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+  <li>rejects amendment to abolish foreign missions, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+  <li>debates war with France, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+  <li>requests President to furnish correspondence of envoys to France, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+  <li>receives X Y Z dispatches, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+  <li>altercation in, between Gallatin and Allen, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+  <li>passes Alien Bill, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+  <li>message of Adams to, on resumption of diplomatic intercourse</li>
+  <li>with France, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+  <li>passes bill abrogating treaty with France, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+  <li>debates and passes bill to punish foreign correspondence, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+  <li>debates and passes bills to favor French West Indies, and punish Spanish and Dutch ports, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+  <li>refuses to repeal Sedition Act, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+  <li>new members in sixth Congress, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+  <li>replies to President's address, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+  <li>refuses to repeal Sedition Law, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+  <li>passes bill to suspend intercourse with France, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+  <li>votes a medal to Truxton, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+  <li>refuses to amend Foreign Intercourse Act, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+  <li>debates and passes Senate bill to require annual Treasury reports, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+  <li>refuses to continue non-intercourse, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+  <li>again rejects bill to amend Sedition Act, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+  <li>part played by Gallatin in, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+  <li>investigates Wolcott's management of Treasury, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Howell, Richard, leads New Jersey militia against Whiskey Rebellion, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+<li>Humboldt, Baron Alexander von, aided in study of precious metals in America by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>brings Lafayette's letter to Gallatin, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+  <li>meets Gallatin in Washington, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+  <li>speaks of Gallatin's &ldquo;glory,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li>
+  <li>letter to Gallatin, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Husbands, Herman, on committee on resolutions of Parkinson's Ferry meeting, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+<li>Huskisson, William, on impressment, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Impressment, Gallatin's opinion of, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>its abandonment by England insisted on by Monroe, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+  <li>refused consideration by England, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Indians, relations of Gallatin with, at Machias, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>trading posts with, opposed by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+  <li>Wayne's treaty with, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+  <li>danger of war with, in 1795, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+  <li>Gallatin's opinion of, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+  <li>influence of Chôteau over, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+  <li>fur trade of Astor with, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+  <li>proposals of England concerning, in treaty of Ghent, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+  <li>studies of Gallatin concerning, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>-<a href="#Page_378">378</a></li>
+  <li>the Canadian Indians, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
+  <li>tribes of, classified by Jefferson, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+  <li>&ldquo;Synopsis of Indian Tribes&rdquo; by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</li>
+  <li>vocabularies collected by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
+  <li>studies of Du Ponceau concerning, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li>
+  <li>republication of Gallatin's &ldquo;Synopsis,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li>
+  <li>his essay on Indian civilization, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+  <li>his introduction to Hale's work on, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Ingham, Samuel D., report of Gallatin to, on gold and silver, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+<li>Internal improvements, Gallatin's scheme for, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>urged by Jefferson, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+  <li>inconsistency of Jefferson, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Irish, petition against Sedition Act, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+<li>Irving, Washington, describes Mrs. Gallatin's manners and appearance, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>describes Gallatin in old age, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Jackson, Andrew, votes against complimentary address to Washington, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>his appearance described by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_129">129</a> n.;</li>
+  <li>orders removal of deposits, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+  <li>Gallatin's opinion of, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
+  <li>occupies Pensacola, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+  <li>refuses to appoint Gallatin to French mission, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+  <li>candidate for president in 1824, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+  <li>defeated for president by Adams, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+  <li>his idea of party, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></li>
+  <li>Gallatin's opinion of, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></li>
+  <li>character of his presidency, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Jackson, F. J., his mission to United States, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+<li>Jay, John, asked by Jefferson for information concerning Gallatin, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>drafts letter for New York Convention calling for a new convention, <a href="#Page_37">37</a> n.;</li>
+  <li>burnt in effigy after his treaty, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+  <li>his purpose in making treaty, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+  <li>said by Sheffield to have duped Grenville, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+  <li>his warning remark to Randolph during negotiations, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+  <li>attacked by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Jay, William, member of &ldquo;The Club,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_366">366</a></li>
+<li>Jay treaty, ratified, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>made public by Mason, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+  <li>popular dissatisfaction with, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+  <li>sent to House, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+  <li>condemned in England, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+  <li>debate over, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Jefferson, Thomas, in behalf of Gallatin family writes to Jay for information concerning Albert Gallatin, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>countersigns Washington's proclamation against excise rioters, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  <li>retires from cabinet, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+  <li>rupture with Hamilton, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+  <li>imbued with French principles, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+  <li>ridiculed as a sans-culotte, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+  <li>influence complained of by Wolcott, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+  <li>tries to moderate bitterness of Republicans, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+  <li>Gallatin known to be in his confidence, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+  <li>complains of weakness of Congress, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+  <li>unable to influence Senate, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+  <li>loses taste for French alliance, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+  <li>thinks Sedition Bill aimed at Gallatin, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+  <li>praises Gallatin's courage, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+  <li>receives tie vote with Burr, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+  <li>probably makes bargain with Federalists, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+  <li>his inexplicable submission to Smith, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+  <li>elected, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+  <li>in triumvirate with Madison and Gallatin, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+  <li>represents social equality, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+  <li>his suggestions on coinage, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+  <li>urges Gallatin to accept Treasury Department, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+  <li>letter to Macon, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+  <li>suggestions of Gallatin to, on financial policy, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+  <li>not a practical statesman, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+  <li>does not consult cabinet as a whole, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+  <li>letters of Gallatin to, on finances, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+  <li>summons Congress to ratify Louisiana purchase, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+  <li>reëlection helped by finances and Louisiana treaty, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+  <li>urges Gallatin to retain post until extinction of debt, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+  <li>wishes reduction of army and navy, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+  <li>advocates application of surplus to internal improvement, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li>
+  <li>in so doing abandons his principles, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+  <li>detests bank, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+  <li>proposes impracticable economies in Treasury Department, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li>
+  <li>suggests issue of paper money, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></li>
+  <li>an abandonment of republican principles, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+  <li>introduces new principles of administration into government, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+  <li>opposes Gallatin's civil service circular, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+  <li>proposes to fill one half of offices with partisans, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+  <li>submits draft of annual message to cabinet, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+  <li>objects to appointing a woman to office, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li>
+  <li>lack of system in his cabinet, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+  <li>does not consult Gallatin on military matters, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+  <li>agrees with Gallatin's view on acquisition of territory, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+  <li>advised by Gallatin concerning Louisiana treaty, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+  <li>unfortunate in choice of political methods, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+  <li>friendly with Duane, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+  <li>promises to protect Astor, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+  <li>his gunboat scheme, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+  <li>origin of his views on gunboats, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+  <li>his plan of internal improvements, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></li>
+  <li>recommends national university, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+  <li>wishes amendments to Constitution, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+  <li>advised by Gallatin not to rely on &ldquo;general welfare&rdquo; clause of Constitution, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+  <li>shirks responsibility of decision with regard to English policy, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+  <li>urged by Gallatin to enforce non-intercourse, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+  <li>calls Gallatin ablest man in administration except Madison, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+  <li>regard of Gallatin for, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+  <li>his love for Gallatin, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+  <li>letters of Gallatin to, on reputation of United States in Europe, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+  <li>on France, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+  <li>letter of Gallatin to, on difficulty of withdrawal from public service, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li>
+  <li>rejoices in Gallatin's acceptance of French mission, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li>
+  <li>his opinion of Louis XVIII., <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li>
+  <li>relations with de Tracy, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li>
+  <li>supports Crawford for presidency, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+  <li>favors state rights, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+  <li>does not appreciate decay of his party, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+  <li>on non-sectarian education, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></li>
+  <li>his remarks on Indians in &ldquo;Notes on Virginia,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_374"></a></li>
+  <li>on Washington's strong passions, <a href="#Page_383">383</a> n.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Johannot, ----, educated at Geneva, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+<li>Johnston, ----, member of &ldquo;The Club,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_366">366</a></li>
+<li>Jones, William, secretary of navy, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Kent, Chancellor James, member of &ldquo;The Club,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_366">366</a></li>
+<li>King, Charles, member of &ldquo;The Club,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
+<li>King, Rufus, resigns mission to England, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>tone of his correspondence, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Kinloch, Francis, educated at Geneva, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>letter to, given by Mlle. Pictet to Gallatin, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Kirkpatrick, Major, defends United States marshal in Whiskey Insurrection, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>his farm burnt by rioters, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Kittera, Thomas, moves hostile amendment to pro-French resolution, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+<li>Knox, Henry, resigns from War Department, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+<li>Kosciusko, his nephew helped by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
+<li>Kramer brothers, in business with Gallatin, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Lands, public, in Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>suggestions of Gallatin as to improved methods of sale, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+  <li>how acquired, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li>
+  <li>sales under Hamilton and successors, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+  <li>organization of sales by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Land speculation, in Virginia, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>in Ohio, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Lafayette, Marquis de, his motives for aiding colonies, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>his imprisonment, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+  <li>saved by gunboats in 1781, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></li>
+  <li>urged by Gallatin to help mediate between England and United States, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+  <li>urges emperor of Russia to exert personal influence with England, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+  <li>sends letter to Gallatin, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+  <li>letter of Gallatin to, on French government, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+  <li>visits Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>
+  <li>entertained by Lafayette at Friendship Hill, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>
+  <li>his part in Revolution of 1830, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
+  <li>interested in marriage of Gallatin's daughter, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></li>
+  <li>letter to Gallatin, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>La Pérouse, meets Gallatin at Machias, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>later meets him in Boston, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Laurens, John, educated at Geneva, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+<li>La Vengeance, captured by Constellation, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+<li>Lawrence, William B., gives anecdote of Washington and Gallatin, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>accompanies Gallatin to England, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li>
+  <li>his ability as secretary, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+  <li>presides at anniversary meeting of New York Historical Society, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Lee, Henry, commands militia against Whiskey Rebellion, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>requires oath of allegiance, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+  <li>orders seizure of leaders, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Lee, Thomas, founder of Ohio company, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+<li>Legislature of Pennsylvania, calls Constitutional Convention, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>Gallatin's career in, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+  <li>rejects bill to improve education, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+  <li>discharges paper money and other debt, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+  <li>elects Gallatin senator, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+  <li>adopts resolutions condemning excise, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+  <li>protests against authorizing vessels to arm, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+  <li>divides electoral vote between Adams and Jefferson, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+  <li>Gallatin's financial report to, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+  <li>offers to take two millions of United States bonds, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+  <li>interferes to regulate Bank of North America, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+  <li>charters Bank of United States, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Leopard, captures Chesapeake, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+<li>Lesdernier, M. de, flies from Nova Scotia to Machias, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>welcomes Gallatin, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+  <li>on good terms with Indians, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+  <li>attempt of Gallatin to obtain a pension for, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+  <li>letter of Gallatin to, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+  <li>introduces Gallatin to Indians, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Lesdernier, Madame de, persuades Gallatin to visit Machias, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+<li>Lieven, Count, Russian minister at London, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>his friendship with Gallatin, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Lincoln, Levi, views on unconstitutionality of acquiring territory, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li>
+<li>Livermore, E. S., on committee to consider Gallatin's eligibility to Senate, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+<li>Liverpool, Lord, advised by Castlereagh to moderate his demands, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>does so for fear of healing American dissensions, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+  <li>accepts settlement of Indian question, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+  <li>resolves to prosecute war vigorously, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li>
+  <li>abandons claim to territory and admits defeats, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li>
+  <li>letter of Castlereagh to, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+  <li>death, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Livingston, Edward, prominent Republican in Congress, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>his precocity, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+  <li>calls for instructions for Jay, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+  <li>votes against complimentary address to Washington, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+  <li>attacks Adams's foreign policy, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+  <li>presents petitions against Alien and Sedition Laws, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Livingston, Robert R., arranges terms of Louisiana purchase, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+<li>Lorillard, Jacob, at free trade convention, 1831, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li>Loring, Captain, takes Gallatin to America, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+<li>Louis XVI., executed, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+<li>Louis XVIII., Jefferson's opinion of, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>gives audience to Gallatin, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li>
+  <li>his intimacy with Gallatin and his sarcasm, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Louisiana, financial effect of its purchase, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>effect of its acquisition on England, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+  <li>constitutional question involved, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+  <li>occupation of, arranged by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Lynn, Mary, keeps boarding-house in Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+<li>Lyon, Matthew, his collision with Griswold, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>defended by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Machias, expedition of Gallatin to, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>life at, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Macon, Nathanael, votes against complimentary address to Washington, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>aids Gallatin in sixth Congress, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+  <li>moves repeal of Sedition Law, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+  <li>opposes non-intercourse with France, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+  <li>letter of Jefferson to, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+  <li>letter to Nicholson, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+  <li>tries to pass Navigation Act against English and French decrees, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+  <li>on decay of democratic principles in 1824, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Madison, James, secures adoption of ten amendments, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>abandons Federalists through Jefferson's influence, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+  <li>leads Republicans in House, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+  <li>weakness in debate, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+  <li>drafts address to Washington, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+  <li>on Committee on Finance, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+  <li>advocates bill to establish trading posts with Indians, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+  <li>moves to amend call for Jay papers, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+  <li>interprets treaty power</li>
+  <li>in Constitution in Jay treaty debate, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+  <li>attacks Jay treaty, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+  <li>influence complained of by Wolcott, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+  <li>not reëlected to Congress, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+  <li>his inexplicable submission to Smith, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+  <li>in triumvirate with Jefferson and Gallatin, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+  <li>his weakness as financier, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+  <li>summons Congress, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+  <li>anxious to evade responsibility for peace or war, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+  <li>communications on finance from Gallatin, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+  <li>his indecision as to financial situation, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li>
+  <li>does not accept Gallatin's resignation, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+  <li>realizes indispensableness of Gallatin to him, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li>
+  <li>agrees with Gallatin as to minute appropriations, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+  <li>vetoes bill to incorporate national bank, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+  <li>signs a second bill, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+  <li>his inconsistency, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+  <li>urged by Gallatin to restore specie payment, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+  <li>opposes Gallatin's civil service circular, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+  <li>not superior on constitutional points to Gallatin, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+  <li>refuses to support Astor's plans, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+  <li>consults with Gallatin on inaugural address, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+  <li>forced by senators to abandon plan to make Gallatin secretary of state, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+  <li>unable to control party, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+  <li>favors England as against France, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+  <li>fails to support Gallatin, his inexcusable weakness, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+  <li>compelled to choose between Smith and Gallatin, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+  <li>efforts of Duane to poison his mind against Gallatin, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+  <li>not qualified to be a war president, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+  <li>sends Gallatin on Russian mission with leave of absence, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+  <li>appoints Duane adjutant-general, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li>
+  <li>continues on good terms with Gallatin, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+  <li>accepts English offer of direct negotiation, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+  <li>appoints a new commission, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+  <li>intends Gallatin for head of commission, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+  <li>names Gallatin minister to France, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+  <li>thanked by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+  <li>leaves him at liberty to decide, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li>
+  <li>offers Gallatin secretaryship of treasury, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li>
+  <li>favors Crawford for presidency, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Malesherbes, C. G. de L. de, his courage compared to that of Gallatin, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li>&ldquo;Manifest Destiny,&rdquo; Gallatin's opinion of, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li>
+<li>Marie Antoinette, executed, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+<li>Marshall, James, represents Fayette County in anti-excise proceedings, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>joins Bradford in calling out militia, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+  <li>his resolutions at Parkinson's Ferry meeting disapproved by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+  <li>withdraws them, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+  <li>on committee to confer with United States commissioners, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Marshall, John, offers Gallatin a place in his office, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>on French mission, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+  <li>elected to Congress, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+  <li>announces death of Washington, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+  <li>draws reply to Adams's address, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Mason, S. T., makes Jay treaty public, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+<li>Mathews, Rev. Mr., member of &ldquo;The Club,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
+<li>Mayer, member of Ethnological Society, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>
+<li>McClanachan, Blair, chairman of anti-Federalist Conference, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>his ultra-democratic remarks to Adams, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>McDuffie, George, estimates profits of bankers on state bank circulation, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+<li>McKean, Thomas, in Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>suggests sending a commission to confer with Whiskey insurgents, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+  <li>asked to prevent civil war in 1800, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>McLane, Louis, reports extinction of national debt, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+<li>McVickar, ----, member of &ldquo;The Club,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_366">366</a></li>
+<li>Mexico, war with, Gallatin's opinion of, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+<li>Middleton, Henry, at free trade convention of 1831, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li>Mifflin, Thomas, in Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>deprecates use of force against Whiskey Rebellion, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+  <li>summons legislature and obtains authority to employ militia, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+  <li>succeeds by personal influence in filling ranks, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Mirabeau, Vicomte de, friend of Dumont, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+<li>Mississippi navigation, discussed in treaty of Ghent, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>in 1818, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Mitchell, S. L., on committee to consider Gallatin's eligibility to Senate, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+<li>Monroe, James, presents flag to French Convention, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>arranges terms of Louisiana purchase, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+  <li>supplants Smith as secretary of state, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+  <li>on necessity of renunciation of impressment in treaty of peace, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+  <li>asked by Gallatin for further instructions, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+  <li>receives proposals from England for direct negotiation, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+  <li>asked by commissioners for authority to treat in any place, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+  <li>warned by Gallatin of English war plans, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+  <li>communications of Gallatin to, during negotiations, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+  <li>urges Gallatin not to withdraw from public service, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li>
+  <li>appoints Adams secretary of state, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li>
+  <li>gives Gallatin leave of absence, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+  <li>urges him to return to France, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Montgomery, John, connected by marriage with Gallatin, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+<li>Montmorenci, Vicomte, negotiates with Gallatin, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>succeeded by Chateaubriand, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Moore, ----, member of &ldquo;The Club,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_366">366</a></li>
+<li>Moreau, General Jean Victor, career in America and France, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>assures Gallatin of emperor's friendliness and warns him of British obstinacy, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+  <li>reply of Gallatin, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li>
+  <li>his death, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Morgan, Daniel, leads militia against Whiskey Rebellion, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+<li>Morris, Gouverneur, snubbed by Washington for familiarity, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>his precocity compared to Gallatin's, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+  <li>suggests decimal system, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Morris, Robert, receives drafts for Gallatin, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>in United States Senate announces intention of neutrality on question of Gallatin's eligibility, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+  <li>but votes against it, 63 n.;</li>
+  <li>his rank as financier, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>-<a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+  <li>plans Bank of North America, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+  <li>buys land of Gallatin, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li>
+  <li>settles with Gallatin, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
+  <li>fails and is imprisoned, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Morse, ----, member of &ldquo;The Club,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
+<li>Morton, Dr., member of Ethnological Society, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>
+<li>Muhlenberg, Frederick A., defeated for speaker by Dayton, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>gives casting vote in favor of Jay treaty appropriations, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Müller, Johann von, teaches Gallatin history, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+<li>Murray, William Vans, prominent Federalist in House, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>on finance committee, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+  <li>denies discretionary power of House over Jay treaty, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Navy, opposed by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>his course defended, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+  <li>gunboat scheme, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Nesselrode, Count, leaves Russian foreign affairs in charge of Romanzoff, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>inability of Crawford to secure audience with, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>New England, supports Adams in 1800, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>refuses to support popular loan, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+  <li>plans disunion, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+  <li>hoards specie, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>
+  <li>opposes embargo, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+  <li>its secession hoped for by England, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>New York, calls for a second Federal Convention, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>Republican in 1800, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>New York city, first visit of Gallatin to, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>abandoned by Congress for Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+  <li>protests against Jay treaty, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+  <li>settlement of Gallatin in, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a></li>
+  <li>social life in, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>-<a href="#Page_368">368</a></li>
+  <li>attempt of Gallatin to establish a university in, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>New York Historical Society, presidency of Gallatin, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>his inaugural address to, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>-<a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+  <li>celebration of its fortieth anniversary, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+  <li>honors Gallatin's memory, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Nicholas, John, Republican leader in House, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>on treaty power, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+  <li>supports Gallatin in advocating specific appropriations, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+  <li>moves amendment to Adams's message, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+  <li>in debate on French relations, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+  <li>desires to limit executive through power over appropriations, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+  <li>aids Gallatin in sixth Congress, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+  <li>opposes non-intercourse with France, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+  <li>resists supposed encroachment of Senate on House, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+  <li>confers with Jefferson and Gallatin on election of 1800, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Nicholson family, connected by marriage with Gallatin, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+<li>Nicholson, Hannah, marries Gallatin, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>described by him,  <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+  <li>her relations to her husband, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+  <li>letters of Gallatin to, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+  <li>unhappy in Fayette County, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+  <li>her property, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
+  <li>unfit for frontier life, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></li>
+  <li>her success in Washington society, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>
+  <li>her death, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Nicholson, Commodore James, father-in-law of Gallatin, his family, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>visited by Gallatin after marriage, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+  <li>on Gallatin's political moderation, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+  <li>commands gunboats in Lafayette's campaign of 1781, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Nicholson, James Witter, in business with Gallatin, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+<li>Nicholson, Joseph H., letter of Gallatin to, on war revenue, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>furnished by Gallatin with questions to ask himself, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+  <li>letter of Macon to, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Non-importation, difficulty of enforcement in 1774, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>enforced by Gallatin in 1808, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Norris, Isaac W., at free trade convention, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Odier, ----, takes shares in Gallatin's land scheme, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li>
+<li>Ohio Company, its formation and lands, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+<li>Oregon question, discussion over, in 1818, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>discussed in 1826, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+  <li>determination of Adams not to give way in, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+  <li>joint occupation of, continued, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+  <li>views of Gallatin on, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Otis, Harrison Gray, elected to Congress, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>denounces Gallatin for attacking Federalist administration, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+  <li>on resolution to punish foreign correspondence, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+  <li>reports investigation of Wolcott's management of Treasury, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Panama Congress, its importance, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>mission to, declined by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Paper money, its issue suggested by Jefferson, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>Gallatin's opinion of, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Parish, David, assists Gallatin to float loan, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>his reasons, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Parker, Josiah, amends resolution to punish foreign correspondence, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>offers resolution to amend non-intercourse, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Pasquier, M., negotiates with Gallatin, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>pacified by Gallatin after seizure of Apollon, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Patton, John, on Committee on Finance, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+<li>Peabody, George, at free trade convention of 1831, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+<li>Pendleton Society of Virginia, adopts secession resolutions, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+<li>Penn, John, letter to, given Gallatin by Lady Penn, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+<li>Penn, Lady Juliana, gives Gallatin letter to John Penn, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+<li>Penns, proprietors of Pennsylvania, educated at Geneva, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+<li>Pennsylvania, ratifies federal Constitution, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>movement in, to call a second convention, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>-<a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+  <li>education in, efforts of Gallatin to improve, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+  <li>opposition to excise in, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>-<a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+  <li>Whiskey Rebellion in, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>-<a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+  <li>popularity of Gallatin in, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+  <li>its law regarding slavery, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+  <li>petitions against Alien and Sedition Acts, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Pensacola, its seizure by Jackson, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+<li>Philadelphia, visit of Gallatin to, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>removal of Congress to, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+  <li>society in, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+  <li>angry feeling in, against Whiskey Insurrection, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+  <li>protests against Jay treaty, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+  <li>petitions legislature to repeal charter of Bank of North America, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+  <li>nominates Gallatin for Congress, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Pickering, Timothy, in Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>secretary of war and postmaster-general under Washington, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Pickering, ---- member of Ethnological Society, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>
+<li>Pictet, Mademoiselle, adopts Gallatin, her kindness, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>her nephew taught by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+  <li>regard of Gallatin for, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li>pained at Gallatin's departure, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+  <li>gives him letter to Kinloch, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+  <li>sends him money and secures interest of Dr. Cooper, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+  <li>his ingratitude toward, regretted by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+  <li>supposes his failure to write due to misfortune, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+  <li>accuses Gallatin of indolence and ennui, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Pictet, ----, naturalist, relative of Gallatin, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+<li>Pinckney, Charles C., refused reception as minister by France, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>on second mission, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+  <li>returns, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+  <li>attends Congress as general, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Pinckney, Thomas, makes treaty with Spain, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+<li>Pitt, William, his precocity compared to Gallatin's, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+<li>Poles, in New York, befriended by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
+<li>Powell, William H., his portrait of Gallatin, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>
+<li>Preston, William C., at free trade convention in 1831, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Quakers, in Pennsylvania, oppose general education, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>petition against seizure of fugitive slaves, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Randolph, Edmund, deprecates force against Whiskey Rebellion, on ground that only Washington's influence prevents civil war, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>retires from cabinet, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+  <li>damages reputation by dealings with Fauchet, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+  <li>remark of Jay to, during negotiations with England, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Randolph, John, elected to Congress, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>opposes non-intercourse with France, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+  <li>opposes giving a gold medal to Truxton, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+  <li>advocates abolition of internal duties, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+  <li>complains of want of system in Jefferson's cabinet, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+  <li>on Madison's weakness, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+  <li>unfitted to lead a party, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Renwick, James, letter of Mrs. Irving to, on Mrs. Gallatin, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>member of &ldquo;The Club,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_366">366</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Republican party, its origin, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>its leaders in House of Representatives in 1795, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+  <li>its attitude toward France and Revolution, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+  <li>imitates Jacobins, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+  <li>opposes resolution complimenting Washington's administration, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>-<a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+  <li>attacks administration of Treasury, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+  <li>asserts right of House to share in treaty power, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>-<a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+  <li>leadership of Gallatin in, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+  <li>attacks Jay treaty, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+  <li>objects to adjournment on Washington's birthday, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+  <li>attacks Washington, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+  <li>reluctant to affront France, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>-<a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+  <li>opposes increase of foreign missions, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>-<a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+  <li>attacks Alien and Sedition Laws, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+  <li>profits by popular dislike of England and of Alien and Sedition Laws, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+  <li>gives equal vote to Jefferson and Burr, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+  <li>its policy to resist any Federalist usurpation by force, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+  <li>success due to Gallatin's leadership, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+  <li>its share in building country, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+  <li>opposes internal revenue, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+  <li>its principles violated by Jefferson in suggesting internal improvements, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li>
+  <li>refuses to renew charter of bank, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+  <li>violates principles in chartering second bank, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li>
+  <li>introduces new principles of administration into government, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li>
+  <li>demands share of offices, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+  <li>refuses to confirm Gallatin for secretary of state, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+  <li>factions in, under Madison, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+  <li>incompetent to manage war, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+  <li>lacks leaders after Gallatin, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
+  <li>its condition in 1824, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+  <li>its caucus nominates Crawford and Gallatin, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+  <li>new developments of, under Jackson, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Revenue, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-<a href="#Page_238">238</a> See Finances.</li>
+<li>Richelieu, Duc de, seeks explanation from Gallatin of American sympathy for Bonaparte, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>declares impossibility of making full compensation for captures under Berlin and Milan decrees, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li>
+  <li>angered at American refusal to dismiss an impudent postmaster, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+  <li>on Jackson's seizure of Pensacola, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+  <li>urges peace with Spain, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Richmond, society in, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+<li>Robinson, Dr., associate of Gallatin in founding American Ethnological Society, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>
+<li>Rochefoucauld, D'Enville, Duc de, obtains letters for Gallatin from Franklin, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+<li>Rollaz, Sophie Albertine, mother of Gallatin, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>assumes husband's share in business, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+  <li>death, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Romanzoff, Count, originates plan of Russian mediation, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>dealings of Gallatin with, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+  <li>renews offer of mediation, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+  <li>gives Dallas letter to Count Lieven, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+  <li>thanked by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Ross, James, appeals to Whiskey insurgents not to use violence, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>on commission to confer with insurgents, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Rousseau, J. J., Gallatin's opinion of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+<li>Ruggles, Benjamin, letter of Gallatin to, accepting nomination for vice-president, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+<li>Rush, Richard, introduced to public life by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>named minister to England, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li>
+  <li>joined with Gallatin to negotiate concerning convention of 1815, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+  <li>secretary of Treasury, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li>
+  <li>tone of his correspondence, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Russell, Jonathan, on peace commission, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>arrives at Gottenburg, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Russia, offers to mediate between England and United States, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>mission of Gallatin and Bayard to, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>-<a href="#Page_312">312</a></li>
+  <li>refusal of England to accept its mediation, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+  <li>dealings of Gallatin with Romanzoff, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+  <li>renews its offer, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li>
+  <li>displeased with recognition of Spanish colonies, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Rutherford, John, on committee to consider Gallatin's eligibility to Senate, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+<li>Rutledge, John, Jr., elected to Congress, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Savary de Valcoulon, has claims against Virginia, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>meets Gallatin at Philadelphia and uses him as interpreter, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+  <li>goes with Gallatin to Richmond, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+  <li>interests him in land speculation, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+  <li>joins Gallatin in locating claims, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Schoolcraft, Henry R., member of Ethnological Society, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>
+<li>Scott, General Winfield, requested by Gallatin to aid in collecting ethnological data in Mexico, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+<li>Scott, Thomas, appeals to Whiskey insurgents, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+<li>Sedgwick, Theodore, leader of Federalists in House, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>on committee to draft address to Washington, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+  <li>on Committee on Finance, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+  <li>offers resolution to execute four treaties, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+  <li>taunts Gallatin with instigating Whiskey Rebellion, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+  <li>elected speaker, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+  <li>at free trade convention of 1831, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Sedition Law, condemned by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>petitions against, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Senate of United States, election of Gallatin to, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>appoints committees to consider his eligibility, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+  <li>votes to exclude him, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+  <li>prejudiced against him by his actions, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+  <li>ratifies Jay treaty, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+  <li>yields to House regarding specific appropriations, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+  <li>controlled by Federalists, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+  <li>passes bill authorizing convoys, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+  <li>passes bill abrogating treaty with France, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+  <li>amends House Bill to suspend intercourse with France, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+  <li>debate over its bill to require annual treasury reports, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+  <li>ratifies commercial convention with France, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+  <li>still controlled by Federalists, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+  <li>its hostility to Gallatin, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+  <li>refuses to confirm his appointment as peace commissioner, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Seney, Joshua, connected by marriage with Gallatin, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+<li>Serre, Henri, friendship with Gallatin, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>sails with him for America, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li>doings in Boston with Gallatin, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>-<a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+  <li>at Machias, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+  <li>enjoys life in wilderness, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+  <li>returns to Boston, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+  <li>teaches there, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+  <li>joins Gallatin and dissolves partnership, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+  <li>goes to Jamaica and dies, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+  <li>his debt subsequently paid, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+  <li>his letters to Badollet, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Sewall, Samuel, elected to Congress, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+<li>Shays's Rebellion, an argument for Federalist party, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+<li>Sheffield, Lord, says Jay duped Grenville, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+<li>Sherman, John, on accounting in Treasury Department, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+<li>Sismondi, J. C. L. Simonde de, on paper money, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>praises Gallatin, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li>
+  <li>letter of Gallatin to, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Sitgreaves, Samuel, Federalist in Congress, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>on committee to draft address to Washington, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Slavery, resolutions concerning, in Pennsylvania legislature, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>petitions concerning, in Congress, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+  <li>negotiations concerning slave trade in treaty of Ghent, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+  <li>at Congress of Aix la Chapelle, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Smilie, John, represents Fayette County in Pennsylvania ratification convention, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>leads opposition to Constitution, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+  <li>in anti-Federalist convention, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+  <li>his career and friendship with Gallatin, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+  <li>in Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+  <li>member of state Senate, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  <li>at anti-excise convention, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+  <li>advises submission to law, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Smith, Isaac, on Committee on Finance, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+<li>Smith, John Augustine, invites Gallatin to join &ldquo;The Club,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_366">366</a></li>
+<li>Smith, Robert, head of faction of &ldquo;invisibles,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_295">295</a>
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>leaves cabinet, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Smith, Samuel, leads Maryland troops against Whiskey Insurrection, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>moves to continue non-intercourse, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+  <li>probably makes bargain to secure election of Jefferson, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+  <li>his inexplicable power over Jefferson and Madison, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Smith, William, educated at Geneva, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>Federalist in Congress, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+  <li>on Committee on Finance, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+  <li>controversy with Gallatin over increase of public debt, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Smithson, John, his bequest to United States, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></li>
+<li>Smithsonian Institution, connection of Gallatin with, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>
+<li>Southern States, Republican in 1800, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>refuse to support loan of 1813, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Spain, Pinckney's treaty with, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>danger of war with, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+  <li>peace with, urged by France, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+  <li>negotiations over its revolted colonies, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li>
+  <li>rupture with France in 1823, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Spurzheim, on Gallatin's brain, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></li>
+<li>Squier, E. G., member of Ethnological Society, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>
+<li>Staël, Madame de, interview of Lafayette with emperor at her house, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>letter of Gallatin to, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+  <li>expresses admiration for Gallatin, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Stephens, ----, member of Ethnological Society, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>
+<li>Stevens, Byam Kerby, marries Frances Gallatin, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>interest of Lafayette in, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></li>
+  <li>meets Lafayette, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Stevens, Colonel Ebenezer, Lafayette's chief of staff, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></li>
+<li>Stevens, John A., at free trade convention of 1831, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>member of &ldquo;The Club,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Stokely, ----, appeals to Whiskey insurgents, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+<li>Stuart, Gilbert, his portrait of Gallatin, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></li>
+<li>Swanwick, John, on Jay treaty debate, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+<li>Szelesegynski, ----, Polish refugee, helped by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Tahon, ----, keeps French café in Boston, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+<li>Talleyrand, Prince, demands bribe in X Y Z affair, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>makes overtures for reconciliation, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Taney, Roger B., removes deposits from bank, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>appointed chief justice, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+  <li>his reasons for the removal, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Texas, annexation of, protested against by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+<li>Throop, Governor, recommends University for training teachers, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></li>
+<li>Tracy, Destutt, his &ldquo;Economie Politique&rdquo; translated by Jefferson, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li>
+<li>Tracy, Uriah, leader of Federalists in House, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>taunts Gallatin with connection with Whiskey Rebellion, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+  <li>obliged to apologize, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Treasury Department, Hamilton's management of, attacked by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>resigned by Hamilton, taken by Wolcott, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+  <li>management of, supervised by Committee of Finance, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>-<a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+  <li>condition of, deplored by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+  <li>charged with arbitrary action, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+  <li>annual reports from, required by Congress, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+  <li>Morris's connection with, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>-<a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+  <li>organization under Hamilton, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+  <li>management by Wolcott, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>-<a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+  <li>appointment of Gallatin to, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+  <li>exalted idea of, held by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+  <li>difficulty of learning management of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+  <li>relieved of responsibility for other departments' expenditure, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+  <li>administration of, by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>-<a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+  <li>reports from, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+  <li>efforts of Gallatin to secure precision in, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+  <li>subsequent management of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+  <li>damaged by failure to re-charter bank, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+  <li>in panic of 1815, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+  <li>declined by Gallatin in 1816, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li>
+  <li>in panic of 1837, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>-<a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+  <li>sub-treasury system invented, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+  <li>aids resumption, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li>
+  <li>declined by Gallatin in 1843, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+  <li>absence of partisanship in Gallatin's appointments to, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Treaty of Ghent, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>-<a href="#Page_325">325</a> See Diplomatic History.</li>
+<li>Tripoli, war with, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>tribute to, preferred by Gallatin to war with, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Trist, N. P., negotiates treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+<li>Truxton, Captain, voted a medal by Congress, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+<li>Turner, Professor, member of Ethnological Society, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li>
+<li>Tyler, John, as president, offers Treasury portfolio to Gallatin, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>University, National, proposed by Jefferson, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>attempt to start one in New York, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></li>
+  <li>success prevented by clerical influence, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Van Buren, Martin, told by Gallatin of willingness to accept French
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>mission, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+  <li>manages caucus of Republican Congresssmen, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>
+  <li>letter of Gallatin to, withdrawing from nomination, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Van der Kemp, ----, Dutch commissioner to make commercial treaty, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li>
+<li>Verplanck, Gulian C., member of &ldquo;The Club,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
+<li>Virginia, claims of Savary against, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>Gallatin's opinion of society in, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+  <li>movement in, to secure amendment of Constitution, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+  <li>disunion threats in, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+  <li>ready to attack Federalists by force in 1801, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Voltaire, friendship with Gallatin family, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>writes verses for Madame Gallatin, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+  <li>influence over Albert Gallatin, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>Wainwright, Rev. Dr., member of &ldquo;The Club,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
+<li>War of 1812, estimates of Gallatin as to cost of operations in, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>preparation for, advocated by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+  <li>events leading to, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+  <li>questions at issue in, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+  <li>English hopes in, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+  <li>sack of Washington, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Ward, Samuel, member of &ldquo;The Club,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
+<li>Washington, Augustine, founder of Ohio Company, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+<li>Washington, George, his military inactivity in 1780, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>meets Gallatin in 1784, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+  <li>snubs him for forwardness, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+  <li>later wishes him to be his land agent, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+  <li>his election as president disconcerts anti-Federalists, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+  <li>unwilling to go to extremes against Whiskey Rebellion, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  <li>issues proclamation, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  <li>Randolph's opinion of his influence, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+  <li>combines conciliation with force, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+  <li>issues proclamation, calls out militia, and appoints commission to confer, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+  <li>accompanies army as far as Bedford, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+  <li>refuses to stop march of troops, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+  <li>dissuades troops from violence, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+  <li>pardons convicted offenders, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+  <li>reconstructs his cabinet, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>; his influence, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+  <li>convenes Senate to ratify Jay treaty, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+  <li>attacked by Bache, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+  <li>addresses Congress, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+  <li>his administration criticised in debate over reply in House, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>-<a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+  <li>refuses call of House for Jay treaty papers, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+  <li>refusal of House to adjourn on his birthday, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+  <li>obtains surrender of Western posts, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+  <li>issues Farewell Address, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+  <li>attacked by Giles, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+  <li>proposal of Gallatin concerning reply to his message, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+  <li>sends tricolor to Congress, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+  <li>attends Congress as lieutenant-general, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+  <li>his death announced by Marshall, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+  <li>invites Wolcott to succeed Hamilton, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+  <li>Gallatin's opinion of his character, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+  <li>and of his strong passions, 383 n.</li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Washington, Lawrence, founder of Ohio Company, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+<li>Washington city, removal of Congress to, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>sack of, by English, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Washington County, Pennsylvania, in Whiskey Insurrection, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>elects Gallatin to Congress, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Wayne, Anthony, makes treaty with Indians, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+<li>Webster, Daniel, his speech on northeastern boundary published by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>his manner of negotiating with Ashburton, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Webster, Pelatiah, describes Gallatin at Philadelphia in 1783, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+<li>Wellington, Lord, asked by cabinet to conquer a peace, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>advises cabinet not to insist on cession of territory, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li>
+  <li>expresses friendly feelings, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Wells, John, member of &ldquo;The Club,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
+<li>Westmoreland County, in Whiskey Insurrection, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+<li>Wheaton, Henry, requests Gallatin to furnish Humboldt with data on gold in United States, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+<li>Whiskey Insurrection, opposition to excise in Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>reasons for opposition, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+  <li>first meetings against excise in Washington County, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+  <li>combined meeting of four counties at Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+  <li>violence against inspectors, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+  <li>modification of law, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+  <li>second convention at Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+  <li>resolutions against collectors, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+  <li>petition to Congress, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+  <li>proclamation issued by Washington and cabinet, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  <li>arrests and riots, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+  <li>attempts to serve writs, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+  <li>rioting, burning of Marshall's house, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+  <li>flight of officers, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+  <li>meetings of distillers, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+  <li>efforts of Gallatin and others to prevent violence, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+  <li>stoppage of mails, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+  <li>call for meeting of militia, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+  <li>leaders of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+  <li>meeting of militia at Parkinson's Ferry, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+  <li>estimates of numbers, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+  <li>violence of feeling, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+  <li>renewed outrages, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+  <li>use of liberty poles, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+  <li>attitude of Gallatin toward, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+  <li>plans of Washington and Hamilton to suppress, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+  <li>proclamation against carrying arms, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+  <li>commissioners appointed, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+  <li>convention of distillers at Parkinson's Ferry, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+  <li>proposals to raise troops, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
+  <li>efforts of moderates, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+  <li>committee of sixty appointed, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+  <li>arrival of commissioners, their offer, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+  <li>conference of committee at Red Stone Old Fort, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+  <li>vote to accept terms, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+  <li>influence of Gallatin, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+  <li>meetings for submission in counties, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+  <li>apparent failure of terms of amnesty, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+  <li>threats of secession, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+  <li>Hamilton writes &ldquo;Tully&rdquo; letter, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+  <li>report of commissioners, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+  <li>proclamation calls out troops, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+  <li>march of militia, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+  <li>committee of sixty passes conciliatory resolutions, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+  <li>refusal of Washington to turn back, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+  <li>final meeting at Parkinson's Ferry votes entire submission, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+  <li>occupation of western counties by troops, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+  <li>arrest of rebels, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+  <li>journey of prisoners to Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+  <li>end of disturbances, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+  <li>return of army, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+  <li>confession of Gallatin, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+  <li>trial of prisoners, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+  <li>its effect on Federalist party, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+  <li>Gallatin taunted with participation in, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Wirt, William, letter of Jefferson to, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+<li>Wolcott, Oliver, succeeds Hamilton in Treasury Department, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>his situation deplored by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+  <li>complains to Hamilton of Republican opposition, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+  <li>complains of Gallatin's purpose to break down department, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+  <li>his career as Hamilton's successor, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>-<a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+  <li>his statement of a surplus denied by Gallatin, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+<li>Woodbury, Levi, reports extinction of debt, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;
+  <ul class="IX">
+  <li>then deplores its absence, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+  <li>alarmed at increase of circulation in 1836, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+  <li>begins sub-treasury system, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+  <li>promises to support resumption of payment by banks, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+  </ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+<li>X Y Z dispatches, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p style="text-align: center; font-size: 120%">The Riverside Press</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center; font-size: 80%">CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U. S. A.<br />
+ELECTROTYPED AND PRINTED BY<br />
+H. O. HOUGHTON AND CO.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Albert Gallatin, by John Austin Stevens
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ALBERT GALLATIN ***
+
+***** This file should be named 20873-h.htm or 20873-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/2/0/8/7/20873/
+
+Produced by Thomas Strong and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/20873-h/images/illus-003-1.jpg b/20873-h/images/illus-003-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0d5f773
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-h/images/illus-003-1.jpg
diff --git a/20873-h/images/illus-003-2.jpg b/20873-h/images/illus-003-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..de7e13c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-h/images/illus-003-2.jpg
diff --git a/20873-h/images/illus-004-1.jpg b/20873-h/images/illus-004-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1df2edd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-h/images/illus-004-1.jpg
diff --git a/20873-h/images/illus-117-1.jpg b/20873-h/images/illus-117-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d96780d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-h/images/illus-117-1.jpg
diff --git a/20873-h/images/illus-117-2.jpg b/20873-h/images/illus-117-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0805aff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-h/images/illus-117-2.jpg
diff --git a/20873-h/images/illus-257-1.jpg b/20873-h/images/illus-257-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b6d1bfb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-h/images/illus-257-1.jpg
diff --git a/20873-h/images/illus-257-2.jpg b/20873-h/images/illus-257-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f3f145d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-h/images/illus-257-2.jpg
diff --git a/20873-h/images/illus-335-1.jpg b/20873-h/images/illus-335-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c33c16a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-h/images/illus-335-1.jpg
diff --git a/20873-h/images/illus-335-2.jpg b/20873-h/images/illus-335-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0414f99
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-h/images/illus-335-2.jpg
diff --git a/20873-page-images/f001.png b/20873-page-images/f001.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3197ea7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/f001.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/f002.jpg b/20873-page-images/f002.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..462bd7e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/f002.jpg
diff --git a/20873-page-images/f003-image.jpg b/20873-page-images/f003-image.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..62603e6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/f003-image.jpg
diff --git a/20873-page-images/f003.png b/20873-page-images/f003.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..88d36d6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/f003.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/f004.png b/20873-page-images/f004.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e601c80
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/f004.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/f005.png b/20873-page-images/f005.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4b3b526
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/f005.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/f006.png b/20873-page-images/f006.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9cd244b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/f006.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/f007.png b/20873-page-images/f007.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6eaa6ea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/f007.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/f008.png b/20873-page-images/f008.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..01886b2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/f008.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/f009.png b/20873-page-images/f009.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..93ffe30
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/f009.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/f010.png b/20873-page-images/f010.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6e43dca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/f010.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/f011.png b/20873-page-images/f011.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..51798ab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/f011.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/f012.png b/20873-page-images/f012.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8ea2e75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/f012.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/f013.png b/20873-page-images/f013.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a52702c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/f013.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p001.png b/20873-page-images/p001.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4a14e85
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p001.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p002.png b/20873-page-images/p002.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2d5f7ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p002.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p003.png b/20873-page-images/p003.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d182b94
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p003.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p004.png b/20873-page-images/p004.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..31dcc06
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p004.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p005.png b/20873-page-images/p005.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a90e8d2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p005.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p006.png b/20873-page-images/p006.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2876e1a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p006.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p007.png b/20873-page-images/p007.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9fecc8c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p007.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p008.png b/20873-page-images/p008.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d101329
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p008.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p009.png b/20873-page-images/p009.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..59ed2cd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p009.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p010.png b/20873-page-images/p010.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5d838c9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p010.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p011.png b/20873-page-images/p011.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7ebf1d7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p011.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p012.png b/20873-page-images/p012.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fe41331
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p012.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p013.png b/20873-page-images/p013.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1a4be09
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p013.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p014.png b/20873-page-images/p014.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2297981
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p014.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p015.png b/20873-page-images/p015.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a6c1fec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p015.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p016.png b/20873-page-images/p016.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2fe0bd5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p016.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p017.png b/20873-page-images/p017.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..722cd7c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p017.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p018.png b/20873-page-images/p018.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..550cfd7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p018.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p019.png b/20873-page-images/p019.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8ca0808
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p019.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p020.png b/20873-page-images/p020.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..28101e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p020.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p021.png b/20873-page-images/p021.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a4c4628
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p021.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p022.png b/20873-page-images/p022.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e9ecec1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p022.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p023.png b/20873-page-images/p023.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b52d81a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p023.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p024.png b/20873-page-images/p024.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..028c0d1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p024.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p025.png b/20873-page-images/p025.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4306fff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p025.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p026.png b/20873-page-images/p026.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8c4a8b5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p026.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p027.png b/20873-page-images/p027.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..25e6c49
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p027.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p028.png b/20873-page-images/p028.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6b9d0ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p028.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p029.png b/20873-page-images/p029.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a33e675
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p029.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p030.png b/20873-page-images/p030.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fb6a387
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p030.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p031.png b/20873-page-images/p031.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0b87923
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p031.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p032.png b/20873-page-images/p032.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6cdf42c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p032.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p033.png b/20873-page-images/p033.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2aa6413
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p033.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p034.png b/20873-page-images/p034.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9c108c4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p034.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p035.png b/20873-page-images/p035.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6ce0270
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p035.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p036.png b/20873-page-images/p036.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b6fd63f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p036.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p037.png b/20873-page-images/p037.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4d4e74e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p037.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p038.png b/20873-page-images/p038.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c589ca0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p038.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p039.png b/20873-page-images/p039.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..870b505
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p039.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p040.png b/20873-page-images/p040.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..936306f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p040.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p041.png b/20873-page-images/p041.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..06bc101
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p041.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p042.png b/20873-page-images/p042.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..72a8b17
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p042.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p043.png b/20873-page-images/p043.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5a32a7f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p043.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p044.png b/20873-page-images/p044.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8a74d6c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p044.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p045.png b/20873-page-images/p045.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bb04c35
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p045.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p046.png b/20873-page-images/p046.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c84be36
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p046.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p047.png b/20873-page-images/p047.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b932e0f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p047.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p048.png b/20873-page-images/p048.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8c71d90
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p048.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p049.png b/20873-page-images/p049.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..576d4e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p049.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p050.png b/20873-page-images/p050.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0a891c9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p050.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p051.png b/20873-page-images/p051.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c09fdf6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p051.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p052.png b/20873-page-images/p052.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4bc49a9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p052.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p053.png b/20873-page-images/p053.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..13d09e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p053.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p054.png b/20873-page-images/p054.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a8cf958
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p054.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p055.png b/20873-page-images/p055.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..29f8d20
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p055.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p056.png b/20873-page-images/p056.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..24ac669
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p056.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p057.png b/20873-page-images/p057.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c64ad39
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p057.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p058.png b/20873-page-images/p058.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f052c0b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p058.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p059.png b/20873-page-images/p059.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2752b74
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p059.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p060.png b/20873-page-images/p060.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..21e03ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p060.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p061.png b/20873-page-images/p061.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..55fa0d5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p061.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p062.png b/20873-page-images/p062.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ad65cac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p062.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p063.png b/20873-page-images/p063.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8b07956
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p063.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p064.png b/20873-page-images/p064.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..96393b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p064.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p065.png b/20873-page-images/p065.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8a5d378
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p065.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p066.png b/20873-page-images/p066.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d70753a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p066.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p067.png b/20873-page-images/p067.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..687d730
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p067.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p068.png b/20873-page-images/p068.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bbbf8ae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p068.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p069.png b/20873-page-images/p069.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..909639f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p069.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p070.png b/20873-page-images/p070.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6d8c2c7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p070.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p071.png b/20873-page-images/p071.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..04c1e84
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p071.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p072.png b/20873-page-images/p072.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c0e82d2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p072.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p073.png b/20873-page-images/p073.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..14272eb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p073.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p074.png b/20873-page-images/p074.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ac52af0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p074.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p075.png b/20873-page-images/p075.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d53dc4e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p075.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p076.png b/20873-page-images/p076.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c30a897
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p076.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p077.png b/20873-page-images/p077.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..807f26c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p077.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p078.png b/20873-page-images/p078.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..481d9f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p078.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p079.png b/20873-page-images/p079.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6feb49b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p079.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p080.png b/20873-page-images/p080.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d3b9a91
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p080.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p081.png b/20873-page-images/p081.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..84e78e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p081.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p082.png b/20873-page-images/p082.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3079001
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p082.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p083.png b/20873-page-images/p083.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..59e70e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p083.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p084.png b/20873-page-images/p084.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..650de40
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p084.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p085.png b/20873-page-images/p085.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d415af2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p085.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p086.png b/20873-page-images/p086.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..20dc4f2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p086.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p087.png b/20873-page-images/p087.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3f5e965
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p087.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p088.png b/20873-page-images/p088.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..34fcf62
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p088.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p089.png b/20873-page-images/p089.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..37cfdd9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p089.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p090.png b/20873-page-images/p090.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..32e6fa7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p090.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p091.png b/20873-page-images/p091.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..87cd03f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p091.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p092.png b/20873-page-images/p092.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a1b3b87
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p092.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p093.png b/20873-page-images/p093.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..949295f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p093.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p094.png b/20873-page-images/p094.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..83635f9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p094.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p095.png b/20873-page-images/p095.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..abcaed6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p095.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p096.png b/20873-page-images/p096.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..04ccb5d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p096.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p097.png b/20873-page-images/p097.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c45c2a5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p097.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p098-insert.jpg b/20873-page-images/p098-insert.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..757517e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p098-insert.jpg
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p098.png b/20873-page-images/p098.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..549644b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p098.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p099.png b/20873-page-images/p099.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4fc08f1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p099.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p100.png b/20873-page-images/p100.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..adc1540
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p100.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p101.png b/20873-page-images/p101.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fed3efe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p101.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p102.png b/20873-page-images/p102.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7105e72
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p102.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p103.png b/20873-page-images/p103.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7beb514
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p103.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p104.png b/20873-page-images/p104.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c3839bf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p104.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p105.png b/20873-page-images/p105.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4fff137
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p105.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p106.png b/20873-page-images/p106.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1ecf248
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p106.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p107.png b/20873-page-images/p107.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6358812
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p107.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p108.png b/20873-page-images/p108.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..abde081
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p108.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p109.png b/20873-page-images/p109.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d526932
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p109.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p110.png b/20873-page-images/p110.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..472db75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p110.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p111.png b/20873-page-images/p111.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fd29d1b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p111.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p112.png b/20873-page-images/p112.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..53fc8db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p112.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p113.png b/20873-page-images/p113.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..04af69c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p113.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p114.png b/20873-page-images/p114.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..958074a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p114.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p115.png b/20873-page-images/p115.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0e94048
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p115.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p116.png b/20873-page-images/p116.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0e26493
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p116.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p117.png b/20873-page-images/p117.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9efbd60
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p117.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p118.png b/20873-page-images/p118.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d0f6057
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p118.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p119.png b/20873-page-images/p119.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..97615a6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p119.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p120.png b/20873-page-images/p120.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1089ab0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p120.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p121.png b/20873-page-images/p121.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dd9ceed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p121.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p122.png b/20873-page-images/p122.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a673022
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p122.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p123.png b/20873-page-images/p123.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..450bd9c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p123.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p124.png b/20873-page-images/p124.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6b0efee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p124.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p125.png b/20873-page-images/p125.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c004865
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p125.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p126.png b/20873-page-images/p126.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e0bcfd6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p126.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p127.png b/20873-page-images/p127.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e48c5d9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p127.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p128.png b/20873-page-images/p128.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..58129e9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p128.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p129.png b/20873-page-images/p129.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bbca909
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p129.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p130.png b/20873-page-images/p130.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7a6f6af
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p130.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p131.png b/20873-page-images/p131.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0c6d38c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p131.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p132.png b/20873-page-images/p132.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..346b68a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p132.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p133.png b/20873-page-images/p133.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d00b162
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p133.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p134.png b/20873-page-images/p134.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9fde49b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p134.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p135.png b/20873-page-images/p135.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..36298b1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p135.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p136.png b/20873-page-images/p136.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df9c8ab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p136.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p137.png b/20873-page-images/p137.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7a37c2a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p137.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p138.png b/20873-page-images/p138.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0433432
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p138.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p139.png b/20873-page-images/p139.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6a63957
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p139.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p140.png b/20873-page-images/p140.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..76d3f0d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p140.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p141.png b/20873-page-images/p141.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9b4888e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p141.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p142.png b/20873-page-images/p142.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8f1a314
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p142.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p143.png b/20873-page-images/p143.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b24bc8d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p143.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p144.png b/20873-page-images/p144.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..145255c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p144.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p145.png b/20873-page-images/p145.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3369024
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p145.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p146.png b/20873-page-images/p146.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0640cf9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p146.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p147.png b/20873-page-images/p147.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f071530
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p147.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p148.png b/20873-page-images/p148.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b620c8c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p148.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p149.png b/20873-page-images/p149.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e371674
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p149.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p150.png b/20873-page-images/p150.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f1ad5ed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p150.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p151.png b/20873-page-images/p151.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e755368
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p151.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p152.png b/20873-page-images/p152.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..42d0376
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p152.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p153.png b/20873-page-images/p153.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ffeca66
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p153.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p154.png b/20873-page-images/p154.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d45def5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p154.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p155.png b/20873-page-images/p155.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..594fa66
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p155.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p156.png b/20873-page-images/p156.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c5472bf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p156.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p157.png b/20873-page-images/p157.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ff72065
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p157.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p158.png b/20873-page-images/p158.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2458e53
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p158.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p159.png b/20873-page-images/p159.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dbc6a47
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p159.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p160.png b/20873-page-images/p160.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f8ba915
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p160.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p161.png b/20873-page-images/p161.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0d5b933
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p161.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p162.png b/20873-page-images/p162.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..94d1bd1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p162.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p163.png b/20873-page-images/p163.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..055c4a5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p163.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p164.png b/20873-page-images/p164.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1e25d58
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p164.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p165.png b/20873-page-images/p165.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f38eb47
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p165.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p166.png b/20873-page-images/p166.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..52e6ef0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p166.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p167.png b/20873-page-images/p167.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d46ed18
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p167.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p168.png b/20873-page-images/p168.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..edfc1f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p168.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p169.png b/20873-page-images/p169.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0eff30e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p169.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p170.png b/20873-page-images/p170.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..06c4e6e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p170.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p171.png b/20873-page-images/p171.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a5b4736
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p171.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p172.png b/20873-page-images/p172.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e660512
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p172.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p173.png b/20873-page-images/p173.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..17cabca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p173.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p174.png b/20873-page-images/p174.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..12fee0b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p174.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p175.png b/20873-page-images/p175.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..62f7a76
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p175.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p176.png b/20873-page-images/p176.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..469ec97
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p176.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p177.png b/20873-page-images/p177.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0a78e6a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p177.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p178.png b/20873-page-images/p178.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9025826
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p178.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p179.png b/20873-page-images/p179.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4ac7fc1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p179.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p180.png b/20873-page-images/p180.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9306d32
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p180.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p181.png b/20873-page-images/p181.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2cf0999
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p181.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p182.png b/20873-page-images/p182.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..49f0844
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p182.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p183.png b/20873-page-images/p183.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3454ae2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p183.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p184.png b/20873-page-images/p184.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e1bd335
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p184.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p185.png b/20873-page-images/p185.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1fa4340
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p185.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p186.png b/20873-page-images/p186.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9b8d6a5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p186.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p187.png b/20873-page-images/p187.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3ed5a76
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p187.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p188.png b/20873-page-images/p188.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..868fcbb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p188.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p189.png b/20873-page-images/p189.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..39dd391
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p189.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p190.png b/20873-page-images/p190.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9e1a6cb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p190.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p191.png b/20873-page-images/p191.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..032564e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p191.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p192.png b/20873-page-images/p192.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4f4771e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p192.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p193.png b/20873-page-images/p193.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3e3a394
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p193.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p194.jpg b/20873-page-images/p194.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c5d462a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p194.jpg
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p195.png b/20873-page-images/p195.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dcd87ab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p195.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p196.png b/20873-page-images/p196.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e5d1678
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p196.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p197.png b/20873-page-images/p197.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..89e365b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p197.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p198.png b/20873-page-images/p198.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..db42341
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p198.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p199.png b/20873-page-images/p199.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..689057f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p199.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p200.png b/20873-page-images/p200.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..22edde6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p200.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p201.png b/20873-page-images/p201.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c4d3720
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p201.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p202.png b/20873-page-images/p202.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f537947
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p202.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p203.png b/20873-page-images/p203.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1a01363
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p203.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p204.png b/20873-page-images/p204.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3004d11
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p204.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p205.png b/20873-page-images/p205.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f371d35
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p205.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p206.png b/20873-page-images/p206.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2352aff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p206.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p207.png b/20873-page-images/p207.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9f510af
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p207.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p208.png b/20873-page-images/p208.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..26705bd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p208.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p209.png b/20873-page-images/p209.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..742f0b7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p209.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p210.png b/20873-page-images/p210.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c4ac4b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p210.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p211.png b/20873-page-images/p211.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..06fe5ee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p211.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p212.png b/20873-page-images/p212.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f477454
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p212.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p213.png b/20873-page-images/p213.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d348907
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p213.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p214.png b/20873-page-images/p214.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cbd200d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p214.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p215.png b/20873-page-images/p215.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1ae6809
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p215.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p216.png b/20873-page-images/p216.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6b21a04
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p216.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p217.jpg b/20873-page-images/p217.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0b37b8c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p217.jpg
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p218.png b/20873-page-images/p218.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..925111f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p218.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p219.png b/20873-page-images/p219.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f085a59
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p219.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p220.png b/20873-page-images/p220.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d0ba97c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p220.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p221.png b/20873-page-images/p221.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a88629a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p221.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p222.png b/20873-page-images/p222.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..edf7351
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p222.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p223.png b/20873-page-images/p223.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7cdd36c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p223.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p224.png b/20873-page-images/p224.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..719182f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p224.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p225.png b/20873-page-images/p225.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a096d48
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p225.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p226.png b/20873-page-images/p226.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4d6a3c4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p226.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p227.png b/20873-page-images/p227.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f27c675
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p227.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p228.png b/20873-page-images/p228.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d0ee9d8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p228.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p229.png b/20873-page-images/p229.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e9c32a6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p229.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p230.png b/20873-page-images/p230.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7a92d78
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p230.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p231.png b/20873-page-images/p231.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2d2626d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p231.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p232.png b/20873-page-images/p232.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ef62875
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p232.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p233.png b/20873-page-images/p233.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f65da9b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p233.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p234.png b/20873-page-images/p234.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ae46fcf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p234.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p235.png b/20873-page-images/p235.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..70b996a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p235.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p236-insert.jpg b/20873-page-images/p236-insert.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bc53408
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p236-insert.jpg
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p236.png b/20873-page-images/p236.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..09ea2a8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p236.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p237.png b/20873-page-images/p237.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e1d1e63
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p237.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p238.png b/20873-page-images/p238.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fc627c2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p238.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p239.png b/20873-page-images/p239.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bf48704
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p239.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p240.png b/20873-page-images/p240.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f0998cb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p240.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p241.png b/20873-page-images/p241.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1b327bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p241.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p242.png b/20873-page-images/p242.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e473453
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p242.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p243.png b/20873-page-images/p243.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..96691b6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p243.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p244.png b/20873-page-images/p244.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7b3db60
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p244.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p245.png b/20873-page-images/p245.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1d361fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p245.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p246.png b/20873-page-images/p246.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d1ad502
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p246.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p247.png b/20873-page-images/p247.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e9361f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p247.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p248.png b/20873-page-images/p248.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..62c6f26
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p248.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p249.png b/20873-page-images/p249.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6e0fa84
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p249.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p250.png b/20873-page-images/p250.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7e1730f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p250.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p251.png b/20873-page-images/p251.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c11a75e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p251.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p252.png b/20873-page-images/p252.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..abec972
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p252.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p253.png b/20873-page-images/p253.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d44c94f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p253.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p254.png b/20873-page-images/p254.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..22fd9ac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p254.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p255.png b/20873-page-images/p255.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cde0e4c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p255.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p256.png b/20873-page-images/p256.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ff2caa1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p256.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p257.png b/20873-page-images/p257.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e9cd1a0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p257.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p258.png b/20873-page-images/p258.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7ffdec1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p258.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p259.png b/20873-page-images/p259.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7367062
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p259.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p260.png b/20873-page-images/p260.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c74bcc5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p260.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p261.png b/20873-page-images/p261.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6906956
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p261.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p262.png b/20873-page-images/p262.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a171723
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p262.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p263.png b/20873-page-images/p263.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d0fbbf9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p263.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p264.png b/20873-page-images/p264.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8782e10
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p264.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p265.png b/20873-page-images/p265.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..128d600
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p265.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p266.png b/20873-page-images/p266.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3f76c80
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p266.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p267.png b/20873-page-images/p267.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..937bfaf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p267.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p268.png b/20873-page-images/p268.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..07d91c8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p268.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p269.png b/20873-page-images/p269.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5df19f0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p269.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p270.png b/20873-page-images/p270.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..12a17c5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p270.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p271.png b/20873-page-images/p271.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3a0fb9f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p271.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p272.png b/20873-page-images/p272.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3c7caa9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p272.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p273.png b/20873-page-images/p273.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1dff203
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p273.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p274.png b/20873-page-images/p274.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d66ebed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p274.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p275.png b/20873-page-images/p275.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fa1375d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p275.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p276.png b/20873-page-images/p276.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6bfe745
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p276.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p277.png b/20873-page-images/p277.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7f7ded7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p277.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p278.png b/20873-page-images/p278.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a36750f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p278.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p279.png b/20873-page-images/p279.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..46d7b75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p279.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p280.png b/20873-page-images/p280.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4b3444f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p280.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p281.png b/20873-page-images/p281.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bdb8bcd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p281.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p282.png b/20873-page-images/p282.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4e28b91
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p282.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p283.png b/20873-page-images/p283.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5f6a667
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p283.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p284.png b/20873-page-images/p284.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4e4ed38
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p284.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p285.png b/20873-page-images/p285.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f4a54bd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p285.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p286.png b/20873-page-images/p286.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..febf321
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p286.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p287.png b/20873-page-images/p287.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8be49f6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p287.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p288.png b/20873-page-images/p288.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dc8d982
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p288.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p289.png b/20873-page-images/p289.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2b7731d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p289.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p290.png b/20873-page-images/p290.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8c7e694
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p290.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p291.png b/20873-page-images/p291.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..797b663
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p291.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p292.png b/20873-page-images/p292.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c5146aa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p292.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p293.png b/20873-page-images/p293.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2c6eae9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p293.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p294.png b/20873-page-images/p294.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..066412c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p294.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p295.png b/20873-page-images/p295.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f78e74f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p295.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p296.png b/20873-page-images/p296.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..514efc1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p296.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p297.png b/20873-page-images/p297.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7555152
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p297.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p298.png b/20873-page-images/p298.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6ed2667
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p298.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p299.png b/20873-page-images/p299.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6001f5b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p299.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p300.png b/20873-page-images/p300.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab6adf8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p300.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p301.png b/20873-page-images/p301.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..05ffd9d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p301.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p302.png b/20873-page-images/p302.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5e98a98
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p302.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p303.png b/20873-page-images/p303.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..333b059
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p303.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p304.png b/20873-page-images/p304.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a08673a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p304.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p305.png b/20873-page-images/p305.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8f227f0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p305.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p306.png b/20873-page-images/p306.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bc9be62
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p306.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p307.png b/20873-page-images/p307.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c0a6898
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p307.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p308.png b/20873-page-images/p308.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..191dc48
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p308.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p309.png b/20873-page-images/p309.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8fab274
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p309.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p310.png b/20873-page-images/p310.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3b72989
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p310.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p311.png b/20873-page-images/p311.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b7a4057
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p311.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p312-insert.jpg b/20873-page-images/p312-insert.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..416e0e5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p312-insert.jpg
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p312.png b/20873-page-images/p312.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fae7b4f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p312.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p313.png b/20873-page-images/p313.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cb570ea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p313.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p314.png b/20873-page-images/p314.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0b5a021
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p314.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p315.png b/20873-page-images/p315.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c7c9919
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p315.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p316.png b/20873-page-images/p316.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b15e820
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p316.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p317.png b/20873-page-images/p317.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6ecf72e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p317.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p318.png b/20873-page-images/p318.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ce9573e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p318.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p319.png b/20873-page-images/p319.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a1d9949
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p319.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p320.png b/20873-page-images/p320.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e546112
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p320.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p321.png b/20873-page-images/p321.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..54f56f9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p321.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p322.png b/20873-page-images/p322.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c11f572
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p322.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p323.png b/20873-page-images/p323.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8c2fb78
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p323.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p324.png b/20873-page-images/p324.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..86e5775
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p324.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p325.png b/20873-page-images/p325.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bdc4d73
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p325.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p326.png b/20873-page-images/p326.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..78a1649
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p326.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p327.png b/20873-page-images/p327.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..be4af06
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p327.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p328.png b/20873-page-images/p328.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fad4099
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p328.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p329.png b/20873-page-images/p329.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a149baa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p329.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p330.png b/20873-page-images/p330.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..16b7987
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p330.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p331.png b/20873-page-images/p331.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d46afee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p331.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p332.png b/20873-page-images/p332.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f35456c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p332.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p333.png b/20873-page-images/p333.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..efb240d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p333.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p334.png b/20873-page-images/p334.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7d47fe6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p334.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p335.png b/20873-page-images/p335.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d7a187f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p335.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p336.png b/20873-page-images/p336.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7d89081
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p336.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p337.png b/20873-page-images/p337.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..acdd231
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p337.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p338.png b/20873-page-images/p338.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ac0f607
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p338.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p339.png b/20873-page-images/p339.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8ad17e9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p339.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p340.png b/20873-page-images/p340.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b475c48
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p340.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p341.png b/20873-page-images/p341.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3fb00f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p341.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p342.png b/20873-page-images/p342.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..817b70e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p342.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p343.png b/20873-page-images/p343.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0fd0d6a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p343.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p344.png b/20873-page-images/p344.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4889f5e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p344.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p345.png b/20873-page-images/p345.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dfe9888
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p345.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p346.png b/20873-page-images/p346.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..40574ff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p346.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p347.png b/20873-page-images/p347.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..916f583
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p347.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p348.png b/20873-page-images/p348.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c361578
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p348.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p349.png b/20873-page-images/p349.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..11d2a50
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p349.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p350.png b/20873-page-images/p350.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5a08c22
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p350.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p351.png b/20873-page-images/p351.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7fe931f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p351.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p352.png b/20873-page-images/p352.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6cb02d8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p352.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p353.png b/20873-page-images/p353.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..731cd96
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p353.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p354.png b/20873-page-images/p354.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..db356f4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p354.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p355.png b/20873-page-images/p355.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..719428f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p355.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p356.png b/20873-page-images/p356.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..736a186
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p356.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p357.png b/20873-page-images/p357.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6c2311e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p357.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p358.png b/20873-page-images/p358.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f1d37f5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p358.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p359.png b/20873-page-images/p359.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5d68f39
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p359.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p360.png b/20873-page-images/p360.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a421d14
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p360.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p361.png b/20873-page-images/p361.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3b20899
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p361.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p362.png b/20873-page-images/p362.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8cbacbe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p362.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p363.png b/20873-page-images/p363.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..73e0c9b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p363.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p364.png b/20873-page-images/p364.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cb658b2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p364.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p365.png b/20873-page-images/p365.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4bc9808
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p365.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p366.png b/20873-page-images/p366.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b38c719
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p366.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p367.png b/20873-page-images/p367.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..86a3691
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p367.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p368.png b/20873-page-images/p368.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8db9934
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p368.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p369.png b/20873-page-images/p369.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7fd9007
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p369.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p370.png b/20873-page-images/p370.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..39d85cf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p370.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p371.png b/20873-page-images/p371.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0471759
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p371.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p372.png b/20873-page-images/p372.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..77dbf7c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p372.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p373.png b/20873-page-images/p373.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4409981
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p373.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p374.png b/20873-page-images/p374.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..39e46f3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p374.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p375.png b/20873-page-images/p375.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..48a7c68
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p375.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p376.png b/20873-page-images/p376.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..39ecd73
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p376.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p377.png b/20873-page-images/p377.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..07e85a9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p377.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p378.png b/20873-page-images/p378.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..90673a1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p378.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p379.png b/20873-page-images/p379.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c483468
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p379.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p380.png b/20873-page-images/p380.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6bf109b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p380.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p381.png b/20873-page-images/p381.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..53a8b9a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p381.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p382.png b/20873-page-images/p382.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a59eaa5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p382.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p383.png b/20873-page-images/p383.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c605a68
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p383.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p384.png b/20873-page-images/p384.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4f0efcc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p384.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p385.png b/20873-page-images/p385.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f820835
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p385.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p386.png b/20873-page-images/p386.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c4ced44
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p386.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p387.png b/20873-page-images/p387.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b1a43db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p387.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p388.png b/20873-page-images/p388.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e5cee94
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p388.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p389.png b/20873-page-images/p389.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aeec714
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p389.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p390.png b/20873-page-images/p390.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7eae953
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p390.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p391.png b/20873-page-images/p391.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f195fb0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p391.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p392.png b/20873-page-images/p392.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..baddcb0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p392.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p393.png b/20873-page-images/p393.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4dddffb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p393.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p394.png b/20873-page-images/p394.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ff96c5a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p394.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p395.png b/20873-page-images/p395.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7741e0c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p395.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p396.png b/20873-page-images/p396.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..504a7c0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p396.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p397.png b/20873-page-images/p397.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bc6d8b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p397.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p398.png b/20873-page-images/p398.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4feb170
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p398.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p399.png b/20873-page-images/p399.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..02f3810
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p399.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p400.png b/20873-page-images/p400.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8b195a6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p400.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p401.png b/20873-page-images/p401.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3e3868c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p401.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p402.png b/20873-page-images/p402.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7957868
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p402.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p403.png b/20873-page-images/p403.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..30c6cf3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p403.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p404.png b/20873-page-images/p404.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b3e36ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p404.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p405.png b/20873-page-images/p405.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6221a11
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p405.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p406.png b/20873-page-images/p406.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..66f7c75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p406.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p407.png b/20873-page-images/p407.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1a4b153
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p407.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p408.png b/20873-page-images/p408.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..64f88ab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p408.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p409.png b/20873-page-images/p409.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0fc6a89
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p409.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p410.png b/20873-page-images/p410.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..488ee1e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p410.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p411.png b/20873-page-images/p411.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..91a6b75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p411.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p412.png b/20873-page-images/p412.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dce5353
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p412.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p413.png b/20873-page-images/p413.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6e24b87
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p413.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p414.png b/20873-page-images/p414.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6ec4ad2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p414.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p415.png b/20873-page-images/p415.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..06f0ac5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p415.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p416.png b/20873-page-images/p416.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2fcbcbd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p416.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p417.png b/20873-page-images/p417.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7457640
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p417.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p418.png b/20873-page-images/p418.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e7aec25
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p418.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p419.png b/20873-page-images/p419.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e50b712
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p419.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p420.png b/20873-page-images/p420.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..eb1c6eb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p420.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p421.png b/20873-page-images/p421.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..60613b2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p421.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p422.png b/20873-page-images/p422.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..effdb6d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p422.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p423.png b/20873-page-images/p423.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1585d57
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p423.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p424.png b/20873-page-images/p424.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..70cabee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p424.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p425.png b/20873-page-images/p425.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1ae1d41
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p425.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p426.png b/20873-page-images/p426.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0a7eaee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p426.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p427.png b/20873-page-images/p427.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..db0a52a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p427.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p428.png b/20873-page-images/p428.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e66e941
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p428.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p429.png b/20873-page-images/p429.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b19661e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p429.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p430.png b/20873-page-images/p430.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..09341e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p430.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p431.png b/20873-page-images/p431.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..76e5564
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p431.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p432.png b/20873-page-images/p432.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fce27b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p432.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p433.png b/20873-page-images/p433.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..137248b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p433.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p434.png b/20873-page-images/p434.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..59de863
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p434.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p435.png b/20873-page-images/p435.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4718309
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p435.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p436.png b/20873-page-images/p436.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5440e4b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p436.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p437.png b/20873-page-images/p437.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..21f4dfd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p437.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p438.png b/20873-page-images/p438.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..25429cb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p438.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p439.png b/20873-page-images/p439.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2568f7a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p439.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p440.png b/20873-page-images/p440.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7d6fe2a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p440.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p441.png b/20873-page-images/p441.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d99f33f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p441.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p442.png b/20873-page-images/p442.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0167149
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p442.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p443.png b/20873-page-images/p443.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5b1d6fd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p443.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p444.png b/20873-page-images/p444.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f77b2c2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p444.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p445.png b/20873-page-images/p445.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c484748
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p445.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p446.png b/20873-page-images/p446.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b445aca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p446.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p447.png b/20873-page-images/p447.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ef5322f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p447.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p448.png b/20873-page-images/p448.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aba3976
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p448.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p449.png b/20873-page-images/p449.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9d67136
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p449.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p450.png b/20873-page-images/p450.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d79dcb6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p450.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p451.png b/20873-page-images/p451.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..533b70b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p451.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p452.png b/20873-page-images/p452.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ef61727
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p452.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p453.png b/20873-page-images/p453.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ebb250b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p453.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p454.png b/20873-page-images/p454.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dd61410
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p454.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p455.png b/20873-page-images/p455.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7243426
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p455.png
diff --git a/20873-page-images/p456.png b/20873-page-images/p456.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..275eb9a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873-page-images/p456.png
diff --git a/20873.txt b/20873.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..919ad58
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,13051 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Albert Gallatin, by John Austin Stevens
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Albert Gallatin
+       American Statesmen Series, Vol. XIII
+
+Author: John Austin Stevens
+
+Release Date: March 22, 2007 [EBook #20873]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ALBERT GALLATIN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Thomas Strong and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Standard Library Edition
+
+AMERICAN STATESMEN
+
+EDITED BY
+
+JOHN T. MORSE, JR.
+
+IN THIRTY-TWO VOLUMES VOL. XIII.
+
+THE JEFFERSONIAN DEMOCRACY
+
+ALBERT GALLATIN
+
+[Illustration: Albert Gallatin]
+
+American Statesmen
+
+STANDARD LIBRARY EDITION
+
+[Illustration: The Home of Albert Gallatin]
+
+HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO.
+
+American Statesmen
+
+ALBERT GALLATIN
+
+BY
+
+JOHN AUSTIN STEVENS
+
+BOSTON AND NEW YORK
+HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY
+The Riverside Press, Cambridge
+
+Copyright, 1883 and 1898,
+BY HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO.
+
+_All rights reserved._
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Every generation demands that history shall be rewritten. This is not
+alone because it requires that the work should be adapted to its own
+point of view, but because it is instinctively seeking those lines which
+connect the problems and lessons of the past with its own questions and
+circumstances. If it were not for the existence of lines of this kind,
+history might be entertaining, but would have little real value. The
+more numerous they are between the present and any earlier period, the
+more valuable is, for us, the history of that period. Such
+considerations establish an especial interest just at present in the
+life of Gallatin.
+
+The Monroe Doctrine has recently been the pivot of American
+statesmanship. With that doctrine Mr. Gallatin had much to do, both as
+minister to France and envoy to Great Britain. Indeed, in 1818, some
+years before the declaration of that doctrine, when the Spanish colonies
+of South America were in revolt, he declared that the United States
+would not even aid France in a mediation. Later, in May, 1823, six
+months before the famous message of President Monroe, Mr. Gallatin had
+already uttered its idea; when about leaving Paris, on his return from
+the French mission, he said to Chateaubriand, the French minister of
+foreign affairs (May 13, 1823): "The United States would undoubtedly
+preserve their neutrality, provided it were respected, and avoid any
+interference with the politics of Europe.... On the other hand, they
+would not suffer others to interfere against the emancipation of
+America." With characteristic vanity Canning said that it was he himself
+who "called the new world into existence to redress the balance of the
+old." Yet precisely this had already for a long while been a cardinal
+point of the policy of the United States. So early as 1808, Jefferson,
+alluding to the disturbed condition of the Spanish colonies, said: "We
+consider their interest and ours as the same, and that the object of
+both must be to exclude all European influence in this hemisphere."
+
+Matters of equal interest are involved in the study of Mr. Gallatin's
+actions and opinions in matters of finance. Every one knows that he
+ranks among the distinguished financiers of the world, and problems
+which he had to consider are still agitating the present generation. He
+was opposed alike to a national debt and to paper money. Had the
+metallic basis of the United States been adequate, he would have
+accepted no other circulating medium, and would have consented to the
+use of paper money only for purposes of exchange and remittance. In 1830
+he urged the restriction of paper money to notes of one hundred dollars
+each, which were to be issued by the government. Obviously these must be
+used chiefly for transmitting funds, and would be of little use for the
+daily transactions of the people. Yet even this concession was due to
+the fact that the United States was then a debtor country, and so late
+as 1839, as Mr. Gallatin said, "specie was a foreign product." For
+subsidiary money he favored silver coins at eighty-five per cent. of the
+dollar value, a sufficient alloy to hold them in the country. Silver was
+then the circulating medium of the world, the people's pocket money, and
+gold was the basis and the solvent of foreign exchanges.
+
+Great interest attaches to the application of some other of Gallatin's
+financial principles to more modern problems; and a careful study of his
+papers may fairly enable us to form a few conclusions. It may be safely
+said that he would not have favored a national bank currency based on
+government bonds. This, however, would not have been because of any
+objection to the currency itself, but because the scheme would insure
+the continuance of a national debt. He was too practical, also, not to
+see that the ultimate security is the faith of the government, and that
+no filtering of that responsibility through private banks could do
+otherwise than injure it. Further, it is reasonably safe to say that he
+would favor the withdrawal both of national bank notes and of United
+States notes, the greenbacks so-called; and that he would consent to the
+use of paper only in the form of certificates directly representing the
+precious metals, gold and silver; also that he would limit the use of
+silver to its actual handling by the people in daily transactions. He
+would feel safe to disregard the fluctuations of the intrinsic value of
+silver, when used in this limited way as a subordinate currency, on the
+ground that the stamp of the United States was sufficient for conferring
+the needed value, when the obligation was only to maintain the parity,
+not of the silver, but of the coin, with gold. He understood that, in
+the case of a currency which is merely subordinate, parity arises from
+the guaranty of the government, and not from the quality of the coin;
+and that only such excess of any subordinate currency as is not needed
+for use in daily affairs can be presented for redemption. This
+principle, well understood by him, is recognized in European systems,
+wherein the minimum of circulation is recognized as a maximum limit of
+uncovered issues of paper. The circulation of silver, or of
+certificates based upon it, comes within the same rule.
+
+At the time of the publication of this volume objection was taken to the
+author's statement that, until the publication of Gallatin's writings,
+his fame as a statesman and political leader was a mere tradition. Yet
+in point of fact, not only is his name hardly mentioned by the early
+biographers of Jefferson, Madison, and J. Q. Adams, but even by the
+later writers in this very Series, his work, varied and important as it
+was, has been given but scant notice. The historians of the United
+States, and those who have made a specialty of the study of political
+parties, have been alike indifferent or derelict in their investigations
+to such a degree that it required months of original research in the
+annals of Congress to ascertain Gallatin's actual relations towards the
+Federalist party which he helped to overthrow, and towards the
+Republican party which he did so much to found, and of which he became
+the ablest champion, in Congress by debate, and in the cabinet by
+administration.
+
+Invited by the publishers of the Statesmen Series to bring this study
+"up to date," the author has found no important changes to make in his
+work as he first prepared it. In the original investigation every source
+of information was carefully explored, and no new sources have since
+then been discovered. Mr. Gallatin's writings, carefully preserved in
+originals and copies, and well arranged, supplied the details; while the
+family traditions, with which the author was familiar, indicated the
+objects to be obtained. But so wide was the general field of Mr.
+Gallatin's career, so varied were his interests in all that pertained to
+humanity, philanthropy, and science, and so extensive were his relations
+with the leaders of European and American thought and action, that the
+subject could only be treated on the broadest basis. With this apology
+this study of one of the most interesting characters of American life is
+again commended to the indulgence of the American people.
+
+NEWPORT, April, 1898.
+
+CONTENTS
+
+CHAP.                                                     PAGE
+
+   I. EARLY LIFE                                            1
+
+  II. PENNSYLVANIA Legislature                             32
+
+ III. UNITED STATES SENATE                                 56
+
+  IV. THE WHISKEY INSURRECTION                             67
+
+   V. MEMBER OF CONGRESS                                   97
+
+  VI. SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY                           170
+
+ VII. IN THE CABINET                                      279
+
+VIII. IN DIPLOMACY                                        301
+
+  IX. CANDIDATE FOR THE VICE-PRESIDENCY                   355
+
+   X. SOCIETY--LITERATURE--SCIENCE                        361
+
+INDEX                                                     391
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+ALBERT GALLATIN                                   _Frontispiece_
+
+From the original painting by Gilbert Stuart, in the
+possession of Frederic W. Stevens, Esq., New York, N. Y.
+
+Autograph from the Chamberlain collection, Boston
+Public Library.
+
+The vignette of "Friendship Hill," Mr. Gallatin's
+home at New Geneva, Pa., is from a photograph.
+
+                                                            Page
+
+ROBERT GOODLOE HARPER                               _facing_ 98
+
+From a painting by St. Memin, in the possession of
+Harper's granddaughter, Mrs. William C. Pennington,
+Baltimore, Md.
+
+Autograph from a MS. in the New York Public
+Library, Lenox Building.
+
+ALEXANDER J. DALLAS                                _facing_ 236
+
+From the original painting by Gilbert Stuart, in the
+possession of Mrs. W. H. Emory, Washington, D. C.
+
+Autograph from the Chamberlain collection, Boston
+Public Library.
+
+JAMES A. BAYARD                                    _facing_ 312
+
+From a painting by Wertmueller, owned by the late
+Thomas F. Bayard, Wilmington, Del.
+
+Autograph from the Chamberlain collection, Boston
+Public Library.
+
+ALBERT GALLATIN
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+EARLY LIFE
+
+
+Of all European-born citizens who have risen to fame in the political
+service of the United States, Albert Gallatin is the most distinguished.
+His merit in legislation, administration, and diplomacy is generally
+recognized, and he is venerated by men of science on both continents.
+Not, however, until the publication of his writings was the extent of
+his influence upon the political life and growth of the country other
+than a vague tradition. Independence and nationality were achieved by
+the Revolution, in which he bore a slight and unimportant part; his
+place in history is not, therefore, among the founders of the Republic,
+but foremost in the rank of those early American statesmen, to whom it
+fell to interpret and administer the organic laws which the founders
+declared and the people ratified in the Constitution of the United
+States. A study of his life shows that, from the time of the peace until
+his death, his influence, either by direct action or indirect counsel,
+may be traced through the history of the country.
+
+The son of Jean Gallatin and his wife, Sophie Albertine Rollaz, he was
+born in the city of Geneva on January 29, 1761, and was baptized by the
+name of Abraham Alfonse Albert Gallatin. The name Abraham he received
+from his grandfather, but it was early dropped, and he was always known
+by his matronymic Albert. The Gallatin family held great influence in
+the Swiss Republic, and from the organization of the State contributed
+numerous members to its magistracy; others adopted the military
+profession, and served after the manner of their country in the Swiss
+contingents of foreign armies. The immediate relatives of Albert
+Gallatin were concerned in trade. Abraham, his grandfather, and Jean,
+his father, were partners. The latter dying in 1765, his widow assumed
+his share in the business. She died in March, 1770, leaving two
+children,--Albert, then nine years of age, and an invalid daughter who
+died a few years later. The loss to the orphan boy was lessened, if not
+compensated, by the care of a maiden lady--Mademoiselle Pictet--who had
+taken him into her charge at his father's death. This lady, whose
+affection never failed him, was the intimate friend of his mother as
+well as a distant relative of his father. Young Gallatin remained in
+this kind care until January, 1773, when he was sent to a
+boarding-school, and in August, 1775, to the academy of Geneva, from
+which he was graduated in May, 1779. The expenses of his education were
+in great part met by the trustees of the Bourse Gallatin,--a sum left in
+1699 by a member of the family, of which the income was to be applied to
+its necessities. The course of study at the academy was confined to
+Latin and Greek. These were taught, to use the words of Mr. Gallatin,
+"Latin thoroughly, Greek much neglected." Fortunately his preliminary
+home training had been careful, and he left the academy the first in his
+class in mathematics, natural philosophy, and Latin translation. French,
+a language in general use at Geneva, was of course familiar to him.
