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diff --git a/20871-h/20871-h.htm b/20871-h/20871-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cb47fdf --- /dev/null +++ b/20871-h/20871-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,11469 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Human Foods and Their Nutritive Value, by Harry Snyder</title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + div.centered {text-align: center;} /* work around for IE centering with CSS problem part 1 */ + div.centered table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left;} /* work around for IE centering with CSS problem part 2 */ + + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + img {border:0;} + + div.trans-note {border-style: solid; border-width: 1px; + margin: 3em 15%; padding: 1em; text-align: center;} + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + color: gray; + + } /* page numbers */ + + .linenum {position: absolute; top: auto; left: 4%;} /* poetry number */ + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .bb {border-bottom: solid 2px;} + .bl {border-left: solid 2px;} + .bt {border-top: solid 2px;} + .br {border-right: solid 2px;} + .bbox {border: solid 2px;} + + .author {text-align: right; margin-right: 5%;} + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 0em; margin-top: + 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 0em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + hr.full { width: 100%; + margin-top: 3em; + margin-bottom: 0em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + height: 4px; + border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ + border-style: solid; + border-color: #000000; + clear: both; } + pre {font-size: 75%;} + + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> +</head> +<body> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Human Foods and Their Nutritive Value, by +Harry Snyder</h1> +<pre> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre> +<p>Title: Human Foods and Their Nutritive Value</p> +<p>Author: Harry Snyder</p> +<p>Release Date: March 22, 2007 [eBook #20871]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HUMAN FOODS AND THEIR NUTRITIVE VALUE***</p> +<p> </p> +<h3>E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Janet Blenkinship,<br /> + and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> + (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + + <h1>HUMAN FOODS<br /><br /> + + AND THEIR NUTRITIVE VALUE</h1> + + + <h4>BY</h4> + <h2>HARRY SNYDER, B.S.</h2> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + + + <p class='center'>New York<br /> + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br /> + 1914<br /><br /> + + <i>All rights reserved</i></p> + + <p class='center'>Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1908. Reprinted + October, 1909; September, 1910; February, 1911; September, 1912; + May, December, 1913; June, 1914.</p> + + + <p class='center'>Norwood Press + J. S. Cushing Co.—Berwick & Smith Co. + Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.</p> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2> + + +<p>Since 1897 instruction has been given at the University of Minnesota, +College of Agriculture, on human foods and their nutritive value. With +the development of the work, need has been felt for a text-book +presenting in concise form the composition and physical properties of +foods, and discussing some of the main factors which affect their +nutritive value. To meet the need, this book has been prepared, +primarily for the author's classroom. It aims to present some of the +principles of human nutrition along with a study of the more common +articles of food. It is believed that a better understanding of the +subject of nutrition will suggest ways in which foods may be selected +and utilized more intelligently, resulting not only in pecuniary saving, +but also in greater efficiency of physical and mental effort.</p> + +<p>Prominence is given in this work to those foods, as flour, bread, +cereals, vegetables, meats, milk, dairy products, and fruits, that are +most extensively used in the dietary, and to some of the physical, +chemical, and bacteriological changes affecting digestibility and +nutritive value which take place during their preparation for the table. +Dietary studies, comparative cost and value of foods, rational feeding +of men, and experiments and laboratory practice form features of the +work. Some closely related topics, largely of a sanitary nature, as the +effect upon food of household sanitation and storage, are also briefly +discussed. References are given in case more extended information is +desired on some of the subjects treated. While this book was prepared +mainly for students who have taken a course in general chemistry, it has +been the intention to present the topics in such a way as to be +understood by the layman also.</p> + +<p>This work completes a series of text-books undertaken by the author +over ten years ago, dealing with agricultural and industrial subjects: +"Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life," "Dairy Chemistry," "Soils and +Fertilizers," and "Human Foods and their Nutritive Value." It has been +the aim in preparing these books to avoid as far as possible repetition, +but at the same time to make each work sufficiently complete to permit +its use as a text independent of the series.</p> + +<p>One of the greatest uses that science can serve is in its application to +the household and the everyday affairs of life. Too little attention is +generally bestowed upon the study of foods in schools and colleges, and +the author sincerely hopes the time will soon come when more prominence +will be given to this subject, which is the oldest, most important, most +neglected, and least understood of any that have a direct bearing upon +the welfare of man.</p> + +<p class='author'> +HARRY SNYDER. +</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2> + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="CONTENTS"> +<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER I</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">General Composition of Foods</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_1'><b>1</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Water; Dry Matter; Variations in Weight of Foods;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ash; Function of Ash in Plant Life; Organic Matter;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Products of Combustion of Organic Matter; Classification</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Organic Compounds; Non-nitrogenous Compounds;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Carbohydrates; Cellulose; Amount of Cellulose in Foods;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Crude Fiber; Starch; Microscopic Structure of Starch;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dextrin; Food Value of Starch; Sugar; Pectose Substances;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Nitrogen-free-extract; Fats; Fuel Value of Fats;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Iodine Number of Fats; Glycerol Content of Fats; Ether</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Extract and Crude Fat; Organic Acids; Dietetic Value</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Organic Acids; Essential Oils; Mixed Compounds;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Nutritive Value of Non-nitrogenous Compounds; Nitrogenous</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Compounds; General Composition; Protein; Sub-divisions</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Proteins; Crude Protein; Food Value of</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Protein; Albuminoids; Amids and Amines; Alkaloids;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>General Relationship of the Nitrogenous Compounds.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER II</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Changes in Composition of Foods during Cooking and Preparation</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Raw and Cooked Foods compared as to Composition;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Chemical Changes during Cooking; General Changes</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>affecting Cellulose, Starch, Sugar, Pectin Bodies, Fats,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Proteids; Effect of Chemical Changes on Digestibility;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Physical Changes during Cooking; Action of Heat on</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Animal and Plant Tissues; Amount of Heat required for</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cooking; Bacteriological Changes; Insoluble Ferments;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Soluble Ferments; Bacterial Action Necessary in Preparation</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Some Foods; Injurious Bacterial Action; General</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Relationship of Chemical, Physical, and Bacteriological</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Changes; Esthetic Value of Foods; Color of Foods;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Natural and Artificial Colors; Conditions under which</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Use of Chemicals in Preparation of Foods is Justifiable.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER III</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Vegetable Foods</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_37'><b>37</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>General Composition; Potatoes; Chemical and Mechanical</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Composition; Uses of Potatoes in Dietary; Sweet</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Potatoes; Carrots; Parsnips; Cabbage; Cauliflower;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Beets; Cucumbers; Lettuce; Onions; Spinach; Asparagus;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Melons; Tomatoes; Sweet Corn; Eggplant;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Squash; Celery; Dietetic Value of Vegetables; Nutrient</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Content of Vegetables; Sanitary Condition of Vegetables;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Miscellaneous Compounds in Vegetables; Canned Vegetables;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Edible Portion and Refuse of Vegetables.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER IV</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Fruits, Flavors and Extracts</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_48'><b>48</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>General Composition; Food Value; Apples; Oranges;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lemons; Grape Fruit; Strawberries; Grapes; Peaches;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Plums; Olives; Figs; Dried Fruits; Uses of Fruit in</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>the Dietary; Canning and Preservation of Fruits; Adulterated</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Canned Fruits; Fruit Flavors and Extracts; Synthetic</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Preparation of Flavors.