+English he also studied. He is not credited with special proficiency in
+history, but his teacher in this branch was Muller, the distinguished
+historian, and the groundwork of his information was solid. No American
+statesman has shown more accurate knowledge of the facts of history, or
+a more profound insight into its philosophy, than Mr. Gallatin.
+
+Education, however, is not confined to instruction, nor is the influence
+of an academy to be measured by the extent of its curriculum, or the
+proficiency of its students, but rather by its general tone, moral and
+intellectual. The Calvinism of Geneva, narrow in its religious sense,
+was friendly to the spread of knowledge; and had this not been the case,
+the side influences of Roman Catholicism on the one hand, and the
+liberal spirit of the age on the other, would have tempered its
+exclusive tendency.
+
+While the academy seems to have sent out few men of extraordinary
+eminence, its influence upon society was happy. Geneva was the resort of
+distinguished foreigners. Princes and nobles from Germany and the north
+of Europe, lords and gentlemen from England, and numerous Americans went
+thither to finish their education. Of these Mr. Gallatin has left
+mention of Francis Kinloch and William Smith, who later represented
+South Carolina in the Congress of the United States; Smith was
+afterwards minister to Portugal; Colonel Laurens, son of the president
+of Congress, and special envoy to France during the war of the American
+Revolution; the two Penns, proprietors of Pennsylvania; Franklin Bache,
+grandson of Dr. Franklin; and young Johannot, grandson of Dr. Cooper of
+Boston. Yet no one of these followed the academic course. To use again
+the words of Mr. Gallatin, "It was the Geneva society which they
+cultivated, aided by private teachers in every branch, with whom Geneva
+was abundantly supplied." "By that influence," he says, he was himself
+"surrounded, and derived more benefit from that source than from
+attendance on academical lectures." Considered in its broader sense,
+education is quite as much a matter of association as of scholarly
+acquirement. The influence of the companion is as strong and enduring as
+that of the master. Of this truth the career of young Gallatin is a
+notable example. During his academic course he formed ties of intimate
+friendship with three of his associates. These were Henri Serre, Jean
+Badollet, and Etienne Dumont. This attachment was maintained unimpaired
+throughout their lives, notwithstanding the widely different stations
+which they subsequently filled. Serre and Badollet are only remembered
+from their connection with Gallatin. Dumont was of different mould. He
+was the friend of Mirabeau, the disciple and translator of Bentham,--a
+man of elegant acquirement, but, in the judgment of Gallatin, "without
+original genius." De Lolme was in the class above Gallatin. He had such
+facility in the acquisition of languages that he was able to write his
+famous work on the English Constitution after the residence of a single
+year in England. Pictet, Gallatin's relative, afterwards celebrated as a
+naturalist, excelled all his fellows in physical science.
+
+During his last year at the academy Gallatin was engaged in the tuition
+of a nephew of Mademoiselle Pictet, but the time soon arrived when he
+felt called upon to choose a career. His state was one of comparative
+dependence, and the small patrimony which he inherited would not pass to
+his control until he should reach his twenty-fifth year,--the period
+assigned for his majority. It would be hardly just to say that he was
+ambitious. Personal distinction was never an active motor in his life.
+Even his later honors, thick and fast though they fell, were rather
+thrust upon than sought by him. But his nature was proud and sensitive,
+and he chafed under personal control. The age was restless. The spirit
+of philosophic inquiry, no longer confined within scholastic limits, was
+spreading far and wide. From the banks of the Neva to the shores of the
+Mediterranean, the people of Europe were uneasy and expectant. Men
+everywhere felt that the social system was threatened with a cataclysm.
+What would emerge from the general deluge none could foresee. Certainly,
+the last remains of the old feudality would be engulfed forever. Nowhere
+was this more thoroughly believed than at the home of Rousseau. Under
+the shadow of the Alps, every breeze from which was free, the Genevese
+philosopher had written his "Contrat social," and invited the rulers and
+the ruled to a reorganization of their relations to each other and to
+the world. But nowhere, also, was the conservative opposition to the new
+theories more intense than here.
+
+The mind of young Gallatin was essentially philosophic. The studies in
+which he excelled in early life were in this direction, and at no time
+in his career did he display any emotional enthusiasm on subjects of
+general concern. But, on the other hand, he was unflinching in his
+adherence to abstract principle. Though not carried away by the
+extravagance of Rousseau, he was thoroughly discontented with the
+political state of Geneva. He was by early conviction a Democrat in the
+broadest sense of the term. Indeed, it would be difficult to find a more
+perfect example of what it was then the fashion to call a _citoyen du
+monde_. His family seem, on the contrary, to have been always
+conservative, and attached to the aristocratic and oligarchic system to
+which they had, for centuries, owed their position and advancement.
+
+Abraham Gallatin, his grandfather, lived at Pregny on the northern shore
+of the lake, in close neighborhood to Ferney, the retreat of Voltaire.
+Susanne Vaudenet Gallatin, his grandmother, was a woman of the world, a
+lady of strong character, and the period was one when the influence of
+women was paramount in the affairs of men; among her friends she counted
+Voltaire, with whom her husband and herself were on intimate relations,
+and Frederick, Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, with whom she corresponded. So
+sincere was this latter attachment that the sovereign sent his portrait
+to her in 1776, an honor which, at her instance, Voltaire acknowledged
+in a verse characteristic of himself and of the time:--
+
+         "J'ai baise ce portrait charmant,
+          Je vous l'avourai sans mystere,
+          Mes filles en out fait autant,
+          Mais c'est un secret qu'il faut taire.
+          Vous trouverez bon qu'une mere
+          Vous parle un peu plus hardiment,
+          Et vous verrez qu'egalement,
+          En tous les temps vous savez plaire."
+
+At Pregny young Gallatin was the constant guest of his nearest relatives
+on his father's side, and he was a frequent visitor at Ferney. Those
+whose fortune it has been to sit at the feet of Mr. Gallatin himself,
+in the serene atmosphere of his study, after his retirement from active
+participation in public concerns, may well imagine the influence which
+the rays of the prismatic character of Voltaire must have had upon the
+philosophic and receptive mind of the young student.
+
+There was and still is a solidarity in European families which can
+scarcely be said to have ever had a counterpart in those of England, and
+of which hardly a vestige remains in American social life. The fate of
+each member was a matter of interest to all, and the honor of the name
+was of common concern. Among the Gallatins, the grandmother, Madame
+Gallatin-Vaudenet, as she was called, appears to have been the
+controlling spirit. To her the profession of the youthful scion of the
+stock was a matter of family consequence, and she had already marked out
+his future course. The Gallatins, as has been already stated, had
+acquired honor in the military service of foreign princes. Her friend,
+the Landgrave of Hesse, was engaged in supporting the uncertain fortunes
+of the British army in America with a large military contingent, and she
+had only to ask to obtain for her grandson the high commission of
+lieutenant-colonel of one of the regiments of Hessian mercenaries. To
+the offer made to young Gallatin, and urged with due authority, he
+replied, that "he would never serve a tyrant;" a want of respect which
+was answered by a cuff on the ear. This incident determined his career.
+Whether it crystallized long-cherished fancies into sudden action, or
+whether it was of itself the initial cause of his resolve, is now mere
+matter of conjecture; probably the former. The three friends, Gallatin,
+Badollet, and Serre seem to have amused their leisure in planning an
+ideal existence in some wilderness. America offered a boundless field
+for the realization of such dreams, and the spice of adventure could be
+had for the seeking. Here was the forest primeval in its original
+grandeur. Here the Indian roamed undisputed master; not the tutored
+Huron of Voltaire's tale, but the savage of torch and tomahawk. The
+continent was as yet unexplored. In uncertainty as to motives for man's
+action the French magistrate always searches for the woman,--"cherchez
+la femme!" One single allusion in a letter written to Badollet, in 1783,
+shows that there was a woman in Gallatin's horoscope. Who she was, what
+her relation to him, or what influence she had upon his actions, nowhere
+appears. He only says that besides Mademoiselle Pictet there was one
+friend, "une amie," at Geneva, from whom a permanent separation would be
+hard.
+
+Confiding his purpose to his friend Serre, Gallatin easily persuaded
+this ardent youth to join him in his venturesome journey, and on April
+1, 1780, the two secretly left Geneva. It certainly was no burning
+desire to aid the Americans in their struggle for independence, such as
+had stirred the generous soul of Lafayette, that prompted this act. In
+later life he repeatedly disclaimed any such motive. It was rather a
+longing for personal independence, for freedom from the trammels of a
+society in which he had little faith or interest. Nor were his political
+opinions at this time matured. He had a just pride in the Swiss Republic
+as a free State (Etat libre), and his personal bias was towards the
+"Negatif" party, as those were called who maintained the authority of
+the Upper Council (Petit Conseil) to reject the demands of the people.
+To this oligarchic party his family belonged. In a letter written three
+years later, he confesses that he was "Negatif" when he abandoned his
+home, and conveys the idea that his emigration was an experiment, a
+search for a system of government in accordance with his abstract
+notions of natural justice and political right. To use his own words, he
+came to America to "drink in a love for independence in the freest
+country of the universe." But there was some method in this madness. The
+rash scheme of emigration had a practical side; land speculation and
+commerce were to be the foundation and support of the settlement in the
+wilderness where they would realize their political Utopia.
+
+From Geneva the young adventurers hurried to Nantes, on the coast of
+France, where Gallatin soon received letters from his family, who seem
+to have neglected nothing that could contribute to their comfort or
+advantage. Monsieur P. M. Gallatin, the guardian of Albert, a distant
+relative in an elder branch of the family, addressed him a letter
+which, in its moderation, dignity, and kindness, is a model of
+well-tempered severity and reproach. It expressed the pain Mademoiselle
+Pictet had felt at his unceremonious departure, and his own affliction
+at the ingratitude of one to whom he had never refused a request.
+Finally, as the trustee of his estate till his majority, the guardian
+assures the errant youth that he will aid him with pecuniary resources
+as far as possible, without infringing upon the capital, and within the
+sworn obligation of his trust. Letters of recommendation to
+distinguished Americans were also forwarded, and in these it is found,
+to the high credit of the family, that no distinction was made between
+the two young men, although Serre seems to have been considered as the
+originator of the bold move. The intervention of the Duke de la
+Rochefoucauld d'Enville was solicited, and a letter was obtained by him
+from Benjamin Franklin--then American minister at the Court of
+Versailles--to his son-in-law, Richard Bache. Lady Juliana Penn wrote in
+their behalf to John Penn at Philadelphia, and Mademoiselle Pictet to
+Colonel Kinloch, member of the Continental Congress from South Carolina.
+Thus supported in their undertaking the youthful travelers sailed from
+L'Orient on May 27, in an American vessel, the Kattie, Captain Loring.
+Of the sum which Gallatin, who supplied the capital for the expedition,
+brought from Geneva, one half had been expended in their land journey
+and the payment of the passages to Boston; one half, eighty louis
+d'or--the equivalent of four hundred silver dollars--remained, part of
+which they invested in tea. Reaching the American coast in a fog, or bad
+weather, they were landed at Cape Ann on July 14. From Gloucester they
+rode the next day to Boston on horseback, a distance of thirty miles.
+Here they put up at a French cafe, "The Sign of the Alliance," in Fore
+Street, kept by one Tahon, and began to consider what step they should
+next take in the new world.
+
+The prospects were not encouraging; the military fortunes of the
+struggling nation were never at a lower ebb than during the summer which
+intervened between the disaster of Camden and the discovery of Arnold's
+treason. Washington's army lay at New Windsor in enforced inactivity;
+enlistments were few, and the currency was almost worthless. Such was
+the stagnation in trade, that the young strangers found it extremely
+difficult to dispose of their little venture in tea. Two months were
+passed at the cafe, in waiting for an opportunity to go to Philadelphia,
+where Congress was in session, and where they expected to find the
+influential persons to whom they were accredited; also letters from
+Geneva. But this journey was no easy matter. The usual routes of travel
+were interrupted. New York was the fortified headquarters of the British
+army, and the Middle States were only to be reached by a detour through
+the American lines above the Highlands and behind the Jersey Hills.
+
+The homesick youths found little to amuse or interest them in Boston,
+and grew very weary of its monotonous life and Puritanic tone. They
+missed the public amusements to which they were accustomed in their own
+country, and complained of the superstitious observance of Sunday, when
+"singing, fiddling, card-playing and bowling were forbidden." Foreigners
+were not welcome guests in this town of prejudice. The sailors of the
+French fleet had already been the cause of one riot. Gallatin's letters
+show that this aversion was fully reciprocated by him.
+
+The neighboring country had some points of interest. No Swiss ever saw a
+hill without an intense desire to get to its top. They soon felt the
+magnetic attraction of the Blue Hills of Milton, and, descrying from
+their summit the distant mountains north of Worcester, made a pedestrian
+excursion thither the following day. Mr. Gallatin was wont to relate
+with glee an incident of this trip, which Mr. John Russell Bartlett
+repeats in his "Reminiscences."
+
+     "The tavern at which he stopped on his journey was kept by a man
+     who partook in a considerable degree of the curiosity even
+     now-a-days manifested by some landlords in the back parts of New
+     England to know the whole history of their guests. Noticing Mr.
+     Gallatin's French accent he said, 'Just from France, eh! You are a
+     Frenchman, I suppose.' 'No!' said Mr. Gallatin, 'I am not from
+     France.' 'You can't be from England, I am sure?' 'No!' was the
+     reply. 'From Spain?' 'No!' 'From Germany?' 'No!' 'Well, where on
+     earth are you from then, or what are you?' eagerly asked the
+     inquisitive landlord. 'I am a Swiss,' replied Mr. Gallatin. 'Swiss,
+     Swiss, Swiss!' exclaimed the landlord, in astonishment. 'Which of
+     the ten tribes are the Swiss?'"
+
+Nor was this an unnatural remark. At this time Mr. Gallatin did not
+speak English with facility, and indeed was never free from a foreign
+accent.
+
+At the little cafe they met a Swiss woman, the wife of a Genevan, one De
+Lesdernier, who had been for thirty years established in Nova Scotia,
+but, becoming compromised in the attempt to revolutionize the colony,
+was compelled to fly to New England, and had settled at Machias, on the
+northeastern extremity of the Maine frontier. Tempted by her account of
+this region, and perhaps making a virtue of necessity, Gallatin and
+Serre bartered their tea for rum, sugar, and tobacco, and, investing the
+remainder of their petty capital in similar merchandise, they embarked
+October 1, 1780, upon a small coasting vessel, which, after a long and
+somewhat perilous passage, reached the mouth of the Machias River on the
+15th of the same month. Machias was then a little settlement five miles
+from the mouth of the stream of the same name. It consisted of about
+twenty houses and a small fortification, mounting seven guns and
+garrisoned by fifteen or twenty men. The young travelers were warmly
+received by the son of Lesdernier, and made their home under his roof.
+This seems to have been one of the four or five log houses in a large
+clearing near the fort. Gallatin attempted to settle a lot of land, and
+the meadow where he cut the hay with his own hands is still pointed out.
+This is Frost's meadow in Perry, not far from the site of the Indian
+village. A single cow was the beginning of a farm, but the main
+occupation of the young men was woodcutting. No record remains of the
+result of the merchandise venture. The trade of Machias was wholly in
+fish, lumber, and furs, which, there being no money, the settlers were
+ready enough to barter for West India goods. But the outlet for the
+product of the country was, in its unsettled condition, uncertain and
+precarious, and the young traders were no better off than before. One
+transaction only is remembered, the advance by Gallatin to the garrison
+of supplies to the value of four hundred dollars; for this he took a
+draft on the state treasury of Massachusetts, which, there being no
+funds for its payment, he sold at one fourth of its face value.
+
+The life, rude as it was, was not without its charms. Serre seems to
+have abandoned himself to its fascination without a regret. His
+descriptive letters to Badollet read like the "Idylls of a Faun." Those
+of Gallatin, though more tempered in tone, reveal quiet content with the
+simple life and a thorough enjoyment of nature in its original wildness.
+In the summer they followed the tracks of the moose and deer through the
+primitive forests, and explored the streams and lakes in the light
+birch canoe, with a woodsman or savage for their guide. In the winter
+they made long journeys over land and water on snowshoes or on skates,
+occasionally visiting the villages of the Indians, with whom the
+Lesderniers were on the best of terms, studying their habits and
+witnessing their feasts. Occasional expeditions of a different nature
+gave zest and excitement to this rustic life. These occurred when alarms
+of English invasion reached the settlement, and volunteers marched to
+the defence of the frontier. Twice Gallatin accompanied such parties to
+Passamaquoddy, and once, in November, 1780, was left for a time in
+command of a small earthwork and a temporary garrison of whites and
+Indians at that place. At Machias Gallatin made one acquaintance which
+greatly interested him, that of La Perouse, the famous navigator. He was
+then in command of the Amazone frigate, one of the French squadron on
+the American coast, and had in convoy a fleet of fishing vessels on
+their way to the Newfoundland banks. Gallatin had an intense fondness
+for geography, and was delighted with La Perouse's narrative of his
+visit to Hudson's Bay, and of his discovery there (at Fort Albany, which
+he captured) of the manuscript journal of Samuel Hearne, who some years
+before had made a voyage to the Arctic regions in search of a northwest
+passage. Gallatin and La Perouse met subsequently in Boston.
+
+The winter of 1780-81 was passed in the cabin of the Lesderniers. The
+excessive cold does not seem to have chilled Serre's enthusiasm. Like
+the faun of Hawthorne's mythical tale, he loved Nature in all her moods;
+but Gallatin appears to have wearied of the confinement and of his
+uncongenial companions. The trading experiment was abandoned in the
+autumn, and with some experience, but a reduced purse, the friends
+returned in October to Boston, where Gallatin set to work to support
+himself by giving lessons in the French language. What success he met
+with at first is not known, though the visits of the French fleet and
+the presence of its officers may have awakened some interest in their
+language. However this may be, in December Gallatin wrote to his good
+friend, Mademoiselle Pictet, a frank account of his embarrassments.
+Before it reached her, she had already, with her wonted forethought,
+anticipated his difficulties by providing for a payment of money to him
+wherever he might be, and had also secured for him the interest of Dr.
+Samuel Cooper, whose grandson, young Johannot, was then at school in
+Geneva. Dr. Cooper was one of the most distinguished of the patriots in
+Boston, and no better influence could have been invoked than his. In
+July, 1782, by a formal vote of the President and Fellows of Harvard
+College, Mr. Gallatin was permitted to teach the French language. About
+seventy of the students availed themselves of the privilege. Mr.
+Gallatin received about three hundred dollars in compensation. In this
+occupation he remained at Cambridge for about a year, at the expiration
+of which he took advantage of the close of the academic course to
+withdraw from his charge, receiving at his departure a certificate from
+the Faculty that he had acquitted himself in his department with great
+reputation.
+
+The war was over, the army of the United States was disbanded, and the
+country was preparing for the new order which the peace would introduce
+into the habits and occupations of the people. The long-sought
+opportunity at last presented itself, and Mr. Gallatin at once embraced
+it. He left Boston without regret. He had done his duty faithfully, and
+secured the approbation and esteem of all with whom he had come in
+contact, but there is no evidence that he cared for or sought social
+relations either in the city or at the college. Journeying southward he
+passed through Providence, where he took sail for New York. Stopping for
+an hour at Newport for dinner, he reached New York on July 21, 1783. The
+same day the frigate Mercury arrived from England with news of the
+signature of the definitive treaty of peace. He was delighted with the
+beauty of the country-seats above the city, the vast port with its
+abundant shipping, and with the prospect of a theatrical entertainment.
+The British soldiers and sailors, who were still in possession, he found
+rude and insolent, but the returning refugees civil and honest people.
+At Boston Gallatin made the acquaintance of a French gentleman, one
+Savary de Valcoulon, who had crossed the Atlantic to prosecute in person
+certain claims against the State of Virginia for advances made by his
+house in Lyons during the war. He accompanied Gallatin to New York, and
+together they traveled to Philadelphia; Savary, who spoke no English,
+gladly attaching to himself as his companion a young man of the ability
+and character of Gallatin.
+
+At Philadelphia Gallatin was soon after joined by Serre, who had
+remained behind, engaged also in giving instruction. The meeting at
+Philadelphia seems to have been the occasion for the dissolution of a
+partnership in which Gallatin had placed his money, and Serre his
+enthusiasm and personal charm. A settlement was made; Serre giving his
+note to Gallatin for the sum of six hundred dollars,--one half of their
+joint expenses for three years,--an obligation which was repaid more
+than half a century later by his sister. Serre then joined a
+fellow-countryman and went to Jamaica, where he died in 1784. At
+Philadelphia Gallatin and Savary lodged in a house kept by one Mary
+Lynn. Pelatiah Webster, the political economist, who owned the house,
+was also a boarder. Later he said of his fellow-lodgers that "they were
+well-bred gentlemen who passed their time conversing in French."
+Gallatin, at the end of his resources, gladly acceded to Savary's
+request to accompany him to Richmond.
+
+Whatever hesitation Gallatin may have entertained as to his definitive
+expatriation was entirely set at rest by the news of strife between the
+rival factions in Geneva and the interposition of armed force by the
+neighboring governments. This interference turned the scale against the
+liberal party. Mademoiselle Pictet was the only link which bound him to
+his family. For his ingratitude to her he constantly reproached himself.
+He still styled himself a citizen of Geneva, but this was only as a
+matter of convenience and security to his correspondence. His
+determination to make America his home was now fixed. The lands on the
+banks of the Ohio were then considered the most fertile in America,--the
+best for farming purposes, the cultivation of grain, and the raising of
+cattle. The first settlement in this region was made by the Ohio
+Company, an association formed in Virginia and London, about the middle
+of the century, by Thomas Lee, together with Lawrence and Augustine,
+brothers of George Washington. The lands lay on the south side of the
+Ohio, between the Monongahela and Kanawha rivers. These lands were known
+as "Washington's bottom lands." In this neighborhood Gallatin determined
+to purchase two or three thousand acres, and prepare for that ideal
+country home which had been the dream of his college days. Land here was
+worth from thirty cents to four dollars an acre. His first purchase was
+about one thousand acres, for which he paid one hundred pounds,
+Virginia currency. Land speculation was the fever of the time. Savary
+was early affected by it, and before the new friends left Philadelphia
+for Richmond he bought warrants for one hundred and twenty thousand
+acres in Virginia, in Monongalia County, between the Great and Little
+Kanawha rivers, and interested Gallatin to the extent of one quarter in
+the purchase. Soon after the completion of this transaction the sale of
+some small portions reimbursed them for three fourths of the original
+cost. This was the first time when, and Savary was the first person to
+whom, Gallatin was willing to incur a pecuniary obligation. Throughout
+his life he had an aversion to debt; small or large, private or public.
+It was arranged that Gallatin's part of the purchase money was not to be
+paid until his majority,--January 29, 1786,--but in the meanwhile he
+was, in lieu of interest money, to give his services in personal
+superintendence. Later Savary increased Gallatin's interest to one half.
+Soon after these plans were completed, Savary and Gallatin moved to
+Richmond, where they made their residence.
+
+In February, 1784, Gallatin returned to Philadelphia, perfected the
+arrangements for his expedition, and in March crossed the mountains,
+and, with his exploring party, passed down the Ohio River to Monongalia
+County in Virginia. The superior advantages of the country north of the
+Virginia line determined him to establish his headquarters there. He
+selected the farm of Thomas Clare, at the junction of the Monongahela
+River and George's Creek. This was in Fayette County, Pennsylvania,
+about four miles north of the Virginia line. Here he built a log hut,
+opened a country store, and remained till the close of the year. It was
+while thus engaged at George's Creek, in September of the year 1784,
+that Gallatin first met General Washington, who was examining the
+country, in which he had large landed interests, to select a route for a
+road across the Alleghanies. The story of the interview was first made
+public by Mr. John Russell Bartlett, who had it from the lips of Mr.
+Gallatin. The version of the late Hon. William Beach Lawrence, in a
+paper prepared for the New York Historical Society, differs slightly in
+immaterial points. Mr. Lawrence says:--
+
+     "Among the incidents connected with his (Mr. Gallatin's) earliest
+     explorations was an interview with General Washington, which he
+     repeatedly recounted to me. He had previously observed that of all
+     the inaccessible men he had ever seen, General Washington was the
+     most so. And this remark he made late in life, after having been
+     conversant with most of the sovereigns of Europe and their prime
+     ministers. He said, in connection with his office, he had a cot-bed
+     in the office of the surveyor of the district when Washington, who
+     had lands in the neighborhood, and was desirous of effecting
+     communication between the rivers, came there. Mr. Gallatin's bed
+     was given up to him,--Gallatin lying on the floor, immediately
+     below the table at which Washington was writing. Washington was
+     endeavoring to reduce to paper the calculations of the day.
+     Gallatin, hearing the statement, came at once to the conclusion,
+     and, after waiting some time, he himself gave the answer, which
+     drew from Washington such a look as he never experienced before or
+     since. On arriving by a slow process at his conclusion, Washington
+     turned to Gallatin and said, 'You are right, young man.'"
+
+The points of difference between the two accounts of this interview are
+of little importance. The look which Washington is said to have given
+Mr. Gallatin has its counterpart in that with which he is also said to
+have turned upon Gouverneur Morris, when accosted by him familiarly with
+a touch on the shoulder. Bartlett, in his recollection of the anecdote,
+adds that Washington, about this period, inquired after the forward
+young man, and urged him to become his land agent,--an offer which
+Gallatin declined.
+
+The winter of 1784-85 was passed in Richmond, in the society of which
+town Mr. Gallatin began to find a relief and pleasure he had not yet
+experienced in America. At this period the Virginia capital was the
+gayest city in the Union, and famous for its abundant hospitality,
+rather facile manners, and the liberal tendency of its religious
+thought. Gallatin brought no prudishness and no orthodoxy in his
+Genevese baggage. One of the last acts of his life was to recognize in
+graceful and touching words the kindness he then met with:--
+
+     "I was received with that old proverbial Virginia hospitality to
+     which I know no parallel anywhere within the circle of my travels.
+     It was not hospitality only that was shown to me. I do not know how
+     it came to pass, but every one with whom I became acquainted
+     appeared to take an interest in the young stranger. I was only the
+     interpreter of a gentleman, the agent of a foreign house, that had
+     a large claim for advances to the State, and this made me known to
+     all the officers of government, and some of the most prominent
+     members of the Legislature. It gave me the first opportunity of
+     showing some symptoms of talent, even as a speaker, of which I was
+     not myself aware. Every one encouraged me, and was disposed to
+     promote my success in life. To name all those from whom I received
+     offers of service would be to name all the most distinguished
+     residents at that time in Richmond."
+
+In the spring of 1785, fortified with a certificate from Governor
+Patrick Henry, commending him to the county surveyor, and intrusted by
+Henry with the duty of locating two thousand acres of lands in the
+western country for a third party, he set out from Richmond, on March
+31, alone, on horseback. Following the course of the James River he
+crossed the Blue Ridge at the Peaks of Otter, and reached Greenbrier
+Court House on April 18. On the 29th he arrived at Clare's, on George's
+Creek, where he was joined by Savary. Their surveying operations were
+soon begun, each taking a separate course. An Indian rising broke up the
+operations of Savary, and both parties returned to Clare's. Gallatin
+appeared before the court of Monongalia County, at its October term, and
+took the "oath of allegiance and fidelity to the Commonwealth of
+Virginia." Clare's, his actual residence, was north of the Virginia
+line, but his affections were with the old Dominion. In November the
+partners hired from Clare a house at George's Creek, in Springfield
+township, and established their residence, after which they returned to
+Richmond by way of Cumberland and the Potomac. In February, 1786,
+Gallatin made his permanent abode at his new home.
+
+Mention has been made of the intimacy of the young emigrants with Jean
+Badollet, a college companion. When they left Geneva he was engaged in
+the study of theology, and was now a teacher. He was included in the
+original plan of emigration, and the first letters of both Gallatin and
+Serre, who had for him an equal attachment, were to him, and year by
+year, through all the vicissitudes of their fortune, they kept him
+carefully informed of their movements and projects. For two years after
+their departure no word was received from him. At last, spurred by the
+sharp reproaches of Serre, he broke silence. In a letter written in
+March, 1783, informing Gallatin of the troubles in Switzerland, he
+excused himself on the plea that their common friend, Dumont, retained
+him at Geneva. In answer, Gallatin opened his plans of western
+settlement, which included the employment of his fortune in the
+establishment of a number of families upon his lands. He suggested to
+Badollet to bring with him the little money he had, to which enough
+would be added to establish him independently. Dumont was invited to
+accompany him. But with a prudence which shows that his previous
+experience had not been thrown away upon him, Gallatin recommends his
+friend not to start at once, but to hold himself ready for the next, or,
+at the latest, the year succeeding, at the same time suggesting the idea
+of a general emigration of such Swiss malcontents as were small
+capitalists and farmers; that of manufacturers and workmen he
+discouraged. It was not, however, until the spring of 1785, on the eve
+of leaving Richmond with some families which he had engaged to establish
+on his lands, that he felt justified in asking his old friend to cross
+the seas and share his lot. This invitation was accepted, and Badollet
+joined him at George's Creek.
+
+The settlement beginning to spread, Gallatin bought another farm higher
+up the river, to which he gave the name of Friendship Hill. Here he
+later made his home.
+
+The western part of Pennsylvania, embracing the area which stretches
+from the Alleghany Mountains to Lake Erie, is celebrated for the wild,
+picturesque beauty of its scenery. Among its wooded hills the head
+waters of the Ohio have their source. At Fort Duquesne, or Pittsburgh,
+where the river takes a sudden northerly bend before finally settling in
+swelling volume on its southwesterly course to the Mississippi, the
+Monongahela adds its mountain current, which separates in its entire
+course from the Virginia line the two counties of Fayette and
+Washington. The Monongahela takes its rise in Monongalia County,
+Virginia, and flows to the northward. Friendship Hill is one of the
+bluffs on the right bank of the river, and faces the Laurel Ridge to the
+eastward. Braddock's Road, now the National Road, crosses the mountains,
+passing through Uniontown and Red Stone Old Fort (Brownsville), on its
+course to Pittsburgh. The county seat of Fayette is the borough of Union
+or Uniontown. Gallatin's log cabin, the beginning of New Geneva, was on
+the right bank of the Monongahela, about twelve miles to the westward of
+the county seat. Opposite, on the other side of the river, in Washington
+County, was Greensburg, where his friend Badollet was later established.
+
+Again for a long period Gallatin left his family without any word
+whatever. His most indulgent friend, Mademoiselle Pictet, could hardly
+excuse his silence, and did not hesitate to charge that it was due to
+misfortunes which his pride prompted him to conceal. In the early days
+of 1786 a rumor of his death reached Geneva, and greatly alarmed his
+family. Mr. Jefferson, then minister at Paris, wrote to Mr. Jay for
+information. This was Jefferson's first knowledge of the existence of
+the young man who was to become his political associate, his philosophic
+companion, and his truest friend. Meanwhile Gallatin had attained his
+twenty-fifth year and his majority. His family were no longer left in
+doubt as to his existence, and in response to his letters drafts were at
+once remitted to him for the sum of five thousand dollars, through the
+banking-house of Robert Morris. This was, of course, immediately applied
+to his western experiment. The business of the partnership now called
+for his constant attention. It required the exercise of a great variety
+of mental powers, a cool and discriminating judgment, combined with an
+incessant attention to details. Nature, under such circumstances, is not
+so attractive as she appears in youthful dreams; admirable in her
+original garb, she is annoying and obstinate when disturbed. The view of
+country which Friendship Hill commands is said to rival Switzerland in
+its picturesque beauty, but years later, when the romance of the
+Monongahela hills had faded in the actualities of life, Gallatin wrote
+of it that "he did not know in the United States any spot which afforded
+less means to earn a bare subsistence for those who could not live by
+manual labor."
+
+Gallatin has been blamed for "taking life awry and throwing away the
+advantages of education, social position, and natural intelligence," by
+his removal to the frontier, and his career compared with that of
+Hamilton and Dallas, who, like him, foreign born, rose to eminence in
+politics, and became secretaries of the treasury of the United States.
+But both of these were of English-speaking races. No foreigner of any
+other race ever obtained such distinction in American politics as Mr.
+Gallatin, and he only because he was the choice of a constituency, to
+every member of which he was personally known. It is questionable
+whether in any other condition of society he could have secured
+advancement by election--the true source of political power in all
+democracies. John Marshall, afterwards Chief Justice, recognized
+Gallatin's talent soon after his arrival in Richmond, offered him a
+place in his office without a fee, and assured him of future distinction
+in the profession of the law; but Patrick Henry was the more sagacious
+counselor; he advised Gallatin to go to the West, and predicted his
+success as a statesman. Modest as the beginning seemed in the country he
+had chosen, it was nevertheless a start in the right direction, as the
+future showed. It was in no sense a mistake.
+
+Neither did the affairs of the wilderness wholly debar intercourse with
+the civilized world. Visiting Richmond every winter, he gradually
+extended the circle of his acquaintance, and increased his personal
+influence; he also occasionally passed a few weeks at Philadelphia. Two
+visits to Maine are recorded in his diary, but whether they were of
+pleasure merely does not appear. One was in 1788, in midwinter, by stage
+and sleigh. On this excursion he descended the Androscoggin and crossed
+Merrymeeting Bay on the ice, returning by the same route in a snowstorm,
+which concealed the banks on either side of the river, so that he
+governed his course by the direction of the wind. With the intellect of
+a prime minister he had the constitution of a pioneer. On one of these
+occasions he intended to visit his old friends and hosts, the
+Lesderniers, but the difficulty of finding a conveyance, and the rumor
+that the old gentleman was away from home, interfered with his purpose.
+He remembered their kindness, and later attempted to obtain pensions for
+them from the United States government.
+
+But the time now arrived when the current of his domestic life was
+permanently diverted, and set in other channels. In May, 1789, he
+married Sophie Allegre, the daughter of William Allegre of a French
+Protestant family living at Richmond. The father was dead, and the
+mother took lodgers, of whom Gallatin was one. For more than a year he
+had addressed her and secured her affections. Her mother now refused her
+consent, and no choice was left to the young lovers but to marry without
+it. Little is known of this short but touching episode in Mr. Gallatin's
+life. The young lady was warmly attached to him, and the letter written
+to her mother asking forgiveness for her marriage is charmingly
+expressed and full of feeling. They passed a few happy months at
+Friendship Hill, when suddenly she died. From this time Mr. Gallatin
+lost all heart in the western venture, and his most earnest wish was to
+turn his back forever upon Fayette County. In his suffering he would
+have returned to Geneva to Mademoiselle Pictet, could he have sold his
+Virginia lands. But this had become impossible at any price, and he had
+no other pecuniary resource but the generosity of his family.
+
+Meanwhile the revolution had broken out in France. The rights of man had
+been proclaimed on the Champ de Mars. All Europe was uneasy and alarmed,
+and nowhere offered a propitious field for peaceful labor. But Gallatin
+did not long need other distraction than he was to find at home.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PENNSYLVANIA LEGISLATURE
+
+
+Political revolutions are the opportunity of youth. In England, Pitt and
+Fox; in America, Hamilton and Gouverneur Morris; in Europe, Napoleon and
+Pozzo di Borgo, before they reached their thirtieth year, helped to
+shape the political destiny of nations. The early maturity of Gallatin
+was no less remarkable. In his voluminous correspondence there is no
+trace of youth. At nineteen his habits of thought were already formed,
+and his moral and intellectual tendencies were clearly marked in his
+character, and understood by himself. His tastes also were already
+developed. His life, thereafter, was in every sense a growth. The germs
+of every excellence, which came to full fruition in his subsequent
+career, may be traced in the preferences of his academic days. From
+youth to age he was consistent with himself. His mind was of that rare
+and original order which, reasoning out its own conclusions, seldom has
+cause to change.
+
+His political opinions were early formed. A letter written by him in
+October, 1783, before he had completed his twenty-third year, shows the
+maturity of his intellect, and his analytic habit of thought. An extract
+gives the nature of the reasons which finally determined him to make his
+home in America:--
+
+     "This is what by degrees greatly influenced my judgment. After my
+     arrival in this country I was early convinced, upon a comparison of
+     American governments with that of Geneva, that the latter is
+     founded on false principles; that the judicial power, in civil as
+     well as criminal cases, the executive power wholly, and two thirds
+     of the legislative power being lodged in two bodies which are
+     almost self-made, and the members of which are chosen for life,--it
+     is hardly possible but that this formidable aristocracy should,
+     sooner or later, destroy the equilibrium which it was supposed
+     could be maintained at Geneva."
+
+The period from the peace of 1783 to the adoption of the federal
+Constitution in 1787 was one of political excitement. The utter failure
+of the old Confederation to serve the purposes of national defense and
+safety for which it was framed had been painfully felt during the war.
+Independence had been achieved under it rather than by it, the patriotic
+action of some of the States supplying the deficiencies of others less
+able or less willing. By the radical inefficiency of the Confederation
+the war had been protracted, its success repeatedly imperiled, and, at
+its close, the results gained by it were constantly menaced. The more
+perfect union which was the outcome of the deliberations of the federal
+convention was therefore joyfully accepted by the people at large.
+Indeed, it was popular pressure, and not the arguments of its advocates,
+that finally overcame the formidable opposition in and out of the
+convention to the Constitution. No written record remains of Mr.
+Gallatin's course during the sessions of the federal convention. He was
+not a member of the body, nor is his name connected with any public act
+having any bearing upon its deliberations. Of the direction of his
+influence, however, there can be no doubt. He had an abiding distrust of
+strong government,--a dread of the ambitions of men. Precisely what form
+he would have substituted for the legislative and executive system
+adopted nowhere appears in his writings, but certainly neither president
+nor senate would have been included. They bore too close a resemblance
+to king and lords to win his approval, no matter how restricted their
+powers. He would evidently have leaned to a single house, with a
+temporary executive directly appointed by itself; or, if elected by the
+people, then for a short term of office, without renewal; and he would
+have reduced its legislative powers to the narrowest possible limit. The
+best government he held to be that which governs least; and many of the
+ablest of that incomparable body of men who welded this Union held these
+views. But the yearning of the people was in the other direction. They
+felt the need of government. They wanted the protection of a strong arm.
+It must not be forgotten that the thirteen colonies which declared
+their independence in 1776 were all seaboard communities, each with its
+port. They were all trading communities. The East, with its fisheries
+and timber; the Middle States, with their agricultural products and
+peltries; the South, with its tobacco; each saw, in that freedom from
+the restrictions of the English navigation laws which the treaty of
+peace secured, the promise of a boundless commerce. To protect commerce
+there must be a national power somewhere. Since the peace the government
+had gained neither the affection of its own citizens nor the respect of
+foreign powers.
+
+The federal Constitution was adopted September 17, 1787. The first State
+to summon a convention of ratification was Pennsylvania. No one of the
+thirteen original States was more directly interested than herself. The
+centre of population lay somewhere in her limits, and there was
+reasonable ground for hope that Philadelphia would become once more the
+seat of government. The delegates met at Philadelphia on November 2. An
+opposition declared itself at the beginning of the proceedings.
+Regardless of the popular impatience, the majority allowed full scope to
+adverse argument, and it was not until December 12 that the final vote
+was taken and the Constitution ratified, without recommendations, by a
+majority of two to one. In this body Fayette County was represented by
+Nicholas Breading and John Smilie. The latter gentleman, of Scotch-Irish
+birth, an adroit debater, led the opposition. In the course of his
+criticisms he enunciated the doctrines which were soon to become a party
+cry; the danger of the Constitution "in inviting rather than guarding
+against the approaches of tyranny;" "its tendency to a consolidation,
+not a confederation, of the States." Mr. Gallatin does not appear to
+have sought to be a delegate to this body, but his hand may be traced
+through the speeches of Smilie in the precision with which the
+principles of the opposition were formulated and declared; and his
+subsequent course plainly indicates that his influence was exerted in
+the interest of the dissatisfied minority. The ratification was received
+by the people with intense satisfaction, but the delay in debate lost
+the State the honor of precedence in the honorable vote of
+acquiescence,--the Delaware convention having taken the lead by a
+unanimous vote. For the moment the Pennsylvania Anti-Federalists clung
+to the hope that the Constitution might yet fail to receive the assent
+of the required number of States, but as one after another fell into
+line, this hope vanished.
+
+One bold expedient remained. The ratification of some of the States was
+coupled with the recommendation of certain amendments. Massachusetts led
+the way in this, Virginia followed, and New York, which, in the language
+of the day, became the eleventh pillar of the federal edifice, on July
+26, 1788, accompanied her ratification with a circular letter to the
+governors of all the States, recommending that a general convention be
+called.[1]
+
+The argument taken in this letter was the only one which had any chance
+of commending itself to popular favor. It was in these words: "that the
+apprehension and discontents which the articles occasion cannot be
+removed or allayed unless an act to provide for the calling of a new
+convention be among the first that shall be passed by the next
+Congress." This document, made public at once, encouraged the
+Pennsylvania Anti-Federalists to a last effort to bring about a new
+convention, to undo or radically alter the work of the old. A conference
+held at Harrisburg, on September 3, 1788, was participated in by
+thirty-three gentlemen, from various sections of the State, who
+assembled in response to the call of a circular letter which originated
+in the county of Cumberland in the month of August. The city of
+Philadelphia and thirteen counties were represented; six of the
+dissenting members of the late convention were present, among whom was
+Smilie. He and Gallatin represented the county of Fayette.
+
+Smilie, Gallatin's earliest political friend, was born in 1742, and was
+therefore about twenty years his senior. He came to the United States in
+youth, and had grown up in the section he now represented. His
+popularity is shown by his service in the state legislature, and during
+twelve years in Congress as representative or as senator. In any
+estimate of Mr. Gallatin, this early influence must be taken into
+account. The friendship thus formed continued until Smilie's death in
+1816. From the adviser he became the ardent supporter of Mr. Gallatin.
+
+Blair McClanachan, of Philadelphia County, was elected chairman of the
+conference. The result of this deliberation was a report in the form of
+a series of resolutions, of which two drafts, both in Mr. Gallatin's
+handwriting, are among his papers now in the keeping of the New York
+Historical Society. The original resolutions were broad in scope, and
+suggested a plan of action of a dual nature; the one of which failing,
+resort could be had to the other without compromising the movement by
+delay. In a word, it proposed an opposition by a party organization. The
+first resolution was adroitly framed to avoid the censure with which the
+people at large, whose satisfaction with the new Constitution had grown
+with the fresh adhesions of State after State to positive enthusiasm,
+would surely condemn any attempt to dissolve the Union formed under its
+provisions. This resolution declared that it was in order to _prevent_ a
+dissolution of the Union and to secure liberty, that a revision was
+necessary. The second expressed the opinion of the conference to be,
+that the safest manner to obtain such revision was to conform to the
+request of the State of New York, and to urge the calling of a new
+convention, and recommended that the Pennsylvania legislature be
+petitioned to apply for that purpose to the new Congress. These were
+declaratory. The third and fourth provided, first, for an organization
+of committees in the several counties to correspond with each other and
+with similar committees in other States; secondly, invited the friends
+to amendments in the several States to meet in conference at a fixed
+time and place. This plan of committees of correspondence and of a
+meeting of delegates was simply a revival of the methods of the Sons of
+Liberty, from whose action sprung the first Continental Congress of
+1774.
+
+The formation of such an organization would surely have led to
+disturbance, perhaps to civil war. During the progress of the New York
+convention swords and bayonets had been drawn, and blood had been shed
+in the streets of Albany, where the Anti-Federalists excited popular
+rage by burning the new Constitution. But the thirty-three gentlemen who
+met at Harrisburg wisely tempered these resolutions to a moderate tone.
+Thus modified, they recommended, first, that the people of the State
+should acquiesce in the organization of the government, while holding in
+view the necessity of very considerable amendments and alterations
+essential to preserve the peace and harmony of the Union. Secondly, that
+a revision by general convention was necessary. Thirdly, that the
+legislature should be requested to apply to Congress for that purpose.
+The petition recommended twelve amendments, selected from those already
+proposed by other States. These were of course restrictive. The report
+was made public in the "Pennsylvania Packet" of September 15. With this
+the agitation appears to have ceased. On September 13 Congress notified
+the States by resolution to appoint electors under the provisions of the
+Constitution. The unanimous choice of Washington as president hushed all
+opposition, and for a time the Anti-Federalists sunk into
+insignificance.
+
+The persistent labors of the friends of revision were not without
+result. The amendments proposed by Virginia and New York were laid
+before the House of Representatives. Seventeen received the two thirds
+vote of the House. After conference with the Senate, in which Mr.
+Madison appeared as manager for the House, these, reduced in number to
+twelve by elimination and compression, were adopted by the requisite two
+thirds vote, and transmitted to the legislatures of the States for
+approval. Ratified by a sufficient number of States, they became a part
+of the Constitution. They were general, and declaratory of personal
+rights, and in no instance restrictive of the power of the general
+government.
+
+In 1789, the Assembly of Pennsylvania calling a convention to revise the
+Constitution of the State, Mr. Gallatin was sent as a delegate from
+Fayette County. To the purposes of this convention he was opposed, as a
+dangerous precedent. He had endeavored to organize an opposition to it
+in the western counties, by correspondence with his political friends.
+His objections were the dangers of alterations in government, and the
+absurdity of the idea that the Constitution ever contemplated a change
+by the will of a mere majority. Such a doctrine, once admitted, would
+enable not only the legislature, but a majority of the more popular
+house, were two established, to make another appeal to the people on the
+first occasion, and, instead of establishing on solid foundations a new
+government, would open the door to perpetual change, and destroy that
+stability which is essential to the welfare of a nation; since no
+constitution acquires the permanent affection of the people, save in
+proportion to its duration and age. Finally, such changes would sooner
+or later conclude in an appeal to arms,--the true meaning of the popular
+and dangerous words, "an appeal to the people." The opposition was begun
+too late, however, to admit of combined effort, and was not persisted
+in; and Mr. Gallatin himself, with practical good sense, consented to
+serve as a delegate. Throughout his political course the pride of
+mastery never controlled his actions. When debarred from leadership he
+did not sulk in his tent, but threw his weight in the direction of his
+principles. The convention met at Philadelphia on November 24, 1789, and
+closed its labors on September 2, 1790. This was Gallatin's
+apprenticeship in the public service. Among his papers are a number of
+memoranda, some of them indicating much elaboration of speeches made, or
+intended to be made, in this body. One is an argument in favor of
+enlarging the representation in the House; another is against a plan of
+choosing senators by electors; another concerns the liberty of the
+press. There is, further, a memorandum of his motion in regard to the
+right of suffrage, by virtue of which "every freeman who has attained
+the age of twenty-one years, and been a resident and inhabitant during
+one year next before the day of election, every naturalized freeholder,
+every naturalized citizen who had been assessed for state or county
+taxes for two years before election day, or who had resided ten years
+successively in the State, should be entitled to the suffrage, paupers
+and vagabonds only being excluded." Certainly, in his conservative
+limitations upon suffrage, he did not consult his own interest as a
+large landholder inviting settlement, nor pander to the natural desires
+of his constituency.
+
+In an account of this convention, written at a later period, Mr.
+Gallatin said that it was the first public body to which he was elected,
+and that he took but a subordinate share in the debates; that it was one
+of the ablest bodies of which he was ever a member, and with which he
+was acquainted, and, excepting Madison and Marshall, that it embraced as
+much talent and knowledge as any Congress from 1795 to 1812, beyond
+which his personal knowledge did not extend. Among its members were
+Thomas McKean, signer of the Declaration of Independence and president
+of the Continental Congress, Thomas Mifflin and Timothy Pickering, of
+the Revolutionary army, and Smilie and Findley, Gallatin's political
+friends. General Mifflin was its president.
+
+But mental distraction brought Mr. Gallatin no peace of heart at this
+period, and when the excitement of the winter was over he fell into a
+state of almost morbid melancholy. To his friend Badollet he wrote from
+Philadelphia, early in March, that life in Fayette County had no more
+charms for him, and that he would gladly leave America. But his lands
+were unsalable at any price, and he saw no means of support at Geneva.
+Some one has said, with a profound knowledge of human nature, that no
+man is sure of happiness who has not the capacity for continuous labor
+of a disagreeable kind. The occasional glimpses into Mr. Gallatin's
+inner nature, which his correspondence affords, show that up to this
+period he was not supposed by his friends or by himself to have this
+capacity. In the letter which his guardian wrote to him after his flight
+from home, he was reproached with his "natural indolence." His good
+friend, Mademoiselle Pictet, accused him of being hard to please, and
+disposed to _ennui_; and again, as late as 1787, repeats to him, in a
+tone of sorrow, the reports brought to her of his "continuance in his
+old habit of indolence," his indifference to society, his neglect of
+his dress, and general indifference to everything but study and reading,
+tastes which, she added, he might as well have cultivated at Geneva as
+in the new world; and he himself, in the letter to Badollet just
+mentioned, considers that his habits and his laziness would prove
+insuperable bars to his success in any profession in Europe. In
+estimation of this self-condemnation, it must be borne in mind that the
+Genevans were intellectual Spartans. Gallatin must be measured by that
+high standard. But if the charge of indolence could have ever justly
+lain against Gallatin,--a charge which his intellectual vigor at
+twenty-seven seems to challenge,--it certainly could never have been
+sustained after he fairly entered on his political and public career. In
+October, 1790, he was elected by a two thirds majority to represent
+Fayette County in the legislature of the State of Pennsylvania; James
+Findley was his colleague, John Smilie being advanced to the state
+Senate. Mr. Gallatin was reelected to the Assembly in 1791 and 1792,
+without opposition.
+
+Among his papers there is a memorandum of his legislative service during
+these three years, and a manuscript volume of extracts from the Journals
+of the House, from January 14, 1791, to December 17, 1794. They form
+part of the extensive mass of documents and letters which were collected
+and partially arranged by himself, with a view to posthumous
+publication. Here is an extract from the memorandum:--
+
+     "I acquired an extraordinary influence in that body [the
+     Pennsylvania House of Representatives]; the more remarkable as I
+     was always in a party minority. I was indebted for it to my great
+     industry and to the facility with which I could understand and
+     carry on the current business. The laboring oar was left almost
+     exclusively to me. In the session of 1791-1792, I was put on
+     thirty-five committees, prepared all their reports, and drew all
+     their bills. Absorbed by those details, my attention was turned
+     exclusively to administrative laws, and not to legislation properly
+     so called.... I failed, though the bill I had introduced passed the
+     House, in my efforts to lay the foundation for a better system of
+     education. Primary education was almost universal in Pennsylvania,
+     but very bad, and the bulk of schoolmasters incompetent, miserably
+     paid, and held in no consideration. It appeared to me that in order
+     to create a sufficient number of competent teachers, and to raise
+     the standard of general education, intermediate academical
+     education was an indispensable preliminary step, and the object of
+     the bill was to establish in each county an academy, allowing to
+     each out of the treasury a sum equal to that raised by taxation in
+     the county for its support. But there was at that time in
+     Pennsylvania a Quaker and a German opposition to every plan of
+     general education.
+
+     "The spirit of internal improvements had not yet been awakened.
+     Still, the first turnpike-road in the United States was that from
+     Philadelphia to Lancaster, which met with considerable opposition.
+     This, as well as every temporary improvement in our communications
+     (roads and rivers) and preliminary surveys, met, of course, with my
+     warm support. But it was in the fiscal department that I was
+     particularly employed, and the circumstances of the times favored
+     the restoration of the finances of the State.
+
+     "The report of the Committee of Ways and Means of the session
+     1790-91 was entirely prepared by me, known to be so, and laid the
+     foundation of my reputation. I was quite astonished at the general
+     encomiums bestowed upon it, and was not at all aware that I had
+     done so well. It was perspicuous and comprehensive; but I am
+     confident that its true merit, and that which gained me the general
+     confidence, was its being founded in strict justice, without the
+     slightest regard to party feelings or popular prejudices. The
+     principles assumed, and which were carried into effect, were the
+     immediate reimbursement and extinction of the state paper-money,
+     the immediate payment in specie of all the current expenses, or
+     warrants on the treasury (the postponement and uncertainty of which
+     had given rise to shameful and corrupt speculations), and provision
+     for discharging without defalcation every debt and engagement
+     previously recognized by the State. In conformity with this, the
+     State paid to its creditors the difference between the nominal
+     amount of the state debt assumed by the United States and the rate
+     at which it was funded by the act of Congress.
+
+     "The proceeds of the public lands, together with the arrears, were
+     the fund which not only discharged all the public debts, but left a
+     large surplus. The apprehension that this would be squandered by
+     the legislature was the principal inducement for chartering the
+     Bank of Pennsylvania, with a capital of two millions of dollars, of
+     which the State subscribed one half. This, and similar subsequent
+     investments, enabled Pennsylvania to defray, out of the dividends,
+     all the expenses of government without any direct tax during the
+     forty ensuing years, and till the adoption of the system of
+     internal improvement, which required new resources.
+
+     "It was my constant assiduity to business, and the assistance
+     derived from it by many members, which enabled the Republican party
+     in the legislature, then a minority on a joint ballot, to elect me,
+     and no other but me of that party, senator of the United States."
+
+Among the reports enumerated by Mr. Gallatin, as those of which he was
+the author, is one made by a committee on March 22, 1793, that they ...
+are of opinion slavery is inconsistent with every principle of humanity,
+justice, and right, and repugnant to the spirit and express letter of
+the Constitution of the Commonwealth. Added to this was a resolution for
+its abolition in the Commonwealth.
+
+The seat of government was changed from New York to Philadelphia in
+1790, and the first Congress assembled there in the early days of
+December for its final session. Philadelphia was in glee over the
+transfer of the departments. The convention which framed the new state
+Constitution met here in the fall, and the legislature was also holding
+its sessions. The atmosphere was political. The national and local
+representatives met each other at all times and in all places, and the
+public affairs were the chief topic in and out of doors. In this busy
+whirl Gallatin made many friends, but Philadelphia was no more to his
+taste as a residence than Boston. He was disgusted with the
+ostentatious display of wealth, the result not of industry but of
+speculation, and not in the hands of the most deserving members of the
+community. Later he became more reconciled to the tone of Pennsylvania
+society, comparing it with that of New York; he was especially pleased
+with its democratic spirit, and the absence of _family influence_. "In
+Pennsylvania," he says, "not only we have neither Livingstons, nor
+Rensselaers, but from the suburbs of Philadelphia to the banks of the
+Ohio I do not know a single family that has any extensive influence. An
+equal distribution of property has rendered every individual
+independent, and there is amongst us true and real equality. In a word,
+as I am lazy, I like a country where living is cheap; and as I am poor,
+I like a country where no person is very rich."
+
+Hamilton's excise bill was a bone of contention in the national and
+state legislatures throughout the winter. Direct taxation upon anything
+was unpopular, that on distilled spirits the most distasteful to
+Pennsylvania, where whiskey stills were numerous in the Alleghanies. To
+the bill introduced into Congress a reply was immediately made January
+14, 1791, by the Pennsylvania Assembly in a series of resolutions which
+are supposed to have been drafted by Mr. Gallatin, and to have been the
+first legislative paper from his pen. They distinctly charged that the
+obnoxious bill was "subversive of the peace, liberty, and rights of the
+citizen."
+
+Tax by excise has always been offensive to the American people, as it
+was to their ancestors across the sea. It was characterized by the first
+Continental Congress of 1774 as "the horror of all free States."
+Notwithstanding their warmth, these resolutions passed the Assembly by a
+vote of 40 to 16. The course of this excitement must be followed; as it
+swept Mr. Gallatin in its mad current, and but for his self-control,
+courage, and adroitness would have wrecked him on the breakers at the
+outset of his political voyage. The excise law passed Congress on March
+3, 1791. On June 22 the state legislature, by a vote of 36 to 11,
+requested their senators and representatives in Congress to oppose every
+part of the bill which "shall militate against the rights and liberties
+of the people."
+
+The western counties of Pennsylvania--Westmoreland, Fayette, Washington,
+and Allegheny--lie around the head-waters of the Ohio in a radius of
+more than a hundred miles. At this time they contained a population of
+about seventy thousand souls. Pittsburgh, the seat of justice, had about
+twelve hundred inhabitants. The Alleghany Mountains separate this wild
+region from the eastern section of the State. There were few roads of
+any kind, and these lay through woods. The mountain passes could be
+traveled only on foot or horseback. The only trade with the East was by
+pack-horses, while communication with the South was cut off by hostile
+Indian tribes who held the banks of the Ohio. This isolation from the
+older, denser, and more civilized settlements bred in the people a
+spirit of self-reliance and independence. They were in great part
+Scotch-Irish Presbyterians, a religious and warlike race to whom the
+hatred of an exciseman was a tradition of their forefathers. Having no
+market for their grain, they were compelled to preserve it by converting
+it into whiskey. The still was the necessary appendage of every farm.
+The tax was light, but payable in money, of which there was little or
+none. Its imposition, therefore, coupled with the declaration of its
+oppressive nature by the Pennsylvania legislature, excited a spirit of
+determined opposition near akin to revolution.
+
+Unpopular in all the western part of the State, Hamilton's bill was
+especially odious to the people of Washington County. The first meeting
+in opposition to it was held at Red Stone Old Fort or Brownsville, the
+site of one of those ancient remains of the mound-builders which abound
+in the western valleys. It was easily reached by Braddock's Road, the
+chief highway of the country. Here gathered on July 27, 1791, a number
+of persons opposed to the law, when it was agreed that county committees
+should be convened in the four counties at the respective seats of
+justice. Brackenridge, in his "Incidents of the Western Insurrection,"
+says that Albert Gallatin was clerk of the meeting. One of these
+committees met in the town of Washington on August 23, when violent
+resolutions were adopted. Gallatin, engaged at Philadelphia, was not
+present at this assemblage, three of whose members were deputed to meet
+delegates from the counties of Westmoreland, Fayette, and Allegheny, at
+Pittsburgh, on the first Tuesday in September following, to agree upon
+an address to the legislature on the subject of excise and other
+grievances. At the Pittsburgh meeting eleven delegates appeared for the
+four counties. The resolutions adopted by them, general in character,
+read more like a declaration of grievances as a basis for revolution
+than a petition for special redress. No wonder that the secretary of the
+treasury stigmatized them as "intemperate." They charge that in the laws
+of the late Congress hasty strides had been made to all that was unjust
+and oppressive. They complain of the increase in the salaries of
+officials, of the unreasonable interest of the national debt, of the
+non-discrimination between original holders and transferees of the
+public securities, of the National Bank as a base offspring of the
+funding system; finally, in detail, of the excise law of March 3, 1791.
+At this meeting James Marshall and David Bradford represented Washington
+County.
+
+In August government offices of inspection were opened. The spirit of
+resistance was now fully aroused, and in the early days of September the
+collectors for Washington, Westmoreland, and Fayette were treated with
+violence. Unwilling to proceed to excessive measures, and no doubt
+swayed by the attitude of the Pennsylvania legislature, Congress in
+October referred the law back to Hamilton for revision. He reported an
+amended act on March 6, 1792, which was immediately passed, and became a
+law March 8. It was to take effect on the last day of June succeeding.
+By it the rate of duty was reduced, a privilege of time as to the
+running of licenses of stills granted, and the tax ordered only for such
+time as they were actually used.
+
+But these modifications did not satisfy the malcontents of the four
+western counties, and they met again on August 21, 1792, at Pittsburgh.
+Of this second Pittsburgh meeting Albert Gallatin was chosen secretary.
+Badollet went up with Gallatin. John Smilie, James Marshall, and James
+Bradford of Washington County were present. Bradford, Marshall,
+Gallatin, and others were appointed to draw up a remonstrance to
+Congress. In order to carry out with regularity and concert the measures
+agreed upon, a committee of correspondence was appointed, and the
+meeting closed with the adoption of the violent resolutions passed at
+the Washington meeting of 1791:--
+
+     "Whereas, some men may be found among us so far lost to every sense
+     of virtue and feeling for the distresses of this country as to
+     accept offices for the collection of the duty.
+
+     "Resolved, therefore, that in future we will consider such persons
+     as unworthy of our friendship; have no intercourse or dealings with
+     them; withdraw from them every assistance, and withhold all the
+     comforts of life which depend upon those duties that as men and
+     fellow citizens we owe to each other; and upon all occasions treat
+     them with that contempt they deserve; and that it be, and it is
+     hereby, most earnestly recommended to the people at large, to
+     follow the same line of conduct towards them."
+
+If such an excommunication were to be meted out to an offending
+neighbor, what measure would the excise man receive if he came from
+abroad on his unwelcome errand?
+
+These resolutions were signed by Mr. Gallatin as clerk, and made public
+through the press. Resolutions of this character, if not criminal, reach
+the utmost limit of indiscretion, and political indiscretion is quite as
+dangerous as crime. The petition to Congress, subscribed by the
+inhabitants of western Pennsylvania, was drawn by Gallatin; while
+explicit in terms, it was moderate in tone. It represented the unequal
+operation of the act. "A duty laid on the common drink of a nation,
+instead of taxing the citizens in proportion to their property, falls as
+heavy on the poorest class as on the rich;" and it ingeniously pointed
+out that the distance of the inhabitants of the western counties from
+market prevented their bringing the produce of their lands to sale,
+either in grain or meal. "We are therefore distillers through necessity,
+not choice; that we may comprehend the greatest value in the smallest
+size and weight."
+
+Hamilton, indignant, reported the proceedings to the President on
+September 9, 1792, and demanded instant punishment. Washington, who was
+at Mount Vernon, was unwilling to go to extremes, but consented to issue
+a proclamation, which, drafted by Hamilton, and countersigned by
+Jefferson, was published September 15, 1792. It earnestly admonished all
+persons to desist from unlawful combinations to obstruct the operations
+of the laws, and charged all courts, magistrates, and officers with
+their enforcement. There was no mistaking Hamilton's intention to
+enforce the law. Prosecutions in the Circuit Court, held at Yorktown in
+October, were ordered against the Pittsburgh offenders, but no proof
+could be had to sustain an indictment.
+
+The President's proclamation startled the western people, and some
+uneasiness was felt as to how such of their representatives as had taken
+part in the Pittsburgh meeting would be received when they should go up
+to the legislature in the winter. Bradford and Smilie accompanied
+Gallatin; Smilie to take his seat in the state Senate, and Bradford to
+represent Washington County in the House, where he "cut a poor figure."
+Gallatin despised him, and characterized him as a "tenth-rate lawyer and
+an empty drum." Gallatin found, however, that although the Pittsburgh
+meeting had hurt the general interest of his party throughout the State,
+and "rather defeated" the repeal of the excise law, his eastern friends
+did not turn the cold shoulder to him. He said to every one whom he
+knew that the resolutions were perhaps too violent and undoubtedly
+highly impolitic, but, in his opinion, contained nothing illegal.
+Meanwhile federal officers proceeded to enforce the law in Washington
+County. A riot ensued, and the office was forcibly closed. Bills were
+found against two of the offenders in the federal court, and warrants to
+arrest and bring them to Philadelphia for trial were issued. Gallatin
+believed the men innocent, and did not hesitate to advise Badollet to
+keep them out of the way when the marshal should go to serve the writs,
+but deprecated any insult to the officer. He thought "the precedent a
+very dangerous one to drag people such a distance in order to be tried
+on governmental prosecutions." Here the matter rested for a season.
+
+At this session of the legislature Gallatin introduced a new system of
+county taxation, proposed a clause providing for "trustees yearly
+elected, one to each township, without whose consent no tax is to be
+raised, nor any above one per cent. on the value of lands," which he
+hoped would "tend to crush the aristocracy of every town in the State."
+Also he proposed a plan to establish a school and library in each
+county, with a sufficient immediate sum in money, and a yearly allowance
+for a teacher in the English language.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: The drafting of this letter was, notwithstanding his
+protest, intrusted to John Jay, one of the strongest of the Federal
+leaders, and a warm supporter of the Constitution as it stood.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+UNITED STATES SENATE
+
+
+The death of the grandfather of Mr. Gallatin, and soon after of his
+aunt, strongly tempted him to make a journey to Geneva in the summer of
+1793. The political condition of Europe at that time was of thrilling
+interest. On January 21 the head of Louis XVI. fell under the
+guillotine, to which Marie Antoinette soon followed him. The armies of
+the coalition were closing in upon France. Of the political necessity
+for these state executions there has always been and will always be
+different judgments. That of Mr. Gallatin is of peculiar value. It is
+found expressed in intimate frankness in a letter to his friend
+Badollet, written at Philadelphia, February 1, 1794.
+
+     "France at present offers a spectacle unheard of at any other
+     period. Enthusiasm there produces an energy equally terrible and
+     sublime. All those virtues which depend upon social or family
+     affections, all those amiable weaknesses, which our natural
+     feelings teach us to love or respect, have disappeared before the
+     stronger, the only, at present, powerful passion, the _Amor
+     Patriae_. I must confess my soul is not enough steeled, not
+     sometimes to shrink at the dreadful executions which have restored
+     at least apparent internal tranquillity to that republic. Yet upon
+     the whole, as long as the combined despots press upon every
+     frontier, and employ every engine to destroy and distress the
+     interior parts, I think they, and they alone, are answerable for
+     every act of severity or injustice, for every excess, nay for every
+     crime, which either of the contending parties in France may have
+     committed."
+
+Within a few years the publication of the correspondence of De Fersen,
+the agent of the king and queen, has supplied the proof of the charge
+that they were in secret correspondence with the allied sovereigns to
+introduce foreign troops upon the soil of France,--a crime which no
+people has ever condoned.
+
+The French Revolution, which from its beginning in 1789 reacted upon the
+United States with fully the force that the American Revolution exerted
+upon France, had become an important factor in American politics. The
+intemperance of Genet, the minister of the French Convention to the
+United States on the one hand, and the breaches of neutrality by England
+on the other, were dividing the American people into English and French
+parties. The Federalists sympathized with the English, the late enemies,
+and the Republicans with the French, the late allies, of the United
+States.
+
+Mr. Gallatin had about made up his mind to visit Europe, when an
+unexpected political honor changed his plans. The Pennsylvania
+legislature elected him a senator of the United States on joint ballot,
+a distinction the more singular in that the legislature was Federalist
+and Mr. Gallatin was a representative of a Republican district, and
+strong in that faith. Moreover, he was not a candidate either of his own
+motion or by that of his friends, but, on the contrary, had doubts as to
+his eligibility because of insufficient residence. This objection, which
+he himself stated in caucus, was disregarded, and on February 28, 1793,
+by a vote of 45 to 37, he was chosen senator. Mr. Gallatin had just
+completed his thirty-second year, and now a happy marriage came
+opportunely to stimulate his ambition and smooth his path to other
+honors.
+
+Among the friends made at Philadelphia was Alexander J. Dallas, a
+gentleman two years Gallatin's senior, whose career, in some respects,
+resembled his own. He was born in Jamaica, of Scotch parents; had been
+thoroughly educated at Edinburgh and Westminster, and, coming to the
+United States in 1783, had settled in Philadelphia. He now held the post
+of secretary of state for Pennsylvania. Mr. Gallatin's constant
+committee service brought him into close relations with the secretary,
+and the foundation was laid of a lasting political friendship and social
+intimacy. In the recess of the legislature, Mr. Gallatin joined Mr.
+Dallas and his wife in an excursion to the northward. Mr. Gallatin's
+health had suffered from close confinement and too strict attention to
+business, and he needed recreation and diversion. In the course of the
+journey the party was joined by some ladies, friends of Mrs. Dallas,
+among whom was Miss Hannah Nicholson. The excursion lasted nearly four
+weeks. The result was that Mr. Gallatin returned to Philadelphia the
+accepted suitor of this young lady. He describes her in a letter to
+Badollet as "a girl about twenty-five years old, who is neither handsome
+nor rich, but sensible, well-informed, good-natured, and belonging to a
+respectable and very amiable family." Nor was he mistaken in his
+choice,--a more charming nature, a more perfect, well-rounded character
+than hers is rarely found. They were married on November 11, 1793. She
+was his faithful companion throughout his long and honorable career, and
+death separated them but by a few months. This alliance greatly widened
+his political connection.
+
+Commodore James Nicholson, his wife's father, famous in the naval annals
+of the United States as the captain of the Trumbull, the first of
+American frigates, at the time resided in New York, and was one of the
+acknowledged leaders of the Republican party in the city. His two
+brothers--Samuel and John--were captains in the naval service. His two
+elder daughters were married to influential gentlemen;--Catharine to
+Colonel Few, senator from Georgia; Frances, to Joshua Seney, member of
+Congress from Maryland; Maria later (1809) married John Montgomery, who
+had been member of Congress from Maryland, and was afterwards mayor of
+Baltimore. A son, James Witter Nicholson, then a youth of twenty-one,
+was, in 1795, associated with Mr. Gallatin in his Western Company, and,
+removing to Fayette, made his home in what was later and is now known as
+New Geneva. Here, in connection with Mr. Gallatin and the brothers
+Kramer, Germans, he established extensive glass works, which proved
+profitable.
+
+        *        *        *        *        *
+
+Mr. Gallatin's election to the United States Senate did not disqualify
+him for his unfinished legislative term, and, on his return to
+Philadelphia, he was again plunged in his manifold duties. The few days
+which intervened between his marriage and the meeting of Congress--a
+short honeymoon--were spent under the roof of Commodore Nicholson in New
+York.
+
+On February 28, 1793, the Vice-President laid before the Senate a
+certificate from the legislature of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania to
+the election of Albert Gallatin as senator of the United States. Mr.
+Gallatin took his seat December 2, 1793. The business of the session was
+opened by the presentation of a petition signed by nineteen individuals
+of Yorktown, Pennsylvania, stating that Mr. Gallatin had not been nine
+years a citizen of the United States. This petition had been handed to
+Robert Morris, Mr. Gallatin's colleague for Pennsylvania, by a member of
+the legislature for the county of York, but he had declined to present
+it, and declared to Mr. Gallatin his intention to be perfectly neutral
+on the occasion--at least so Mr. Gallatin wrote to his wife the next
+day; but Morris did not hold fast to this resolution, as the votes in
+the sequel show. The petition was ordered to lie upon the table. On
+December 11 Messrs. Rutherford, Cabot, Ellsworth, Livermore, and
+Mitchell were appointed a committee to consider the petition. These
+gentlemen, Gallatin wrote, were undoubtedly "the worst for him that
+could have been chosen, and did not seem to him to be favorably
+disposed." He himself considered the legal point involved as a nice and
+difficult one, and likely to be decided by a party vote. The fourth
+article of the Constitution of the first Confederation of the United
+States reads as follows:--
+
+     "The better to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and
+     intercourse among the people of the different States in this Union,
+     the free inhabitants of each of these States, paupers, vagabonds,
+     and fugitives from justice excepted, shall be entitled to all
+     privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States."
+
+Article 1, section 3, of the new Constitution declares:--
+
+     "No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the
+     age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United
+     States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that
+     State for which he shall be chosen."
+
+Mr. Gallatin landed in Massachusetts in July, 1780, while still a minor.
+His residence, therefore, which had been uninterrupted, extended over
+thirteen years. He took the oath of citizenship and allegiance to
+Virginia in October, 1785, since which, until his election in 1793, nine
+years, the period called for by the United States Constitution, had not
+elapsed. On the one hand, his actual residence exceeded the required
+period of citizenship; on the other, his legal and technical residence
+as a citizen was insufficient. In point of fact, his intention to become
+a citizen dated from the summer of 1783.
+
+To take from the case the air of party proscription, which it was
+beginning to assume, the Senate discharged its special committee, and
+raised a general committee on elections to consider this and other
+cases. On February 10, 1794, the report of this committee was submitted,
+and a day was set for a hearing by the Senate, with open doors. On that
+day Mr. Gallatin exhibited a written statement of facts, agreed to
+between himself and the petitioners, and the case was left to the Senate
+on its merits. On the 28th a test vote was taken upon a motion to the
+effect that "Albert Gallatin, returned to this House as a member for the
+State of Pennsylvania, is duly qualified for and elected to a seat in
+the Senate of the United States," and it was decided in the
+negative--yeas, 12; nays, 14.[2]
+
+Motion being made that the election of Albert Gallatin to be a senator
+of the United States was void,--he not having been a citizen of the
+United States for the term of years required as a qualification to be a
+senator of the United States,--it was further moved to divide the
+question at the word "void;" and the question being then taken on the
+first paragraph, it passed in the affirmative--yeas, 14; nays, 12. The
+yeas and nays were required, and the Senate divided as before. The
+resolution was then put and adopted by the same vote. Thus Mr. Gallatin,
+thirteen years a resident of the country, a large land-holder in
+Virginia, and for several terms a member of the Pennsylvania
+legislature, was excluded from a seat in the Senate of the United
+States.
+
+Mr. Gallatin conducted his case with great dignity. On being asked
+whether he had any testimony to produce, he replied, in writing, that
+there was not sufficient matter charged in the petition and proved by
+the testimony to vacate his seat, and declined to go to the expense of
+collecting evidence until that preliminary question was settled.
+
+Short as the period was during which Mr. Gallatin held his seat, it was
+long enough for him seriously to annoy the Federal leaders. Indeed, it
+is questionable whether, if he had delayed his embarrassing motion, a
+majority of the Senate could have been secured against him. Certain it
+is that the Committee on Elections, appointed on December 11, did not
+send in its report until the day after Mr. Gallatin moved his
+resolution, calling upon the secretary of the treasury for an elaborate
+statement of the debt on January 1, 1794, under distinct heads,
+including the balances to creditor States, a statement of loans,
+domestic and foreign, contracted from the beginning of the government,
+statements of exports and imports; finally for a summary statement of
+the receipts and expenditures to the last day of December, 1790,
+_distinguishing the moneys received under each branch of the revenue and
+the moneys expended under each of the appropriations, and stating the
+balances of each branch of the revenue remaining unexpended on that
+day_, and also calling for similar and separate statements for the years
+1791, 1792, 1793. This resolution, introduced on January 8, was laid
+over. On the 20th it was adopted. It was not until February 10 that a
+reply from the secretary of the treasury was received by the Senate, and
+on the 11th submitted to Gallatin, Ellsworth, and Taylor for
+consideration and report. In this letter (February 6, 1794) Hamilton
+stated the difficulty of supplying the precise information called for,
+with the clerical forces of the department, the interruption it would
+cause in the daily routine of the service, and deprecated the practice
+of such unexpected demands.
+
+With this response of the secretary the inquiry fell to the ground, but
+it was neither forgotten nor forgiven by his adherents, and Mr. Gallatin
+paid the penalty on at least one occasion. This was years later, when he
+himself was secretary of the treasury. On March 2, 1803, the day before
+the adjournment of Congress, Mr. Griswold, Federalist from Connecticut,
+attacked the correctness of the accounts of the sinking fund, and
+demanded an answer to a resolution of the House on the management of
+this bureau. Had such been his desire, Mr. Gallatin was foreclosed from
+Hamilton's excuse. On the night of the 3d he sent in an elaborate
+statement which set accusation at rest and criticism at defiance.
+
+Mr. Gallatin's short stay in the Senate revealed to the Federalists the
+character of the man, who, disdaining the lesser flight, checked only at
+the highest game. He accepted his exclusion with perfect philosophy.
+Soon after the session opened he said, "My feelings cannot be much hurt
+by an unfavorable decision, since having been elected is an equal proof
+of the confidence the legislature of Pennsylvania reposed in me, and not
+being qualified, if it is so decided, cannot be imputed to me as a
+fault." His exclusion was by no means a disadvantage to him. It made
+common cause of the honor of Pennsylvania and his own; it endeared him
+to the Republicans of his State as a martyr to their principles. It
+"secured him," to use his own words, "many staunch" friends throughout
+the Union, and extended his reputation, hitherto local and confined,
+over the entire land; more than all, it led him to the true field of
+political contest--the House of Representatives of the people of the
+United States.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 2: The yeas and nays being required by one fifth of the
+senators present, there were: _Affirmative_.--Bradley, Brown, Burr,
+Butler, Edwards, Gunn, Jackson, Langdon, Martin, Monroe, Robinson,
+Taylor; 12.
+
+_Negative_.--Bradford, Cabot, Ellsworth, Foster, Frelinghuysen, Hawkins,
+Izard, King, Livermore, Mitchell, Morris, Potts, Strong, Vining; 14.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE WHISKEY INSURRECTION
+
+
+Mr. Gallatin was now out of public life. For eighteen months since he
+came up to the legislature with his friends of the Pittsburgh
+convention, he had not returned to Fayette. His private concerns were
+suffering in his absence. Neither his barn, his meadow, nor his house
+was finished at the close of 1793. In May, 1794, he took his wife to his
+country home. Their hopes of a summer of recreation and domestic comfort
+in the wild beauties of the Monongahela were not to be realized. Before
+the end of June the peaceful country was in a state of mad agitation.
+
+The seeds of political discontent, sown at Pittsburgh in 1792, had
+ripened to an abundant harvest. An act passed by Congress June 5, 1794,
+giving to the state courts concurrent jurisdiction in excise cases,
+removed the grievance of which Gallatin complained, the dragging of
+accused persons to Philadelphia for trial, but was not construed to be
+retroactive in its operation. The marshal, accordingly, found it to be
+his duty to serve the writs of May 31 against those who had fallen under
+their penalties. These writs were returnable in Philadelphia. They were
+served without trouble in Fayette County. Not so in Allegheny. Here on
+July 15, 1794, the marshal had completed his service, when, while still
+in the execution of his office, and in company with the inspector, he
+was followed and fired upon. The next day a body of men went to the
+house of the marshal and demanded that he should deliver up his
+commission. They were fired upon and dispersed, six were wounded, and
+the leader killed. A general rising followed. The marshal's house,
+though defended by Major Kirkpatrick, with a squad from the Pittsburgh
+garrison, was set on fire, with the adjacent buildings, and burned. On
+July 18 the insurgents sent a deputation of two or three to Pittsburgh,
+to require of the marshal a surrender of the processes in his
+possession, and of the inspector the resignation of his office. These
+demands were, of course, rejected; but the officers, alarmed for their
+personal safety, left the town, and, descending the Ohio by boat to
+Marietta, proceeded by a circuitous route to Philadelphia, and made
+their report to the United States authorities.
+
+This was the outbreak of the Western or Whiskey Insurrection. The
+excitement spread rapidly through the western counties. Fayette County
+was not exempt from it. The collector's house was broken into, and his
+commission taken from him by armed men; the sheriff refused to serve the
+writs against the rioters of the spring. Since these disturbances there
+had been no trouble in this county. But the malcontents elsewhere rose
+in arms, riots ensued, and the safety of the whole community was
+compromised. The news reaching Fayette, the distillers held a meeting at
+Uniontown, the county seat, on July 20. Both Gallatin and Smilie were
+present, and by their advice it was agreed to submit to the laws. The
+neighboring counties were less fortunate. On July 21 the Washington
+County committee was summoned to meet at Mingo Creek Meeting-house. On
+the 23d there was a large assemblage of people, including a number of
+those who had been concerned in burning the house of the Pittsburgh
+inspector. James Marshall, the same who opposed the ratification of the
+federal Constitution, David Bradford, the "empty drum," and Judge
+Brackenridge of Pittsburgh, attended this meeting. Bradford, the most
+unscrupulous of the leaders, sought to shirk his responsibility, but was
+intimidated by threats, and thereafter did not dare to turn back.
+Brackenridge was present to counsel the insurgents to moderation. In
+spite of his efforts the meeting ended in an invitation, which the
+officers had not the boldness to sign, to the townships of the four
+western counties of Pennsylvania and the adjoining counties of Virginia
+to send representatives to a general meeting on August 14, at
+Parkinson's Ferry on the Monongahela, in Washington County. Bradford,
+determined to aggravate the disturbance, stopped the mail at Greensburg,
+on the road between Pittsburgh and Philadelphia, and robbed it of the
+Washington and Pittsburgh letters, some of which he published, to the
+alarm of their authors.
+
+On July 28 a circular signed by Bradford, Marshall, and others was sent
+out from Cannonsburg to the militia of the county, whom it summoned for
+personal service, and likewise called for volunteers to rendezvous the
+following Wednesday, July 30, at their respective places of meeting,
+thence to march to Braddock's Field, on the Monongahela, the usual
+rendezvous of the militia, about eight miles south of Pittsburgh, by two
+o'clock of Friday, August 1. It closed in these words, "Here is an
+expedition proposed in which you will have an opportunity for displaying
+your military talents and of rendering service to your country." Nothing
+less was contemplated by the more extreme of these men than an attack
+upon Fort Pitt and the sack of Pittsburgh. Thoroughly aroused at last,
+the moderate men of Washington determined to breast the storm. A meeting
+was held; James Ross of the United States Senate made an earnest appeal,
+and was supported by Scott of the House of Representatives and Stokely
+of the Senate of Pennsylvania. Marshall and Bradford yielded, and
+consented to countermand the order of rendezvous. But the excited
+population poured into the town from all quarters, and Bradford, who
+found that he had gone too far to retreat, again took the lead of the
+movement, already beyond restraint.
+
+There are accounts of this formidable insurrection by H. H. Brackenridge
+and William Findley, eye-witnesses. These supply abundant details.
+Findley says that he knew that the movement would not stop at the limit
+apparently set for it. "The opposing one law would lead to oppose
+another; they would finally oppose all, and demand a new modeling of the
+Constitution, and there would be a revolution." There was great alarm in
+Pittsburgh. A meeting was held there Thursday evening, July 31, at which
+a message from the Washington County insurgents was read, violent
+resolutions adopted, and the 9th of August appointed as the day for a
+town meeting for election of delegates to a general convention of the
+counties at Parkinson's Ferry; Judge Brackenridge of Pittsburgh, a man
+of education, influence, and infinite jest and humor, was present at
+this meeting. Of Scotch-Irish birth himself, his sympathies of race were
+with his countrymen, but in political sentiments he was not in harmony
+with their leaders. They were nearly all Republicans, while he had sided
+with the Federalists in the convention which adopted the new
+Constitution of the United States. He was a man of peace, and of too
+much sagacity not to foresee the inevitable ruin upon which they were
+rushing. At Mingo Creek he had thwarted the plans of immediate
+revolution. The evident policy of moderate men was to prevent any
+violence before the convention at Parkinson's Ferry should meet, and to
+bend all their energies to control the deliberations of that body. The
+people of Pittsburgh were intensely excited by the armed gathering
+almost at their doors.
+
+Brackenridge felt that the only safe issue from the situation was to
+take part in and shape the action of that gathering. Under his lead a
+committee from the Pittsburgh meeting, followed by a large body of the
+citizens, went out to the rendezvous. Here they found a motley
+assemblage, arrayed in the picturesque campaign costume which the
+mountaineers wore when they equipped themselves to meet the
+Indians,--yellow hunting-shirts, handkerchiefs tied about their heads,
+and rifles on the shoulder; the militia were on foot, and the light
+horse of the counties were in military dress. Conspicuous about the
+field, "haughty and pompous," as Gallatin described him in the
+legislature, was David Bradford, who had assumed the office of
+major-general. Brackenridge draws a lifelike picture of him as, mounted
+on a superb horse in splendid trappings, arrayed in full uniform, with
+plume floating in the air and sword drawn, he rode over the ground, gave
+orders to the military, and harangued the multitude. On the historic
+ground where Washington plucked his first military laurels were gathered
+about seven thousand men, of whom two thousand militia were armed and
+accoutred as for a campaign,--a formidable and remarkable assemblage,
+when it is considered that the entire male population of sixteen years
+of age and upwards of the four counties did not exceed sixteen
+thousand, and was scattered over a wide and unsettled country. This is
+Brackenridge's estimate of the numbers. Later, Gallatin, on comparison
+of the best attainable information, estimated the whole body at from
+fifteen hundred to two thousand men. Whatever violence Bradford may have
+intended, none was accomplished. That he read aloud the Pittsburgh
+letters, taken from the mail, shows his purpose to inflame the people to
+vindictive violence. He was accused by contemporary authorities of
+imitation of the methods of the French Jacobins, which were fresh
+examples of revolutionary vigor. But the mass was not persuaded. After
+desultory conversation and discussion, the angry turn of which was at
+times threatening to the moderate leaders, the meeting broke up on
+August 2; about one third dispersed for their homes, and the remainder,
+marching to Pittsburgh, paraded through the streets, and finally
+crossing the river in their turn scattered. They did no damage to the
+town beyond the burning of a farm belonging to Major Kirkpatrick of the
+garrison. The taverns were all closed, but the citizens brought whiskey
+to their doors. Judge Brackenridge reports that his sacrifice to peace
+on this occasion cost him four barrels of his best old rye.