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER V</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Sugars, Molasses, Syrup, Honey, and Confections</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_58'><b>58</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Composition of Sugars; Beet Sugar; Cane Sugar;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Manufacture of Sugar; Sulphur Dioxid and Indigo, Uses</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of, in Sugar Manufacture; Commercial Grades of Sugar;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sugar in the Dietary; Maple Sugar; Adulteration of</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sugar; Dextrose Sugars; Inversion of Sugars; Molasses;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Syrups; Adulteration of Molasses; Sorghum Syrup;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Maple Syrup; Analysis of Sugar; Adulteration of Syrups;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Honey; Confections; Coloring Matter in Candies; Coal</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tar Dyes; Saccharine.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER VI</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Legumes and Nuts</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_71'><b>71</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>General Composition of Legumes; Beans; Digestibility</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Beans; Use of Beans in the Dietary; String</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Beans; Peas; Canned Peas; Peanuts; General Composition</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Nuts; Chestnuts; The Hickory Nut; Almonds;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pistachio; Cocoanuts; Uses of Nuts in the Dietary.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER VII</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Milk and Dairy Products</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_80'><b>80</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Importance in the Dietary; General Composition; Digestibility;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sanitary Condition of Milk; Certified Milk;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pasteurized Milk; Tyrotoxicon; Color of Milk; Souring</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Milk; Use of Preservatives in Milk; Condensed Milk;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Skim Milk; Cream; Buttermilk; Goat's Milk; Koumiss;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Prepared Milks; Human Milk; Adulteration of Milk;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Composition of Butter; Digestibility of Butter; Adulteration</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Butter; General Composition of Cheese;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Digestibility; Use in the Dietary; Cottage Cheese; Different</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Kinds of Cheese; Adulteration of Cheese; Dairy</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Products in the Dietary.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER VIII</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Meats and Animal Food Products</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_98'><b>98</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>General Composition; Mineral Matter; Fat; Protein;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Non-nitrogenous Compounds; Why Meats vary in Composition;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Amides; Albuminoids; Taste and Flavor of</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Meats; Alkaloidal Bodies in Meats; Ripening of Meats</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>in Cold Storage; Beef; Veal; Mutton; Pork; Lard;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Texture and Toughness of Meat; Influence of Cooking</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>upon the Composition of Meats; Beef Extracts; Miscellaneous</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Meat Products; Pickled Meats; Saltpeter in</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Meats; Smoked Meats; Poultry; Fish; Oysters, Fattening</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of; Shell Fish; Eggs, General Composition; Digestibility</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Eggs; Use of Eggs in the Dietary; Canned</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Meats, General Composition.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER IX</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Cereals</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_121'><b>121</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Preparation and Cost of Cereals; Various Grains used</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>in making Cereal Products; Cleanliness of; Corn Preparations;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Corn Flour; Use of Corn in Dietary; Corn Bread;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Oat Preparations; Cooking of Oatmeal; Wheat Preparations;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Flour Middlings; Breakfast Foods; Digestibility</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Wheat Preparations; Barley Preparations; Rice Preparations;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Predigested Foods; The Value of Cereals in the</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dietary; Phosphate Content of Cereals; Phosphorus Requirements</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of a Ration; Mechanical Action of Cereals</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>upon Digestion; Cost and Nutritive Value of Cereals.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER X</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Wheat Flour</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Use for Bread Making; Winter and Spring Wheat</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Flours; Composition of Wheat and Flour; Roller Process</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Flour Milling; Grades of Flour; Types of Flour; Composition</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Flour; Graham and Entire Wheat Flours;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Composition of Wheat Offals; Aging and Curing of Flour;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Macaroni Flour; Color; Granulation; Capacity of Flour</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>to absorb Water; Physical Properties of Gluten; Gluten</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>as a Factor in Bread Making; Unsoundness; Comparative</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Baking Tests; Bleaching; Adulteration of Flour; Nutritive</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Value of Flour.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER XI</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Bread and Bread Making</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Leavened and Unleavened Bread; Changes during</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bread Making; Loss of Dry Matter during Bread Making;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Action of Yeast; Compressed Yeast; Dry Yeast; Production</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Carbon Dioxid Gas and Alcohol; Production</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Soluble Carbohydrates; Production of Acids in Bread</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Making; Volatile Compounds produced during Bread</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Making; Behavior of Wheat Proteids in Bread Making;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Production of Volatile Nitrogenous Compounds; Oxidation</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Fat; Influence of the Addition of Wheat Starch</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>and Gluten to Flour; Composition of Bread; Use of</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Skim Milk and Lard in Bread Making; Influence of</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Warm and Cold Flours in Bread Making; Variations in</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>the Process of Bread Making; Digestibility of Bread;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Use of Graham and Entire Wheat in the Dietary; Mineral</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Content of White Bread; Comparative Digestibility</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of New and Old Bread; Different Kinds of Bread; Toast.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER XII</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Baking Powders</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>General Composition; Cream of Tartar Powders; Residue</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>from Cream of Tartar Baking Powders; Tartaric</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Acid Powders; Phosphate Baking Powders; Mineral and</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Organic Phosphates; Phosphate Residue; Alum Baking</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Powders; Residue from Alum Baking Powders; Objections</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>urged against Alum Powders; Action of Baking</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Powders and Yeast Compared; Keeping Qualities of</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Baking Powders; Inspection of Baking Powders; Fillers;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Home-made Baking Powders.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER XIII</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Vinegar, Spices, and Condiments</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Vinegar; Chemical Changes during Manufacture of</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Vinegar; Ferment Action; Materials used in Preparation</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Vinegars; Characteristics of a Good Vinegar; Vinegar</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Solids; Acidity of Vinegar; Different Kinds of Vinegars;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Standards of Purity; Adulteration of Vinegar; Characteristics</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Spices; Pepper; Cayenne; Mustard; Ginger;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cinnamon and Cassia; Cloves; Allspice; Nutmeg; Adulteration</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Spices and Condiments; Essential Oils of;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Uses of Condiments in Preparation of Foods; Action of</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Condiments upon Digestion; Condiments and Natural</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Flavors.