+
+This moderation was no augury of permanent quiet. Brackenridge, who was
+a keen observer of men, says of the temper of the western population at
+this period: "I had seen the spirit which prevailed at the Stamp Act,
+and at the commencement of the revolution from the government of Great
+Britain, but it was by no means so general and so vigorous amongst the
+common people as the spirit which now existed in the country." Nor did
+the armed bands all return peaceably to their homes. The house of the
+collector for Fayette and Washington counties was burned, and warnings
+were given to those who were disposed to submit to the law. The
+disaffected were called "Tom the tinker" men, from the signature affixed
+to the threatening notices. From a passage in one of Gallatin's letters
+it appears that there was a person of that name, a New England man, who
+had been concerned in Shays's insurrection. Liberty poles, with the
+device, "An equal tax and no excise law," were raised, and the trees
+placarded with the old revolutionary motto, "United we stand, divided we
+fall," with a divided snake as an emblem. Mr. Gallatin's neighborhood
+was not represented at Braddock's Field, and not more than a dozen were
+present from the entire county. But now the flame spread there also, and
+liberty poles were raised. Mr. Gallatin himself, inquiring as to their
+significance and expressing to the men engaged the hope that they would
+not behave like a mob, was asked, in return, if he was not aware of the
+Westmoreland resolution that any one calling the people a mob should be
+tarred and feathered,--an amusing example of that mob logic which
+proves the affirmative of the proposition it denies.
+
+Mr. Gallatin did not attend the meeting at Braddock's Field. Somewhat
+isolated at his residence at the southerly border of the county, engaged
+in the care of his long neglected farm, and in the full enjoyment of
+release from the bustle and excitement of public life, he had paid
+little attention to passing events. He was preparing definitively to
+abandon political pursuits and to follow some kind of mercantile
+business, or take up some land speculation and study law in his
+intervals of leisure. It was not a year since he had given hostages to
+fortune. He was now in the full tide of domestic happiness, which was
+always to him the dearest and most coveted. He might well have hesitated
+before again engaging upon the dangerous and uncertain task of
+controlling an excited and aggrieved population. But he did not
+hesitate.
+
+The people among whom he had made his home, and whose confidence had
+never failed him, were his people. By them he would stand in their
+extremity, and if hurt or ruin befell them, it should not be for want of
+the interposition of his counsel. He knew his powers, and he determined
+to bring them into full play. He knew the danger also, but it only
+nerved him to confront and master it. He knew his duty, and did not
+swerve one hair from the line it prompted. In no part of his long,
+varied, and useful political life does he appear to better advantage
+than in this exciting episode of the Whiskey Insurrection. His
+self-possession, his cool judgment, swayed neither by timidity nor
+rashness, never for a moment failed him. Here he displayed that
+remarkable combination of persuasion and control,--the indispensable
+equipment of a political chief,--which, in later days, gave him the
+leadership of the Republican party. With intuitive perception of the
+political situation he saw that the only path to safety, beset with
+difficulty and danger though it were, was through the convention at
+Parkinson's Ferry. He did not believe that any revolutionary proceedings
+had yet been taken, or that the convention was an illegal body, but he
+was determined to separate the wheat from the chaff, and disengage the
+moderate and the law-abiding from the disorderly. By the light of his
+own experience he had learned wisdom. He also had drawn a lesson from
+the French Revolution, and knew the uncontrollable nature of large
+popular assemblages. The news from Philadelphia, the seat of government,
+was of a kind to increase his alarm. Washington was not the man to
+overlook such an insult to authority as the resistance to the marshal
+and inspector; nor was it probable that Hamilton would let pass such an
+occasion for showing the strength and vigor of the government.
+
+Before the meeting at Braddock's Field, the secretary's plans for a
+suppression of the insurrection were matured. On August 2 he laid
+before the President an estimate of the probable armed force of the
+insurgents, and of that with which he proposed to reduce them to
+submission. When the question of the use of force came before the
+cabinet, Edmund Randolph, who was secretary of state, opposed it in a
+written opinion, one phrase of which deserves repetition:--
+
+     "It is a fact well known that the parties in the United States are
+     highly inflamed against each other, and that there is but one
+     character which keeps both in awe. As soon as the sword shall be
+     drawn, who shall be able to retain them."
+
+Mifflin, the governor of Pennsylvania, deprecated immediate resort to
+force; the venerable Chief Justice McKean suggested the sending of
+commissioners on the part of the federal and state governments.
+Washington, with perfect judgment, combined these plans, and happily
+allied conciliation with force. A proclamation was issued on August 7
+summoning all persons involved in the disturbance to lay down their arms
+and repair to their homes by September 1. Requisitions were made upon
+the governors of Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and New Jersey for
+fifteen thousand men in all, and a joint commission of five was
+raised,--three of whom on the part of the United States were appointed
+by the President, and two on the part of the State of Pennsylvania. This
+news was soon known at Pittsburgh, and rapidly spread through the
+adjacent country; and it was clear that in the proceedings to be taken
+at Parkinson's Ferry the question of resistance or submission must be
+definitively settled. On August 14, 1794, the convention assembled; two
+hundred and twenty-six delegates in all, of whom ninety-three were from
+Washington, forty-nine from Westmoreland, forty-three from Allegheny,
+thirty-three from Fayette, two from Bedford, five from Ohio County in
+Virginia, with spectators to about the same number.
+
+Parkinson's Ferry, later called Williamsport, and now Monongahela City,
+is on the left bank of the Monongahela, about half way between
+Pittsburgh and Red Stone Old Fort or Brownsville. Brackenridge pictures
+the scene with his usual local color: "Our hall was a grove, and we
+might well be called 'the Mountain' (an allusion to the radical left of
+the French convention), for we were on a very lofty ground overlooking
+the river. We had a gallery of lying timber and stumps, and there were
+more people collected there than there was of the committee." In full
+view of the meeting stood a liberty pole, raised in the morning by the
+men who signed the Braddock's Field circular order, and it bore the
+significant motto, "Liberty and no excise and no asylum for cowards."
+Among the delegates, or the committee, to use their own term, were
+Bradford, Marshall, Brackenridge, Findley, and Gallatin. Before the
+meeting was organized, Marshall came to Gallatin and showed him the
+resolutions which he intended to move, intimating at the same time that
+he wished Mr. Gallatin to act as secretary. Mr. Gallatin told him that
+he highly disapproved the resolutions, and had come to oppose both him
+and Bradford, and therefore did not wish to serve. Marshall seemed to
+waver; but soon the people met, and Edward Cook of Fayette, who had
+presided at Braddock's Field, was chosen chairman, with Gallatin for
+secretary. Bradford opened the proceedings with a summary sketch of the
+action previously taken, declared the purpose of the committee to be to
+determine on a course of action, and his own views to be the appointment
+of committees to raise money, purchase arms, enlist volunteers, or draft
+the militia: in a word, though he did not use it, to levy war.
+
+At this point in the proceedings the arrival of the commissioners from
+the President was announced, but the progress of the meeting was not
+interrupted. The commissioners were at a house near the meeting, but
+there were serious objections against holding a conference at this
+place.
+
+Marshall then moved his resolutions. The first, declaratory of the
+grievance of carrying citizens great distances for trial, was
+unanimously agreed to. The second called for a committee of public
+safety "to call forth the resources of the western country to repel any
+hostile attempts that may be made against the rights of the citizens, or
+of the body of the people." Had this resolution been adopted, the people
+were definitively committed to overt rebellion. This brought Mr.
+Gallatin at once to his feet. He denied that any hostile attempts
+against the rights of the people were threatened, and drew an adroit
+distinction between the regular army, which had not been called out, and
+the militia, who were a part of the people themselves; and to gain time
+he moved a reference of the resolutions to a committee who should be
+instructed to wait the action of the government. In the course of his
+speech Gallatin denied the assertion that resistance to the excise law
+was legal, or that coercion by the government was necessarily hostile.
+He was neither supported by his own friends nor opposed by those of
+Bradford. He stood alone.
+
+But Marshall withdrew his resolution, and a committee of sixty was
+appointed, with power to summon the people. The only other objectionable
+resolution was that which pledged the people to the support of the laws,
+except the excise law and the taking of citizens out of their counties
+for trial,--an exception which Gallatin succeeded in having stricken
+out. He then urged the adoption of the resolution, without the
+exception, as necessary "to the establishment of the laws and the
+conservation of the peace," and here he was supported by Brackenridge.
+The entire resolutions were finally referred to a committee of
+four,--Gallatin, Bradford, Husbands, and Brackenridge. The meeting then
+adjourned. The next morning a standing committee of sixty was chosen,
+one from each township. From these a committee of twelve was selected
+to confer with the government commissioners. Upon this committee were
+Cook, the chairman, Bradford, Marshall, Gallatin, Brackenridge, and
+Edgar. The meeting then adjourned.
+
+Upon this representative body there seems to have been no outside
+pressure. The proclamation of the President, which arrived while it was
+in session, showed the determination, while the appointment of the
+commission showed the moderation, of the government. Gallatin availed of
+each circumstance with consummate adroitness, pointing out to the
+desperate the folly of resistance, and to the moderate an issue for
+honorable retreat.
+
+Meanwhile, the commissioners reached Pittsburgh, where on August 20 the
+committee of conference was received by them, and an informal
+understanding arrived at, which was put in writing. The laws were to be
+enforced with as little inconvenience to the people as possible. All
+criminal suits for indictable offenses were to be dropped, but civil
+suits were to take their course. Notice was given that a definitive
+submission must be made by September 1 following. On the 22d the
+conference committee answered that they must consult with the committee
+of sixty. Thursday the 28th was appointed for a meeting at Red Stone Old
+Fort, the very spot where the original resolutions of opposition were
+passed in 1791. In the report drawn up every member of the twelve,
+except Bradford, favored submission.
+
+The hour was critical, the deliberations were in the open air, and under
+the eyes of a threatening party of seventy riflemen accidentally present
+from Washington County across the stream. Bradford, who instinctively
+felt that he had placed himself beyond the pale of pardon, and to whom
+there was no alternative to revolution but flight, pressed an instant
+decision and rejection of the written terms of the commissioners. In the
+presence of personal danger, the conferrees only dared to move that part
+of their report which advised acceptance of the proffered terms. The
+question of submission they left untouched. An adjournment was obtained.
+The next day, to quote the words of Brackenridge, "the committee having
+convened, Gallatin addressed the chair in a speech of some hours. It was
+a piece of perfect eloquence, and was heard with attention and without
+disturbance." Never was there a more striking instance of intellectual
+control over a popular assemblage. He saved the western counties of
+Pennsylvania from anarchy and civil war. He was followed by
+Brackenridge, who, warned by the example of his companion, or encouraged
+by the quiet of the assemblage, supported him with vigor. Bradford, on
+the other hand, faced the issue with directness and savage vehemence. He
+repelled the idea of submission, and insisted upon an independent
+government and a declaration of war. Edgar of Washington rejoined in
+support of the report. Gallatin now demanded a vote, but the twelve
+conferrees alone supported him. He then proposed an informal vote, but
+without result. Finally a secret ballot was proposed by a member. A hat
+was passed, and when the slips of paper were taken out, there were
+thirty-four yeas and twenty-three nays. The report was declared to be
+adopted, and amid the scowls of the armed witnesses the meeting
+adjourned; not, however, before a new committee of conference had been
+appointed. On this new committee not one of the old leaders was named.
+They evidently knew the folly of further delay, or of attempting to
+secure better terms. As his final act Colonel Cook, the chairman of the
+standing committee of sixty, indorsed the resolution adopted. It
+declared it to be "to the interest of the people of the country to
+accede to the proposals made by the commissioners on the part of the
+United States." This was duly forwarded, with request for a further
+conference. The commissioners consented, but declined to postpone the
+time of taking the sense of the people beyond September 11.
+
+William Findley said of the famous and critical debate at Red Stone: "I
+had never heard speeches that I more ardently desired to see in print
+than those delivered on this occasion. They would not only be valuable
+on account of the oratory and information displayed in all the three,
+and especially in Gallatin's, who opened the way, but they would also
+have been the best history of the spirit and the mistakes which then
+actuated men's minds." Findley, in his allotment of the honors of the
+day, considers that "the verbal alterations made by Gallatin saved the
+question." Brackenridge thought that his own seeming to coincide with
+Bradford prevented the declaration of war; and he has been credited with
+having saved the western counties from the horrors of civil war,
+Pittsburgh from destruction, and the Federal Union from imminent danger.
+
+Historians have agreed in according to Gallatin the honor of this field
+day. It was left to John C. Hamilton, half a century later, to charge a
+want of courage upon Gallatin,--a baseless charge.[3] Not Malesherbes,
+the noble advocate defending the accused monarch before the angry French
+convention, with the certainty of the guillotine as the reward of his
+generosity, is more worthy of admiration than Gallatin boldly pleading
+the cause of order within rifle range of an excited band of lawless
+frontiersmen. If, as he confessed later, in his part in the Pittsburgh
+resolutions he was guilty of "a political sin," he nobly atoned for it
+under circumstances that would have tried the courage of men bred to
+danger and to arms. Sin it was, and its consequences were not yet summed
+up. For although the back of the insurrection was broken at Red Stone
+Old Fort, there was much yet to be done before submission could be
+completed.
+
+Bradford attempted to sign, but found that his course at Red Stone Old
+Fort had placed him outside the amnesty. Well might the moderate men say
+in their familiar manner of Scripture allusion, "Dagon is fallen." He
+fled down the Ohio and Mississippi to Louisiana, then foreign soil. The
+commissioners waited at Pittsburgh for the signatures of adhesion on
+September 10, which was the last day allowed by the terms of amnesty.
+They required that meetings should be held on this day in the several
+townships; the presiding officers to report the result to commissioner
+Ross at Uniontown the 16th of the same month, on which day he would set
+out for Philadelphia. The time was inadequate, but there was no help.
+Gallatin hastened the submission of Fayette, and a meeting of committees
+from the several townships met at the county seat, Uniontown, on
+September 10, 1794, when a declaration drawn by Mr. Gallatin was
+unanimously adopted. A passage in this admirable paper shows the
+comparative order which prevailed in Fayette County during this period
+of trouble. It is an appeal to the people of the neighboring counties,
+who, under the influence of their passions and resentment, might blame
+those of Fayette for their moderation.
+
+     "The only reflection we mean to suggest to them is the
+     disinterestedness of our conduct upon this occasion. The indictable
+     offences to be buried in oblivion were committed amongst them, and
+     almost every civil suit that has been instituted under the revenue
+     law, in the federal court, was commenced against citizens of this
+     county. By the terms proposed, the criminal prosecutions are to be
+     dropped, but no condition could be obtained for the civil suits. We
+     have been instrumental in obtaining an amnesty, from which those
+     alone who had a share in the riots derive a benefit, and the other
+     inhabitants of the western country have gained nothing for
+     themselves."
+
+This declaration was forwarded on September 17 to Governor Mifflin, with
+reasons for the delay, and advice that signatures were fast being
+obtained, not only in the neighboring counties, but even in Fayette,
+where this formality had not been thought necessary. It closes with a
+forcible appeal to delay the sending of troops until every conciliatory
+measure should have proved abortive.
+
+But the commissioners, unfortunately, were not favorably impressed with
+the reception they met with or the scenes they witnessed on their
+western mission. They had heard of Bradford's threat to establish an
+independent government west of the mountains, and they had seen a
+liberty pole raised upon which the people with the greatest difficulty
+had been dissuaded from hoisting a flag with six stripes--emblematic of
+the six counties represented in the committee. The flag was made, but
+set aside for the fifteen stripes with reluctance. This is Findley's
+recollection, but Brackenridge says that it was a flag of seven stars
+for the four western counties, Bedford, and the two counties of
+Virginia. This, he adds, was the first and only manifestation among any
+class of a desire to separate from the Union. But here his memory
+failed him.
+
+Hamilton had long been impatient. Again, as in old days, he presented
+his arguments directly to the people. Under the heading, "Tully to the
+people of the United States," he printed a letter on August 26, of which
+the following is a passage:--
+
+     "Your representatives in Congress, pursuant to the commission
+     derived from you, and with a full knowledge of the public
+     exigencies, have laid an excise. At three succeeding sessions they
+     have revised that act ... and _you_ have actually paid more than a
+     million of dollars on account of it. But the four western counties
+     of Pennsylvania undertake to rejudge and reverse your decrees.
+     _You_ have said, 'The Congress _shall have power_ to lay
+     _excises_.' They say, 'The Congress shall _not have_ this power;'
+     or, what is equivalent, they shall not exercise it, for a _power_
+     that may not be exercised is a nullity. Your representatives have
+     said, and four times repeated it, 'An excise on distilled spirits
+     _shall_ be collected;' they say, 'It _shall not_ be collected. We
+     will punish, expel, and banish the officers who shall attempt the
+     collection.'"
+
+The peace commissioners returned to Philadelphia and made their report
+on September 24. The next day, September 25, Washington issued a
+proclamation calling out the troops. In it he again warned the
+insurgents. The militia, already armed, accoutred, and equipped, and
+awaiting marching orders, moved at once. Governor Mifflin at first
+hesitated about his power to call out the militia, but when the
+President's requisition was made, he summoned the legislature in special
+session, and obtained from it a hearty support, with authority to accept
+volunteers and offer a bounty. Thus fortified, he made a tour through
+the lower counties of the State, and by his extraordinary popular
+eloquence soon filled up the ranks. The old soldier led his troops in
+person. Those of New Jersey were commanded by their governor, Richard
+Howell of Revolutionary fame. These formed the right wing and marched to
+rendezvous at Bedford to cross the mountains by the northern and
+Pennsylvania route. The left wing, composed of the Virginia troops,
+under the veteran Morgan, and those of Maryland, under Samuel Smith, a
+brigadier-general in the army of the Revolution, assembled at Cumberland
+to cross the mountains by Braddock's Road. The chief command was
+confided to Governor Henry Lee of Virginia. Washington accompanied the
+army as far as Bedford. Hamilton continued with it to Pittsburgh, which
+was reached in the last days of October and the first of November, after
+a wearisome march across the mountains in heavy weather. Arrived in the
+western counties, the army found no opposition.
+
+Meanwhile, on October 2, the standing committee met again at Parkinson's
+Ferry, and unanimously adopted resolutions declaring the general
+submission, and explaining the reasons why signatures to the amnesty had
+not been general. Findley and Redick were appointed to take these
+resolutions to the President, and to urge him to stop the march of the
+troops. They met the left wing at Carlisle. Washington received them
+courteously, but did not consent to countermand the march. They hurried
+back for more unequivocal assurances, which they hoped to be able to
+carry to meet Washington on his way to review the right wing. On October
+14, the day of the autumn elections, general submissions were
+universally signed, and finally, on October 24, a third and last meeting
+was held at Parkinson's Ferry, at which a thousand people attended,
+when, with James Edgar, chairman, and Albert Gallatin, secretary, it was
+resolved, first, that the civil authority was fully competent to punish
+both past and future breaches of the law; secondly, that surrender
+should be made of all persons charged with offenses, in default of which
+the committee would aid in bringing them to justice; thirdly, that
+offices of inspection might be opened, and that the distillers were
+willing and ready to enter their stills.
+
+These resolutions were published in the "Pittsburgh Gazette." Findley
+carried them to Bedford, but before he reached the army the President
+had returned to Philadelphia. The march of the army was not stopped. The
+two wings made a junction at Uniontown. Companies of horse were
+scattered through the country. New submissions were made, and the oath
+of allegiance, required by General Lee, was generally taken.
+
+Hamilton now investigated the whole matter of the insurrection, and it
+was charged against him, and the charge is supported by Findley, with
+names of persons, that he spared no effort to secure evidence to bring
+Gallatin within the pale of an indictment. Of course he failed in this
+purpose, if indeed it were ever seriously entertained. But the belief
+that Gallatin was the arch-fiend, who instigated the Whiskey
+Insurrection, had already become a settled article in the Federalist
+creed, and for a quarter of a century, long after the Federalist party
+had become a tradition of the past, the Genevan was held up to scorn and
+hatred, as an incarnation of deviltry--an enemy of mankind.
+
+On the 8th of November, Hamilton, who remained with the army, wrote to
+the President that General Lee had concluded to take hold of all who are
+worth the trouble by the military arm, and then to deliver them over to
+the disposition of the judiciary. In the mean time, he adds, "all
+possible means are using to obtain evidence, and accomplices will be
+turned against the others."
+
+The night of November 13, 1794, was appointed for the arrests; a
+dreadful night Findley describes it to have been. The night was frosty;
+at eight o'clock the horse sallied forth, and before daylight arrested
+in their beds about two hundred men. The New Jersey horse made the
+seizures in the Mingo Creek settlement, the hot-bed of the insurrection
+and the scene of the early excesses. The prisoners were taken to
+Pittsburgh, and thence, mounted on horses, and guarded by the
+Philadelphia Gentlemen Corps, to the capital. Their entrance into
+Cannonsburg is graphically described by Dr. Carnahan, president of
+Princeton College, in his account of the insurrection.
+
+     "The contrast between the Philadelphia horsemen and the prisoners
+     was the most striking that can be imagined. The Philadelphians were
+     some of the most wealthy and respectable men of that city. Their
+     uniform was blue, of the finest broadcloth. Their horses were large
+     and beautiful, all of a bay color, so nearly alike that it seemed
+     that every two of them would make a good span of coach horses.
+     Their trappings were superb. Their bridles, stirrups, and
+     martingales glittered with silver. Their swords, which were drawn,
+     and held elevated in the right hand, gleamed in the rays of the
+     setting sun. The prisoners were also mounted on horses of all
+     shapes, sizes, and colors; some large, some small, some long tails,
+     some short, some fat, some lean, some every color and form that can
+     be named. Some had saddles, some blankets, some bridles, some
+     halters, some with stirrups, some with none. The riders also were
+     various and grotesque in their appearance. Some were old, some
+     young, some hale, respectable looking men; others were pale,
+     meagre, and shabbily dressed. Some had great coats,--others had
+     blankets on their shoulders. The countenance of some was downcast,
+     melancholy, dejected; that of others, stern, indignant, manifesting
+     that they thought themselves undeserving such treatment. Two
+     Philadelphia horsemen rode in front and then two prisoners, and two
+     horsemen and two prisoners, actually throughout a line extending
+     perhaps half a mile.... If these men had been the ones chiefly
+     guilty of the disturbance, it would have been no more than they
+     deserved. But the guilty had signed the amnesty, or had left the
+     county before the army approached."
+
+Dallas, the secretary of state, Gallatin's friend, was one of this
+troop. Gallatin saw him soon after his return. In a letter to his wife
+of December 3, Gallatin relates the experience of the trooper who had
+little stomach for the work he had to do.
+
+     "I saw Dallas yesterday. Poor fellow had a most disagreeable
+     campaign of it. He says the spirits, I call it the madness, of the
+     Philadelphia Gentlemen's Corps was beyond conception before the
+     arrival of the President. He saw a list (handed about through the
+     army by officers, nay, by a general officer) of the names of those
+     persons who were to be destroyed at all events, and you may easily
+     guess my own was one of the most conspicuous. Being one day at
+     table with sundry officers, and having expressed his opinion that,
+     if the army were going only to support the civil authority, and not
+     to do any military execution, one of them (Dallas did not tell me
+     his name, but I am told it was one Ross of Lancaster, aide-de-camp
+     to Mifflin) half drew a dagger he wore instead of a sword, and
+     swore any man who uttered such sentiments ought to be dagged. The
+     President, however, on his arrival, and afterwards Hamilton, took
+     uncommon pains to change the sentiments, and at last it became
+     fashionable to adopt, or at least to express, sentiments similar to
+     those inculcated by them."
+
+Randolph was, perhaps, not far out of the way in his fear of a civil war
+should blood be drawn, and in his conviction that the influence of
+Washington was the only sedative for the fevered political pulse. On
+November 17 general orders were issued for the return of the army, a
+detachment of twenty-five hundred men only remaining in the West, under
+command of General Morgan. There were no further disturbances. The army
+expenses gave a circulating medium, and the farmers, having now the
+means to pay their taxes, made no further complaints of the excise law.
+The total expense of the insurrection to the government was $800,000.
+
+Mr. Gallatin returned with his wife from his western home early in
+November. He had been again chosen at the October elections to represent
+Fayette in the Pennsylvania Assembly. Moreover, at the same time, he was
+elected to represent the congressional district of Washington and
+Allegheny in the House of Representatives of the United States. Of four
+candidates Gallatin led the poll. Judge Brackenridge was next in order.
+No better proof is needed of the firm hold Gallatin had in the esteem
+and affection of the people. No doubt, either, that they understood his
+principles, and relied upon his sincere attachment to the country he had
+made his home.
+
+When he appeared to take his seat in the Assembly he found that his
+election was contested. A petition was presented from thirty-four
+persons calling themselves peaceable citizens of Washington County,
+which stated that their votes had not been cast, because of the
+disturbed condition of the country, and requested the Assembly to
+declare the district to have been in a state of insurrection at the time
+of the election, and to vacate the same. Mr. Gallatin knew the person
+who procured the signatures, and also that the business originated in
+the army. It was couched in terms insulting to all the members elect
+from that district. After a protracted debate the election was declared
+void on January 9, 1795. It was during this debate that Mr. Gallatin
+made the celebrated speech called "The speech on the western elections,"
+in which occurs the confession already alluded to. Speaking of the
+Pittsburgh resolutions of 1792, he said:--
+
+     "I might say that those resolutions did not originate at
+     Pittsburgh, as they were almost a transcript of the resolutions
+     adopted at Washington the preceding year; and I might even add that
+     they were not introduced by me at the meeting. But I wish not to
+     exculpate myself where I feel I have been to blame. The sentiments
+     thus expressed were not illegal or criminal; yet I will freely
+     acknowledge that they were violent, intemperate, and reprehensible.
+     For, by attempting to render the office contemptible, they tended
+     to diminish that respect for the execution of the laws which is
+     essential to the maintenance of a free government; but whilst I
+     feel regret at the remembrance, though no hesitation in this open
+     confession of that _my only political sin_, let me add that the
+     blame ought to fall where it is deserved."
+
+This was the first speech of Gallatin that appeared in print--simple,
+lucid, convincing. The result of the new Assembly election would
+naturally determine the right of the representatives of the contested
+district to their seats in Congress. Word had gone forth from the
+Treasury Department that Gallatin must not take his seat in Congress,
+and the whippers-in took heed of the desire of their chief. A line of
+instruction to Badollet, who lived at Greensburg in Washington County,
+across the river from Gallatin's residence, determined the matter.
+Gallatin warned him against the attempt that would be made to disaffect
+that district because none of the representatives whose seats had been
+vacated were residents of it. "Fall not into the snare," he wrote; "take
+up nobody from your own district; reelect unanimously the same members,
+whether they be your favorites or not. It is necessary for the sake of
+our general character." Here is an instance of that true political
+instinct which made of him "the ideal party leader." His advice was
+followed, and all the members were reelected but one, who declined. Mr.
+Gallatin returned to his seat in the Assembly on February 14, and
+retained it until March 12, when he asked and obtained leave of absence.
+He does not appear to have taken further part in the session. The
+subjects, personal to himself, which occupied his attention during the
+summer will be touched upon elsewhere.
+
+The pitiful business of the trial of the western prisoners needs only
+brief mention. In May Gallatin was summoned before the grand jury as a
+witness on the part of the government. The inquiry was finished May 12,
+and twenty-two bills were found for treason. Against Fayette two bills
+were found; one for misdemeanor in raising the liberty pole in
+Uniontown. The petit jury was composed of twelve men from each of the
+counties of Fayette, Washington, Allegheny, and Northumberland, but none
+from Westmoreland. One man, a German from Westmoreland, who was
+concerned in a riot in Fayette, was found guilty and condemned to death.
+Mr. Gallatin, at the request of the jury, drew a petition to the
+President, who granted a pardon. Washington extended mercy to the only
+other offender who incurred the same penalty.
+
+To the close of this national episode, which, in its various phases of
+incident and character, is of dramatic interest, Gallatin, through good
+repute and ill repute, stood manfully by his constituents and friends.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 3: Hamilton's _History of the Republic_, vi. 96.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+MEMBER OF CONGRESS
+
+
+The first session of the fourth Congress began at Philadelphia on
+Monday, December 7, 1795. Washington was president, John Adams
+vice-president. No one of Washington's original constitutional advisers
+remained in his cabinet. Jefferson retired from the State Department at
+the beginning of the first session of the third Congress. Edmund
+Randolph, appointed in his place, resigned in a cloud of obloquy on
+August 19, 1795, and the portfolio was temporarily in charge of Timothy
+Pickering, secretary of war. Hamilton resigned the department of the
+Treasury on January 31, 1795, and Oliver Wolcott, Jr., succeeded him in
+that most important of the early offices of the government. General
+Henry Knox, the first secretary of war, pressed by his own private
+affairs and the interests of a large family, withdrew on December 28,
+1794, and Timothy Pickering, the postmaster-general, had been appointed
+in his stead January 2, 1795. The Navy Department was not as yet
+established (the act creating it was passed April 30, 1798), but the
+affairs which concerned this branch of the public service were under
+the direction of the secretary of war. The administration of Washington
+was drawing to a close. In the lately reconstructed cabinet, honest,
+patriotic, and thorough in administration, there was no man of shining
+mark. The Senate was still in the hands of the Federal party. The bare
+majority which rejected Gallatin in the previous Congress had increased
+to a sufficient strength for party purposes, but neither in the ranks of
+the administration nor the opposition was there in this august
+assemblage one commanding figure.
+
+The House was nearly equally divided. The post of speaker was warmly
+contested. Frederick A. Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania, who had presided
+over the House at the sessions of the first Congress, 1789-1791, and
+again over the third, 1793-1795, was the candidate of the Federalists,
+but was defeated by Jonathan Dayton of New Jersey, whose views in the
+last session had drifted him into sympathy with the Republican
+opposition. The House, when full, numbered one hundred and five members,
+among whom were the ablest men in the country, veterans of debate versed
+in parliamentary law and skilled in the niceties of party fence. In the
+Federal ranks, active, conscious of their power, and proud of the great
+party which gloried in Washington as their chief, were Robert Goodloe
+Harper of South Carolina, Theodore Sedgwick of Massachusetts, Roger
+Griswold and Uriah Tracy of Connecticut, who led the front and held the
+wings of debate; while in reserve, broken in health but still in the
+prime of life, the pride of his party and of the House, was Fisher Ames,
+the orator of his day, whose magic tones held friend and foe in rapt
+attention, while he mastered the reason or touched the heart. Upon these
+men the Federal party relied for the vindication of their principles and
+the maintenance of their power. Supporting them were William Vans Murray
+of Maryland, Goodrich and Hillhouse of Connecticut, William Smith of
+South Carolina, Sitgreaves of Pennsylvania, and in the ranks a
+well-trained party. Opposed to this formidable array of Federal talent
+was the Republican party, young, vigorous, and in majority, bold in
+their ideas but as yet hesitating in purpose under the controlling if
+not overruling influence of the name and popularity of Washington.
+
+[Illustration: Rob. G. Harper]
+
+Hamilton watched the shifting fortunes of his party from a distance, and
+found time in the pressure of a large legal practice to aid each branch
+of administration in turn with his advice. But though he still inspired
+its councils, he no longer directed its course. In his Monticello home
+Jefferson waited till the fruit was ripe for falling, occasionally
+impatient that his followers did not more roughly shake the tree.
+
+The open rupture of Jefferson with Hamilton was the first great break in
+the Federal administration; the lukewarmness of Madison, whose leanings
+were always towards Jefferson, followed.
+
+At the head of the Republican opposition was Madison. Wise in council,
+convincing in argument, an able and even adroit debater, he was an
+admirable leader, but his tactics were rather of the closet than the
+field. He was wanting in the personal vigor which, scorning defense,
+delights in bold attack upon the central position of the enemy, and
+carries opposition to the last limit of parliamentary aggression. With
+this mildness of character, though recognized as the leader of his
+party, he, as a habit, waived his control upon the floor of the House,
+and, reserving his interference for occasions when questions of
+constitutional interpretation arose, left the general direction of
+debate to William B. Giles of Virginia, a skillful tactician and a ready
+debater, keen, bold, and troubled by no scruples of modesty, respect, or
+reverence for friend or foe. Of equal vigor, but of more reserve, was
+John Nicholas of Virginia--a man of strong intellect, reliable temper,
+and with the dignity of the old school. To these were now added Albert
+Gallatin and Edward Livingston. Edward Livingston, from New York, was
+young, and as yet inexperienced in debate, but of remarkable powers. He
+was another example of that early intellectual maturity which was a
+characteristic of the time.
+
+When Congress met, the all-disturbing question was the foreign policy of
+the United States. The influence of the French Revolution upon American
+politics was great. The Federalists, conservative in their views, held
+the new democratic doctrines in abhorrence, and used the terrible
+excesses of the French Revolution with telling force against their
+Republican adversaries. The need of a strong government was held up as
+the only alternative to anarchy. In the struggle which now united Europe
+against the French republic, the sympathies of the Federalists were with
+England. Hence they were accused of a desire to establish a monarchy in
+the United States, and were ignominiously called the British party.
+Shays's Rebellion in Massachusetts and the Whiskey Insurrection in
+Pennsylvania gave point to their arguments.
+
+On the other side was the large and powerful party which, throughout the
+war in the Continental Congress, under the confederation in the national
+convention which framed and in the state conventions which ratified the
+Constitution, had opposed the tendency to centralization, but had been
+defeated by the yearning of the body of the plain people for a
+government strong enough at least to secure them peace at home and
+protection abroad. This natural craving being satisfied, the old
+aversion to class distinctions returned. The dread of an aristocracy,
+which did not exist even in name, threw many of the supporters of the
+Constitution into the ranks of its opponents, who were democrats in name
+and in fact. The proclamation of the rights of man awoke this latent
+sentiment, and aroused an intense sympathy for the people of France.
+This again was strengthened by the memory, still warm, of the services
+of France in the cause of independence. Lafayette, who represented the
+true French republican spirit, and held a place in the affections of the
+American people second only to that of Washington, was languishing, a
+prisoner to the coalition of sovereigns, in an Austrian dungeon.
+
+Jefferson returned from France deeply imbued with the spirit of the
+French Revolution. His views were warmly received by his political
+friends, and the principles of the new school of politics were rapidly
+spread by an eager band of acolytes, whose ranks were recruited until
+the feeble opposition became a powerful party. Democratic societies,
+organized on the plan of the French Jacobin clubs, extended French
+influence, and no doubt were aided in a practical way by Genet, whose
+recent marriage with the daughter of George Clinton, the head of the
+Republican party in New York, was an additional link in the bond of
+alliance.
+
+During the second session of the third Congress Madison had led the
+opposition in a mild manner; party lines were not yet strongly defined,
+and the influence of Washington was paramount. In the interim between
+its expiration and the meeting of the fourth Congress in December, the
+country was wildly agitated by the Jay treaty. This document not
+reaching America until after the adjournment of Congress in March,
+Washington convened the Senate in extra and secret session on June 1,
+and the treaty was ratified by barely two thirds majority. Imprudently
+withheld for a time, it was at last made public by Senator Mason of
+Virginia, one of the ten who voted against its ratification. It
+disappointed the people, and was denounced as a weak and ignominious
+surrender of American rights. The merchants of Boston, New York,
+Philadelphia, and Charleston protested against it in public meetings. It
+was burned, and the English flag was trailed in the dust before the
+British minister's house at the capital. Jay was hung in effigy, and
+Hamilton, who ventured to defend the treaty at a public meeting, was
+stoned. To add to the popular indignation that the impressment of
+American seamen had been ignored in the instrument, came the alarming
+news that the British ministry had renewed their order to seize vessels
+carrying provisions to France, whither a large part of the American
+grain crop was destined. On the other hand, Randolph, the secretary of
+state, had compromised the dignity of his official position in his
+intercourse with Fauchet, the late French ambassador, whose
+correspondence with his government, thrown overboard from a French
+packet, had been fished up by a British man-of-war, and forwarded to
+Grenville, by whom it was returned to America. Thus petard answered
+petard, and the charge by the Republicans upon the Federalists of taking
+British gold was returned with interest, and the accusation of receiving
+bribe money was brought close home to Randolph, if not proved.
+
+Hard names were not wanting either; Jefferson was ridiculed as a
+_sans-culotte_ and red-legged Democrat. Nor was Washington spared. He
+was charged with an assumption of royal airs, with political hypocrisy,
+and even with being a public defaulter; a charge which no one dared to
+father, and which was instantly shown to be false and malicious. It was
+made by Bache in "The Aurora," a contemptible sheet after the fashion of
+"L'Ami du Peuple," Marat's Paris organ.
+
+Such was the temper of the people when the House of Representatives met
+on December 7, 1795. The speaker, Dayton, was strongly anti-British in
+feeling. He was a family connection of Burr, but there is no reason to
+suppose that he was under the personal influence of that adroit and
+unscrupulous partisan. On the 8th President Washington, according to his
+custom, addressed both houses of Congress. This day for the first time
+the gallery was thrown open to the public. When the reply of the Senate
+came up for consideration, the purpose of the Republicans was at once
+manifest. They would not consent to the approbation it expressed of the
+conduct of the administration. They would not admit that the causes of
+external discord had been extinguished "on terms consistent with our
+national honor and safety," or indeed extinguished at all, and they
+would not acknowledge that the efforts of the President to establish the
+peace, freedom, and prosperity of the country had been "enlightened and
+firm." Nevertheless the address was agreed to by a vote of 14 to 8.
+
+In the House a resolution was moved that a respectful address ought to
+be presented. The opposition immediately declared itself. Objection was
+made to an address, and in its stead the appointment of a committee to
+wait personally on the President was moved. The covert intent was
+apparent through the thin veil of expediency, but the Republicans as a
+body were unwilling to go this length in discourtesy, and did not
+support the motion. Only eighteen members voted for it. Messrs. Madison,
+Sedgwick, and Sitgreaves, the committee to report an address, brought in
+a draft on the 14th which was ordered to be printed for the use of the
+members. The next day the work of dissection was begun by an objection
+to the words "probably unequaled spectacle of national happiness"
+applied to the country, and the words "undiminished confidence" applied
+to the President. The words "probably unequaled" were stricken out
+without decided opposition by a vote of forty-three to thirty-nine.
+Opinions were divided on that subject even in the ranks of the
+Federalists. The cause of dissatisfaction was the Jay treaty. The
+address was recommitted without a division. The next day Madison brought
+in the address with a modification of the clause objected to. In its new
+form the "very great share" of Washington's zealous and faithful
+services in securing the national happiness was acknowledged. The
+address thus amended was unanimously adopted. In this encounter nothing
+was gained by the Republicans. The people would not have endured an open
+declaration of want of confidence in Washington. But the entering wedge
+of the new policy was driven. The treaty was to be assailed. It was,
+however, the pretext, not the cause of the struggle, the real object of
+which was to extend the powers of the House, and subordinate the
+executive to its will. Before beginning the main attack the Republicans
+developed their general plan in their treatment of secondary issues; of
+these the principal was a tightening of the control of the House over
+the Treasury Department.
+
+In this Mr. Gallatin took the lead. His first measure was the
+appointment of a standing Committee of Finance to superintend the
+general operations of this nature,--an efficient aid to the Treasury
+when there is accord between the administration and the House, an
+annoying censor when the latter is in opposition. This was the beginning
+of the Ways and Means Committee, which soon became and has since
+continued to be the most important committee of the House. To it were to
+be referred all reports from the Treasury Department, all propositions
+relating to revenue, and it was to report on the state of the public
+debt, revenue, and expenditures. The committee was appointed without
+opposition. It consisted of fourteen members, William Smith, Sedgwick,
+Madison, Baldwin, Gallatin, Bourne, Gilman, Murray, Buck, Gilbert,
+Isaac Smith, Blount, Patten, and Hillhouse, and represented the strength
+of both political parties. To this committee the estimates of
+appropriations for the support of the government for the coming year
+were referred. The next step was to bring to the knowledge of the House
+the precise condition of the Treasury. To this end the secretary was
+called upon to furnish comparative views of the commerce and tonnage of
+the country for every year from the formation of the department in 1789,
+with tables of the exports and imports, foreign and domestic, separately
+stated, and with a division of the nationality of the carrying vessels.
+Later, comparative views were demanded of the receipts and expenditures
+for each year; the receipts under the heads of Loans, Revenue in its
+various forms, and others in their several divisions; the expenditures,
+also, to be classified under the heads of Civil List, Foreign
+Intercourse, Military Establishment, Indian Department, Naval, etc.
+Finally a call was made for a statement of the annual appropriations and
+the applications of them by the Treasury. The object of Mr. Gallatin was
+to establish the expenses of the government in each department of
+service on a permanent footing for which annual appropriations should be
+made, and for any extraordinary expenditure to insist on a special
+appropriation for the stated object and none other. By keeping
+constantly before the House this distinction between the permanent fund
+and temporary exigencies, he accustomed it to take a practical business
+view of its legislative duties, and the people to understand the
+principles he endeavored to apply.
+
+In a debate at the beginning of the session, on a bill for establishing
+trading houses with the Indians, Mr. Gallatin showed his hand by
+declaring that he would not consent to appropriate any part of the war
+funds for the scheme; nor, in view of the need of additional permanent
+funds for the discharge of the public debt, would he vote for the bill
+at all, unless there was to be a reduction in the expense of the
+military establishment; and he would not be diverted from his purpose
+although Mr. Madison advocated the bill because of its extremely
+benevolent object. The Federal leaders saw clearly to what this doctrine
+would bring them, and met it in the beginning. The first struggle
+occurred when the appropriations for the service of 1796 were brought
+before the House. Beginning with a discussion upon the salaries of the
+officers of the mint, the debate at once passed to the principle of
+appropriations. The Federalists insisted that a discussion of the merits
+of establishments was not in order when the appropriations were under
+consideration; that the House ought not, by withholding appropriations,
+to destroy establishments formed by the whole legislature, that is, by
+the Senate and House; that the House should vote for the appropriations
+agreeably to the laws already made. This view was sanctioned by
+practice. Mr. Gallatin immediately opposed this as an alarming and
+dangerous principle. He insisted that there was a certain discretionary
+power in the House to appropriate or not to appropriate for any object
+whatever, whether that object were authorized or not. It was a power
+vested in the House for the purpose of checking the other branches of
+government whenever necessary. He claimed that this power was shown in
+the making of yearly instead of permanent appropriations for the civil
+list and military establishments, yet when the House desired to
+strengthen public credit it had rendered the appropriation for those
+objects permanent and not yearly. It was, therefore, "contradictory to
+suppose that the House was bound to do a certain act at the same time
+that they were exercising the discretionary power of voting upon it."
+The debate determined nothing, but it is of interest as the first
+declaration in Congress of the supremacy of the House of
+Representatives.
+
+The great debate which, from the principles involved in it as well as
+the argument and oratory with which they were discussed, made this
+session of the House famous, was on the treaty with Great Britain. This
+was the first foreign treaty made since the establishment of the
+Constitution. The treaty was sent in to the House "for the information
+of Congress," by the President, on March 1, with notice of its
+ratification at London in October. The next day Mr. Edward Livingston
+moved that the President be requested to send in a copy of the
+instructions to the minister of the United States who negotiated the
+treaty, together with the correspondence and other documents. A few days
+later he amended his resolution by adding an exception of such of said
+papers as any existing negotiations rendered improper to disclose. The
+Senate in its ratification of the treaty suspended the operation of the
+clause regulating the trade with the West Indies, on which Great Britain
+still imposed the old colonial restriction, and recommended the
+President to open negotiations on this subject; and in fact such
+negotiations were in progress. The discussion was opened on the Federal
+side by a request to the gentlemen in favor of the call to give their
+reasons. Mr. Gallatin supported the resolution, and expressed surprise
+at any objection, considering that the exception of the mover rendered
+the resolution of itself unexceptionable. The President had not informed
+the House of the reasons upon which the treaty was based. If he did not
+think proper to give the information sought for, he would say so to
+them. A question might arise whether the House should get at those
+secrets even if the President refused the request, but that was not the
+present question. In reply to Mr. Murray, who asserted that the treaty
+was the supreme law of the land, and that there was no discretionary
+power in the House except on the question of its constitutionality, Mr.
+Gallatin said that Congress possessed the power of regulating
+trade,--perhaps the treaty-making power clashed with that,--and
+concluded by observing that the House was the grand inquest of the
+nation, and that it had the right to call for papers on which to ground
+an impeachment. At present he did not contemplate an exercise of that
+right. Mr. Madison said it was now to be decided whether the general
+power of making treaties supersedes the powers of the House of
+Representatives, particularly specified in the Constitution, so as to
+give to the executive all deliberative will and leave the House only an
+executive and ministerial instrumental agency; and he proposed to amend
+the resolution so as to read, "except so much of said papers as in his
+(the President's) judgment it may be inconsistent with the interest of
+the United States at this time to disclose." But his motion was defeated
+by a vote of 47 nays to 37 yeas.
+
+The discussion being resumed in committee of the whole, the expressions
+of opinion were free on both sides, but so moderate that one of the
+members made comment on the calmness and temper of the discussion.
+Nicholas said that, if the treaty were not the law of the land, the
+President should be impeached. But the parts of the treaty into which
+the President had not the right to enter, he could not make law by
+proclamation. Swanwick supported the call as one exercised by the House
+of Commons. On the Federal side, Harper said that the papers were not
+necessary, and, being unnecessary, the demand was an improper and
+unconstitutional interference with the executive department. If he
+thought them necessary, he would change the milk and water style of the
+resolutions. In that case the House had a right to them and he had no
+idea of requesting as a favor what should be demanded as a right.
+Gallatin, he said, had declared that it was a request, but that in case
+of refusal it might be considered whether demand should not be made, and
+he charged that when, at the time the motion was made, the question had
+been asked, what use was to be made of the papers, Gallatin did not and
+could not reply. Mr. Gallatin answered that whether the House had a
+discretionary power, or whether it was bound by the instrument, there
+was no impropriety in calling for the papers. He hoped to have avoided
+the constitutional question in the motion, but as the gentlemen had come
+forward on that ground, he had no objection to rest the decision of the
+constitutional power of Congress on the fate of the present question. He
+would therefore state that the House had a right to ask for the papers.
+
+The constitutional question being thus squarely introduced, Mr. Gallatin
+made an elaborate speech, which, from its conciseness in statement,
+strength of argument, and wealth of citations of authority, was, to say
+the least, inferior to no other of those drawn out in this memorable
+struggle. In its course he compared the opinion of those who had opposed
+the resolution to the saying of an English bishop, that the people had
+nothing to do with the law but to obey it, and likened their conduct to
+the servile obedience of a Parliament of Paris under the old order of
+things. He concluded with the hope that the dangerous doctrine, that the
+representatives of the people have not the right to consult their
+discretion when about exercising powers delegated by the Constitution,
+would receive its death-blow. Griswold replied in what by common consent
+was the strongest argument on the Federal side. The call, at first view
+simple, had, he said, become a grave matter. The gist of his objection
+to it was that the people in their Constitution had made the treaty
+power paramount to the legislative, and had deposited that power with
+the President and Senate.
+
+Mr. Madison once more rose to the constitutional question. He said that,
+if the passages of the Constitution be taken literally, they must clash.
+The word _supreme_, as applied to treaties, meant as over the state
+Constitutions, and not over the Constitution and laws of the United
+States. He supported Mr. Gallatin's view of the congressional power as
+cooeperative with the treaty power. A construction which made the treaty
+power omnipotent he thought utterly inadmissible in a constitution
+marked throughout with limitations and checks.
+
+Mr. Gallatin again claimed the attention of the House, as the original
+question of a call for papers had resolved itself into a discussion on
+the treaty-making power. In the treaty of peace of 1783 there were
+three articles which might be supposed to interfere with the legislative
+powers of the several States: 1st, that which related to the payment of
+debts; 2d, the provision for no future confiscations; 3d, the
+restitution of estates already confiscated. The first could not be
+denied. "Those," he said, "might be branded with the epithet of
+disorganizers, who threatened a dissolution of the Union in case the
+measures they dictated were not obeyed; and he knew, although he did not
+ascribe it to any member of the House, that men high in office and
+reputation had industriously spread an alarm that the Union would be
+dissolved if the present motion was carried." He took the ground that a
+treaty is not valid, and does not bind the nation as such, till it has
+received the sanction of the House of Representatives. Mr. Harper closed
+the argument on the Federal side. On March 24 the resolution calling for
+the papers was carried by a vote of yeas 62, nays 37, absent 5, the
+speaker 1 (105). Livingston and Gallatin were appointed to present the
+request to the President.
+
+On March 30 the President returned answer to the effect that he
+considered it a dangerous precedent to admit this right in the House;
+that the assent of the House was not necessary to the validity of a
+treaty; and he absolutely refused compliance with the request. The
+letter of instructions to Jay would bear the closest examination, but
+the cabinet scorned to take shelter behind it, and it was on their
+recommendation that the President's refusal was explicit. This message,
+in spite of the opposition of the Federalists, was referred, by a vote
+of 55 yeas to 37 nays, to the committee of the whole. This reference
+involved debate. In his opposition to this motion, Mr. Harper said that
+the motives of the friends of the resolution had been avowed by the
+"gentleman who led the business, from Pennsylvania;" whereby it appears
+that Mr. Gallatin led the Republicans in the first debate. During this
+his first session he shared this distinction with Mr. Madison. At the
+next he became the acknowledged leader of the Republican party.
+
+On April 3 the debate was resumed. This second debate was led by Mr.
+Madison, who considered two points: 1st, the application for papers; 2d,
+the constitutional rights of Congress. His argument was of course calm
+and dispassionate after his usual manner. The contest ended on April 7,
+with the adoption of two resolutions: 1st, that the power of making
+treaties is exclusively with the President and Senate, and the House do
+not claim an agency in making them, or ratifying them when made; 2d,
+that when made a treaty must depend for the execution of its
+stipulations on a law or laws to be passed by Congress; and the House
+have a right to deliberate and determine the expediency or inexpediency
+of carrying treaties into effect. These resolutions were carried by a
+vote of 63 to 27.
+
+There was now a truce of a few days. In the meanwhile the country was
+agitated to an extent which, if words mean anything, really threatened
+an attempt at dissolution of the Union, if not civil war itself. The
+objections on the part of the Republicans were to the treaty as a whole.
+Their sympathies were with France in her struggle for liberty and
+democratic institutions and against England, and their real and proper
+ground of antipathy to the instrument lay in its concession of the right
+of capture of French property in American vessels, whilst the treaty
+with France forbade her to seize British property in American vessels.
+The objections in detail had been formulated at the Boston public
+meeting the year before. The commercial cities were disturbed by the
+interference with the carrying trade; the entire coast, by the search of
+vessels and the impressment of seamen; the agricultural regions, by the
+closing of the outlet for their surplus product; the upland districts,
+by the stoppage of the export of timber. But the country was without a
+navy, was ill prepared for war, and the security of the frontier was
+involved in the restoration of the posts still held by the British.
+
+The political situation was uncertain if not absolutely menacing. The
+threats of disunion were by no means vague. The Pendleton Society in
+Virginia had passed secession resolutions, and a similar disposition
+appeared in other States. While the treaty was condemned in the United
+States, British statesmen were not of one opinion as to the advantages
+they had gained by Grenville's diplomacy. Jay's desire, expressed to
+Randolph, "to manage so that in case of wars our people should be united
+and those of England divided," was not wholly disappointed. And there is
+on record the expression of Lord Sheffield, when he heard of the rupture
+in 1812, "We have now a complete opportunity of getting rid of that most
+impolitic treaty of 1794, when Lord Grenville was so perfectly duped by
+Jay."[4] Washington's ratification of the treaty went far to correct the
+hasty judgment of the people, and to reconcile them to it as a choice of
+evils. Supported by this modified tone of public opinion, the
+Federalists determined to press the necessary appropriation bills for
+carrying the treaties into effect. Besides the Jay treaty there were
+also before the House the Wayne treaty with the Indians, the Pinckney
+treaty with Spain, and the treaty with Algiers. With these three the
+House was entirely content, and the country was impatient for their
+immediate operation. Wayne's treaty satisfied the inhabitants on the
+frontier. The settlers along the Ohio, among whom was Gallatin's
+constituency, were eager to avail themselves of the privileges granted
+by that of Pinckney, which was a triumph of diplomacy; and all America,
+while ready to beard the British lion, seems to have been in terror of
+the Dey of Algiers. Mr. Sedgwick offered a resolution providing for the
+execution of the four treaties. Mr. Gallatin insisted on and received a
+separate consideration of each. That with Great Britain was reserved
+till the rest were disposed of. It was taken up on April 14. Mr. Madison
+opened the debate. He objected to the treaty as wanting in real
+reciprocity; 2d, in insufficiency of its provisions as to the rights of
+neutrals; 3d, because of its commercial restrictions. Other Republican
+leaders followed, making strong points of the position in which the
+treaty placed the United States with regard to France, to whom it was
+bound by a treaty of commercial alliance, which was a part of the
+contract of aid in the Revolutionary War; and also of the possible
+injustice which would befall American claimants in the British courts of
+admiralty.
+
+The Federalists clung to their ground, defended the treaty as the best
+attainable, and held up as the alternative a war, for which the refusal
+of the Republicans to support the military establishment and build up a
+navy left the country unprepared. In justice to Jay, his significant
+words to Randolph, while doubtful of success in his negotiation, should
+be remembered: "Let us hope for the best and prepare for the worst." To
+the red flag which the Federalists held up, Mr. Gallatin replied,
+accepting the consequences of war if it should come, and gave voice to
+the extreme dissatisfaction of the Virginia radicals with Jay and the
+negotiation. He charged that the cry of war and threats of a
+dissolution of the government were designed for an impression on the
+timidity of the House. "It was through the fear of being involved in a
+war that the negotiation with Great Britain had originated; under the
+impression of fear the treaty had been negotiated and signed; a fear of
+the same danger, that of war, had promoted its ratification; and now
+every imaginary mischief which could alarm our fears was conjured up in
+order to deprive us of that discretion which this House thought they had
+a right to exercise, and in order to force us to carry the treaty into
+effect." He insisted on the important principle that 'free ships make
+free goods,' and complained of its abandonment by the negotiators.
+
+In a reply to this attack upon Jay, whose whole life was a refutation of
+the charge of personal or moral timidity, Mr. Tracy passed the limits of
+parliamentary courtesy. "The people," he said, "where he was most
+acquainted, whatever might be the character of other parts of the Union,
+were not of the stamp to cry hosannah to-day and crucify to-morrow; they
+will not dance around a whiskey pole to-day and curse their government,
+and upon hearing of a military force sneak into a swamp. No," said he,
+"my immediate constituents, whom I very well know, understand their
+rights and will defend them, and if they find the government will not
+protect them, they will attempt at least to protect themselves;" and he
+concluded, "I cannot be thankful to that gentleman for coming all the
+way from Geneva to give Americans a character for pusillanimity." He
+held it madness to suppose that if the treaty were defeated war could be
+avoided. Called to order, he said that he might have been too personal,
+and asked pardon of the gentleman and of the House.
+
+The brilliant crown of the debate was the impassioned speech of Fisher
+Ames, the impression of which upon the House and the crowded gallery is
+one of the traditions of American oratory. The scene, as it has been
+handed down to us, resembles, in all save its close, that which
+Parliament presented when Chatham made his last and dying appeal. Like
+the great earl, Ames rose pale and trembling from illness to address a
+House angry and divided. Defending himself and the Federal party against
+the charge of being in English interest, he said, "Britain has no
+influence, and can have none. She has enough--and God forbid she ever
+should have more. France, possessed of popular enthusiasm, of party
+attachments, has had and still has _too much influence_ on our
+politics,--any foreign influence is too much and ought to be destroyed.
+I detest the man and disdain the spirit that can ever bend to a mean
+subserviency to the views of any nation. It is enough to be American.
+That character comprehends our duties and ought to engross our
+attachments." Considering the probable influence on the Indian tribes of
+the rejection of the treaty, he said, "By rejecting the Posts we light
+the savage fires, we bind the victims.... I can fancy that I listen to
+the yells of savage vengeance and shrieks of torture. Already they seem
+to sigh in the west wind,--already they mingle with every echo from the
+mountains." His closing words again bring Chatham to mind. "Yet I have
+perhaps as little personal interest in the event as any one here. There
+is, I believe, no member who will not think his chance to be a witness
+of the consequences greater than mine. If, however, the vote should pass
+to reject, and a spirit should rise, as rise it will, with the public
+disorders to make confusion worse confounded, even I, slender and almost
+broken as my hold upon life is, may outlive the government and
+Constitution of my country." This appeal, supported by the petitions and
+letters which poured in upon the House, left no doubt of the result. An
+adjournment was carried, but the speech was decisive. The next day,
+April 29, it was resolved to be expedient to make the necessary
+appropriations to carry the treaty into effect. The vote stood 49 ayes
+to 49 nays, and was decided in the affirmative by Muhlenberg, who was in
+the chair. But the House would not be satisfied without an expression of
+condemnation of the instrument. On April 30 it was resolved that in the
+opinion of the House the treaty was objectionable.
+
+While Mr. Gallatin in this debate rose to the highest rank of
+statesmanship, he showed an equal mastery of other important subjects
+which engaged the attention of the House during the session. He was
+earnest for the protection of the frontier, but had no good opinion of
+the Indians. "Twelve years had passed," he said, "since the peace of
+1783; ever since that time he had lived on the frontier of Pennsylvania.
+Not a year of this period had passed, whether at war or peace, that some
+murders had not been committed by the Indians, and yet not an act of
+invasion or provocation by the inhabitants." In the matter of
+impressment of American seamen, he urged the lodging of sufficient power
+in the executive. Men had been impressed, and he held it to be the duty
+of the House to take notice of it by war or negotiation. In the
+establishment of land offices for the sale of the western lands he
+brought to bear upon legislation his practical experience. He urged that
+the tracts for sale be divided, and distinctions be made between large
+purchasers and actual settlers--proposing that the large tracts be
+sold at the seat of government, and the small on the territory itself.
+He instanced the fact that in 1792 all the land west of the Ohio was
+disposed of at 1_s_. 6_d_. the acre, and a week afterwards was resold at
+$1.50, so that the money which should have gone into the treasury went
+to the pockets of speculators. He also suggested that the proceeds of
+the sales should be a fund to pay the public debt, and that the public
+stock should always be received at its value in payment for land; a plan
+by which the land would be brought directly to the payment of the debt,
+as foreigners would gladly exchange the money obligations of the
+government for land. On the question of taxation he declared himself in
+favor of direct taxes, and held that a tax on houses and lands could be
+levied without difficulty. He would satisfy the people that it was to
+pay off the public debt, which he held to be a public curse. He
+supported the excise duty on stills under regulations which would avoid
+the watching of persons and houses and inspection by officers, and
+proposed that licenses be granted for the time applied for.
+
+The military establishment he opposed in every way, attacked the
+principle on which it was based, and fought every appropriation in
+detail, from the pay of a major-general to the cost of uniforms for the
+private soldiers. He was not afraid of the army, he said, but did not
+think that it was necessary for the support of the government or
+dangerous to the liberties of the people; moreover, it cost six hundred
+thousand dollars a year, which was a sum of consequence in the condition
+of the finances.
+
+The navy found no more favor in his eyes. He denied that fleets were
+necessary to protect commerce. He challenged its friends to show, from
+the history of any nation in Europe as from our own, that commerce and
+the navy had gone hand in hand. There was no nation except Great
+Britain, he said, whose navy had any connection with commerce. Navies
+were instruments of power more calculated to annoy the trade of other
+nations than to protect that of the nations to which they belonged. The
+price England had paid for her navy was a debt of three hundred millions
+of pounds sterling. He opposed appropriations even for the three
+frigates, United States, Constitution, and Constellation,--the
+construction of which had been ordered,--the germs of that navy which
+was later to set his theory at naught, redeem the honor of the flag,
+protect our commerce, and release the country and the civilized world
+from ignominious tribute to the Mediterranean pirates, who were
+propitiated in this very session only at the cost of a million of
+dollars to the Treasury of the United States, and by the gift of a
+frigate.
+
+In the debate over the payment of the sum of five millions, which the
+United States Bank had demanded from the government, the greatest part
+of which had been advanced on account of appropriations, he lamented the
+necessity, but urged the liquidation. This was the occasion of another
+personal encounter. In reply to a charge of Gallatin that the
+Federalists were in favor of debt, Sedgwick alluded to Gallatin's part
+in the Whiskey Insurrection, and said that none of those gentlemen whom
+Gallatin had charged with "an object to perpetuate and increase the
+public debt" had been known to have combined "in every measure which
+might obstruct the operation of law," nor had declared to the world
+"that the men who would accept of the offices to perform the necessary
+functions of government were lost to every sense of virtue;" "that from
+them was to be withheld every comfort of life which depended on those
+duties which as men and fellow-citizens we owe to each other. If," he
+said, "the gentlemen had been guilty of such nefarious practices, there
+would have been a sound foundation for the charge brought against them."
+Gallatin made no reply. This was the one political sin he had
+acknowledged. His silence was his expiation.
+
+The Treasury Department and its control, past and present, was the
+object of his unceasing criticism. In April, 1796, he said, "The
+situation of the gentleman at the head of the department [Wolcott] was
+doubtless delicate and unpleasant; it was the more so when compared with
+that of his predecessor [Hamilton]. Both indeed had the same power to
+borrow money when necessary; but that power, which was efficient in the
+hands of the late secretary and liberally enough used by him, was become
+useless at present. He wished the present secretary to be extricated
+from his present difficulty. Nothing could be more painful than to be at
+the head of that department with an empty treasury, a revenue inadequate
+to the expenses, and no means to borrow." Nevertheless he feared that if
+it were declared that the payment of the debt incurred by themselves
+were to be postponed till the present generation were over, it might
+well be expected that the principle thus adopted by them would be
+cherished, that succeeding legislatures and administrations would follow
+in their steps, and that they were laying the foundations of that
+national curse,--a growing and perpetual debt.
+
+On the last day of the session W. Smith had challenged the correctness
+of Gallatin's charge that there had been an increase of the public debt
+by five millions under the present administration, and claimed that
+there were errors in Gallatin's statement of more than four and a half
+millions. Gallatin defended his figures. At this day it is impossible to
+determine the merits of this dispute.
+
+One incident of this session deserves mention as showing the distaste of
+Gallatin for anything like personal compliment, stimulated in this
+instance, perhaps, by his sense of Washington's dislike to himself. It
+had been the habit of the House since the commencement of the government
+to adjourn for a time on February 22, Washington's birthday, that
+members might pay their respects to the President. When the motion was
+made that the House adjourn for _half an hour_, the Republicans
+objected, and Gallatin, nothing loath to "bell the cat," moved that the
+words "half an hour" be struck out. His amendment was lost without a
+division. The motion to adjourn was then put and lost by a vote of 50
+nays to 38 ayes. The House waited on the President at the close of the
+business of the day. On June 1 closed this long and memorable session,
+in which the assaults of the Republicans upon the administration were so
+persistent and embarrassing as to justify Wolcott's private note to
+Hamilton, April 29, 1796, that "unless a radical change of opinion can
+be effected in the Southern States, the existing establishments will not
+last eighteen months. The influence of Messrs. Gallatin, Madison, and
+Jefferson must be diminished, or the public affairs will be brought to a
+stand." Here is found an early recognition of the political
+"triumvirate," and Gallatin is the first named.
+
+Gallatin seems to have had some doubts as to his reelection to Congress.
+As he did not reside in the Washington and Allegheny district, his name
+was not mentioned as a candidate, and, to use his own words, he expected
+to "be gently dropped without the parade of a resignation." In his
+distaste at separation from his wife, the desire to abandon public life
+grew upon him. But personal abuse of him in the newspapers exasperating
+his friends, he was taken up again in October, and he arrived on the
+scene, he says, too late to prevent it. He had no hope, however, of
+success, and was resolved to resign a seat to which he was in every way
+indifferent. "Ambition, love of power," he wrote to his wife on October
+16, he had never felt, and he added, if vanity ever made one of the
+ingredients which impelled him to take an active part in public life, it
+had for many years altogether vanished away. He was nevertheless
+reelected by the district he had represented.
+
+        *        *        *        *        *
+
+The second session of the fourth Congress began on December 5, 1796. At
+the beginning of this session Mr. Gallatin took the reins of the
+Republican party, and held them till its close. The position of the
+Federalists had been strengthened before the country by the energy of
+Washington, who, impatient of the delays which Great Britain opposed to
+the evacuation of the posts, marched troops to the frontier and obtained
+their surrender. Adet, the new French minister, had dashed the feeling
+of attachment for France by his impudent notice to the President that
+the dissatisfaction of France would last until the executive of the
+United States should return to sentiments and measures more conformable
+to the interests and friendships of the two nations. In September
+Washington issued his Farewell Address, in which he gave the famous
+warning against foreign complications, which, approved by the country,
+has since remained its policy; but neither the prospect of his final
+withdrawal from the political and official field, nor the advice of
+Jefferson to moderate their zeal, availed to calm the bitterness of the
+ultra Republicans in the House.
+
+The struggle over the answer to the President's message, which Fisher
+Ames on this occasion reported, was again renewed. An effort was made to
+strike out the passages complimentary to Washington and expressing
+regret at his approaching retirement. Giles, who made the motion, went
+so far as to say that he 'wished him to retire, and that this was the
+moment for his retirement, that the government could do very well
+without him, and that he would enjoy more happiness in his retirement
+than he possibly could in his present situation.' For his part he did
+not consider Washington's administration either "wise or firm," as the
+address said. Gallatin made a distinction between the administration and
+the legislature, and in lieu of the words, wise, firm, and patriotic
+administration, proposed to address the compliment directly to the
+wisdom, firmness, and patriotism of Washington. But Ames defended his
+report, and it was adopted by a vote of 67 to 12. Gallatin voted with
+the majority, but Livingston, Giles, and Macon held out with the small
+band of disaffected, among whom it is amusing also to find Andrew
+Jackson, who took his seat at this Congress to represent Tennessee,
+which had been admitted as a State at the last session.[5]
+
+The indebtedness of the States to the general government, in the old
+balance sheet, on the payment of which Gallatin insisted, was a subject
+of difference between the Senate and the House. Gallatin was appointed
+chairman of the committee of conference on the part of the House. The
+reduction of the military establishment, which he wished to bring down
+to the footing of 1792, was again insisted upon. Gallatin here
+ingeniously argued against the necessity for the number of men
+proposed, that it was a mere matter of opinion, and if it was a matter
+of opinion, it was not strictly necessary, because if necessary it was
+no longer a matter of opinion. Naval appropriations were also opposed,
+on the ground that a navy was prejudicial to commerce. Taxation, direct
+and indirect, and compensation to public officers were also subjects of
+debate at this session. On the subject of appropriations, general or
+special, he was uncompromising. He charged upon the Treasury Department
+that notwithstanding the distribution of the appropriations they thought
+themselves at liberty to take money from an item where there was a
+surplus and apply it to another where it was wanted. To check such
+irregularity, he secured the passage of a resolution ordering that "the
+several sums shall be solely applied to the objects for which they are
+respectively appropriated," and tacked it to the appropriation bill. The
+Senate added an amendment removing the restriction, but Gallatin and
+Nicholas insisting on its retention, the House supported them by a vote
+of 52 to 36, and the Senate receded.
+
+Notwithstanding the apparent enthusiasm of the House in the early part
+of the session, when the tricolor of France, a present from the French
+government to the United States, was sent by Washington to Congress, to
+be deposited with the archives of the nation, French influence was on
+the wane. The common sense of the country got the better of its
+passion. In the reaction the Federalists regained the popular favor for
+a season.
+
+Whatever latent sympathy the French people may have had for America as
+the nation which set the example of resistance to arbitrary rule, the
+French government certainly was moved by no enthusiasm for abstract
+rights. Its only object was to check the power of their ancient enemy,
+and deprive it of its empire beyond the seas. Nevertheless, France did
+contribute materially to American success. The American government and
+people acknowledged the value of her assistance, and, in spite of the
+prejudices of race, there was a strong bond of sympathy between the two
+nations; and when, in her turn, France, in 1789, threw off the feudal
+yoke, she expected and she received the sympathy of America. Beyond this
+the government and the people of the United States could not and would
+not go. The position of France in the winter of 1796-97 was peculiar.
+She was at war with the two most formidable powers of Europe,--Austria
+and England, the one the mistress of Central Europe, the other supreme
+ruler of the seas. The United States was the only maritime power which
+could be opposed to Great Britain. The French government determined to
+secure American aid by persuasion, if possible, otherwise by threat. The
+Directory indiscreetly appealed from the American government to the
+American people, forgetting that in representative governments these are
+one. Nor was the precedent cited in defense of this unusual
+proceeding--namely, the appeal of the American colonists to the people
+of England, Ireland, and Canada to take part in the struggle against the
+British government--pertinent; for that was an appeal to sufferers under
+a common yoke.
+
+The enthusiasm awakened in France by the dramatic reception of the
+American flag, presented by Monroe to the French Convention, was
+somewhat dampened by the cooler manner with which Congress received the
+tricolor, and was entirely dashed by the moderation of the reply of the
+House to Washington's message. The consent of the House to the
+appropriations to carry out the Jay Treaty decided the French Directory
+to suspend diplomatic relations with the United States. The marvelous
+successes of Bonaparte in Italy over the Austrian army encouraged Barras
+to bolder measures. The Directory not only refused to receive Charles C.
+Pinckney, the new American minister, but gave him formal notice to
+retire from French territory, and even threatened him with subjection to
+police jurisdiction. In view of this alarming situation, President Adams
+convened Congress.
+
+The first session of the fifth Congress began at Philadelphia on Monday,
+May 15, 1797. Jonathan Dayton was reelected speaker of the House. Some
+new men now appeared on the field of national debate: Samuel Sewall and
+Harrison Gray Otis from Massachusetts, James A. Bayard from Delaware,
+and John Rutledge, Jr., from South Carolina. Madison and Fisher Ames did
+not return, and their loss was serious to their respective parties.
+Madison was incontestably the finest reasoning power, and Ames, as an
+orator, had no equal in our history until Webster appeared to dwarf all
+other fame beside his matchless eloquence. Parties were nicely balanced,
+the nominal majority being on the Federal side. Harper and Griswold
+retained the lead of the administration party. Giles still led the
+Republican opposition, but Gallatin was its main stay, always ready,
+always informed, and already known to be in the confidence of Jefferson,
+its moving spirit. The President's message was, as usual, the touchstone
+of party. The debate upon it unmasked opinions. It was to all intents a
+war message, since it asked provision for war. The action of France left
+no alternative. The Republicans recognized this as well as the
+Federalists. They must either respond heartily to the appeal of the
+executive to maintain the national honor, or come under the charge they
+had brought against the Federalists of sympathy with an enemy. At first
+they sought a middle ground. Admitting that the rejection of our
+minister and the manner of it, if followed by a refusal of all
+negotiation on the subject of mutual complaints, would put an end to
+every friendly relation between the two countries, they still hoped that
+it was only a suspension of diplomatic intercourse. Hence, in response
+to the assurance in the message that an attempt at negotiation would
+first be made, Nicholas moved an amendment in this vein. The Federalists
+opposed all interference with the executive, but the Republicans took
+advantage of the debate to clear themselves of any taint of unpatriotic
+motives in their semi-opposition. The Federalists, repudiating the
+charge of British influence, held up Genet to condemnation, as making an
+appeal to the people, Fauchet as fomenting an insurrection, and Adet as
+insulting the government. The Republicans retorted upon them Grenville's
+proposition to Mr. Pinckney, to support the American government against
+the dangerous Jacobin factions which sought to overturn it. Gallatin
+deprecated bringing the conduct of foreign relations into debate, and
+hoped that the majority would resist the rashness which would drive the
+country into war; he claimed that a disposition should be shown to put
+France on an equal footing with other nations. He would offer an
+ultimatum to France. Harper closed the debate in a powerful and
+brilliant speech, opposing the amendment because he was for peace, and
+because peace could only be maintained by showing France that we were
+preparing for war. So the rival leaders based their opposite action on a
+common ground. Dayton, the speaker, now embodied Gallatin's idea in
+another form, and introduced a paragraph to the effect that "the House
+receive with the utmost satisfaction the information of the President
+that a fresh attempt at negotiation will be instituted, and cherish the
+hope that a mutual spirit of conciliation and a disposition on the part
+of the United States to place France on grounds as favorable as other
+countries will produce an accommodation compatible with the engagements,
+rights, and honor of our nation."
+
+Kittera, who was one of the committee on the address, then moved to add
+after "mutual spirit of conciliation" the clause, "to compensate for any
+injury done to our neutral rights," etc. This both Harper and Gallatin
+opposed. Gallatin objected to being forced to this choice. To vote in
+its favor was a threat, if compensation were refused; to vote against it
+was an abandonment of the claim. But he should oppose it, if forced to a
+choice. The Federal leaders insisted; the previous question was ordered,
+51 to 48. Here Mr. Gallatin showed himself the leader of his party. He
+stated that, the majority having determined the question, it was now a
+choice of evils, and he should vote for the amendment, and it was
+adopted, 78 ayes to 21 nays. Among the nays were Harper, the Federalist
+leader, Giles, the nominal chief of the Republicans, and Nicholas, high
+in rank in that party. But the last word was not yet said. Edward
+Livingston, who day by day asserted himself more positively, denied that
+the conduct of the executive had been "just and impartial to foreign
+nations," and moved to strike out the statement; Gallatin was more
+moderate. Though he did not believe that in every instance the
+government had been just and impartial, yet, generally speaking, it had
+been so. He did not approve the British treaty, though he attributed no
+bad motives to its makers; but he did not think that the laws respecting
+the subordinate departments of the executive and judiciary had been
+fairly executed. He therefore would not consent to the sentence in the
+answer to the address, that the House did not hesitate to declare that
+"they would give their most cordial support to principles so
+deliberately and uprightly established."
+
+What, he asked, were these principles? Otis denounced this as an artful
+attempt to cast a censure, not only on the executive, but on all the
+departments of government, and Allen of Connecticut declared "that there
+was American blood enough in the House to approve this clause and
+American accent enough to pronounce it." The rough prejudice of the
+Saxon against the Latin race showed itself in this language, and
+expressed the antagonism which Mr. Gallatin found to increase with his
+political progress. Both the resolution and the amendment were defeated,
+53 nays to 45 yeas. But when the final vote came upon the address, Mr.
+Gallatin, with that practical sense which made him the sheet anchor of
+his party in boisterous weather, voted with the Federalists and carried
+the moderate Republicans with him. The vote was 62 to 36. Among the
+irreconcilables the name of Edward Livingston is recorded.
+
+The answer of the President was a model of good sense. "No event can
+afford me so much cordial satisfaction as to conduct a negotiation with
+the French Republic to a removal of prejudices, a correction of errors,
+a dissipation of umbrages, an accommodation of all differences, and a
+restoration of harmony and affection to the mutual satisfaction of both
+nations."
+
+This was the leading debate of the session. The situation was too grave
+for trifling. On June 5, two days after the President's reply,
+resolutions were introduced to put the country in a state of defense.
+Gallatin struggled hard to keep down the appropriations, and opposed the
+employment of the three frigates, which as yet had not been equipped or
+manned. If they got to sea, the President would have no option except to
+enforce the disputed articles of the French treaty. Gallatin laid down
+also the law of search in accordance with the law of nations, and
+pointed out that resistance to search or capture by merchantmen would
+not only lead to war, but was war. In the remaining acts of the session
+he was in favor of the defense of ports and harbors, with no preference
+as to fortification on government territory; in favor of a prohibition
+of the export of arms; against raising an additional corps of artillery;
+against expatriation of persons who took service under foreign
+governments. He opposed the duty on salt as unequal and unnecessary, and
+sought to have the loan, which became necessary, cut down to the exact
+sum of the deficiency in the appropriations; and finally, on the
+impeachment of William Blount, Senator of the United States, charged
+with having conspired with the British government to attack the
+Spaniards of St. Augustine, he pointed out the true method of procedure
+in the preparation of the bill of impeachment and the arraignment of the
+offender.
+
+The House adjourned on July 10. Jefferson complained of the weakness and
+wavering of this Congress, the majority of which shifted with the breeze
+of "panic or prowess." This was, however, a very narrow view; for at
+this session the House fairly represented the prevailing sentiment of
+the country, which was friendly to France as a nation, but indignant
+with the insolence of her rulers. Gallatin, in the middle of the
+session, wrote to his wife that the Republicans "were beating and beaten
+by turns." He supposed that her father, Commodore Nicholson, 'thought
+him too moderate and about to trim,' and then declared, 'Moderation and
+firmness hath ever been, and ever will be, my motto.' Gallatin tells a
+story of his colleague from Pennsylvania, the old Anti-Federalist, Blair
+McClanachan, which shows the warmth of party feeling. They were both
+dining with President Adams, who entertained the members of Congress in
+turn. "McClanachan told the President that, by God, he would rather see
+the world annihilated than this country united with Great Britain; that
+there would not remain a single king in Europe within six months, etc.,
+all in the loudest and most decisive tone."
+
+Jefferson, who, as vice-president, presided over the debates in the
+Senate, had no cause to complain of any hesitation in that body, in
+which the Federalists had regained a clear working majority, giving him
+no chance of a deciding vote.
+
+        *        *        *        *        *
+
+The second session of the fifth Congress began on November 13, 1797. The
+words of the President's address, "We are met together at a most
+interesting period, the situation of the powers of Europe is singular
+and portentous," was not an idle phrase. The star of Bonaparte already
+dominated the political firmament. Europe lay prostrate at the feet of
+the armies of the Directory. England, who was supposed to be the next
+object of attack, was staggering under the load of debt; and the sailors
+of her channel fleet had risen in mutiny. Even the Federalists, the
+aristocrats as Mr. Gallatin delighted to call them, believed that she
+was gone beyond recovery. But the admirers of France were no better
+satisfied with the threatening attitude of the Directory towards
+America, and eagerly waited news of the reception given to the envoys
+extraordinary, Gerry, Pinckney, and Marshall, whom Adams with the
+consent of the Senate dispatched to Paris in the summer. Even Jefferson
+lost his taste for a French alliance, and almost wished there were "an
+ocean of fire between the new and the old world."
+
+The tone of the President's address was considered wise on all sides,
+and it was agreed that the answer should be general and not a subject
+of contention. One of the members asked to be excused from going with
+the House to the President, but Gallatin showed that, as there was no
+power to compel attendance, no formal excuse was necessary. When the
+motion was put as to whether they should go in a body as usual to
+present their answer, Mr. Gallatin voted in the negative. He
+nevertheless accompanied the members, who were received pleasantly by
+President Adams and "treated to cake and wine."
+
+Harper was made the chairman of the Ways and Means Committee. Though of
+high talents and a fine speaker, Gallatin found him a "great bungler" in
+the business of the House, a large share of which fell upon his own
+shoulders as well as the direction of the Republicans, of whom,
+notwithstanding the jealousy of Giles, he now was the acknowledged
+leader. As a member for Pennsylvania, Mr. Gallatin presented a memorial
+from the Quakers with regard to the arrest of fugitive slaves on her
+soil; the law of Pennsylvania declaring all men to be free who set foot
+in that State except only servants of members of Congress. There was
+already an opposition to hearing any petition with regard to slaves, but
+Gallatin insisted on the memorial taking the usual course of reference
+to a committee. He directed the House also in the correct path in its
+legislation as to foreign coins. It was proposed to take from them the
+quality of legal tender; but he showed that it was policy not to
+discriminate against such coins until the mint could supply a
+sufficiency for the use of the country. In this argument he estimated
+the entire amount of specie in the United States at eight millions of
+dollars. At this early period in his political career he was acquiring
+that precise knowledge of the facts of American finance which later
+served to establish the principles upon which it is based.
+
+This session was noteworthy by reason of the first personal encounter on
+the floor of the House. It was between two Northern members, Lyon of
+Vermont and Griswold of Connecticut. Gallatin stood by Lyon, who was of
+his party, and showed that the House could not expel him, since it was
+not at the time in organized session. As the Federalists would not
+consent to censure Griswold, both offenders escaped even a formal
+reproof. The general bitterness of feeling which marked the summer
+session was greatly modified in the expectant state of foreign politics;
+but the occasion for display of political divergence was not long
+delayed.
+
+On January 18, 1798, Mr. Harper, who led the business of the House,
+moved the appropriation for foreign intercourse. This was seized upon by
+the opposition to advance still further their line of attack by a
+limitation of the constitutional prerogative of the President. In
+addition to the usual salaries of the envoys to Great Britain and
+France, appropriations were asked for the posts at Madrid, Lisbon, and
+Berlin, which last Mr. Adams had designated as a first-class mission.
+The discussion on the powers of the President, and the extent to which
+they might be controlled by paring down the appropriations, lifted the
+debate from the narrow ground of economy in administration to the
+higher plane of constitutional powers. Nicholas opened on the
+Republican side by announcing that it was seasonable to bring back the
+establishment of the diplomatic corps to the footing it had been on
+until the year 1796. In all governments like our own he declared that
+there was a tendency to a union and consolidation of all its parts into
+the executive, and the limitation and annexion of the parts with each
+other as settled by the Constitution would be destroyed by this
+influence unless there were a constant attention on the part of the
+legislature to resist it. The appointment of a minister plenipotentiary
+to Prussia, with which we had little or no commercial intercourse,
+offered an opportunity to determine this limitation. Harper said that
+this was a renewal of the old charge that foreign intercourse was
+unnecessary, and the old suggestion that our commerce ought to be given
+up or left to shift for itself. Mr. Gallatin laid down extreme theories
+which have never yet found practical application. He took the question
+at once from party or personal ground by admitting that the government
+was essentially pure, its patronage not extensive, or its effect upon
+the legislative or any other branch of the government as yet material.
+The Constitution had placed the patronage in the executive. There he
+thought it was wisely placed. The legislature would be more corrupt
+than the executive were it placed with them. While not willing at once
+to give up political foreign intercourse, he thought that it should by
+degrees be altogether declined. To it he ascribed the critical situation
+of the country. Commercial intercourse could be protected by the
+consular system. He then argued that the power to provide for expenses
+was the check intended by the Constitution. To this Griswold answered
+that this doctrine of checks contained more mischief than Pandora's box;
+Bayard, that the checks were all directed to the executive, and that
+they would check and counter-check until they _stopped the wheels of
+government_.[6] When the President was manacled and at the mercy of the
+House they would be satisfied. He held the executive to be the weakest
+branch of the government, because its powers are defined; but the limits
+of the House are undefined.
+
+As the debate advanced, Nicholas declared that the purpose of the
+Republicans was to define the executive power and to put an end to its
+extension through their power over appropriations. Later he would bring
+in a motion to do away with all foreign intercourse. Goodrich answered
+that the office of foreign minister was created by the Constitution
+itself, and the power of appointment was placed in the President. The
+House might speculate upon the propriety of doing away with all
+intercourse with foreign powers, but could not decide on it, for
+political intercourse did not depend on the sending of ministers abroad.
+Foreign ministers would come here and the Constitution required their
+reception. The idea that we should have no foreign intercourse was taken
+from Washington's Farewell Address, but his words applied only to
+alliances offensive and defensive. If ministers were abandoned, envoys
+extraordinary must be sent, a much more dangerous practice; the only
+choice was between ministers and spies. In conclusion he accused the
+Republicans of making one continuous attack upon the administration, and
+charged that the opposition to the appropriation bill was not a single
+measure, but connected with others, and intended to clog the wheels of
+government.
+
+The purpose of the Republicans being thus declared by Nicholas and
+squarely met by the friends of the administration, Mr. Gallatin, March
+1, 1798, summed up the opposition arguments in an elaborate speech three
+hours and a quarter in length. He denied the novel doctrine that each
+department had checks within itself, but none upon others; he claimed
+that the principle of checks is admitted in all mixed governments.
+Commercial intercourse, he said, is regulated by the law of nations, by
+the municipal law of respective countries and by treaties of commerce,
+the application of which is the province of consuls. What advantages, he
+asked, had our commercial treaties given us, either that with France or
+that with England? He excepted that part of the treaty with Great
+Britain which arranged our difference with that power, as foreign to the
+discussion. He claimed that the restriction which we had laid upon
+ourselves by our commercial treaties had been attended with political
+consequences fatal to our tranquillity. Washington had advised a
+separation of our political from our commercial relations. The message
+of President Adams intimated a different policy and alluded to the
+balance of power in Europe as not to be forgotten or neglected.
+Interesting as that balance may be to Europe, how does it concern us? We
+shall never throw our weight into the scale. Passing from this to the
+danger of the absorption of powers by the executive, he cited the
+examples of the Cortes of Spain, the Etats Generaux of France, the Diets
+of Denmark. In all these countries the executive is in possession of
+legislative, of absolute powers. The fate of the European republics was
+similar. Venice, Switzerland, and Holland had shown the legislative
+powers merging into the executive. The object of the Constitution of the
+United States is to divide and distribute the powers of government. With
+uncontrolled command over the purse of the people the executive tends to
+prodigality, to taxes, and to wars. He closed with a hope that a fixed
+determination to prevent the increase of the national expenditure, and
+to detach the country from any connection with European politics, would
+tend to reconcile parties, promote the happiness of America, and
+conciliate the affection of every part of the Union. No such admirable
+exposition of the true American doctrine of non-interference with
+European politics had at that time been heard in Congress.