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER XIV</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Tea, Coffee, Chocolate, and Cocoa</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_203'><b>203</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tea; Sources of Tea Supply; Composition of Tea;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Black Tea and Green Tea; Judging Teas; Adulteration</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Tea; Food Value and Physiological Properties of Tea;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Composition of Coffee; Adulteration of Coffee; Chicory</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>in Coffee; Glazing of Coffee; Cereal Coffee Substitutes;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cocoa and Chocolate Preparations; Composition of Cocoa;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Chocolate; Cocoa Nibs; Plain Chocolate; Sweet Chocolate;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cocoa Butter; Nutritive Value of Cocoa; Adulteration</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Chocolate and Cocoa; Comparative Composition</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Beverages.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER XV</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">The Digestibility of Food</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_214'><b>214</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Digestibility, how Determined; Completeness and Ease</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Digestion Process; Example of Digestion Experiment;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Available Nutrients; Available Energy; Caloric Value of</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Foods; Normal Digestion and Health; Digestibility of</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Animal Foods; Digestibility of Vegetable Foods; Factors</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>influencing Digestion; Combination of Foods; Amount</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Food; Method of Preparation of Food; Mechanical</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Condition of Foods; Mastication; Palatability of Foods;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Physiological Properties of Foods; Individuality; Psychological</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Factors.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER XVI</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Comparative Cost and Value of Foods</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_231'><b>231</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cost and Nutrient Content of Foods; How to compare</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Two Foods as to Nutritive Value; Cheap Foods; Expensive</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Foods; Nutrients Procurable for a Given Sum; Examples;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Comparing Nutritive Value of Common Foods</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>at Different Prices; Cost and Value of Nutrients.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER XVII</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Dietary Studies</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_244'><b>244</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Object of Dietary Studies; Wide and Narrow Rations;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dietary Standards; Number of Meals per Day; Mixed</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dietary Desirable; Animal and Vegetable Foods;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Economy of Production; Food Habits; Underfed Families;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cheap and Expensive Foods; Food Notions;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dietary of Two Families Compared; Food in its Relation</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>to Mental and Physical Vigor; Dietary Studies in Public</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Institutions.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER XVIII</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Rational Feeling of Man</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Object; Human and Animal Feeding Compared; Standard</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rations; Why Tentative Dietary Standards; Amounts</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Food Consumed; Average Composition of Foods;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Variations in Composition of Foods; Example of a Ration;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Calculations of Balanced Rations; Requisites of a</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Balanced Ration; Examples; Calculations of Rations for</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Men at Different Kinds of Labor.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER XIX</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Water</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_268'><b>268</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Importance; Impurities in Water; Mineral Impurities;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Organic Impurities; Interpretation of a Water Analysis;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Natural Purification of Water; Water in Relation to</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Health; Improvement of Waters; Boiling of Water; Filtration;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Purification of Water by Addition of Chemicals;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ice; Rain Waters; Waters of High and Low Purity;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Chemical Changes which Organic Matter of Water Undergoes;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bacterial Content of Water; Mineral Waters;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Materials for Softening Water; Uses of; Economic Value</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of a Pure Water Supply.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER XX</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Food as Affected by Household Sanitation and Storage</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_284'><b>284</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Injurious Compounds in Foods; Nutrient Content and</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sanitary Condition of Food; Sources of Contamination</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Food; Unclean Ways of Handling Food; Sanitary Inspection</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Food; Infection from Impure Air; Storage</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Food in Cellars; Respiration of Vegetable Cells; Sunlight,</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pure Water, and Pure Air as Disinfectants; Foods</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>contaminated from Leaky Plumbing; Utensils for Storage</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Food; Contamination from Unclean Dishcloths; Refrigeration;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Chemical Changes that take Place in the</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Refrigerator; Soil; Disposal of Kitchen Refuse; Germ</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Diseases spread by Unsanitary Conditions around Dwellings</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>due to Contamination of Food; General Considerations;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Relation of Food to Health.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='center' colspan="2">CHAPTER XXI</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Laboratory Practice</span></th><td align='right'><a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Object of Laboratory Practice; Laboratory Note-book</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>and Suggestions for Laboratory Practice; List of Apparatus</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Used; Photograph of Apparatus Used; Directions</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>for Weighing; Directions for Measuring; Use of Microscope;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Water in Flour; Water in Butter; Ash in Flour;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Nitric Acid Test for Nitrogenous Organic Matter; Acidity</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Lemons; Influence of Heat on Potato Starch Grains;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Influence of Yeast on Starch Grains; Mechanical Composition</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Potatoes; Pectose from Apples; Lemon Extract;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Vanilla Extract; Testing Olive Oil for Cotton Seed Oil;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Testing for Coal Tar Dyes; Determining the Per Cent of</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Skin in Beans; Extraction of Fat from Peanuts; Microscopic</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Examination of Milk; Formaldehyde in Cream or</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Milk; Gelatine in Cream or Milk; Testing for Oleomargarine;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Testing for Watering or Skimming of Milk; Boric</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Acid in Meat; Microscopic Examination of Cereal Starch</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Grains; Identification of Commercial Cereals; Granulation</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>and Color of Flour; Capacity of Flour to absorb</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Water; Acidity of Flour; Moist and Dry Gluten; Gliadin</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>from Flour; Bread-making Test; Microscopic Examination</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Yeast; Testing Baking Powders for Alum; Testing</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Baking Powders for Phosphoric Acid; Testing Baking</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Powders for Ammonia; Vinegar Solids; Specific Gravity</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Vinegar; Acidity of Vinegar; Deportment of Vinegar</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>with Reagents; Testing Mustard for Turmeric; Examination</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>of Tea Leaves; Action of Iron Compounds upon</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tannic Acid; Identification of Coffee Berries; Detecting</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Chicory in Coffee; Comparative Amounts of Soap Necessary</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>with Hard and Soft Water; Solvent Action of Water</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>on Lead; Suspended Matter in Water; Organic Matter</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>in Water; Deposition of Lime by Boiling Water; Qualitative</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tests for Minerals in Water; Testing for Nitrites</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>in Water.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Review Questions</span></th><td align='left'><a href='#Page_323'><b>323</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">References</span></th><td align='left'><a href='#Page_350'><b>350</b></a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='left'><span class="smcap">Index</span></th><td align='left'><a href='#Page_357'><b>357</b></a></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><br /><br /><a name="HUMAN_FOODS_AND_THEIR_NUTRITIVE_VALUE" id="HUMAN_FOODS_AND_THEIR_NUTRITIVE_VALUE"></a>HUMAN FOODS AND THEIR NUTRITIVE VALUE<br /><br /></h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h3>GENERAL COMPOSITION OF FOODS</h3> + + +<p><b>1. Water.</b>—All foods contain water. Vegetables in their natural +condition contain large amounts, often 95 per cent, while in meats there +is from 40 to 60 per cent or more. Prepared cereal products, as flour, +corn meal, and oatmeal, which are apparently dry, have from 7 to 14 per +cent. In general the amount of water in a food varies with the +mechanical structure and the conditions under which it has been +prepared, and is an important factor in estimating the value, as the +nutrients are often greatly decreased because of large amounts of water. +The water in substances as flour and meal is mechanically held in +combination with the fine particles and varies with the moisture +content, or hydroscopicity, of the air. Oftentimes foods gain or lose +water to such an extent as to affect their weight; for example, one +hundred pounds of flour containing 12 per cent of water may be reduced +in weight three pounds or more when stored in a dry place, or there may +be an increase<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> in weight from being stored in a damp place. In tables +of analyses the results, unless otherwise stated, are usually given on +the basis of the original material, or the dry substance. Potatoes, for +example, contain 2½ per cent of crude protein on the basis of 75 per +cent of water; or on a dry matter basis, that is, when the water is +entirely eliminated, there is 10 per cent of protein.</p> + +<p>The water of foods is determined by drying the weighed material in a +water or air oven at a temperature of about 100° C, until all of the +moisture has been expelled in the form of steam, leaving the dry matter +or material free from water.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[1]</sup></small></b></a> The determination of dry matter, while +theoretically a simple process, is attended with many difficulties. +Substances which contain much fat may undergo oxidation during drying; +volatile compounds, as essential oils, are expelled along with the +moisture; and other changes may occur affecting the accuracy of the +work. The last traces of moisture are removed with difficulty from a +substance, being mechanically retained by the particles with great +tenacity. When very accurate dry matter determinations are desired, the +substance is dried in a vacuum oven, or in a desiccator over sulphuric +acid, or in an atmosphere of some non-oxidizing gas, as hydrogen.</p> + + +<p><b>2. Dry Matter.</b>—The dry matter of a food is a mechanical mixture of +the various compounds, as starch, sugar, fat, protein, cellulose, and +mineral matter, and is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> obtained by drying the material. Succulent +vegetable foods with 95 per cent of water contain only 5 per cent of +dry matter, while in flour with 12 per cent of water there is 88 per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> +cent, and in sugar 99 per cent. The dry matter is obtained by +subtracting the per cent of water from 100, and in foods it varies from +5 per cent and less in some vegetables to 99 per cent in sugar.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img-019.jpg" width="512" height="550" + alt="Fig. 1." /><br /> + + </div> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.—Apparatus used for the Determination of Dry +Matter and Ash in Foods</span>.</h4> + +<h4>1, desiccator; 2, muffle furnace for combustion of foods and obtaining +ash; 3, water oven for drying food materials.</h4> + + +<p><b>3. Ash.</b>—The ash, or mineral matter, is that portion obtained by +burning or igniting the dry matter at the lowest temperature necessary +for complete combustion. The ash in vegetable foods ranges from 2 to 5 +per cent and, together with the nitrogen, represents what was taken from +the soil during growth. In animal bodies, the ash is present mainly in +the bones, but there is also an appreciable amount, one per cent or +more, in all the tissues. Ash is exceedingly variable in composition, +being composed of the various salts of potassium, sodium, calcium, +magnesium, and iron, as sulphates, phosphates, chlorides, and silicates +of these elements. There are also other elements in small amounts. In +the plant economy these elements take an essential part and are +requisite for the formation of plant tissue and the production in the +leaves of the organic compounds which later are stored up in the seeds. +Some of the elements appear to be more necessary than others, and +whenever withheld plant growth is restricted. The elements most +essential for plant growth are potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, +phosphorus, and sulphur.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[1]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p>In the animal body minerals are derived, either directly or indirectly, +from the vegetable foods consumed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> The part which each of the mineral +elements takes in animal nutrition is not well understood. Some of the +elements, as phosphorus and sulphur, are in organic combination with the +nitrogenous compounds, as the nucleated albuminoids, which are very +essential for animal life. In both plant and animal bodies, the mineral +matter is present as mineral salts and organic combinations. It is held +that the ash elements which are in organic combination are the forms +mainly utilized for tissue construction. While it is not known just what +part all the mineral elements take in animal nutrition, experiments show +that in all ordinary mixed rations the amount of the different mineral +elements is in excess of the demands of the body, and it is only in rare +instances, as in cases of restricted diet, or convalescence from some +disease, that special attention need be given to increasing the mineral +content of the ration. An excess of mineral matter in foods is equally +as objectionable as a scant amount, elimination of the excess entailing +additional work on the body.</p> + +<p>The composition of the ash of different food materials varies widely, +both in amount, and form of the individual elements. When for any reason +it is necessary to increase the phosphates in a ration, milk and eggs do +this to a greater extent than almost any other foods. Common salt, or +sodium chloride, is one of the most essential of the mineral +constituents of the body. It is necessary for giving the blood its +normal composition, furnishing acid and basic constituents for the +pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>duction of the digestive fluids, and for the nutrition of the cells. +While salt is a necessary food, in large amounts, as when the attempt is +made to use sea water as a beverage, it acts as a poison, suggesting +that a material may be both a food and a poison. When sodium chloride is +entirely withheld from an animal, death from salt starvation ensues. +Many foods contain naturally small amounts of sodium chloride.</p> + + +<p><b>4. Organic Matter.</b>—That portion of a food material which is converted +into gaseous or volatile products during combustion is called the +organic matter. It is a mechanical mixture of compounds made up of +carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur, and is composed of +various individual organic compounds, as cellulose, starch, sugar, +albumin, and fat. The amount in a food is determined by subtracting the +ash and water from 100. The organic matter varies widely in composition; +in some foods it is largely starch, as in potatoes and rice, while in +others, as forage crops consumed by animals, cellulose predominates. The +nature of the prevailing organic compound, as sugar or starch, +determines the nutritive value of a food. Each has a definite chemical +composition capable of being expressed by a formula. Considered +collectively, the organic compounds are termed organic matter. When +burned, the organic compounds are converted into gases, the carbon +uniting with the oxygen of the air to form carbon dioxide, hydrogen to +form water, sul<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>phur to form sulphur dioxide, and the nitrogen to form +oxides of nitrogen and ammonia.</p> + + +<p><b>5. Classification of Organic Compounds.</b>—All food materials are +composed of a large number of organic compounds. For purposes of study +these are divided into classes. The element nitrogen is taken as the +basis of the division. Compounds which contain this element are called +nitrogenous, while those from which it is absent are called +non-nitrogenous.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[2]</sup></small></b></a> The nitrogenous organic compounds are composed of +the elements nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and sulphur, while the +non-nitrogenous compounds are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. +In vegetable foods the non-nitrogenous compounds predominate, there +being usually from six to twelve parts of non-nitrogenous to every one +part of nitrogenous, while in animal foods the nitrogenous compounds are +present in larger amount.</p> + + +<h4>NON-NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS</h4> + +<p><b>6. Occurrence.</b>—The non-nitrogenous compounds of foods consist mainly +of cellulose, starch, sugar, and fat. For purposes of study, they are +divided into subdivisions, as carbohydrates, pectose substances or +jellies, fats, organic acids, essential oils, and mixed compounds. In +plants the carbohydrates predominate, while in animal tissue the fats +are the chief non-nitrogenous constituents.