+
+In reply, Harper insisted on the admission that the purpose of the
+amendment of Nicholas was to restrain the President; that it was a
+question of power, not of money. Mr. Gallatin admitted the right of
+appointment, but denied that the House was bound to appropriate. Harper
+rejoined that the offices did not originate with the President but with
+the Constitution, and that they could not be destroyed by the action of
+the House, and, leaving the general ground of debate, made a brilliant
+attack upon the Republicans as revolutionists, whom he divided into
+three classes: the philosophers, the Jacobins, and the _sans-culottes_.
+The philosophers are most to be dreaded. "They declaim with warmth on
+the miseries of mankind, the abuses of government, and the vices of
+rulers; all which they engage to remove, providing their theories should
+once be adopted. They talk of the perfectibility of man and of the
+dignity of his nature; and, entirely forgetting what he is, declaim
+perpetually about what he should be." Of Jacobins there are plenty. They
+profit by the labors of others; tyrants in power, demagogues when not.
+Fortunately for America there are few or no _sans-culottes_ among her
+inhabitants. Jefferson, he said, returned from France a missionary to
+convert Americans to the new faith, and he charged that the system of
+French alliance and war with Great Britain by the United States was a
+part of the scheme of the French revolutionists, and was imported into
+this country. Gallatin and his friends he regarded in the light of an
+enemy who has commenced a siege against the fortress of the
+Constitution.
+
+The restricting amendment was lost, and the bill passed by a vote of 52
+yeas to 43 nays. Nor is it easy to see how the theory of Mr. Gallatin
+with regard to diplomatic relations could have been applied successfully
+with the existing channels of intercourse. Now that the ocean cable
+brings governments into direct relation with each other, there is a
+tendency to restrict the authority of ambassadors, for whom there is no
+longer need, and the entire system will no doubt soon disappear. Mr.
+Gallatin's speech was the delight of his party and his friends. He was
+called upon to write it out, and two thousand copies of it were
+circulated as the best exposition of Republican doctrine.
+
+Early in February the President informed Congress of certain captures
+and outrages committed by a French privateer within the limits of the
+United States, including the burning of an English merchantman in the
+harbor of Charleston. On March 19, in a further special message, he
+communicated dispatches from the American envoys in France, and also
+informed Congress that he should withdraw his order forbidding merchant
+vessels to sail in an armed condition. A collision might, therefore,
+occur at any moment.
+
+On March 27, 1798, a resolution was introduced that it is not now
+expedient for the United States to resort to war against the French
+Republic; a second, to restrict the arming of merchant vessels; and a
+third, to provide for the protection of the seacoast and the internal
+defense of the country. Speaking to the first resolution, Mr. Gallatin
+said that the United States had arrived at a crisis at which a stand
+must be made, when the House must say whether it will resort to war or
+preserve peace. If to war, the expense and its evils must be met; if
+peace continue, then the country must submit: in either case American
+vessels would be taken. It was a mere matter of calculation which course
+would best serve the interest and happiness of the country. If he could
+separate defensive from offensive war, he should be in favor of it; but
+he could not make the distinction, and therefore he should be in favor
+of measures of peace. The act of the President was a war measure.
+Members of the House so designated it in letters to their constituents.
+
+On April 2 the President was requested to communicate the instructions
+and dispatches from the envoys extraordinary, mention of which he had
+made in his message of March 19. Gallatin supported the call. He said
+that the President was not afraid of communicating information, as he
+had shown in the preceding session, and that to withhold it would
+endanger the safety of our commerce, or prevent the happy issue of
+negotiation. On April 3 Mr. Gallatin presented a petition against
+hazarding the neutrality and peace of the nation by authorizing private
+citizens to arm and equip vessels. This was signed by forty members of
+the Pennsylvania legislature. Protests of a similar character were
+presented from other parts of the country. On the same day the President
+sent in the famous X Y Z dispatches, in confidence. These letters
+represented the names of Hottinguer, Bellamy, and Hauteval, the agents
+of Talleyrand, the foreign minister of the First Consul, which were
+withheld by the President. The mysterious negotiations contained a
+distinct demand by Talleyrand of a douceur of 1,200,000 livres to the
+French officials as a condition of peace. The effect was immediately to
+strengthen the administration, Dayton, the speaker, passing to the ranks
+of the Federalists.
+
+On the 18th the Senate sent down a bill authorizing the President to
+procure sixteen armed vessels to act as convoys. Gallatin still held
+firm. He admitted that from the beginning of the European contest the
+belligerent powers had disregarded the law of nations and the
+stipulations of treaties, but he still opposed the granting of armed
+convoys, which would lead to a collision. Let us not, he said, act on
+speculative grounds; if our present situation is better than war, let us
+keep it. Better even, he said, suffer the French to go on with their
+depredations than to take any step which may lead to war.
+
+Allen of Connecticut read a passage from the dispatches which envenomed
+the debate. By it one of the French agents appears to have warned the
+American envoys that they were mistaken in supposing that an exposition
+of the unreasonable demands of France would unite the people of the
+United States. He said, "You should know that the _diplomatic skill_ of
+France and the _means_ she possesses in your country are sufficient to
+enable her, with the _French party_ in America, to throw the blame which
+will attend the rupture of the negotiations on the _Federalists_, as you
+term yourselves, but on the _British party_, as France terms you, and
+you may assure yourselves this will be done." Allen then charged upon
+Gallatin that his language was that of a foreign agent. Gallatin replied
+that the representatives of the French Republic in this country had
+shown themselves to be the worst diplomatists that had ever been sent to
+it, and he asked why the gentlemen who did not come forward with a
+declaration of war (though they were willing to go to war without the
+declaration) charge their adversaries with meaning to submit to France.
+France might declare war or give an order to seize American vessels, but
+as long as she did not, some hope remained that the state of peace might
+not be broken; and he said in conclusion "that, notwithstanding all the
+violent charges and personal abuse which had been made against him, it
+would produce no difference in his manner of acting, neither prevent him
+from speaking against every measure which he thought injurious to the
+public interest, nor, on the other hand, inflame his mind so as to
+induce him to oppose measures which he might heretofore have thought
+proper."
+
+The war feeling ran high in the country; "Millions for defense, but not
+one cent for tribute,"[7] was the popular cry. On May 28 Mr. Harper
+introduced a bill to suspend commercial intercourse with France.
+Gallatin thought this a doubtful measure. Its avowed purpose was to
+distress France in the West Indies, but he said that in six months that
+entire trade would be by neutral vessels. In the discussion on the bill
+to regulate the arming of merchant vessels, he showed that it was the
+practice of neutral European nations to allow such vessels to arm, but
+not to regulate their conduct. Bonds are required in cases of letter of
+marque, and the merchant who arms is bound not to break the laws of
+nations or the agreements of treaties. Restriction was therefore
+unnecessary. Government should not interfere. Commercial intercourse
+with France was suspended June 13.
+
+In the pride of their new triumph and the intensity of their personal
+feeling the Federalists overleaped their mark, and began a series of
+measures which ultimately cost them the possession of the government
+and their political existence. The first of these was the Sedition Bill,
+which Jefferson believed to be aimed at Gallatin in person. Mr. Gallatin
+met it at its inception with a statement of the constitutional
+objections, viz., 1st, that there was no power to make such a law, and
+2d, the special provision in the Constitution that the writ of _habeas
+corpus_ shall not be suspended except in cases of rebellion and
+invasion. There was neither. The second, the Alien Bill, gave the
+President power to expel from the country all aliens. Over this measure
+Gallatin and Harper had hot words. Gallatin charged upon Harper not only
+a misrepresentation of the arguments of his opponents, but an
+arraignment of the motives of others, while claiming all purity for his
+own. Harper answered in words which show that Gallatin, for once, had
+met warmth with warmth, and anger with anger. When, Harper said, a
+gentleman, who is usually so cool, all at once assumes such a tone of
+passion as to forget all decorum of language, it would seem as if the
+observation had been properly applied. On the vote to strike out the
+obnoxious sections, the Federalists defeated their antagonists, and on
+June 21 the bill itself was passed with all its odious features by 46 to
+40.
+
+On June 21 President Adams sent in a message with letters from Gerry,
+who had remained at Paris after the return of Marshall and Pinckney, on
+the subject of a loan. They contained an intimation from Talleyrand that
+he was ready to resume negotiations. In this message Adams said, "I
+will never send another minister to France without assurances that he
+will be received, respected, and honored as the representative of a
+great, free, powerful, and independent nation." On the 25th an act was
+passed authorizing the commanders of merchant vessels to defend
+themselves against search and seizure under regulations by the
+President. On June 30 a further act authorized the purchase and
+equipment of twelve vessels as an addition to the naval armament. To all
+intents and purposes a state of war between the two countries already
+existed.
+
+The 4th of July (1798) was celebrated with unusual enthusiasm all over
+the United States, and the black cockade was generally worn. This was
+the distinctive badge of the Federalists, and a response to the tricolor
+which Adet had recommended all French citizens to wear in 1794.
+
+On July 5 a resolution was moved to appoint a committee to consider the
+expediency of declaring, by legislative act, the state of relations
+between the United States and the French Republic. Mr. Gallatin asked if
+a declaration of war could not be moved as an amendment, but the
+speaker, Mr. Dayton, made no reply. Mr. Gallatin objected that Congress
+could not declare a state of facts by a legislative act. But this view,
+if tenable then, has long since been abandoned. In witness of which it
+is only necessary to name the celebrated resolution of the Congress of
+1865 with regard to the recognition of a monarchy in Mexico. July 6 the
+House went into committee of the whole on the state of the Union to
+consider a bill sent down by the Senate abrogating the treaty with
+France. The bill was passed on the 16th by a vote of 47 ayes to 37 nays,
+Gallatin voting in the negative. The House adjourned the same day.
+
+While thus engaged in debates which called into exercise his varied
+information and displayed not only the extent of his learning but his
+remarkable powers of reasoning and statement, Mr. Gallatin never lost
+sight of reform in the administration of the finances of the government.
+To the success of his efforts to hold the Treasury Department to a
+strict conformity with his theory of administration, Mr. Wolcott, the
+secretary, gave ample if unwilling testimony. To Hamilton he wrote on
+April 5, 1798, "The management of the Treasury becomes more and more
+difficult. The legislature will not pass laws in gross; their
+appropriations are minute. Gallatin, to whom they yield, is evidently
+intending to break down this department by charging it with an
+impracticable detail."
+
+During these warm discussions Gallatin rarely lost his self-control.
+Writing to his old friend Lesdernier at this period, he said, "You may
+remember I am blessed with a very even temper; it has not been altered
+by time or politics."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The third session of the fifth Congress opened on December 3, 1798. On
+the 8th, when the President was expected, Lieutenant-General Washington
+and Generals Pinckney and Hamilton entered the hall and took their
+places on the right of the speaker's chair. They had been recently
+appointed to command the army of defense.
+
+The President's speech announced no change in the situation. "Nothing,"
+he said, "is discoverable in the conduct of France which ought to change
+or relax our measures for defense. On the contrary, to extend and
+invigorate them is our true policy. An efficient preparation for war can
+alone insure peace. It must be left to France, if she is indeed desirous
+of accommodation, to take the requisite steps. The United States will
+steadily observe the maxims by which they have hitherto been governed."
+The reply to this patriotic sentiment was unanimously agreed to, and was
+most grateful to Adams, who thanked the House for it as "consonant to
+the characters of representatives of a great and free people."
+
+On December 27 a peculiar resolution was introduced to punish the
+usurpation of the executive authority of the government of the United
+States in carrying on correspondence with the government of any foreign
+prince or state. Gallatin thought this resolution covered too much
+ground. The criminality of such acts did not lie in their being
+usurpations, but in the nature of the crime committed. There was no
+authority in the Constitution for a grant of such a power to the
+President. To afford aid and comfort to the enemy was treason, but
+there was no war, and therefore no enemy. He claimed the right to
+himself and others to do all in his power to secure a peace, even by
+correspondence abroad, and he would not admit that the ground taken by
+the friends of the measure was a proper foundation for a general law. A
+committee was, however, appointed, in spite of this remonstrance, to
+consider the propriety of including in the general act all persons who
+should commence or carry on a correspondence, by a vote of 65 to 23. A
+bill was reported on January 9, when Gallatin endeavored to attach a
+proviso that the law should not operate upon persons seeking justice or
+redress from foreign governments; but his motion was defeated by a vote
+of 48 to 37. Later, however, a resolution of Mr. Parker, that nothing in
+the act should be construed to abridge the rights of any citizen to
+apply for such redress, was adopted by a vote of 69 yeas to 27 nays. On
+this vote Harper voted yea. Griswold, Otis, Bayard, and Goodrich were
+found among the nays. Gallatin succeeded in carrying an amendment
+defining the bill, after which it was passed by a vote of 58 to 36.
+
+Towards the close of January, 1799, a bill was brought in authorizing
+the President to discontinue the restraints of the act suspending
+intercourse with the French West India Islands, whenever any persons in
+authority or command should so request. This was to invite a secession
+of the French colonies from the mother country. Gallatin deprecated any
+action which might induce rebellion against authority, or lead to
+self-government among the people of the islands who were unfit for it.
+Moreover, such action would remove still further every expectation of an
+accommodation with France. The bill was passed by a vote of 55 to 37. He
+objected to the bill to authorize the President to suspend intercourse
+with Spanish and Dutch ports which should harbor French privateers, as
+placing an unlimited power to interdict commerce in the hands of the
+executive. The bill was carried by 55 to 37. On the question of the
+augmentation of the navy he opposed the building of the seventy-fours.
+
+In February Edward Livingston presented a petition from aliens, natives
+of Ireland, against the Alien and Sedition laws. Numerous similar
+petitions followed; one was signed by 18,000 persons in Pennsylvania
+alone. To postpone consideration of the subject, the Federalists sent
+these papers to a select committee, against the protests of Livingston
+and Gallatin. This course was the more peculiar because of the reference
+of petitions of a similar character in the month previous to the
+committee of the whole. The Federalists were abusing their majority, and
+precipitating their unexpected but certain ruin. One more effort was
+made to repeal the offensive penal act; the constitutional objection was
+again pleaded, but the repeal was defeated by a vote of 52 in the
+affirmative. Mr. Gallatin opposed these laws in all their stages, but,
+failing in this, persistently endeavored to make them as good as
+possible before they passed. Jefferson later said that nothing could
+obliterate from the recollection of those who were witnesses of it the
+courage of Gallatin in the "Days of Terror."[8] The vote of thanks to
+Mr. Dayton, the speaker, was carried by a vote of 40 to 22. On March 3,
+1800, this Congress adjourned.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The sixth Congress met at Philadelphia on December 2, 1799. The
+Federalists were returned in full majority. Among the new members of the
+House, John Marshall and John Randolph appeared for Virginia. Theodore
+Sedgwick was chosen speaker. President Adams came down to the House on
+the 3d and made the usual speech. The address in reply, reported by a
+committee of which Marshall was chairman, was agreed to without
+amendment. Adams was again delighted with the very respectful terms
+adopted at the "first assembly after a fresh election, under the strong
+impression of the public opinion and national sense at this interesting
+and singular crisis." At this session it was the sad privilege of
+Marshall to announce the death of Washington, "the Hero, the Sage, and
+the Patriot of America." In the shadow of this great grief, party
+passion was hushed for a while.
+
+Gallatin again led the Republican opposition; Nicholas and Macon were
+his able lieutenants. The line of attack of the Republicans was clear.
+If war could be avoided, the growing unpopularity of the Alien and
+Sedition laws would surely bring them to power. The foreign-born voter
+was already a factor in American politics. In January the law providing
+for an addition to the army was suspended. Macon then moved the repeal
+of the Sedition Law. He took the ground that it was a measure of
+defense. Bayard adroitly proposed as an amendment that "the offenses
+therein specified shall remain punishable as at common law, provided
+that upon any prosecution it shall be lawful for the defendant to give
+as his defense the truth of the matter charged as a libel." Gallatin
+called upon the chair to declare the amendment out of order, as intended
+to destroy the resolution, but the speaker declined, and the amendment
+was carried by a vote of 51 to 47. The resolution thus amended was then
+defeated by a vote of 87 to 1. The Republicans preferred the odious act
+in its original form rather than accept the Federal interpretation of
+it.
+
+On February 11, 1800, a bill was introduced into Congress further to
+suspend commercial intercourse with France. It passed the House after a
+short debate by a vote of 68 yeas to 28 nays. On this bill the
+Republican leaders were divided. Nicholas, Macon, and Randolph opposed
+it; but Gallatin, separating from his friends, carried enough of his
+party with him to secure its passage. Returned by the Senate with
+amendments, it was again objected to by Macon as fatal to the interests
+of the Southern States, but the House resolved to concur by a vote of 50
+to 36.
+
+In March the country was greatly excited by the news of an engagement on
+the 1st of February, off Guadaloupe, between the United States frigate
+Constellation, thirty-eight guns, and a French national frigate, La
+Vengeance, fifty-four guns. The House of Representatives called on the
+secretary of the navy for information, and, by 84 yeas to 4 nays, voted
+a gold medal to Captain Truxton, who commanded the American ship. John
+Randolph's name is recorded in the negative.
+
+Notwithstanding this collision, the relations of the United States and
+France were gradually assuming a kindlier phase. The Directory had
+sought to drive the American government into active measures against
+England. Bonaparte, chosen First Consul, at once adopted a conciliatory
+tone. Preparing for a great continental struggle, he was concentrating
+the energies and the powers of France. In May Mr. Parker called the
+attention of the House to this change of conduct in the French
+government and offered a resolution instructing the Committee on
+Commerce to inquire if any amendments to the Foreign Intercourse Act
+were necessary. Macon moved to amend so that the inquiry should be
+whether it were not expedient to repeal the act. Gallatin opposed the
+resolution on the ground that it was highly improper to take any
+measures at the present time which would change the defensive system of
+the country. The resolution was negatived,--43 nays to 40 yeas.
+
+One singular opposition of Gallatin is recorded towards the close of the
+session; the Committee on the Treasury Department reported an amendment
+to the act of establishment, providing that the secretary of the
+treasury shall lay before Congress, at the commencement of every
+session, a report on finance with plans for the support of credit, etc.
+Gallatin and Nicholas opposed this bill, because it came down from the
+Senate, which had no constitutional right to originate a money bill; but
+Griswold and Harper at once took the correct ground that it was not a
+bill, but a report on the state of the finances, in which the Senate had
+an equal share with the House. The bill was passed by a vote of 43 to
+39. It is worthy of note that the first report on the state of the
+finances communicated under this act was by Mr. Gallatin himself the
+next year, and that it was sent in to the Senate. The House adjourned on
+May 14, 1800.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The second session of the sixth Congress was held at the city of
+Washington, to which the seat of government had been removed in the
+summer interval. After two southerly migrations they were now
+definitively established at a national capital. The session opened on
+November 17, 1800. On the 22d President Adams congratulated Congress on
+"the prospect of a residence not to be changed." The address of the
+House in reply was adopted by a close vote.
+
+The situation of foreign relations was changed. The First Consul
+received the American envoys cordially, and a commercial convention was
+made but secured ratification by the Senate only after the elimination
+of an article and a limitation of its duration to eight years. While the
+bill was pending in the Senate, Mr. Samuel Smith moved to continue the
+act to suspend commercial intercourse with France. Mr. Gallatin opposed
+this motion; at the last session he had voted for this bill because
+there was only the appearance of a treaty. Now that the precise state of
+negotiation was known, why should the House longer leave this matter to
+the discretion of the President? The House decided to reject the
+indiscreet bill by a vote of 59 to 37. An effort was also made to repeal
+a part of the Sedition Law, and continue the rest in force, but the
+House refused to order the engrossing of the bill, taking wise counsel
+of Dawson, who said that, supported by the justice and policy of their
+measures, the approaching administration would not need the aid of
+either the alien, sedition, or common law. The opponents of the bill
+would not consent to any modification. The last scenes of the session
+were of exciting interest.
+
+Freed from the menace of immediate war, the people of plain common sense
+recognized that the friendship of Great Britain was more dangerous than
+the enmity of France. They dreaded the fixed power of an organized
+aristocracy far more than the ephemeral anarchy of an ill-ordered
+democracy; they were more averse to class distinctions protected by law
+than even to military despotism which destroyed all distinctions, and
+they preferred, as man always has preferred and always will prefer,
+personal to political equality. The Alien and Sedition laws had borne
+their legitimate fruit. The foreign-born population held the balance of
+power; a general vote would have shown a large Republican or, it is more
+correct to say, anti-Federalist majority. But the popular will could not
+be thus expressed. Under the old system each elector in the electoral
+college cast his ballot for president and vice-president without
+designation of his preference as to who should fill the first place. New
+England was solid for Adams, who, however, had little strength beyond
+the limits of this Federal stronghold. New York and the Southern States
+with inconsiderable exceptions were Republican. Pennsylvania was so
+divided in the legislature that her entire vote would have been lost but
+for a compromise which gave to the Republicans one vote more than to the
+Federalists. Adams being out of the question, the election to the first
+place lay between Jefferson and Burr, both Republicans. The Federalists,
+therefore, had their option between the two Republican candidates, and
+the result was within the reach of that most detestable of combinations,
+a political bargain. Mr. Gallatin's position in this condition of
+affairs was controlling. His loyalty to Jefferson was unquestioned,
+while Burr was the favorite of the large Republican party in New York
+whose leaders were Mr. Gallatin's immediate friends and warm supporters.
+Both Jefferson and Burr were accused of bargaining to secure enough of
+the Federalist vote to turn the scale. That Mr. Jefferson did make some
+sacrifice of his independence is now believed. Whether Mr. Gallatin was
+aware of any such compromise is uncertain. If such bargain were made,
+General Samuel Smith was the channel of arrangement, and in view of the
+inexplicable and ignominious deference of Jefferson and Madison to his
+political demands, there is little doubt that he held a secret power
+which they dared not resist. Gallatin felt it, suffered from it,
+protested against it, but submitted to it.
+
+The fear was that Congress might adjourn without a conclusion. To meet
+this emergency Mr. Gallatin devised a plan of balloting in the House,
+which he communicated to Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Nicholas. It stated the
+objects of the Federalists to be, 1st, to elect Burr; 2d, to defeat the
+present election and order a new one; 3d, to assume _executive_ power
+during the interregnum. These he considers, and suggests alternative
+action in case of submission or resistance on the part of the
+Republicans. The Federalists, holding three branches of government,
+viz., the presidency, a majority in the Senate, and a majority in the
+House, might pass a law declaring that one of the great officers
+designated by the Constitution should act as president pro tempore,
+which would be constitutional. But while Mr. Gallatin in this paragraph
+admitted such a law to be constitutional, in the next he argued that the
+act of the person designated by law, or of the president pro tempore,
+assuming the power is clearly "unconstitutional." By this ingenious
+process of reasoning, to which the strict constructionists have always
+been partial, it might be unconstitutional to carry out constitutional
+law. The assumption of such power was therefore, Mr. Gallatin held,
+usurpation, to be resisted in one of two ways; by declaring the interval
+till the next session of Congress an interregnum, allowing all laws not
+immediately connected with presidential powers to take their course, and
+opposing a silent resistance to all others; or by the Republicans
+assuming the executive power by a joint act of the two candidates, or by
+the relinquishment of all claims by one of them. On the other hand, the
+proposed outlines of Republican conduct were, 1st, to persevere in
+voting for Mr. Jefferson; 2d, to use every endeavor to defeat any law on
+the subject; 3d, to try to persuade Mr. Adams to refuse his consent to
+any such law and not to call the Senate on any account if there should
+be no choice by the House.
+
+In a letter written in 1848 Mr. Gallatin said that a provision by law,
+that if there should be no election the executive power be placed in the
+hands of some public officer, was a revolutionary act of usurpation
+which would have been put down by force if necessary. It was threatened
+that, if any man should be thus appointed President he should instantly
+be put to death, and bodies of men were said to be organized, in
+Maryland and Virginia, ready to march to Washington on March 4 for that
+purpose. The fears of violence were so great that to Governor McKean of
+Pennsylvania was submitted the propriety of having a body of militia in
+readiness to reach the capital in time to prevent civil war. From this
+letter of Mr. Gallatin, then the last surviving witness of the election,
+only one conclusion can be drawn: that the Republicans would have
+preferred violent resistance to temporary submission, even though the
+officer exercising executive powers was appointed in accordance with
+law. Fortunately for the young country there was enough good sense and
+patriotism in the ranks of the Federalists to avert the danger.
+
+On the suggestion of Mr. Bayard it was agreed by a committee of sixteen
+members, one from each State, that if it should appear that the two
+persons highest on the list, Jefferson and Burr, had an equal number of
+votes, the House should immediately proceed in their own chamber to
+choose the president by ballot, and should not adjourn until an
+election should have been made. On the first ballot there was a tie
+between Jefferson and Burr; the deadlock continued until February 17,
+when the Federalists abandoned the contest, and Mr. Jefferson received
+the requisite number of votes. Burr, having the second number, became
+vice-president.
+
+Mr. Gallatin's third congressional term closed with this Congress. In
+his first term he asserted his power and took his place in the councils
+of the party. In his second, he became its acknowledged chief. In the
+third, he led its forces to final victory. But for his opposition, war
+would have been declared against France, and the Republican party would
+have disappeared in the political chasm. But for his admirable
+management, Mr. Jefferson would have been relegated to the study of
+theoretical government on his Monticello farm, or to play second fiddle
+at the Capitol to the music of Aaron Burr.
+
+In the foregoing analysis of the debates and resolutions of Congress,
+and the recital of the part taken in them by Mr. Gallatin, attention has
+only been paid to such of the proceedings as concerned the
+interpretation of the Constitution or the forms of administration with
+which Mr. Gallatin interested himself. From the day of his first
+appearance he commanded the attention and the respect of his fellows.
+The leadership of his party fell to him as of course. It was not grasped
+by him. He was never a partisan. He never waived his entire
+independence of judgment. His ingenuity and adroitness never tempted him
+to untenable positions. Hence his party followed him with implicit
+confidence. Yet while the debates of Congress, imperfectly reported as
+they seem to be in its annals, show the deference paid to him by the
+Republican leaders, and display the great share he took in the
+definition of powers and of administration as now understood, his name
+is hardly mentioned in history. Jefferson and Madison became presidents
+of the United States. They, with Gallatin, formed the triumvirate which
+ruled the country for sixteen years. Gallatin was the youngest of the
+three.[9] To this political combination Gallatin brought a knowledge of
+constitutional law equal to their own, a knowledge of international law
+superior to that of either, and a habit of practical administration of
+which they had no conception. The Republican party lost its chief when
+Gallatin left the House; from that day it floundered to its close.
+
+In the balance of opinion there are no certain weights and measures. The
+preponderance of causes cannot be precisely ascertained. The freedom
+which the people of the United States enjoy to-day is not the work of
+any one party. Those who are descended from its original stock, and
+those whom its free institutions have since invited to full membership,
+owe that freedom to two causes: the one, formulated by Hamilton, a
+strong, central power, which, deriving its force from the people,
+maintains its authority at home and secures respect abroad; the other,
+the spirit of liberty which found expression in the famous declaration
+of the rights of man. This influence Jefferson represented. It taught
+the equality of man; not equality before the law alone, nor yet
+political equality, but that absolute freedom from class distinction
+which is true social equality; in a word, mutual respect. But for
+Hamilton we might be a handful of petty States, in discordant
+confederation or perpetual war; but for Jefferson, a prey to the class
+jealousy which unsettles the social relations and threatens the
+political existence of European States.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 4: Lord Sheffield to Mr. Abbott, November 6, 1812.
+_Correspondence of Lord Colchester_, ii. 409.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Gallatin later described Jackson as he first saw him in his
+seat in the House: "A tall, lank, uncouth looking individual, with long
+locks of hair hanging over his brows and face, while a queue hung down
+his back tied in an eelskin. The dress of this individual was singular,
+his manners and deportment that of a backwoodsman." Bartlett's
+_Reminiscences of Gallatin_.]
+
+[Footnote 6: The phrase "stop the wheels of government" originated with
+"Peter Porcupine" (William Cobbett) and was on every tongue.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Charles C. Pinckney, when ambassador to France, 1796.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Jefferson to William Duane, March 28, 1811. Jefferson's
+_Works_, vol. v. p. 574.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Jefferson was born in 1743, Madison in 1751, Gallatin in
+1761.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY
+
+_Funding_
+
+
+The material comfort of every people depends more immediately upon the
+correct management of its finances than upon any other branch of
+government. _Haute finance_, to use a French expression for which there
+is no English equivalent, demands in its application the faculties of
+organization and administration in their highest degree. The relations
+of money to currency and credit, and their relations to industry and
+agriculture, or in modern phrase of capital to labor, fall within its
+scope. The history of France, the nation which has best understood and
+applied true principles of finance, supplies striking examples of the
+benefits a finance minister of the first order renders to his country,
+and the dangers of false theories. The marvelous restoration of its
+prosperity by the genius of Colbert, the ruin caused by the malign
+sciolism of Law, are familiar to all students of political economy. Nor
+has the United States been less favored. The names of Morris, Hamilton,
+Gallatin, and Chase shine with equal lustre.
+
+Morris, the Financier of the Revolution, was called to the
+administration of the money department of the United States government
+when there was no money to administer. Before his appointment as
+"Financier" the expenses of the government, military and civil, had been
+met by expedients; by foreign loans, lotteries, and loan office
+certificates; finally by continental money, or, more properly speaking,
+bills of credit emitted by authority of Congress and made legal tender
+by joint action of Congress and the several States. The relation of coin
+to paper in this motley currency appears in the appendix to the "Journal
+of Congress" for the year 1778, when the government paid out in fourteen
+issues of paper currency, $62,154,842; in specie, $78,666; in French
+livres, $28,525.[10] The power of taxation was jealously withheld by the
+States, and Congress could not go beyond recommending to them to levy
+taxes for the withdrawal of the bills emitted by it for their quotas,
+_pari passu_ with their issue. When the entire scheme of paper money
+failed, the necessary supplies for the army were levied in kind. In the
+spring of 1781 the affairs of the Treasury Department were investigated
+by a committee of Congress, and an attempt was made to ascertain the
+precise condition of the public debt. The amount of foreign debt was
+approximately reached, but the record of the domestic debt was
+inextricably involved, and never definitely discovered. Morris soon
+brought order out of this chaos. His plan was to liquidate the public
+indebtedness in specie, and fund it in interest-bearing bonds. The Bank
+of North America was established, the notes of which were soon preferred
+to specie as a medium of exchange. Silver, then in general use as the
+measure of value, was adopted as the single standard. The weight and
+pureness of the dollar were fixed by law. The dollar was made the unit
+of account and payment, and subdivisions were made in a decimal ratio.
+This was the dollar of our fathers. Gouverneur Morris, the assistant of
+the Financier, suggested the decimal computation, and Jefferson the
+dollar as the unit of account and payment. The board of treasury, which
+for five years had administered the finances in a bungling way, was
+dissolved by Congress in the fall of 1781, and Morris was left in sole
+control. Semi-annual statements of the public indebtedness were now
+begun. The expenses of the government were steadily and inflexibly cut
+down to meet the diminishing income. A loan was negotiated in Holland,
+and, with the aid of Franklin, the amount of indebtedness to France was
+established.
+
+The public debt on January 1, 1783, was $42,000,375, of which $7,885,088
+was foreign, bearing four and five per cent. interest; and $34,115,290
+was held at home at six per cent. The total amount of interest was
+$2,415,956. No means were provided for the payment of either principal
+or interest. In July of the previous year Morris urged the wisdom of
+funding the public debt, in a masterly letter to the president of
+Congress. On December 16 a sinking fund was provided for by a
+resolution, which, though inadequate to the purpose, was at least a
+declaration of principle. In February, 1784, Morris notified Congress of
+his intended retirement from office. He may justly be termed the father
+of the American system of finance. In his administration he inflexibly
+maintained the determination, with which he assumed the office, to apply
+the public funds to the purpose to which they were appropriated. He
+declared that he would "neither pay the interest of our debts out of the
+moneys which are called for to carry on the war, nor pay the expenses of
+the war from the funds which are called for to pay the interest of our
+debts." One new feature of Morris's administration was the beginning of
+the sale of public lands.
+
+On the retirement of Mr. Morris, November, 1784, a new board of treasury
+was charged with the administration of the finances, and continued in
+control until September 30, 1788, when a committee, raised to examine
+into the affairs of the department, rendered a pitiful report of
+mismanagement for which the board had not the excuse of their
+predecessors during the war. They had only to observe the precepts which
+Morris had enunciated, and to follow the methods he had prescribed, with
+the aid of the assistants he had trained. But the taxes collected had
+not been covered into the Treasury by the receivers. Large sums
+advanced for secret service were not accounted for; and the entire
+system of responsibility had been disregarded. John Adams attributed all
+the distresses at this period to "a downright ignorance of the nature of
+coin, credit and circulation;" an ignorance not yet dispelled. More
+truly could he have said that our distresses arose from willful neglect
+of the principle of accountability in the public service.
+
+The first Congress under the new Constitution met at New York on March
+4, 1789, but it was not until the autumn that the executive
+administration of the government was organized by the creation of the
+three departments: State, Treasury, and War.
+
+The bill establishing the Treasury Department passed Congress on
+September 2, 1789. Hamilton was appointed secretary by Washington on
+September 11. On September 21 the House directed the secretary to
+examine into and report a financial plan. On the assembling of Congress,
+June 14, 1790, Hamilton communicated to the House his first report,
+known as that on public credit. The boldness of Hamilton's plan startled
+and divided the country. Funding resolutions were introduced into the
+House. The first, relating to the foreign debt, passed unanimously; the
+second, providing for the liquidation of the domestic obligations, was
+sharply debated, but in the end Hamilton's scheme was adopted. The
+resolutions providing for the assumption of the state debts, which he
+embodied in his report, aroused an opposition still more formidable, and
+it was not until August 4 that by political machinery this part of his
+plan received the assent of Congress. To provide for the interest on the
+debt and the expenses of the government, the import and navigation
+duties were raised to yield the utmost revenue available; but, in the
+temper of Congress, the excise law was not pressed at this session. The
+secretary had securely laid the foundations of his policy. Time and
+sheer necessity would compel the completion of his work in essential
+accord with his original design. The President's message at the opening
+of the winter session added greatly to the prestige of Hamilton's policy
+by calling attention to the great prosperity of the country and the
+remarkable rise in public credit. The excise law, modified to apply to
+distilled spirits, passed the House in January. The principle of a
+direct tax was admitted. On December 14, 1790, in obedience to an order
+of the House requiring the secretary to report further provision for the
+public credit, Hamilton communicated his plans for a national bank. Next
+in order came the establishment of a national mint. Thus in two sessions
+of Congress, and in the space of little more than a year from the time
+when he took charge of the Treasury, Hamilton conceived and carried to
+successful conclusion an entire scheme of finance.
+
+One more measure in the comprehensive system of public credit crowned
+the solid structure of which the funding of the debt was the
+cornerstone. This was the establishment of the sinking fund for the
+redemption of the debt. Hamilton conformed his plan to the maxim, which,
+to use his words, "has been supposed capable of giving immortality to
+credit, namely, that with the creation of debts should be incorporated
+the means of extinguishment, which are twofold. 1st. The establishing,
+at the time of contracting a debt, funds for the reimbursement of the
+principal, as well as for the payment of interest within a determinate
+period. 2d. The making it a part of the contract, that the fund so
+established shall be inviolably applied to the object." The ingenuity
+and skill with which this master of financial science managed the
+Treasury Department for more than five years need no word of comment.
+Nor do they fall within the scope of this outline of the features of his
+policy. His reports are the textbook of American political economy.
+Whoever would grasp its principles must seek them in this limpid source,
+and study the methods he applied to revenue and loans. Well might
+Webster say of him in lofty praise, "He smote the rock of national
+resources, and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth; he touched the
+dead corpse of Public Credit, and it sprung upon its feet."
+
+On the resignation of Hamilton, January 31, 1795, Washington invited
+Wolcott, who was familiar with the views of Hamilton and on such
+intimate terms with him that he could always have his advice in any
+difficult emergency, to take the post. Wolcott had been connected with
+the department from its organization, first as auditor, afterwards as
+comptroller of the Treasury. He held the Treasury until nearly the end
+of Adams's administration. On November 8, 1800, upon the open breach
+between Mr. Adams and the Hamilton wing of the Federal party, Wolcott,
+whose sympathies were wholly with his old chief, tendered his
+resignation, to take effect at the close of the year. On December 31 Mr.
+Samuel Dexter was appointed to administer the department. But the days
+of the Federal party were now numbered: it fell of its own dissensions,
+"wounded in the house of its friends."
+
+There is little in the administration of the finances by Wolcott to
+attract comment. He managed the details of the department with integrity
+and skill. On his retirement a committee of the House on the condition
+of the Treasury was appointed. No similar examination had been made
+since May 22, 1794. On January 28, 1801, Mr. Otis, chairman of the
+committee, submitted the results of the investigation in an unanimous
+report that the business of the Treasury Department had been conducted
+with regularity, fidelity, and a regard to economy; that the
+disbursements of money had always been made pursuant to law, and
+generally that the financial concerns of the country had been left by
+the late secretary in a state of good order and prosperity. During his
+six years of administration of the finances Wolcott negotiated six
+loans, amounting in all to $2,820,000. The emergencies were
+extraordinary,--the expenses of the suppression of the Whiskey
+Insurrection in 1794, and the sum required to effect a treaty of peace
+with Algiers in 1795. To fund these sums Mr. Wolcott had recourse to an
+expedient which marked an era in American finance. This was the creation
+of _new stock_, subscribed for at home. No loan had been previously
+placed by the government among its own citizens. Between 1795 and 1798,
+four and a half, five, and six per cent. stocks were created. In 1798
+the condition of the country was embarrassing. There was a threatening
+prospect of war. Foreign loans were precarious and improvident; the
+market rate of interest was eight per cent. Under these circumstances an
+eight per cent. stock was created, not redeemable until 1809. An Act of
+March 3, 1795, provided for vesting in the sinking fund the surplus
+revenues of each year.
+
+In the formation of the first Republican cabinet Mr. Gallatin was
+obviously Mr. Jefferson's first choice for the Treasury. The appointment
+was nevertheless attended with some difficulties of a political and
+party nature. The paramount importance of the department was a legacy of
+Hamilton's genius. Its possession was the Federalist stronghold, and the
+Senate, which held the confirming power, was still controlled by a
+Federalist majority. To them Mr. Gallatin was more obnoxious than any
+other of the Republican leaders. In the few days that he held a seat in
+the Senate (1793) he offended Hamilton, and aroused the hostility of the
+friends of the secretary by a call for information as to the condition
+of the Treasury. As member of Congress in 1796 he questioned Hamilton's
+policy, and during Adams's entire administration was a perpetual thorn
+in the sides of Hamilton's successors in the department. The day after
+his election, February 18, 1801, Mr. Jefferson communicated to Mr.
+Gallatin the names of the gentlemen he had already determined upon for
+his cabinet, and tendered him the Treasury. The only alternative was
+Madison; but he, with all his reputation as a statesman and party
+leader, was without skill as a financier, and in the debate on the
+Funding Bill in 1790 had shown his ignorance in the impracticability of
+his plans. If Jefferson ever entertained the thought of nominating
+Madison to the Treasury, political necessity absolutely forbade it. That
+necessity Mr. Gallatin, by his persistent assaults on the financial
+policy of the Federalists, had himself created, and he alone of the
+Republican leaders was competent to carry out the reforms in the
+administration of the government, and to contrive the consequent
+reduction in revenue and taxation, which were cardinal points of
+Republican policy. Public opinion had assigned Gallatin to the post, and
+the newspapers announced his nomination before Mr. Jefferson was
+elected, and before he had given any indication of his purpose. To his
+wife Mr. Gallatin expressed some doubt whether his abilities were equal
+to the office, and whether the Senate would confirm him, and said,
+certainly with sincerity, 'that he would not be sorry nor hurt in his
+feelings if his nomination should be rejected, for exclusively of the
+immense responsibility, labor, etc., attached to the intended office,
+another plan which would be much more agreeable to him and to her had
+been suggested, not by his political friends, but by his New York
+friends.' He was by no means comfortable in his finances, and he had
+already formed a plan of studying law and removing to New York. He had
+made up his mind to leave the western country, which would necessarily
+end his congressional career. His wife was forlorn in his absence, and
+suffered so many hardships in her isolated residence that he felt no
+reluctance to the change. To one of his wife's family he wrote at this
+time:--
+
+     "As a political situation, the place of secretary of the treasury
+     is doubtless more eligible and congenial to my habits; but it is
+     more laborious and responsible than any other, and the same
+     industry which will be necessary to fulfill its duties, applied to
+     another object, would at the end of two years have left me in the
+     possession of a profession which I might have exercised either in
+     Philadelphia or New York. But our plans are all liable to
+     uncertainty, and I must now cheerfully undertake that which had
+     never been the object of my ambition or wishes."
+
+Well might he hesitate as he witnessed the distress which had overtaken
+the great party which for twelve years had held the posts of political
+honor. Fortunately, perhaps for himself and certainly for his party and
+the country, the proposition came at a time when he had definitively
+determined upon a change of career. His situation was difficult. The
+hostility of the Federal senators, and the great exertions which were
+being made to defeat the appointment, led him to the opinion that, if
+presented on March 4, it would be rejected. There was the alternative of
+delay until after that date, which would involve a postponement of the
+confirmation until the meeting of Congress in December, but there was no
+certainty that it would then be ratified. Meanwhile he would be
+compelled to remove to Washington at some sacrifice and expense. He
+therefore at first positively refused "to come in on any terms but a
+confirmation by the Senate first given." He was finally induced to
+comply with the general wish of his political friends. The appointment
+was withheld by the President that the feeling in the Senate might be
+judged from its action on the rest of the nominations submitted. They
+were all approved, and Mr. Dexter consented to hold over until his
+successor should be appointed. Thus Mr. Gallatin's convenience was
+entirely consulted. He remained in Washington a few days to confer with
+the President as to the general conduct of the administration, and on
+March 14 set out for Fayette to put his affairs in order and to bring
+his wife and family to Washington. On May 14 Jefferson wrote to Macon,
+"The arrival of Mr. Gallatin yesterday completed the organization of our
+administration."
+
+Mr. Gallatin soon realized the magnitude of his task. He did nothing by
+halves. To whatever work he had to do, he brought the best of his
+faculty. No man ever better deserved the epithet of "thorough." He
+searched till he found the principle of every measure with which he had
+concern and understood every detail of its application. This perfect
+knowledge of every subject which he investigated was the secret of his
+political success. As a committee man, he was incomparable. No one could
+be better equipped for the direction of the Treasury Department than he,
+but he was not satisfied with direction; he would manage also; and he
+went to the work with untiring energy. A quarter of a century later he
+said of it, in a letter to his son, "To fill that office in the manner I
+did, and as it ought to be filled, is a most laborious task and labor of
+the most tedious kind. To fit myself for it, to be able to understand
+thoroughly, to embrace and control all its details, took from me, during
+the two first years I held it, every hour of the day and many of the
+night and had nearly brought on a pulmonary complaint. I filled the
+office twelve years and was fairly worn out."
+
+Mr. Gallatin first drew public attention to his knowledge of finance in
+the Pennsylvania legislature. An extract from his memorandum of his
+three years' service gives the best account of this incident. In it
+appear the carefully matured convictions which he inflexibly maintained.
+
+     "The report of the Committee of Ways and Means of the session
+     1790-1791 (presented by Gurney, chairman) was entirely prepared by
+     me, known to be so, and laid the foundation of my reputation. I was
+     quite astonished at the general encomiums bestowed upon it, and was
+     not at all aware that I had done so well. It was perspicuous and
+     comprehensive; but I am confident that its true merit, and that
+     which gained me the general confidence, was its being founded in
+     strict justice without the slightest regard to party feelings or
+     popular prejudices. The principles assumed, and which were carried
+     into effect, were the immediate reimbursement and extinction of the
+     state paper money, the immediate payment in specie of all the
+     current expenses or warrants on the Treasury (the postponement and
+     uncertainty of which had given rise to shameful and corrupt
+     speculations), and provision for discharging, without defalcation,
+     every debt and engagement previously recognized by the State. In
+     conformity with this, the State paid to its creditors the
+     difference between the nominal amount of the state debt assumed by
+     the United States and the rate at which it was funded by the act of
+     Congress.
+
+     "The proceeds of the public lands, together with the arrears, were
+     the fund which not only discharged all the public debts, but left a
+     large surplus. The apprehension that this would be squandered by
+     the Legislature was the principal inducement for chartering the
+     Bank of Pennsylvania with a capital of two millions of dollars, of
+     which the State subscribed one half. This and similar subsequent
+     investments enabled Pennsylvania to defray out of the dividends all
+     the expenses of government without any direct tax during the forty
+     ensuing years, and till the adoption of the system of internal
+     improvement, which required new resources."
+
+This report was printed in the Journal of the House, February 8, 1791.
+The next year he made a report on the same subject which was printed
+February 22, 1792.
+
+But his equal grasp of larger subjects was shown in his sketch of the
+finances of the United States, which he published in November, 1796. It
+presents under three sections the revenues, the expenses, and the debts
+of the United States, each subdivided into special heads. The arguments
+are supported by elaborate tabular statements. No such exhaustive
+examination had been made of the state of the American finances. The one
+cardinal principle which he laid down was the extinguishment of debt. He
+severely criticised Hamilton's methods of funding, and outlined those
+which he himself later applied. He charged upon Hamilton direct
+violations of law in the application of money, borrowed as principal, to
+the payment of interest on that principal. The public funds he regarded
+as three in number: 1st, the sinking fund; 2d, the surplus fund; 3d, the
+general fund.
+
+In July, 1800, Mr. Gallatin published a second pamphlet, "Views of the
+Public Debt, Receipts, and Expenditures of the United States," the
+object of the inquiry being to ascertain the result of the fiscal
+operations of the government under the Constitution. The entire field of
+American finance is examined from its beginning. He severely condemns
+the mode of assumption of the state debts in Hamilton's original plan,
+and no doubt his strictures are technically correct. The debts assumed
+for debtor States were not due by the United States, nor was there any
+moral reason for their assumption. But the assumption was sound
+financial policy, and all the cost to the nation was amply repaid by the
+order which their assumption drew out of chaos, and the vigor given to
+the general credit by the strengthening of that of its parts. The course
+of the Federalists and Republicans on this question shows that the
+former had at heart the welfare of all the States, while the latter
+confined their interest to their own body politic.
+
+Had Mr. Gallatin never penned another line on finance, these two
+remarkable papers would place him in the first rank of economists and
+statisticians. There are no errors in his figures, no flaws in his
+reasoning, no faults in his deductions. In construction and detail, as
+parts of a complete financial system of administration, they are beyond
+criticism. Opinions may differ as to the ends sought, but not as to the
+means to those ends.
+
+For a long period Mr. Gallatin found no more time for essays; he was
+now to apply his methods. These may be traced in his printed treasury
+reports, which are lucid and instructive. He was appointed to the
+Treasury on May 14, 1801, as appears by the official record in the State
+Department. Before he entered on the duties of the office he submitted
+to Mr. Jefferson, March 14, 1801, some rough sketches of the financial
+situation, and suggested the general outlines of his policy. He insisted
+upon a curtailment in the appropriations for the naval and military
+establishments, the only saving adequate to the repeal of all internal
+duties; and upon the discharge of the foreign debt within the period of
+its obligation. He estimated that the probable receipts and expenditures
+for the year 1801 would leave a surplus of more than two millions of
+dollars applicable to the redemption of the debt.
+
+On taking personal charge of the Treasury Department, his first business
+was to get rid of the arrears of current business which had accumulated
+since the retirement of Wolcott; his next, to perfect the internal
+revenue system, so far as it could be remedied without new legislation.
+The entire summer of 1801 was passed in "arranging, or rather procuring
+correct statements amongst the Treasury documents," a task of such
+difficulty that he was unwilling, on November 15, to arrive at an
+estimate of the revenue within half a million, or to commit himself to
+any opinion as to the feasibility of abolishing the internal revenues.
+In his "notes" submitted to Jefferson upon the draft of his first
+message, there are several passages of interest which show Mr.
+Gallatin's logical habit of searching out economic causes. Under the
+head of finances, he remarks, "The revenue has increased more than in
+the same ratio with population: 1st, because our wealth has increased in
+a greater ratio than population; 2d, because the seaports and towns,
+which consume imported articles much more than the country, have
+increased in a greater proportion." The final paragraph in these "notes"
+is a synopsis of his entire scheme of administration.
+
+     "There is but one subject not mentioned in the message which I feel
+     extremely anxious to see recommended. It is generally that Congress
+     should adopt such measures as will effectually guard against
+     misapplications of public moneys, by making specific appropriations
+     whenever practicable; by providing against the application of
+     moneys drawn from the Treasury under an appropriation to any other
+     object or to any greater amount than that for which they have been
+     drawn; by limiting discretionary power in the application of that
+     money; whether by heads of department or by any other agents; and
+     by rendering every person who receives public moneys from the
+     Treasury as immediately, promptly, and effectually accountable to
+     the accounting officer (the comptroller) as practicable. The great
+     characteristic, the flagrant vice, of the late administration has
+     been total disregard of laws, and application of public moneys by
+     the Department to objects for which they were not appropriate."
+
+Outlines for a system of specific appropriations were inclosed.
+
+That the mission of Jefferson's administration was the reduction of the
+debt, Gallatin set forth in his next letter of November 16, 1801. "I am
+firmly of opinion that if the present administration and Congress do not
+take the most effective measures for that object, the debt will be
+entailed on us and the ensuing generations, together with all the
+systems which support it, and which it supports." On the other hand he
+says, "If this administration shall not reduce taxes, they never will be
+permanently reduced." To reduce both the debt and the taxes was as much
+a political as a financial problem. To solve it required the reduction
+to a minimum of the departments of War and Marine. But Mr. Jefferson was
+not a practical statesman. His individuality was too strong for much
+surrender of opinion. He stated the case very mildly when he wrote in
+his retirement that he sometimes differed in opinion from some of his
+friends, from those whose views were as "pure and as sound as his own."
+It was not his habit to consult his entire cabinet except on general
+measures. The heads of each department set their views before him
+separately. Under this system Mr. Gallatin was never able to realize
+that harmonious interdependence of departments and subordination of ways
+to means which were his ideal of cabinet administration.
+
+The successful application of Mr. Gallatin's plan would have
+subordinated all the executive departments to the Treasury. The theory
+was perfect, but it took no account of the greed of office, the
+jealousies of friends, the opposition of enemies, and the unknown factor
+of foreign relations. A speck on the horizon would cloud the peaceful
+prospect, a hostile threat derange the intricate machinery by which the
+delicate financial balance was maintained. Mr. Gallatin was fast
+realizing the magnitude of his undertaking, in which he was greatly
+embarrassed by the difficulty of finding faithful examining clerks, on
+whose correctness and fidelity a just settlement of all accounts
+depends. The number of independent offices attached to the Treasury made
+the task still more arduous. He wrote to Jefferson at this time, "It
+will take me twelve months before I can thoroughly understand every
+detail of all these several offices. Current business and the more
+general and important duties of the office do not permit me to learn the
+lesser details, but incidentally and by degrees. Until I know them all I
+dare not touch the machine." One of the acquirements which he considered
+indispensable for a secretary of the treasury was a "thorough knowledge
+of book-keeping." The recollection of his persistent demands for
+information from Hamilton and Wolcott during his congressional career
+would have stung the conscience of an ordinary man. But Gallatin was not
+an ordinary man. He asked nothing of others which he himself was not
+willing to perform. His ideal was high, but he reached its summit. It
+seems almost as if, in his persistent demand that money accountability
+should be imposed by law upon the Treasury Department, he sought to set
+the measure of his own duty, while in the requirement that it should be
+extended to the other departments, he pledged himself to the perfect
+accomplishment of that duty in his own.
+
+In his first report to Congress,[11] made December 18, 1801, Mr.
+Gallatin submitted his financial estimate for the year 1802.
+
+REVENUE.                  EXPENDITURES.
+
+Imposts       $9,500,000  Int. on debts. $7,100,000
+Lands     }      450,000  Civil List        980,000
+Postages  }               Army            1,420,000
+Internal Rev.    650,000  Navy            1,100,000
+              ----------                 ----------
+             $10,600,000                $10,600,000
+
+Mr. Wolcott, in his last report to the Commissioners of the Sinking
+Fund, stated the amount in the Treasury to its credit at $500,718. Mr.
+Gallatin denied that there was any such surplus, but said that instead
+of a credit balance the treasury books showed a deficiency of $930,128
+on the aggregate revenue from the establishment of the government to the
+close of the year 1799. Elliott, in his "Funding System," said
+concerning this once vexed controversy, that it was difficult to
+reconcile such a diversity of opinion on so intricate a subject; and
+concerning the official statements of Hamilton and Wolcott, that it was
+hardly to be credited that they were so superficial or imperfect. Mr.
+Gallatin himself furnishes the apology that the difference might arise
+from "entries made or omitted on erroneous principles." To the Federal
+financiers the palliation was as offensive as the charge, and rankled
+long and sore. If it were not possible, when Elliott made an
+examination, to arrive at the precise facts, it is certainly now a
+secret as secure from discovery as the lost sibylline leaves.
+
+Mr. Gallatin stated the debt of the United States--
+
+On January 1, 1801, at          $80,161,207.60
+On January 1, 1802, at           77,881,890.29
+                               ---------------
+Reduction                        $2,279,317.31
+
+This difference was the amount of principal paid during the year 1801,
+the result of the management of his predecessors. On December 18, 1801,
+Mr. Gallatin entered upon an examination of the time in which the total
+debt might be discharged, and showed that, by the annual application of
+$7,300,000 to the principal and interest the debt would in eight years,
+_i. e._ on January 1, 1810, be reduced (by the payment of $32,289,000 of
+the principal) to $45,592,739, and that the same annual sum of
+$7,300,000 would discharge the whole debt by the year 1817. The revenues
+of the Union he found sufficient to defray all the current expenses. In
+his report to Congress at the beginning of the session he designated
+this sum of $7,300,000 to be set aside from the revenues, and Congress
+gave the requisite authority. An extract from a tabular statement
+submitted to the House of Representatives, April 16, 1810, will show how
+nearly Mr. Gallatin approached the result at which he aimed, and the
+nature of the embarrassment he encountered on the path.
+
+------+--------------+--------------+---------------+-------------+
+      |  Amount of   |    Payments  |   Debt        |   Annual    |
+Years.| Public Debt  |      on      |   Contracted. |   Increase. |
+      | January 1st. |   Principal. |               |             |
+------+--------------+--------------+---------------+-------------+
+1802  |$80,712,632.25| $3,657,945.95|        -      |       -     |
+1803  | 77,054,686.30|  5,627,565.42|  $15,000,000* |$9,372,434.58|
+1804  | 86,427,120.88|  4,114,970.38|        -      |       -     |
+1805  | 82,312,150.50|  6,588,879.84|        -      |       -     |
+1806  | 75,723,270.66|  6,504,872.02|        -      |       -     |
+1807  | 69,218,398.64|  4,022,080.67|        -      |       -     |
+1808  | 65,196,317.97|  8,173,125.88|        -      |       -     |
+1809  | 57,023,192.09|  3,850,889.77|        -      |       -     |
+1810  | 53,172,302.32|        -     |        -      |        -    |
+------+--------------+--------------+---------------+-------------+
+-----------------
+     Annual
+     Decrease.
+-----------------
+   $3,657,948.95
+         -
+    4,114,970.38
+    6,588,879.84
+    6,504,872.02
+    4,022,080.67
+    8,173,125.88
+    3,850,889.77
+         -
+-----------------
+                         * Louisiana purchase.
+
+1802  $80,712,632.25    Decrease           $36,912,764.51
+1810   53,172,302.32    Increase             9,372,434.58
+      --------------                       --------------
+      $27,540,329.93    Decrease in 8 yrs. $27,540,329.93
+
+From this it appears that, notwithstanding the extraordinary increase of
+the principal by the amount of the Louisiana purchase, Mr. Gallatin
+contrived a reduction of $27,540,329. But if to this be added the true
+reduction for the year 1803, namely, the difference between the
+Louisiana debt, $15,000,000, and the increase for that year, by reason
+of that purchase, $9,372,434, say $6,627,565, the reduction is found to
+be, and but for that disturbing cause would have reached, $34,167,895,
+a sum exceeding by $1,878,895 that estimated by Mr. Gallatin in his
+report of 1801 as the amount of eight years' reduction, namely,
+$32,289,000.
+
+The ways and means of this remarkable example of financial management
+appear in the following extracts from Elliott's synoptical statement
+(table given on page 194).
+
+The purchase of Louisiana was the extraordinary financial measure of
+Jefferson's first presidential term. Though the new obligation for the
+consideration money, fifteen millions of dollars, was a large sum in
+proportion to the total existing debt of the United States, it did not
+in the least derange Gallatin's plan of funding and reduction, but was
+brought without friction within his general scheme. With the terms of
+the contract Gallatin had nothing to do. They were arranged by
+Livingston and Monroe, the American commissioners; the intervention of
+the houses of Hope and the Barings being a part of the understanding
+between the commissioners and the French government. These bankers
+engaged to make the money payments and take six per cent. stock of the
+United States at seventy-eight and one half cents on the dollar. With
+this price Mr. Gallatin does not seem to have been satisfied, though of
+course he interposed no objection to the terms; but to Jefferson he
+wrote, August 31, 1803, that the low price at which that stock had been
+sold, was "not ascribable to the state of public credit nor to any act
+of your administration, and particularly of the Treasury Department;"
+and he adds in a postscript, "at that period our threes were in England
+worth one per cent. more at market than the English."
+
+
+RECEIPTS.
+
+------------------+----------------+---------------+-------------+
+Four years        |   Customs.     |   Internal    |   Direct    |
+ending            |                |   Revenue.    |   Taxes.    |
+December 31.      |                |               |             |
+------------------+----------------+---------------+-------------+
+Adams, 1800       | $30,347,093.62 | $2,808,382.37 | $734,223.97 |
+                  +--------------- +-------------- +------------ +
+Jefferson, 1804   |  44,766,997.61 |  1,936,053.30 |  862,986.46 |
+           1808   |  59,813,257.40 |     63,110.73 |  131,539.54 |
+                  +--------------- +-------------- +------------ +
+                  | 104,580,255.01 |  1,999,146.03 |  994,526.00 |
+------------------+----------------+---------------+-------------+
+
+------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------+
+Four years        |   Postage.  |   Public     |    Loans and  |
+ending            |             |    Lands.    |    Treasury   |
+December 31.      |             |              |    Notes.     |
+------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------+
+Adams, 1800       | $223,000.00 |   $95,947.46 | $7,055,791.25 |
+                  +-------------+--------------+---------------+
+Jefferson, 1804   |  157,427.26 | 1,009,556.56 |     25,255.00 |
+           1808   |   60,074.90 | 2,419,541.86 |    179,534.81 |
+                  +-------------+--------------+---------------+
+                  |  217,502.10 | 3,429,098.42 |    205,089.81 |
+------------------+-------------+--------------+---------------+
+
+------------------+--------------+----------------+----------------
+Four years        |  Dividends   | Miscellaneous. |   Total.
+ending            | and sales of |                |
+December 31.      |  Bank Stock. |                |
+------------------+--------------+-------------- -+----------------
+Adams, 1800       |  $607,220.00 |   $168,971.76  | $42,040,630.45
+                  +--------------+----------------+----------------
+Jefferson, 1804   | 1,416,360.00 |    672,148.72  |  50,846,784.91
+           1808   |       --     |     85,782.03  |  62,758,841.27
+                  +--------------+----------------+----------------
+                  | 1,416,360.00 |    757,930.75  | 113,605,626.18
+------------------+--------------+----------------+----------------
+
+
+EXPENDITURES.
+
+
+------------------+---------------+---------------+--------------+
+Four years        | Civil List.   | Foreign       |Miscellaneous.|
+ending            |               | Intercourse   |              |
+December 31.      |               | including     |              |
+                  |               | Awards.       |              |
+------------------+---------------+---------------+--------------+
+Adams, 1800       | $2,329,433.08 | $1,793,879.57 |  $621,633.37 |
+                  +---------------+---------------+--------------+
+Jefferson, 1804   |  2,297,648.17 |  3,144,093.00 | 1,169,601.87 |
+           1808   |  2,616,772.77 |  5,441,669.24 | 1,721,876.87 |
+                  +---------------+---------------+--------------+
+                  |  4,914,420.94 |  8,585,762.24 | 2,891,478.74 |
+------------------+---------------+---------------+--------------+
+
+------------------+---------------+-------------+--------------+
+Four years        |  Military     | Pensions.   |  Indian      |
+ending            |  Forts, etc.  |             |  Department. |
+December 31.      |               |             |              |
+                  |               |             |              |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+--------------+
+Adams, 1800       | $8,076,750.71 | $356,677.06 |   $99,299.88 |
+                  +---------------+-------------+--------------+
+Jefferson, 1804   |  4,549,572.11 |  301,968.66 |   279,500.00 |
+           1808   |  6,126,656.97 |  316,806.16 |   849,700.00 |
+                  +---------------+-------------+--------------+
+                  | 10,676,229.08 |  618,774.82 | 1,129,200.00 |
+------------------+---------------+-------------+--------------+
+
+------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------
+Four years        |    Naval       |  Public Debt.  |      Total.
+ending            | Establishment. |                |
+December 31.      |                |                |
+                  |                |                |
+------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------
+Adams, 1800       | $8,070,777.52  | $18,957,962.69 | $40,306,413.88
+                  +----------------+----------------+----------------
+Jefferson, 1804   |  5,432,049.15  |  32,258,658.68 |  49,433,091.64
+           1808   |  6,853,673.79  |  32,927,739.85 |  56,854,985.65
+                  +----------------+----------------+----------------
+                  | 12,285,722.94  |  65,186,398.53 | 106,288,077.29
+------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------
+
+Adams--Receipts            $42,040,630.45
+Adams--Expenditures         40,306,413.88
+                           --------------
+Under Wolcott, Secretary     1,734,216.57
+
+Jefferson--Receipts       $113,605,626.18
+Jefferson--Expenditures    106,288,077.29
+                           --------------
+Under Gallatin, Secretary    7,317,584.89[12]
+
+[**Transcriber's Note: Some of the numbers in the above tables do not
+add up, but reflect the actual numbers given in the original document.]
+
+The arrangements being completed, Jefferson called Congress together in
+October, 1803, for a ratification of the treaty; the commissioners, by
+virtue of the authority granted them, had already guaranteed the advance
+by the Barings of ten million livres ($2,000,000). On October 25, 1803,
+Gallatin made a report to Congress on the state of the finances. It
+showed a reduction of the public debt in the two and one half years of
+his management, April 1, 1801, to September 30, 1803, of $12,702,404.
+The only question to be considered was whether any additional revenues
+were wanted to provide for the _new debt_ which would result from the
+purchase of Louisiana.
+
+The sum called for by treaty, fifteen millions, consisted of two items:
+1st, $11,250,000 payable to the government of France in a stock bearing
+an interest of six per cent. payable in Europe, and the principal to be
+discharged at the Treasury of the United States; 2d, a sum which could
+not exceed, but might fall short of, $3,750,000, payable in specie at
+the Treasury of the United States to American citizens having claims of
+a certain description upon the government of France.
+
+It is interesting here to note Mr. Gallatin's distinction between the
+place of payment of interest and of principal as a new departure in
+American finance. The principal and interest of foreign loans had up to
+that period been paid abroad. But a United States stock was an
+obligation of a different character and properly payable at home. In the
+large negotiations which Secretary Chase had in 1862 with the Treasury
+Note Committee of the Associated Banks,[13] this policy was matter of
+grave debate. The determined American pride of Mr. Chase prevailed, and
+both the principal _and interest_ of the loans created were made payable
+at the Treasury of the United States. These may be small matters in
+their financial result, but are grave points in national policy.
+
+The only financial legislation necessary to carry out the Louisiana
+purchase was a provision that $700,000 of the duties on merchandise and
+tonnage, a sum sufficient to pay the interest on the new debt, be added
+to the annual permanent appropriation for the sinking fund, making a sum
+of $8,000,000 in all.
+
+The new debt would, Gallatin said, neither impede nor retard the payment
+of the principal of the old debt; and the fund would be sufficient,
+besides paying the interest on both, to discharge the principal of the
+old debt before the year 1818, and of the new, within one year and a
+half after that year. In this expectation he relied solely on the
+maintenance of the revenue at the amount of the year 1802, and in no way
+depended on its probable increase as a result of neutrality in the
+European war; nor on any augmentation by reason of increase of
+population or wealth, nor the effect which the opening of the
+Mississippi to free navigation might be expected to have on the sales of
+public lands and the general resources of the country.
+
+In his report of December 9, 1805, Mr. Gallatin reviewed the results of
+his first four years of service, April 1, 1801, to March 31, 1805.
+
+                     RECEIPTS.
+
+Duties on tonnage and importation of
+foreign merchandise                           $45,174,837.22
+
+From all other sources                          5,492,629.82
+                                              --------------
+                                              $50,667,467.04
+                                              ==============
+
+                      EXPENDITURES.
+
+Civil list and miscellaneous                   $3,786,094.79
+
+Intercourse with foreign nations                1,071,437.84
+
+Military establishment and Indian department    4,405,192.26
+
+Naval establishment                             4,842,635.15
+
+Interest on foreign debt                       16,278,700.95
+
+Reimbursement of debt from surplus
+revenue                                        19,281,446.57
+                                              --------------
+                                              $49,665,507.56
+
+The Louisiana purchase and the admirable manner of its financial
+arrangement were important factors in Jefferson's reelection. Mr.
+Gallatin was now sure of four years, at least, for the prosecution of
+his plan of redemption of the public debt. Estimating that with the
+increase of population at the rate of thirty-five per cent. in ten
+years, and the corresponding growth of the revenue, he could count upon
+a net annual surplus of $5,500,000, he now proposed to convert the
+several outstanding obligations into a six per cent. stock amounting,
+January 1, 1809, to less than _forty millions of dollars_, which the
+continued annual appropriation of $8,000,000 would, besides paying the
+interest on the Louisiana debt, reimburse within a period of less than
+seven years, or before the end of the year 1815. After that year no
+other incumbrance would remain on the revenue than the interest and
+reimbursement of the Louisiana stock, the last payment of which in the
+year 1821 would complete the final extinguishment of the public debt.
+The conversion act was passed February 1, 1807, and books were opened on
+July 1 following. On February 27, 1807, Mr. Gallatin made a special
+report on the state of the debt from 1801 to 1807, showing a diminution,
+notwithstanding the Louisiana purchase, of $14,260,000.
+
+In the summer of 1807 war with England seemed inevitable. Gallatin had
+the satisfaction to report a full treasury,--the amount of specie
+October 7, 1807, reaching over eight and one half millions,--and an
+annual unappropriated surplus, which could be confidently relied upon,
+of at least three millions of dollars. On this subject his remarks in
+the light of subsequent history are of extreme interest. While
+refraining from any recommendations as to the application of this
+surplus, either to "measures of security and defense," or to "internal
+improvements which, while increasing and diffusing the national wealth,
+will strengthen the bonds of union," as "subjects which do not fall
+within the province of the Treasury Department," he proceeds to consider
+the advantage of an accumulation in the Treasury. In this report he
+rises with easy flight far above the purely financial atmosphere into
+the higher plane of political economy.
+
+     "A previous accumulation of treasure in time of peace might in a
+     great degree defray the extraordinary expenses of war and diminish
+     the necessity of either loans or additional taxes. It would provide
+     during periods of prosperity for those adverse events to which
+     every nation is exposed, instead of increasing the burthens of the
+     people at a time when they are least able to bear them, or of
+     impairing, by anticipations, the resources of ensuing
+     generations....
+
+     "That the revenue of the United States will in subsequent years be
+     considerably impaired by a war neither can nor ought to be
+     concealed. It is, on the contrary, necessary, in order to be
+     prepared for the crisis, to take an early view of the subject, and
+     to examine the resources which should be selected for supplying the
+     deficiency and defraying the extraordinary expenses....
+
+     "Whether taxes should be raised to a greater amount or loans be
+     altogether relied on for defraying the expenses of the war, is the
+     next subject of consideration.
+
+     "Taxes are paid by the great mass of the citizens, and immediately
+     affect almost every individual of the community. Loans are supplied
+     by capital previously accumulated by a few individuals. In a
+     country where the resources of individuals are not generally and
+     materially affected by the war, it is practicable and wise to raise
+     by taxes the greater part at least of the annual supplies. The
+     credit of the nation may also from various circumstances be at
+     times so far impaired as to have no resource but taxation. In both
+     respects the situation of the United States is totally
+     dissimilar....
+
+     "An addition to the debt is doubtless an evil, but experience
+     having now shown with what rapid progress the revenue of the Union
+     increases in time of peace, with what facility the debt, formerly
+     contracted, has in a few years been reduced, a hope may confidently
+     be entertained that all the evils of the war will be temporary and
+     easily repaired, and that the return of peace will, without any
+     effort, afford ample resources for reimbursing whatever may have
+     been borrowed during the war."
+
+He then enumerates the several branches of revenue which might be
+selected to provide for the interest of war loans and to cover
+deficiencies. First, a considerable increase of the duties on
+importations; and here he says:--
+
+     "Without resorting to the example of other nations, experience has
+     proven that this source of revenue is in the United States the most
+     productive, the easiest to collect, and the least burthensome to
+     the great mass of the people. 2d. Indirect taxes, however
+     ineligible, will doubtless be cheerfully paid as _war taxes_, if
+     necessary. 3d. Direct taxes are liable to a particular objection
+     arising from unavoidable inequality produced by the general rule
+     of the Constitution. Whatever differences may exist between the
+     relative wealth and consequent ability of paying of the several
+     States, still the tax must necessarily be raised in proportion to
+     their relative population."
+
+The Orders in Council of November 11, 1807, avowedly adopted to compel
+all nations to give up their maritime trade or accept it through Great
+Britain, reached Washington on December 18, 1807, and were immediately
+replied to by the United States by an embargo act on December 22. The
+history of the political effect of this measure is beyond the limits of
+this economic study, and will be touched upon in a later chapter, but
+the result of its application upon the Treasury falls within this
+analysis of the methods of Mr. Gallatin's administration.
+
+On December 18 Gallatin wrote Jefferson that "in every point of view,
+privations, sufferings, revenue, effect on the enemy, politics at home,
+etc.," he preferred "war to a permanent embargo;" nevertheless he was
+called upon to draft the bill. The correctness of Mr. Gallatin's
+prevision was soon apparent. In his report of December 10, 1808, he
+reviewed the general effect of the measure. "The embargo has brought
+into and kept in the United States almost all the floating property of
+the nation. And whilst the depreciated value of domestic product
+increases the difficulty of raising a considerable revenue by internal
+taxes, at no former time has there been so much specie, so much
+redundant unemployed capital in the country." Again stating his opinion
+that loans should be principally relied on in case of war, he closed
+with the following words: "The high price of public stocks (and indeed
+of all species of stocks), the reduction of the public debt, the
+unimpaired credit of the general government, and the large amount of
+existing bank stock in the United States [estimated by him at forty
+millions of dollars], leave no doubt of the practicability of obtaining
+the necessary loans on reasonable terms."
+
+The receipts into the Treasury during the
+year ending September, 1808, the last of
+Jefferson's administration, were            $17,952,419.90
+
+The disbursements during the same period
+were                                         12,635,275.46
+                                             -------------
+Excess of receipts                           $5,317,144.44
+
+And the specie in Treasury, October 1,
+1808                                        $13,846,717.82
+
+From January 1, 1791, to January 1, 1808, the debt had fallen from
+$75,169,974 to $57,023,192; during the first ten years it had increased
+nearly seven millions of dollars, in the last eight it had been
+diminished more than twenty millions and Louisiana had been purchased.
+Thus closed the second term of Gallatin's service. Happen what might,
+the credit of the country could not be in a better situation to meet the
+exigencies of a war. A letter from Mr. Jefferson to Mr. Gallatin after
+the close of this administration, and Gallatin's reply, show the entire
+accord between them upon the one cardinal point of financial policy. Mr.
+Jefferson, October 11, 1809, wrote from Monticello, "I consider the
+fortunes of our republic as depending in an eminent degree on the
+extinction of the public debt before we engage in any war; because, that
+done, we shall have revenue enough to improve our country in peace and
+defend it in war, without incurring either new taxes or new loans." And
+urging Gallatin to retain his post, he closed with the striking words,
+"I hope, then, you will abandon entirely the idea you expressed to me,
+and that you will consider the eight years to come as essential to your
+political career. I should certainly consider any earlier day of your
+retirement as the most inauspicious day our new government has ever
+seen." To which Gallatin replied from Washington, on November 10:--
+
+     "The reduction of the public debt was certainly the principal
+     object in bringing me into office, and our success in that respect
+     has been due both to the joint and continued efforts of the several
+     branches of government and to the prosperous situation of the
+     country. I am sensible that the work cannot progress under adverse
+     circumstances. If the United States shall be forced into a state of
+     actual war, all the resources of the country must be called forth
+     to make it efficient and new loans will undoubtedly be wanted. But
+     whilst peace is preserved, the revenue will, at all events, be
+     sufficient to pay the interest and to defray necessary expenses. I
+     do not ask that in the present situation of our foreign relations
+     the debt be reduced, but only that it shall not be increased so
+     long as we are not at war."
+
+In his eight years of service under Jefferson, Gallatin had not found
+the Treasury Department a bed of roses. Under Madison there was an undue
+proportion of thorns.
+
+It has been shown that the entire reliance of Gallatin for the expenses
+of government was on customs, tonnage dues, and land sales. The effect
+of the Embargo Act was soon felt in the falling off of importations, and
+consequently in the revenue from this source. Mr. Gallatin felt the
+strain in the spring of 1809; and on March 18, soon after Mr. Madison's
+inauguration, he gave notice to the commissioners of the sinking fund of
+a probable deficiency. In his annual report to Congress, December, 1809,
+he announced the expenses of government, exclusive of the payments on
+account of the principal of the debt, to have exceeded the actual
+receipts into the Treasury by a sum of near $1,300,000. For this
+deficiency, and the sum required for the sinking fund, Gallatin was
+authorized in May to borrow from the Bank of the United States
+$3,750,000 at six per cent., reimbursable on December 31, 1811. Of this
+sum only $2,750,000 was taken, the expenses having proved less than Mr.
+Gallatin had anticipated.
+
+Madison called Congress together on November 1, 1811. The political
+tension was strong, and he was anxious to throw the responsibility of
+peace or war upon Congress. On November 22, 1811, Mr. Gallatin made his
+report on the finances and the public debt. It was, as usual, explicit
+and in no manner despondent. The actual receipts arising from revenue
+alone exceeded the current expenses, including the interest paid on the
+debt, by a sum of more than five and one half millions of dollars. The
+public debt on January 1, 1812, was $45,154,463. Since Gallatin took
+charge of the department, the United States had in ten years and nine
+months paid in full the purchase money of Louisiana, and increased its
+revenue nearly two millions of dollars. For eight years eight millions
+of dollars had been annually paid on account of the principal and
+interest of the debt. And as though intending to leave as the legacy of
+his service a lesson of financial policy, he said:--
+
+     "_The redemption of principal has been effected without the aid of
+     any internal taxes, either direct or indirect, without any addition
+     during the last seven years to the rate of duties on importations,
+     which on the contrary have been impaired by the repeal of the duty
+     on salt, and notwithstanding the great diminution of commerce
+     during the last four years._ It therefore proves decisively the
+     ability of the United States with their ordinary revenue to
+     discharge, in ten years of peace, a debt of forty-two millions of
+     dollars, a fact which considerably lessens the weight of the most
+     formidable objection to which that revenue, depending almost solely
+     on commerce, appears to be liable. In time of peace it is almost
+     sufficient to defray the expenses of a war; in time of war it is
+     hardly competent to support the expenses of a peace establishment.
+     Sinking at once, under adverse circumstances, from fifteen to six
+     or eight millions of dollars, it is only by a persevering
+     application of the surplus which it affords us in years of
+     prosperity, to the discharge of the debt, that a total change in
+     the system of taxation or a perpetual accumulation of debt can be
+     avoided. But if a similar application of such surplus be hereafter
+     strictly adhered to, forty millions of debt, contracted during five
+     or six years of war, may always, without any extraordinary
+     exertions, be reimbursed in ten years of peace. This view of the
+     subject at the present crisis appears necessary for the purpose of
+     distinctly pointing out one of the principal resources within reach
+     of the United States. But to be placed on a solid foundation, it
+     requires the aid of a revenue sufficient at least to defray the
+     ordinary expenses of government, and to pay the interest on the
+     public debt, including that on new loans which may be authorized."
+
+From this plain declaration, it was evident that the sum necessary to
+pay interest on new loans, and provide for their redemption by the
+operation of the sinking fund, could not be obtained from the ordinary
+sources of revenue, and that resort must be had to extraordinary imposts
+or direct taxation. On January 10, 1812, in response to an inquiry of
+the Ways and Means Committee as to an increase of revenue in _the event
+of a war_, Gallatin submitted a project for war loans of ten millions a
+year, irredeemable for ten years. He pointed out that the government had
+never since its organization obtained considerable loans at six per
+cent. per annum, except from the Bank of the United States, and these,
+on a capital of seven millions, never amounted to seven millions in the
+whole. As the amount of prospective loans would naturally raise the
+amount of interest, it seemed prudent not to limit the rate of interest
+by law; ineligible as it seemed to leave that rate discretionary with
+the executive, it was preferable to leaving the public service
+unprovided for. For the same reason the loans should be made
+irredeemable for a term not less than ten years.
+
+He then repeated a former suggestion, that "treasury notes," bearing
+interest, might be issued, which would to that extent diminish the
+amount to be directly borrowed and also provide a part of the
+circulating medium, passing as bank notes; but their issue must be
+strictly limited to that amount at which they would circulate without
+depreciation. So long as the public credit is preserved and a sufficient
+revenue provided, he entertained no doubts of the possibility of
+procuring on loan the sums necessary to defray the extraordinary
+expenses of a war. He warned the committee, and through it Congress,
+that "no artificial provisions, no appropriations or investments of
+particular funds in certain persons, _no nominal sinking fund_, however
+constructed, will ever reduce a public debt unless the net annual
+revenue shall exceed the aggregate of the annual expenses, including the
+interest of the debt." He then submitted the following estimates:--
+
+     "The current or peace expenses have been estimated at nine millions
+     of dollars. Supposing the debt contracted during the war not to
+     exceed fifty millions and its annual interest to amount to three
+     millions, the aggregate of the peace expenditure would be no more
+     than twelve millions. And as the peace revenue of the United States
+     may at the existing rate of duties be fairly estimated at fifteen
+     millions, there would remain from the first outset a surplus of
+     three millions applicable to the redemption of the debt. So far,
+     therefore, as can be now foreseen, there is the strongest reason to
+     believe that the debt thus contracted will be discharged with
+     facility and as speedily as the terms of the loans will permit. Nor
+     does any other plan in that respect appear necessary than to extend
+     the application of the annual appropriation of eight millions (and
+     which is amply sufficient for that purpose) to the payment of
+     interest and reimbursement of the principal of the new debt.... If
+     the national revenue exceeds the national expenditure, a simple
+     appropriation for the payment of the principal of the debt and
+     coextensive with the object is sufficient and will infallibly
+     extinguish the debt. If the expense exceeds the revenue, the
+     appropriation of any specific sum and the investment of the
+     interest extinguished or of any other fund, will prove altogether
+     nugatory; and the national debt will, notwithstanding that
+     apparatus, be annually increased by an amount equal to the deficit
+     in the revenue.... What appears to be of vital importance is that
+     _the crisis_ should at once be met by the adoption of efficient
+     measures, which will with certainty provide means commensurate with
+     the expense, and, by _preserving unimpaired instead of abusing that
+     public credit on which the public resources so eminently depend,
+     will enable the United States to persevere in the contest until an
+     honorable peace shall have been obtained_."
+
+On March 14 Congress authorized a public loan of eleven millions of
+dollars, leaving it optional with the banks who subscribed to take
+stock, or to loan the money on special contract. The books were opened
+May 1 and 2, and in the two days $6,118,900 were subscribed: $4,190,000
+by banks and $1,928,000 by individuals. The rate was six per cent. Mr.
+Gallatin reported this result, and proposed the issue of treasury notes
+for such amount as was desired within the limit of the loan to bear
+interest at five and two fifths per cent. a year, equal to a cent and a
+half per day on a hundred dollars' note; 2d, to be payable one year
+after date of issue; 3d, to be in the meanwhile receivable in payment of
+all duties, taxes, or debts due to the United States. The first of these
+ingenious qualifications was adopted by Mr. Chase in his issue of the
+seven-thirties.
+
+On June 18 war was declared. On the 28th Mr. Gallatin submitted his
+estimate of receipts and expenditures for the year.
+
+EXPENDITURES IN ROUND NUMBERS.
+
+Civil and miscellaneous                   $1,560,000
+Military establishment, and Indian dept   12,800,000
+Naval establishment                        3,940,000
+Public debt                                8,000,000
+                                          ----------
+                                         $26,300,000
+                                          ==========
+
+FUNDS PROVIDED.
+
+Balance in Treasury, January 1            $2,000,000
+Receipts from duties and sales of lands
+  as by estimate of November 22, 1811      8,200,000
+Loan authorized by law                    11,000,000
+Treasury notes as authorized by House
+  of Representatives                       5,000,000
+                                          ----------
+                                         $26,200,000
+
+The issue of _treasury notes_ was a novel experiment in the United
+States; but they were favorably received, and Mr. Gallatin calculated
+that the full amount authorized by law, $5,000,000, could be put in
+circulation during the year. The result of a loan seemed more doubtful.
+The old six per cents. and deferred stock had already fallen two or
+three per cent. below par. Mr. Gallatin again recommended the conversion
+of these securities into a new six per cent. stock, which would
+facilitate the new loan, and to prevent the necessity of applying, the
+same years, the large sums required in reimbursement of and purchase of
+the public debt.
+
+On December 1 Mr. Gallatin made his last annual statement.
+
+_Treasury Report for Fiscal Year ending September_ 30, 1812.
+
+RECEIPTS.
+
+Customs, sales of lands, etc.            $10,934,946.20
+On account of loan of eleven millions,
+  act 14 March, 1812                       5,847,212.50
+                                         --------------
+                                         $16,782,158.70
+Balance in Treasury October 1, 1811        3,947,818.36
+                                         --------------
+                                         $20,729,977.06
+                                         ==============
+
+DISBURSEMENTS.
+
+Civil Department, foreign intercourse     $1,823,069.35
+Army, militia, forts, etc.  $7,770,300.00
+Navy Department              3,107,501.54
+Indian Department              230,975.00
+                            ------------- 11,108,776.54
+Interest on debt            $2,498,013.19
+On account of principal      2,938,465.99
+                            -------------  5,436,479.18
+                                         --------------
+                                         $18,368,325.07
+Leaving in Treasury 30 Sept., 1812         2,361,652.69
+                                         --------------
+                                         $20,729,977.76
+
+The sums obtained or secured on loans during the year amounted to
+$13,100,209, and the secretary had the satisfaction to state "that
+notwithstanding the addition thus made to the public debt, and although
+a considerable portion has been remitted from England and brought to
+market in America, the public stocks (which had at first experienced a
+slight depression) have been for the last three months, and continue to
+be, at par." His last report to the commissioners of the sinking fund of
+February 5, 1813, stated the usual application of $8,719,773 to the
+principal and interest of the debt.
+
+In his report of December 1, 1812, Mr. Gallatin announced that a loan of
+twenty-one millions was needed for the service of 1813. Congress
+authorized a loan of $16,000,000, having six years to run, and an
+additional issue of $5,000,000 of treasury notes. Congress adjourned on
+March 4. Their procrastination and the pressing demands of the War
+Department nearly beggared the Treasury before the loans could be
+negotiated and covered into it.
+
+On April 17 Mr. Gallatin wrote to the secretaries of the army and of the
+navy, and sent a copy of his letters to Mr. Madison with information
+that the loan had been filled, and the probable receipts of the Treasury
+from ordinary sources for the year ascertained. These he estimated at
+$9,300,000. Deducting the annual appropriation for interest on the debt,
+the sum expended to March 31, and the amount needed for the civil
+service, there remained for the War and Navy Departments together the
+sum of $18,720,000.