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p> + + +<p><b>7. Carbohydrates.</b>—This term is applied to a class of compounds +similar in general composition, but differing widely in structural +composition and physical properties. Carbohydrates make up the bulk of +vegetable foods and, except in milk, are found only in traces in animal +foods. They are all represented by the general formula CH_2n_2n, there +being twice as many hydrogen as oxygen atoms, the hydrogen and oxygen +being present in the same proportion as in water. As a class, the +carbohydrates are neutral bodies, and, when burned, form carbon dioxide +and water.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img024a.jpg" width="210" height="250" + alt="Fig. 2." /><br /> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.—Cellular Structure<br />of Plant Cell</span>.</h4> + </div> + + + +<p><b>8. Cellulose</b> is the basis of the cell structure of plants, and is +found in various physical forms in food materials.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[3]</sup></small></b></a> Sometimes it is +hard and dense, resisting digestive action and mechanically inclosing +other nutrients and thus preventing their being available as food. In +the earlier stages of plant growth a part of the cellulose is in +chemical combination with water, forming hydrated cellulose, a portion +of which undergoes digestion and produces heat and energy in the body. +Ordinarily, however, cellulose adds but little in the way of nutritive +value, although it is often beneficial mechanically and imparts bulk to +some foods otherwise too concentrated. The mechanical action of +cellulose on the digestion of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> food is discussed in Chapter XV. +Cellulose usually makes up a very small part of human food, less than 1 +per cent. In refined white flour there is less than .05 of a per cent; +in oatmeal and cereal products from .5 to 1 per cent, depending upon the +extent to which the hulls are removed, and in vegetable foods from .1 to +1 per cent. The cellulose content of foods is included in the crude +fiber of the chemist's report.</p> + +<p><b>9. Starch</b> occurs widely distributed in nature, particularly in the +seeds, roots, and tubers of some plants. It is formed in the leaves of +plants as a result of the joint action of chlorophyll and protoplasm, +and is generally held by plant physiologists to be the first +carbohydrate produced in the plant cell. Starch is composed of a number +of overlapping layers separated by starch cellulose; between these +layers the true starch or amylose is found. Starch from the various +cereals and vegetables differs widely in mechanical structure; in wheat +it is circular, in corn somewhat angular, and in parsnips exceedingly +small, while potato starch granules are among the largest.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[3]</sup></small></b></a> The nature +of starch can be determined largely from its mechanical structure as +studied under the microscope. It is insoluble in cold water because of +the protecting action of the cellular layer, but on being heated it +undergoes both mechanical and chemical changes; the grains are partially +ruptured by pressure due to the conversion into steam of the moisture +held mechanically. The cooking of foods is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> beneficial from a mechanical +point of view, as it results in partial disintegration of the starch +masses, changing the structure so that the starch is more readily acted +upon by the ferments of the digestive tract. At a temperature of about +120° C. starch begins to undergo chemical change, resulting in the +rearrangement of the atoms in the molecule with the production of +dextrine and soluble carbohydrates. Dextrine is formed on the crust of +bread, or whenever potatoes or starchy foods are browned. At a still +higher temperature starch is decomposed, with the liberation of water +and production of compounds of higher carbon content. When heated in +contact with water, it undergoes hydration changes; gelatinous-like +products are formed, which are finally converted into a soluble +condition. In cooking cereals, the hydration of the starch is one of the +main physical and chemical changes that takes place, and it simply +results in converting the material into such a form that other chemical +changes may more readily occur. Before starch becomes dextrose, +hydration is necessary. If this is accomplished by cooking, it saves the +body just so much energy in digestion. Many foods owe their value +largely to the starch. In cereals it is found to the extent of 72 to 76 +per cent; in rice and potatoes in still larger amounts; and it is the +chief constituent of many vegetables. When starch is digested, it is +first changed to a soluble form and then gradually undergoes oxidation, +resulting in the production of heat and energy, the same +products—carbon dioxide and water—being<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> formed as when starch is +burned. Starch is a valuable heat-producing nutrient; a pound yields +1860 calories. See Chapter XV.</p> + +<p><b>10. Sugar.</b>—Sugars are widely distributed in nature, being found +principally in the juices of the sugar cane, sugar beet, and sugar +maple. They are divided into two large classes: the sucrose group and +the dextrose group, the latter being produced from sucrose, starch, and +other carbohydrates by inversion and allied chemical changes. Because of +the importance of sugar in the dietary, Chapter V is devoted to the +subject.</p> + +<p><b>11. Pectose Substances</b> are jelly-like bodies found in fruits and +vegetables. They are closely related in chemical composition to the +carbohydrates, into which form they are changed during digestion; and in +nutrition they serve practically the same function. In the early stages +of growth the pectin bodies are combined with organic acids, forming +insoluble compounds, as the pectin in green apples. During the ripening +of fruit and the cooking of vegetables, the pectin is changed to a more +soluble and digestible condition. In food analysis, the pectin is +usually included with the carbohydrates.</p> + +<p><b>12. Nitrogen-free-extract.</b>—In discussing the composition of foods, +the carbohydrates other then cellulose, as starch, sugar, and pectin, +are grouped under the name of nitrogen-free-extract. Methods of +chemi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>cal analysis have not yet been sufficiently perfected to enable +accurate and rapid determination to be made of all these individual +carbohydrates, and hence they are grouped together as +nitrogen-free-extract. As the name indicates, they are compounds which +contain no nitrogen, and are extractives in the sense that they are +soluble in dilute acid and alkaline solutions. The nitrogen-free-extract +is determined indirectly, that is, by the method of difference. All the +other constituents of a food, as water, ash, crude fiber (cellulose), +crude protein, and ether extract, are determined; the total is +subtracted from 100, and the difference is nitrogen-free-extract. In +studying the nutritive value of foods, particular attention should be +given to the nature of the nitrogen-free-extract, as in some instances +it is composed of sugar and in others of starch, pectin, or pentosan +(gum sugars). While all these compounds have practically the same fuel +value, they differ in composition, structure, and the way in which they +are acted upon by chemicals and digestive ferments.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[1]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img001.jpg" width="215" height="400" + alt="Fig. 3." /><br /> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.—Apparatus<br />used for the Determination<br />of +Fat.</span></h4> + </div> + + + +<p><b>13. Fat.</b>—Fat is found mainly in the seeds of plants, but to some +extent in the leaves and stems. It differs from starch in containing +more carbon and less oxygen. In starch there is about 44 per cent of +carbon, while in fat there is 75 per cent. Hence it is that when fat is +burned or undergoes combustion, it yields a larger amount of the +products of combustion—carbon dioxid and water—than does starch. A +gram of fat produces<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> 2¼ times as much heat as a gram of starch. Fat +is the most concentrated non-nitrogenous nutrient. As found in food +materials, it is a mechanical mixture of various fats, among which are +stearin, palmitin, and olein. Stearin and palmitin are hard fats, +crystalline in structure, and with a high melting point, while olein is +a liquid. In addition to these three, there are also small amounts of +other fats, as butyrin in butter, which give character or individuality +to materials. There are a number of vegetable fats or oils which are +used for food purposes and, when properly prepared and refined, have a +high nutritive value. Occasionally one fat of cheaper origin but not +necessarily of lower nutritive value is substituted for another. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +fats have definite physical and chemical properties which enable them to +be readily distinguished, as iodine number, specific gravity, index of +refraction, and heat of combustion. By iodine number is meant the +percentage of iodine that will unite chemically with the fat. Wheat oil +has an iodine number of about 100, meaning that one pound of wheat oil +will unite chemically with one pound of iodine. Fats have a lower +specific gravity than water, usually ranging from .89 to .94, the +specific gravity of a fat being fairly constant. All fats can be +separated into glycerol and a fatty acid, glycerol or glycerine being +common constituents, while each fat yields its own characteristic acid, +as stearin, stearic acid; palmitin, palmitic acid; and olein, oleic +acid. The fats are soluble in ether, chloroform, and benzine. In the +chemical analysis of foods, they are separated with ether, and along +with the fat, variable amounts of other substances are extracted, these +extractive products usually being called "ether extract" or "crude +fat."<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[5]</sup></small></b></a> The ether extract of plant tissue contains in addition to fat +appreciable amounts of cellulose, gums, coloring, and other materials. +From cereal products the ether extract is largely fat, but in some +instances lecithin and other nitrogenous fatty substances are present, +while in animal food products, as milk and meat, the ether extract is +nearly pure fat.</p> + +<p><b>14. Organic Acids.</b>—Many vegetable foods contain small amounts of +organic acids, as malic acid found in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> apples, citric in lemons, and +tartaric in grapes. These give characteristic taste to foods, but have +no direct nutritive value. They do not yield heat and energy as do +starch, fat, and protein; they are, however, useful for imparting flavor +and palatability, and it is believed they promote to some extent the +digestion of foods with which they are combined by encouraging the +secretion of the digestive fluids. Many fruits and vegetables owe their +dietetic value to the organic acids which they contain. In plants they +are usually in chemical combination with the minerals, forming compounds +as salts, or with the organic compounds, producing materials as acid +proteins. In the plant economy they take an essential part in promoting +growth and aiding the plant to secure by osmotic action its mineral food +from the soil. Organic acids are found to some extent in animal foods, +as the various lactic acids of meat and milk. They are also formed in +food materials as the result of ferment action. When seeds germinate, +small amounts of carbohydrates are converted into organic acids. In +general the organic acids are not to be considered as nutrients, but as +food adjuncts, increasing palatability and promoting digestion.</p> + +<p><b>15. Essential Oils.</b>—Essential or volatile oils differ from fats, or +fixed oils, in chemical composition and physical properties.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[6]</sup></small></b></a> The +essential oils are readily volatilized, leaving no permanent residue, +while the fixed fats are practically non-volatile. Various essen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>tial +oils are present in small amounts in nearly all vegetable food +materials, and the characteristic flavor of many fruits is due to them. +It is these compounds which are used for flavoring purposes, as +discussed in Chapter IV. The amount in a food material is very small, +usually only a few hundredths of a per cent. The essential oils have no +direct food value, but indirectly, like the organic acids, they assist +in promoting favorable digestive action, and are also valuable because +they impart a pleasant taste. Through poor methods of cooking and +preparation, the essential oils are readily lost from some foods.</p> + +<p><b>16. Mixed Compounds.</b>—Food materials frequently contain +compounds which do not naturally fall into the five groups +mentioned,—carbohydrates, pectose substances, fats, organic acids, and +essential oils. The amount of such compounds is small, and they are +classed as miscellaneous or mixed non-nitrogenous compounds. Some of +them may impart a negative value to the food, and there are others which +have all the characteristics, as far as general composition is +concerned, of the non-nitrogenous compounds, but contain nitrogen, +although as a secondary rather than an essential constituent.</p> + +<p><b>17. Nutritive Value of Non-nitrogenous Compounds.</b>—The non-nitrogenous +compounds, taken as a class, are incapable alone of sustaining life, +because they do not contain any nitrogen, and this is necessary for +produc<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>ing proteid material in the animal body. They are valuable for +the production of heat and energy, and when associated with the +nitrogenous compounds, are capable of forming non-nitrogenous reserve +tissue. It is equally impossible to sustain life for any prolonged +period with the nitrogenous compounds alone. It is when these two +classes are properly blended and naturally united in food materials that +their main value is secured. For nutrition purposes they are mutually +related and dependent. Some food materials contain the nitrogenous and +non-nitrogenous compounds blended in such proportion as to enable one +food alone to practically sustain life, while in other cases it is +necessary, in order to secure the best results in the feeding of animals +and men, to combine different foods varying in their content of these +two classes of compounds.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[7]</sup></small></b></a></p> + + +<h4>NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS</h4> + +<p><b>18. General Composition.</b>—The nitrogenous compounds are more complex +in composition than the non-nitrogenous. They are composed of a larger +number of elements, united in different ways so as to form a much more +complex molecular structure. Foods contain numerous nitrogenous organic +compounds, which, for purposes of study, are divided into four +divisions,—proteids, albuminoids, amids, and alkaloids. In addition to +these, there are other nitrogenous compounds which do not naturally fall +into any one of the four divisions.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img034a-tb.jpg" width="550" height="523" alt="Fig. 4." title="" /></div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>—<span class="smcap">Apparatus used for Determining +Total Nitrogen and Crude Protein in Foods.</span></h4> + +<p>The material is digested in the flask (3) with sulphuric acid and the +organic nitrogen converted into ammonium sulphate, which is later +liberated and distilled at 1, and the ammonia neutralized with standard +acid (2).]<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p> + +<p>Also in some foods there are small amounts of nitrogen in mineral forms, +as nitrates and nitrites.</p> + +<p><b>19. Protein.</b>—The term "protein" is applied to a large class of +nitrogenous compounds resembling each other in general composition, but +differing widely in structural composition. As a class, the proteins +contain about 16 per cent of nitrogen, 52 per cent of carbon, from 6 to +7 per cent of hydrogen, 22 per cent of oxygen, and less than 2 per cent +of sulphur. These elements are combined in a great variety of ways, +forming various groups or radicals. In studying the protein molecule a +large number of derivative products have been observed, as amid +radicals, various hydrocarbons, fatty acids, and carbohydrate-like +bodies.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[8]</sup></small></b></a> It would appear that in the chemical composition of the +proteins there are all the constituents, or simpler products, of the +non-nitrogenous compounds, and these are in chemical combination with +amid radicals and nitrogen in various forms. The nitrogen of many +proteids appears to be present in more than one form or radical. The +proteids take an important part in life processes. They are found more +extensively in animal than in plant bodies. The protoplasm of both the +plant and animal cell is composed mainly of protein.</p> + +<p>Proteids are divided into various subdivisions, as albumins, globulins, +albuminates, proteoses and peptones, and insoluble proteids. In plant +and animal foods a large amount of the protein is present as in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>soluble +proteids; that is, they are not dissolved by solvents, as water and +dilute salt solution. The albumins are soluble in water and coagulated +by heat at a temperature of 157° to 161° F. Whenever a food material is +soaked in water, the albumin is removed and can then be coagulated by +the action of heat, or of chemicals, as tannic acid, lead acetate, and +salts of mercury. The globulins are proteids extracted from food +materials by dilute salt solution after the removal of the albumins. +Globulins also are coagulated by heat and precipitated by chemicals. The +amount of globulins in vegetable foods is small. In animal foods myosin +in meat and vitellin, found in the yolk of the egg, and some of the +proteids of the blood, are examples of globulins. Albuminates are +casein-like proteids found in both animal and vegetable foods. They are +supposed to be proteins that are in feeble chemical combination with +acid and alkaline compounds, and they are sometimes called acid and +alkali proteids. Some are precipitated from their solutions by acids and +others by alkalies. Peas and beans contain quite large amounts of a +casein-like proteid called legumin. Proteoses and peptones are proteins +soluble in water, but not coagulated by heat. They are produced from +other proteids by ferment action during the digestion of food and the +germination of seeds, and are often due to the changes resulting from +the action of the natural ferments or enzymes inherent in the food +materials. As previously stated, the insoluble proteids are present in +far the largest amount of any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> of the nitrogenous materials of foods. +Lean meat and the gluten of wheat and other grains are examples of the +insoluble proteids. The various insoluble proteids from different food +materials each has its own composition and distinctive chemical and +physical properties, and from each a different class and percentage +amount of derivative products are obtained.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[1]</sup></small></b></a> While in general it is +held that the various proteins have practically the same nutritive +value, it is possible that because differences in structural composition +and the products formed during digestion there may exist notable +differences in nutritive value. During digestion the insoluble proteids +undergo an extended series of chemical changes. They are partially +oxidized, and the nitrogenous portion of the molecule is eliminated +mainly in the form of amids, as urea. The insoluble proteins constitute +the main source of the nitrogenous food supply of both humans and +animals.</p> + +<p><b>20. Crude Protein.</b>—In the analysis of foods, the term "crude protein" +is used to designate the total nitrogenous compounds considered +collectively; it is composed largely of protein, but also includes the +amids, alkaloids, and albuminoids. "Crude protein" and "total +nitrogenous compounds" are practically synonymous terms. The various +proteins all contain about 16 per cent of nitrogen; that is, one part of +nitrogen is equivalent to 6.25 parts of protein. In analyzing a food +material, the total organic nitrogen is determined<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> and the amount +multiplied by 6.25 to obtain the crude protein. In some food materials, +as cereals, the crude protein is largely pure protein, while in others, +as potatoes, it is less than half pure protein, the larger portion being +amids and other compounds. In comparing the crude protein content of one +food with that of another, the nature of both proteids should be +considered and also the amounts of non-proteid constituents. The factor +6.25 for calculating the protein equivalent of foods is not strictly +applicable to all foods. For example, the proteids of wheat—gliadin and +glutenin—contain over 18 per cent of nitrogen, making the nitrogen +factor about 5.68 instead of 6.25. If wheat contains 2 per cent of +nitrogen, it is equivalent to 12.5 per cent of crude protein, using the +factor 6.25; or to 11.4, using the factor 5.7. The nitrogen content of +foods is absolute; the protein content is only relative.