+
+The loan of $16,000,000 was obtained in the following places:--
+
+States east of New York               $486,700
+State of New York                    5,720,000
+Philadelphia, Pa.                    6,858,400
+Baltimore and District of Columbia   2,393,300
+State of Virginia                      187,000
+Charleston, S. C.                      354,000
+                                   -----------
+                                   $16,000,000
+
+The history of this subscription is not without interest. The extremely
+small subscriptions in New England and in the Southern States can hardly
+be explained on any other theory than that of a belief in the collapse
+of the finances of the United States and a dissolution of the Union, for
+which the New England States had certainly been prepared by their
+governing minds.[14]
+
+Books were opened on March 12 and 13, 1813, at Portsmouth, Salem,
+Boston, Providence, New York, Albany, Philadelphia, Baltimore,
+Washington, Richmond, and Charleston. In the two days the subscriptions
+only reached the sum of $3,956,400. They were again opened on the 25th
+of March at New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington. The New
+England and Southern States seem to have been disregarded because of
+their indifference in the first instance. The books remained open from
+March 25 to 31, during which time there were received $1,881,800, a
+total of $5,838,200.
+
+The pressure fell on the Middle States. In these, fortunately for the
+government, there were three great capitalists whose faith in the future
+prosperity of the United States was unimpaired. All were foreigners:
+David Parish and Stephen Girard in Philadelphia and John Jacob Astor in
+New York. These now came forward, no doubt at the instance of Mr.
+Gallatin, who was a personal friend of each. Parish and Girard offered
+on April 5 to take eight millions of the loan at the rate of
+eighty-eight dollars for a certificate of one hundred dollars bearing
+interest at six per cent., redeemable before December 31, 1825, they to
+receive one quarter of one per cent. commission on the amount accepted,
+and in case of a further loan for the service of the year 1813, to be
+placed on an equal footing with its takers. John Jacob Astor on the same
+day and at the same place proposed to take for himself and his friends
+the sum of two million and fifty-six thousand dollars of the loan on the
+same conditions. These offers were accepted and the loan was complete.
+An offer on behalf of the State of Pennsylvania to take one million of
+the loan was received too late. Altogether the offers amounted to about
+eighteen millions, or two millions more than the sum demanded. Mr.
+Gallatin, clinging to his old plan, endeavored to negotiate this loan at
+par, by offering a premium of a thirteen years' annuity of one per
+cent., but found it impracticable. Indeed, the system of annuity,
+general in England, has never found favor as an investment in the United
+States.
+
+This was Mr. Gallatin's last financial transaction. A few weeks later,
+at his own request, he severed his actual connection with the Treasury
+Department and was on his way to St. Petersburg to secure the proffered
+mediation of the emperor of Russia between the United States and Great
+Britain.
+
+Thus ended Mr. Gallatin's administration of the national finances. The
+hour for saving had passed. The imperious necessities of war take no
+heed of economic principles. The work which the secretary had done
+became as the rope of sand. It is not surprising that Gallatin wearied
+of his post; that he watched with vain regret and unavailing sighs the
+unavoidable increase of the national debt, and that he sought relief in
+other services where success was not so evanescent as in the Treasury
+Department. Before the close of Madison's administration, February 12,
+1816, the public debt had run up to over one hundred and twenty-three
+millions,[15] and a sum equal to the entire amount of Mr. Gallatin's
+savings in two terms had been expended in one. But his work had not been
+in vain. The war was the crucial test of the soundness of his financial
+policy. The maxims which he announced, that debt can only be reduced by
+a surplus of revenue over expenditure, and the accompaniment of every
+loan by an appropriation for its extinguishment, became the fundamental
+principle of American finance. Mr. Gallatin was uniformly supported in
+it by Congress and public opinion. It was faithfully adhered to by his
+distinguished successors, Dallas and Crawford, and the impulse thus
+given continued through later administrations, until, in 1837, twenty
+years after the peace, the entire debt had been extinguished. All this
+without any other variation from Mr. Gallatin's original plan than an
+increase of the annual appropriation, to the sinking fund for its
+reimbursement, from eight to ten millions.[16]
+
+The only charge which has ever been made against Gallatin's
+administration was, that he reduced the debt at the expense of the
+defenses and security of the country; but, to quote the words of one of
+his biographers:[17] "Mr. Gallatin had the sagacity to know that it [the
+redemption of the debt] would make but little difference in the degree
+of preparation of national defense and means of contest, for which it is
+impossible ever to obtain a considerable appropriation before the near
+approach of the danger that may render them necessary. He knew that the
+money thus well and wisely devoted to the payment of the debt was only
+rescued from a thousand purposes of extravagance and mal-application to
+which all our legislative bodies are so prone whenever they have control
+of surplus funds." In our own day the irresistible temptations of a full
+treasury need no labored demonstration. Friend and foe drop political
+differences over the abundant fleshpot. The very thought of catering to
+such appetites disgusted Gallatin. To Jefferson he frankly said, in
+1809, that while he did not pretend to step out of his own sphere and to
+control the internal management of other departments, yet he could not
+"consent to act the part of a mere financier, to become a contriver of
+taxes, a dealer of loans, a seeker of resources for the purpose of
+supporting useless baubles, of increasing the number of idle and
+dissipated members of the community, of fattening contractors, pursers,
+and agents, and of introducing in all its ramifications that system of
+patronage, corruption, and rottenness which you justly execrate."
+
+RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES DURING MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION, FROM
+                 ELLIOTT'S SYNOPTICAL EXHIBITS.
+
+                          RECEIPTS.
+
+------------+----------------+---------------+----------------+
+Four Years  |  Customs.      |   Internal    |  Direct Taxes. |
+Ending      |                |   Revenue.    |                |
+Dec. 31.    |                |               |                |
+------------+----------------+---------------+----------------+
+1812        | $38,151,330.15 |    $18,674.03 |    $28,491.87  |
+1816        |  62,813,212.43 | 11,470,507.24 |  8,639,611.38  |
+            |----------------+---------------+----------------+
+Madison     | 100,964,542.58 | 11,489,181.27 |  8,668,103.25  |
+------------+----------------+---------------+----------------+
+----------------+----------------+-------------------+----------------+
+    Postage.    |  Public Lands. |   Loans and       |  Dividends     |
+                |                |   Treasury Notes. |  Sales of      |
+                |                |                   | Bank Stock.    |
+----------------+----------------+-------------------+----------------+
+   $85,077.40   | $2,889,466.46  |   $15,606,201.30  |     -          |
+   364,787.84   |  4,977,570.54  |    94,321,103.73  |     -          |
+----------------+----------------+-------------------+----------------+
+   449,865.24   |  7,867,037.00  |   109,927,305.03  |     -          |
+----------------+----------------+-------------------+----------------+
+
+----------------+----------------
+ Miscellaneous. |    Total.
+                |
+                |
+----------------+----------------
+ $209,309.34    |  $56,988,550.55
+  630,248.16    |  183,217,041.32
+----------------+----------------
+  839,557.50    |  240,205,591.87
+----------------+----------------
+
+                       EXPENDITURES.
+
+-----------+-----------------+---------------+----------------+
+Four Years |  Civil List.    | Foreign       | Miscellaneous. |
+Ending     |                 | Intercourse.  |                |
+Dec. 31.   |                 |               |                |
+-----------+-----------------+---------------+----------------+
+1812       | $2,887,197.98   |  $860,281.28  | $1,619,849.12  |
+1816       |  3,768,342.61   | 1,042,633.42  |  5,015,100.92  |
+           |-----------------+---------------+----------------+
+Madison    | 6,655,540.59    | 1,902,914.70  |  6,634,950.04  |
+-----------+-----------------+---------------+----------------+
+
+----------------+----------------+-------------------+----------------+
+ Military Dept. |   Pensions.    |      Indian Dept. |   Naval Dept.  |
+                |                |                   |                |
+                |                |                   |                |
+----------------+----------------+-------------------+----------------+
+ $19,480,722.54 |  $338,023.68   |       $944,848.84 | $10,006,934.54 |
+  70,809,210.90 |   435,614.48   |      1,140,015.30 |  26,326,169.25 |
+----------------+----------------+-------------------+----------------+
+  90,289,933.44 |   773,638.16   |      2,084,864.14 |  36,333,103.79 |
+----------------+----------------+-------------------+----------------+
+
+----------------+----------------
+  Public Debt.  |    Total.
+                |
+                |
+----------------+----------------
+ $26,920,285.12 |  $63,058,143.10
+  56,508,652.66 |  165,045,739.54
+----------------+----------------
+  83,428,937.78 |  228,103,882.64
+----------------+----------------
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Revenue_
+
+_L'Etat c'est moi_ was the autocratic maxim of Louis Quatorze. An
+adherence to it cost the Bourbons their throne. Burke was more
+philosophical when he said, "The revenue of the State is the State." Its
+imposition, its collection, and its application involve all the
+principles and all the powers of government, constitutional or
+extraordinary. It is the sole foundation of public credit, the sole
+support of the body politic, its life-blood in peace, its nerve in war.
+The "purse and the sword" are respectively the resource and defense of
+government and peoples, and they are interdependent powers. With the
+discovery of the sources of revenue, and the establishment of its
+currents, Mr. Gallatin, in the first eight years of his administration
+of the Treasury, had nothing to do. He had only to maintain those
+systems which Hamilton had devised, and which, wisely adapted to the
+growth of the country, proved amply adequate to the ordinary
+expenditures of the government and to the gradual extinguishment of the
+debt. The entire revenue included three distinct branches: imposts on
+importations and tonnage, internal revenue, sales of public lands. The
+duties on imports of foreign merchandise were alone sufficient to meet
+the current expenses of the various departments of administration on a
+peace establishment, and, increasing with the growth of the country,
+would prove ample in future. The gross amount of imports in the four
+years of Adams's administration, 1796-1800, was about three hundred and
+fourteen millions of dollars, and the customs yielded about thirty
+millions.
+
+Mr. Gallatin's first annual report, submitted to the House of
+Representatives in December, 1801, exhibited his financial scheme. He
+recapitulated the various sources of permanent revenue. They were those
+of Hamilton's original tariff.
+
+The revenues for the year ended September 30, 1801, were the basis of
+the estimates for future years. These were
+
+Duties on imports and tonnage   $10,126,213.92
+Internal revenue                    854,000.00
+Land sales                          400,000.00
+                                --------------
+                                $11,380,213.92
+
+But the close of the war in Europe sensibly diminished the enormous
+carrying trade which fell to the United States as neutrals, and, as a
+consequence, the revenue from that source; large quantities of goods
+were brought into the United States and reexported to foreign ports
+under a system of debenture. The revenue on what Mr. Gallatin calls
+"this accidental commerce" was $1,200,000. He therefore _estimated the
+permanent revenues at_
+
+Customs duties                  $9,500,000
+Land sales                         400,000
+Postage                             50,000
+Internal revenue                   650,000
+                               -----------
+                               $10,600,000
+
+Or, without the internal revenue, say ten millions of permanent revenue,
+as a basis for _the permanent expenditures_.
+
+To bring the expenditures within this sum, however, a reduction in the
+army and navy establishments was necessary. This Gallatin soon found to
+be too radical a measure for success, either in the cabinet or Congress,
+however well it may have accorded with Jefferson's utopian views. In the
+budget of 1802 the internal revenue, $650,000, was, therefore, a
+necessary item. The expenditures proposed were
+
+Annual appropriation for interest and
+principal of debt                     $7,100,000
+Civil list                  $780,000
+Foreign intercourse          200,000
+Military and Indian Dept   1,420,000
+Naval                      1,100,000
+                         -----------
+                          $3,500,000    3,500,000
+                                      -----------
+                                      $10,600,000
+
+In this budget the estimate for the military establishment was an
+increase over that of Wolcott for 1801, which was $1,120,000. But the
+Republicans in the House were not content with this arrangement. The
+internal revenues were utterly distasteful to them. They had been laid
+against their protest and collected under military menace. They were of
+those Federal measures of which they would have none. John Randolph,
+chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means, reported, March 2, 1802,
+against the entire system of internal duties, in the old words of the
+Pennsylvania radicals, as vexatious, oppressive, and peculiarly
+obnoxious; as of the nature of an excise which is hostile to the genius
+of a free people, and finally because of their tendency to multiply
+offices and increase the patronage of the executive. The repeal was
+imperative upon the Republican party. On April 6, 1802, the act was
+repealed and the surplus of the budget stripped from it, without Mr.
+Gallatin's consent, certainly, but also without protest from him.
+
+The prosperity of the country continued. The impost duties for the
+fiscal year ending September 30, 1802, rose to $12,280,000, the sales of
+the public lands to $326,000, and the postage to $50,500, a total of
+$12,656,500, and left in the Treasury, September 30, 1802, the sum of
+$4,539,675. This large increase in the Treasury did not in the least
+change Mr. Gallatin's general plan, and his budget for 1803 was based on
+his original scale of a permanent revenue of $10,000,000, to correspond
+with which the estimates of the preceding year were reduced. The fiscal
+year closed September 30, 1803, with a balance in the Treasury of
+$5,860,000. This situation of the finances was fortunate in view of
+secret negotiations which the President and Congress were initiating for
+the purchase of Louisiana from France.
+
+The secretaries of war and of the navy had promised to reduce their
+expenditures to a figure approximate to Mr. Gallatin's estimates; but
+the breaking out of hostilities with Tripoli prevented the proposed
+economy, and Mr. Gallatin was called upon to provide for an increased
+expenditure with one certain source of revenue definitively closed. He
+therefore proposed an additional tax of two and one half per cent. on
+all importations which paid an _ad valorem_ duty. This additional
+impost, laid by act of March 25, 1804, called the Mediterranean Fund,
+remained in force long after the war closed and held its place on the
+books of the Treasury under that name.
+
+The bulk of the cost of Louisiana was met by an issue of bonds; but Mr.
+Gallatin, true to his principle, applied the moneys in the Treasury as
+far as they would go. The budget for 1805 was on a different scale. The
+increase in the debt demanded a proportionate increase in the revenue to
+meet the additional sum required for interest and gradual annual
+reimbursement. The Mediterranean Fund was sufficient to meet the
+increased amounts required for the navy. In this manner he held up the
+Navy Department to a strict accountability and made it responsible to
+Congress and not to the cabinet for its administration, and he thus,
+from his own point of view, relieved the Treasury Department from any
+responsibility for extraordinary expenditure.
+
+Mr. Gallatin closed his four years of administration with flying colors.
+The successful management of the finances was an important factor in the
+election of 1804, which returned Mr. Jefferson to the presidential chair
+and insured to the country the inestimable advantages of Mr. Gallatin's
+practical mind. Order reigned in his department at least, and order
+subordinate to the strictest requirements of law. In the four years,
+1801-1804, Jefferson's first term, the imports aggregated $337,363,510
+and the customs yielded $45,000,000.
+
+The annual report, made December 9, 1805, announced an increasing
+revenue, amounting in all to thirteen and one half millions of dollars,
+chiefly from customs. Still Mr. Gallatin made but small addition to his
+estimates for the coming year. The permanent revenue he raised to twelve
+and one half millions and increased the appropriation for the payment of
+the debt and interest to eight millions. Nothing occurred during the
+next year to check the growth of the country; the revenue continued on a
+rising scale, and reached close upon fifteen millions of dollars.
+
+So far Mr. Gallatin had met but inconsiderable obstacles in his course,
+and these he used to his advantage to impress economy upon the Army and
+Navy Departments, and enforce his principle of minute appropriations
+for their government. All that he had already accomplished in the
+establishment of a sound financial system and the support of the credit
+of the United States was but the basis of a broader structure of
+national economy. His extensive scheme of internal improvements was
+hardly matured when the thunder broke in the clear sky.
+
+The acquisition of Louisiana, the large carrying trade which had passed
+under the American flag, and the rapid prosperity of the financial and
+industrial condition of the country aroused the jealousy of Great
+Britain, and determined her to check the further progress of the United
+States by war, if need be. The capture of the American frigate
+Chesapeake by the man-of-war Leopard, June 22, 1807, was only the first
+in a series of outrages which rendered the final collision, though long
+delayed, inevitable. Mr. Gallatin at once recognized that the Treasury
+could no longer be conducted on a peace basis. "Money," he wrote to
+Joseph H. Nicholson, "we will want to carry on the war; our revenue will
+be cut up; new and internal taxes will be slow and not sufficiently
+productive; we must necessarily borrow. This is not pleasing to me, but
+it must be done." Congress was called together for October 26, 1807, and
+on November 5, Mr. Gallatin sent in his annual report. There was still
+hope that Great Britain would make amends for the outrage, and Congress
+was certainly peaceably disposed. In the condition of the Treasury
+there was no reason as yet for recommending extraordinary measures. The
+revenues for the year passed the sum of seventeen millions; the balance
+in the Treasury reached eight and one half millions; the surplus on a
+peace footing was twelve millions. Mr. Gallatin recommended that the
+duties should be doubled in case war were threatened. He said, "Should
+the revenue fall below seven millions of dollars, not only the duty on
+salt and the Mediterranean duties could be immediately revived, but the
+duties on importation generally be considerably increased, perhaps
+double, with less inconvenience than would arise from any other mode of
+taxation." Experience had proven that this source of revenue is in the
+United States "the most productive, the easiest to collect, and least
+burdensome to the great mass of the people." But still the war-cloud did
+not break. Mr. Canning contented himself with war in disguise, and by
+his Order in Council of November 11, 1807, shut the ports of Europe to
+American trade, and wiped away the advantages of the United States as a
+neutral power. The United States answered with the act of embargo on
+December 22, 1807, completing, as far as it was possible for legislation
+to effect it, the blockade of the Treasury Department as regarded
+revenues from foreign imports. The immediate effect, however, of these
+acts in Great Britain and America was an enormous temporary increase of
+importations in the interim from the time of the passage of the act
+until the date when it took effect. To aid merchants in this peculiar
+condition of affairs an act was passed by Congress, on March 10, 1808,
+extending the terms of credit on revenue bonds.
+
+Mr. Gallatin's report of December 16, 1808, closed the record of his
+eight years of management of the Department. In the second term of
+Jefferson's administration, 1805-1808, the gross amount of imports had
+risen to $443,990,000, and the customs collected to nearly $60,000,000.
+In the entire eight years, 1800-1808, the gross amount of importations
+was $781,000,000, and the customs yielded $105,000,000. The entire
+expenses of the government in the same period, including $65,000,000 of
+debt, had been liquidated from customs alone.
+
+The specie in the Treasury on September 20, 1808, reached nearly
+$14,000,000. Mr. Jefferson knew of the amount in the Treasury when he
+wrote his last message, November 8, 1808, and he could not have been
+ignorant of Mr. Gallatin's warning of the previous year that a
+continuance of the embargo restriction would reduce the revenue below
+the point of annual expenditures and require an additional impost; yet
+he had the ignorance or the presumption to say in his message, "Shall it
+(the surplus revenue) lie unproductive in the public vaults? Shall the
+revenue be reduced? or shall it not rather be appropriated to the
+improvement of roads, canals, rivers, education, and other great
+foundations of prosperity and union under the powers which Congress may
+already possess or such amendments of the Constitution as may be
+approved by the States? While uncertain of the course of things, the
+time may be advantageously employed in obtaining the powers necessary
+for a system of improvement, should it be thought best." In these words
+Jefferson surrendered the vital principle of the Republican party. In
+his satisfaction at the only triumph of his administration, the
+management of the finances and the purchase of a province without a
+ripple on the even surface of national finance, he gave up the very
+basis of the Republican theory, the reduction of the government to its
+possible minimum, and actually proposed a system of administration
+coextensive with the national domain, an increase of the functions of
+government, and consequently of executive power.
+
+The annual report of the Treasury, presented December 16, 1808, showed
+no diminution of resources. The total receipts for the fiscal year were
+nearly eighteen millions. The total receipts for--
+
+Customs reached                    $26,126,648
+On which debentures were allowed
+  on exportations                   10,059,457
+                                   -----------
+Actual receipts from customs       $16,067,191
+
+But this source of revenue was now definitively closed by the embargo,
+while the expenditures of the government were increased. Mr. Gallatin
+met the situation frankly and notified Congress of the resources of the
+Treasury.
+
+             RESOURCES FOR 1809
+
+Cash in Treasury     $13,846,717.52
+Back customs, net      2,154,000.00
+                     --------------
+Total resources      $16,000,717.52
+
+The receipts from importations and land sales would be offset by
+deductions for bad debts and extensions of credit to importers. The
+expenditures were set at $13,000,000, which would leave in the Treasury
+for extraordinary expenditure $3,000,717. The disbursements had been far
+beyond the estimates; those for the military and naval establishments
+reaching together six millions.
+
+It is not to be supposed that Mr. Gallatin saw this depletion of the
+Treasury, this rapid dissipation of the specie,--always desirable and
+never more so than in periods of trouble,--without disappointment and
+regret. His report to Congress was as outspoken politically as it was
+financially, and from a foreign-born citizen to an American Congress
+must have carried its sting. "Either America," he wrote, "must accept
+the position of commerce allotted to her by the British edicts, and
+abandon all that is forbidden,--and it is not material whether this is
+done by legal provisions limiting the commerce of the United States to
+the permitted places, or by acquiescing in the capture of vessels
+stepping beyond the prescribed bounds. Or the nation must oppose force
+to the execution of the orders of England; and this, however done, and
+by whatever name called, will be war." He recalled to them his advice of
+the preceding years in a vein of tempered bitterness: "Had the duties
+been doubled on January 1, 1808, as was then suggested, in case of war
+the receipts into the Treasury during that and the ensuing year would
+have been increased nine or ten millions of dollars." He then proposed
+to continue the Mediterranean Fund and to double all existing duties on
+importations after January 1, 1809. He informed them that no internal
+taxes, either direct or indirect, were contemplated by him even in the
+case of hostilities against the two belligerent powers; France having
+responded to the Orders in Council by Napoleon's Milan decree, December
+17, 1807, which was quite as offensive to the United States as that of
+Canning. With true statesmanship Mr. Gallatin nerved the country to
+extraordinary exertion by reminding it that the geographical situation
+of the United States and their history since the Revolution removed
+every apprehension of frequent wars.
+
+During the year 1809 the country drifted along apparently without rudder
+or compass, helmsman or course, and the treasury locker was being
+rapidly reduced to remainder biscuit. Mr. Madison was inaugurated in
+March. In his first message, May 23, 1809, he exposed the financial
+situation with an indecision which was as marked a trait of his
+character as optimism was of that of Jefferson. In his message of
+November 29, 1809, he said "the sums which had been previously
+accumulated in the Treasury, together with the receipts during the year
+ending on September 30 last, and amounting to more than nine millions of
+dollars, have enabled us to fulfill all our engagements and defray the
+current expenses of government without recurring to any loan; but the
+insecurity of our commerce and the consequent demands of the public
+revenue will probably produce a deficiency in the receipts of the
+ensuing year." Beyond this Madison did not venture; Gallatin was left
+alone.
+
+The Treasury report of December 8, 1809, announced the beginning of
+short rations. The expenses of government, exclusively of the payments
+on account of the principal of the debt, had exceeded the actual
+receipts into the Treasury by a sum of near $1,300,000. If the military
+and naval establishments were to be continued at the figures of 1809,
+when six millions were expended, there would result a deficiency of
+$3,000,000, and a loan of $4,000,000 would be necessary. Otherwise the
+Mediterranean Fund would suffice. The cash in the Treasury had fallen
+from nearly fourteen millions on June 2, 1809, to less than six millions
+on September 3, following. In this report Gallatin expressed his
+opinion, that the system of restriction established by the embargo and
+partly relaxed must be entirely reinstated or wholly abandoned. On May
+1, 1810, an act of strict prohibition of importations from Great
+Britain and her dependencies was passed.
+
+While from the incompetency of the administration the country was fast
+approaching the real crisis of open war, the Republicans in Congress
+were deliberately destroying and undermining the basis of national
+credit, by which alone it could be carried on. In February the United
+States Bank, by which, and its branches, the customs were collected
+throughout the country, was destroyed by the refusal of Congress to
+renew its charter. Mr. Gallatin in his combinations never contemplated
+such a contingency as the total destruction of the fiscal agency on
+which the government had relied for twenty years. Unwilling to struggle
+longer against the mean personalities and factious opposition of his own
+party in Congress, he tendered his resignation to Mr. Madison. But the
+Republican party was a party of opposition, not of government. With the
+exception of Mr. Gallatin, no competent administrative head had as yet
+appeared. There was no one in the party or out of it to take his place.
+Mr. Madison knew it. Mr. Gallatin felt it, and remained. Congress met in
+November. On the 25th Mr. Gallatin sent in his annual report; the
+receipts reached thirteen and a half million dollars.
+
+The budget for 1812 left a deficiency to be provided for of $1,200,000.
+This was a small matter. The revenue Mr. Gallatin proposed to increase,
+on the plan before recommended, by additions of fifty per cent, to the
+imposts on foreign commerce. This he preferred to any internal tax.
+
+At the close of the year the country, chafed beyond endurance by the
+indignities put upon it and the sufferings it encountered without
+compensation to its pride, was eager for war. Congress was no way loath
+to try the dangerous path out of its labyrinth of blunders. The near
+contingency imposed the necessity of an immediate examination of the
+sources of revenue. In January, 1812, Mr. Gallatin was requested by the
+chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means to give his opinion as to
+the probable amount of receipts from duties on tonnage and merchandise
+in the event of war. This, in view of the vigorous restrictions laid by
+France under her continental system of exclusion, Mr. Gallatin estimated
+under existing rules as not to exceed $2,500,000. He then stated,
+without hesitation, that it was practicable and advisable to double the
+rate of duties, and to renew the old duty on salt. The sum acquired,
+with this addition, he anticipated, would amount to $5,400,000.
+
+On the basis of annual loans of ten millions of dollars during the
+continuance of the war (the sum assumed by the committee), the
+deficiency for 1814 would amount, by Mr. Gallatin's estimate, to
+$4,200,000. To produce a net revenue equal to this deficiency he stated
+that the gross sum of taxes to be laid must be five millions of dollars.
+He then reverted to his report of December 10, 1808, in which he had
+stated that "no internal taxes, either direct or indirect, were
+contemplated, even in the case of hostilities carried on against the two
+great belligerent powers." The balance in the Treasury was then nearly
+fourteen millions of dollars, but in view of the daily decrease of the
+revenue he had recommended "that all the existing duties be doubled on
+importations subsequent to the first day of January, 1809." As the
+revenues of 1809, 1810, and 1811 had yielded $26,000,000, the sum on
+hand, with the increase thus recommended, would have reached
+$20,000,000, a sum greater than the net amount of the proposed internal
+taxes in four years.
+
+At that time no symptoms had appeared from which the absolute
+dissolution of the Bank of the United States without any substitute
+could have been anticipated. If its charters had been renewed, on the
+conditions suggested by Mr. Gallatin, the necessity for internal taxes
+would have been avoided. The resources of the country, properly applied,
+however, were amply sufficient to meet the emergency; but Mr. Gallatin
+distinctly threw upon Congress, and by implication upon the Republican
+majority, the responsibility for the state of the Treasury, and the
+imperative necessity for a form of taxation which it detested as
+oppressive, and which it was a party shibboleth to declare in and out of
+season, to be unconstitutional. The choice of the administration was
+between the Bank which Jefferson detested and Gallatin favored, and the
+internal tax which Mr. Gallatin considered as the most repulsive in its
+operation of any form of revenue.
+
+But necessity knows no law, and the prime mover, if not the original
+author, of the opposition to Hamilton's system was driven to propose the
+renewal of the measures, opposition to which had brought the Republican
+party into power, and had placed himself at the head of the Treasury. He
+now proposed to raise the five millions deficiency by internal
+taxation--$3,000,000 by direct tax and $2,000,000 by indirect tax.
+
+Continuing his lucid and remarkable report with careful details of the
+methods to be adopted, Gallatin closed with an urgent recommendation
+that the crisis should at once be met by the adoption of efficient
+measures to provide, with certainty, means commensurate with the
+expense, and by preserving unimpaired, instead of abusing, that credit
+on which the public resources eminently depend, to enable the United
+States to persevere in the contest until an honorable peace should be
+obtained. Thus he held the bitter cup to the lips of the Republican
+Congress, which, however, was not yet to drain its full measure. War was
+declared June 18, 1812. On July 1, 1812, an act was passed imposing an
+additional duty of one hundred per cent. on all importations, an
+additional ten per cent. on goods brought in foreign vessels, and also a
+duty of $1.50 per ton on all foreign vessels. The duty was to remain
+until the expiration of one year after peace should be made with Great
+Britain. On December 5, 1812, Mr. Gallatin sent in his last report. The
+balance in the treasury was $3,947,818. His estimate for the service of
+the year 1813 was a war budget. Resources, $12,000,000; expenditures,
+$31,926,000; promising a deficiency of $19,925,000. For this and other
+contingencies Mr. Gallatin asked for a loan of twenty millions. The
+authority was granted, but the recommendations of direct and indirect
+taxes were disregarded. Here Mr. Gallatin's direct connection with the
+customs system closed.
+
+The value of foreign importations during Madison's first term was
+$275,230,000, and the customs derived from them thirty-eight millions of
+dollars.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Congress adjourned March 4, 1813, but was called together again in May,
+when the subject of internal taxes was again forced upon them. The
+internal revenue was a part of Hamilton's general scheme. His original
+bill was passed, and, after numerous amendments suggested by trial, its
+grievances were tempered and the friction removed. In Adams's term it
+yielded nearly three millions of dollars. In Jefferson's first term,
+before the rise in customs revenue allowed of its abandonment, Mr.
+Gallatin drew from this source nearly two millions of dollars, enough to
+pay the interest and provide for the extinguishment of a six per cent.
+loan of thirty millions; a war budget in itself. But it had been so
+entirely set aside that in Jefferson's second term, 1808-1812, it had
+fallen to a little over sixty-three thousand; in Madison's first term,
+to a little under nineteen thousand dollars. Was it to this Mr. Dallas
+referred in that passage of his report, made in 1815, on the financial
+operations of the war, in which he expresses his regret "that there
+existed no system by which the internal resources of the country could
+be brought at once into action, when the resources of its external
+commerce became incompetent to answer the exigencies of the time? The
+existence of such a system would probably have invigorated the early
+movements of the war, might have preserved the public credit unimpaired,
+and would have rendered the pecuniary contributions of the people more
+equal, as well as more effective." "It certainly," to use the words of
+this Mr. Gallatin's oldest and best political friend, "furnishes a
+lesson of practical policy." Disagreeable as the necessity was, it could
+not be avoided, and Mr. Gallatin met it manfully. Nay more, he seems to
+have had a grim satisfaction in proposing the measure to the Congress
+which had thwarted him in his plans. In accordance with his suggestions,
+Congress, in the extra session of May, 1813, laid a direct tax of
+$3,000,000 upon the States, and specific duties upon refined sugar,
+carriages, licenses to distillers of spirituous liquors, sales at
+auction, licenses to retailers of wines, and upon notes of banks and
+bankers. These duties, in the beginning temporary, were calculated to
+yield $500,000, and with the direct tax to give a sum of $3,500,000. But
+the increasing expenditures again requiring additional sums of revenue,
+the duties were made permanent and additional taxes were laid; the
+entire revenue for 1815 being raised so as to yield $12,400,000. In the
+second term of Mr. Madison the internal revenue brought in nearly eleven
+and a half millions. The Federalists, who as a party were opposed to the
+war, enjoyed the situation; Mr. Gallatin was compelled to impose the
+internal revenue tax which he detested, and Mr. Dallas was called upon
+to enforce its application.
+
+[Illustration: A. J. Dallas]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The only remaining source of revenue was the sale of public lands. This
+also was a part of Hamilton's original scheme. The public lands of the
+United States were acquired in three different ways, namely, 1, by
+cessions from the States of such lands as they claimed, or were entitled
+to by their original grants or charters from the crown, while colonies;
+2, by purchase from Indian tribes; 3, by treaties with foreign
+nations,--those of 1783 and 1794 with Great Britain, of 1795 with Spain,
+and of 1803 with France. The need of bringing this vast territory under
+the control of the government and disposing of it for settlement was
+early apparent. In July, 1791, Hamilton sent in to the House a report on
+"A uniform system for the disposition of the lands, the property of the
+United States." In March preceding, grants of the United States had
+confirmed to the actual settlers in the Illinois country the possession
+of their farms. But what with the Indian wars and the rebellion within
+the United States, no action was taken by Congress to carry the
+recommendations of the secretary into effect, until Mr. Gallatin, whose
+residence on the frontier gave him direct interest in the subject,
+brought up the matter at the very first session he attended. In 1796 a
+bill was passed authorizing and regulating the sale of lands northwest
+of the Ohio and above the mouth of the Kentucky River, and a
+surveyor-general was appointed with directions to lay out these lands in
+townships. The sales under Adams's administrations were trifling, the
+total amount received from this source before the year 1800 being
+slightly over one hundred thousand dollars. In May, 1800, sales of the
+same lands were authorized at public vendue at not less than two dollars
+per acre; four land offices were established in the territory; surveyors
+were appointed, and a register of the land office was made a permanent
+official. In March, 1803, an act was passed to regulate the sale of the
+United States lands south of the Tennessee River, two land offices were
+established and public sale provided for at the same price set in the
+act of 1800. In March, 1804, the Indiana lands lying north of the Ohio
+and east of the Mississippi were brought within similar regulations, and
+an act was passed concerning the country acquired under Spanish and
+British grants. In the same month Louisiana was erected into two
+territories. The sums received from the sales during the first term of
+Jefferson's administration amounted to little more than one million of
+dollars. In January, 1805, the territory of Indiana was divided into two
+separate governments; that one which was set off received the name of
+Michigan, and in 1808, its territory was brought under the regulations
+of the land office.
+
+The sums received from the sales in the second term of Jefferson's
+administration reached nearly two and one half millions of dollars, and
+in Madison's first term, nearly three millions of dollars. From first to
+last Mr. Gallatin never lost sight of the subject, though occasion did
+not serve for more than organization of the system which, in the four
+years ending 1836, yielded nearly fifty million dollars, and paid more
+than one third of the entire expenses of the government. To John W.
+Eppes[18] Mr. Gallatin wrote in the crisis of 1813, "The public lands
+constitute the only great national resource exclusive of loans and
+taxes. They have already been mentioned as a fund for the ultimate
+extinguishment of the public debt." The land offices were then in full
+operation.
+
+In 1810 Mr. Gallatin prepared an "Introduction to the collection of
+laws, treaties, and other documents respecting the public lands," which
+was published pursuant to an act of Congress passed in April of that
+year.
+
+
+_Free Trade_
+
+While Mr. Gallatin differed from his early Republican associates in many
+of their theories of administration, he was a firm believer in the best
+of their principles, namely, the wisdom of giving free scope to the
+development of national resources with the least possible interference
+on the part of government. One of his purposes in his persistent desire
+for economy in expenditure was to reduce the tariff upon foreign
+importations to the lowest practicable limit. He was the earliest public
+advocate in America of the principles of free trade, and an experience
+of sixty years confirmed him in his convictions.
+
+The extinguishment of the debt rendered a great reduction in the revenue
+possible. On the other hand, it brought the friends of a low tariff face
+to face with the problem of internal improvements. As the election of
+1832 drew near, the advocates of the two systems ranged themselves in
+two great parties precisely as to-day: the advocates of the protective
+or American system with internal improvements as an outlet for
+accumulations of revenue on the one side; on the other the advocates of
+free trade. Between his desire for the advantages of the one with its
+attendant disadvantages of government interference in its prosecution,
+and the freedom of commerce from undue restrictions, Mr. Gallatin did
+not hesitate. He threw the whole force of his experience and character
+into the free trade cause, and became the leader of its friends.
+
+On September 30, 1831, a convention of the advocates of free trade,
+without distinction of party, met at the Musical Fund Hall in
+Philadelphia. Two hundred and twelve delegates appeared. Among them were
+Theodore Sedgwick, George Peabody, and John L. Gardner from
+Massachusetts; Preserved Fish, John Constable, John A. Stevens, Jonathan
+Goodhue, James Boorman, Jacob Lorillard, and Albert Gallatin from New
+York; C. C. Biddle, George Emlen, Isaac W. Norris from Pennsylvania;
+Langdon Cheves, Henry Middleton, Joseph W. Allston, and William C.
+Preston from South Carolina; and men of equal distinction, bankers,
+merchants, statesmen, and political economists from other States. Of
+this convention Mr. Gallatin was the soul. He opened its business by
+stating the objects of the meeting, and nominated the Hon. Philip P.
+Barbour of Virginia for president. A general committee of two from each
+State was appointed, which recommended an address to the people of the
+United States and a memorial to Congress. The address to the people
+closed with a declaration that the near extinguishment of the national
+debt, which would be discharged by the available funds of the government
+on January 1, 1833, suggested that the moment was propitious for the
+establishment of the principles of free trade. Thus the people of the
+United States, who had successfully asserted the doctrines of free
+government, might add to its claims upon the gratitude of the world by
+being the first also to proclaim the theory of a free and unrestricted
+commerce, the genuine "American system." Mr. Gallatin was the chairman
+of the committee of fourteen, one from each State represented in the
+convention, to prepare the memorial which was presented in their behalf
+to Congress, the conclusions of which, presented with his consummate
+ability, demonstrated with mathematical precision that a duty of
+twenty-five per cent. was sufficient for all the legitimate purposes of
+government. Here he found himself in direct opposition to Mr. Clay,
+whose political existence was staked upon the opposite theory. Mr. Clay
+answered in a great speech in the Senate in February, 1832, and forgot
+himself in personal denunciation of Mr. Gallatin as a foreigner with
+European interests at heart, and of utopian ideas; for this he expressed
+his regret to Mr. Gallatin in an interview arranged by mutual friends at
+a much later period. Mr. Gallatin's views were accepted as the policy of
+the country, and after some shifting of parties, in which friends and
+foes changed ground in subordination to other political exigencies, they
+prevailed in the tariff of 1846, the best arranged and most reasonable
+which the United States has yet seen.
+
+It is certain that Mr. Gallatin was opposed to "protective" revenue. His
+preference was for an "even" duty on all imports. This is not the place
+for an economic discussion. The true policy of the United States is
+probably between the extremes of protection and free trade. The nature
+of our population has been changed by the enormous immigration of the
+last fifty years. Moreover, instead of an absolute freedom from debt the
+nation has had to endure the legacy of debt left by the Civil War, to
+meet which a development of all its resources of manufacture as well as
+of agriculture is required.
+
+
+_Administration_
+
+To arrive at a correct estimate of Mr. Gallatin's administration of the
+Treasury Department, a cursory review of the establishment as he
+received it from the hands of Mr. Wolcott is necessary. This review is
+confined to administration in its limited sense, namely, the direction
+of its clerical management under the provisions of statute law. The
+organization of the department as originated by Hamilton and established
+by the act of September 2, 1789, provided for a secretary of the
+treasury as head of the department, whose general duty should be to
+supervise the fiscal affairs of the country, and particularly to suggest
+and prepare plans for the improvement and support of the public credit;
+and, under his direction and supervision, a comptroller to adjust and
+preserve accounts; an auditor to receive, examine, and rectify accounts;
+a treasurer to receive, keep, and disburse moneys on warrants signed and
+countersigned; a register to keep the accounts of receipts and
+expenditures; and an assistant to the secretary of the treasury to fill
+any vacancy from absence or other temporary cause. In addition to the
+departments of State, Treasury, and War, a fourth, that of the Navy, was
+established April 30, 1798. The three departments were brought into
+relation with that of the Treasury by an act passed July 16, 1798,
+supplementary to that organizing the Treasury, and which provided, 1st,
+for the appointment of an accountant in each department, who was
+required to report to the accounting officer of the Treasury; 2d, that
+the Treasurer of the United States should only disburse by warrants on
+the Treasury, countersigned by the accountant of the Treasury; 3d, that
+all purchases for supplies for military or naval service should be
+subject to the inspection and revision of the officers of the Treasury.
+Mr. Jefferson, after his usual fashion of economy in the wrong
+direction, proposed to Mr. Gallatin "to amalgamate the comptroller and
+auditor into one, and reduce the register to a clerk of accounts: so
+that the organization should consist, as it should at first, of a keeper
+of money, a keeper of accounts, and the head of the department." But in
+the Treasury Department there was no extravagance during Gallatin's
+administration, and the shifting of responsibility would bring no saving
+of salaries.
+
+In May, 1800, an act was passed making it "the duty of the secretary of
+the treasury to digest, prepare, and lay before Congress at the
+commencement of every session a report on the subject of finances,
+containing estimates of the public revenue and expenditures, and plans
+for improving and increasing the revenue from time to time, for the
+purpose of giving information to Congress in adopting modes for raising
+the money requisite to meet the expenditures." Hamilton had never sent
+in any other than a statement of expenditure for the past fiscal year,
+together with the estimate of the accountant of the Treasury for the
+proximate wants of the departments of government. Mr. Gallatin
+incorporated in his annual report a balance sheet in accordance with the
+ordinary forms of book-keeping familiar to every accountant and
+indispensable in every business establishment, and such as is presented
+to the public in the monthly and annual statements of the Treasury
+Department at this day.
+
+The statutes show no legislation during Mr. Gallatin's period of
+administration, and to its close he was in continual struggle to force
+upon Congress and the departments an accord with his pet plan of minute
+specific appropriation of the sums estimated for and expended by each.
+Mr. Madison heartily agreed with Mr. Gallatin on this subject, and on
+taking office placed the relations of the State Department upon the
+desired footing. But the heads of the Army and Navy were never willing
+to consent to the strict limitation which Mr. Gallatin would have
+imposed on their expenditures. In his notes to Jefferson for the draft
+of his first message in 1801, Mr. Gallatin said that the most important
+reform he could suggest was that of 'specific appropriations,' and he
+inclosed an outline of a form to be enforced in detail. In January,
+1802, he sent to Joseph H. Nicholson a series of inquiries to be
+addressed to himself by a special committee on the subject, with regard
+to the mode by which money was drawn from the Treasury and the situation
+of accounts between that department and those of the Army and Navy. To
+these questions he sent in to the House an elaborate reply, which he
+intended to be the basis of legislation. Strict appropriation was the
+ideal at which he aimed, and this word was so often on his tongue or in
+his messages that it could not be mentioned without a suggestion of his
+personality. He carried the same nicety of detail into his domestic
+life. He managed his own household expenses, and at a time when
+bountiful stores were the fashion in every household he insisted on a
+rigid observance of the more precise French system. He made an
+appropriation of a certain sum each day for his expenses, and required
+from his purveyor a strict daily account of disbursements. An amusing
+story is told of him at his own table. On an occasion when entertaining
+a company at dinner, he was dissatisfied with the menu and expressed his
+disapprobation to his maitre d'hotel, a Frenchman, who replied to him
+in broken English, that it was not his fault, but that of the
+"mal-appropriations."
+
+The example set by Mr. Gallatin in this particular was never forgotten,
+and from his day to this strict accountability has been the tradition of
+the Treasury Department, now greatly increased in detail, but in
+structure essentially as it was originally organized. Of its management
+Mr. Sherman was able to say in his report of December 1, 1879, "The
+organization of the several bureaus is such, and the system of
+accounting so perfect, that the financial transactions of the government
+during the past two years, aggregating $3,354,345,040, have been
+adjusted without question with the exception of a few small balances,
+now in the process of collection, of which it is believed that the
+government will eventually lose less than $13,000, or less than four
+mills for each $1000 of the amount involved;" and in 1880 he said with
+entire truth, "The department is a well organized and well conducted
+business office, depending mainly for its success upon the integrity and
+fidelity of the heads of bureaus and chiefs of divisions."
+
+
+_Banking_
+
+There is no more instructive chapter in the history of finance than that
+upon the banking system of the United States. It has its distinct eras
+of radical change, each of which presents a series of tentative
+experiments. The outcome, by a process of development, in which
+political expediency has been as effective an agency as financial
+necessity, is the present national banking system. Though the term
+"government," or "national," bank is constantly used in reference to the
+great banking institutions of England, France, and the United States, no
+one of these is in the true sense of the word a national bank. The Bank
+of England is a chartered corporation, the Bank of France an association
+instituted by law. The Bank of North America, and the Bank of the United
+States which followed it, were founded on the same principle. Both were
+corporations of individuals intimately connected with the government,
+enjoying certain privileges accorded and being under certain
+restrictions, but otherwise independent of government control.
+
+The Bank of North America, the first bank established in the United
+States, was also the first which had any direct relation to the
+government. It was the conception of the comprehensive and original mind
+of Robert Morris, the financier or superintendent of the public finances
+of the United States. Its purpose was not the convenience or profit of
+individuals, but to draw together the scattered financial resources of
+the country and found a public credit. He submitted his plan to
+Congress, which adopted a resolution of approval May 26, 1781. The
+original plan contemplated a capital of ten millions of dollars; but the
+collection of such a sum in gold and silver in one depository was beyond
+the range of possibility at that period, and the capital was finally
+fixed at four hundred thousand dollars, in one thousand shares of four
+hundred dollars each. Subscription books were immediately opened, but
+not more than $70,000 was entered during the summer months. The arrival
+at Boston of a French war frigate with a remittance of $470,000 in
+specie, which was brought to Philadelphia and deposited in the vaults of
+the bank, enabled Mr. Morris to mature his plans. He designed to retain
+this sum in the bank as a specie basis; but the necessities of the
+country were so urgent during the critical season of the Yorktown
+campaign, that nearly one half of it was exhausted before an
+organization could be effected. In December Congress passed an ordinance
+of incorporation. Mr. Morris then subscribed the specie remaining in the
+Treasury, about $254,000, for shares for account of the United States,
+which became thereby the principal stockholder. The limit assigned by
+the ordinance remained, however, at ten millions of dollars. There was
+nothing in the acts of Congress which implied any exclusive right of the
+United States government in the bank except during the war of the
+Revolution. A local charter was obtained from the legislature of
+Pennsylvania, and the bank was opened in Philadelphia for the
+transaction of business in January, 1782. Its services to the government
+during the period of the war were inestimable. In the words of Hamilton,
+"American independence owes much to it." But after the war such were
+the local jealousies, the fears of oppression, and the dread of foreign
+influence, that, on the petition of the inhabitants of Philadelphia and
+some of the neighboring counties, the legislature of Pennsylvania
+repealed its charter on September 13, 1785. The bank continued its
+operations, however, under the charter from Congress. On March 17, 1787,
+the legislature of Pennsylvania renewed the charter for fourteen years
+and limited the capital to two millions of dollars. The charter was
+extended for a similar term of fourteen years on March 26, 1799. Thus in
+the beginning of the American banking system are found that distrust and
+jealousy of money power which seem inherent in democracies. The exercise
+of state jurisdiction over the existence of the Bank of North America
+suggested possible embarrassments, which could not escape the
+discernment of Hamilton, whose policy, as it was also that of the
+Federal party, was to strengthen the powers of the government in every
+vital branch of administration.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In his comprehensive plan of government Hamilton included a financial
+institution to develop the national resources, strengthen the public
+credit, aid the Treasury Department in its administration, and provide a
+secure and sound circulating medium for the people. On December 13,
+1790, he sent in to Congress a report on the subject of a national bank.
+The Republican party, then in the minority, opposed the plan as
+unconstitutional, on the ground that the power of creating banks or any
+corporate body had not been expressly delegated to Congress, and was
+therefore not possessed by it. Washington's cabinet was divided;
+Jefferson opposing the measure as not within the implied powers, because
+it was an expediency and not a paramount necessity. Later he used
+stronger language, and denounced the institution as "one of the most
+deadly hostility existing against the principles and form of our
+Constitution," nor did he ever abandon these views. There is the
+authority of Mr. Gallatin for saying that Jefferson "died a decided
+enemy to our banking system generally, and specially to a bank of the
+United States." But Hamilton's views prevailed. Washington, who in the
+weary years of war had seen the imperative necessity of some national
+organization of the finances, after mature deliberation approved the
+plan, and on February 25, 1791, the Bank of the United States was
+incorporated. The capital stock was limited to twenty-five thousand
+shares of four hundred dollars each, or ten millions of dollars, payable
+one fourth in gold and silver, and three fourths in public securities
+bearing an interest of six and three per cent. The stock was immediately
+subscribed for, the government taking five thousand shares, two millions
+of dollars, under the right reserved in the charter. The subscription of
+the United States was paid in ten equal annual installments. A large
+proportion of the stock was held abroad, and the shares soon rose above
+par. By an act of March 2, 1791, the funded three per cents. were also
+made receivable in payment of subscriptions to the bank, whence it has
+been said that out of the funding system sprung the bank, as three
+fourths of its capital consisted of public stocks. Authority was given
+the bank to establish offices of discount and deposit within the United
+States. The chief bank was placed in Philadelphia, and branches were
+established in eight cities, with capitals in proportion to their
+commercial importance.
+
+In 1809 the stockholders of the Bank of the United States memorialized
+the government for a renewal of their charter, which would expire on
+March 4, 1811; and on March 9, 1809, Mr. Gallatin sent in a report in
+which he reviewed the operations of the bank from its organization. Of
+the government shares, five million dollars at par, two thousand four
+hundred and ninety-three shares were sold in 1796 and 1797 at an advance
+of 25 per cent., two hundred and eighty-seven in 1797 at an advance of
+20 per cent., and the remaining 2220 shares in 1802, at an advance of 45
+per cent., making together, exclusive of the dividends, a profit of
+$671,680 to the United States. Eighteen thousand shares of the bank
+stock were held abroad, and seven thousand shares, or a little more than
+one fourth part of the capital, in the United States. A table of all the
+dividends made by the bank showed that they had on the average been at
+the rate of 8-3/8 (precisely 8-13/34) per cent. a year, which proved
+that the bank had not in any considerable degree used the public
+deposits for the purpose of extending its discounts. From a general view
+of the debits and credits, as presented, it appeared that the affairs of
+the Bank of the United States, considered as a moneyed institution, had
+been wisely and skillfully managed. The advantages derived by the
+government Mr. Gallatin stated to be, 1, safekeeping of the public
+moneys; 2, transmission of the public moneys; 3, collection of the
+revenue; 4, loans. The strongest objection to the renewal of the charter
+lay in the great portion of the bank stock held by foreigners. Not on
+account of any influence over the institution, since they had no vote;
+but because of the high rate of interest payable by America to foreign
+countries. If the charter were not renewed the principal of that
+portion, amounting to $7,200,000, must at once be remitted abroad; but
+if the charter were renewed, dividends equal to an interest of about
+8-1/2 per cent. per annum must be remitted. Mr. Gallatin's report closed
+with the following suggestions:--
+
+I. That the bank should pay an interest to the United States on the
+public deposits above a certain sum.
+
+II. That it should be bound to lend the United States a sum not
+exceeding three fifths of its capital.
+
+III. That the capital stock of the bank should be increased to thirty
+millions of dollars, to be subscribed for, 1, five millions by citizens
+of the United States; 2, fifteen millions by the States; a branch to be
+established in each subscribing State; 3, payments by either individuals
+or States to be in specie or public stock of the United States at rates
+to be fixed by law; the subscribing States to pay in ten annual
+installments.
+
+IV. That some share should be given in the direction to the general and
+state governments by appointment of directors in the general direction
+and branches.
+
+The result of this plan would be, 1st, that the United States might,
+from the interest on the public deposits, accumulate during years of
+peace and prosperity a treasure sufficient to meet periods of war and
+calamity; 2d, that they might rely on a loan of eighteen millions of
+dollars in any sudden emergency; 3d, that by the payment in ten
+installments the increase in capital would be in proportion to the
+progressive state of the country; 4th, that the bank itself would form
+an additional bond of common interest and union amongst the several
+States. But these arguments availed not against the blind and ignorant
+jealousy of the Republican majority in the House. The days of the bank
+were numbered. Congress refused to prolong its existence, and the
+institution was dissolved. Fortunately for the country, it wound up its
+affairs with such deliberation and prudence as to allow of the
+interposition of other bank credits in lieu of those withdrawn, and
+thus prevented a serious shock to the interests of the community. In the
+twenty years of its existence from 1791 to 1811 its management was
+irreproachable. Its annual dividends from 1791 to 1809 were 8-2/3 per
+cent., and its stock, always above par, from 1805 to 1809 ranged from 20
+to 40 per cent. premium.
+
+In its numerous and varied relations to the government it had been a
+useful and faithful servant, and its directors had never assumed the
+attitude of money kings, of which the Jeffersonian democracy pretended
+to stand in hourly dread. To the general and important nature of its
+financial service Mr. Gallatin gave his testimony in 1830; after his own
+direct participation in public affairs had ended.
+
+     "Experience, however, has since confirmed the great utility and
+     importance of a bank of the United States in its connection with
+     the Treasury. The first great advantage derived from it consists in
+     the safekeeping of the public moneys, securing in the first
+     instance the immediate payment of those received by the principal
+     collectors, and affording a constant check on all their
+     transactions; and afterwards rendering a defalcation in the moneys
+     once paid, and whilst nominally in the treasury, absolutely
+     impossible. The next, and not less important, benefit is to be
+     found in the perfect facility with which all the public payments
+     are made by checks or treasury drafts, payable at any place where
+     the bank has an office; all those who have demands against
+     government are paid in the place most convenient to them; and the
+     public moneys are transferred through our extensive territory at a
+     moment's warning without any risk or expense, to the places most
+     remote from those of collection, and wherever public exigencies may
+     require."
+
+Late in life, in a letter to John M. Botts, June 14, 1841, Mr. Gallatin
+expressed the same opinions with regard to the usefulness of a
+government bank as an aid to the Treasury Department, but limited his
+approval to that use. "Except in its character of fiscal agent to the
+general government I attach much less importance to a national bank than
+several of those who are in favor of it." "Did I believe," he adds in
+the same letter, "that a bank of the United States would effectually
+secure us a sound currency, I would think it a duty at all hazards to
+promote the object."
+
+The reason for his doubts in 1841 is easily seen in the impossibility of
+annihilating or controlling the three hundred distinct currencies of as
+many banks, each nominally convertible into specie at its point of
+issue; a financial puzzle which Mr. Chase solved in the device and
+organization of the present national banking system, which, without
+involving the government in banking operations, affords to the people a
+homogeneous currency of uniform value, and secures its convertibility by
+reasonable but absolute restrictions, upon conformity to which the
+existence of the banks depends. The exigencies of war compelled an
+acquiescence in the plans of Mr. Chase, which, at the time when Mr.
+Gallatin expressed his doubts, could not have been had in any system
+whatever which involved the subordination of the banks.
+
+The wide spread of the state bank system, with its irresponsible and
+unlimited issues, occurring subsequent to Mr. Gallatin's withdrawal from
+the Treasury, was a consequence of the failure to renew the charter of
+the Bank of the United States; and if ever there were a system by which
+the inhabitants of States whose floating capital was small were placed
+at the mercy of moneyed corporations of the States where it was
+abundant, it was the state bank system. The experience of the old
+confederation had not taught this lesson. The colonial system was
+continued by the several States, and bills of credit were issued on
+their faith. The continental system was a compound of the main features
+of this plan. The bills were issued by the Congress, but the States were
+relied upon for their ultimate redemption.
+
+The collapse of the entire fabric of finance led to the establishment of
+the Bank of North America, the notes of which were redeemable and
+redeemed at the bank counters. The article in the Constitution of 1787,
+prohibiting the issue of bills of credit by the States, was evidently
+intended to secure a uniform currency to the people of the United
+States, and it has been by a strange perversion of this manifest
+intention that the power has been conceded to the States to charter
+corporations to do that which was forbidden to themselves in their
+sovereign capacity; namely, to issue bills of credit, which bank-notes
+are. It is idle to say that, because such bills were not a "legal
+tender," they were therefore not of the character which the Constitution
+forbade. Necessity knows no law, and in the absence of any other
+currency the people were perforce compelled to take what they could get.
+Experience later showed that large amounts of paper money manufactured
+in one State were easily put in circulation in far distant communities,
+and considerable sums, through the operations of wear and tear and the
+vicissitudes incident to its fragile nature, never returned to plague
+the inventor.
+
+At the time of the organization of the National Bank by Hamilton, there
+were but three banks in the United States: the Bank of North America,
+the Bank of New York, and the Bank of Massachusetts. Their added capital
+amounted to two millions of dollars, and their issues were
+inconsiderable.
+
+Mr. Gallatin estimated that in January, 1811, just before the expiration
+of the bank charter, there were in the United States eighty-eight state
+banks with a capital of $42,612,000.
+
+--------------------------+-------------+---------------+------------
+                          |             |    Notes in   |
+                          |   Capital.  |  Circulation. |   Specie.
+--------------------------+-------------+---------------+------------
+Bank of the United States | $10,000,000 |  $5,400,000   |  $5,800,000
+Eighty-eight State Banks  |  42,610,601 |  22,700,000   |   9,600,000
+--------------------------+-------------+---------------+------------
+                          | $52,610,601 | $28,100,000   | $15,400,000
+--------------------------+-------------+---------------+------------
+
+Over the local institutions the Bank of the United States always
+exercised a salutary control, checking any disposition to overtrade by
+restraining their issues and holding them to a proper specie reserve;
+and this by no other interference except its countenance or ill favor,
+as such banks severally observed or disregarded the ordinary rules of
+financial prudence. The immediate effect of the refusal of Congress to
+recharter the Bank of the United States was to bring the Treasury to the
+verge of bankruptcy. The interference of Parish, Girard, and Astor alone
+saved the credit of the government, and this interference was no doubt
+prompted by self-interest. That Mr. Astor was hostile to the bank is
+certain. Gallatin wrote to Madison in January, 1811, that Mr. Astor had
+sent him a verbal message, "that in case of non-renewal of the charter
+of the Bank of the United States, all his funds and those of his
+friends, to the amount of two millions of dollars, would be at the
+command of government, either in importing specie, circulating
+government paper, or in any other way best calculated to prevent any
+injury arising from the dissolution of the bank," and he added that Mr.
+Bentson, Mr. Astor's son-in-law, in communicating this message said,
+"that in this instance profit was not Mr. Astor's object, and that he
+would go great lengths, partly from pride and partly from wish, to see
+the bank down." In 1813, when the bank was "down," Mr. Gallatin was no
+longer master of the situation. He offered to treat directly with
+Parish, Girard, and Astor for ten millions of dollars, but finding some
+hesitation, he opened the loan for subscription. When the subscription
+failed, he was at the mercy of the capitalists.
+
+Another immediate effect of the dissolution of the bank was the
+withdrawal from the country of the foreign capital invested in the bank,
+more than seven millions of dollars. This amount was remitted, in the
+twelve months preceding the war, in specie. Specie was at that time a
+product foreign to the United States, and by no means easy to obtain.
+Specie, as Mr. Gallatin profoundly observed, does not precede, but
+follows wealth. The want of it nearly destroyed Morris's original plan
+for the Bank of North America, and was only made up by the fortunate
+receipt of the French remittances. In 1808 the specie in the vaults of
+the treasury reached fourteen millions of dollars, but during the
+operation of the Embargo Act, the banks of New England had gradually
+accumulated a specie reserve, and that of Richmond, Virginia, pursued
+the same policy. Together they held one third of the entire specie
+reserve of the banks. The amount of specie in the Bank of the United
+States, January 1, 1811, had fallen to $5,800,000, which soon found its
+way abroad.
+
+The notes of the Bank of the United States, payable on demand in gold
+and silver at the counters of the bank, or any of its branches, were,
+by its charter, receivable in all payments to the United States; but
+this quality was also stripped from them on March 19, 1812, by a repeal
+of the act according it. To these disturbances of the financial
+equilibrium of the country was added the necessary withdrawal of fifteen
+millions of bank credit and its transfer to other institutions. This
+gave an extraordinary impulse to the establishment of local banks, each
+eager for a share of the profits. The capital of the country, instead of
+being concentrated, was dissipated. Between January 1, 1811, and 1815,
+one hundred and twenty new banks were chartered, and forty millions of
+dollars were added to the banking capital. To realize profits, the
+issues of paper were pushed to the extreme of possible circulation.
+Meanwhile New England kept aloof from the nation. The specie in the
+vaults of the banks of Massachusetts rose from $1,706,000 on June 1,
+1811, to $7,326,000 on June 1, 1814. This was a consequence of the New
+England policy of opposition. Mr. Gallatin estimated that the proceeds
+of loans, exclusive of treasury notes and temporary loans, paid into the
+treasury from the commencement of the war to the end of the year 1814
+were $41,010,000: of which sum the Eastern States lent $2,900,000; the
+Middle States, $35,790,000; Southwestern States, $2,320,000.
+
+The floating debt of the United States, consisting of treasury notes
+and temporary loans unpaid, amounted, January 1, 1815, to $11,250,000,
+of which nearly four fifths were loaned by the cities of New York,
+Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and the District of Columbia. The
+suspension of the banks was precipitated by the capture of Washington.
+It began in Baltimore, which was threatened by the British, and was at
+once followed in Philadelphia and New York. Before the end of September
+all the banks south and west of New England had suspended specie
+payment. In his "Considerations on the Currency," Mr. Gallatin expressed
+his--
+
+     "deliberate opinion that the suspension might have been prevented
+     at the time when it took place, had the Bank of the United States
+     been in existence. The exaggerated increase of state banks,
+     occasioned by the dissolution of that institution, would not have
+     occurred. That bank would _as before_ have restrained them within
+     proper bounds and checked their issues, and through the means of
+     its offices it would have been in possession of the earliest
+     symptoms of the approaching danger. It would have put the Treasury
+     Department on its guard; both, acting in concert, would certainly
+     have been able, at least, to retard the event; and as the treaty of
+     peace was ratified within less than six months after the suspension
+     took place, that catastrophe would have been avoided."
+
+But within fifteen months the bank issues increased from forty-five and
+a half to sixty millions.
+
+----------------------+-------------+--------------+------------
+                      | Capital.    | Circulation. |   Specie.
+----------------------+-------------+--------------+------------
+Banks of New England. | $15,690,000 |  $5,320,000  |  $8,200,000
+Other Banks           |  66,930,000 |  44,730,000  |   8,600,000
+----------------------+-------------+--------------+------------
+1815. 208 State Banks.| $82,620,000 | $50,050,000  | $16,800,000
+1816. 246 State Banks.|  89,822,422 |  68,000,000  |  19,000,000
+----------------------+-------------+--------------+------------
+
+The depression of the local currencies ranged from seven to twenty-five
+per cent. In New York and Charleston it was seven to ten per cent. below
+the par of coin. At Philadelphia from seventeen to eighteen per cent. At
+Washington and Baltimore from twenty to twenty-two, and at Pittsburgh
+and on the frontier, twenty-five per cent. below par. The circulating
+medium, or measure of values, being doubled, the price of commodities
+was doubled. The agiotage, of course, was the profit of the bankers and
+brokers; a sum estimated at six millions of dollars a year, or ten per
+cent. on the exchanges of the country, which McDuffie, in his celebrated
+report, estimated at sixty millions annually.
+
+In November the Treasury Department found itself involved in the common
+disaster. The refusal of the banks, in which the public moneys were
+deposited, to pay their notes or the drafts upon them in specie deprived
+the government of its gold and silver; and their refusal, likewise, of
+credit and circulation to the issues of banks in other States deprived
+the government also of the only means it possessed for transferring its
+funds to pay the dividends on the debt and discharge the treasury notes.
+Mr. Dallas found himself compelled to appeal to the banks by circular to
+subscribe for sufficient treasury notes to secure them such advances as
+might be asked of them for the discharge of the public obligations.
+
+"In the latter end of the year 1814," says Mr. Gallatin, "Mr. Jefferson
+suggested the propriety of a gradual issue by government of two hundred
+millions of dollars in paper;" commenting upon which Mr. Gallatin
+remarks that Mr. Jefferson, from the imperfect data in his possession,
+"greatly overrated the amount of paper currency which could be sustained
+at par; and he had, on the other hand, underrated the great expenses of
+the war;" but at "all events," he adds, "the issue of government paper
+ought to be kept in reserve for extraordinary circumstances." But here
+it may be remarked that the evolution of the systems of American finance
+seems to lead slowly but surely to an entire divorce of banking from
+currency, and the day is not far distant when the circulating medium of
+the United States will consist of gold and silver, and of government
+issues restricted, according to the English principle, to the minimum of
+circulation, and kept equivalent to coin by a specie reserve in the
+treasury; while the banks, their circulation withdrawn and the
+institutions freed from any tax, will be confined to their legitimate
+business of receiving deposits and making loans and discounts.
+
+On October 14, 1814, Alexander J. Dallas, Mr. Gallatin's old friend, who
+had been appointed secretary of the treasury on the 6th of the same
+month, in a report of a plan to support the public credit, proposed the
+incorporation of a national bank. A bill was passed by Congress, but
+returned to it by Madison with his veto on January 15, 1815. In this
+peculiar document Madison "waived the question of the constitutional
+authority of the legislature to establish an incorporated bank, as being
+precluded, in his judgment, by repeated recognitions, under varied
+circumstances, of the validity of such an institution in acts of the
+legislative, executive, and judicial branches of the government." But he
+objected for reasons of detail. Mr. Dallas again, as a last resort,
+insisted on a bank as the only means by which the currency of the
+country could be restored to a sound condition. In December, 1815,
+Dallas reported to the committee of the House of Representatives on the
+national currency, of which John C. Calhoun was chairman, a plan for a
+national bank, and on March 3, 1816, the second Bank of the United
+States was chartered by Congress. The capital was thirty-five millions,
+of which the government held seven millions in seventy thousand shares
+of one hundred dollars each. Mr. Madison approved the bill. This
+completed the abandonment of every shred of principle claimed by the
+Republican party as their rule of action. They struggled through the
+rest of their existence without a political conviction. The national
+bank, and the system of internal taxation which had been scorned by
+Jefferson and Madison as unconstitutional, were accepted actually under
+Madison's administration. Gallatin's success, owing to the development
+and application of Hamilton's plans, was a complete vindication of the
+theory and practice of the Federalists which they abhorred; Jefferson's
+plan of a government issue of paper money was a higher flight into the
+upper atmosphere of implied powers than Hamilton ever dreamed of.
+
+The second national bank of the United States was also located at
+Philadelphia, and chartered for twenty years. The manner in which it
+performed its financial service is admirably set forth in Mr. Gallatin's
+"Considerations on the Currency," already mentioned. It acted as a
+regulator upon the state banks, checked excessive issues on their part,
+and brought the paper currency of the country down from sixty-six to
+less than forty millions, before the year 1820.
+
+In April, 1816, Mr. Dallas having signified his intention to resign the
+Treasury, Mr. Madison wrote to Gallatin, offering him his choice between
+the mission to France and the Treasury Department. Mr. Gallatin's reply
+was characteristic. He declined the Treasury, but with reluctance, since
+he thought he would be more useful at home than abroad, and because he
+preferred to be in America rather than in Europe. One of his
+preponderating reasons was that, although he felt himself competent to
+the higher duties of the office, there was, for what he conceived "a
+proper management of the Treasury, a necessity for a mass of mechanical
+labor connected with details, forms, calculating, etc., which having
+lost sight of the thread and routine, he could not think of again
+learning and going through." He was aware that there was "much confusion
+due to the changes of office and the state of the currency, and thought
+that an active young man could alone reinstate and direct properly that
+department."
+
+In June of the same year, while waiting for the Peacock, which was to
+carry him across the sea, Gallatin wrote Mr. Madison an urgent letter,
+impressing upon him the necessity of restoring specie payment, and his
+perfect conviction that nothing but the will of the government was
+wanted to reinstate the country in its moral character in that respect.
+He dreaded the "paper taint," which he found spreading as he journeyed
+northward.
+
+In January 1817, delegates from the banks of New York, Philadelphia,
+Baltimore and Virginia met in Philadelphia and agreed to a general and
+simultaneous resumption of specie payments. The Bank of the United
+States proposed a compact which was accepted by the state banks and
+ratified by the secretary of the treasury. That institution engaged, to
+a reasonable extent, to support any bank menaced. This engagement and
+the importation of seven millions of specie from abroad by the Bank of
+the United States secured a general restoration of specie payment. In
+1822 Mr. Gallatin was tendered and declined the office of president of
+the Bank of the United States.
+
+In 1829 he prepared for Mr. Ingham, then secretary of the treasury, a
+masterly statement of the relative value of gold and silver. In 1830 Mr.
+Gallatin wrote for the "American Quarterly Review" his essay,
+"Considerations on the Currency and Banking System of the United
+States." Appearing at the time when the renewal of the charter of the
+Bank of the United States was an absorbing question, this essay was
+equally sought for by both the friends and opponents of the bank. It is
+not confined, however, to this subject, but covers the entire field of
+American finance. His treatment of the currency question was novel. He
+analyzed the systems of Europe, compared them with those which prevailed
+in the United States, and reached the conclusion, the general
+correctness of which has been justified by the experience of all other
+nations, and sooner or later will be accepted by our own; namely, the
+necessity of a currency strong in the precious metals, and the
+restriction of paper money to notes of one hundred dollars to be issued
+by the government. This limit is higher than that adopted in France and
+England, but the general principle that a circulating medium is sound
+only as it is strong in gold and silver, and that gold and silver can
+only be retained permanently by making a place for them in the
+circulating medium by a restriction of paper issues, will yet find
+favor even in this paper-loving country.
+
+In 1832 Mr. Gallatin accepted the presidency of a bank in New York, the
+subscription to the stock of which, $750,000, was completed by Mr. John
+Jacob Astor on condition that Mr. Gallatin should manage its affairs.
+The direction of its concerns, without absorbing his time, kept him in
+the financial current. The bank was called the National Bank of New
+York. But not in this modest post was he to find the financial path
+smooth. It is true he had lived in the flesh to see the financial
+millennium. The rapid growth of the country and the faithful adherence
+of his successors in the Treasury Department to the funding principle
+had at last realized his dream. The national debt was extinguished. The
+last dollar was paid. Louis McLane, secretary of the treasury, on
+December 5, 1832, in his report on the finances, said that the dividends
+derived from the bank shares held by the United States were more than
+was required to pay the interest, and that the _debt_ might therefore be
+considered as substantially extinguished after January 1, 1833.
+
+On December 3, 1833, Roger B. Taney, secretary of the treasury, reported
+to Congress that he had directed the removal of the deposits of the
+government from the Bank of the United States and placed them in banks
+of his own selection. He gave a number of reasons for this extraordinary
+exercise of the power which he obtained by his appointment on September
+23, 1833. He received his reward in June, 1834, being then transferred
+by President Jackson to the seat of chief justice of the Supreme Court.
+In his annual report Taney named, among his elaborate reasons for the
+removal, that the bank had used its money for electioneering purposes,
+and that he "had always regarded the result of the last election of
+President of the United States as the declaration of a majority of the
+people that the charter ought not to be renewed." He further expressed
+the opinion "that a corporation of that description was not necessary
+either for the fiscal operations of the government or the general
+convenience of the people." It mattered little to him that Mr. Gallatin
+had only recently pointed out that from the year 1791 the operations of
+the Treasury had, without interruption, been carried on through the
+medium of banks; during the years 1811 to 1814, by the state banks, with
+a result which no one had as yet forgotten; before and since that brief
+interval through the Bank of the United States. Enough for Taney, that
+it was the will of his imperious master, 'the pugnacious animal,' as
+Gallatin aptly termed him.
+
+In October, 1834, Taney's successor in the Treasury, Levi Woodbury, gave
+notice that the remaining debt, unredeemed after January 1, 1835, would
+cease to bear interest and be promptly paid on application to the
+commissioners of loans in the several States. On December 8, 1835, Mr.
+Woodbury reported "an unprecedented spectacle presented to the world of
+a government virtually without any debts and without any direct
+taxation." The surplus revenues, about thirty-seven and a half millions
+of dollars, had by an act of the previous session been distributed among
+the several States. But the secretary and the country soon found that
+they were on dangerous ground. In December, 1837, the same secretary,
+alarmed at his responsibility, said to Congress, in warning words, "We
+are without any national debt to absorb and regulate surpluses, or any
+adequate supply of banking institutions which provide a sound currency
+for general purposes by paying specie on demand, or which are in a
+situation fully to command confidence for keeping, disbursing, and
+transferring the public funds in a satisfactory manner."
+
+The Bank of the United States, on the expiration of its charter in
+March, 1836, accepted a charter from the State of Pennsylvania; but,
+though its influence continued to be as great, its direction was no
+longer the same. Abandoning its legitimate business, it speculated in
+merchandise, and even kept an agent in New Orleans to compete with the
+Barings in purchases of the cotton crop as a basis for exchange.
+Precisely as in 1811, after the withdrawal of the control of the Bank of
+the United States, the state banks ran a wild career of speculation.
+From 1830 to 1837 three hundred new banks sprang up with an additional
+capital of one hundred and forty-five millions, doubling, as twenty
+years before, the banking capital of the country. This volume the
+deposits of the Treasury continued to swell. Mr. Woodbury was the first
+to take alarm. In December, 1836, he reported the specie in the country
+to have increased from thirty millions in 1833 to seventy-three millions
+at the date of his report, and the paper circulation, in the same
+period, to have advanced, since the removal of the deposits from the
+Bank of the United States, from eighty millions to one hundred and
+twenty millions, or forty millions in eighteen months; and the bank
+capital, in the same period, to have increased from two hundred to three
+hundred millions. Importation augmented; the balance of trade suddenly
+turned against the United States to the extent of one hundred and fifty
+millions, and coin began to flow abroad to liquidate the account. There
+was no debt to attract foreign investment and arrest the export of
+specie. Added to this was the withdrawal of the government deposits from
+the pet banks, which compelled an immediate contraction. The result was
+inevitable. On May 10, 1837, the New York banks suspended, Mr.
+Gallatin's institution being of course dragged down with the rest. It is
+idle to suppose that any single bank can hold out against a general
+suspension. It may liquidate or become a bank of deposits, but it cannot
+maintain its relations with its sister institutions except on a basis of
+common accord.
+
+A general suspension followed. Mr. Woodbury proved himself equal to the
+emergency, and recommended a plan of "keeping the public money under new
+legislative provisions without using banks at all as fiscal agents."
+This was the beginning of the sub-treasury system, a new departure in
+treasury management, and a further evolution in American finance. It
+still remains, and will no doubt be permanent. Its establishment was
+necessary because of the absence of a national bank.
+
+Mr. Gallatin at once turned his attention to bring about first a
+liquidation and then a resumption. It was a favorite maxim with him,
+that "the agonies of resumption are far harder to endure than those of
+suspension," as it is easier to refrain from lapse of virtue than to
+restore moral integrity once impaired. But in resumption the suffering
+falls where it belongs, on the careless, the improvident, and the
+over-trader.
+
+On August 15, 1837, the officers of the banks of New York city, in a
+general meeting, appointed a committee of three to call a convention of
+the principal banks to agree upon a time for a resumption of specie
+payments. This committee, of which Mr. Gallatin was chairman, on August
+18 addressed a circular to the principal banks in the United States,
+inviting the expression of their wishes as to the time and place for a
+convention, suggesting New York as the place, and October, 1837, as the
+time. They said, in addition, that the banks of New York city, in view
+of the law of the State dissolving them as legal corporations in case
+of suspension for one year, must resume at some time between January 1
+and March 15, 1838. The circular committed the New York banks to no
+definite action, but expressed the opinion that the fall in the rate of
+exchanges indicated an early return of specie to par, when resumption
+could be effected without danger. The banks of Philadelphia held a
+meeting on August 29, and adopted resolutions declaring it inexpedient
+to appoint delegates to the proposed convention. Aware of the reasons
+for this action, the chief of which was the extended and perhaps
+insolvent condition of the United States Bank of Pennsylvania, the New
+York committee invited the banks in the several States to appoint
+delegates to meet on November 27, 1837, in New York. Delegates from
+banks of seventeen States and the District of Columbia appeared. On the
+30th resolutions were brought in recommending a general resumption on
+July 1, without precluding an earlier resumption on the part of such
+banks as might find it necessary. The Pennsylvania banks opposed this
+action with resolutions condemning the idea of immediate resumption as
+impracticable, and also, in the absence of delegates from the banks of
+Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Tennessee, as unwise. The
+convention met again on December 2, when an adjournment was carried to
+April 11, 1838, when delegates from the banks not represented were
+invited to attend. Mr. Gallatin saw that the combination of the
+Philadelphia and Boston banks, under the lead of Mr. Biddle, would
+certainly force a further postponement. Exchange on London, which had
+been as high as 121, the true par being about 109-1/2, nominal, had
+fallen to 111-1/2, which, considering that the city bank paper was at a
+discount of five per cent., was at the rate of 2-1/2 per cent. below
+specie par. The exportation of specie had entirely ceased.
+
+On December 15 Mr. Gallatin and his committee appointed at the general
+convention submitted a report which he had drafted, which, though
+addressed to the New York banks, covered the whole ground. Meanwhile the
+highest authority in Pennsylvania had given it as his opinion "that the
+banks of Pennsylvania were in a much sounder state than before the
+suspension, and that the resumption of specie payments, so far as it
+depends on their situation and resources, may take place at any time."
+
+On February 28, 1838, Mr. Gallatin's committee made a further report
+showing that the liabilities of the New York banks had been reduced more
+than twelve millions and a half, or fifty per cent., and asserting that
+with the support of the community and the state authorities they could
+resume on an equal footing on May 10. This declaration was welcomed with
+great satisfaction by a general meeting of the citizens of New York. On
+April 11 the general convention again met in New York. The Philadelphia
+banks declined to attend. A letter from Mr. Woodbury promised the
+support of the Treasury Department. A committee of one from each State
+was appointed, which recommended the first Monday in October as the
+earliest day for a general resumption. The convention could not,
+however, be brought to fix upon so early a day, but finally fixed upon
+January 1, 1839, and adjourned. The New York banks would have accepted
+July 1, 1838, but this being refused they resumed alone on May 10, and
+the force of public opinion compelled resumption by nearly all the banks
+of the country on July 1.
+
+The terrible contraction was fatal to the United States Bank of
+Pennsylvania, which after a vain struggle closed its doors in October,
+1839, and carried with it the entire banking system of the Southern and
+Southwestern States. Although in no way similar to the semi-governmental
+institutions which preceded it, yet, from its similarity of name and
+identity of location, its disastrous failure added to the blind popular
+distrust of its predecessors, which narrow-minded politicians had
+fostered for their own selfish purposes. Fortunately the sub-treasury
+plan of Mr. Woodbury supplied the need of a safe place of deposit which,
+since the refusal of Congress to renew the charter of the old bank, had
+been sorely felt.
+
+In 1838, on the foundation of the Bank of Commerce under the free
+banking law of the State of New York, the presidency of it was first
+tendered to Mr. Gallatin. The directors of this bank were among the most
+distinguished financiers of the city, and its object was to provide a
+conservative institution with sufficient power and capital to act as a
+regulator upon the New York banks. Profit to the stockholders was
+secondary to the reserve power for general advantage.
+
+In June, 1839, Mr. Gallatin resigned his post as president of the
+National Bank of New York. In 1841 he published a financial essay, which
+he entitled "Suggestions on the Banks and Currency of the United
+States," a paper full of information, but from the nature of the subject
+not to be compared in general interest with his earlier paper, which is
+as fresh to-day as when it was written. Mr. Gallatin condemned paper
+currency as an artificial stimulus, and the ultimate object of his
+essays was to annihilate what he termed the "dangerous instrument." He
+admitted its utility and convenience, when used with great sobriety, but
+he deprecated its tendency to degenerate into a depreciated and
+irredeemable currency. This tendency the present national banking law
+arrests, but the law rather invites than prohibits the stimulus of
+increased issues. The last word has not yet been said on national
+currency, which, though the basis of all commercial transactions, has
+necessarily no other relation to banks than that which it holds to any
+individual in the community.
+
+Economic questions have interested the highest order of mind on the two
+continents. Sismondi published a paper on commercial wealth in 1803, and
+in 1810 a memoir on paper money, which he prepared to show how it might
+be suppressed in the Austrian dominions; Humboldt made a special study
+of the sources and quantity of the precious metals in the world, in
+which Mr. Gallatin aided him by investigation in America. Michel
+Chevalier was interested in the same subjects; surviving his two masters
+in the art and witnessing the marvelous effects of the additions made by
+America to the store of precious metals, he continued the study in the
+spirit of his predecessors, and favored the world with instructive
+papers. Mr. Gallatin's contributions to this science are remarkable for
+minute research and careful deductions.
+
+In 1843 President Tyler tendered the Treasury portfolio to Mr. Gallatin.
+The venerable financier looked upon the offer as an act of folly to
+which a serious answer seemed hardly necessary. Yet as silence might be
+misconstrued, he replied that he wanted no office, and to accept at his
+age that of secretary of the treasury would "be an act of insanity." He
+was then in his eighty-third year. The offer of the post was but an
+ill-considered caprice of Mr. Tyler.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 10: Cents are omitted as confusing figures.]
+
+[Footnote 11: The first Annual Report of the Secretary of the Treasury.
+This was under the Supplementary Treasury Act.]
+
+[Footnote 12: Excess of receipts, notwithstanding the purchase of
+Louisiana and payments on account of principal and interest of the
+debt.]
+
+[Footnote 13: These were the banks of New York, Boston, Philadelphia,
+and Baltimore. Seven presidents formed the committee. John A. Stevens of
+New York was chairman, by request of the Secretary of the Treasury. The
+other members were named by him. The sum advanced to the government was
+one hundred and fifty millions of dollars in coin.]
+
+[Footnote 14: At Portland, $120,000; Salem, $183,600; Boston, $75,300;
+Providence, $67,800; Richmond, $49,000; Norfolk, $103,000; Charleston,
+$354,000.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Report of Secretary Dallas, September 20, 1816.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Act of March 3, 1817.]
+
+[Footnote 17: _Democratic Review_, xii. 641.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+IN THE CABINET
+
+
+The general principles which Mr. Jefferson proposed to apply in his
+conduct of the government were not principles of organization but of
+administration. The establishments devised by Hamilton, in accordance
+with or in development of the provisions of the Constitution, were
+organic. The new policy was essentially restrictive and economic. The
+military and naval establishments were to be kept at their lowest
+possible limit. The Treasury Department was to be conducted on strictly
+business principles. The debt was to be reduced and finally paid by a
+fixed annual appropriation. The revenue was to be raised by imposts on
+importation and tonnage, and by direct taxation, if necessary. The
+public land system was to be developed. A scheme of internal
+improvements by land and water highways was to be devised. All these
+purposes except the last had been declared by the opposition during the
+last part of Washington's second term and during Adams's presidency, and
+had been lucidly expounded by Madison, Gallatin, Giles, Nicholas, and
+others of the Republican leaders. On all these subjects Mr. Gallatin
+was in accord with his chief. Only upon the bank question were they at
+issue. Mr. Jefferson detested or feared the aristocracy of money, while
+Gallatin, with a clearer insight into commercial and financial
+questions, recognized that in a young country where capital was limited,
+and specie in still greater disproportion to the increasing demands of
+trade, a well-ordered, well-managed money institution was an enormous
+advantage, if not an imperative necessity to the government and the
+people.
+
+Peace was necessary to the success of this general policy of internal
+progress, but peace was not to be had for the asking. It was not till
+half a century later that the power of the western continent as a
+food-producing country was fully felt by Europe, and peace with the
+United States became almost a condition of existence to millions in the
+old world, while this country became independent, in fact as in name, to
+the fullest meaning of the word. Peace was not menaced during
+Jefferson's first administration, for the Federalists had left no legacy
+of diplomatic discord to embarrass their successors. The divisions of
+opinion were on home affairs. The Republican party was the first
+opposition which had reached power since the formation of the
+government. The Federalists had not hesitated to confine the patronage
+of the executive to men of their own way of thinking. The Republicans
+had attacked that principle. There were men even in the ranks of
+Jefferson's administration who scouted the idea that the President of
+the United States could become "the President of a party." But practice
+and principle are not always in accord, even in administrations of
+sentimental purity, and the pressure for office was as great in 1800 as
+it has ever since been on the arrival of a new party to power. Beyond
+all other departments of government, the Treasury depends for its proper
+service upon business capacity and a knowledge of the principles of
+accounting and office routine. Mr. Gallatin was well aware of the
+difficulties his predecessors had encountered in finding and retaining
+competent examining and auditing clerks. As there was no reason to
+suppose that all this talent was to be found in the ranks of the
+Republican party, and his common sense pointed out the folly of limiting
+the market of supply, he early (July 25, 1801) prepared a circular to
+collectors, in which he informed them "that the door of office was no
+longer to be shut against any man because of his political opinions, but
+that integrity and capacity suitable to the station were to be the only
+qualifications required; and further, the President, considering freedom
+of opinion or freedom of suffrage at public elections imprescriptible
+rights of citizens, would regard any exercise of official influence to
+sustain or control the same rights in others as injurious to the public
+administration and practically destructive of the fundamental principles
+of a republican Constitution." But Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Madison
+opposed this simple declaration of a principle which has since been the
+base of every attempt at reform in the civil service. Mr. Jefferson
+answered that after one half of the subordinates were exchanged, talents
+and worth might alone be inquired into in the case of new vacancies.
+This was a miserable shuffling policy which defeated itself. For a
+Federalist to retain office when such a discrimination was applied was
+of itself a degradation. Mr. Jefferson here threw away and forever lost
+the power to establish the true system, and fixed the curse of patronage
+upon American administration. The true principle may be stated in the
+form of an axiom. Administrations should rely for continuation upon
+measures, not on patronage. Gallatin yielded with reluctance to the
+spirit of persecution which he did not hesitate to say disgraced the
+Republican cause, and sank them to a level with their predecessors.
+Notwithstanding his aversion, he was compelled to follow the policy of
+the cabinet. Its first result was to divide the Republican party, and to
+alienate Burr, whose recommendation of Matthew L. Davis for the naval
+office at New York was disregarded. Had the new administration declined
+to make removals except for cause, such a dispute would have been
+avoided. As it was, the friends of Burr considered the refusal as a
+declaration of war. Appointments became immediately a part of the
+machinery of Republican administration, as it had been part of that of
+their predecessors, and each was carefully weighed and considered in
+its reference to party quite as much as to public service.
+
+Already looking forward to the next presidential election, Gallatin was
+anxious for an agreement upon Jefferson's successor, and even before the
+meeting of the first Congress of his term he advised the President on
+this point, and he also proposed the division of every State into
+election districts by a general constitutional provision.
+
+Jefferson submitted the draft of his annual messages to the head of each
+department, and invited their comments. Gallatin was minute in his
+observations, and it is interesting to note the peculiar precision and
+caution of his character in the nice criticisms of language and style,
+sometimes declaratory, sometimes non-committal, but always and obviously
+reasonable, and often presenting a brief argument for the change
+proposed. In these days of woman's rights it is curious to read "Th. J.
+to Mr. Gallatin. The appointment of a woman to office is an innovation
+for which the public is not prepared, nor am I."
+
+Gallatin suggested a weekly general conference of the President and the
+secretaries at what is now styled a cabinet meeting, and private
+conferences of the President with each of the secretaries once or twice
+a week on certain days and at fixed hours. The business to come before
+the House was also to be considered, and the policy to be pursued
+determined upon. Unfortunately in this case again Jeffersonian theory
+did not accord with Jeffersonian practice. Even erratic Randolph
+complained of the want of system at these cabinet meetings, where each
+was at liberty to do and say as he chose; a severe trial, this, to
+Gallatin. In 1845 Mr. Gallatin wrote to Edward Coles that it was "quite
+unusual to submit to the cabinet the manner in which the land or naval
+forces authorized by Congress, and for which appropriations had been
+made, should be employed," and added that on no occasion, in or out of
+cabinet, was he ever consulted on those subjects prior to the year 1812.
+
+In the difficulty which arose with the Barbary powers Mr. Gallatin
+earnestly urged the payment of an annuity to Tripoli, if necessary for
+peace. He considered it a mere matter of calculation whether the
+purchase of peace was not cheaper than the expense of a war. This policy
+was to be continued for eight years, at the end of which he hoped that a
+different tone might be assumed. In a note on the message of 1802,
+Gallatin expressed the hope to Jefferson that his administration would
+"afford but few materials for historians." He would never sacrifice
+permanent prosperity to temporary glitter.
+
+Mr. Gallatin's counsel was sought, and his opinion deferred to, on
+subjects which did not fall directly within the scope of administration.
+Even on questions of fundamental constitutional law his judgment was not
+inferior to that of Madison himself. In one notable instance he differed
+from Mr. Lincoln, the attorney-general, whom he held in high esteem as
+a good lawyer, a fine scholar, "a man of great discretion and sound
+judgment." This was in 1803, when the acquisition of East Louisiana and
+West Florida was a cabinet question. Mr. Lincoln considered that there
+was a difference between a power to acquire territory for the United
+States and the power to extend by treaty the territory of the United
+States, and held that the first was unconstitutional. Mr. Gallatin held
+that the United States as a nation have an inherent right to acquire
+territory, and that, when acquisition is by treaty, the same constituted
+authorities in whom the treaty power is vested have a constitutional
+right to sanction the acquisition, and that when the territory has been
+acquired Congress has the power either of admitting into the Union as a
+new State or of annexing to a State, with the consent of that State, or
+of making regulations for the government of the territory. Mr. Jefferson
+concurred in this opinion, while at the same time he thought it safer
+not to permit the enlargement of the Union except by amendment of the
+Constitution. Mr. Gallatin's view was practically applied in the cases
+named, and later in the annexation of Texas, although he disapproved of
+the latter as contrary to good faith and the law of nations. He advised
+Jefferson, also, not to lay the treaty by which Louisiana was acquired
+before the House until after its ratification by the Senate, taking the
+ground that until then it was not a treaty, and urging that great care
+should be taken to do nothing which might be represented as containing
+any idea of encroachment on the rights of the Senate. He personally
+interested himself in the arrangements for taking possession of New
+Orleans, and, considering the expense as trifling compared with the
+object, urged the dispatch of an imposing force of not less than fifteen
+thousand men, which would add to the opinion entertained abroad of our
+power, resources, and energy; five thousand of these to be active
+troops; ten thousand an enrolled reserve. The acquisition of Louisiana
+was the grand popular feature of the foreign policy of the first term of
+Jefferson's administration. The internal management left much to be
+desired.
+
+While his general views were exalted, and his principles would stand the
+nicest examination in their application, Mr. Jefferson was not fortunate
+in his choice of methods or men. It is not enough for an administration
+to be pure; it should be above suspicion. This his was not. Time has not
+washed out the stain of his intimacy with William Duane, the editor of
+the infamous "Aurora." Citizen Duane, as he styled himself in the first
+days of the administration, quarreled with Gallatin because he would not
+apply the official guillotine, and thereafter pursued him with
+uncompromising hostility. Of favoritism in appointments Mr. Gallatin
+could not be accused. During his twelve years in the Treasury he
+procured places for but two friends; one was given an obscure clerkship
+in the department; the other, John Badollet, was made register in the
+land office at Vincennes, against whom Gallatin said in the application
+for appointment which he reluctantly made, there was but one objection,
+"that of being his personal and college friend."
+
+The dispositions for the sale of lands in the western territory, the
+extinguishment of titles, and the surveys fell under Mr. Gallatin's
+general supervision, and were the objects of his particular care. So
+also was the establishment of the authority of the United States in the
+Louisiana territory. In the course of these arrangements he was brought
+into contact with Mr. Pierre Choteau of St. Louis, who controlled the
+Indian trade of a vast territory. The foundation of an intimate
+acquaintance was then laid. The influence of this remarkable man over
+the Western Indians and the extent of his trading operations with them
+was great, and has never since been equaled. About this period Mr. John
+Jacob Astor informed the government that he had an opportunity, of which
+he intended to take advantage, to purchase one half of the interest of
+the Canadian Fur Company, which, notwithstanding the treaty of 1794,
+engrossed the trade by way of Michilimackinac with our own Indians.
+Before that period this lucrative traffic had been exclusively in
+British hands, and the hostility of the Indian tribes rendered any
+interference in it by Americans dangerous to life and property, and
+their participation since had been merely nominal. Jefferson's cabinet
+received the proposal with satisfaction, but, in their strict
+interpretation of the Constitution, could find no way of giving any aid
+to the scheme beyond the _official_ promise of protection, which it fell
+to Mr. Gallatin to draft. Mr. Jefferson wrote to Mr. Astor a letter to
+the same effect. Mr. Astor, however, was not deterred from his
+enterprise, but, under the charter of the American Fur Company granted
+by the State of New York, extended his project to the Indians west of
+the Rocky Mountains, and made of it an immense business, employing
+several vessels at the mouth of the Columbia River and a large land
+party beyond the Rocky Mountains. He finally founded the establishment
+of Astoria. This settlement fell into the hands of the British during
+the war of 1812. Mr. Astor sought to persuade the American government to
+permit him to renew the establishment at its close, only asking a flag
+and a lieutenant's command, but Mr. Madison would not commit himself to
+the plan.
+
+Among Mr. Jefferson's pet schemes was that of a substitution of gunboats
+for fortifications, and for supporting the authority of the laws within
+harbors. The mind of Mr. Jefferson had no doubt been favorably disposed
+to this mode of offensive defense by the experience of Lafayette at
+Annapolis, in his southern expedition in the spring of 1781, when his
+entire flotilla, ammunition of war, and even the city of Annapolis,
+were saved from destruction by two improvised gunboats, which, armed
+with mortars and hot shot, drove the British blockading vessels out of
+the harbor. Jefferson first suggested the scheme in his annual message
+of 1804, and Gallatin did not interfere; but when, in 1807, the
+President insisted, in a special message, on the building of two hundred
+vessels of this class, Mr. Gallatin objected, because of the expense in
+construction and maintenance, and secondly, of their infallible decay.
+Mr. Jefferson persisted, and Mr. Gallatin's judgment was vindicated by
+the result. Two years later, of one hundred and seventy-six gunboats
+constructed, only twenty-four were in actual service. In his letter of
+criticism, Mr. Gallatin gave as his opinion, that "it would be an
+economical measure for every naval nation to burn their navy at the end
+of a war and to build a new one when again at war, if it was not that
+time was necessary to build ships of war." The principle was the same as
+to gunboats, and the objection of time necessary for building did not
+exist.
+
+This year he also laid before the President a memorandum of preparatory
+measures for defense against Great Britain, from whom an attack was
+expected by land and sea, and a second plan for offensive operations on
+the northern frontier, which is complete in its geographical and
+topographical information, and its estimate of resources in men,
+material, and money. At the same time he urged upon Mr. Jefferson to
+moderate the tone of his message, so as not to widen the breach by
+hurting the pride of Great Britain.
+
+In connection with the land system, Mr. Jefferson favored, and Mr.
+Gallatin devised, an extensive plan of internal improvements. The route
+of the Cumberland road from the Potomac to the Ohio was reported to
+Congress in 1807; a coast survey was ordered in the same year. The first
+superintendent was Hassler, a Swiss, whom Mr. Gallatin brought to the
+notice of Mr. Jefferson. In 1808 a general plan of improvement was
+submitted to the Senate. This included canals parallel with the
+seacoast, making a continuous line of inland navigation from the Hudson
+to Cape Fear; a great turnpike from Maine to Georgia; the improvement of
+the Susquehanna, Potomac, James, and Santee rivers to serve the slope
+from the Alleghanies to the Atlantic; of the Alleghany, Monongahela, and
+Kanawha, to serve the country westward to the Mississippi, the head
+waters of these rivers to be connected by four roads across the
+Appalachian range; a canal at the falls of the Ohio; a connection of the
+Hudson with Lake Champlain, and of the same river with Lake Ontario at
+Oswego; and a canal around Niagara Falls. The entire expense he
+estimated at $20,000,000, to be met by an appropriation of $2,000,000 a
+year for ten years; the stock created for turnpikes and canals to be a
+permanent fund for repairs and improvements.
+
+A national university for education in the higher sciences was also
+recommended by Jefferson in his message of 1806, but Mr. Gallatin had
+little faith in the popularity of this scheme. After the convulsion of
+1794 in Geneva, Gallatin's old college mate, D'Yvernois, conceived the
+plan of transporting the entire University of Geneva to the United
+States, and wrote on the subject to Jefferson and Adams; but his idea
+was based on the supposition that fifteen thousand dollars' income could
+be had from the United States in support of the institution, which was,
+of course, at the time impracticable. Jefferson believed that these
+plans of national improvement could be carried into effect only by an
+amendment to the Constitution; but Mr. Gallatin, as in the bank
+question, was disturbed by no such scruples, and he recommended Mr.
+Jefferson to strike from his message the words "general welfare," as
+questionable in their nature, and because the proposition seemed to
+acknowledge that the words are susceptible of a very dangerous meaning.
+
+To a permanent embargo act Mr. Gallatin was from the beginning opposed.
+He recognized the mischief of government prohibitions, and thought that
+statesmen might well hesitate before they took the hazard of regulating
+the concerns of individuals. The sequel proved the correctness of this
+judgment. But Mr. Jefferson could not bring his mind to any more
+decisive measure, indeed, it may justly be said, to any measure
+whatever. Taking advantage of Mr. Madison's election to the presidency,
+he simply withdrew from the triumvirate, and, passing over the subject
+in silence in his last message, he ignominiously left to Mr. Madison and
+Mr. Gallatin the entire responsibility which the threatening state of
+the foreign relations of the country imposed on the Republican party.
+
+The question was now between the enforcement of the Embargo Act and war.
+To take off the embargo seemed a declaration of weakness. To add to it a
+non-importation clause was the only alternative. In November, 1808, Mr.
+Gallatin prepared for George W. Campbell, chairman of the Committee on
+Foreign Relations of the House, the declaration known as Campbell's
+report, which recited, in clear, compact form, the injuries done to the
+United States by Great Britain, and closed with resolutions to the
+effect that the United States could not submit to the edicts of Great
+Britain and France, and with a recommendation of non-intercourse and for
+placing of the country in a state of defense. After long debate the
+resolutions were adopted by large majorities, and the policy of
+resistance was finally determined upon--resistance, not war. Thus the
+United States resorted, as the colonies had resorted in 1774, to a
+policy of non-importation. But the condition of the States was not that
+of the colonies. Then all the colonies were commercial, and the entire
+population was on the seaboard; the prohibition fell with equal weight
+upon all. Now there were large interior communities whom restrictions
+upon commerce would rather benefit than injure. Yet neither the Sons of
+Liberty nor the non-importation associations had been able to enforce
+their voluntary agreements either before or after the Congress of 1774.
+If this were to be the mode of resistance, stringent measures must be
+adopted to make it effective. Mr. Gallatin accordingly called upon
+Congress for the necessary powers. They at once responded with the
+Enforcement Act, which Mr. Gallatin proceeded to apply with
+characteristic administrative vigor, and summoned Jefferson to authorize
+the collectors of revenue to call the military force of the United
+States to support them in the exercise of their restrictive authority.
+There was to be no evasion under the systems which Hamilton devised and
+Gallatin knew so well how to administer.
+
+His annual report made to Congress on December 10 had clearly set forth
+the situation, and, without recommending war, had pointed out how it
+might be carried on. Macon wrote of him on December 4 to their mutual
+friend, Joseph H. Nicholson, "Gallatin is decidedly for war." After his
+report was sent in the situation became still more perplexing. Rumors
+came of an intention to call a convention of the five New England
+States, with New York, if possible, to take ground against the embargo.
+As these indications of dissatisfaction became manifest, and the
+contingency of the employment of force at home presented itself,
+Gallatin made a careful balance of the advantages and inconveniences of
+embargo, non-intercourse, and letters of marque. This paper, dated
+February, 1809, and entitled, "Notes on the Political Situation," no
+doubt served as a brief for consultation with Madison upon his inaugural
+message, it being then understood that Gallatin was to be secretary of
+state. As he states one of the advantages of letters of marque to be "a
+greater chance of unity at home," this measure he probably preferred.
+The Senate had already, on January 4, passed a bill ordering out the
+entire naval force of the country, and on the 10th the House adopted the
+same bill by a vote of 64 to 59. Mr. Gallatin opposed this action
+strenuously. On February 2 the House voted by a large majority to remove
+the embargo on March 4. Non-intercourse with Great Britain and France
+and trade everywhere else were now the conditions. This significant
+expression of the feeling of Congress no doubt determined Mr. Gallatin
+to suggest letters of marque. Whether he pressed them upon Mr. Madison
+or not is uncertain. Meanwhile Mr. Gallatin suffered the odium of
+opposition to the will of Congress, and Mr. Madison's power was broken
+before he took his seat. A few Republican senators inaugurated an
+opposition to their chief after the fashion of modern days, and Mr.
+Madison was given to understand that Mr. Gallatin would not be confirmed
+if nominated as secretary of state. Mr. Madison yielded to this
+dictation, and from that day forward was, as he deserved to be,
+perplexed and harassed by a petty oligarchy. Mr. John Quincy Adams, in a
+note on this affair, says that, "had Mr. Gallatin been appointed
+secretary of state, it is highly probable war with Great Britain would
+not have taken place." But it is improbable that any step in foreign
+intercourse was taken without Mr. Gallatin's knowledge and approbation.
+Such are the traditions of the triumvirate.
+
+The first term of Madison's administration was not eventful. There was
+discord in the cabinet. In the Senate the "invisibles," as the faction
+which supported Robert Smith, the secretary of state, was aptly termed,
+rejected Madison's nominations and opposed Gallatin's financial policy
+as their interests or whims prompted. Randolph said of Madison at this
+time, that he was "President _de jure_ only." Besides this domestic
+strife, the cabinet was engaged in futile efforts to resist the
+gradually tightening cordon of British aggression. Erskine's amateur
+negotiations, quickly disavowed by the British government, and the short
+and impertinent mission of Jackson, who succeeded him and was dismissed
+from the United States, well served Canning's policy of delay. Madison,
+whose prejudices were as strongly with Englishmen and English ways as
+those of Jefferson were with the men and manners of France, averse to
+war and withheld also by Gallatin's persistent objections, negotiated
+and procrastinated until there was little left to argue about. In
+December, 1809, Macon made an effort to pass a stringent navigation act
+to meet the British Orders in Council and the French decrees. The bill
+passed the House but was emasculated in the Senate, the Republican cabal
+voting with the Federalists to strike out the effective clauses. The act
+interdicting commercial intercourse with Great Britain and France
+expired in May, 1810, and was not revived. A new act was passed, which
+was a virtual surrender of every point in dispute. Resistance was
+abandoned, and our ships and seamen were left to the mercy of both
+belligerents.
+
+Mr. Gallatin's entire energies were bent upon strengthening the Treasury
+and opposing reckless expenditures. His most grievous disappointment,
+however, was in the refusal of Congress to renew the charter of the Bank
+of the United States. He used every possible effort to save this
+institution, which, in the condition of the country, was indispensable
+to a sound currency and the maintenance of specie payment. But with the
+dead weight of Mr. Madison's silence, if not indifference, the struggle
+was unequal and the bank fell. The course of Mr. Madison can hardly be
+excused. Political history records few examples of a more cruel
+desertion of a cabinet minister by his chief. Mr. Gallatin felt it
+deeply and tendered his resignation. The administration was going to
+pieces by sheer incapacity. The leaders took alarm and the cabinet was
+reconstructed, Monroe being called to the Department of State. But the
+enemies of Mr. Gallatin still clung to his skirts, determined to drag
+him to the dust. Duane attacked him in the most dangerous manner.
+Probably no man in America has ever been abused, vilified, maligned with
+such deliberate persistency as was Gallatin in the "Aurora" from the
+beginning of 1811 until the cabinet crisis, when Mr. Madison was
+compelled to choose between Smith and himself. Day after day leaders
+were devoted to personal assault upon him and to indirect insinuations
+of his superiority to Madison, by which the artful editor sought to
+arouse the jealousy of the President. The "Atlas at the side of the
+President," the "Great Treasury Law Giver," the "First Lord of the
+Treasury," the "Dagon of the Philistines," were favorite epithets. He
+was charged by turns with betraying cabinet secrets to Randolph, with
+amateur negotiation with Erskine, and with subserviency to British gold
+in the support of the Bank of the United States. Here is an instance of
+Duane's style: "We can say with perfect conviction that, if Mr. Madison
+suffer this man to lord it over him, Mr. Gallatin will drag him down,
+for no honest man in the country can support an administration of which
+he is a member with consistency or a pure conscience." It was charged
+upon Gallatin that his friends considered him as the real, while Madison
+was the nominal, president. More than this, he was accused of
+embezzlement and enormous speculations in the public lands. Gallatin's
+party pride must have been strong indeed to have induced him to stay an
+hour in an administration which granted its favors to the author of such
+assaults upon one of its chosen leaders.
+
+Jefferson wrote to Mr. Wirt in May following, that, because of the bank,
+endeavors were made to drive from the administration (of Mr. Madison)
+the ablest man, except the President, who ever was in it, and to beat
+down the President himself because he was unwilling to part with such a
+counselor.
+
+Monroe was appointed secretary of state in Smith's place in April, 1811.
+Other changes followed in the cabinet, but brought little relief to Mr.
+Gallatin. Financial affairs now occupied his entire attention; on the
+one hand was a diminishing treasury; on the other an expenditure
+reckless in itself and beyond the demands of the administration. Without
+the sympathy of either the Senate or House, Mr. Gallatin's position
+became daily more irksome, until at last he abandoned all attempt to
+control the drift of party policy, took the war party at their word, and
+sent in to the House a war budget.
+
+Unfortunately for the country, the Republican party knew neither how to
+prepare for war, nor how to keep the peace. Mr. Madison had none of the
+qualifications of a war President; neither executive ability, decision
+of character, nor yet that more important faculty, knowledge of men. In
+his attachment to Mr. Madison and in loyalty to what remained of the
+once proud triumvirate of talent and power, Mr. Gallatin supplied the
+deficiencies of his fellows as best he could, until an offer of
+mediation between the United States and Great Britain on the part of the
+emperor of Russia presented an opportunity for honorable withdrawal and
+service in another and perhaps more congenial field. In March, 1813, the
+Russian minister, in a note to the secretary of state, tendered this
+offer. Mr. Gallatin had completed his financial arrangements for the
+year, and requested Mr. Madison to send him abroad on this mission.
+Unwilling to take the risk of new appointments, the President acceded to
+this proposal, and gave him leave of absence from his post in the
+Treasury. Mr. Gallatin did not anticipate a long absence, and felt, as
+he said to his old friend Badollet, that he could nowhere be more
+usefully employed than in this negotiation. Certainly he could have no
+regret in leaving a cabinet which had so little regard to his own
+feelings and so little political decency as to confer the appointment of
+adjutant-general in the United States army on his malignant assailant,
+William Duane of the "Aurora."
+
+Mr. Gallatin's mission, followed by the resignation of his post in the
+cabinet, finally dissolved the political triumvirate, but not the
+personal friendship of the men. Numerous attempts were made to alienate
+both Jefferson and Madison from Gallatin while he held the portfolio of
+the Treasury, but one and all they signally and ignominiously failed.
+For Mr. Jefferson Mr. Gallatin had a regard near akin to reverence. A
+portrait of the venerable sage was always on his study table. When about
+setting out for France in 1816 he tendered his services to his old chief
+and wrote to him that 'in every country and in all times he should never
+cease to feel gratitude, respect, and attachment for him.' Jefferson
+fully reciprocated this regard. From Monticello he wrote to Gallatin in
+1823: "A visit from you to this place would indeed be a day of jubilee,
+but your age and distance forbid the hope. Be this as it will, I shall
+love you forever, and rejoice in your rejoicings and sympathize in your
+ails. God bless and have you ever in His holy keeping." Nor does Mr.
+Gallatin seem to have allowed any feeling of disappointment or
+dissatisfaction at Mr. Madison's weakness to disturb their kindly
+relations. Their letters close with the reciprocal assurance of
+affection as well as of esteem.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+IN DIPLOMACY
+
+_The Treaty of Ghent_
+
+
+On May 9, 1813, the ship Neptune sailed from New Castle on the Delaware,
+having on board Albert Gallatin and James A. Bayard, ministers of the
+United States, with their four secretaries, of whom were Mr. Gallatin's
+son James, and George M. Dallas, son of his old Pennsylvania friend.
+They were accompanied to sea by a revenue cutter. Off Cape Henlopen they
+were overhauled by the British frigate on the station, and their
+passport was countersigned by the English captain. On June 20 they
+reached the mouth of the river Gotha. Here the vessel lay at quarantine
+for forty-eight hours, during which the gentlemen paid a flying visit to
+Gottenburg. At dusk, on the 24th, the Neptune anchored in Copenhagen
+inner roads, the scene of Nelson's attack in 1801. Mr. Gallatin's brief
+memoranda of his voyage contain some crisp expressions. He found
+"despotism and no oppression. Poverty and no discontent. Civility and no
+servile obsequiousness amongst the people. Decency and sobriety."
+
+St. Petersburg was reached on July 21. Here Gallatin and Bayard found
+John Quincy Adams, then minister to Russia. He was one of the three
+commissioners appointed to treat for peace under the mediation which the
+Emperor Alexander had offered to the United States. Bayard and Adams
+were Federalists. To the moderate counsels of the former Jefferson owed
+his peaceable election. Gallatin and Adams had the advantage of thorough
+acquaintance with European politics. To Gallatin the study of history
+was a passion. He was familiar with the facts and traditions of
+diplomacy. He knew the purpose, the tenor, and the result of every
+treaty made for centuries between the great powers; even their dates
+were at ready command in his wonderful memory. But, excepting the few
+Frenchmen of distinction who in the exile which political revulsions
+imposed upon them had crossed the sea, he had no acquaintance with
+Europeans of high position, and none whatever with the diplomatic
+personnel of European courts. In this Adams was more fortunate. Educated
+abroad, while his father was minister to the court of St. James, he was
+from youth familiar with courts and their ways. To be the son of a
+president of the United States was no small matter at that day. The
+conjunction of these two men was rare. One of European birth and trained
+to American politics, the other of American birth and brought up in the
+atmosphere of European diplomacy. In their natural characteristics they
+were the opposite of one another. Adams was impetuous, overbearing,
+impatient of contradiction or opposition. Gallatin was calm,
+self-controlled, persistent; not jealous of his opinions, but ready to
+yield or abandon his own methods, if those of others promised better
+success; never blinded by passion or prejudice, but holding the end
+always in view. That end was peace; "peace at all times desirable," as
+Mr. Gallatin said a few days before his departure on his mission, but
+much more so, 'because of the incapacity shown in the conduct of the
+war, its inefficiency when compared with its expense, and the open
+hostility to it of a large number of the American people.' In the face
+of the disasters which had befallen the country Mr. Gallatin must have
+felt some qualms of conscience for his persistent opposition to the
+military and naval establishments. Their reorganization had place in his
+desire for peace. He said, May 5, 1813: "Taught by experience, we will
+apply a part of our resources to such naval preparations and
+organization of the public force as will, within less than five years,
+place us in a commanding situation." With the particulars of the dispute
+between the two countries he was perfectly familiar. His report prepared
+in 1808 for Mr. Campbell, chairman of the Committee on Foreign
+Relations, covered the whole ground of the American argument.
+
+At the outset there seemed good ground for hope of an early agreement.
+European politics were at a critical point, and England naturally
+wished to husband her resources for a sudden emergency. The mediation of
+Russia Mr. Gallatin considered a salve to the pride of England. This
+reasoning seemed sound enough, but it had not taken account of one
+important element: the jealousy of England of any outside interference
+between herself and her ancient dependencies. Mr. Gallatin did not hold
+English diplomacy in very high regard. Late in life he said that the
+history of the relations of England and France was a story of the
+triumphs of English arms and of French diplomacy; that England was
+always victorious, but France had as often negotiated her out of the
+fruits of success. True as this remark was in general, it cannot be said
+of the policy of England in American affairs. She pushed to the utmost
+her exclusion of France from the American continent when the States were
+colonies, and now that they were free and independent she would listen
+to no foreign intervention. Neither in peace nor war should any third
+government stand between the two nations. This was and ever has been the
+true policy of Great Britain, and that it was not lost sight of in the
+heat of war is to the credit of her diplomacy. The offer of Russia to
+mediate was not welcome, and was set aside by Lord Castlereagh in a note
+of discouragement. There was no ground for the commissioners to stand
+upon; moreover the emperor and Count Nesselrode were absent from St.
+Petersburg, Count Romanzoff being left in charge of the foreign
+relations. The offer of mediation had originated with him. His policy
+was to curb the maritime power of England, and to secure in the
+negotiation a modification at least of the offensive practice of Great
+Britain in her assumed police of the sea.
+
+The war was in fact a legacy of the necessarily incomplete diplomacy of
+Washington's administration and the Jay treaty. The determining cause
+was the enforcement of the right of search and the impressment of seamen
+from American vessels; a practice at variance with the rights and the
+law of nations. Monroe, Madison's secretary of state, urged the clear
+and distinct forbearance of this British practice as the one object to
+be obtained. An article in the treaty giving security in that respect
+was by Gallatin, as well as by Monroe, considered a _sine qua non_
+condition; while Mr. Bayard viewed an informal arrangement as equally
+efficient and more practicable than a solemn article. But there was no
+doubt of Bayard's determination to reach the result prescribed in their
+instructions.
+
+Mr. Gallatin's first act after setting foot on European shores was to
+write to Baring Brothers & Co. at London. This he did from Gottenburg,
+requesting a passport for the Neptune, which the commission proposed to
+retain at St. Petersburg until their return. At the same time he
+intimated that he wished the British government to be informed of the
+object of the mission. For the expenses of the commission the
+ambassadors had authority to draw on the Barings. The reply of Mr.
+Alexander Baring must at once have opened Mr. Gallatin's eyes to the
+futility of the errand of the commissioners. His words clearly state the
+British grounds of objection: "The mediation of Russia was offered, not
+sought,--it was fairly and frankly accepted,--I do not see how America
+could with any consistency refuse it; but to the eyes of a European
+politician it was clear that such an interference could produce no
+practical benefit. The only question now seriously at issue between us
+is one purely of a domestic nature in each country respectively; no
+foreign government can fairly judge of it." Pointing out the difficulty
+of establishing any distinction between the great masses of the
+seafaring population of Great Britain and America, he finds that no
+other country can judge of the various positions of great delicacy and
+importance which spring from such a state of things; and says: "This is
+not the way for Great Britain and America really to settle their
+disputes; intelligent persons of the two countries might devise mutual
+securities and concessions which perhaps neither country would offer in
+the presence of a third party. It is a sort of family quarrel where
+foreign interference can only do harm and irritate at any time, but more
+especially in the present state of Europe, when attempts would be made
+to make a tool of America." These, he said he had good reason to know,
+were the sentiments of the British cabinet on the question of place of
+negotiation and foreign mediation. He also informed Mr. Gallatin that
+the mediation of Russia had been refused, and that the British
+government would express its desire to treat separately and directly
+either at London or Gottenburg. He warned Mr. Gallatin that an opinion
+prevailed in the British public that the United States were engaged to
+France by a secret political connection, which belief, though perhaps
+not shared by the government, would lead it to consider the persevering
+of the American commission upon bringing the insulated question before
+the powers of the Continent as a touchstone of their sincerity. He hoped
+that the American commissioners would come at once in contact with the
+British ministers, and pointed out the hesitation that every minister
+would feel at giving instructions on a matter so delicate as that
+"involving the rights and duties of sovereign and subject." He then
+declared that there was in England a strong desire for peace and for
+ending a contest in which the "two countries could only tease and weaken
+each other without any practical result," and at a time when England
+desired to carry her resources into the "more important field of
+European contest." He then gave Castlereagh's assurance, that the
+cartel-ship, the Neptune, should be respected, and expressed his own
+personal hope that he should ere long be gratified by seeing it bring,
+with the commissioners, the hope of peace to the shores of England.
+
+Meanwhile Mr. Gallatin was engaged in explaining the American case to
+Romanzoff by conversation and by a written statement of the facts in
+the form of an unofficial note to the emperor. On August 10 word was
+received from the Emperor Alexander authorizing the renewal of the offer
+of mediation; and shortly after a letter from General Moreau, written to
+Mr. Gallatin from the imperial headquarters at Hrushova, assured him of
+his sympathy and assistance. His relations with Gallatin were of long
+standing and of an intimate nature. Moreau, after a long residence in
+America, to which he was warmly attached, had lately crossed the ocean
+and tendered his able sword to the coalition against Bonaparte. He
+informed Gallatin that one of the British ministers had said to him in
+Germany that England would not treat of her maritime rights under any
+mediation. He feared that American vanity would hardly consent to treat
+directly with Great Britain, and foresaw that the political adversaries
+of Madison and Gallatin would blame the precipitation of the United
+States government in sending over the envoys before the adhesion of
+England to the proposed arbitration was secured. He assured Gallatin of
+the interest of the Emperor Alexander in the Americans.
+
+On August 24 Count Romanzoff read to the envoys his dispatch to Count
+Lieven, the Russian minister at London, renewing the offer of mediation.
+The commissioners considering their authority as limited to treating
+under the mediation of Russia, Mr. Gallatin wrote to Monroe, inclosing
+a copy of Baring's letter, which he looked upon as an informal
+communication of the views of the British government, and asked for
+contingent powers and instructions. These they could not expect to
+receive before February. Gallatin replied to Mr. Baring that no
+information of the refusal of Great Britain to the mediation had been
+received, but, even if it had, the commission was not authorized to
+negotiate in any other manner. They were, however, competent to treat of
+commerce without mediation. He declined to discuss the objection of
+Great Britain to the mediation of Russia, confining himself to an
+expression of ignorance in America of any such feeling on the part of
+the British ministry, and of the confidence placed in the personal
+character of the emperor, which was considered a sufficient pledge of
+impartiality; while the selection of a sovereign at war with France was
+clear evidence that America neither had nor wished to have any political
+connection with that power. That he himself believed an arrangement to
+be practicable, he said to Mr. Baring, was evident from the fact that he
+had given up his political existence, and separated himself from his
+family. His opinion was, that while neither nation would be induced to
+abandon its rights or pretensions in the matter of impressment, an
+arrangement might be made by way of experiment which would reserve to
+both their respective abstract rights, real or assumed.
+
+To Moreau he wrote stating his hope that, notwithstanding the first
+objections of Great Britain, the mediation of the emperor would be
+accepted, and he asked the general for his personal interposition to
+this end. France and England he held to be equally at fault in the great
+European contest; the one usurping and oppressing the land, the other
+dominating and tyrannizing the sea. They alone, said he, have gained, if
+not happiness, at least power. Russia, he was firmly persuaded, was the
+only power at heart friendly to America. History has shown the sagacity
+of this judgment. This letter was never answered. Moreau was at death's
+door.
+
+Early in October Mr. Dallas was sent to London to open relations with
+the British ministry. His presence there would save two months at least
+in each correspondence which involved communication between Washington,
+London, and St. Petersburg. Count Romanzoff gave the necessary letter of
+introduction to Count Lieven. Gallatin's instructions to the young
+secretary were explicit as to the caution he should exercise in a
+country where he could consider himself as only on sufferance. Hardly
+were these preliminaries concluded, and Dallas had not started on his
+journey, when Mr. Gallatin received word from America that the Senate
+had refused to confirm him in his position as commissioner. Mr. Gallatin
+had not resigned his position of secretary of the treasury. The Senate
+refused to sanction the cumulative appointment.
+
+Stripped of his official character, he now felt himself at liberty to
+follow his own inclination. His first impulse was to go to London, where
+he was sure that Baring's friendship would open to him a means of
+usefulness in the matter on which he was engaged. The death of Moreau
+cut off the medium of approach to the emperor. This event was of no
+consequence, however, in the negotiation, as the emperor had been
+positively informed in July that England would not countenance even the
+appearance of foreign intervention in her dispute with America. But as
+yet no official information of his rejection had been received by Mr.
+Gallatin, nor did any reach him until March. Without it he could not
+well leave St. Petersburg. Meanwhile a diplomatic imbroglio, caused by
+the failure of the emperor to inform Romanzoff of Castlereagh's second
+refusal to accept the offer of mediation, embarrassed the commission all
+winter. Nor yet were they aware that the British minister, driven to the
+wall by the second offer of the emperor, had made proposals to Monroe to
+treat directly with the United States government. The British note with
+this offer was written on November 4. Mr. Gallatin was apprised of it by
+Mr. Dallas in January, 1814. Mr. Baring urged him, if he should return
+to America during the winter, to take his way through England, as good
+effects might result from even a passing visit. Gallatin was then, as he
+expressed it, "chained for the winter to St. Petersburg," nor had he
+any way of reaching home, except by a cartel from a British port.
+
+No word coming from the emperor, the envoys concluded to withdraw from
+St. Petersburg. Before leaving, Mr. Gallatin addressed a letter of
+thanks to Count Romanzoff, and requested him to communicate any
+information he might receive from the emperor. It was supposed that the
+offer of England to treat directly with America might be inclosed in
+Castlereagh's letter of refusal to accept Russian mediation. On January
+25, 1814, Mr. Gallatin and Mr. Bayard left St. Petersburg and traveled
+by land to Amsterdam, which they reached after a tedious journey on
+March 4. The captain of the Neptune was ordered to bring his vessel to a
+port of Holland. At Amsterdam, where the envoys remained four weeks,
+they learned that Mr. Madison had at once accepted Castlereagh's offer
+and appointed a new commission, consisting of Messrs. Adams, Bayard,
+Henry Clay, and Jonathan Russell. Mr. Gallatin was not included, as he
+was supposed to be on his way home to resume his post in the Treasury
+Department, the duties of which had been performed in his absence by Mr.
+Jones, the secretary of the navy. When correct information did reach Mr.
+Madison, on February 8, he immediately added Mr. Gallatin to the
+commission, and appointed Mr. G. W. Campbell to be secretary of the
+treasury. Thus it happened that Mr. Gallatin, whom Mr. Madison intended
+for the head of the commission, was the last named of those who
+conducted the negotiations.
+
+[Illustration: J. A. Bayard]
+
+On April 1, 1814, Mr. Gallatin concluded to pass through England on his
+return, and leaving orders for the Neptune on its arrival to proceed to
+Falmouth, he took the packet to Harwich, whither he requested Mr. Baring
+to send him the requisite passports to enable him to reach London with
+his suite without delay.
+
+In company with Mr. Bayard, Mr. Gallatin reached the English capital on
+April 9, 1814. There they heard some days later of the arrival of
+Messrs. Clay and Russell at Gottenburg. The situation of Great Britain
+had greatly changed. Intoxicated with the success of their arms and the
+abdication of Napoleon, the English people were quite ready to undertake
+the punishment of the United States, while the release of a large body
+of trained troops in France, Italy, Holland, and Portugal enabled the
+ministry immediately to throw a large force into Canada for the summer
+campaign. In the British cabinet a belief was said to be entertained
+that a continuance of the war would bring about a separation of the
+American Union, and perhaps a return of New England to the mother
+country. In this emergency Gallatin availed himself of the opportunity
+which presented itself of addressing Lafayette in sending to that
+officer the patents for the Louisiana land granted to him by the
+American government, and urged the use of his influence to promote an
+accommodation between England and the United States.
+
+To Clay he wrote on April 22, proposing that the place of negotiation be
+changed from "that corner" Gottenburg, either to London, or some neutral
+place more accessible to the friendly interference of those among the
+European powers upon which they must greatly rely. The Emperor Alexander
+was expected in London, and Castlereagh, who had recently returned from
+France where he had been in direct intercourse with him, was understood
+to be of all the cabinet the best disposed to the United States. From
+Clay Gallatin heard in reply that the British _charge d'affaires_ at
+Stockholm had already asked the sanction of the Swedish government to
+the negotiation at Gottenburg. While Clay was unwilling to go to London
+he gave his consent to carry on the negotiations in Holland, if the
+arrangement could be made in such a manner as to avoid any ill feeling
+at the Swedish court by the change from Gottenburg. In May Gallatin and
+Bayard asked of Monroe, who was then secretary of state, authority for
+the commissioners to remove the negotiation to any place which their
+judgment should prefer. In May, also, the British government was
+officially notified by the American commissioners of their appointment.
+Lord Bathurst answered with an assurance that commissioners would be
+forthwith appointed for Great Britain, and with a proposal of Ghent as
+the place for negotiation. This was at once acceded to.
+
+Meanwhile Mr. Crawford, the United States minister at Paris, was
+endeavoring, at the instance of Mr. Gallatin, to secure the friendly
+interposition of the Emperor Alexander, not as a mediator, but as a
+common friend and in the interest of peace to the civilized world.
+Crawford was unable to obtain an audience of the emperor, or even an
+interview with Count Nesselrode, but Lafayette took up the cause with
+his hearty zeal for everything that concerned the United States, and, in
+a long interview with the emperor at the house of Madame de Stael,
+submitted to him the view taken by the United States of the controversy,
+and obtained from him his promise to exert his personal influence with
+the British government on his arrival at London. Baron von Humboldt, the
+Prussian minister at Paris, who had been influenced by British
+misrepresentation, was also won over by Lafayette, and now tendered his
+services to Mr. Gallatin in any way in which he might be made useful.
+Lafayette's letter was brought by Humboldt in person. Gallatin and
+Humboldt had met in 1804, when the great traveler passed through
+Washington on his return from Peru and Mexico.
+
+The Treaty of Paris having been signed, Lord Castlereagh reached London
+early in June, and the emperor arrived a few days later. Mr. Gallatin
+had an audience of the emperor on June 17, and on the 19th submitted an
+official statement of the American case and an appeal for the
+interposition of his imperial majesty, "the liberator and pacifier of
+Europe." From the interview Mr. Gallatin learned that the emperor had
+made three attempts in the interest of peace, but that he had no hope
+that his representations had been of any service. England would not
+admit a third party to interfere, and he thought that, with respect to
+the conditions of peace, the difficulty would be with England and not
+with America.
+
+On June 13 Gallatin warned Monroe of the preparations England was making
+which would enable her to land fifteen to twenty thousand men on the
+Atlantic coast; that the capture of Washington and New York would most
+gratify the British people, and that no help need be expected from the
+countries of Europe, all which were profoundly desirous of peace.
+
+The ministry informing Mr. Gallatin that the British commissioners would
+start for Ghent on July 1, he improved the interval by a visit to Paris.
+He left London, where he had passed nearly three months in the uncertain
+preliminaries of negotiation, and after a few days in the French capital
+reached Ghent on July 6. The British commissioners only appeared on
+August 6. They were Lord Gambier, Henry Goulburn, and William Adams, all
+second-rate men, but for this reason suited to the part they had to
+play. After the overturn of Napoleon the British cabinet had no desire
+for peace, or at least not until they had secured by war some material
+advantages in the United States, which a treaty would confirm. The
+business of their representatives at Ghent was to make exorbitant
+demands of the Americans and delay negotiations pending the military
+operations in progress.
+
+In June Gallatin was satisfied of the general hostile spirit of Great
+Britain and of its wish to inflict serious injury on the United States.
+He notified Monroe of his opinion and warned him that the most favorable
+terms to be expected were the _status ante bellum_, and not certainly
+that, unless the American people were united and the country able to
+stand the shock of the campaign. Mr. Madison's administration had
+already humbled itself to an abandonment, or at least to an adjournment,
+of the principle to establish which they had resorted to arms. But in
+the first stages of the negotiation it was clear that the British
+cabinet had more serious and dangerous objects in view, and looked
+beyond aggression and temporary injury to permanent objects. At the
+first meeting on August 8, the British commissioners demanded, as a
+preliminary to any negotiation, that the United States should set apart
+to the Indian tribes the entire territory of the Northwest to be held by
+them forever in sovereignty under the guaranty of Great Britain. The
+absurdity of such a demand is sufficient evidence that it was never
+seriously entertained. There could have been no idea that the military
+power of Great Britain was able to enforce, or that the United States
+would abjectly submit to, such a mutilation of its territory and such a
+limitation of its expansion. Behind this cover Mr. Gallatin
+instinctively detected the real design of the cabinet to be the conquest
+of New Orleans and the mouths of the Mississippi. If to the territory
+thus acquired that of Florida should be added by cession from Spain,
+which could hardly refuse any compensation asked of her by Great Britain
+in return for the liberation of the Peninsula, a second British dominion
+would be set up on the American continent. These views Gallatin
+communicated to Monroe in a private dispatch of August 20, 1814, by the
+hands of Mr. Dallas. To the _sine qua non_ of the British commissioners
+no answer was made by the Americans. The negotiation was abruptly
+suspended, and only by informal conversation was Mr. Goulburn given to
+understand that reference had been had to America for instructions. Mr.
+Gallatin was of opinion that the negotiations were at an end, and in his
+despair of peace took consolation in the belief that the insolence of
+the demand would unite America from Maine to Georgia in defense of her
+rights, of her territory, and indeed of her independence. The American
+commissioners made no secret of their belief that their mission was
+closed. Two of the secretaries started from Ghent on a continental tour,
+and notice was given to the landlord of the house where the
+commissioners resided of their intention to quit it on October 1. On
+August 2, while matters were still at this deadlock, Lord Castlereagh
+passed through Ghent on his way to the Congress at Vienna. Goulburn was
+ordered to change his tone and Lord Liverpool was advised to moderate
+his demands; to use Castlereagh's words, to "a letting down of the
+question." Lord Liverpool replied on September 2, that he had already
+given Goulburn to understand that the commission had taken a very
+erroneous view of British policy. In this communication he betrays the
+hope, which the cabinet had entertained, of the outcome of American
+dissensions, by his expression of the opinion that if the negotiation
+had broken off on the notes already presented by the British commission,
+or the answer that the Americans were disposed to make, the war would
+have become popular in America.
+
+Lord Bathurst reopened the negotiations, but his modification was of
+tone rather than of matter. The surrender of the control of the Lakes to
+Great Britain, and of the Northwest Territory to the Indians, was still
+adhered to. The reply of the American commissioners was drawn chiefly by
+Mr. Gallatin. It absolutely rejected the proposals respecting the
+boundary and the military flag on the Lakes, and refused even to refer
+them to the American government, but offered to pursue the negotiation
+on the other points. To Monroe Mr. Gallatin explained his reason for
+assenting to discuss the Indian article, and therein his colleagues
+concurred with him, to be: that they had little hope of peace, but
+thought it desirable, if there were to be a breach, that it should be on
+other grounds than that of Indian pacification. The reply of the
+commission on this point, also drafted by Mr. Gallatin, was sent in on
+September 26. It merely guaranteed the Indians in all their old rights,
+privileges, and possessions.
+
+The destruction of the public buildings at Washington by the British
+troops, known in London on October 1, caused a great sensation in
+England. As Gallatin said in a letter to Madame de Stael, it was "an act
+of vandalism to which no parallel could be found in the twenty years of
+European war from the frontiers of Russia to Paris, and from those of
+Denmark to Naples." "Was it (he asked), because, with the exception of a
+few cathedrals, England had no public buildings comparable to them, or
+was it to console the London mob for their disappointment that Paris was
+neither pillaged nor burned?" It can hardly be doubted that the flames
+which consumed the American capital lighted the way to peace. The
+atrocity of war was again brought vividly to the view of nations whose
+sole yearning was for peace. Far from discouraging the American
+commissioners, it fortified their resolution. They knew that it would
+unite the people of the States as one man. It in no way disturbed
+Gallatin's confidence either in the present or future of his adopted
+country. To those who asked his opinion of the securities of the United
+States, he said: "If I have not wholly misunderstood America, its
+resources and its political morality, I am not wrong in the belief that
+its public funds are more secure than those of all European powers."
+
+In spite of the protests of Mr. Goulburn, who felt the ground on which
+he stood daily less stable, and in his letters to his chief was
+unsparing in his denunciations, Lord Liverpool accepted the proposed
+settlement of the Indian question. Nothing remained but to incorporate
+in a treaty form the points agreed upon. Lord Bathurst, who seems
+throughout the negotiation to have forgotten the old adage, that "fine
+words butter no parsnips," and with true British blindness never to have
+appreciated how thoroughly he was overmatched by Mr. Gallatin, submitted
+a preliminary notification that the British terms would be based on the
+principle of _uti possidetis_, which involved a rectification of the
+boundaries on the Canadian frontier. To this the Americans returned a
+peremptory refusal. They would not go one step farther except on the
+basis of the _status quo ante bellum_. Lord Liverpool considered this as
+conclusive. A vigorous prosecution of the war was resolved upon by the
+cabinet. Only for reasons of expediency was a show of negotiation still
+kept up.
+
+But when the cabinet took a survey of the general field they felt little
+complacency in the prospect of a struggle which sooner or later must
+interest the maritime powers. France, compelled by the peace of Vienna
+to withdraw from what even Lafayette considered as her natural frontier,
+was restive, and there was a large party in Russia who would gladly see
+the emperor take up the American cause. Moreover the chancellor of the
+exchequer saw before him an inevitable addition of ten millions of
+pounds sterling to his budget, the only avowable reason for which was
+the rectification of the Canadian frontier. In their distress the
+cabinet proposed to Wellington to go to the United States with the
+olive-branch and the sword, to negotiate or conquer a peace. The desire
+of the cabinet to bring the war to an honorable conclusion was avowed.
+But Wellington, before accepting this proposal, gave Lord Liverpool a
+very frank opinion of the mistake made in exacting territorial
+concessions, since the British held no territory of the United States in
+other than temporary possession, and had no right to make any such
+demand. Lord Liverpool was not tenacious. He was never, he wrote Lord
+Bathurst, much inclined to give way to the Americans, but the cabinet
+felt itself compelled to withdraw from its extreme ground. He accepted
+his defeat and acknowledged it.
+
+The Americans meanwhile arranged a draft of a treaty. The articles on
+impressment and other maritime rights, absolutely rejected by the
+British, were set aside. There only remained the question of the
+boundaries, the fisheries, and the navigation of the Mississippi. Here
+Mr. Gallatin had as much difficulty in maintaining harmony between Adams
+and Clay as in obtaining a peace from Liverpool and Bathurst. Adams was
+determined to save the fisheries; Clay would not hear of opening the
+Mississippi to British vessels. A compromise was effected by which it
+was agreed that no allusion should be made to either subject. Mr.
+Gallatin terminated the dispute by adding a declaration that the
+commissioners were willing to sign a treaty applying the principle of
+the _status quo ante bellum_ to _all_ the subjects of difference. This
+was in strict conformity with the instructions from the home government.
+On November 10 the American draft was sent in. On the 25th the British
+replied with a counter-draft which made no allusion to the fisheries,
+but stipulated for the free navigation of the Mississippi. The Americans
+replied that they would give up the navigation of the river for a
+surrender of the fisheries. This proposal was at once refused by the
+British. The matter was settled by an offer of the Americans to
+negotiate under a distinct reservation of all American rights. All
+stipulations on either subject were in the end omitted, the British
+government on December 22 withdrawing the article referring to these
+points. In the course of the negotiation Mr. Gallatin proposed that in
+case of a future war both nations should engage never to employ the
+savages as auxiliaries, but this article does not appear. To the credit
+of civilization, however, the last article contained a mutual engagement
+to put an end to the trade in slaves. An agreement entered into in
+perfect faith, but which the jealousy of the exercise of search in any
+form rendered nugatory for half a century. On Christmas day the treaty
+was signed. Mr. Henry Adams[19] justly says, "Far more than
+contemporaries ever supposed, or than is now imagined, the Treaty of
+Ghent was the special work and the peculiar triumph of Mr. Gallatin."
+His own correspondence shows how admirably he was constituted for the
+nice work of diplomatic negotiation. In the self-poise which he
+maintained in the most critical situations, the unerring sagacity with
+which he penetrated the purposes of his adversaries, the address with
+which he soothed the passions and guided the judgments of his
+colleagues, it is impossible to find a single fault. If he had a fault,
+says his biographer, it was that of using the razor when he would have
+done better with the axe. But the axe is not a diplomatic weapon. The
+simulation of temper may serve an occasional purpose, but temper itself
+is a mistake; and to Mr. Gallatin's credit be it said, it was a mistake
+never committed by him in the course of this long and sometimes painful
+negotiation. Looking back upon its shifting scenes, it is clear that
+even the pertinacity of Adams and the irascibility of Clay served to
+advance the purpose of the mission. From the first to the last Mr.
+Gallatin had his own way, not because it was his own way, but because it
+was the best way and was so recognized by the majority of the commission
+at every turn of difference. Fortunately for the interests of peace the
+battle of New Orleans had not yet been fought. There seems a justice in
+this final act of the war. The British attack upon the Chesapeake[20]
+was committed before war had been declared. The battle of New Orleans
+was fought a fortnight after the Treaty of Ghent was signed. The burning
+of Washington was avenged by the most complete defeat which the British
+had ever encountered in their long career of military prowess.
+
+By his political life Mr. Gallatin acquired an American reputation; by
+his management of the finances of the United States he placed himself
+among the first political economists of the day; but his masterly
+conduct of the Treaty of Ghent showed him the equal of the best of
+European statesmen on their own peculiar ground of diplomacy. No one of
+American birth has ever rivaled him in this field. Europeans recognized
+his pre-eminent genius. Sismondi praised him in a public discourse.
+Humboldt addressed him as his illustrious friend. Madame de Stael
+expressed to him her admiration for his mind and character. Alexander
+Baring gave him more than admiration, his friendship.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Upon the separation of the commissioners, Mr. Gallatin paid a flying
+visit to Geneva. His fame, or "glory," to use the words of Humboldt,
+preceded him. Of his old intimates, Serre was under the sod in a West
+Indian island; Badollet was leading a quiet life at Vincennes in the
+Indiana Territory, where Gallatin had obtained for him an appointment in
+the land office; Dumont was in England. Of Gallatin's family few
+remained. But he received the honors due to him as a Genevan who had
+shed a lustre on his native city. On his way to England, where he had
+made an appointment with his colleagues to attempt a commercial treaty
+with Great Britain, he stopped at Paris. Here he saw Napoleon, returned
+from Elba, his star in full blaze before its final extinction. Here he
+heard in April (1815) of his appointment by Madison as minister to
+France. His colleagues also had been honored by similar advancements.
+Adams was transferred from Russia to England. Bayard was named minister
+to Russia, but illness prevented his taking possession of his post.
+
+In April, Mr. Gallatin and Mr. Clay opened negotiations with Lord
+Castlereagh in London, where they were quickly joined by Adams. Lord
+Castlereagh bore no malice against Mr. Gallatin for the treaty. On the
+contrary, he wrote of it to Lord Liverpool as "a most auspicious and
+seasonable event," and wished him joy at "being released from the
+millstone of an American war." With Lord Castlereagh Mr. Gallatin
+arranged in the course of the summer a convention regulating commercial
+intercourse between the United States and Great Britain, the only truly
+valuable part of which was that which abolished all discriminating
+duties. Mr. Gallatin considered this concession as an evidence of
+friendly disposition, and rightly judged that British antipathy and
+prejudice were modified, and that in the future friendly relations would
+be preserved and a rupture avoided. Beyond this, there was little
+gained. The old irritating questions of impressment and blockade and the
+exclusion of the United States from the West Indies trade remained.
+
+In July Mr. Gallatin parted from Mr. Baring and his London friends on
+his homeward journey. From New York, on September 4, he wrote Madison,
+thanking him for the appointment of minister to France as an "evidence
+of undiminished attachment and of public satisfaction for his services;"
+but he still held his acceptance in abeyance. To Jefferson, two days
+later, he had also the satisfaction to say with justice, that the
+character of the United States stood as "high as ever it did on the
+European continents, and higher than ever it did in Great Britain;" and
+that the United States was considered "as the nation designed to check
+the naval despotism of England." To Jefferson he naturally spoke of that
+France from which they had drawn some of their inspirations and their
+doctrines.
+
+He thus describes the condition of the people:--
+
+     "The revolution (the political change of 1789) has not, however,
+     been altogether useless. There is a visible improvement in the
+     agriculture of the country and the situation of the peasantry. The
+     new generation belonging to that class, freed from the petty
+     despotism of nobles and priests, and made more easy in their
+     circumstances by the abolition of tithes, and the equalization of
+     taxes, have acquired an independent spirit, and are far superior to
+     their fathers in intellect and information; they are not
+     republicans and are still too much dazzled by military glory; but I
+     think that no monarch or ex-nobles can hereafter oppress them long
+     with impunity."
+
+And again, "Exhausted, degraded, and oppressed as France now is, I do
+not despair of her ultimate success in establishing her independence and
+a free form of government." But it was not till half a century later
+that Gambetta, the Mirabeau of the Republic, led France to the full
+possession of her material forces, and reestablished in their original
+vigor the principles of 1789. That Gallatin was not blinded by
+democratic prejudices appears in the letter he wrote to Lafayette after
+Napoleon's abdication, in which he said: "My attachment to the form of
+government under which I was born and have ever lived never made me
+desirous that it should, by way of experiment, be applied to countries
+which might be better fitted for a limited monarchy."
+
+
+_Minister to France_
+
+Strange as it appears, there is no doubt that Mr. Gallatin was at this
+time heartily weary of political life, and seriously contemplated a
+permanent retirement to the banks of the Monongahela. He naturally
+enough declined a nomination to Congress, which was tendered him by the
+Philadelphia district. His tastes were not for the violence and
+turbulence of the popular house.
+
+Madison left him full time to decide whether he could arrange his
+private affairs so as to accept the mission to Paris. In November he
+positively declined. He considered the compensation as incompetent to
+the support of a minister in the style in which he was expected to live.
+His private income was at this time about twenty-five hundred dollars a
+year. Monroe pressed him earnestly not to quit the public service, but
+the year closed and Mr. Gallatin had not made up his mind. In the
+situation of France, which he considered "would under her present
+dynasty be for some years a vassal of her great rival," he did not
+consider the mission important, and his private fortune was limited to a
+narrow competence. "I do not wish," he wrote to Monroe, "to accumulate
+any property. I will not do my family the injury of impairing the little
+I have. My health is frail; they may soon lose me, and I will not leave
+them dependent on the bounty of others." But being again earnestly
+pressed, he on January 2, 1816, accepted the appointment. To Jefferson
+he wrote that he would not conceal 'that he did not feel yet old enough
+nor had philosophy enough to go into retirement and abstract himself
+wholly from public affairs.'
+
+In April, Madison notified Mr. Gallatin of Dallas's probable retirement
+from the Treasury, and offered him the post if he cared to return to it.
+He was perfectly aware of his supreme fitness for the direction of the
+Treasury, and he declined with reluctance, because he was disturbed by
+the suspension of specie payments. Remembering Madison's weakness in
+1812 on the subject of the renewal of the bank charter, which Gallatin
+considered necessary in the situation of the finances, he could hardly
+have felt a desire to return to the cabinet in that or indeed in any
+other capacity. He was perfectly conscious that as leader of the House
+of Representatives, as secretary of the treasury, and as negotiator of
+the Ghent treaty, he had brought into the triumvirate all its practical
+statesmanship. His short career abroad had opened to him a new source of
+intellectual pleasure. He had earned a right to some hours of ease.
+Diplomacy at that period, when communication was uncertain and
+difficult, was perforce less restricted than in these latter days, when
+ambassadors are little more than foreign clerks of the State Department
+without even the freedom of a chief of bureau. Gallatin felt entirely at
+home, and was happy in this peculiar sphere. There was no time in his
+life when he would not have gladly surrendered all political power for
+the enjoyment of intellectual ease, the pursuit of science, and the
+atmosphere of society of the higher order of culture in whatever field.
+And Paris was then, as it is still, the centre of intellectual and
+social civilization.
+
+Jefferson rejoiced in Gallatin's appointment to France, and rightly
+judged that he would be of great service there. Of Louis XVIII.,
+however, Jefferson had a poor opinion. He thought him 'a fool and a
+bigot, but, bating a little duplicity, honest and meaning well.'
+Jefferson could give Gallatin no letters. He had 'no acquaintances left
+in France; some were guillotined, some fled, some died, some are exiled,
+and he knew of nobody left but Lafayette.' With Destutt de Tracy, an
+intimate friend of Lafayette, Jefferson was in correspondence. Indeed,
+he was engaged on the translation of Tracy's work on political economy,
+the best, in Jefferson's opinion, that had ever appeared.[21]
+
+Gallatin reached Paris with his family on July 9, 1816, and had an
+interview with the Duc de Richelieu, the minister of Louis XVIII., two
+days later. The conversation turned upon the sympathy for Bonaparte in
+the United States, which Richelieu could not understand; but Gallatin
+explained that it was not extended to him as the despot of France, but
+as the most formidable enemy of England. Richelieu warned him of the
+prejudices which might be aroused against the reigning family 'by
+ex-kings and other emigrants of the same description' who had lately
+removed to the United States. This was an allusion to Jerome, who had
+fled from the throne of Westphalia to the banks of the Delaware. The
+king gave Gallatin an audience on the 11th, when he presented his
+credentials. His reception both by his majesty and the princes was, he
+wrote to Monroe, "what is called gracious." Louis the Eighteenth was a
+Bourbon to the ends of his fingers. He had the _bonhommie_ dashed with
+malice which characterized the race. None could better appreciate than
+he the vein of good-natured satire, the acquired tone of French society,
+which was to Mr. Gallatin a natural gift. Mr. Gallatin was not only
+kindly but familiarly received at court; and at the _petits soupers_,
+which were the delight of the epicurean king, his majesty on more than
+one occasion shelled the crawfish for the youthful daughter of the
+republican ambassador. An anecdote is preserved of the king's courteous
+malice. To a compliment paid Mr. Gallatin on his French, the king added,
+"but I think my English is better than yours."
+
+Gallatin's first negotiations were to obtain indemnity for the captures
+under the Berlin and Milan decrees; but although the Duc de Richelieu
+never for a moment hinted that the government of the Restoration was not
+responsible for the acts of Napoleon, yet he stated that the mass of
+injuries for which compensation was demanded by other governments was so
+great that indemnity must be limited to the most flagrant cases. They
+would pay for vessels burnt at sea, but would go no farther. In spite of
+Mr. Gallatin's persistency no advance was made in the negotiation. A
+minor matter gave him some annoyance. On July 4, 1816, at a public
+dinner, the postmaster at Baltimore proposed a toast which, by its
+disrespect, gave umbrage to the king. Hyde de Neuville, the French
+minister to the United States, demanded the dismissal of the offender.
+If our institutions and habits as well as public opinion had not
+forbidden compliance with this request, the dictatorial tone of De
+Neuville was sufficient bar. Richelieu could not be made to understand
+the reason for the refusal, and while disclaiming any idea of using
+force, said that the government would show its dissatisfaction in its
+own way. This seemed to intimate an indefinite postponement of a
+consideration of American demands, and would have rendered Mr.
+Gallatin's further residence useless as well as unpleasant; but French
+dignity got the better of what Gallatin termed, "the sickly
+sentimentality which existed on the subject of personal abuse of the
+king," and the insignificant incident was not allowed to interfere with
+friendly intercourse.
+
+In 1817 Mr. Gallatin was engaged not only in advising Mr. Adams at
+London upon the points of a commercial treaty with Great Britain, but
+also, together with Mr. William Eustis, minister to the Netherlands, in
+a negotiation with that government.
+
+The commission met at the Hague, Mr. Goldberg and Mr. Van der Kemp
+representing Holland. The subjects were the treaty of 1782 between the
+States-general of the Netherlands and the United States, the repeal of
+discriminating duties, and the participation of the United States in the
+trade with the Dutch East Indies. The basis of a treaty could not be
+agreed upon, and the whole matter was referred back to the two
+governments, the American commissioners recommending to the President a
+repeal of duties discriminating against vessels of the Netherlands,
+which would no doubt prevent future exaction of extra tonnage duties
+imposed on American vessels by that government. These negotiations
+occupied the late summer months. At the end of September Mr. Gallatin
+was again at his post in Paris.
+
+In June, 1818, Mr. Richard Rush, who owed his introduction into public
+life to Mr. Gallatin, was appointed minister to England, Adams returning
+to the United States to take the portfolio of State in President
+Monroe's cabinet. Gallatin was joined to Rush, for the conduct of
+negotiations with Great Britain, rendered necessary by the approaching
+expiration of the commercial convention of July 3, 1815, which had been
+limited to four years. The general field of disputed points was again
+entered. It included the questions of impressment, the fisheries, the
+boundaries, and indemnity for slaves. The commissioners were supported
+by a temper of the American people different from that which prevailed
+when Jay and Gallatin respectively undertook the delicate work of
+negotiation in 1794 and 1814. A compromise was arrived at, which was
+signed on October 20, 1818. The articles on maritime rights and
+impressment were set aside. A convention was made for ten years in
+regard to the fisheries, the northwest boundary, and other points, and
+the commercial convention of 1815 was renewed. The English claim to the
+navigation of the Mississippi was finally disposed of, and the article
+concerning the West India trade was referred to the President. The
+arrangement of the fishery question disturbed Mr. Gallatin, who found
+himself compelled to sign an agreement which left the United States in a
+worse situation in that respect than before the war of 1812. But as the
+British courts would certainly uphold the construction by their
+government of the treaty of 1783, our vessels, when seized, would be
+condemned and a collision would immediately ensue. This, and the
+critical condition of our Spanish relations, left no choice between
+concession and war. A short time afterward Lord Castlereagh and the Duke
+of Wellington expressed friendly dispositions, and the mooted points of
+impressment and the West India trade were considered by them to be near
+an arrangement. The right of British armed vessels to examine American
+crews was abandoned in the convention itself.
+
+In July, 1818, the capture of Fort St. Mark and the occupation of
+Pensacola in Florida by General Jackson made some stir in the quiet
+waters of our foreign diplomacy. Uncertain as to whether the act would
+be disavowed or justified by the American government, Mr. Gallatin
+explained to the European ministers that the forcible occupation of the
+Spanish province was an act of self-defence and protection against the
+Indians, but Richelieu replied that the United States "had adopted the
+game laws and pursued in foreign ground what was started in its own."
+Yet, to the astonishment of Mr. Gallatin, Richelieu was moderate and
+friendly in language, and urged a speedy amicable arrangement of
+differences with Spain, in whose affairs France took an interest, and
+who had asked her good offices. But Gallatin at once rejected any idea
+that the United States would join France in any mediation between Spain
+and her revolted colonies. It seems rather singular that, to the
+suggestion that a Spanish prince might be sent over to America as an
+independent monarch, Gallatin contented himself with expressing a doubt
+as to the efficacy of such a course to preserve their independence. Mr.
+Adams was informed that public recognition of the independence of the
+insurgent colony of Buenos Ayres would shock the feelings and prejudices
+of the French ministers, but that notwithstanding this displeasure,
+France would not join Spain in a war on this account. England, however,
+would see such a war without regret, and privateers under Spanish
+commissions would instantly be fitted out, both in France and England.
+Under the existing convention with Great Britain three hundred American
+vessels arrived at Liverpool in the first nine months of 1818 from the
+United States and only thirty English, an advantage to the United States
+which war would at once destroy. Russia also was displeased with the
+recognition of the independence of the Spanish colonies. At the Congress
+of Aix la Chapelle various plans of mediation were proposed, but England
+refusing to engage to break off all commercial relations with such of
+the insurgent colonies as should reject the proposals agreed to, the
+whole project was abandoned. An agreement between the five great powers
+for the suppression of the slave trade was also proposed at this
+Congress, but France declined to recognize the right to visit French
+vessels in time of peace, and Russia making a similar declaration, this
+plan also fell to the ground, and even an association against the
+exactions of the Barbary powers was prevented by jealousy of the naval
+preponderance of Great Britain.
+
+While Mr. Gallatin was still actively engaged in an endeavor to put our
+commercial relations with France on a satisfactory basis, and
+negotiating with M. Pasquier, the new French minister for foreign
+affairs, both with regard to indemnities for captures and the new
+Spanish relations involved in the cession of Florida to the United
+States, a serious trouble arose in which Mr. Gallatin and Mr. Adams
+were at direct difference. In the spring of 1821 a French vessel, the
+Apollon, was seized on the St. Mary's River, on the Spanish side, and
+condemned for violation of the United States navigation laws. Mr. Adams
+sustained the seizure and Mr. Gallatin did his best to defend it, on the
+ground that the place where the vessel was seized was embraced in the
+occupation of the United States. To Adams he wrote that the doctrine
+assumed by the State Department with respect to the non-ratified treaty
+with Spain was not generally admitted in Europe, and that "he thought it
+equally dangerous and inconsistent with our general principles to assert
+that we had a right to seize a vessel for any cause short of piracy in a
+place where we did not previously claim jurisdiction." Mr. Gallatin
+succeeded in satisfying M. Pasquier that the seizure was not in
+violation of the law of nations or an insult to the French flag, and the
+captain having instituted a suit for redress against the seizing
+officers, the French minister allowed the matter to rest. Adams,
+however, was indignant at having his arguments set aside. He complained
+of it to Calhoun, and asked what Mr. Gallatin meant. Calhoun answered
+that perhaps it was "the pride of opinion." But when Adams got to his
+diary, which was the safety-valve of his ill-temper, he set a black mark
+against Mr. Gallatin's name in these words: "Gallatin is a man of
+first-rate talents, conscious and vain of them, and mortified in his
+ambition, checked as it has been, after attaining the last step to the
+summit; timid in great perils, tortuous in his paths; born in Europe,
+disguising and yet betraying a superstitious prejudice of European
+superiority of intellect, and holding principles pliable to
+circumstances, occasionally mistaking the left for the right handed
+wisdom." Against this judgment, Gallatin's estimate of Adams may be here
+set down. It was expressed to his intimate friend Badollet in 1824:
+"John Q. Adams is a virtuous man, whose temper, which is not the best,
+might be overlooked; he has very great and miscellaneous knowledge, and
+he is with his pen a powerful debater; but he wants, to a deplorable
+degree, that most essential quality, a sound and correct judgment. Of
+this I have had in my official connection and intercourse with him
+complete and repeated proofs; and although he may be useful when
+controlled and checked by others, he ought never to be trusted with a
+place where, unrestrained, his errors might be fatal to the country."
+Crawford complained of the difficulty he encountered in the cabinet of
+softening the asperities which invariably predominated in the official
+notes of the State Department while under Adams's direction, and said
+that, had they been allowed to remain as originally drafted, the
+government would have been "unembarrassed by diplomatic relations with
+more than one power." But it must be remembered that there was no love
+lost between Adams and Crawford--political rivals and not personal
+friends.
+
+The commercial negotiations, and the discussion of French pretensions
+under the eighth article of the Louisiana treaty, opened with M.
+Pasquier, were continued with the Vicomte de Montmorenci, who succeeded
+him as minister of foreign affairs. In September, 1821, Mr. Gallatin had
+communicated to Mr. Adams his intention of returning home in the spring;
+but there appearing a chance of success in the negotiation of a treaty,
+he wrote in February, 1822, to President Monroe that if no successor had
+been appointed, he was desirous to remain some time longer. He was loath
+to return without having succeeded in any one subject intrusted to his
+care. Meanwhile Mr. Adams and M. de Neuville, the French minister, had
+been busy in the United States. A commercial convention was signed at
+Washington on June 24, 1822. Concerning this agreement Mr. Gallatin
+wrote to Adams that the terms were much more favorable to France than he
+had been led to presume would be acceded to, and more so than had been
+hoped for by the French government. He nevertheless expressed the wish
+that, as it had been signed, it should be ratified, in anticipation that
+the superior activity of our ship-owners and seamen would enable America
+to stand the competition.
+
+In January, 1823, Montmorenci resigned and was succeeded by M. de
+Chateaubriand. The change of ministers made no change in the French
+persistence in connecting the discussion of the American claims with
+that of the eighth article of the Louisiana treaty, an arrangement to
+which Mr. Gallatin would not consent. As a last resort he so informed M.
+de Chateaubriand, but receiving an unsatisfactory answer he concluded
+that there was at that time no disposition in France to do us justice;
+and as his protracted stay could be of no service to the United States,
+he determined to return home in the course of the spring. In April he
+received leave of absence from the President. On May 13 he had a final
+conference with Chateaubriand, in which he could get no promise of any
+redress, but did obtain the explicit declaration that France would in no
+manner interfere in American questions.
+
+Mr. Gallatin took passage at Havre, and arrived in New York on June 24,
+1823. His political friends, especially Crawford, were eager for his
+return. Crawford wished him to stand for vice-president in the coming
+presidential campaign. After a short visit to Washington he went to his
+home at New Geneva. The real value of perfect public service, or indeed
+of any service, is only appreciated when it ceases, and friction takes
+the place of smooth and noiseless order. Hardly was Mr. Gallatin settled
+at Friendship Hill when a letter from President Monroe (October 15)
+arrived, urging him to return to Paris, if only for the winter, or until
+the crisis brought on by the rupture between France and Spain should be
+over. Mr. Gallatin replied, that the deranged state of his private
+affairs rendered his return to Europe extremely improbable.
+
+Goethe says in his "Elective Affinities" that we cannot escape the
+atmosphere we breathe. The natural atmosphere of Mr. Gallatin was public
+life. In November, 1825, Mr. Clay, Adams's secretary of state, offered,
+and, meeting a refusal, pressed upon Mr. Gallatin the post of
+representative of the United States at the proposed Congress of American
+Republics at Panama. Mr. Clay was right in considering it the most
+important mission ever sent from the United States, and had Mr. Gallatin
+accepted it, relations with these interesting countries might have been
+improved to an immeasurable degree of happiness to them, and of benefit
+to both continents. But his family would not hear of his exposure in the
+fatal climate of the American Isthmus. Moreover, he pleaded his
+ignorance of the Spanish language as a sufficient excuse for declining
+the mission,--an example which has not been followed in later days.
+
+
+_Minister to England_
+
+In the spring of 1826 Mr. Rufus King, who had taken the place of Mr.
+Rush at London, that gentleman having been called to the Treasury by
+President Adams, fell ill, and requested the assistance of an
+extraordinary envoy. Mr. Gallatin accepted the mission. Before his
+nomination reached the Senate Mr. King's resignation was received and
+accepted. President Adams wishing to intrust Mr. Gallatin alone with
+the pending negotiations, and unwilling to make the two nominations of
+minister and envoy, proposed to Mr. Gallatin to take the post of
+minister, with powers to negotiate, and liberty to return when the
+negotiations should be finished. Personal expenses at London were so
+great that the post of resident minister was ruinous. Mr. Adams promised
+Mr. Gallatin _carte blanche_ as to his instructions. But instead of
+latitude and discretionary power he received at New York voluminous
+directions which he engaged faithfully to execute, while regretting that
+they had not been made known to him sooner. Nevertheless, in the three
+days which intervened before his sailing, he wrote to Mr. Clay a lucid
+statement of the points in issue, and mentioned the modifications he
+desired. The points were: 1. The northeastern boundary. Upon this he was
+only authorized to obtain a reference of the subject to a direct
+negotiation at Washington. He asked consent, in case it should be
+desirable, to open a negotiation on this point at London. Should Great
+Britain refuse to open a negotiation at either place, or to agree to a
+joint statement, then he was not to be bound to propose an immediate
+reference to a third power. 2. The boundary west of the Stony Mountains.
+The instructions limited British continuance on settlements south of the
+49th parallel to five years. Mr. Gallatin thought this insufficient, and
+proposed fifteen years. 3. The St. Lawrence navigation, and the
+intercourse with Canada, as to which he suggested alternate plans. 4.
+Colonial trade, on which he asked precise instructions as to what was
+desired. To the President he complained of his instructions as 'of the
+most peremptory nature, leaving no discretion on unimportant points, and
+making of him a mere machine,' and he requested that it be officially
+announced to him 'that the instructions were intended to guide but not
+absolutely to bind him.' He was not afraid of incurring responsibility
+where discretion was allowed, but he would not do it in the face of
+strict and positive injunctions. Mr. Gallatin sailed from New York with
+his wife and daughter July 1, 1826. Mr. William Beach Lawrence, then a
+youth, accompanied him as his secretary. They reached London on August
+7.
+
+Canning was then at the head of the foreign office, and the temper of
+the ministry was not that of Castlereagh and Wellington. Mr. Gallatin
+did not like French diplomacy, nor did he admire that of England. He
+wrote to his son: 'Some of the French statesmen occasionally say what is
+not true; here (in London) they conceal the truth.' But while in
+diplomacy he found strength and the opinion of that strength to be the
+only weapons, he felt satisfaction that the country could support its
+rights and pretensions by assuming a different attitude. In the course
+of the negotiations Mr. Gallatin learned that one of the king's
+ministers had complained of the tone of United States diplomacy towards
+England, and had added, that it was time to show that it was felt and
+resented. No such fault could attach to the correspondence of Mr. Rush
+and Mr. King, or to that of Mr. Clay, which Mr. Addington had found
+quite acceptable; but it was ascribed to Mr. Adams's instructions to Mr.
+Rush, printed by order of the Senate. Mr. Gallatin later discovered that
+the offensive remarks were in Baylies's report on the territory west of
+the Stony Mountains. Mr. Gallatin explained the independence of the
+House committees in the United States, but as a diplomatist he felt the
+need of a concert between the executive and the committees of Congress
+in all that concerns foreign relations. Government, after all, is a
+complex science.
+
+The simple directness with which Mr. Gallatin dealt with Lord Liverpool
+could not serve with a man of Canning's disposition. Mr. Gallatin did
+not fail to bring to bear the pressure of a possible change in the
+relations of the United States and Great Britain, which might arise from
+the war which seemed imminent between that power and Spain. The new
+questions of Cuba, and the old habit of impressment, might at once bring
+the United States into collision with England. But the war did not take
+place, and the close of the year found the negotiations not far
+advanced. Only the convention of 1815 would no doubt be renewed. He
+asked for further instructions on that subject, the joint occupancy of
+western territory, and impressments, all of which he hoped to arrange
+in the spring and summer, and return home. Mr. Lawrence he found to be a
+secretary more capable in the current business of the legation than any
+of his predecessors. Mr. Gallatin could safely leave him there as
+_charge d'affaires_.
+
+In December, Chateaubriand used in the House of Peers the words which
+Mr. Gallatin had said to him, 'that England could not take Cuba without
+making war on the United States, and that she knew it.' Mr. Gallatin so
+informed Adams, and added, that France would no doubt agree, as
+Chateaubriand would have agreed, to a tripartite instrument if England
+were of the same opinion.
+
+In March, 1827, Adams warned Gallatin that the sudden and unexpected
+determination of Great Britain to break off all negotiation concerning
+the colonial trade, and the contemporaneous interdiction of the vessels
+of the United States from all British ports in the West Indies, had put
+a new face on matters. A renewal of the convention of 1818 would
+probably be agreed to by the Senate, but no concession in the form of a
+treaty would be acceptable. His words were emphatic. "One inch of ground
+yielded on the northwest coast,--one step backward from the claim to the
+navigation of the St. Lawrence,--one hair's breadth of compromise upon
+the article of impressment would be certain to meet the reprobation of
+the Senate." In this temper of parties, Adams added, "All we can hope to
+accomplish will be to adjourn controversies which we cannot adjust, and
+say to Britain as the Abbe Bernis said to Cardinal Fleuri: 'Monseigneur,
+j'attendrai.'"
+
+But changes now occurred in the British ministry: Lord Liverpool died in
+February, 1827--Mr. Canning in the following August. Lord Goderich
+became prime minister. The new administration returned from Canning's
+eccentric course to the old and quiet path. The commercial convention of
+1815 was renewed indefinitely, each party being at liberty to abrogate
+it at twelve months' notice. The joint occupancy of the Oregon
+Territory, agreed to in 1818, was continued in a similar manner. On
+September 29 a convention was signed, referring the northeast boundary
+to the arbitration of a friendly sovereign. Mr. Gallatin believed that,
+had Canning lived, he would have opened a negotiation on the subject of
+impressment. Huskisson considered that 'the right, even if well founded,
+was one the exercise of which was intolerable, but that this was not the
+time to take up the subject.' The new British administration did not
+dare to encounter the clamor of the navy, the opposition of the Tories,
+and the pride of the nation on this question.
+
+Having accomplished all that was practicable, completed all the current
+business, and leaving the British government in a better temper than he
+found it, Mr. Gallatin returned to the United States, reaching New York
+on November 29, 1827. Nothing remained in foreign relations in respect
+to which Mr. Gallatin felt that he could be of much use except the
+northeast boundary. In a letter of congratulation to Mr. Gallatin on his
+arrival, President Adams made ample amends for all his harsh judgments,
+expressed or withheld. The three conventions were entirely satisfactory
+to him. Of the negotiation he said, in words as graceful as warm, "I
+shall feel most sensibly the loss of your presence at London, and can
+form no more earnest wish than that your successor may acquire the same
+influence of reason and good temper which you did exercise, and that it
+may be applied with as salutary effect to the future discussions between
+the two governments." During his visit to London Mr. Gallatin was
+overwhelmed with civilities. Canning was courteous to a degree, and
+rarely a day passed that the American ambassador had not to choose
+between half a dozen invitations to dinner. At the house of the Russian
+minister, the Count de Lieven, he was always welcome, and the Countess
+de Lieven, the autocrat of foreign society in London, without whose pass
+no stranger could cross the sacred threshold of Almack's, was his fast
+friend. To each circle he carried that which each most prized. Whether
+the conversation turned upon government or science, the dry figures of
+finance, or the more genial topic of diplomatic intrigue, Mr. Gallatin
+was its easy master, and his words never fell on inattentive ears.
+
+With this mission to London Mr. Gallatin's diplomatic service closed. He
+would have accepted the French mission in 1834, and so informed Van
+Buren, but General Jackson, who was President, had his own plans, and
+'ran his machine' without consulting other than his own prejudices or
+whims. But although Mr. Gallatin was no longer in the field of
+diplomacy, his counsels were eagerly sought. The northeastern boundary
+was a troublesome question, indeed in the new phases of American
+politics an imminent danger. The extension of the commercial relations
+of Great Britain and the United States rendered it imperative that no
+point of dispute should remain which could be determined. For two years
+after his return from England, Mr. Gallatin was employed in the
+preparation of an argument to be laid before the king of the
+Netherlands, who had been selected as the arbiter between the United
+States and Great Britain on the boundary. The king undertook to press a
+conventional line, which the United States, not being bound to accept,
+refused. In 1839 Mr. Gallatin prepared, and put before the world, a
+statement of the facts in the case. This, revised, together with the
+speech of Mr. Webster, a copy of the Jay treaty, and eight maps, he
+published at his own expense in 1840.
+
+At this time conflicts on the Maine frontier brought the subject up in a
+manner not to be ignored. Popular feeling was at high pitch. In this
+condition of affairs Alexander Baring, who had been raised to the
+peerage as Lord Ashburton, was sent to America on a mission of
+friendship and peace. As a young man he had listened to the debate on
+Jay's treaty in 1795. He was now to be received by Webster in Washington
+in the same spirit in which Grenville received Jay in London, when it
+was mutually understood that they should discuss the matter as friends
+and not as diplomatists, and leave their articles as records of
+agreement, not as compromises of discord. Gallatin eagerly awaited the
+arrival of his old friend, and was grievously disappointed when contrary
+winds blew the frigate which carried him to Annapolis. Letters were
+immediately exchanged; Lord Ashburton engaging before he left the
+country to find Gallatin out, and, as he said, to "_draw a little wisdom
+from the best well_." After the treaty was signed, Lord Ashburton went
+from Washington to New York, and the old friends met once more: Mr.
+Gallatin was in his 82d year, but in the full possession of his
+faculties; Lord Ashburton in his 68th year: a memorable meeting of two
+great men, whose lives had much in common; the one the foremost banker
+of England, the other the matchless financier of America; and to this
+sufficient honor was added for each the singular merit of having
+negotiated for his country the most important treaty in its relation to
+the other since the separation of 1783,--Mr. Gallatin, the Treaty of
+Ghent, which gave peace to America; Lord Ashburton, that treaty which
+is known by his name and which secured peace to Great Britain.
+
+In 1846 Mr. Gallatin rendered his last diplomatic service by the
+publication of a pamphlet on the Oregon question, which was then as
+threatening as that of the northeastern boundary had been. This
+admirable exposition, which put before the people as well as the
+negotiators the precise merits of the controversy, powerfully
+contributed to the ultimate peaceful settlement.
+
+Still once more Mr. Gallatin threw his authoritative words into the
+scale of justice. His last appearance in public had been when he
+presided on April 24, 1844, at a meeting in New York city to protest
+against the annexation of Texas. He then held that the resolution of the
+House declaring the treaty of annexation between the United States of
+America and the Republic of Texas to be the fundamental law of union
+between them, without and against the consent of the Senate, was a
+direct and undisguised usurpation of power and a violation of the
+Constitution. In the storm of opposition he lifted his feeble voice in
+condemnation of the violation of treaties, and the disregard of the
+sacred obligations of mankind. "I am highly gratified," were his final
+words, "I am highly gratified that the last public act of a long life
+should have been that of bearing testimony against this outrageous
+attempt. It is indeed a consolation that my almost extinguished voice
+has been on this occasion raised in defense of liberty, of justice, and
+of our country." Of the war with Mexico, he was wont to say, "that it
+was the only blot upon the escutcheon of the United States." Aged as he
+was, he would not rest until he had made his last appeal for peace with
+Mexico. He also prepared supplementary essays on war expenses: the first
+of these was published in 1847, the second in 1848. For months all his
+faculties, all his feelings were absorbed in this one subject. These
+pamphlets were widely circulated by the friends of peace. The venerable
+sage had the comfort of knowing that his words were not in vain. Peace
+with Mexico was signed on February 2, 1848.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mr. Gallatin was no believer in the doctrine of 'manifest destiny,'--the
+policy of bringing all North America into the occupation of a race
+speaking the same language, and under a single government. On February
+16, 1848, before news of the signature of the treaty at Guadalupe
+Hidalgo, by Mr. Trist, the American negotiator, was known in New York,
+Mr. Gallatin condemned this idea in a remarkable passage, in a letter to
+Garrett Davis:--
+
+     "What shall be said of the notion of an empire extending from the
+     Atlantic to the Pacific and from the North Pole to the Equator? Of
+     the destiny of the Anglo-Saxon race, of its universal monarchy over
+     the whole of North America? Now, I will ask, which is the portion
+     of the globe that has attained the highest degree of civilization
+     and even of power--Asia, with its vast empires of Turkey, India,
+     and China, or Europe divided into near twenty independent
+     sovereignties? Other powerful causes have undoubtedly largely
+     contributed to that result; but this, the great division into ten
+     or twelve distinct languages, must not be neglected. But all these
+     allegations of superiority of race and destiny neither require nor
+     deserve any answer. They are but pretences under which to disguise
+     ambition, cupidity, or silly vanity."
+
+The justice of these reflections was assuredly borne out by the
+experience of history, but manifest destiny takes no account of past
+lessons.