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[9]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>21. Food Value of Protein.</b>—Because of its complexity in composition, +protein is capable of being used by the body in a greater variety of +ways than starch, sugar, or fat. In addition to producing heat and +energy, protein serves the unique function of furnishing material for +the construction of new muscular tissue and the repair of that which is +worn out. It is distinctly a tissue-building nutrient. It also enters +into the composition of all the vital fluids of the body, as the blood, +chyme, chyle, and the various digestive fluids. Hence it is that protein +is required as a nutrient by the animal body, and it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> cannot be produced +from non-nitrogenous compounds. In vegetable bodies, the protein can be +produced synthetically from amids, which in turn are formed from +ammonium compounds. While protein is necessary in the ration, an +excessive amount should be avoided. When there is more than is needed +for functional purposes, it is used for heat and energy, and as foods +rich in protein are usually the most expensive, an excess adds +unnecessarily to the cost of the ration. Excess of protein in the ration +may also result in a diseased condition, due to imperfect elimination of +the protein residual products from the body.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[10]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>22. Albuminoids</b> differ from proteids in general composition and, to +some extent, in nutritive value. They are found in animal bodies mainly +in the connective tissue and in the skin, hair, and nails. Some of the +albuminoids, as nuclein, are equal in food value to protein, while +others have a lower food value. In general, albuminoids are capable of +conserving the protein of the body, and hence are called "protein +sparers," but they cannot in every way enter into the composition of the +body, as do the true proteins.</p> + +<p><b>23. Amids and Amines.</b>—These are nitrogenous compounds of simpler +structure than the proteins and albuminoids. They are sometimes called +compound ammonia in that they are derived from ammonia by the +replacement of one of the hydrogen atoms with an organic radical. In +plants, amids are intermediate compounds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> in the production of the +proteids, and in some vegetables a large portion of the nitrogen is +amids. In animal bodies amids are formed during oxidation, digestion, +and disintegration of proteids. It is not definitely known whether or +not a protein in the animal body when broken down into amid form can +again be reconstructed into protein. The amids have a lower food value +than the proteids and albuminoids. It is generally held that, to a +certain extent, they are capable, when combined with proteids, of +preventing rapid conversion of the body proteid into soluble form. When +they are used in large amounts in a ration, they tend to hasten +oxidation rather than conservation of the proteids.</p> + +<p><b>24. Alkaloids.</b>—In some plant bodies there are small amounts of +nitrogenous compounds called alkaloids. They are not found to any +appreciable extent in food plants. The alkaloids, like ammonia, are +basic in character and unite with acids to form salts. Many medicinal +plants owe their value to the alkaloids which they contain. In animal +bodies alkaloids are formed when the tissue undergoes fermentation +changes, and also during disease, the products being known as ptomaines. +Alkaloids have no food value, but act physiologically as irritants on +the nerve centers, making them useful from a medicinal rather than from +a nutritive point of view. To medical and pharmaceutical students the +alkaloids form a very important group of compounds.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img002.jpg" width="550" height="363" + alt="Fig. 5." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>—<span class="smcap">Graphic Composition of Flour.</span></h4> + +<h4>1, flour; 2, starch; 3, gluten; 4, water; 5, fat; 6, ash.</h4> + +<p><b>25. General Relationship of the Nitrogenous Compounds.</b>—Among the +various subdivisions of the nitrogenous compounds there exists a +relationship similar to that among the non-nitrogenous compounds. From +proteids, amids and alkaloids may be formed, just as invert sugars and +their products are formed from sucrose. Although glucose products are +derived from sucrose, it is not possible to reverse the process and +obtain sucrose or cane sugar from starch. So it is with proteins, while +the amid may be obtained from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> proteid in animal nutrition, as far +as known the process cannot be reversed and proteids be obtained from +amids. In the construction of the protein molecule of plants, nitrogen +is absorbed from the soil in soluble forms, as compounds of nitrates and +nitrites and ammonium salts. These are converted, first, into amids and +then into proteids. In the animal body just the reverse of this process +takes place,—the protein of the food undergoes a series of changes, and +is finally eliminated from the body as an amid, which in turn undergoes +oxidation and nitrification, and is converted into nitrites, nitrates, +and ammonium salts. These forms of nitrogen are then ready to begin +again in plant and animal bodies the same cycle of changes. Thus it is +that nitrogen may enter a number of times into the composition of plant +and animal tissues. Nature is very economical in her use of this +element.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[5]</sup></small></b></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3>CHANGES IN COMPOSITION OF FOODS DURING COOKING AND PREPARATION</h3> + + +<p><b>26. Raw and Cooked Foods Compared.</b>—Raw and cooked foods differ in +chemical composition mainly in the content of water. The amount of +nutrients on a dry matter basis is practically the same, but the +structural composition is affected by cooking, and hence it is that a +food prepared for the table often differs appreciably from the raw +material. Cooked meat, for example, has not the same percentage and +structural composition as raw meat, although the difference in nutritive +value between a given weight of each is not large. During cooking, foods +are acted upon chemically, physically, and bacteriologically, and it is +usually the joint action of these three agencies that brings about the +desirable changes incident to their preparation for the table.</p> + +<p><b>27. Chemical Changes during Cooking.</b>—Each of the chemical compounds +of which foods are composed is influenced to a greater or less extent by +heat and modified in composition. The chemistry of cooking is mainly a +study of the chemical changes that take place when compounds, as +cellulose, starch, sugar, pectin, fat,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> and the various proteids, are +subjected to the joint action of heat, moisture, air, and ferments. The +changes which affect the cellulose are physical rather than chemical. A +slight hydration of the cellular tissue, however, does take place. In +human foods cellulose is not found to any appreciable extent. Many +vegetables, as potatoes, which are apparently composed of cellular +substances, contain but little true cellulose. Starch, as previously +stated, undergoes hydration in the presence of water, and, at a +temperature of 120° C., is converted into dextrine. At a higher +temperature disintegration of the starch molecule takes place, with the +formation of carbon monoxid, carbon dioxid, and water, and the +production of a residue richer in carbon than is starch. On account of +the moisture, the temperature in many cooking operations is not +sufficiently high for changes other than hydration and preliminary +dextrinizing. In Chapter XI is given a more extended account of the +changes affecting starch which occur in bread making.</p> + +<p>During the cooking process sugars undergo inversion to a slight extent. +That is, sucrose is converted into levulose and dextrose sugars. At a +higher temperature, sugar is broken up into its constituents—water and +carbon dioxide. The organic acids which many fruits and vegetables +contain hasten the process of inversion. When sugar is subjected to dry +heat, it becomes a brown, caramel-like material sometimes called barley +sugar. During cooking, sugars are not altered in solubility or +digestibility; starches, however, are changed to a more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> soluble form, +and pectin—a jelly-like substance—is converted from a less to a more +soluble condition, as stated in Chapter I. Changes incident to the +cooking of fruits and vegetables rich in pectin, as in the making of +jellies, are similar to those which take place in the last stages of +ripening.</p> + +<p>The fats are acted upon to a considerable extent by heat. Some of the +vegetable oils undergo slight oxidation, resulting in decreased +solubility in ether, but since there is no volatilization of the fatty +matter, it is a change that does not materially affect the total fuel +value of the food.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[11]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p>There is a general tendency for the proteids to become less soluble by +the action of heat, particularly the albumins and globulins. The protein +molecule dissociates at a high temperature, with formation of volatile +products, and therefore foods rich in protein should not be subjected to +extreme heat, as losses of food value may result. During cooking, +proteids undergo hydration, which is necessary and preliminary to +digestion, and the heating need be carried only to this point, and not +to the splitting up of the molecule. Prolonged high temperature in the +cooking of proteids and starches is unnecessary in order to induce the +desired chemical changes. When these nutrients are hydrated, they are in +a condition to undergo digestion, without the body being compelled to +expend unnecessary energy in bringing about this preliminary change. +Hence it is that, while proper cooking does not materially affect the +total<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> digestibility of proteids or starches, it influences ease of +digestion, as well as conserves available energy, thereby making more +economical use of these nutrients.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img003.jpg" width="250" height="250" + alt="Fig. 6." /><br /> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>—<span class="smcap">Cells of<br />a Partially Cooked<br />Potato</span>. (After <span class="smcap">König</span>.)</h4> + + </div> + +<p><b>28. Physical Changes.</b>—The mechanical structure of foods is influenced +by cooking to a greater extent than is the chemical composition. One of +the chief objects of cooking is to bring the food into better mechanical +condition for digestion.