+
+Before these lines of Mr. Gallatin were penned, on January 19, 1848,
+gold was discovered in California. The announcement startled the world
+and opened a new era, not only to Europe, but to mankind. Extending the
+metallic basis, which no man better than Mr. Gallatin recognized and
+held to be the true solvent of money transactions, it postponed for a
+half century the inevitable conflict between capital and labor, the
+first outbreaks of which in Europe had been with difficulty suppressed,
+when the news of good tidings gave promise of unexpected relief. Credit
+revived, new enterprises of colossal magnitude were undertaken, and the
+demand for labor quickly exceeded the supply. Emigration to America rose
+to incredible proportions. Had Mr. Gallatin lived, he would have found
+new elements to be weighed in his nice balance of probabilities. He
+would no longer, as in 1839, have been compelled to say that "specie is
+a foreign product," but would have given to us inestimable advice as to
+the proper use to be made of the vast sums taken out from our own soil.
+He would have been also brought to face the ethnologic problem of a
+continent inhabited by a single race, not Anglo-Saxon, nor Teutonic, nor
+yet Latin, but a composite race in which all these will be merged and
+blended; a new American race which, springing from a broader surface,
+shall rise to higher summits of intellectual power and, with a greater
+variety of natural qualities, achieve excellence in more numerous ways.
+This vision was denied to Mr. Gallatin. He died at the threshold of the
+new era--of the golden age. A half century has not passed since his
+death, and the United States has taken from her soil a value of over
+three thousand millions of dollars, in gold and silver (gold two
+thousand millions, silver one thousand millions), more than two thirds
+of the total amount estimated by Mr. Gallatin as the store of Europe in
+1839; and has also added to her population, by immigration alone, ten
+millions of people, of whom but a small proportion are of the
+Anglo-Saxon race.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 19: _Life of Albert Gallatin_, p. 546.]
+
+[Footnote 20: The frigate Chesapeake was captured by the British
+man-of-war Leopard in June, 1807.]
+
+[Footnote 21: A translation of this work, _Economie Politique_, was
+published under Jefferson's supervision in 1818.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+CANDIDATE FOR THE VICE-PRESIDENCY
+
+
+During the twelve years that Mr. Gallatin was in the Treasury he was
+continually looking for some man who could take his place in that
+office, and aid in the direction of national politics; to use his own
+words, "who could replace Mr. Jefferson, Mr. Madison, and himself."
+Breckenridge of Kentucky only appeared and died. The eccentricities of
+John Randolph unfitted him for leadership. William H. Crawford of
+Georgia, Monroe's secretary of the treasury, alone filled Gallatin's
+expectations. To a powerful mind Crawford "united a most correct
+judgment and an inflexible integrity. Unfortunately he was neither
+indulgent nor civil, and, consequently, was unpopular." Andrew Jackson,
+Gallatin said, "was an honest man, and the idol of the worshipers of
+military glory, but from incapacity, military habits, and habitual
+disregard of laws and constitutional provisions, entirely unfit for the
+office of president." John C. Calhoun he looked upon as "a smart fellow,
+one of the first amongst second-rate men, but of lax political
+principles and an inordinate ambition, not over-delicate in the means of
+satisfying itself." Clay he considered to be a man of splendid talents
+and a generous mind; John Quincy Adams to be 'wanting to a deplorable
+degree in that most essential quality, a sound and correct judgment.'
+
+The contest lay between Adams and Crawford. Crawford was the choice of
+Jefferson and Madison as well as of Gallatin. The principles of the
+Republican party had so changed that Nathaniel Macon could say in 1824,
+in reply to a request from Mr. Gallatin to take part in a caucus for the
+purpose of forwarding Mr. Crawford's nomination, that there were "not
+five members of Congress who entertained the opinions which those did
+who brought Mr. Jefferson into power." But Macon was of the Brutus stamp
+of politicians; of that stern cast of mind which does not 'alter when it
+alteration finds or bend with the remover to remove,' and held yielding
+to the compulsion of circumstances to be an abandonment of principle.
+
+Jefferson still held the consolidation of power to be the chief danger
+of the country, and the barrier of state rights, great and small, to be
+its only protection even against the Supreme Court. Gallatin took
+broader ground, and found encouragement in the excellent working of
+universal suffrage in the choice of representatives to legislative
+bodies. But he was opposed to the extension of the principle to
+municipal officers having the application of the proceeds of taxes,
+forgetting that universal suffrage is the lever by which capital is
+moved to educate labor and relieve it from the burdens of injury,
+disease, and physical incapacity at the expense of the whole. Without
+stopping to argue these debatable questions, Mr. Gallatin, with
+practical statesmanship, determined to maintain in power the only agency
+by which he could at all shape the political future, and he threw
+himself into the canvass with zeal.
+
+Crawford had unfortunately been stricken with paralysis, and the choice
+of a vice-president became a matter of grave concern. Mr. Gallatin was
+selected to take this place on the ticket. To this tender he replied
+that he did not want the office, but would dislike to be proposed and
+not elected, and he honestly felt that as a foreigner and a residuary
+legatee of Federal hatred his name could not be of much service to the
+cause. Still, he followed the only course by which any party can be held
+together, and surrendered his prejudices and fears to the wishes of his
+friends. The Republican caucus met on February 14, 1824, in the chamber
+of the House of Representatives. Of the 216 members of the party only 66
+attended. Martin Van Buren, then senator from New York, managed this,
+the last congressional caucus for the selection of candidates.
+
+The solemnity given to the congressional nominations, and the publicity
+of the answers of candidates, Mr. Gallatin held to be political
+blunders. In fact the plan was adroitly denounced as an attempt to
+dictate to the people.
+
+Crawford was nominated for president by 64 votes, Gallatin for
+vice-president by 57. This nomination Mr. Gallatin accepted in a note to
+Mr. Ruggles, United States senator, on May 10, 1824. But there were
+elements of which party leaders of the old school had not taken
+sufficient account. Macon was right when he said that "every generation,
+like a single person, has opinions of its own, as much so in politics as
+anything else," and that 'the opinions of Jefferson and those who were
+with him were forgotten.' And Jefferson himself, in his complacent
+reflection that even the name of Federalist was "extinguished by the
+battle of New Orleans," did not see that the Republican party of the old
+school had been snuffed out by the same event. The new democracy, whose
+claims to rule were based, not on the policy of peace or restricted
+powers, but on the seductive glitter of military glory, was in the
+ascendant, and General Jackson was the favorite of the hour. New
+combinations became necessary, and Mr. Gallatin was requested to
+withdraw from the ticket, and make room for Mr. Clay, whose great
+western influence it was hoped would save it from defeat. This he gladly
+did in a declaration of October 2, addressed to Martin Van Buren, dated
+at his Fayette home, and published in the "National Intelligencer." The
+result of the election was singular. Calhoun was elected vice-president
+by the people. The presidential contest was decided in the House, Adams
+being chosen over Jackson and Crawford, by the influence of Clay. Mr.
+Gallatin quickly discerned in the failure of the people to elect a
+president the collapse of the Republican party. He considered it as
+"fairly defunct."
+
+Jackson had already announced the startling doctrine that no regard was
+to be had to party in the selection of the great officers of government,
+which Mr. Gallatin considered as tantamount to a declaration that
+principles and opinions were of no importance in its administration. To
+lose sight of this principle was to substitute men for measures.
+Jackson's idea of party, however, was personal fealty. He engrafted the
+_pouvoir personnel_ on the Democratic party as thoroughly as Napoleon
+could have done in his place. Moreover, Gallatin considered Jackson's
+assumption of power in his collisions with the judiciary at New Orleans
+and Pensacola, and his orders to take St. Augustine without the
+authority of Congress, as dangerous assaults upon the Constitution of
+the country and the liberties of the people, and he dreaded the
+substitution of the worship of a military chieftain for the maintenance
+of that liberty, the last hope of man. Ten years later he uttered the
+same opinion in a conversation with Miss Martineau, and he expressed a
+preference for an annual president, a cipher, so that all would be done
+by the ministry. But in the impossibility of this plan, he would have
+preferred a four years' term without renewal or an extension of six
+years; an idea adopted by Davis in his plan of disintegration by
+secession. The presidency, Mr. Gallatin thought, was "too much power
+for one man; therefore it fills all men's thoughts to the detriment of
+better things."
+
+When Mr. Gallatin visited Washington in 1829, he found a state of
+society, political and social, widely at variance with his own
+experience. The ways of Federalist and Republican cabinets were
+traditions of an irrevocable past. Jackson was political dictator, and
+took counsel only from his prejudices. The old simplicity had given way
+to elegance and luxury of adornment. The east room of the presidential
+mansion was covered with Brussels carpeting. There were silk curtains at
+the windows, French mirrors of unusual size, and three splendid English
+crystal chandeliers. In the dining-room were a hundred candles and
+lamps, and silver plate of every description, and presiding over this
+magnificence the strange successors of Washington and his stately dame,
+of Madison and his no less elegant wife,--the Tennessee backwoodsman and
+Peggy O'Neil.
+
+When, it is not too soon to ask, in the general reform of civil service,
+shall the possibility of such anomalies be entirely removed by
+restricting the executive mansion to an executive bureau, and entirely
+separating social ceremony from official state, to the final suppression
+of back stairs influence and kitchen cabinets?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+SOCIETY--LITERATURE--SCIENCE
+
+
+Mr. Gallatin's land speculations were not profitable. His plan of Swiss
+colonization did not result in any pecuniary advantage to himself. His
+little patrimony, received in 1786, he invested in a plantation of about
+five hundred acres on the Monongahela. Twelve years later, in 1798, he
+was neither richer nor poorer than at the time of his investment. The
+entire amount of claims which he held with Savary he sold in 1794,
+without warranty of title, to Robert Morris, then the great speculator
+in western lands, for four thousand dollars, Pennsylvania currency. This
+sum, his little farm, and five or six hundred pounds cash were then his
+entire fortune. In 1794, the revolution in Switzerland having driven out
+numbers of his compatriots, he formed a plan of association consisting
+of one hundred and fifty shares of eight hundred dollars each, of which
+the Genevans in Philadelphia, Odier, Fazzi, the two Cazenove, Cheriot,
+Bourdillon, Duby, Couronne, Badollet, and himself took twenty-five each.
+Twenty-five were offered to Americans, which were nearly all taken up,
+and one hundred were sent to Geneva, Switzerland, to D'Yvernois and his
+friends. The project was to purchase land, and Mr. Gallatin had decided
+upon a location in the northeast part of Pennsylvania, or in New York,
+on the border. In the summer Gallatin made a journey through New York to
+examine lands with the idea of occupation. In July, 1795, he made a
+settlement with Mr. Morris, taking his notes for three thousand five
+hundred dollars. Balancing his accounts, Mr. Gallatin then found himself
+worth seven thousand dollars, in addition to which he had about
+twenty-five thousand acres of waste lands and the notes of Mr. Morris.
+In 1798 Mr. Morris failed, and, under the harsh operations of the old
+law, was sent to jail. Mr. Gallatin never recovered the three thousand
+dollars owed to him in the final balance of his real estate operations.
+
+After Mr. Gallatin left the Treasury he located patents for seventeen
+hundred acres of Virginia military lands in the State of Ohio, on
+warrants purchased in 1784. In 1815 he valued his entire estate,
+exclusive of his farm on the Monongahela, at less than twelve thousand
+dollars. Forty years later he complained of his investment as a
+troublesome and unproductive property, which had plagued him all his
+life. Besides the purchase of lands, Mr. Gallatin invested part of his
+little capital in building houses on his farm, and in the country store
+which Badollet managed. The one yielded no return, and the sum put in
+the other was lost through the incompetency of his honest but
+inexperienced friend. His wife brought him a small property, but at no
+time in his life was he possessed of more than a modest competency. But
+he had never any discontent with his fortune nor any desire to be rich.
+
+Mrs. Gallatin, who had always until her marriage lived in cities, was
+entirely unfit for frontier life. In these days of railroads it is not
+easy to measure the isolation of their country home. Pittsburgh was
+nearly five days' journey from Philadelphia, and the crossing of the
+Alleghanies took a day and a half more. Before his marriage Mr. Gallatin
+had seen very little of society. Though in early manhood he felt no
+embarrassment among men, he said 'that he never yet was able to divest
+himself of an anti-Chesterfieldian awkwardness in mixed companies.' He
+did not take advantage of his residence in Philadelphia to accustom
+himself to the ways of the world. There he lived in lodgings and met the
+leading public characters of both parties. But when he took his seat in
+the cabinet, he found it necessary to enter upon housekeeping and to
+take a prominent part in society, for which his wife was admirably
+suited, both by temperament and education. Washington Irving wrote of
+her in November, 1812, that she was 'the most stylish woman in the
+drawing-room that session, and that she dressed with more splendor than
+any other of the noblesse;' and again the same year compared her with
+the wife of the President, whose courtly manners and consummate tact
+and grace are a tradition of the republican court. "Tell your good
+lady," mother Irving wrote to James Renwick, "that Mrs. Madison has been
+much indisposed, and at last Wednesday's evening drawing-room Mrs.
+Gallatin presided in her place. I was not present, but those who were
+assure me that she filled Mrs. Madison's chair to a miracle." This is in
+the sense of dignity, for Mrs. Gallatin was of small stature.
+
+Mr. Gallatin's house shared the fate of the public buildings and was
+burned by the British when Washington was captured in 1814. He was then
+abroad on the peace mission. On his return from France Mr. Gallatin made
+one more attempt to realize his early idea of a country home, and with
+his family went in the summer of 1823 to Friendship Hill. Here an Irish
+carpenter built for him a house which he humorously described as being
+in the 'Hyberno-teutonic style,--the outside, with its port-hole-looking
+windows, having the appearance of Irish barracks, while the inside
+ornaments were similar to those of a Dutch tavern, and in singular
+contrast to the French marble chimney-pieces, paper, mirrors, and
+billiard-table.' In the summer Friendship Hill was an agreeable
+residence, but Mr. Gallatin found it in winter too isolated even for his
+taste.
+
+One exciting circumstance enlivened the spring of 1825. This was the
+passage of Lafayette, the guest of the nation, through western
+Pennsylvania on his famous tour. Mr. Gallatin welcomed him in an
+address before the court-house of Uniontown, the capital of Fayette
+County, on May 26. In his speech Mr. Gallatin reviewed the condition of
+the liberal cause in Europe, and the emancipation of Greece, then
+agitating both continents. In this all scholars as well as all liberals
+were of one mind and heart. After the proceedings Lafayette drove with
+Mr. Gallatin to Friendship Hill, where he passed the night; crowds of
+people pouring down the valley from the mountain roads to see the
+adopted son of the United States, the friend of Washington, the
+liberator of France. The intimacy between these two great men, who had
+alike devoted the flower of their youth to the interests of civilization
+and the foundation of the new republic, was never broken.
+
+Mr. Gallatin passed only one winter at New Geneva. On his return from
+his last mission to England he settled permanently in New York, and in
+1828 took a house at No. 113 Bleecker Street, then in the suburbs of the
+city. He wrote to Badollet in March, 1829, that "it was an ill-contrived
+plan to think that the banks of the Monongahela, where he was perfectly
+satisfied to live and die in retirement, could be borne by the female
+part of his family, or by children brought up at Washington and Paris."
+The population of New York has always been migratory, and Mr. Gallatin
+was no exception to the rule. In the ten years which followed his first
+location he changed his residence on four May days, finally settling at
+No. 57 Bleecker Street, nearly opposite to Crosby Street. His life in
+New York is a complete period in his intellectual as in his physical
+existence, and the most interesting of his career. His last twenty years
+were in great measure devoted to scientific studies.
+
+The National Bank, over which he presided for the first ten years, took
+but a small part of his time. The remainder was given up to study and
+conversation, an art in which he had no superior in this country and
+probably none abroad. Soon after his arrival in New York, Mr. Gallatin
+was chosen a member of "The Club," an association famous in its day. As
+no correct account of this social organization has ever appeared, the
+letter of invitation to Mr. Gallatin is of some interest. It was written
+by Dr. John Augustine Smith, on November 2, 1829. An extract gives the
+origin of the club.
+
+     "Nearly two years ago some of the literary gentlemen of the city,
+     feeling severely the almost total want of intercourse among
+     themselves, determined to establish an association which should
+     bring them more frequently into contact. Accordingly they founded
+     the 'Club' as it is commonly called, and which I believe I
+     mentioned to you when I had the pleasure of seeing you in Bond
+     Street. Into this 'Club' twelve persons only are admitted, and
+     there are at present three gentlemen of the Bar, Chancellor Kent,
+     Messrs. Johnston and Jay, three professors of Columbia College,
+     Messrs. McVickar, Moore, and Renwick, the Rev. Drs. Wainwright and
+     Mathews, the former of the Episcopal Church, the latter of the
+     Presbyterian Church, two merchants, Messrs. Brevoort and Goodhue,
+     and I have the honor to represent the medical faculty. Our twelfth
+     associate was Mr. Morse, of the National Academy of Design, of
+     which he was president, and his departure for Europe has caused a
+     vacancy. For agreeableness of conversation there is nothing in New
+     York at all comparable to our institution. We meet once a week; no
+     officers, no formalities; invitations, when in case of intelligent
+     and distinguished strangers, and after a plain and light repast,
+     retire about eleven o'clock."
+
+At this club Mr. Gallatin, with his wonderful conversational powers,
+became at once the centre of interest. The club met at the houses of
+members in the winter evenings. There was always a supper, but the rule
+was absolute that there should be only one hot dish served, a regulation
+which the ladies endeavored to evade when the turn of their husbands
+arrived to supply the feast. Among the later members were Professor
+Anderson, John A. Stevens, Mr. Gallatin's countryman De Rham, John
+Wells, Samuel Ward, Gulian C. Verplanck, and Charles King. No literary
+symposium in America was ever more delightful, more instructive, than
+these meetings. On these occasions Mr. Gallatin led the conversation,
+which usually covered a wide field. His memory was marvelous, and his
+personal acquaintance with the great men who were developed by the
+French Revolution, emperors and princes, heroes, statesmen, and men of
+science, gave to the easy flow of his speech the zest of anecdote and
+the spice of epigram. Once heard he was never forgotten. And this rare
+faculty he preserved undiminished to the close of his life. Washington
+Irving, himself the most genial of men, and the most graceful of
+talkers, wrote of him, after meeting him at dinner, in 1841: "Mr.
+Gallatin was in fine spirits and full of conversation. He is upwards of
+eighty, yet has all the activity and clearness of mind and gayety of
+spirits of a young man. How delightful it is to see such intellectual
+and joyous old age: to see life running out clear and sparkling to the
+last drop! With such a blessed temperament one would be content to
+linger and spin out the last thread of existence."
+
+At the close of the year 1829 Mr. Gallatin attempted to carry out his
+old and favorite plan of the "establishment of a general system of
+rational and practical education fitted for all, and gratuitously open
+to all." The want of an institution for education, combining the
+advantages of a European university with the recent improvements in
+instruction, was seriously felt. New York, already a great city, and
+rapidly growing, offered the most promising field for the national
+university on a broad and liberal foundation correspondent to the spirit
+of the age. The difficulty of obtaining competent teachers of even the
+lower branches of knowledge in the public schools, the system of which
+was in its infancy, was great. Persons could be found with learning
+enough, but they were generally deficient in the art of teaching.
+Governor Throop noticed this deficiency in his message of January, 1830,
+without, however, the recommendation of any remedy by legislation. The
+existing colleges could not supply the want. At this period religious
+prejudice controlled the actions of men in every walk of life; for the
+old colonial jealousies of Episcopalian and Presbyterian survived the
+Revolution. The religious distrust of scientific investigation was also
+at its height. Columbia College, the successor of old King's College,
+was governed in the Episcopalian interest. Private zeal could alone be
+relied upon to establish the new enterprise on a foundation free from
+the influence of clergy; an indispensable condition of success. These
+were the views of Mr. Jefferson in 1807. These were the views of Mr.
+Gallatin. In response to his request abundant subscriptions in money and
+material were at once forthcoming.
+
+The project of a national university at New York was received by the
+literary institutions of the United States with great enthusiasm. In
+October, 1830, a convention of more than a hundred literary and
+scientific gentlemen, delegates from different parts of the country, and
+of the highest distinction, was held in the common-council chamber. The
+outcome of their deliberations was the foundation of the New York
+University. Mr. Gallatin was the president of the first council, but
+his connection with the institution was of short continuance. The
+reasons for his withdrawal were set forth in a letter to his old friend,
+John Badollet, written February 7, 1833. Beginning with an expression of
+his desire to devote what remained of his life "to the establishment in
+this immense and growing city (New York) of a general system of rational
+and practical education fitted for all and gratuitously opened to all,"
+he said, "but finding that the object was no longer the same, that a
+certain portion of the clergy had obtained the control, and that their
+object, though laudable, was special and quite distinct from mine, I
+resigned at the end of one year rather than to struggle, probably in
+vain for what was nearly unattainable." The history of the university
+through its precarious existence of half a century amply justifies Mr.
+Gallatin's previsions and retirement. Instead of an American Sorbonne,
+of which he dreamed, it has never been more than a local institution,
+struggling to hold a place in a crowded field.
+
+Mr. Gallatin followed the evolutions of French politics with interest.
+His friend Lafayette, who, during the Empire, lived in almost enforced
+retirement at his estate of La Grange, was a voluntary exile from the
+court of Charles X., whose autocratic principles and aggressive course
+were rapidly driving France into fresh revolution. In July, 1830, the
+crisis was precipitated by the royal decrees published in the
+"Moniteur." Lafayette, who was on his estate, hurried instantly to
+Paris, where he became a rallying point, and himself signed the note to
+the king, announcing that he had ceased to reign. In September following
+it fell to him to write to Mr. Gallatin on the occasion of the marriage
+of Gallatin's daughter. In this union Lafayette had a triple interest.
+Besides his personal attachment for Mr. Gallatin, each of the young
+couple was descended from one of his old companions-in-arms. The groom,
+Mr. Byam Kerby Stevens, was a son of Colonel Ebenezer Stevens, of the
+continental service, who was Lafayette's chief of artillery in his
+expedition against Arnold in Virginia, in the spring of 1781; the bride,
+Frances Gallatin, was, on the mother's side, the granddaughter of
+Commodore James Nicholson, who commanded the gunboats which, improvised
+by Colonel Stevens, drove out the British vessels from Annapolis Bay and
+opened the route to the blockaded American flotilla.[22]
+
+     "PARIS, _September_ 8, 1830.
+
+     "MY DEAR FRIEND:--A long time has elapsed since I had the pleasure
+     to hear from you. I need not, I hope, add, that my affectionate
+     feelings have been continually with you, especially in what related
+     to my young friend whose change of name has more deeply interested
+     every member, and in a very particular manner, the younger part of
+     the family. Let me hear of you all, and receive my tender regards
+     and wishes, with those of my children and grandchildren.
+     LAFAYETTE."
+
+Both of the young people had the honor of Lafayette's acquaintance,--Mr.
+Stevens during a visit to Paris, and Miss Gallatin during her father's
+residence there as minister, when she was much admired, and was, in the
+words of Madame Bonaparte (Miss Patterson), 'a beauty.' In this letter
+Lafayette gives a picturesque account of the three days' fighting at the
+barricades, and of the departure of the ex-king and the royal army,
+accompanied by "some twenty thousand Parisians, in coaches, hacks, and
+omnibus.... The royal party, after returning the jewels of the crown,
+went slowly to Cherbourg with their own escort, under the protection of
+three commissioners, and were there permitted quietly to embark for
+England."
+
+In 1834 Mr. Gallatin's sympathies were greatly excited by the arrival at
+New York of a number of Poles, many of them educated men, and among them
+Etsko, a nephew of Kosciusko. A public committee was raised, called the
+Polish committee, of which Mr. Gallatin was chosen chairman. Besides
+superintending the collection of funds, he arranged and carried out in
+the minutest details a plan to quarter the exiles upon the inhabitants.
+A list of names ending in _ski_ still remains among his papers; to each
+was assigned a number, and they were allotted by streets and
+numbers,--number 182, one Szelesegynski, was taken by Mr. Gallatin
+himself, to look after horses. These unfortunate men were then
+distributed through the country, as occupations could be found. In
+October Mr. Gallatin's notes show that all had been provided for except
+fourteen boys, for whom a subscription was taken up. A tract of land in
+Illinois was assigned by Congress to these political exiles.
+
+Mr. Gallatin's first acquaintance with the American Indian was made at
+Machias. In the neighborhood of this frontier town, across the Canadian
+border, there were still remnants of the Abenaki and Etchemin tribes.
+They were French in sympathy, and all converts to the Roman Catholic
+faith. Mr. Lesdernier, with whom Gallatin lodged, had influence over
+them from the trade he established with them in furs, and as their
+religious purveyor. He had paid a visit to Boston at the time the French
+fleet was there in 1781, and brought home a Capuchin priest for their
+service. To the young Genevan, brought up in the restrictions of
+European civilization, the history of the savage was a favorite study.
+In the winter evenings, in the quiet of the log hut, with the aid of one
+familiar with the customs and traditions of the race, the foundations
+were laid of a permanent interest in this almost untrodden branch of
+human science. The Canadian Indians, however, hemmed in by French and
+English settlements, were semi-civilized. The Miamis and Shawnees, who
+ranged the valley of the Ohio, were the tribes nearest to Gallatin's
+home on the Monongahela. These, though for a long time under the
+influence of the French, retained their original wildness, and were,
+during the first years of his residence, the dread of the frontier.
+
+The interest aroused in the mind of Mr. Gallatin by personal observation
+was quickened by his intimacy with Jefferson, whose "Notes on Virginia,"
+published in 1801, contained the first attempt at a classification and
+enumeration of American tribes. The earlier work of Colden was confined
+to the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy. The arrangement of the
+Louisiana territory, ceded by France, brought Mr. Gallatin into contact
+with Pierre Louis Chouteau, and an intimacy formed with John Jacob
+Astor, who was largely concerned in the fur trade of the Northwest,
+widened the field of interest, which included the geography of the
+interior and the customs of its inhabitants. Mr. Gallatin's examination
+of the subject was general, however, and did not take a practical
+scientific turn until the year 1823, when, at the request of Baron
+Alexander von Humboldt, he set forth the results of his studies in the
+form of a Synopsis of the Indian tribes. This essay, communicated by
+Humboldt to the Italian geographer Balbi, then engaged upon his "Atlas
+Ethnographique du Globe,"--a classification by languages of ancient and
+modern peoples,--was quoted by him in his volume introductory to that
+remarkable work published in 1826, in a manner to attract the attention
+of the scientific world. Vater, in his "Mithridates," first attempted a
+classification of the languages of the globe, but the work of Mr.
+Gallatin, though confined in subject, was original in its conception and
+treatment. In the winter of 1825-26 a large gathering of southern
+Indians at Washington enabled him to obtain good vocabularies of several
+of the tribes. Uniting these to those already acquired, he published a
+table of all the existing tribes, and at the same time, at his instance,
+the War Department circulated through its posts a vocabulary containing
+six hundred words of verbal forms and of selected sentences, and a
+series of grammatical queries, to which answers were invited. He also
+opened an elaborate correspondence with such persons as were best
+acquainted with the Indian tribes in different sections of the
+country.[23] The replies to these various queries were few in number,
+but the practical plan, adhered to in substance, has resulted in the
+collection by the Smithsonian Institution of a very large number of
+Indian vocabularies.[24]
+
+This class of investigation, in its ample scope for original research
+and the ascertainment of principles by analysis and analogic expression,
+was peculiarly agreeable to Mr. Gallatin. His friend, du Ponceau,[25]
+who served in the American war as the secretary of Steuben, and was now
+established in Philadelphia, was likewise deeply engaged in philologic
+studies; in 1819 he had published a memoir of the construction of the
+languages of the North American Indians, which he followed later with
+other papers of a similar nature, among which were a "Grammar of the
+Languages of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians," and a memoir on the
+grammatical system of the languages of the Indian tribes of North
+America, a learned and highly instructive paper, which took the Volney
+prize at Paris.
+
+In 1836 Mr. Gallatin's original paper, contributed to Balbi, amplified
+by subsequent acquisitions, was published by the American Antiquarian
+Society of Worcester, in the first volume of its Transactions. It was
+entitled "A Synopsis of the Indian Tribes, within the United States east
+of the Rocky Mountains, and in the British and Russian Possessions in
+North America." This elaborate inquiry, the foundation of the science in
+America, was intended originally to embrace all the tribes north of the
+Mexican semi-civilized nations. From the want of material, however, it
+was confined at the southward to the territory of the United States, and
+eastward of the Rocky Mountains. It included eighty-one tribes, divided
+into twenty-eight families, and was accompanied by a colored map, with
+tribal indications. The result of the investigation Mr. Gallatin held to
+be proof that all the languages, not only of our own Indian tribes, but
+of the nations inhabiting America from the Arctic Ocean to Cape Horn,
+have a distinct character common to all. This paper attracted great
+attention in Europe. It was reviewed by the Count de Circourt, whose
+interest in the subject was heightened by personal acquaintance with the
+author. John C. Calhoun, acknowledging receipt of a copy of the
+Synopsis, said in striking phrase 'that he had long thought that the
+analogy of languages is destined to recover much of the lost history of
+nations just as geology has of the globe we inhabit.'
+
+In 1838, Congress having accepted the trust of John Smithson of
+L100,000, and pledged the faith of the United States for its purposes,
+Mr. Forsyth, the secretary of state, addressed Mr. Gallatin, at the
+request of the President, requesting his views as to its proper
+employment; but Mr. Gallatin does not appear to have answered the
+communication. The programme of the Smithsonian Institution, inclosed to
+the board of regents in its first report, stated its object to be the
+increase and diffusion of knowledge, and bears marks of the general
+views which Mr. Gallatin had for many years urged on public attention.
+The first of the Smithsonian "Contributions to Knowledge" was the memoir
+of Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, by Squier and Davis.
+Before its publication was undertaken, however, it was submitted to the
+Ethnological Society. Mr. Gallatin returned it, with the approval of the
+society, and some words of commendation of his own addressed to
+Professor Henry, the learned superintendent of the Smithsonian
+Institution.
+
+The period of temporary political repose, which followed the peace of
+Vienna and the establishment of the balance of power by the allied
+sovereigns, was an era in human knowledge. Science made rapid progress,
+and in its turn showed the broad and liberal influence of the great
+revolution. In 1842 societies were founded in Paris and London to
+promote the study of ethnology. Mr. Gallatin would not be behindhand in
+this important work for which America offered a virgin field. Drawing
+about him a number of gentlemen of similar tastes with his own, he
+founded in New York, in 1842, the American Ethnological Society. Among
+his associates were Dr. Robinson, the famous explorer of Palestine,
+Schoolcraft, Bartlett, and Professor Turner, noted for their researches
+in the history and languages of the Indian races. Messrs. Atwater,
+Bradford, Hawks, Gibbs, Mayer, Dr. Morton, Pickering, Stephens, Ewbank,
+and Squier were also, either in the beginning or soon after, members of
+this select and learned institution, of which Mr. Gallatin was the
+central figure. One of its members said in 1871, 'Mr. Gallatin's house
+was the true seat of the society, and Mr. Gallatin himself its
+controlling spirit. His name gave it character, and from his purse
+mainly was defrayed the cost of the two volumes of the "Transactions"
+which constitute about the only claim the society possesses to the
+respect of the scientific world.' To the first of these volumes,
+published in 1845, Mr. Gallatin contributed an "Essay on the
+semi-civilized nations of Mexico and Central America, embracing
+elaborate notes on their languages, numeration, calendars, history, and
+chronology, and an inquiry into the probable origin of their
+semi-civilization." In this he included all existing certain knowledge
+of the languages, history, astronomy, and progress in art of these
+peoples. A copy of this work he sent to General Scott, then in the city
+of Mexico after his triumphant campaign, inclosing a memorandum which he
+urged the general to hand to civilians attached to the army. This was a
+request to purchase books, copies of documents, printed grammars, and
+vocabularies of the Mexican languages, and he authorized the general to
+spend four hundred dollars in this purpose on his account. In the second
+volume, published in 1848, he printed the result of his continued
+investigations on the subject which first interested him, as an
+introduction to a republication of a work by Mr. Hale on the "Indians of
+Northwest America." This consisted of geographical notices, an account
+of Indian means of subsistence, the ancient semi-civilization of the
+Northwest, Indian philology, and analogic comparisons with the Chinese
+and Polynesian languages. These papers Mr. Gallatin modestly described
+to Chevalier as the 'fruits of his leisure,' and to Sismondi he wrote
+that he had not the requisite talent for success in literature or
+science. They nevertheless entitle him to the honorable name of the
+Father of American Ethnography.
+
+In 1837 Mr. Wheaton, the American minister at Berlin, requested Mr.
+Gallatin to put the Baron von Humboldt in possession of authentic data
+concerning the production of gold in the United States. Humboldt had
+visited the Oural and Siberian regions in 1829, at the request of the
+Emperor of Russia, to make investigations as to their production of the
+precious metals. Mr. Gallatin was the only authority in the United
+States on the subject. Later von Humboldt wrote to Mr. Gallatin of the
+interest felt abroad, and by himself, in the gold of the mountains of
+Virginia and Tennessee, a country which rivaled on a small scale the
+Dorado of Siberia. The treasures of the Pacific coast were not yet
+dreamed of.
+
+Mr. Gallatin perfectly understood the range of his own powers. He said
+of himself:--
+
+     "If I have met with any success, either in public bodies, as an
+     executive officer, or in foreign negotiations, it has been
+     exclusively through a patient and most thorough investigation of
+     all the attainable facts, and a cautious application of these to
+     the questions under discussion.... Long habit has given me great
+     facility in collating, digesting, and extracting complex documents,
+     but I am not hasty in drawing inferences; the arrangement of the
+     facts and arguments is always to me a considerable labor, and
+     though aiming at nothing more than perspicuity and brevity, I am a
+     very slow writer."
+
+Mr. Gallatin's manuscripts and drafts show long and minute labor in
+their well considered and abundant alterations. Referring on one
+occasion to his habit of reasoning, Mr. Gallatin remarked, that of all
+processes that of analogy is the most dangerous, yet that which he
+habitually used; that it required the greatest possible number of facts.
+This is the foundation of philology, and his understanding of its method
+and its dangers is the reason of his success in this branch of science.
+
+The difficulty experienced in establishing any literary or scientific
+institutions in New York was very great. An effort made in 1830, which
+Mr. Gallatin favored, to establish a literary periodical failed, not on
+account of the pecuniary difficulties, but from the impossibility of
+uniting a sufficient number of able cooeperators. But Mr. Gallatin's
+interest in literature was not as great as in science.[26]
+
+In 1841 a national institution for the promotion of science was
+organized at Washington. The cooeperation of Mr. Gallatin was invited,
+but the society had a short existence. In 1843 Mr. Gallatin was chosen
+president of the New York Historical Society. His inaugural address is
+an epitome of political wisdom. Pronounced at any crisis of our history,
+it would have become a text for the student. In this sketch he analyzed
+the causes which contributed to form our national character and to
+establish a government founded on justice and on equal rights. He showed
+how, united by a common and imminent danger, the thirteen States
+succeeded in asserting and obtaining independence without the aid of a
+central and efficient government, and the difficulties which were
+encountered when a voluntary surrender of a part of their immense
+sovereignty became necessary as a condition of national existence. He
+said that the doctrine that all powers should emanate from the people is
+not a question of expediency.
+
+In this address he summed up the reasons why Washington exercised such a
+beneficial influence upon the destinies of his country. In a
+confidential letter to his wife in 1797, he expressed an opinion that
+the father of his country was not a good-natured and amiable man, but
+time had mellowed these recollections and softened the asperity of this
+judgment. Washington had not, he said (in 1843), 'an extraordinary
+amount of acquired knowledge; he was neither a classical scholar nor a
+man of science, nor was he endowed with the powers of eloquence, nor
+with other qualities more strong than solid, which might be mentioned;
+but he had a profound and almost innate sense of justice, on all public
+occasions a perfect control of his strong passions,[27] above all a most
+complete and extraordinary self-abnegation. Personal consequences and
+considerations were not even thought of, they never crossed his mind,
+they were altogether obliterated.' Mr. Gallatin held that "the Americans
+had a right to be proud of Washington, because he was selected and
+maintained during his whole career by the people--never could he have
+been thus chosen and constantly supported had he not been the type and
+representative of the American people."
+
+The commemoration of the fortieth anniversary of the foundation of the
+New York Historical Society, November, 1844, was an occasion of unusual
+interest. John Romeyn Brodhead, who had just returned from the Hague
+with the treasures of New Netherland history gathered during his
+mission, was the orator of the day. The venerable John Quincy Adams, Mr.
+Gallatin's old associate at Ghent, was present. After the address, which
+was delivered at the Church of the Messiah on Broadway, the society and
+its guests crossed the street to the New York Hotel, where a banquet
+awaited them. Mr. Gallatin retired early, leaving the chair to the first
+vice-president, Mr. Wm. Beach Lawrence. After he had left the room, Mr.
+Adams, speaking to a toast to the archaeologists of America, said: "Mr.
+Gallatin, in sending to me the invitations of the society, added the
+expression of his desire 'to shake hands with me once more in this
+world.'" Mr. Adams could not but respond to his request. In his remarks
+he said:
+
+     "I have lived long, sir, in this world, and I have been connected
+     with all sorts of men, of all sects and descriptions. I have been
+     in the public service for a great part of my life, and filled
+     various offices of trust, in conjunction with that venerable
+     gentleman, Albert Gallatin. I have known him half a century. In
+     many things we differed; on many questions of public interest and
+     policy we were divided, and in the history of parties in this
+     country there is no man from whom I have so widely differed as from
+     him. But in other things we have harmonized; and now there is no
+     man with whom I more thoroughly agree on all points than I do with
+     him. But one word more let me say, before I leave you and him,
+     birds of passage as we are, bound to a warmer and more congenial
+     clime,--that among all public men with whom I have been associated
+     in the course of my political life, whether agreeing or differing
+     in opinion from him, I have always found him to be an honest and
+     honorable man."
+
+In the road to harmony Mr. Adams had to do the traveling. Mr. Gallatin
+never changed his political opinions. The political career of the two
+men offered this singular contrast: Adams, dissatisfied with his party,
+passed into opposition; Gallatin, though at variance with the policy of
+the administration of which he made a part, held his fealty, and
+confined himself to the operations of his own bureau.
+
+For a period far beyond the allotted years of man Mr. Gallatin retained
+the elasticity of his physical nature as well as his mental
+perspicacity. In middle age he was slight of figure, his height about
+five feet ten inches, his form compact and of nervous vigor. His
+complexion was Italian;[28] his expression keen; his nose long,
+prominent; his mouth small, fine cut, and mobile; his eyes hazel, and
+penetrative; his skull a model for the sculptor. Thus he appears in the
+portrait painted by Gilbert Stuart about the time that he took charge of
+the Treasury Department; he was then about forty years of age. In the
+fine portrait by William H. Powell, taken from life in 1843, and
+preserved in the gallery of the New York Historical Society, these
+characteristics appear in stronger outline. Monsieur de Bacourt,[29] the
+literary executor of Talleyrand, who was the French Ambassador to the
+United States in 1840, paid a visit to Mr. Gallatin in that year, and
+describes him as a "beau vieillard de quatre-vingt ans," who has fully
+preserved his faculties. Bacourt alludes to his remarkable face, with
+its clear, fine cut features, and his "physiognomie pleine de finesse;"
+and dwells also upon the ease and charm of his conversation.
+
+As his life slowly drew to its close, one after another of the few of
+his old friends who remained dropped from the road. Early in 1848 Adams
+fell in harness, on the floor of the House of Representatives; Lord
+Ashburton died in May. Finally, nearest, dearest of all, the companion
+of his triumphs and disappointments, the sharer of his honors and his
+joys, his wife, was taken from him by the relentless hand. The summer of
+1849 found him crushed by this last affliction, and awaiting his own
+summons of release. He was taken to Mount Bonaparte, the country-seat of
+his son-in-law, at Astoria on Long Island, where he died in his
+daughter's arms on Sunday, August 12, 1849. The funeral services were
+held in Trinity Church on the Tuesday following, and his body was laid
+to rest in the Nicholson vault,[30] in the old graveyard adjoining. The
+elegant monument erected during his lifetime is one of the attractive
+features of this venerable cemetery, in whose dust mingle the remains of
+the temple of no more elevated spirit than his own. The season was a
+terrible one--the cholera was raging, the city was deserted. In the
+general calamity private sorrow disappeared, or the occasion would have
+been marked by a demonstration of public grief and of public honor. As
+the tidings went from city to city, and country to country, the friends
+of science, of that universal wisdom which knows neither language nor
+race, paused in their investigations to pay respectful homage to his
+character, his intellect, and to that without which either or both in
+combination are inadequate to success--his labor in the field.
+
+On October 2, 1849, at the first meeting of the Historical Society
+after the death of Mr. Gallatin, Mr. Luther Bradish, the presiding
+officer, spoke of him in impressive words, as the last link connecting
+the present with the past. He dwelt upon the peculiar pleasure with
+which the presence of Mr. Gallatin was always hailed, and the peculiar
+interest it gave to the proceedings of the society, and many an eye was
+dimmed, as he recalled the venerable form, the beautifully classic head,
+the countenance ever beaming with intelligence, and summed up the long
+and useful career of the departed sage in these impressive words:--
+
+     "The name of Albert Gallatin is emphatically a name of history. Few
+     men have lived in any age whose biographies have been so intimately
+     connected with the history of their country. Living in one of the
+     most interesting periods of the world, a period of great events, of
+     the discussion of great principles and the settlement of great
+     interests, almost the whole of his long and active life was passed
+     in public service amidst those events and in those discussions....
+     For nearly half a century he was almost constantly employed in the
+     public service; almost every department of that service has
+     received the benefit of his extraordinary talents and his varied
+     and extensive and accurate knowledge. Whether in legislation, in
+     finance, or in diplomacy, he has been equally distinguished in all.
+     In all or in either he has had few equals and still fewer
+     superiors."
+
+To Jeremy Bentham Mr. Gallatin acknowledged himself indebted, as his
+master in the art of legislation; but from whatever ground he drew his
+maxims of government, they were reduced to harmony in the crucible of
+his own intelligence by the processes of that brain which Spurzheim
+pronounced capital,[31] and Dumont held to be the best head in America.
+In that massive and profound structure lay faculties of organization and
+administration which mark the Latin and Italian mind in its highest form
+of intellectual development.
+
+His moral excellence was no less conspicuous than his intellectual
+power. He had a profound sense of justice, a love of liberty, and an
+unfaltering belief in the capacity of the human race for self-rule.
+Versed in the learning of centuries, and familiar with every experiment
+of government, he was full of the liberal spirit of his age. To a higher
+degree than any American, native or foreign born, unless Franklin, with
+whose broad nature he had many traits in common, Albert Gallatin
+deserves the proud title, aimed at by many, reached by few, of Citizen
+of the World.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 22: An account of this expedition may be found in the
+publications of the Maryland Historical Society.]
+
+[Footnote 23:
+
+WASHINGTON, 29_th May_, 1826.
+
+SIR,--Mr. Stewart communicated to me your answer of 4th April last to
+the letter which, at my request, he had addressed to you; and I return
+you my thanks for your kind offer to forward the object in view,--one
+which is not, however, of a private nature but connected with what is
+intended to be a National work; and I have delayed writing in order to
+be able to send at the same time the papers herewith transmitted.
+
+It is at my suggestion that the Secretary of War has, with the
+approbation of the President, taken measures to collect comparative
+vocabularies of all the languages and dialects of the Indian tribes
+still existing within the United States. The circular is addressed to
+all the Indian superintendents and agents, and to the missionaries with
+whom the Department corresponds. But they have no agent with the
+Nottoways, and we are fortunate that you should have been disposed to
+lend your aid on this occasion.
+
+It is the intention of government that the result of these researches
+should be published, giving due credit to every individual who shall
+have assisted in a work that has been long expected from us, and which
+will be equally honorable to the persons concerned and to the country.
+It had been my intention to contribute my share in its further progress:
+this my approaching departure for Europe forbids. The inclosed papers,
+attending to the Notes and to the circular, are so full that I need not
+add any further explanation, and have only to request that you will have
+the goodness to transmit whatever vocabulary and other information you
+may obtain to Colonel Tho. L. McKinney, Office of Indian Affairs, under
+cover directed to the Secretary of War. Mr. McKinney will also be happy
+to answer any queries on the subject you may have to propose.
+
+I have the honor to be respectfully, sir,
+Your most obedient servant,
+ALBERT GALLATIN
+
+Mr. James Rochelle,
+Jerusalem, Southampton County, Virginia.
+_Communicated by J. H. Rochelle, Jerusalem, Virginia._]
+
+[Footnote 24: Among the most distinguished of those who have followed
+the pathway indicated by Mr. Gallatin was the late George Gibbs, an
+indefatigable student and an admirable ethnologist. His Chinook jargon
+was published by the Smithsonian Institution.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Mr. du Ponceau became president of the learned societies
+of Pennsylvania: the Historical Society and the American Philosophical
+Society.]
+
+[Footnote 26: His favorite novel was _The Antiquary_, which he read once
+a year. Novels, he said, should be read, the last chapter first, in
+order that appreciation of the style should not be lost in the interest
+excited by the story.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Mr. Gallatin's assertion, which corresponded with that of
+Jefferson, that Washington had naturally strong passions, but had
+attained complete mastery over them, is quoted by the Earl of Stanhope
+(Lord Mahon) in his famous eulogy of Washington's attributes.]
+
+[Footnote 28: The Gallatins claim to descend from one Callatinus, a
+Roman Consul.]
+
+[Footnote 29: _Souvenirs d'un Diplomate._ Paris, 1882.]
+
+[Footnote 30: This was the vault of the Witter family, a daughter of
+which Commodore Nicholson married.]
+
+[Footnote 31: "In my youth the fashion was to decide in conformity
+with Lavater's precepts; then came Camper's facial angle, which gave a
+decided superiority to the white man and monkey; and both have been
+superseded by the bumps of the skull. This criterion is that which suits
+me best, for Spurzheim declared I had a _capital_ head, which he might
+without flattery say to everybody." _Gallatin to Lewis T. Cist of
+Cincinnati, November_ 21, 1837.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Adams, Henry, calls treaty of Ghent the work of Gallatin, 324.
+
+Adams, John, announces election of Gallatin as senator, 60;
+  convenes Congress to consider relations with France, 132;
+  his message, 133; replies coolly to resolution of House, 136, 137;
+  remarks of McClanachan to, 138;
+  his message in 1797, 139;
+  visited by House to present answer, 140;
+  wishes to establish new foreign missions, 141;
+  informs Congress of French outrages, 147;
+  and of preparations for war, 147;
+  sends in X Y Z dispatches, 149;
+  sends message on French relations, 152, 153;
+  urges preparation for war, 155;
+  thanks House for support, 155;
+  delighted with support of Congress in 1799, 158;
+  congratulates Congress on settlement at Washington, 162;
+  supported for President by New England, 163;
+  in election of 1800, 165;
+  attributes distresses of Confederation to financial ignorance, 174;
+  his breach with Hamilton, 177.
+
+Adams, John Quincy, on results of Gallatin's proposed appointment as
+ secretary of state, 295;
+  meets Gallatin and Bayard at St. Petersburg, 302;
+  his training, comparison with Gallatin, 302, 303;
+  given new commission, 312;
+  differs with Clay over fisheries and Mississippi navigation, 323;
+  appointed minister to England, 326;
+  advised by Gallatin concerning commercial treaty, 333;
+  appointed secretary of state, 334;
+  informed by Gallatin of disadvantages of a war with Spain, 336, 337;
+  his arguments in Apollon case disregarded by Gallatin, 338;
+  his indignation, 338;
+  writes opinion of Gallatin in his diary, 333, 339;
+  described by Gallatin to Badollet, 339, 356;
+  his pugnacity complained of by Crawford, 339;
+  negotiates treaty with De Neuville, 340;
+  comments of Gallatin upon, 340;
+  appoints Rush secretary of treasury, 342;
+  offers mission to England to Gallatin, 342, 343;
+  promises Gallatin _carte blanche_, but gives him full instructions, 343;
+  his instructions to Rush printed, 345;
+  warns Gallatin to yield nothing, 346;
+  congratulates Gallatin on his success, 348;
+  candidate for presidency, 356;
+  elected by House of Representatives, 358;
+  at meeting of New York Historical Society, 384;
+  Gallatin's friendly greeting to, 384;
+  eulogizes Gallatin, 384, 385;
+  his changing party compared with Gallatin's steadiness, 385;
+  death, 386.
+
+Adams, William, on English peace commission, 316.
+
+Addington, Henry, on Clay's tone as diplomat, 345.
+
+Adet, P. A., French minister, imperils sympathy for France by impudence
+ to Washington, 128;
+  condemned by Federalists, 134;
+  recommends tricolor, 153.
+
+Aix-la-Chapelle, Congress of, 337.
+
+Alexander, Emperor of Russia, authorizes renewal of mediation, 308;
+  fails to inform Romanzoff of Castlereagh's refusal, 311, 312;
+  vain efforts of Crawford to secure interview with, 315;
+  promises Lafayette to use influence in behalf of United States, 315;
+  has interview with Gallatin, 315;
+  informs Gallatin that he can do nothing more, 316.
+
+Algiers, treaty with, 117, 118.
+
+Alien Bill, debate and passage in House, 152;
+  petitions against, in Congress, 157.
+
+Allegheny County, its part in Whiskey Insurrection, 49, 68, 78, 96;
+  elects Gallatin to Congress, 93, 127.
+
+Allegre, Sophie, marries Gallatin, her character and death, 30.
+
+Allegre, William, father-in-law of Gallatin, 30.
+
+Allen, ----, in debate on French relations, 136;
+  attacks Gallatin as a French agent, 150.
+
+Allston, Joseph W., at free trade convention, 1831, 241.
+
+American Ethnological Society, founded by Gallatin, 379;
+  its transactions, 379, 380.
+
+Ames, Fisher, leading orator of Federalists, 99;
+  his speech on the Jay treaty, 120, 121;
+  reports answer to President's Message, 128;
+  defends it against Giles, 129;
+  leaves Congress, his oratory, 133.
+
+Anderson, Professor, member of "The Club," 367.
+
+Anti-Federalists, call convention to organize in favor of amending
+ Constitution, 37;
+  adopt resolutions to organize throughout the State, 39, 40;
+  recommend amendments by petition, 40.
+
+Apollon, seizure of, explained by Gallatin and Adams, 338.
+
+Army, reduction of, advocated by Gallatin, 108, 123, 129, 130, 186, 188;
+  his course defended, 216.
+
+Arnold, Benedict, effect of his treason, 12;
+  campaign of Lafayette against, 371.
+
+Ashburton, Lord. See Baring, Alexander.
+
+Astor, John Jacob, assists Gallatin to float loan, 214;
+  wishes destruction of United States Bank, 259;
+  subscribes capital of bank on condition that Gallatin manage its
+   affairs, 269;
+  his fur enterprise, 287;
+  offered protection by Jefferson, 288;
+  his settlement at Astoria, 288;
+  unable to persuade Madison to support him, 288.
+
+Astoria, foundation and history of, 288.
+
+Atwater, ----, member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+
+Bache, Franklin, educated at Geneva, 4;
+  attacks Washington as a defaulter, in "Aurora," 104.
+
+Bache, Richard, letter to, furnished by Franklin to Gallatin, 11.
+
+Bacourt, M. de, describes Gallatin in old age, 386.
+
+Badollet, Jean, college friend of Gallatin, 5;
+  Arcadian schemes of, 9;
+  letter of Gallatin to, 9;
+  letters of Serre to, on life in Maine, 15, 25;
+  informs Gallatin of troubles in Geneva, 25;
+  at Gallatin's invitation, joins him in America, 25, 26;
+  established at Greensburg, 27;
+  letter of Gallatin to, 43;
+  with Gallatin at anti-excise convention, 52;
+  advised by Gallatin to avoid United States marshal, 55;
+  letter of Gallatin to, on French Revolution, 56;
+  letter of Gallatin to, on his wife, 59;
+  instructed by Gallatin to secure reelection of unseated members of
+   legislature, 95;
+  given an office by Gallatin, 287, 326;
+  remark of Gallatin to, 299;
+  letter of Gallatin to, on J. Q. Adams, 339;
+  takes shares in Gallatin's land scheme, 361;
+  manages store for Gallatin, 362;
+  letters of Gallatin to, 365, 370.
+
+Balbi, quotes Gallatin in his Atlas, 374.
+
+Baldwin, Abraham, on committee on finance, 106.
+
+Bank of North America, established by Morris, 172, 248;
+  its purpose, 248;
+  organization, 248, 249;
+  difficulties of starting, 249, 260;
+  its services, 249;
+  jealousy of Pennsylvania toward, 250.
+
+Bank of United States, established by Hamilton, 175, 250, 251;
+  its organization, 251, 252;
+  borrowed from, by Gallatin, 204;
+  petitions for a re-charter, 252;
+  Gallatin's report in favor of, 252-254;
+  a re-charter refused, 231, 254;
+  its value, 255;
+  opinion of Gallatin on, 255;
+  controls state banks, 259;
+  desire of Astor to crush, 259;
+  remits specie to foreign stockholders, 260;
+  its dissolution causes panic, 262, 263;
+  reincorporation proposed, 265;
+  vetoed, then approved, by Madison, 265;
+  its subsequent history, 266;
+  helps resumption of specie payments, 267;
+  presidency of, declined by Gallatin, 268;
+  deposits removed from, by Taney, 269;
+  accepts charter from Pennsylvania, 271;
+  its subsequent career, 271;
+  fails in 1839, 276;
+  weakness of Madison in 1812 in allowing its dissolution, 296.
+
+Bank, National, of New York, connection of Gallatin with, 269-277.
+
+Banks, state, difficulty of controlling their issues, 256;
+  their evil effects, 257;
+  status in 1811, 258;
+  increase after termination of Bank of United States, 261, 262;
+  suspend payment in 1815, 262;
+  agree to resume, 267;
+  supported by second Bank of United States, 267;
+  Gallatin's "Considerations on," etc., 268;
+  connection of Gallatin with, 269-277;
+  speculation craze of, in 1836, 271, 272;
+  suspend payment in 1837, 272;
+  conventions of, to prepare for resumption, 273-275;
+  aided by Treasury, 275; "Suggestions" of Gallatin, 277.
+
+Barbour, Philip P., presides over free trade convention in 1831, 241.
+
+Baring, Alexander, explains to Gallatin British reasons for refusing
+ Russian mediation, 306, 307;
+  reply of Gallatin, 309;
+  urges Gallatin to visit England, 311;
+  requested by Gallatin to send passports, 313;
+  his mission to America, 349, 350;
+  his manner of negotiation with Webster, 350;
+  visits Gallatin, 350;
+  comparison with Gallatin, 350;
+  his death, 386.
+
+Barings, connection with Louisiana purchase, 193, 195;
+  competition of Bank of United States with, 271;
+  letter of Gallatin to, 305.
+
+Barras, Comte, encouraged by Napoleon's success to bold measures against
+ United States, 132.
+
+Bartlett, John Russell, gives anecdotes of Gallatin, 13, 22.
+
+Bartlett, ----, member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+Bathurst, Lord, promises to appoint peace commissioners, 314;
+  reopens negotiations, 319;
+  insists on possession of part of Maine, 321.
+
+Bayard, James A., elected to Congress, 132;
+  on legislative encroachments on executive, 143;
+  on resolution to furnish foreign correspondence, 156;
+  defends Sedition Law by a clever amendment, 159;
+  moves committee to arrange for balloting in 1800, 166;
+  accompanies Gallatin as peace commissioner, 301, 302;
+  willing to accept an informal renunciation of impressment, 305;
+  goes to Amsterdam, 312;
+  on new commission to treat directly, 312;
+  visits London, 313;
+  asks Monroe for authority to negotiate anywhere, 314;
+  appointed minister to Russia, 326.
+
+Baylies, ----, his report on Western territory complained of by England,
+ 345.
+
+Bentham, Jeremy, works translated by Dumont, 5;
+  influences Gallatin, 388.
+
+Bentson, ----, on Astor's hostility to United States Bank, 259.
+
+Berlin and Milan decrees, negotiations for compensation for seizures
+ under, 333.
+
+Biddle, C. C., at free trade convention in 1831, 241.
+
+Biddle, Nicholas, in panic of 1837, 275.
+
+Blount, William, on committee on finance, 107;
+  impeached, 138.
+
+Bonaparte, Jerome, his flight to America, 332.
+
+Bonaparte, Napoleon, his precocity compared to that of Gallatin, 32;
+  effect of his Italian successes on French policy, 132, 139;
+  adopts conciliatory tone, 160;
+  issues Milan decree, 229;
+  seen by Gallatin during Hundred Days, 326;
+  American sympathy for, explained by Gallatin, 331.
+
+Boorman, James, at free trade convention in 1831, 241.
+
+Borgo, Pozzo di, compared to Gallatin, 32.
+
+Boston, visit of Gallatin to, 12-14, 17;
+  Puritanical society in, 13;
+  prejudice against French, 13;
+  Gallatin's opinion of, 18;
+  protests against Jay treaty, 103.
+
+Botts, John M., letter of Gallatin to, on bank, 256.
+
+Boundary, northeast, in treaty of Ghent, 321, 322;
+  discussed in 1826, 343;
+  referred to arbitration, 347;
+  argument concerning, prepared by Gallatin, 349;
+  decision of King of Netherlands rejected by United States, 349;
+  documents concerning, published by Gallatin, 349;
+  settled by Ashburton treaty, 350.
+
+Bourdillon, ----, takes share in Gallatin's land scheme, 361.
+
+Bourne, Shearjashub, on committee on finance, 106.
+
+Brackenridge, Judge H. H., on Gallatin's part in anti-excise agitation,
+ 50;
+  in Washington County, advises moderation, 69;
+  an authority for history of insurrection, 71;
+  his character and policy, 71;
+  leads Pittsburgh committee to urge moderation upon rioters, 72;
+  describes Bradford's behavior, 72;
+  his estimate of numbers under arms, 72;
+  compares excitement with that in 1765 and 1775, 74;
+  at Parkinson's Ferry meeting, 78;
+  supports Gallatin's efforts to prevent rebellion, 80, 82;
+  on committee to confer with United States commissioners, 81;
+  describes Gallatin's speech, 82;
+  claims credit for preventing civil war, 84;
+  on threats of secession, 86;
+  defeated by Gallatin for Congress, 93.
+
+Bradford, David, represents Washington County in anti-excise
+ proceedings, 51;
+  elected to legislature, 54;
+  low opinion of Gallatin concerning, 54;
+  tries to shirk responsibility, 69;
+  then determines on extreme measures, robs mail, 69;
+  calls for armed resistance, 70;
+  unable to countermand order, 70;
+  assumes office of major-general, 72;
+  his harangue to the insurgents, 73;
+  at meeting at Parkinson's Ferry, 78;
+  advocates armed resistance, 79;
+  on committee on resolutions, 80;
+  named to confer with United States commissioners, 81;
+  urges rejection of their terms, 81, 82;
+  excepted from amnesty, flies from the country, 84, 85.
+
+Bradford, James, in anti-excise convention, 52.
+
+Bradford, ----, member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+Bradish, Luther, his eulogy of Gallatin, 388.
+
+Breading, Nicholas, in Pennsylvania ratifying convention, 35.
+
+Breckenridge, John, his brief career, 355.
+
+Brevoort, ----, member of "The Club," 367.
+
+Brodhead, John Romeyn, orator at fortieth anniversary of New York
+ Historical Society, 384.
+
+Buck, Daniel, on committee on finance, 107.
+
+Burke, Edmund, on place of revenue in the state, 218.
+
+Burr, Aaron, his connection with Dayton, 104;
+  in presidential election of 1800, 163, 164, 166, 167;
+  alienated from Jefferson by refusal to appoint Davis, 282.
+
+
+Cabinet, its lack of financial cooeperation under Jefferson, 188;
+  criticises Jefferson's messages, 283;
+  weekly meetings of, suggested by Gallatin, 283;
+  absence of system in, 284;
+  dissensions and reorganization under Madison, 296, 297.
+
+Cabot, George, on committee to consider Gallatin's eligibility to
+ senate, 61.
+
+Calhoun, John C., reports plan for a national bank, 265;
+  ascribes Gallatin's disregard of Adams's arguments in Apollon case to
+   "pride," 338;
+  Gallatin's opinion of, 355;
+  elected Vice-President, 358;
+  on Gallatin's ethnological studies, 378.
+
+California, discovery of gold in, 353, 354.
+
+Campbell, George W., furnished with report by Gallatin on injuries of
+ Great Britain, 292, 303;
+  secretary of treasury, 312.
+
+Canning, George, his policy toward United States, 225, 295, 344;
+  attitude of Gallatin toward, in negotiation, 345;
+  death, 347.
+
+Carnahan, Dr., describes entry of Whiskey Rebellion prisoners into
+ Cannonsburg, 91.
+
+Castlereagh, Lord, discourages offer of Russia to mediate, 304;
+  gives assurance of safety to cartel-ship, 307;
+  refuses second offer of mediation, 311;
+  offers to deal directly, 312;
+  member of cabinet most favorable to America, 314;
+  advises English commissioners to moderate demands, 319;
+  approves treaty of Ghent, 326;
+  arranges commercial convention with Gallatin, 326;
+  expresses friendly feelings, 335.
+
+Cazenove, ----, takes shares in Gallatin's land scheme, 361.
+
+Charles X., in Revolution of 1830, 370, 372.
+
+Chase, Salmon P., negotiations with Treasury Note Committee, 196 and
+ note;
+  follows Gallatin's treasury-note plan, 209;
+  organizes national banking system, 256.
+
+Chateaubriand, succeeds Montmorenci, 340;
+  negotiates unsuccessfully with Gallatin, 341;
+  quotes Gallatin's statement of Cuban question, 346.
+
+Cheriot, ----, takes share in Gallatin's land scheme, 361.
+
+Chesapeake, captured by Leopard, 224.
+
+Chevalier, Michel, his studies on money, 278.
+
+Cheves, Langdon, at free trade convention in 1831, 241.
+
+Choteau, Pierre Louis, meets Gallatin, his influence over Indians, 287,
+ 374.
+
+Circourt, Count de, reviews Gallatin's "Synopsis of the Indian Tribes,"
+ 378.
+
+Civil service, monopolized by Federalists, 280;
+  demands of Republicans for a share in, 281;
+  Gallatin's opinion of appointments to and conduct of, 281;
+  intention of Jefferson to give one half of, to Republicans, 282.
+
+Clare, Thomas, his house the headquarters of Gallatin in 1784, 22, 24;
+  rents Gallatin a house, 25.
+
+Clay, Henry, denounces Gallatin for advocating free trade, 242;
+  apologizes, 242;
+  on peace commission, 312;
+  arrives at Gottenburg, 313;
+  corresponds with Gallatin concerning place of negotiation, 314;
+  differs with Adams over Mississippi navigation and fisheries, 323;
+  joins Gallatin in England, 326;
+  urges Gallatin to accept mission to Panama Congress, 342;
+  letter of Gallatin to, on instructions as minister to England, 343;
+  tone of his diplomatic correspondence, 345;
+  Gallatin's opinion of, 356;
+  resignation of Gallatin in his favor, 358;
+  secures election of Adams, 358.
+
+Clinton, George, marriage of his daughter to Genet, 102.
+
+"Club, The," in New York, Gallatin's membership of, 366, 367.
+
+Coast survey, established, 290.
+
+Coinage, debate concerning, in Congress, 140;
+  regulated by Morris, 172.
+
+Coles, Edward, letter of Gallatin to, 284.
+
+Confederation, Articles of, political conditions under, 33, 34.
+
+Congress, adopts amendments to Constitution suggested by New York and
+ Virginia, 40;
+  passes excise law, 49;
+  modifies it, 52;
+  gives state courts jurisdiction in excise cases, 67;
+  receives tricolor from France, 130;
+  complained of by Jefferson as weak, 138;
+  suspends commercial intercourse with France, 151;
+  passes acts authorizing naval defense, 153;
+  presence of Washington, Pinckney, and Hamilton at, in 1798, 155;
+  speech of Adams to, 155;
+  responsibility for war thrown upon, by Madison, 205;
+  authorizes loan in 1812, 209, 212;
+  damages Treasury by procrastination, 212;
+  supports Gallatin's policy of extinguishing debt, 215;
+  repeals internal revenue act, 221;
+  passes embargo, 225;
+  extends terms of credit on revenue bonds, 226;
+  refuses to recharter the bank, 231, 254;
+  declares war, imposes increased duties, 234;
+  reimposes internal taxes, 236;
+  adopts non-importation against England and France, 292;
+  orders out naval force, 294;
+  repeals embargo, 294.
+
+Constable, John, at free trade convention in 1831, 241.
+
+Constellation, defeats La Vengeance, 160.
+
+Constitution of Pennsylvania, convention called to revise, 40, 41;
+  its membership and ability, 42, 43.
+
+Constitution of the United States, adopted, 35;
+  struggle over ratification in Pennsylvania, 35;
+  movement in favor of new convention to amend, 36-40;
+  amended, 40;
+  power of Representatives to appropriate, 109;
+  debate in Congress on relation of treaty power to House of
+   Representatives, 110-115;
+  argument of Washington on treaty power, 114, 115;
+  debate in House on relation of Executive to Congress, 142-147;
+  power of Senate to require treasury reports, 161;
+  in relation to state bills of credit, 257;
+  question of power of United States to acquire territory, 285;
+  in relation to National University, 291;
+  to annexation of Texas, 351.
+
+Cook, Edward, presides over meeting of whiskey insurgents at Parkinson's
+ Ferry, 79;
+  indorses resolution to submit to terms of United States commissioners,
+   83.
+
+Cooper, Dr. Samuel, interested in Gallatin through Madame Pictet, 17.
+
+Couronne, ----, takes shares in Gallatin's land scheme, 361.
+
+Crawford, William H., follows Gallatin's treasury policy, 215;
+  at Gallatin's suggestion, urges Emperor
+  again to mediate, 315;
+  complains of Adams's pugnacity, 339;
+  wishes Gallatin to stand for Vice-President, 341;
+  looked upon by Gallatin as strongest leader after the triumvirate,
+   355;
+  supported by Gallatin, Jefferson, and Madison against Adams, 356;
+  stricken with paralysis, 357;
+  nominated for President by caucus, 357;
+  defeated by Adams, 358.
+
+Cuba, avowed intention of United States to prevent English seizure of,
+ by war if necessary, 346.
+
+Cumberland Road, reported to Congress in 1807, 290.
+
+
+Dallas, Alexander J., his career compared to that of Gallatin, 28, 58;
+  his parentage, 58;
+  secretary of state for Pennsylvania, 58;
+  friendship with Gallatin, 58;
+  excursion with Gallatin, 58, 59;
+  describes to Gallatin his experiences with militia in suppressing
+   Whiskey Rebellion, 92;
+  follows Gallatin's loan policy, 215;
+  regrets absence of internal taxes, 236;
+  proposes a national bank, 265;
+  resigns, 266.
+
+Dallas, Mrs. A. J., on excursion with her husband and Gallatin, 58, 59.
+
+Dallas, George M., accompanies Gallatin to Europe, 301;
+  sent to London, his instructions, 310;
+  informs Gallatin of English offer to treat directly, 311;
+  takes dispatch to Monroe, 318.
+
+Davis, Garrett, letter of Gallatin to, on manifest destiny, 352.
+
+Davis, Matthew L., quarrel between Jefferson and Burr over his
+ appointment, 282.
+
+Dawson, John, on Sedition Law, 162.
+
+Dayton, Jonathan, elected speaker of House by Democrats, 98;
+  anti-British in feeling, 104;
+  not influenced by connection with Burr, 104;
+  reelected speaker, 132;
+  introduces resolution on Adams's message, 134;
+  joins Federalists after X Y Z affair, 149;
+  refuses to answer Gallatin, 153;
+  vote of thanks to, 158.
+
+Debt, public, payment by public lands urged by Gallatin, 122;
+  its permanence condemned by Gallatin, 126;
+  controversy between Gallatin and Smith as to increase of, 126;
+  attempt of Continental Congress to investigate, 171;
+  attempts of Morris to secure its funding, 172, 173;
+  funded by Hamilton, 174, 175;
+  increased under Wolcott, 178;
+  creation of domestic loans, 178;
+  Gallatin's subdivision of, 184, 185;
+  its extinction Gallatin's main desire, 186, 188, 198, 203, 208;
+  stated by Gallatin in 1801-2, 191;
+  plan for its discharging, 191;
+  actual reduction of, 192;
+  increased through Louisiana purchase, 192, 193, 195;
+  new funds, 195, 196;
+  funding of debt in 1807, 198;
+  statement regarding, in 1808, 202;
+  its increase during war foreseen by Gallatin, 203;
+  reduction in 1812, 205;
+  loan of 1812, 209;
+  declines below par, 210;
+  revives, 211;
+  loan of twenty-one millions, 212;
+  increase in 1816, 215;
+  Gallatin's policy toward, continued by Dallas and Crawford, 215;
+  eventually extinguished, 215, 269, 271;
+  absence regretted by Woodbury, 271.
+
+De Fersen, his correspondence proves guilt of Louis XVI., 57.
+
+De Lolme, ----, school companion of Gallatin, 5.
+
+Democratic party. See Republican party especially, 358-360.
+
+De Neuville, Hyde, French minister, demands dismissal of insolent
+ postmaster, 333;
+  negotiates commercial convention with Adams, 340.
+
+De Rham, ----, member of "The Club," 367.
+
+Dexter, Samuel, succeeds Wolcott in Treasury Department, 177;
+  consents to hold over until appointment of successor, 181.
+
+Diplomatic history, mission of Genet to United States, 57, 102;
+  Jay's treaty with England, 102, 103, 117;
+  Fauchet's dealings with Randolph, 103;
+  Wayne's treaty with Indians, 117;
+  Pinckney's treaty with Spain, 117;
+  expulsion of Pinckney from France, 132;
+  X Y Z affair and consequences, 149, 152, 153;
+  events leading up to war of 1812, 295;
+  offer of Russia to mediate, 299;
+  mission of Gallatin, Bayard, and Adams to Russia, 301, 303;
+  correspondence of Gallatin with Baring, 305-307, 309;
+  renewed offers by Russia, 308;
+  again refused by England, 311;
+  offer of England to treat directly, 311;
+  appointment of a new commission, 312;
+  place of negotiation, 314;
+  futile appeal of Lafayette to Emperor to mediate, 315, 316;
+  appointment of English commissioners, 316;
+  exorbitant English demands, 317;
+  suspension of negotiations, 318;
+  alteration of British tone, 319;
+  resumption of negotiations and refusal by Americans of English demands,
+   319;
+  further English demands for cession of territory refused, 321;
+  discussion over boundaries, fisheries, and Mississippi navigation, 322,
+   323;
+  these points abandoned, 323;
+  article against slave trade adopted, 323;
+  conclusion of treaty, 324;
+  part played by Gallatin, 324, 325;
+  commercial convention with England, 326, 327;
+  mission of Gallatin to France, 330-341;
+  negotiations over French captures under Berlin and Milan decrees, 332,
+   333;
+  over an impudent postmaster, 333;
+  negotiations with Holland, 334;
+  commercial convention with England, 334, 335;
+  negotiations with France over Apollon case, 338;
+  commercial convention with France, 340;
+  failure to settle American claims, 341;
+  Gallatin's mission to England, 343-347;
+  instructions, 343;
+  negotiations with Canning, 345, 346;
+  conclusion of convention with Goderich's ministry, 347;
+  Ashburton treaty negotiations, 349, 350.
+
+Disunion, threatened in 1795, 116;
+  planned by New England in 1812, 213.
+
+Duane, William, intimate with Jefferson, 286;
+  abuses Gallatin in "Aurora," 286, 297;
+  appointed adjutant-general by Madison, 299.
+
+Duby, ----, takes shares in Gallatin's land scheme, 361.
+
+Dumont, Etienne, college friend of Gallatin, his subsequent career, 5;
+  Gallatin's opinion of, 5;
+  invited by Gallatin to come to America, 26;
+  on shape of Gallatin's head, 389.
+
+Du Ponceau, Peter Stephen, friend of Gallatin, his philological studies
+ upon Indians, 376, 377.
+
+D'Yvernois, proposes to transport University of Geneva to United States,
+ 291;
+  receives shares in Gallatin's land scheme, 362.
+
+
+Edgar, James, on committee of whiskey insurgents to confer with United
+  States commissioners, 81;
+  supports Gallatin, 82;
+  presides over last meeting at Parkinson's Ferry, 89.
+
+Elliott, ----, on controversy between Wolcott and Gallatin, as to
+  surplus, 190, 191.
+
+Ellsworth, Oliver, on committee to consider Gallatin's eligibility to
+  Senate, 61.
+
+Embargo, opposed by Gallatin, 201;
+  its effect stated by him, 201, 202;
+  adopted as answer to Orders in Council, 225;
+  its enforcement or abandonment urged by Gallatin, 228, 229, 230, 291;
+  enforced, 292;
+  repealed, 294.
+
+Emlen, George, at free trade convention in 1831, 241.
+
+England, anger against, at time of Jay treaty, 103;
+  renews provision order, 103;
+  danger of war with, 116, 118, 120;
+  hard pressed by France in 1797, 139;
+  its friendship more dangerous than France's enmity, 163;
+  adopts Orders in Council, 201, 225;
+  commercial policy toward United States, 224, 225, 295;
+  danger of war with, 224, 229;
+  Madison's preference for, 295;
+  events leading up to war with, 295, 296;
+  mistaken view of Gallatin concerning its diplomacy, 304;
+  unwilling to tolerate Russian mediation, 304, 306, 311;
+  its policy explained by Baring, 306, 307;
+  offers to treat directly, 311;
+  willing to push on war after fall of Napoleon, 313, 316;
+  hopes to divide United States, 313;
+  appoints commissioners, 316;
+  makes exorbitant demands, 317;
+  its policy modified by Castlereagh, 319;
+  demands cession of territory, 321;
+  loses interest in war, 322;
+  rejects article on impressment, 322;
+  negotiation of convention with, in 1815, 334, 335;
+  at Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, 337;
+  mission of Gallatin to, 343-347;
+  complains of tone of American diplomacy, 344, 345;
+  negotiations with, 345, 346;
+  agrees to renew commercial convention, 347;
+  refuses to negotiate on impressment, 347;
+  makes Ashburton treaty, 349, 350.
+
+Eppes, John W., letter of Gallatin to, on public lands, 239.
+
+Erskine, D. M., his negotiations, 295.
+
+Etsko, ----, Polish refugee, helped by Gallatin, 372.
+
+Eustis, William, advised by Gallatin concerning treaty with Netherlands,
+ 333, 334.
+
+Ewbank, ----, member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+Excise (see Whiskey Insurrection), recommended by Hamilton, 175.
+
+
+Fauchet, his dealings with Randolph, 103;
+  condemned by Federalists, 134.
+
+Fayette County, settlement of Gallatin, 22, 26, 27;
+  life in, 28, 43, 67;
+  elects Gallatin to legislature, 44;
+  in Whiskey Insurrection, 49, 51, 52, 68, 78, 85, 96;
+  reelects Gallatin, 93, 95;
+  visited by Lafayette, 365.
+
+Fazzi, ----, takes share in Gallatin's land scheme, 361.
+
+Federalist party, its origin, 57;
+  prejudiced against Gallatin by his resolution demanding information from
+   Hamilton, 64, 65;
+  opposes his election to Congress, 95;
+  reconstructs cabinet, 97, 98;
+  its leaders in House, 98, 99;
+  attitude toward France and England, 100, 101;
+  charged with being bribed by England, 103;
+  in debate on appropriating power, 108, 109;
+  in debate on treaty power, 111-115;
+  defends Jay treaty, 118;
+  strengthened in fourth Congress, 128;
+  retains nominal majority in fifth Congress, 133;
+  in debate on French relations, 134-136;
+  in debate on checks on executive, 143-147;
+  strengthened by X Y Z affair, 149;
+  commits mistakes, 151, 152; its badge, 153;
+  controls sixth Congress, 158;
+  refuses to repeal Sedition Law, 159;
+  defeated in 1800, 163;
+  forced to choose between Burr and Jefferson, 164;
+  bargain with Jefferson, 164;
+  its possible plans for defeating any choice, 165;
+  and for nominating a president pro tempore, 165;
+  allows Jefferson's election, 166, 167;
+  its share in building country, 169;
+  breach in, 177;
+  enjoys Republican inconsistency, 237;
+  monopolizes offices, 280;
+  extinguished by battle of New Orleans, 358.
+
+Few, William, connected by marriage with Gallatin, 59.
+
+Finances, efforts of Gallatin to secure minute supervision of by
+ Congress, 64, 106, 107;
+  efforts to establish permanent appropriations, 107;
+  appropriations, power of Congress over, 108, 109;
+  their necessity to successful government, 170;
+  finances of the Revolution under Morris, 170-174;
+  under treasury board, 173, 174;
+  under Hamilton, 174-176;
+  under Wolcott, 176-178;
+  under Gallatin, 186-215;
+  sketch of, by Gallatin, 184;
+  "View of," by Gallatin, 185;
+  preliminary sketch on Gallatin's assuming office, 186;
+  estimate of sources of wealth, 187;
+  estimate for 1801, 190;
+  denial of a surplus, 190, 191;
+  plan for discharging debt, 191, 192;
+  its execution, 192, 194;
+  report for 1803 on reduction of debt, 195;
+  Louisiana purchase, 193, 195;
+  place of payment of principal and interest, 195, 196;
+  addition to sinking fund, 196;
+  report for first four years, 197;
+  estimates of revenue for Jefferson's second term, 198;
+  conversion of debt, 198;
+  full treasury in 1807, 198;
+  Gallatin's consideration of military value of surplus, 199;
+  on war revenue, 200, 201;
+  effect of embargo, 201;
+  sources of revenue, 204;
+  deficiency in 1809, 204;
+  report of 1811, 205;
+  demand of Gallatin for internal revenue, 206;
+  war estimates, 206-209;
+  including "treasury notes," 207, 210;
+  loan of 1812, 209;
+  estimates for 1812, 210;
+  report for 1812, 211;
+  success of loan, 210, 211;
+  report of loan of twenty-one millions, 212;
+  stock not taken by New England and Southern States, 213;
+  saved by Parish, Girard, and Astor, 213, 214;
+  review of Gallatin's influence, 215-216;
+  table of revenue and expenditure, 217;
+  revenue established by Hamilton, 217;
+  its character, 218;
+  and amount, 219;
+  permanent estimate of, 220;
+  internal revenue retained by Gallatin, 220;
+  his proposed expenditures, 220;
+  repeal of internal revenue, 221;
+  increased income, 221;
+  establishment of Mediterranean fund, 222;
+  income during Jefferson's first term, 223;
+  increased estimates of Gallatin, 223;
+  internal improvements planned, 224;
+  doubling of duties recommended as a war measure, 225;
+  effect of embargo on revenue, 225, 227;
+  review of revenue during Jefferson's administrations, 226, 227;
+  surplus in 1808, 226;
+  internal improvements advocated by Jefferson, 226, 227;
+  estimates of receipts for 1809, 228;
+  report of Gallatin to Congress on need for new revenues, 229;
+  vagueness of Madison concerning, 229, 230;
+  report for 1809, 230;
+  refusal of Congress to re-charter bank, 231;
+  report for 1810, 231;
+  report of Gallatin in January, 1812, 232;
+  proposal to impose internal taxes, 234;
+  increased war duties, 234;
+  war budget for 1813, 235;
+  internal taxes, their history, 235;
+  reimposed by Congress, 236;
+  receipts from, 237;
+  public lands, receipts from, 238, 239;
+  administration of Treasury under
+  Gallatin, 244-246;
+  history of Bank of North America, 248-250;
+  of Bank of United States, 250-255;
+  panic of 1815, 262-264;
+  second United States Bank, 265-268;
+  resumption of specie payment, 267;
+  report of Gallatin on ratio of gold and silver, 268;
+  "Considerations on Currency and Banking," 268;
+  diminution of debt in 1832, 269;
+  removal of deposits from Bank of United States, 269, 270;
+  extinction of debt by Woodbury, 270, 271;
+  distribution of surplus among States, 271;
+  inflation in 1836, 272;
+  panic of 1837, 272, 273.
+
+Findley, James, in Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention, 43;
+  represents Fayette County in legislature, 44.
+
+Findley, William, describes Whiskey Insurrection, 71;
+  at Parkinson's Ferry meeting, 78;
+  describes Gallatin's speech, 83;
+  on threats of secession, 86;
+  takes resolutions to Washington urging him to stop march of troops,
+   89;
+  describes seizure of prisoners, 90.
+
+Fish, Preserved, at free trade convention in 1831, 241.
+
+Fisheries, discussed in treaty of Ghent, 322, 323;
+  unfavorable settlement of question in 1818, 335.
+
+Florida, question of its annexation, 285.
+
+Forsyth, John, asks Gallatin's advice as to Smithson's bequest, 378.
+
+Fox, C. J., his precocity compared to Gallatin's, 32.
+
+France, sympathy of Republicans for, 116;
+  sends tricolor to Congress, 130;
+  its policy in Revolution, 131;
+  situation in 1796, 131;
+  endeavors to get aid of United States, 131;
+  determines to coerce it, 132;
+  refuses to receive Pinckney, 132;
+  policy of Adams toward, 137;
+  success in 1797, 139;
+  danger of war with, in 1798, 147;
+  question of war with, debated in Congress, 148-151;
+  non-intercourse with, 151, 159, 160;
+  adopts conciliatory measures, 160;
+  commercial convention with, 162;
+  adopts Milan decree, 229;
+  mission of Gallatin to, 331-341;
+  refuses to pay for seizures under Berlin and Milan decrees, 333;
+  urges peace with Spain, 336;
+  offers to mediate with United States between Spain and her colonies,
+   336;
+  conduct at Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, 337;
+  Apollon case, 338;
+  commercial convention with, 340;
+  fails to settle claims, 340, 341;
+  Revolution of 1830 in, 370, 371, 372.
+
+Franklin, Benjamin, gives Gallatin letter to Richard Bache, 11;
+  compared to Gallatin, 389.
+
+Frederick, Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, friend of Madame Voltaire, 7;
+  sends her a portrait, 7;
+  sells troops to England in American war, 8;
+  called a tyrant by Gallatin, 8.
+
+Free trade, advocated by Gallatin, 240;
+  becomes a party question in 1832, 240;
+  convention in favor of, 241;
+  Gallatin's memorial in behalf of, 241, 242;
+  subsequent history of, 242, 243.
+
+French Revolution, premonitions of, in Europe, 6;
+  Gallatin's opinion of, in 1794, 56, 57;
+  its reaction on America, 57, 100;
+  attitude of parties toward, 101, 102;
+  its effect described by Gallatin, 327, 328.
+
+
+Gallatin, Abraham, grandfather of Albert, 2;
+  lives at Pregny, 7;
+  friend of Voltaire, 7.
+
+Gallatin, Albert, his place in United States history, 1;
+  birth and ancestry, 2;
+  adopted by Mlle. Pictet, 2;
+  his schooling and home training, 2, 3;
+  benefits from cosmopolitan society of Geneva, 4;
+  academic friendships, 4, 5;
+  restless, although not ambitious, 5;
+  discontented with political conditions, 6;
+  visits Voltaire, 7, 8;
+  refuses offer of commission in Hessian service, 8;
+  quarrels with grandmother, 8;
+  plans to find freedom in America, 9, 10;
+  leaves Geneva secretly, 9;
+  plans to rise by land speculation and commerce, 10;
+  at Nantes receives letters from family, 10, 11;
+  relations with guardian, 11;
+  invests money in tea, 12;
+  voyage to Boston, 12;
+  finds difficulty in selling tea, 12;
+  finds Boston bigoted and unfriendly, 13;
+  his walk to Blue Hill, 13;
+  encounter with inquisitive landlord, 13, 14;
+  persuaded by Madame De Lesdernier, makes trading voyage to Machias,
+   14;
+  frontier life there, 15, 16;
+  commands earthwork at Passamaquoddy, 16;
+  meets La Perouse, 16;
+  returns to Boston and teaches French, 17;
+  recommended by Mlle. Pictet to Dr. Cooper, 17;
+  teaches French successfully in Harvard College, 17, 18;
+  glad to leave Boston at conclusion of war, 18;
+  visits New York, 18;
+  meets Savary, 19;
+  dissolves partnership with Serre, 19;
+  meets Pelatiah Webster at Philadelphia, 19;
+  accompanies Savary to Richmond, 19;
+  decides definitely not to return to Geneva, 20;
+  joins Savary in land speculations in West Virginia, 20, 21;
+  his aversion to debt, 21;
+  returns to Philadelphia and leads exploring party down Ohio, 21;
+  at George's Creek builds log-house and opens store, 22;
+  encounters Washington, 22;
+  declines Washington's offer to become land agent, 23;
+  enjoys a winter in Richmond society, 23;
+  his gratitude for hospitality and kindness, 24;
+  commissioned by Henry, locates lands in Western Virginia, 24;
+  interrupted by Indian troubles, 24;
+  takes oath of allegiance to Virginia, 25;
+  invites Badollet to join him from Geneva, 25, 26;
+  purchases Friendship Hill, 26;
+  rumor of his death causes inquiries from Geneva, 27;
+  attains majority and calls for property, 28;
+  difficulties of his life on frontier, 28;
+  not to be blamed for his choice of location, 28, 29;
+  offered place in office by Marshall, 29;
+  advised by Patrick Henry to begin in West, 29;
+  visits Richmond and Philadelphia, 29;
+  journey to Maine, 29, 30;
+  kindness towards Lesdernier, 30;
+  marries Sophie Allegre, her sudden death, 30;
+  disheartened, wishes to abandon Western lands, 30, 31;
+  his maturity in political thought, 32;
+  early an advocate of democracy, 32, 33;
+  probably dislikes the Federal Constitution, 34, 36;
+  an opponent of centralization, 34;
+  influences arguments of Smilie in Pennsylvania ratifying convention,
+   36;
+  represents Fayette County at convention of anti-Federalists, 37;
+  friendship with Smilie, 38;
+  drafts resolutions providing for vigorous organization against
+   Constitution, 38, 39.
+
+_In Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention._
+  Elected a delegate from Fayette County, 40;
+  his opposition to alteration of form of government, 41;
+  advocates enlarged popular representation, manhood suffrage, easy
+   naturalization, 42;
+  takes minor part in convention, his high opinion of its ability, 42,
+   43;
+  after convention, falls into melancholy, 43;
+  wishes to leave America, 43;
+  reproached by Genevese friends with indolence, 43, 44.
+
+_In Pennsylvania Legislature._
+  Elected to represent Fayette County, 44;
+  describes his legislative career, 45-47;
+  his influence and activity, 45;
+  advocates improved education, 45;
+  supports turnpike, 45;
+  gains reputation by report of Ways and Means Committee, 46;
+  advocates redemption of paper money and financial reform, 46;
+  reports a resolution for abolition of slavery, 47;
+  at first dislikes Philadelphia, later prefers it to New York for
+   democracy, 47, 48;
+  drafts resolutions condemning Hamilton's excise bill, 48;
+  takes part in public meeting in Washington County against the bill, 50;
+  secretary of convention of western counties at Pittsburgh, 52;
+  signs resolutions advocating resistance, 53;
+  draws petition to Congress, 53;
+  returns to Philadelphia to find cause damaged by action of counties,
+   54;
+  advises evasion of federal writs to arrest, 55;
+  in legislature proposes a township veto on taxation and popular
+   education, 55;
+  wishes to visit Geneva in 1793, 56, 57;
+  views on French Revolution, 56, 57;
+  elected senator in spite of insufficient residence, 58;
+  acquaintance with Dallas, 58;
+  on journey with him, meets Hannah Nicholson, 59;
+  marriage, 59;
+  his family connections by marriage, 59;
+  later business connections with brother-in-law, J. W. Nicholson, 60;
+  takes seat as United States senator, 60;
+  his election protested on ground of insufficient residence, 60, 61;
+  complains of membership of committee to consider case, 61;
+  his exact status, 62;
+  submits statement of facts to Senate, 62;
+  is declared disqualified by narrow majority, 62, 63;
+  his dignified conduct of case, 63;
+  pending the decision, introduces resolution calling upon Hamilton to
+   make a minutely itemized report, 64;
+  probably causes his own expulsion by thus irritating Federalists, 64,
+   65;
+  later obliged to answer a similar demand from Federalists, 65;
+  not cast down by exclusion, 65;
+  gains increased popularity in Pennsylvania, 65, 66.
+
+_In Whiskey Insurrection._
+  Takes wife to Fayette County, 67;
+  at outbreak of violence advises distillers to submit to law, 69;
+  his estimate of numbers of insurgents in arms, 73;
+  remains at first aloof from excitement, 75;
+  determines to take control of movement, 75, 76;
+  alarmed at probable excesses of mob and danger of repression, 76;
+  delegate to convention at Parkinson's Ferry, 78;
+  confers with Marshall, 78;
+  chosen secretary, 79;
+  opposes resolution to resist by force, and moves reference of
+   resolutions to a committee, 80;
+  succeeds in modifying resolutions not to obey excise and trial laws,
+   80;
+  on committee on resolutions, 80;
+  on committee to confer with government commissioners, 81;
+  points out folly of resistance, 81;
+  counsels submission, 81;
+  his eloquent speech, 82, 83;
+  prevents anarchy, 82;
+  charged by J. C. Hamilton with cowardice, 84;
+  his real courage, 84;
+  hastens submission of Fayette County, 85;
+  secures adoption of declaration defending county's action, 85;
+  secretary of meeting at Parkinson's Ferry, which makes complete
+   submission, 89;
+  considered by Federalists to be chief instigator of the insurrection,
+   90;
+  describes conversation with Dallas, 92;
+  again chosen to legislature and also to Congress, 93;
+  his election to Assembly contested and declared void, 93, 94;
+  in his speech during debate admits error of his course, 94;
+  urges Badollet to secure reelection of all Western assemblymen, 95;
+  re-elected to legislature, 95;
+  witness before grand jury in trial of prisoners, 96;
+  draws petition to Washington for pardon of offenders, 96;
+  his loyalty to constituents, 96.
+
+_Member of Congress._
+  Moves appointment of committee on finance to control Treasury, 106;
+  appointed upon it, 106;
+  wishes to put appropriations on permanent footing, 107, 108;
+  refuses to devote military funds to establishing Indian trading posts,
+   108;
+  opposes habit of appropriating without debate, even to objects already
+   approved, 109;
+  supports resolutions calling for papers in Jay treaty, 110;
+  upholds power of House of Representatives, 111, 112;
+  denies that treaties override discretion of House, 112, 113;
+  appointed to carry call to Washington, 114;
+  claims right of House to participate in treaties, 114;
+  stands beside Madison as leader of debate, 115;
+  insists on separate consideration of treaties, 118;
+  objects to Federalists' threats of war with England, 118, 119;
+  complains of abandonment of "free ships" principle in Jay's treaty,
+   119;
+  low opinion of Indians, 122;
+  urges resistance to impressment, 122;
+  suggests plan for advantageous sale of public lands, 122;
+  and their use to pay debt, 122;
+  views on taxation, 123;
+  opposes military establishment and navy, 123, 124;
+  laments necessity of payment to United States Bank, 124;
+  attacked for participation in Whiskey Insurrection, 124;
+  makes no reply, 125;
+  criticises conduct of Treasury Department, 125;
+  opposes principle of a national debt, 125;
+  asserts a great increase in public debt, 126;
+  defends assertion against W. Smith, 126;
+  objects to adjournment to pay respects to Washington on birthday, 126;
+  recognized as leader of opposition by Federalists, 127;
+  does not expect or desire renomination, 127;
+  reelected to Congress, 127;
+  becomes leader of Republicans in House, 128;
+  wishes House to compliment Washington personally on his retirement,
+   but not his administration, 129;
+  describes Andrew Jackson's appearance, 129 n.;
+  insists on payment of indebtedness of States to government, 129;
+  chairman of conference committee, 129;
+  opposes army and navy expenditure, 129, 130;
+  secures passage of bill confining treasury expenditures, 130;
+  in sympathy and confidence of Jefferson, 133;
+  deprecates debating foreign relations, 134;
+  wishes to treat France like other nations, 134;
+  opposes threatening France, 135;
+  joins moderate Republicans in voting with Federalists for address to
+   President, 136;
+  opposes appropriation for defense, 137;
+  objects to employment of frigates, 137;
+  favors defense of ports and harbors only, 137;
+  opposes salt duty, 137;
+  and excessive loans, 137;
+  points out method of impeachment in Blount case, 138;
+  describes his desire for moderation, 138;
+  calls Federalists aristocrats, 139;
+  votes against presenting answer to message in person, 140;
+  now acknowledged leader of Republicans, 140;
+  presents anti-slavery petitions from Pennsylvania, 140;
+  his opinion of use of foreign coins, 140;
+  estimate of specie in United States, 141;
+  opposes proposal to expel Lyon, 141;
+  on executive power of appointment, 142;
+  wishes to abandon foreign political intercourse, 143;
+  upholds power of House to check executive through appropriations, 143;
+  makes elaborate speech on checks of legislature on executive, 144-146;
+  and on necessity of abstention from European politics, 145;
+  practical drawbacks to his theory, 147;
+  his speech circulated by party, 147;
+  opposes war measures against France, 148;
+  supports call for papers of envoys to France, 148;
+  presents petition against authorizing private citizens to arm vessels,
+   149;
+  opposes bill to authorize President to arm convoys, 149;
+  prefers submission to French outrages rather than war, 150, 151;
+  attacked by Allen of Connecticut, his reply, 150, 151;
+  opposes non-intercourse with France, 151;
+  declares Sedition Bill unconstitutional, 152;
+  high words with Harper over Alien Bill, 152;
+  taunted by Harper, 152;
+  opposes declaration of state of relations by Congress, 153;
+  votes against abrogating treaty with France, 154;
+  continues to harass Wolcott in the Treasury, 154;
+  his even temper, 154;
+  opposes bill to punish correspondence with foreign princes, 155, 156;
+  opposes bill to incite French West Indies to revolt, 156, 157;
+  opposes authorization of President to suspend commerce in certain
+   cases, 157;
+  opposes building ships of the line, 157;
+  tries to defeat or ameliorate Alien and Sedition Laws, 157, 158;
+  aided in sixth Congress by Nicholas and Macon, 159;
+  votes with Federalists to suspend commercial intercourse with France,
+   159;
+  opposes proposal to amend Foreign Intercourse Act, 160, 161;
+  opposes bill requiring report from secretary of treasury, because
+   originating in Senate, 161;
+  opposes continuance of non-intercourse, 162;
+  his position in presidential contest in 1800, 164;
+  irritated by influence of S. Smith over Jefferson and Madison, 164;
+  reasons that attempt of Federalists to defeat an election by the House
+   is constitutional, 164, 165;
+  but any president pro tempore would be unconstitutional, 165;
+  suggests course of action for Republicans, 165;
+  probably expects to use violence against Federalists, 166;
+  review of his congressional career, 167;
+  leader of party, yet not a partisan, 167, 168;
+  one of Republican triumvirate, 168;
+  his departure leaves party without a legislative leader, 168.
+
+_Secretary of the Treasury: Funding._
+  His place as financier in United States history, 170;
+  Jefferson's choice for secretary of treasury, 178, 179;
+  hated by Federalists in Senate, 178;
+  assigned to Treasury by public opinion, 179;
+  doubts his abilities and chances of confirmation by Senate, 180;
+  plans to move to New York, 180;
+  refuses to accept until confirmed by Senate, 181;
+  finally agrees to serve, 181;
+  brings family to Washington and enters on duties, 181, 182;
+  his thoroughness, 182;
+  exhausts himself by his energy, 182;
+  sketch of his financial career in Pennsylvania and in Congress, 183,
+   184;
+  his one principle the extinguishment of debt, 184;
+  publishes sketch of the finances in 1796, 184;
+  publishes in July, 1800, "Views of Public Debt," etc., 184, 185;
+  ability of these essays, 185;
+  outlines policy of expenditures and receipts to Jefferson, 186;
+  endeavors to systematize treasury statements, 186;
+  points out economic reasons for increase of revenue, 187;
+  urges specific appropriations by Congress and absence of departmental
+   discretion, 187;
+  urges reduction, both of debt and of taxes, 188;
+  unable to work with other departments because of Jefferson's habits,
+   188;
+  lack of elasticity in his plans, 189;
+  embarrassed by complications in department, 189;
+  his first report to Congress, 190;
+  denies existence of any surplus, 190;
+  explains plan for extinction of debt by 1817, 191;
+  given authority by Congress, 192;
+  table showing success of his measures, 192;
+  in spite of Louisiana purchase, reduces debt by one third, 192, 194;
+  dissatisfied with financial terms of Louisiana purchase, 193;
+  novelty of his distinction between place of payment of interest and
+   principal, 195;
+  arranges that Louisiana debt shall not retard payment of old debt, 196,
+   197;
+  his report of 1805, 107;
+  proposes funding of outstanding obligations in 1807, 198;
+  reports a full Treasury on occasion of threatened war with England,
+   198;
+  discusses application of surplus to war expenses, 199;
+  suggests methods of war taxation, 200;
+  prefers war to embargo, 201;
+  draws the embargo bill, 201;
+  discusses its financial effect, 201, 202;
+  confident attitude as to war loans, 202;
+  his policy supported by Jefferson, 203;
+  realizes that war will prevent reduction of debt, 203, 204;
+  relies on customs, tonnage dues, and land sales for revenue, 204;
+  reports deficiency owing to embargo, 204;
+  forced to borrow, 204;
+  reviews situation in 1811 with satisfaction, 205, 206;
+  asks for increase of revenue in case of war, 206;
+  proposes war loans, 207;
+  and interest-bearing treasury notes, 207;
+  insists on actual increased receipts, not apparent measures, 207, 208;
+  on necessity of upholding credit, 209;
+  receives authority from Congress, 209;
+  submits war budget, 209, 210;
+  his last annual statement in 1812, 211;
+  reports need of new loans, 212;
+  his personal friends, Parish, Girard, and Astor, save government credit,
+   213, 214;
+  fails to negotiate loan at par, 214;
+  failure of his hopes to extinguish debt, 215;
+  his policy vindicated by successors, 215;
+  charged with sacrificing defenses of country to reduction of debt, 216;
+  attempted defense of his course by "Democratic Review," 216;
+  his determination to follow financial principles and not a partisan
+   course, 216, 218;
+  does not invent new sources of revenue, 218;
+  his estimates follow those of Hamilton, 219;
+  estimates permanent revenue, 220;
+  unable to abandon internal revenue, 220;
+  does not protest against its abolition by Congress, 221;
+  does not alter estimates in spite of increase of revenue, 221;
+  proposes additional tax to meet war with Tripoli, 222;
+  applies surplus as far as possible to Louisiana purchase, 222;
+  political effect of his success during Jefferson's first term, 223;
+  in 1805 raises estimate of permanent revenue, 223;
+  impresses economy upon other departments, 223;
+  prepares scheme of internal improvements, 224;
+  after Chesapeake affair recommends borrowing, 224;
+  and doubling duties in case of war, 225;
+  receipts during his second term, 226;
+  his warning of diminished resources in future ignored by Jefferson,
+   226;
+  estimates for 1809, 228;
+  points out necessity of submitting to war or loss of foreign trade,
+   228, 229;
+  promises not to use internal taxes, 229;
+  reports diminished income and deficiency in 1809, 230;
+  declares for a strict enforcement or abandonment of embargo, 230;
+  disgusted at refusal of Congress to recharter United States Bank, 231;
+  tenders resignation to Madison, 231;
+  obliged to remain for lack of possible successor, 231;
+  continues to advocate increased customs, 232;
+  points out that, had his recommendations been followed in 1809, there
+   would have been a large surplus, 232, 233;
+  forces Congress to choose between a bank or internal taxes, 233, 234;
+  himself proposes internal taxes, 234;
+  his last report predicts deficiency and asks a loan, 235;
+  his recommendations of internal taxes disregarded, 235;
+  his previous use of Hamilton's internal taxes, 235;
+  his suggestions followed in 1813, 236;
+  connection with sale of public lands, 238;
+  unable fully to utilize this resource, 239;
+  earliest public advocate of free trade, 240;
+  later in career becomes leader of cause, 241;
+  his part in convention of 1831, 241;
+  draws memorial to Congress, 242;
+  his views followed in tariff of 1846, 242;
+  opposed to protection, 242;
+  violently attacked by Clay, who apologizes, 242;
+  introduces reforms in annual report, 245;
+  tries to induce Congress and departments to adopt scheme of minute
+   appropriations, 245, 246;
+  carries system into his own household, 246;
+  effects of his methods, 247;
+  on Jefferson's dislike of banks, 251;
+  his report of 1809 on Hamilton's bank, 252, 253;
+  suggests its renewal, with modifications, 253, 254;
+  his testimony as to its value, 255, 256;
+  estimate as to state banks in 1811, 258;
+  describes hostility of Astor to bank, 259;
+  left, by failure to renew bank charter, at mercy of capitalists, 260;
+  his opinion that absence of bank caused suspension of specie payments
+   in 1815, 262;
+  on Jefferson's proposal to issue paper money, 264;
+  his success a vindication of Federalist finance, 266;
+  opinion of services of second national bank, 266;
+  declines offer of secretaryship in 1816, 266, 267;
+  urges Madison to restore specie payment, 267;
+  declines position as president of Bank of United States in 1822, 268;
+  prepares statement of relative value of gold and silver, 268;
+  writes "Considerations on Currency and Banking," 268;
+  advocates use of specie and limited use of paper money, 268;
+  accepts presidency of National Bank of New York, 269;
+  his opinion of Jackson, 270;
+  his bank involved in panic of 1837, 272;
+  conducts resumption, 273;
+  chairman of committee of banks, 273;
+  submits reports, 275;
+  declines presidency of Bank of Commerce, 276;
+  resigns presidency of National Bank, 277;
+  publishes "Suggestions on Banks and Currency," 277;
+  condemns paper money, 277;
+  declines offer of Treasury Department from Tyler, 278;
+  in the cabinet, agrees with Republican leaders on all points except
+   bank, 279, 280;
+  prepares circular announcing disregard of party in appointments, 281;
+  and condemning political influence of officials, 281;
+  his policy opposed by Jefferson, 282;
+  obliged to follow cabinet in policy of partisan appointments, 282;
+  advises early preparation for campaign of 1804, 283;
+  wishes States divided into election districts, 283;
+  criticises annual messages of Jefferson, 283;
+  his proposal to appoint a woman to office condemned by Jefferson, 283;
+  suggests in vain regular cabinet consultations, 283, 284;
+  urges payment of tribute to Tripoli rather than war, 284;
+  opinion asked on points of constitutional law, 284;
+  holds inherent right of United States to acquire territory, 285;
+  disapproves of Texas annexation, 285;
+  advises Jefferson concerning Louisiana treaty, 285, 286;
+  attacked by Duane, for not turning out Federalists, 286;
+  absence of favoritism in his appointments, 286, 287;
+  supervises sale of lands, 287;
+  acquaintance with Choteau, 278;
+  drafts promise of protection for Astor's fur trade, 288;
+  opposes vainly Jefferson's gunboat scheme, 289;
+  submits plan of defense against England, 289;
+  urges moderate tone in message, 290;
+  devises scheme of internal improvements, 290;
+  doubts success of a National University, 291;
+  opposes a permanent embargo, 291;
+  prepares Campbell's report urging resistance, 292;
+  receives authority from Congress to enforce non-intercourse, 293;
+  favors war, 293;
+  submits "Notes on Political Situation," 294;
+  opposes ordering out naval force in favor of letters of marque, 294;
+  his appointment as secretary of state prevented by Republican
+   opponents in Senate, 294, 295;
+  continues to advise Madison, 295;
+  his measures meet opposition in Senate, 295;
+  deserted by Madison in his attempt to secure re-chartering of bank,
+   296;
+  tenders resignation, 296;
+  bitterly attacked in "Aurora," 297;
+  accused of dominating Madison and of corruption, 297, 298;
+  considered by Jefferson ablest man in administration except Madison,
+   298;
+  unable to command support in Congress, submits to war policy, 298,
+   299;
+  asks leave of absence and appointment as minister to Russia, 299;
+  attempts made to alienate him from Jefferson and Madison, 299;
+  his high regard for Jefferson, 300;
+  continued good terms with Madison, 300.
+
+_Minister to Russia; Treaty of Ghent._
+  His voyage with Bayard, 301;
+  visits Gottenburg and Copenhagen, 301;
+  at St. Petersburg meets J. Q. Adams, 302;
+  his knowledge of history, 302;
+  lack of diplomatic experience as compared with Adams, 302;
+  contrast in character with Adams, 303;
+  considers peace necessary because of inefficiency in conduct of war,
+   303;
+  abandons his former opposition to a navy, 303;
+  low opinion of English diplomacy, 304;
+  view of necessity of an English renunciation of impressment, 305;
+  writes to Barings, 305;
+  receives Baring's reply, 306, 307;
+  explains case to Romanzoff, 307;
+  assured by Moreau of imperial sympathy, 308;
+  warned by him of England's purposes, 308;
+  writes to Monroe asking instructions, 308, 309;
+  informs Baring of inability to negotiate except through Russia, 309;
+  writes to Moreau, 309, 310;
+  instructs Dallas as to duties in London, 310;
+  receives news of refusal of Senate to confirm his nomination, 310;
+  contemplates visit to London, 311;
+  hears that British government proposes to treat directly, 311;
+  unable to return home, 312;
+  journey to Amsterdam, 312;
+  not at first included in second commission, but later added, 312;
+  visits London, 313;
+  learns of arrival of Clay and Russell, 313;
+  urges Lafayette to mediate, 313;
+  wishes to change place of negotiation from Gottenburg, 314;
+  urges Crawford to secure interposition of emperor, 315;
+  receives letter from Lafayette through Humboldt, promising aid, 315;
+  makes official appeal to emperor, 315;
+  learns of refusal of England to admit intervention, 316;
+  warns Monroe of English preparations, 316;
+  visits Paris, 316;
+  meets British commissioners at Ghent, 316;
+  notifies Monroe of determination of England to dismember United States
+   and attack New Orleans, 317, 318;
+  despairs of peace, 318;
+  draws reply of commissioners rejecting British demands, 319;
+  explains reasons for willingness to discuss Indian article, 319, 320;
+  condemns burning of public buildings at Washington, 320;
+  expresses confidence in American securities, 320;
+  has difficulty in mediating between Clay and Adams on fisheries and
+   Mississippi navigation, 322, 323;
+  proposes engagement to abandon use of savages in future war, 323;
+  the credit of treaty due to him, 324;
+  his diplomatic skill, 324;
+  wins European admiration, 325;
+  visits Geneva, 325, 326;
+  sees Napoleon during Hundred Days, 326;
+  appointed minister to France, 326;
+  with Clay and Adams negotiates commercial convention, 326, 327;
+  friendly attitude of Castlereagh toward, 326;
+  on value of abolition of discriminating duties, 327;
+  returns to New York, 327;
+  withholds acceptance of French mission, 327;
+  describes to Jefferson European opinion of United States, 327;
+  describes condition of France after Revolution, 327, 328;
+  does not consider republican form of government suitable everywhere,
+   328;
+  weary of politics, declines nomination to Congress, 329;
+  declines French mission on ground of poverty, 329;
+  finally yields to Monroe's requests, 329;
+  refuses offer of Treasury Department, his reasons, 330;
+  rejoicings of Jefferson over his appointment, 331.
+
+_Minister to France._
+  Received by Richelieu, 331;
+  discusses American sympathy for Bonaparte, 331, 332;
+  received by Louis XVIII., 332;
+  familiar relations with royal family, 332;
+  negotiates for indemnity for seizures, 332;
+  annoyed by French demand for dismissal of a disrespectful American
+   postmaster, 333;
+  advises Adams and Eustis in negotiations, 333;
+  returns to Paris, 334;
+  with Rush conducts negotiations with England, 334, 335;
+  tries to explain Jackson's occupation of Pensacola, 336;
+  refuses to mediate with France between Spain and revolted colonies,
+   336;
+  points out disadvantages of war with Spain, 337;
+  succeeds in pacifying French indignation at seizure of Apollon, 338;
+  does not adopt Adams's line of defense, 338;
+  Adams's opinion of, in diary, 338, 339;
+  his opinion of Adams, 329;
+  continues to negotiate with regard to commerce, 340;
+  loath to return without success, 340;
+  criticises Adams's terms of French treaty as unfavorable, but advises
+   signing, 340;
+  fails to secure satisfaction and returns to America, 341;
+  settles at Friendship Hill, 341;
+  pressed by Monroe to return to France, 341, 342;
+  declines mission to Panama Congress, 342.
+
+_Minister to England._
+  Appointed envoy and minister, with liberty to return on completion of
+   negotiations, 342, 343;
+  secures modification of instructions, 343;
+  complains of peremptory character of instructions, 344;
+  his voyage, 344;
+  dislike of English and French diplomacy, 344;
+  learns of English resentment at tone of American ministers, 344, 345;
+  negotiates with Canning, 345;
+  asks for instructions as to renewal of convention of 1815, 345;
+  pleased with ability of Lawrence as _charge d'affaires_, 346;
+  his threat of war quoted by Chateaubriand, 346;
+  warned by Adams to yield nothing, 346;
+  concludes negotiation with Goderich, 347;
+  thinks Canning meant to discuss impressment, 247;
+  returns to America, congratulated by Adams, 348;
+  his social life in London, 348;
+  ready to accept French mission in 1834, 349;
+  prepares argument in Northeastern boundary arbitration, 349;
+  publishes an account of facts in the case, 349;
+  visited by Ashburton, 350;
+  publishes pamphlet on Oregon question, 351;
+  presides at meeting to protest against annexation of Texas, 351;
+  condemns Mexican war, 352;
+  publishes pamphlet concerning it, 352;
+  condemns "manifest destiny" talk, 352, 353.
+
+_Republican Leader._
+  His opinion of contemporary political leaders, 355, 356;
+  prefers Crawford to Adams, 356;
+  requests Macon to take
+  part in caucus for Crawford, 356;
+  thinks universal suffrage compensates for dangers of consolidation, 356;
+  accepts reluctantly nomination for vice-president, 357;
+  dislikes formality of nomination, 357;
+  withdraws to help ticket, 358;
+  considers the election to prove decease of Republican party, 359;
+  condemns Jackson's violations of law, 359;
+  favors an insignificant or weak executive, 359;
+  visits Washington in 1829, notes disappearance of old regime, 330.
+
+_Society, Literature, Science._
+  His land speculations not profitable, 351;
+  plans Genevese Colonization Association, 361;
+  loses money through Morris's failure, 362;
+  speculates in Virginia military lands, 362;
+  estimates value of estates, 362, 363;
+  ill at ease in general society, 363;
+  his establishment at Washington described by Irving, 363;
+  house burned by British, 364;
+  builds at Friendship Hill, finds it lonely in winter, 364;
+  visited by Lafayette in 1825, 364, 365;
+  settles permanently in New York, 365;
+  frequent changes of residence, 365;
+  devotes last years to scientific studies, 366;
+  conversational ability, 366;
+  chosen member of "The Club," 366, 367;
+  leads conversation, 367;
+  described by Irving, 368;
+  wishes to establish free university in New York, 368;
+  presides over council of New York University, 369;
+  resigns, owing to clerical opposition, 370;
+  continued interest in French politics, 370;
+  letter of Lafayette to, on marriage of his daughter, 371;
+  assists Polish refugees, 372;
+  interested in Indian customs, 373, 374;
+  writes for Humboldt a synopsis of Indian tribes, 374;
+  publishes Indian vocabularies, 375;
+  issues circulars inviting information, 375;
+  correspondence with individuals, 375, 376;
+  republishes Synopsis, 377;
+  scientific character of his results, 377, 378;
+  his advice requested concerning Smithson's bequest, 378;
+  its publications submitted to him, 378, 379;
+  founds American Ethnological Society, 379;
+  defrays cost of publishing its transactions, 379;
+  essay on nations of Mexico and Central America, 380;
+  authorizes General Scott to purchase documents in Mexico, 380;
+  writes introduction to Hale's "Indians  of Northwest America," 380;
+  gathers information regarding gold in America for Humboldt, 381;
+  describes his reasons for success, 381;
+  his caution in reasoning, 382;
+  fails to establish a literary periodical, 382;
+  chosen president of New York Historical Society, 382;
+  his inaugural address on course of United States History, 382-384;
+  opinion of Washington, 383, 384;
+  friendly greeting to Adams in 1844, 384;
+  eulogized by Adams, 384, 385;
+  his party career contrasted with that of Adams, 385;
+  personal appearance and portraits, 385, 386;
+  crushed by loss of wife, 387;
+  death, 387;
+  eulogized by Bradish before Historical Society, 388;
+  acknowledges indebtedness to Bentham, 388;
+  his brain, 389;
+  summary of character and services, 389.
+
+_Characteristics._
+  General estimates, 1, 388, 389;
+  unfriendly views of, 90, 297, 338;
+  his own estimate, 381;
+  ambition, 5, 10, 58, 127, 180, 328;
+  business ability, 28, 60, 361, 362;
+  cosmopolitanism, 7, 389;
+  courage, 75, 76, 84;
+  debt, aversion to, 21;
+  diplomatic ability, 303, 324, 325, 330, 345;
+  financial ability, 45, 179, 185, 215;
+  friendliness, 24, 30, 300, 372;
+  geography, love of, 16;
+  history, love of, 3, 302;
+  indolence, 43;
+  leadership, 128, 133, 159, 167, 357;
+  literary interest, 382;
+  maturity, early, 31;
+  partisanship, 140, 147, 167;
+  personal appearance, 385, 386, 389;
+  political shrewdness, 76, 95, 128, 357;
+  social habits, 44, 348, 363, 367, 368;
+  temper, evenness of, 65, 152, 154, 303, 324;
+  thoroughness, 182, 381.
+
+_Political Opinions._
+  Alien Bill, 152, 158;
+  appointments to office, 281, 282, 286, 359;
+  army, 108, 123, 129, 180, 303;
+  Bank of United States, 231, 252-256, 262, 266, 296;
+  banking, 256, 268, 273, 277;
+  cabinet, 188, 222, 245, 283;
+  coinage, 140, 268;
+  Congress, powers of, 109, 110, 112, 143, 144, 153, 161;
+  constitution of Pennsylvania, 41, 42;
+  debt, public, 45, 125, 126, 191, 203, 205, 208, 222, 269;
+  democracy, 6, 8, 10, 33, 34, 42, 48, 55, 126, 389;
+  education, 45, 291, 368-370;
+  election of 1800, 164-166;
+  embargo, 201, 206, 230, 291;
+  England, diplomacy of, 304, 344;
+  England, policy toward, 228, 292, 310, 327, 337, 343-347;
+  ethnology, 373-381;
+  excise, 53, 80; executive, 144-146, 359;
+  Federalist party, 119, 129, 139, 140, 164, 179;
+  financial measures of Hamilton, 184, 185;
+  foreign correspondence bill, 155;
+  foreign ministers, 142, 143, 145, 147;
+  France, diplomacy of, 304, 344;
+  France, policy toward, 134, 135, 148, 149, 157, 159, 167, 310, 332,
+   333, 338, 340;
+  free trade, 240-243;
+  French Revolution, 56, 76, 139, 328;
+  gunboat scheme, 289;
+  impeachment, 138;
+  Indians, 108, 122, 320, 323, 373-381;
+  internal improvements, 45, 224, 290;
+  Jacksonian democracy, 359;
+  Jay treaty, 119, 136;
+  manifest destiny, 352;
+  Mexican war, 352;
+  military matters, 137, 289;
+  money, relation to wealth, 260;
+  navy, 123, 124, 130, 137, 186, 303;
+  northeastern boundary, 347-349;
+  northwest boundary, 343, 347, 351;
+  panic of 1815, 262;
+  paper money, 46, 207, 264, 267, 268;
+  party management, 38, 41, 95, 128, 164, 359;
+  peace, 149, 150, 167, 284;
+  public lands, 46, 122, 238, 239;
+  Republican party, 355, 359;
+  revenue, internal, 221, 233, 234;
+  revenue, sources of, 187, 223, 232;
+  Sedition Act, 152, 158, 159;
+  slavery, 47, 140;
+  Spain, policy toward, 336, 337;
+  suffrage, 42;
+  surplus, use of, 206, 216;
+  taxation, 123, 199, 200;
+  Texas annexation, 351;
+  territory, constitutional power to acquire, 285;
+  Treasury, administration of, 64, 106-108, 125, 130, 154, 189, 205,
+   208, 217, 245-247;
+  treaty of Ghent, 317, 318, 319, 323;
+  treaty power, 114;
+  United States, history of, 382, 383;
+  war of 1812, 320;
+  war finances, 190, 200, 203, 207, 208, 222, 224, 229, 232, 234, 298;
+  Whiskey Insurrection, 94.
+
+Gallatin family, 2;
+  prominence in Geneva, 2;
+  military reputation, 2;
+  interest in all its members, 8;
+  on oligarchic side in Genevese politics, 10;
+  alarmed at report of Gallatin's death, 27;
+  visited by Gallatin in 1814, 326;
+  claims Roman descent, 386 n.
+
+Gallatin, Frances, marries B. K. Stevens, 371;
+  Lafayette's letter of congratulation to, 371;
+  considered "a beauty" at French court, 372.
+
+Gallatin, James, accompanies his father to Europe, 301.
+
+Gallatin, Jean, father of Albert Gallatin, 2;
+  his death, 2.
+
+Gallatin, P. M., guardian of Albert, 10;
+  his kindness on Gallatin's departure for America, 11;
+  promises to aid him, and forwards letters of recommendation, 11.
+
+Gallatin, Susanne Vaudenet, grandmother of Gallatin, her character, 7;
+  friend of Frederick of Hesse-Cassel and of Voltaire, 7;
+  controlling spirit of family, 8;
+  quarrels with Albert over his refusal of a Hessian commission, 8.
+
+Gambier, Lord, on English peace commission, 316.
+
+Gardner, John L., at free-trade convention, 241.
+
+Genet, Edmond C., effect of his intemperance on parties, 57;
+  marries daughter of George Clinton, 102;
+  aids Democratic societies, 102;
+  condemned by Federalists, 134.
+
+Geneva, place of Gallatin family in, 2;
+  education in, 2, 3;
+  religious spirit of, 3;
+  a resort of foreigners, 4;
+  political situation in, 6, 7, 10;
+  parties in, 10;
+  revolutions in, 20, 361;
+  government of, 33;
+  visited by Gallatin, 325, 326;
+  colonization from, planned by Gallatin, 361.
+
+Geneva Academy, studies of Gallati in, 2, 3;
+  his friends at, 4, 5.
+
+Germans, in Pennsylvania, oppose improvement of education, 45.
+
+Gerry, Elbridge, on French mission, 139;
+  remains to negotiate loan, 152.
+
+Gibbs, ----, member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+Gilbert, Ezekiel, on Committee on Finance, 107.
+
+Giles, William B., Republican leader in debate, his character, 100, 133;
+  bitterly opposes address to Washington, 128, 129;
+  in debate on relations with France, 135;
+  loses leadership to Gallatin, 140.
+
+Gilman, Nicholas, on Committee on Finance, 106.
+
+Girard, Stephen, assists Gallatin to float loan, 213, 214;
+  his reasons, 259.
+
+Goderich, Lord, renews convention of 1815 with Gallatin, 347.
+
+Goldberg, ----, Dutch commissioner to make commercial treaty, 334.
+
+Goodhue, Jonathan, at free-trade convention of 1831, 241.
+
+Goodhue, ----, member of "The Club," 367.
+
+Goodrich, Chauncy, in Congress, 99;
+  in debate on foreign relations, 143;
+  on resolution to punish foreign correspondence, 156.
+
+Goulburn, Henry, on English peace commission, 316;
+  informed of American request for instructions, 318;
+  told by Castlereagh and Liverpool to moderate his demands, 319;
+  protests against acceptance of Indian article, 321.
+
+Grenville, Lord, sends Fauchet letter to Washington, 103;
+  connection with Jay treaty, 117, 350;
+  his proposition to Pinckney, 134.
+
+Griswold, Roger, attacks Gallatin's account of sinking fund, 65;
+  leader of Federalists in House, 98, 133;
+  replies to Gallatin in debate on treaty power, 113;
+  his collision with Lyon, 141;
+  on doctrine of checks, 143;
+  on bill to punish foreign correspondence, 156;
+  on Senate bill to require annual financial reports, 161.
+
+Gunboats, Jefferson's scheme for,  288;
+  origin of his idea, 288;
+  opposed by Gallatin, 289.
+
+Gurney, ----, in Pennsylvania legislature, 183.
+
+
+Hale, ----, introduction to his work on Indians written by Gallatin,
+  380.
+
+Hamilton, Alexander, his career compared to that of Gallatin, 28, 32;
+  amends excise law, 52;
+  demands punishment of Pittsburgh leaders of opposition, 53, 54;
+  drafts proclamation against them, 54;
+  attacked by Gallatin in Senate, 64;
+  deprecates demand for minute information, 64, 65;
+  submits plan for crushing insurgents, 76, 77;
+  impatient at delay, writes as "Tully" advocating punishment, 87;
+  accompanies army to Pittsburgh, 88;
+  investigates insurrection, 90;
+  fails to find indictment against Gallatin, 90;
+  dissuades troops from violence, 92;
+  resigns from Treasury, 97;
+  continues to lead party, 99;
+  stoned in defending Jay treaty, 103;
+  letters of Wolcott to, complaining of Republican opposition, 126, 154;
+  attends Congress as general, 155;
+  his influence on government, 168, 169;
+  review of his career in the Treasury,
+  174-176;
+  his place in history, 176;
+  his enmity to Gallatin, 179;
+  attacks of Gallatin upon his system, 184, 185;
+  his revenue system maintained by Gallatin, 218, 234;
+  and reenacted by Democrats in 1813, 235;
+  his report on public lands, 237, 238;
+  his organization of Treasury Department, 243;
+  his financial reports, 245;
+  on Bank of North America, 249;
+  his report on national bank, 250, 251.
+
+Hamilton, J. C., accuses Gallatin of cowardice in Whiskey Rebellion, 84.
+
+Harper, Robert Goodloe, leader of Federalists in House, 98, 133;
+  denounces call for Jay treaty papers as unconstitutional, 111, 112;
+  closes argument on Federalist side, 114;
+  recognizes Gallatin as leader of Republicans, 115;
+  in debate on relations with France, 134, 135;
+  called a "bungler" by Gallatin, 140;
+  moves appropriation for foreign intercourse, 141;
+  his share in debate, 142, 146;
+  introduces bill to suspend intercourse with France, 151;
+  altercation with Gallatin over Alien Bill, 152;
+  on resolution to furnish foreign correspondence, 156;
+  on Senate bill to require annual financial reports, 161.
+
+Harvard College, gives Gallatin permission to teach French, 17;
+  his connection with, 18;
+  gives Gallatin certificate, 18.
+
+Hassler, Ferdinand Rudolph, superintendent of coast survey, 290.
+
+Hawks, ----, member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+Henry, Patrick, recommends Gallatin to county surveyor and commissions
+ him to locate lands, 24;
+  advises Gallatin to go West, predicts success, 29.
+
+Henry, Prof. Joseph, letter of Gallatin to, on Squier and Davis's
+ "Ancient Monuments," 379.
+
+Hillhouse, James, Federalist in Congress, 99;
+  on committee on finance, 107.
+
+Holland, vain attempt to sign commercial treaty with, 334;
+  arbitrates northeast boundary, 347, 349;
+  its decision rejected, 349.
+
+House of Representatives, leaders of, in 1795, 98-100;
+  debate in, over conduct of Washington's administration, 104-106;
+  appoints Committee on Finance, 106, 107;
+  debate in, on principle of appropriations, 108, 109;
+  motion of Livingston to call for papers in Jay treaty brings on debate
+   on treaty power, 109-114;
+  asserts right to withhold appropriations, 115;
+  considers foreign treaties separately, 118;
+  debates Jay treaty, 118-121;
+  votes to carry treaty into effect, 121;
+  but condemns it, 121;
+  refuses to adjourn on Washington's birthday, 126;
+  adopts address complimentary to Washington, 129;
+  new members in fifth Congress, 132;
+  debates President's message on relations with France, 133-136;
+  votes to support administration, 136;
+  considers measures of defense, 137;
+  impeaches Blount, 138;
+  entertained by Adams, 140;
+  encounter in, between Lyon and Griswold, 141;
+  debate in, on foreign missions, 141, 142;
+  on relation of executive to Congress, 142-147;
+  rejects amendment to abolish foreign missions, 147;
+  debates war with France, 148;
+  requests President to furnish correspondence of envoys to France, 148;
+  receives X Y Z dispatches, 149;
+  altercation in, between Gallatin and Allen, 150;
+  passes Alien Bill, 152;
+  message of Adams to, on resumption of diplomatic intercourse
+  with France, 152; passes bill abrogating treaty with France, 154;
+  debates and passes bill to punish foreign correspondence, 155, 156;
+  debates and passes bills to favor French West Indies, and punish Spanish
+   and Dutch ports, 156, 157;
+  refuses to repeal Sedition Act, 157;
+  new members in sixth Congress, 158;
+  replies to President's address, 158;
+  refuses to repeal Sedition Law, 159;
+  passes bill to suspend intercourse with France, 159, 160;
+  votes a medal to Truxton, 160;
+  refuses to amend Foreign Intercourse Act, 160, 161;
+  debates and passes Senate bill to require annual Treasury reports, 161;
+  refuses to continue non-intercourse, 162;
+  again rejects bill to amend Sedition Act, 162;
+  part played by Gallatin in, 167, 168;
+  investigates Wolcott's management of Treasury, 177.
+
+Howell, Richard, leads New Jersey militia against Whiskey Rebellion, 88.
+
+Humboldt, Baron Alexander von, aided in study of precious metals in
+ America by Gallatin, 278, 374, 381;
+  brings Lafayette's letter to Gallatin, 315;
+  meets Gallatin in Washington, 315;
+  speaks of Gallatin's "glory," 325;
+  letter to Gallatin, 381.
+
+Husbands, Herman, on committee on resolutions of Parkinson's Ferry
+ meeting, 80.
+
+Huskisson, William, on impressment, 347.
+
+
+Impressment, Gallatin's opinion of, 122;
+  its abandonment by England insisted on by Monroe, 305;
+  refused consideration by England, 322, 327, 335, 347.
+
+Indians, relations of Gallatin with, at Machias, 15;
+  trading posts with, opposed by Gallatin, 108;
+  Wayne's treaty with, 117, 118;
+  danger of war with, in 1795, 120, 121;
+  Gallatin's opinion of, 122;
+  influence of Choteau over, 287;
+  fur trade of Astor with, 288;
+  proposals of England concerning, in treaty of Ghent, 317, 319, 321;
+  studies of Gallatin concerning, 373-378;
+  the Canadian Indians, 373;
+  tribes of, classified by Jefferson, 374;
+  "Synopsis of Indian Tribes" by Gallatin, 374;
+  vocabularies collected by Gallatin, 375, 376;
+  studies of Du Ponceau concerning, 377;
+  republication of Gallatin's "Synopsis," 377;
+  his essay on Indian civilization, 380;
+  his introduction to Hale's work on, 380.
+
+Ingham, Samuel D., report of Gallatin to, on gold and silver, 268.
+
+Internal improvements, Gallatin's scheme for, 224, 290;
+  urged by Jefferson, 226, 227, 290;
+  inconsistency of Jefferson, 227.
+
+Irish, petition against Sedition Act, 157.
+
+Irving, Washington, describes Mrs. Gallatin's manners and appearance,
+  363, 364;
+  describes Gallatin in old age, 368.
+
+
+Jackson, Andrew, votes against complimentary address to Washington, 129;
+  his appearance described by Gallatin, 129 n.;
+  orders removal of deposits, 270;
+  Gallatin's opinion of, 270, 355;
+  occupies Pensacola, 336;
+  refuses to appoint Gallatin to French mission, 349;
+  candidate for president in 1824, 358;
+  defeated for president by Adams, 358;
+  his idea of party, 359;
+  Gallatin's opinion of, 359;
+  character of his presidency, 360.
+
+Jackson, F. J., his mission to United States, 295.
+
+Jay, John, asked by Jefferson for information concerning Gallatin, 27;
+  drafts letter for New York Convention calling for a new convention,
+   37 n.;
+  burnt in effigy after his treaty, 103;
+  his purpose in making treaty, 117;
+  said by Sheffield to have duped Grenville, 117;
+  his warning remark to Randolph during negotiations, 118;
+  attacked by Gallatin, 119.
+
+Jay, William, member of "The Club," 366.
+
+Jay treaty, ratified, 102;
+  made public by Mason, 103;
+  popular dissatisfaction with, 103, 116;
+  sent to House, 109;
+  condemned in England, 117;
+  debate over, 118-121.
+
+Jefferson, Thomas, in behalf of Gallatin family writes to Jay for
+ information concerning Albert Gallatin, 27;
+  countersigns Washington's proclamation against excise rioters, 54;
+  retires from cabinet, 97, 99;
+  rupture with Hamilton, 99;
+  imbued with French principles, 102;
+  ridiculed as a sans-culotte, 104;
+  influence complained of by Wolcott, 127;
+  tries to moderate bitterness of Republicans, 128;
+  Gallatin known to be in his confidence, 133;
+  complains of weakness of Congress, 138;
+  unable to influence Senate, 139;
+  loses taste for French alliance, 139;
+  thinks Sedition Bill aimed at Gallatin, 152;
+  praises Gallatin's courage, 158;
+  receives tie vote with Burr, 163;
+  probably makes bargain with Federalists, 164;
+  his inexplicable submission to Smith, 164;
+  elected, 167;
+  in triumvirate with Madison and Gallatin, 168;
+  represents social equality, 169;
+  his suggestions on coinage, 172;
+  urges Gallatin to accept Treasury Department, 178-180;
+  letter to Macon, 182;
+  suggestions of Gallatin to, on financial policy, 186;
+  not a practical statesman, 188;
+  does not consult cabinet as a whole, 188;
+  letters of Gallatin to, on finances, 189, 193, 201, 203, 216;
+  summons Congress to ratify Louisiana purchase, 195;
+  reelection helped by finances and Louisiana treaty, 197, 198, 223;
+  urges Gallatin to retain post until extinction of debt, 203;
+  wishes reduction of army and navy, 220;
+  advocates application of surplus to internal improvement, 226;
+  in so doing abandons his principles, 227;
+  detests bank, 233, 251, 280;
+  proposes impracticable economies in Treasury Department, 244;
+  suggests issue of paper money, 264;
+  an abandonment of republican principles, 266;
+  introduces new principles of administration into government, 279;
+  opposes Gallatin's civil service circular, 281;
+  proposes to fill one half of offices with partisans, 282;
+  submits draft of annual message to cabinet, 283;
+  objects to appointing a woman to office, 283;
+  lack of system in his cabinet, 284;
+  does not consult Gallatin on military matters, 284;
+  agrees with Gallatin's view on acquisition of territory, 285
+  advised by Gallatin concerning Louisiana treaty, 285;
+  unfortunate in choice of political methods, 286;
+  friendly with Duane, 286;
+  promises to protect Astor, 288;
+  his gunboat scheme, 288, 289;
+  origin of his views on gunboats, 288;
+  his plan of internal improvements, 290;
+  recommends national university, 291;
+  wishes amendments to Constitution, 291;
+  advised by Gallatin not to rely on "general welfare" clause of
+   Constitution, 291;
+  shirks responsibility of decision with regard to English policy, 291,
+   292;
+  urged by Gallatin to enforce non-intercourse, 293;
+  calls Gallatin ablest man in administration except Madison, 298;
+  regard of Gallatin for, 300;
+  his love for Gallatin, 300;
+  letters of Gallatin to, on reputation of United States in Europe, 327;
+  on France, 327, 328;
+  letter of Gallatin to, on difficulty of withdrawal from public service,
+   329;
+  rejoices in Gallatin's acceptance of French mission, 331;
+  his opinion of Louis XVIII., 331;
+  relations with de Tracy, 331;
+  supports Crawford for presidency, 356;
+  favors state rights, 356;
+  does not appreciate decay of his party, 358;
+  on non-sectarian education, 369;
+  his remarks on Indians in "Notes on Virginia," 374;
+  on Washington's strong passions, 383 n.
+
+Johannot, ----, educated at Geneva, 4, 17.
+
+Johnston, ----, member of "The Club," 366.
+
+Jones, William, secretary of navy, 312.
+
+
+Kent, Chancellor James, member of "The Club," 366.
+
+King, Charles, member of "The Club," 367.
+
+King, Rufus, resigns mission to England, 342;
+  tone of his correspondence, 345.
+
+Kinloch, Francis, educated at Geneva, 4;
+  letter to, given by Mlle. Pictet to Gallatin, 11.
+
+Kirkpatrick, Major, defends United States marshal in Whiskey
+ Insurrection, 68;
+  his farm burnt by rioters, 73.
+
+Kittera, Thomas, moves hostile amendment to pro-French resolution, 135.
+
+Knox, Henry, resigns from War Department, 97.
+
+Kosciusko, his nephew helped by Gallatin, 372.
+
+Kramer brothers, in business with Gallatin, 60.
+
+
+Lands, public, in Pennsylvania, 46;
+  suggestions of Gallatin as to improved methods of sale, 122, 123;
+  how acquired, 237;
+  sales under Hamilton and successors, 238;
+  organization of sales by Gallatin, 238, 239, 287.
+
+Land speculation, in Virginia, 20, 21, 24, 361;
+  in Ohio, 362.
+
+Lafayette, Marquis de, his motives for aiding colonies, 9;
+  his imprisonment, 102;
+  saved by gunboats in 1781, 288, 289, 371;
+  urged by Gallatin to help mediate between England and United States,
+   313;
+  urges emperor of Russia to exert personal influence with England, 315;
+  sends letter to Gallatin, 315;
+  letter of Gallatin to, on French government, 328;
+  visits Pennsylvania, 364;
+  entertained by Lafayette at Friendship Hill, 365;
+  his part in Revolution of 1830, 370, 371, 372;
+  interested in marriage of Gallatin's daughter, 371;
+  letter to Gallatin, 371, 372.
+
+La Perouse, meets Gallatin at Machias, 16;
+  later meets him in Boston, 16.
+
+Laurens, John, educated at Geneva, 4.
+
+La Vengeance, captured by Constellation, 160.
+
+Lawrence, William B., gives anecdote of Washington and Gallatin, 22;
+  accompanies Gallatin to England, 344;
+  his ability as secretary, 346;
+  presides at anniversary meeting of New York Historical Society, 384.
+
+Lee, Henry, commands militia against Whiskey Rebellion, 88;
+  requires oath of allegiance, 89;
+  orders seizure of leaders, 90.
+
+Lee, Thomas, founder of Ohio company, 20.
+
+Legislature of Pennsylvania, calls Constitutional Convention, 40;
+  Gallatin's career in, 45-47, 55, 60;
+  rejects bill to improve education, 45;
+  discharges paper money and other debt, 46;
+  elects Gallatin senator, 47, 58;
+  adopts resolutions condemning excise, 48, 49;
+  protests against authorizing vessels to arm, 149;
+  divides electoral vote between Adams and Jefferson, 163;
+  Gallatin's financial report to, 183, 184;
+  offers to take two millions of United States bonds, 214;
+  interferes to regulate Bank of North America, 250;
+  charters Bank of United States, 271.
+
+Leopard, captures Chesapeake, 224.
+
+Lesdernier, M. de, flies from Nova Scotia to Machias, 14;
+  welcomes Gallatin, 14;
+  on good terms with Indians, 16;
+  attempt of Gallatin to obtain a pension for, 30;
+  letter of Gallatin to, 154;
+  introduces Gallatin to Indians, 373.
+
+Lesdernier, Madame de, persuades Gallatin to visit Machias, 14.
+
+Lieven, Count, Russian minister at London, 308;
+  his friendship with Gallatin, 348.
+
+Lincoln, Levi, views on unconstitutionality of acquiring territory, 285.
+
+Livermore, E. S., on committee to consider Gallatin's eligibility to
+  Senate, 61.
+
+Liverpool, Lord, advised by Castlereagh to moderate his demands, 319;
+  does so for fear of healing American dissensions, 319;
+  accepts settlement of Indian question, 321;
+  resolves to prosecute war vigorously, 321;
+  abandons claim to territory and admits defeats, 322;
+  letter of Castlereagh to, 326;
+  death, 347.
+
+Livingston, Edward, prominent Republican in Congress, 100;
+  his precocity, 100;
+  calls for instructions for Jay, 109, 110;
+  votes against complimentary address to Washington, 129;
+  attacks Adams's foreign policy, 135, 136;
+  presents petitions against Alien and Sedition Laws, 157.
+
+Livingston, Robert R., arranges terms of Louisiana purchase, 193.
+
+Lorillard, Jacob, at free trade convention, 1831, 241.
+
+Loring, Captain, takes Gallatin to America, 11.
+
+Louis XVI., executed, 56.
+
+Louis XVIII., Jefferson's opinion of, 331;
+  gives audience to Gallatin, 332;
+  his intimacy with Gallatin and his sarcasm, 332.
+
+Louisiana, financial effect of its purchase, 192, 193, 195, 196, 222;
+  effect of its acquisition on England, 224;
+  constitutional question involved, 285, 286;
+  occupation of, arranged by Gallatin, 286, 287.
+
+Lynn, Mary, keeps boarding-house in Philadelphia, 19.
+
+Lyon, Matthew, his collision with Griswold, 141;
+  defended by Gallatin, 141.
+
+
+Machias, expedition of Gallatin to, 14, 15;
+  life at, 15, 16, 17.
+
+Macon, Nathanael, votes against complimentary address to Washington,
+ 129;
+  aids Gallatin in sixth Congress, 159;
+  moves repeal of Sedition Law, 159;
+  opposes non-intercourse with France, 159, 160;
+  letter of Jefferson to, 182;
+  letter to Nicholson, 293;
+  tries to pass Navigation Act against English and French decrees, 296;
+  on decay of democratic principles in 1824, 356, 358.
+
+Madison, James, secures adoption of ten amendments, 40;
+  abandons Federalists through Jefferson's influence, 99;
+  leads Republicans in House, 100;
+  weakness in debate, 100;
+  drafts address to Washington, 105;
+  on Committee on Finance, 106;
+  advocates bill to establish trading posts with Indians, 108;
+  moves to amend call for Jay papers, 111;
+  interprets treaty power
+  in Constitution in Jay treaty debate, 113, 115;
+  attacks Jay treaty, 118;
+  influence complained of by Wolcott, 127;
+  not reelected to Congress, 133;
+  his inexplicable submission to Smith, 164;
+  in triumvirate with Jefferson and Gallatin, 168;
+  his weakness as financier, 179;
+  summons Congress, 205;
+  anxious to evade responsibility for peace or war, 205;
+  communications on finance from Gallatin, 212, 259;
+  his indecision as to financial situation, 230;
+  does not accept Gallatin's resignation, 231;
+  realizes indispensableness of Gallatin to him, 231;
+  agrees with Gallatin as to minute appropriations, 245;
+  vetoes bill to incorporate national bank, 265;
+  signs a second bill, 265;
+  his inconsistency, 266;
+  urged by Gallatin to restore specie payment, 267;
+  opposes Gallatin's civil service circular, 281;
+  not superior on constitutional points to Gallatin, 284;
+  refuses to support Astor's plans, 288;
+  consults with Gallatin on inaugural address, 294;
+  forced by senators to abandon plan to make Gallatin secretary of
+   state, 294, 295;
+  unable to control party, 295;
+  favors England as against France, 295;
+  fails to support Gallatin, his inexcusable weakness, 296;
+  compelled to choose between Smith and Gallatin, 297;
+  efforts of Duane to poison his mind against Gallatin, 297;
+  not qualified to be a war president, 298, 299;
+  sends Gallatin on Russian mission with leave of absence, 299;
+  appoints Duane adjutant-general, 299;
+  continues on good terms with Gallatin, 300;
+  accepts English offer of direct negotiation, 312;
+  appoints a new commission, 312;
+  intends Gallatin for head of commission, 312;
+  names Gallatin minister to France, 326;
+  thanked by Gallatin, 327;
+  leaves him at liberty to decide, 329;
+  offers Gallatin secretaryship of treasury, 330;
+  favors Crawford for presidency, 356.
+
+Malesherbes, C. G. de L. de, his courage compared to that of Gallatin,
+  84.
+
+"Manifest Destiny," Gallatin's opinion of, 352, 353.
+
+Marie Antoinette, executed, 56.
+
+Marshall, James, represents Fayette County in anti-excise proceedings,
+  51, 52, 69;
+  joins Bradford in calling out militia, 70;
+  his resolutions at Parkinson's Ferry meeting disapproved by Gallatin,
+   78, 79;
+  withdraws them, 80;
+  on committee to confer with United States commissioners, 81.
+
+Marshall, John, offers Gallatin a place in his office, 29;
+  on French mission, 139, 152;
+  elected to Congress, 158;
+  announces death of Washington, 158;
+  draws reply to Adams's address, 158.
+
+Mason, S. T., makes Jay treaty public, 103.
+
+Mathews, Rev. Mr., member of "The Club," 367.
+
+Mayer, member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+McClanachan, Blair, chairman of anti-Federalist Conference, 38;
+  his ultra-democratic remarks to Adams, 138.
+
+McDuffie, George, estimates profits of bankers on state bank circulation,
+  263.
+
+McKean, Thomas, in Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention, 43;
+  suggests sending a commission to confer with Whiskey insurgents, 77;
+  asked to prevent civil war in 1800, 166.
+
+McLane, Louis, reports extinction of national debt, 269.
+
+McVickar, ----, member of "The Club," 366.
+
+Mexico, war with, Gallatin's opinion of, 352.
+
+Middleton, Henry, at free trade convention of 1831, 241.
+
+Mifflin, Thomas, in Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention, 43;
+  deprecates use of force against Whiskey Rebellion, 77;
+  summons legislature and obtains authority to employ militia, 88;
+  succeeds by personal influence in filling ranks, 88.
+
+Mirabeau, Vicomte de, friend of Dumont, 5.
+
+Mississippi navigation, discussed in treaty of Ghent, 322, 323;
+  in 1818, 335.
+
+Mitchell, S. L., on committee to consider Gallatin's eligibility to
+ Senate, 61.
+
+Monroe, James, presents flag to French Convention, 132;
+  arranges terms of Louisiana purchase, 193;
+  supplants Smith as secretary of state, 296, 298;
+  on necessity of renunciation of impressment in treaty of peace, 305;
+  asked by Gallatin for further instructions, 308;
+  receives proposals from England for direct negotiation, 311;
+  asked by commissioners for authority to treat in any place, 314;
+  warned by Gallatin of English war plans, 316, 317, 318;
+  communications of Gallatin to, during negotiations, 319;
+  urges Gallatin not to withdraw from public service, 329;
+  appoints Adams secretary of state, 334;
+  gives Gallatin leave of absence, 341;
+  urges him to return to France, 341.
+
+Montgomery, John, connected by marriage with Gallatin, 59, 60.
+
+Montmorenci, Vicomte, negotiates with Gallatin, 340;
+  succeeded by Chateaubriand, 340.
+
+Moore, ----, member of "The Club," 366.
+
+Moreau, General Jean Victor, career in America and France, 308;
+  assures Gallatin of emperor's friendliness and warns him of British
+   obstinacy, 308;
+  reply of Gallatin, 309;
+  his death, 310, 311.
+
+Morgan, Daniel, leads militia against Whiskey Rebellion, 88, 93.
+
+Morris, Gouverneur, snubbed by Washington for familiarity, 23;
+  his precocity compared to Gallatin's, 32;
+  suggests decimal system, 172.
+
+Morris, Robert, receives drafts for Gallatin, 28;
+  in United States Senate announces intention of neutrality on question
+   of Gallatin's eligibility, 61;
+  but votes against it, 63 n.;
+  his rank as financier, 170-173;
+  plans Bank of North America, 248, 249;
+  buys land of Gallatin, 361;
+  settles with Gallatin, 362;
+  fails and is imprisoned, 362.
+
+Morse, ----, member of "The Club," 367.
+
+Morton, Dr., member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+Muhlenberg, Frederick A., defeated for speaker by Dayton, 98;
+  gives casting vote in favor of Jay treaty appropriations, 121.
+
+Mueller, Johann von, teaches Gallatin history, 3.
+
+Murray, William Vans, prominent Federalist in House, 99;
+  on finance committee, 106;
+  denies discretionary power of House over Jay treaty, 110.
+
+
+Navy, opposed by Gallatin, 123, 124, 130, 137, 157, 186, 188;
+  his course defended, 216;
+  gunboat scheme, 288, 289.
+
+Nesselrode, Count, leaves Russian foreign affairs in charge of
+ Romanzoff, 304;
+  inability of Crawford to secure audience with, 315.
+
+New England, supports Adams in 1800, 163;
+  refuses to support popular loan, 212, 213;
+  plans disunion, 213;
+  hoards specie, 260, 261;
+  opposes embargo, 293;
+  its secession hoped for by England, 313.
+
+New York, calls for a second Federal Convention, 36, 37;
+  Republican in 1800, 163.
+
+New York city, first visit of Gallatin to, 18;
+  abandoned by Congress for Philadelphia, 47;
+  protests against Jay treaty, 103;
+  settlement of Gallatin in, 365, 366;
+  social life in, 366-368;
+  attempt of Gallatin to establish a university in, 368, 369.
+
+New York Historical Society, presidency of Gallatin, 382;
+  his inaugural address to, 382-384;
+  celebration of its fortieth anniversary, 384;
+  honors Gallatin's memory, 388.
+
+Nicholas, John, Republican leader in
+  House, 100;
+  on treaty power, 111;
+  supports Gallatin in advocating specific appropriations, 130;
+  moves amendment to Adams's message, 134;
+  in debate on French relations, 135;
+  desires to limit executive through power over appropriations, 143;
+  aids Gallatin in sixth Congress, 159;
+  opposes non-intercourse with France, 159;
+  resists supposed encroachment of Senate on House, 161;
+  confers with Jefferson and Gallatin on election of 1800, 164.
+
+Nicholson family, connected by marriage with Gallatin, 59.
+
+Nicholson, Hannah, marries Gallatin, 59;
+  described by him,  59;
+  her relations to her husband, 59;
+  letters of Gallatin to, 138, 180;
+  unhappy in Fayette County, 180;
+  her property, 363;
+  unfit for frontier life, 363;
+  her success in Washington society, 363, 364;
+  her death, 386, 387.
+
+Nicholson, Commodore James, father-in-law of Gallatin, his family, 59;
+  visited by Gallatin after marriage, 60;
+  on Gallatin's political moderation, 138;
+  commands gunboats in Lafayette's campaign of 1781, 371.
+
+Nicholson, James Witter, in business with Gallatin, 60.
+
+Nicholson, Joseph H., letter of Gallatin to, on war revenue, 224;
+  furnished by Gallatin with questions to ask himself, 246;
+  letter of Macon to, 293.
+
+Non-importation, difficulty of enforcement in 1774, 293;
+  enforced by Gallatin in 1808, 293.
+
+Norris, Isaac W., at free trade convention, 241.
+
+
+Odier, ----, takes shares in Gallatin's land scheme, 361.
+
+Ohio Company, its formation and lands, 20.
+
+Oregon question, discussion over, in 1818, 335;
+  discussed in 1826, 343;
+  determination of Adams not to give way in, 346;
+  joint occupation of, continued, 347;
+  views of Gallatin on, 351.
+
+Otis, Harrison Gray, elected to Congress, 132;
+  denounces Gallatin for attacking Federalist administration, 136;
+  on resolution to punish foreign correspondence, 156;
+  reports investigation of Wolcott's management of Treasury, 177.
+
+
+Panama Congress, its importance, 342;
+  mission to, declined by Gallatin, 342.
+
+Paper money, its issue suggested by Jefferson, 264;
+  Gallatin's opinion of, 268, 277.
+
+Parish, David, assists Gallatin to float loan, 213, 214;
+  his reasons, 259, 260.
+
+Parker, Josiah, amends resolution to punish foreign correspondence, 156;
+  offers resolution to amend non-intercourse, 160.
+
+Pasquier, M., negotiates with Gallatin, 337;
+  pacified by Gallatin after seizure of Apollon, 338.
+
+Patton, John, on Committee on Finance, 107.
+
+Peabody, George, at free trade convention of 1831, 241.
+
+Pendleton Society of Virginia, adopts secession resolutions, 116.
+
+Penn, John, letter to, given Gallatin by Lady Penn, 11.
+
+Penn, Lady Juliana, gives Gallatin letter to John Penn, 11.
+
+Penns, proprietors of Pennsylvania, educated at Geneva, 4.
+
+Pennsylvania, ratifies federal Constitution, 35;
+  movement in, to call a second convention, 37-40;
+  education in, efforts of Gallatin to improve, 45;
+  opposition to excise in, 48-55;
+  Whiskey Rebellion in, 67-96;
+  popularity of Gallatin in, 65;
+  its law regarding slavery, 140;
+  petitions against Alien and Sedition Acts, 157.
+
+Pensacola, its seizure by Jackson, 336.
+
+Philadelphia, visit of Gallatin to, 19, 21;
+  removal of Congress to, 47;
+  society in, 47, 48;
+  angry feeling in, against Whiskey Insurrection, 92;
+  protests against Jay treaty, 103;
+  petitions legislature to repeal charter of Bank of North America, 250;
+  nominates Gallatin for Congress, 329.
+
+Pickering, Timothy, in Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention, 43;
+  secretary of war and postmaster-general under Washington, 97.
+
+Pickering, ---- member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+Pictet, Mademoiselle, adopts Gallatin, her kindness, 2;
+  her nephew taught by Gallatin, 5;
+  regard of Gallatin for, 9;
+  pained at Gallatin's departure, 11;
+  gives him letter to Kinloch, 11;
+  sends him money and secures interest of Dr. Cooper, 17;
+  his ingratitude toward, regretted by Gallatin, 20;
+  supposes his failure to write due to misfortune, 27;
+  accuses Gallatin of indolence and ennui, 43, 44.
+
+Pictet, ----, naturalist, relative of Gallatin, 5.
+
+Pinckney, Charles C., refused reception as minister by France, 132;
+  on second mission, 139;
+  returns, 152;
+  attends Congress as general, 155.
+
+Pinckney, Thomas, makes treaty with Spain, 117.
+
+Pitt, William, his precocity compared to Gallatin's, 32.
+
+Poles, in New York, befriended by Gallatin, 372.
+
+Powell, William H., his portrait of Gallatin, 386.
+
+Preston, William C., at free trade convention in 1831, 241.
+
+
+Quakers, in Pennsylvania, oppose general education, 45;
+  petition against seizure of fugitive slaves, 140.
+
+
+Randolph, Edmund, deprecates force against Whiskey Rebellion, on ground
+ that only Washington's influence prevents civil war, 77;
+  retires from cabinet, 97;
+  damages reputation by dealings with Fauchet, 103;
+  remark of Jay to, during negotiations with England, 118.
+
+Randolph, John, elected to Congress, 158;
+  opposes non-intercourse with France, 159;
+  opposes giving a gold medal to Truxton, 160;
+  advocates abolition of internal duties, 221;
+  complains of want of system in Jefferson's cabinet, 284;
+  on Madison's weakness, 295;
+  unfitted to lead a party, 355.
+
+Renwick, James, letter of Mrs. Irving to, on Mrs. Gallatin, 364;
+  member of "The Club," 366.
+
+Republican party, its origin, 57;
+  its leaders in House of Representatives in 1795, 99, 100;
+  its attitude toward France and Revolution, 101, 102;
+  imitates Jacobins, 102;
+  opposes resolution complimenting Washington's administration, 104-106;
+  attacks administration of Treasury, 106;
+  asserts right of House to share in treaty power, 110-114;
+  leadership of Gallatin in, 115, 128, 133, 159;
+  attacks Jay treaty, 118-121;
+  objects to adjournment on Washington's birthday, 126;
+  attacks Washington, 128;
+  reluctant to affront France, 133-136;
+  opposes increase of foreign missions, 141-147;
+  attacks Alien and Sedition Laws, 159;
+  profits by popular dislike of England and of Alien and Sedition Laws,
+   163;
+  gives equal vote to Jefferson and Burr, 163;
+  its policy to resist any Federalist usurpation by force, 166;
+  success due to Gallatin's leadership, 167, 168;
+  its share in building country, 169;
+  opposes internal revenue, 221;
+  its principles violated by Jefferson in suggesting internal
+   improvements, 227;
+  refuses to renew charter of bank, 231, 254;
+  violates principles in chartering second bank, 265;
+  introduces new principles of administration into government, 279;
+  demands share of offices, 281, 282;
+  refuses to confirm Gallatin for secretary of state, 294;
+  factions in, under Madison, 295;
+  incompetent to manage war, 298;
+  lacks leaders after Gallatin, 355;
+  its condition in 1824, 356;
+  its caucus nominates Crawford and Gallatin, 357, 358;
+  new developments of, under Jackson, 358, 359, 360.
+
+Revenue, 218-238. See Finances.
+
+Richelieu, Duc de, seeks explanation from Gallatin of American sympathy
+ for Bonaparte, 331;
+  declares impossibility of making full compensation for captures under
+   Berlin and Milan decrees, 332;
+  angered at American refusal to dismiss an impudent postmaster, 333;
+  on Jackson's seizure of Pensacola, 336;
+  urges peace with Spain, 336.
+
+Richmond, society in, 23, 24.
+
+Robinson, Dr., associate of Gallatin in founding American Ethnological
+ Society, 379.
+
+Rochefoucauld, D'Enville, Duc de, obtains letters for Gallatin from
+ Franklin, 11.
+
+Rollaz, Sophie Albertine, mother of Gallatin, 2;
+  assumes husband's share in business, 2;
+  death, 2.
+
+Romanzoff, Count, originates plan of Russian mediation, 304;
+  dealings of Gallatin with, 307;
+  renews offer of mediation, 308;
+  gives Dallas letter to Count Lieven, 310;
+  thanked by Gallatin, 312.
+
+Ross, James, appeals to Whiskey insurgents not to use violence, 70;
+  on commission to confer with insurgents, 85.
+
+Rousseau, J. J., Gallatin's opinion of, 6.
+
+Ruggles, Benjamin, letter of Gallatin to, accepting nomination for
+ vice-president, 358.
+
+Rush, Richard, introduced to public life by Gallatin, 334;
+  named minister to England, 334;
+  joined with Gallatin to negotiate concerning convention of 1815, 334,
+   335;
+  secretary of Treasury, 342;
+  tone of his correspondence, 345.
+
+Russell, Jonathan, on peace commission, 312;
+  arrives at Gottenburg, 313.
+
+Russia, offers to mediate between England and United States, 299;
+  mission of Gallatin and Bayard to, 299, 301-312;
+  refusal of England to accept its mediation, 306, 307;
+  dealings of Gallatin with Romanzoff, 307, 308;
+  renews its offer, 308, 315;
+  displeased with recognition of Spanish colonies, 337.
+
+Rutherford, John, on committee to consider Gallatin's eligibility to
+ Senate, 61.
+
+Rutledge, John, Jr., elected to Congress, 133.
+
+
+Savary de Valcoulon, has claims against Virginia, 19;
+  meets Gallatin at Philadelphia and uses him as interpreter, 19;
+  goes with Gallatin to Richmond, 19;
+  interests him in land speculation, 21;
+  joins Gallatin in locating claims, 24.
+
+Schoolcraft, Henry R., member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+Scott, General Winfield, requested by Gallatin to aid in collecting
+ ethnological data in Mexico, 380.
+
+Scott, Thomas, appeals to Whiskey insurgents, 70.
+
+Sedgwick, Theodore, leader of Federalists in House, 98;
+  on committee to draft address to Washington, 105;
+  on Committee on Finance, 106;
+  offers resolution to execute four treaties, 118;
+  taunts Gallatin with instigating Whiskey Rebellion, 124;
+  elected speaker, 158;
+  at free trade convention of 1831, 241.
+
+Sedition Law, condemned by Gallatin, 152;
+  petitions against, 157.
+
+Senate of United States, election of Gallatin to, 58;
+  appoints committees to consider his eligibility, 61, 62;
+  votes to exclude him, 62, 63;
+  prejudiced against him by his actions, 64, 65;
+  ratifies Jay treaty, 102, 103;
+  yields to House regarding specific appropriations, 130;
+  controlled by Federalists, 139;
+  passes bill authorizing convoys, 149;
+  passes bill abrogating treaty with France, 154;
+  amends House Bill to suspend intercourse with France, 160;
+  debate over its bill to require annual treasury reports, 161;
+  ratifies commercial convention with France, 162;
+  still controlled by Federalists, 178;
+  its hostility to Gallatin, 181;
+  refuses to confirm his appointment as peace commissioner, 310.
+
+Seney, Joshua, connected by marriage with Gallatin, 59.
+
+Serre, Henri, friendship with Gallatin, 5;
+  sails with him for America, 9;
+  doings in Boston with Gallatin, 12-14;
+  at Machias, 14;
+  enjoys life in wilderness, 15, 17;
+  returns to Boston, 17;
+  teaches there, 19;
+  joins Gallatin and dissolves partnership, 19;
+  goes to Jamaica and dies, 19;
+  his debt subsequently paid, 19;
+  his letters to Badollet, 25.
+
+Sewall, Samuel, elected to Congress, 132.
+
+Shays's Rebellion, an argument for Federalist party, 101.
+
+Sheffield, Lord, says Jay duped Grenville, 117.
+
+Sherman, John, on accounting in Treasury Department, 247.
+
+Sismondi, J. C. L. Simonde de, on paper money, 277;
+  praises Gallatin, 325;
+  letter of Gallatin to, 380.
+
+Sitgreaves, Samuel, Federalist in Congress, 99;
+  on committee to draft address to Washington, 105.
+
+Slavery, resolutions concerning, in Pennsylvania legislature, 47;
+  petitions concerning, in Congress, 140;
+  negotiations concerning slave trade in treaty of Ghent, 323;
+  at Congress of Aix la Chapelle, 337.
+
+Smilie, John, represents Fayette County in Pennsylvania ratification
+ convention, 35;
+  leads opposition to Constitution, 36;
+  in anti-Federalist convention, 37;
+  his career and friendship with Gallatin, 37, 38;
+  in Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention, 43;
+  member of state Senate, 44, 54;
+  at anti-excise convention, 52;
+  advises submission to law, 69.
+
+Smith, Isaac, on Committee on Finance, 107.
+
+Smith, John Augustine, invites Gallatin to join "The Club," 366.
+
+Smith, Robert, head of faction of "invisibles," 295;
+  leaves cabinet, 296, 297.
+
+Smith, Samuel, leads Maryland troops against Whiskey Insurrection, 88;
+  moves to continue non-intercourse, 162;
+  probably makes bargain to secure election of Jefferson, 164;
+  his inexplicable power over Jefferson and Madison, 164.
+
+Smith, William, educated at Geneva, 4;
+  Federalist in Congress, 99;
+  on Committee on Finance, 106;
+  controversy with Gallatin over increase of public debt, 126.
+
+Smithson, John, his bequest to United States, 378.
+
+Smithsonian Institution, connection of Gallatin with, 378, 379.
+
+Southern States, Republican in 1800, 163;
+  refuse to support loan of 1813, 213.
+
+Spain, Pinckney's treaty with, 117;
+  danger of war with, 335;
+  peace with, urged by France, 336;
+  negotiations over its revolted colonies, 336, 337;
+  rupture with France in 1823, 341.
+
+Spurzheim, on Gallatin's brain, 389.
+
+Squier, E. G., member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+Stael, Madame de, interview of Lafayette with emperor at her house, 315;
+  letter of Gallatin to, 320;
+  expresses admiration for Gallatin, 325.
+
+Stephens, ----, member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+Stevens, Byam Kerby, marries Frances Gallatin, 371;
+  interest of Lafayette in, 371;
+  meets Lafayette, 372.
+
+Stevens, Colonel Ebenezer, Lafayette's chief of staff, 371.
+
+Stevens, John A., at free trade convention of 1831, 241;
+  member of "The Club," 367.
+
+Stokely, ----, appeals to Whiskey insurgents, 70.
+
+Stuart, Gilbert, his portrait of Gallatin, 386.
+
+Swanwick, John, on Jay treaty debate, 111.
+
+Szelesegynski, ----, Polish refugee, helped by Gallatin, 372.
+
+
+Tahon, ----, keeps French cafe in Boston, 12.
+
+Talleyrand, Prince, demands bribe in X Y Z affair, 149;
+  makes overtures for reconciliation, 152, 153.
+
+Taney, Roger B., removes deposits from bank, 269, 270;
+  appointed chief justice, 270;
+  his reasons for the removal, 270.
+
+Texas, annexation of, protested against by Gallatin, 351.
+
+Throop, Governor, recommends University for training teachers, 369.
+
+Tracy, Destutt, his "Economie Politique" translated by Jefferson, 331.
+
+Tracy, Uriah, leader of Federalists in House, 98;
+  taunts Gallatin with connection with Whiskey Rebellion, 119;
+  obliged to apologize, 120.
+
+Treasury Department, Hamilton's management of, attacked by Gallatin, 64;
+  resigned by Hamilton, taken by Wolcott, 97;
+  management of, supervised by Committee of Finance, 106-108, 130;
+  condition of, deplored by Gallatin, 125;
+  charged with arbitrary action, 130, 154;
+  annual reports from, required by Congress, 161;
+  Morris's connection with, 171-173;
+  organization under Hamilton, 174, 243;
+  management by Wolcott, 176-178;
+  appointment of Gallatin to, 179, 181;
+  exalted idea of, held by Gallatin, 189;
+  difficulty of learning management of, 189, 190;
+  relieved of responsibility for other departments' expenditure, 223;
+  administration of, by Gallatin, 244-246;
+  reports from, 245;
+  efforts of Gallatin to secure precision in, 245, 246;
+  subsequent management of, 247;
+  damaged by failure to re-charter bank, 259;
+  in panic of 1815, 263;
+  declined by Gallatin in 1816, 266, 330;
+  in panic of 1837, 272-276;
+  sub-treasury system invented, 273;
+  aids resumption, 276;
+  declined by Gallatin in 1843, 278;
+  absence of partisanship in Gallatin's appointments to, 281, 282, 286,
+   287.
+
+Treaty of Ghent, 316-325. See Diplomatic History.
+
+Tripoli, war with, 222;
+  tribute to, preferred by Gallatin to war with, 284.
+
+Trist, N. P., negotiates treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 352.
+
+Truxton, Captain, voted a medal by Congress, 160.
+
+Turner, Professor, member of Ethnological Society, 379.
+
+Tyler, John, as president, offers Treasury portfolio to Gallatin, 278.
+
+
+University, National, proposed by Jefferson, 291;
+  attempt to start one in New York, 368, 369;
+  success prevented by clerical influence, 370.
+
+
+Van Buren, Martin, told by Gallatin of willingness to accept French
+ mission, 349;
+  manages caucus of Republican Congresssmen, 357;
+  letter of Gallatin to, withdrawing from nomination, 358.
+
+Van der Kemp, ----, Dutch commissioner to make commercial treaty, 334.
+
+Verplanck, Gulian C., member of "The Club," 367.
+
+Virginia, claims of Savary against, 19;
+  Gallatin's opinion of society in, 24;
+  movement in, to secure amendment of Constitution, 36;
+  disunion threats in, 116;
+  ready to attack Federalists by force in 1801, 166.
+
+Voltaire, friendship with Gallatin family, 7;
+  writes verses for Madame Gallatin, 7;
+  influence over Albert Gallatin, 7, 8.
+
+
+Wainwright, Rev. Dr., member of "The Club," 367.
+
+War of 1812, estimates of Gallatin as to cost of operations in, 289,
+ 290;
+  preparation for, advocated by Gallatin, 292;
+  events leading to, 295; questions at issue in, 305;
+  English hopes in, 313, 316;
+  sack of Washington, 320.
+
+Ward, Samuel, member of "The Club," 367.
+
+Washington, Augustine, founder of Ohio Company, 20.
+
+Washington, George, his military inactivity in 1780, 12;
+  meets Gallatin in 1784, 22;
+  snubs him for forwardness, 23;
+  later wishes him to be his land agent, 23;
+  his election as president disconcerts anti-Federalists, 40;
+  unwilling to go to extremes against Whiskey Rebellion, 54;
+  issues proclamation, 54;
+  Randolph's opinion of his influence, 77;
+  combines conciliation with force, 77;
+  issues proclamation, calls out militia, and appoints commission to
+   confer, 77, 78;
+  accompanies army as far as Bedford, 88;
+  refuses to stop march of troops, 89;
+  dissuades troops from violence, 92;
+  pardons convicted offenders, 96;
+  reconstructs his cabinet, 97, 98; his influence, 102;
+  convenes Senate to ratify Jay treaty, 102;
+  attacked by Bache, 104;
+  addresses Congress, 104;
+  his administration criticised in debate over reply in House, 104-106;
+  refuses call of House for Jay treaty papers, 114;
+  refusal of House to adjourn on his birthday, 126;
+  obtains surrender of Western posts, 128;
+  issues Farewell Address, 128;
+  attacked by Giles, 128;
+  proposal of Gallatin concerning reply to his message, 129;
+  sends tricolor to Congress, 130, 132;
+  attends Congress as lieutenant-general, 155;
+  his death announced by Marshall, 158;
+  invites Wolcott to succeed Hamilton, 176;
+  Gallatin's opinion of his character, 383, 384;
+  and of his strong passions, 383 n.
+
+Washington, Lawrence, founder of Ohio Company, 20.
+
+Washington city, removal of Congress to, 161, 162;
+  sack of, by English, 320.
+
+Washington County, Pennsylvania, in Whiskey Insurrection, 49, 50, 51,
+ 70, 71, 78, 94, 96;
+  elects Gallatin to Congress, 93, 127.
+
+Wayne, Anthony, makes treaty with Indians, 117.
+
+Webster, Daniel, his speech on northeastern boundary published by
+ Gallatin, 349;
+  his manner of negotiating with Ashburton, 350.
+
+Webster, Pelatiah, describes Gallatin at Philadelphia in 1783, 19.
+
+Wellington, Lord, asked by cabinet to conquer a peace, 322;
+  advises cabinet not to insist on cession of territory, 322;
+  expresses friendly feelings, 335.
+
+Wells, John, member of "The Club," 367.
+
+Westmoreland County, in Whiskey Insurrection, 49, 51, 74, 78, 96.
+
+Wheaton, Henry, requests Gallatin to furnish Humboldt with data on gold
+ in United States, 381.
+
+Whiskey Insurrection, opposition to excise in Pennsylvania, 48, 49;
+  reasons for opposition, 49, 50;
+  first meetings against excise in Washington County, 50, 51;
+  combined meeting of four counties at Pittsburgh, 51;
+  violence against inspectors, 51;
+  modification of law, 52;
+  second convention at Pittsburgh, 52;
+  resolutions against collectors, 52, 53;
+  petition to Congress, 53;
+  proclamation issued by Washington and cabinet, 54;
+  arrests and riots, 55;
+  attempts to serve writs, 67, 68;
+  rioting, burning of Marshall's house, 68, 69;
+  flight of officers, 68;
+  meetings of distillers, 69;
+  efforts of Gallatin and others to prevent violence, 69, 70;
+  stoppage of mails, 69;
+  call for meeting of militia, 70;
+  leaders of, 70, 71;
+  meeting of militia at Parkinson's Ferry, 72, 73;
+  estimates of numbers, 72;
+  violence of feeling, 73, 74;
+  renewed outrages, 74;
+  use of liberty poles, 74;
+  attitude of Gallatin toward, 75, 76;
+  plans of Washington and Hamilton to suppress, 77;
+  proclamation against carrying arms, 77;
+  commissioners appointed, 77;
+  convention of distillers at Parkinson's Ferry, 78, 79;
+  proposals to raise troops, 79;
+  efforts of moderates, 80, 81;
+  committee of sixty appointed, 80;
+  arrival of commissioners, their offer, 81;
+  conference of committee at Red Stone Old Fort, 81, 82;
+  vote to accept terms, 83;
+  influence of Gallatin, 84;
+  meetings for submission in counties, 85;
+  apparent failure of terms of amnesty, 86;
+  threats of secession, 86;
+  Hamilton writes "Tully" letter, 87;
+  report of commissioners, 87;
+  proclamation calls out troops, 87;
+  march of militia, 88;
+  committee of sixty passes conciliatory resolutions, 88, 89;
+  refusal of Washington to turn back, 89;
+  final meeting at Parkinson's Ferry votes entire submission, 89;
+  occupation of western counties by troops, 89, 90;
+  arrest of rebels, 90, 91;
+  journey of prisoners to Philadelphia, 91, 92;
+  end of disturbances, 93;
+  return of army, 93;
+  confession of Gallatin, 94;
+  trial of prisoners, 96;
+  its effect on Federalist party, 101;
+  Gallatin taunted with participation in, 119, 124.
+
+Wirt, William, letter of Jefferson to, 298.
+
+Wolcott, Oliver, succeeds Hamilton in Treasury Department, 97;
+  his situation deplored by Gallatin, 125;
+  complains to Hamilton of Republican opposition, 126;
+  complains of Gallatin's purpose to break down department, 154;
+  his career as Hamilton's successor, 176-178;
+  his statement of a surplus denied by Gallatin, 190, 191.
+
+Woodbury, Levi, reports extinction of debt, 270, 271;
+  then deplores its absence, 271;
+  alarmed at increase of circulation in 1836, 272;
+  begins sub-treasury system, 273;
+  promises to support resumption of payment by banks, 275.
+
+X Y Z dispatches, 149.
+
+The Riverside Press
+
+CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U. S. A.
+
+ELECTROTYPED AND PRINTED BY
+
+H. O. HOUGHTON AND CO.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Albert Gallatin, by John Austin Stevens
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ALBERT GALLATIN ***
+
+***** This file should be named 20873.txt or 20873.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/2/0/8/7/20873/
+
+Produced by Thomas Strong and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/20873.zip b/20873.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0e60b1b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/20873.zip
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..af9b359
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #20873 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/20873)