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[12]</sup></small></b></a> Heat and water cause partial disintegration +of both animal and vegetable tissues. The cell-cementing materials are +weakened, and a softening of the tissues results. Often the action +extends still further in vegetable foods, resulting in disintegration of +the individual starch granules. When foods are subjected to dry heat, +the moisture they contain is converted into steam, which causes bursting +of the tissues. A good example of this is the popping of corn. Heat may +result, too, in mechanical removal of some of the nutrients, as the +fats, which are liquefied at temperatures<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> ranging from 100° to 200° F. +Many foods which in the raw state contain quite large amounts of fat, +lose a portion mechanically during cooking, as is the case with bacon +when it is cut in thin slices and fried or baked until crisp. When foods +are boiled, the natural juices being of somewhat different density from +the water in which they are cooked, slight osmotic changes occur. There +is a tendency toward equalization of the composition of the juices of +the food and the water in which they are cooked. In order to achieve the +best mechanical effects in cooking, high temperatures are not necessary, +except at first for rupturing the tissues; softening of the tissues is +best effected by prolonged and slow heat. At a higher temperature many +of the volatile and essential oils are lost, while at lower temperatures +these are retained and in some instances slightly developed. The cooking +should be sufficiently prolonged and the temperature high enough to +effectually disintegrate and soften all of the tissues, but not to cause +extended chemical changes.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img004.jpg" width="250" height="244" + alt="Fig. 7." /><br /> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>—<span class="smcap">Cells of<br />Raw Potato, Showing Starch<br />Grains.</span> (After <span class="smcap">König</span>.)</h4> + + </div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p> + +<p>There is often an unnecessarily large amount of heat lost through faulty +construction of stoves and lack of judicious use of fuels, which greatly +enhances the cost of preparing foods. Ovens are frequently coated with +deposits of soot; this causes the heat to be thrown out into the room or +lost through the chimney, rather than utilized for heating the oven. In +an ordinary cook stove it is estimated that less than 7 per cent of the +heat and energy of the fuel is actually employed in bringing about +physical and chemical changes incident to cooking.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[13]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>29. Bacteriological Changes.</b>—The bacterial organisms of foods are +destroyed in the cooking, provided a temperature of 150° F. is reached +and maintained for several minutes. The interior of foods rarely reaches +a temperature above 200° F., because of the water they contain which is +not completely removed below 212°. One of the chief objects in cooking +food is to render it sterile. Not only do bacteria become innocuous +through cooking, but various parasites, as trichina and tapeworm, are +destroyed, although some organisms can live at a comparatively high +temperature. Cooked foods are easily re-inoculated, in some cases more +readily than fresh foods, because they are in a more disintegrated +condition.</p> + +<p>In many instances bacteria are of material assistance in the preparation +of foods, as in bread making, butter making, curing of cheese, and +ripening of meat. All the chemical compounds of which foods are +composed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> are subject to fermentation, each compound being acted upon by +its special ferment body. Those which convert the proteids into soluble +form, as the peptonizing ferments, have no action upon the +carbohydrates. A cycle of bacteriological changes often takes place in a +food material, one class of ferments working until their products +accumulate to such an extent as to prevent their further activity, and +then the process is taken up by others, as they find the conditions +favorable for development. This change of bacterial flora in food +materials is akin to the changes in the vegetation occupying soils. In +each case, there is a constant struggle for possession. Bacteria take a +much more important part in the preparation of foods than is generally +considered. As a result of their workings, various chemical products, as +organic acids and aromatic compounds, are produced. The organic acids +chemically unite with the nutrients of foods, changing their composition +and physical properties. Man is, to a great extent, dependent upon +bacterial action. Plant life also is dependent upon the bacterial +changes which take place in the soil and in the plant tissues. The +stirring of seeds into activity is apparently due to enzymes or soluble +ferments which are inherent in the seed. A study of the bacteriological +changes which foods undergo in their preparation and digestion more +properly belongs to the subject of bacteriology, and in this work only +brief mention is made of some of the more important parts which +microörganisms take in the preparation of foods.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>30. Insoluble Ferments.</b>—Insoluble ferments are minute, plant-like +bodies of definite form and structure, and can be studied only with the +microscope.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[1]</sup></small></b></a> They are developed from spores or seeds, or from the +splitting or budding of the parent cells. Under suitable conditions they +multiply rapidly, deriving the energy for their life processes from the +chemical changes which they induce. For example, in the souring of milk +the milk sugar is changed by the lactic acid ferments into lactic acid. +In causing chemical changes, the ferment gives none of its own material +to the reacting substance. These ferment bodies undergo life processes +similar to plants of a higher order.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img50a.jpg" width="250" height="184" + alt="Fig. 8." /><br /> + <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>—<span class="smcap">Lactic Acid<br />Bacteria, Much +Enlarged</span>.<br />(After <span class="smcap">Russell</span>.)</h4> + + </div> + + +<p>All foods contain bacteria or ferments. In fact, it is impossible for a +food stored and prepared under ordinary conditions, unless it has been +specially treated, to be free from them. Some of them are useful, some +are injurious, while others are capable of producing disease. The +objectionable bacteria are usually destroyed by the joint action of +sunlight, pure air, and water.</p> + +<p><b>31. Soluble Ferments.</b>—Many plant and animal cells have the power of +secreting substances soluble in water and capable of producing +fermentation changes; to these the term "soluble ferments," or +"enzymes," is applied. These ferments have not a cell structure like +the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> organized ferments. When germinated seed, as malted barley, is +extracted, a soluble and highly nitrogenous substance, called the +diastase ferment, is secured that changes starch into soluble forms. The +soluble ferments induce chemical change by causing molecular disturbance +or splitting up of the organic compounds, resulting in the production of +derivative products. They take an important part in animal and plant +nutrition, as by their action insoluble compounds are brought into a +soluble condition so they can be utilized for nutritive purposes. In +many instances ferment changes are due to the joint action of soluble +and insoluble ferments. The insoluble ferment secretes an enzyme which +induces a chemical change, modified by the further action of the soluble +ferment. Many of the enzymes carry on their work at a low temperature, +as in the curing of meat and cheese in cold storage.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[14]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>32. General Relationship of Chemical, Physical, and Bacteriological +Changes.</b>—It cannot be said that the beneficial results derived from +the cooking of foods are due to either chemical, physical, or +bacteriological change alone, but to the joint action of the three. In +order to secure a chemical change, a physical change must often precede, +and a bacteriological change cannot take place without causing a change +in chemical composition; the three are closely related and +interdependent.</p> + +<p><b>33. Esthetic Value of Foods.</b>—Foods should be not only of good +physical texture and contain the requisite<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> nutrients, but they should +also be pleasing to the eye and served in the most attractive manner. +Some foods owe a part of their commercial value to color, and when they +are lacking in natural color they are not consumed with a relish. There +is no objection to the addition of coloring matter to foods, provided it +is of a non-injurious character and does not affect the amount of +nutrients, and that its presence and the kind of coloring material are +made known. Some foods contain objectionable colors which are eliminated +during the process of manufacture, as in the case of sugar and flour. As +far as removal of coloring matter from foods during refining is +concerned, there can be no objection, so long as no injurious reagents +or chemicals are retained, as the removal of the color in no way affects +the nutritive value or permits fraud, but necessitates higher +purification and refining. The use of chemicals and reagents in the +preparation and refining of foods is considered permissible in all cases +where the reagents are removed by subsequent processes. In the food +decisions of the United States Department of Agriculture, it is stated: +"Not excluded under this provision are substances properly used in the +preparation of food products for clarification or refining and +eliminated in the further process of manufacture." <a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[15]</sup></small></b></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3>VEGETABLE FOODS</h3> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img005.jpg" width="211" height="250" + alt="Fig. 9." /><br /> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>—<span class="smcap">Transverse Section<br />of Potato</span>. +(After <span class="smcap">Cowden</span><br />and <span class="smcap">Bussard</span>.) <i>a</i>, skin; <i>b</i>, cortical<br /> +layer; <i>c</i>, outer medullary<br />layer; <i>d</i>, inner medullary layer.</h4> + + </div> +<p><b>34. General Composition.</b>—Vegetable foods, with the exception of +cereals, legumes, and nuts, contain a smaller percentage of protein than +animal food products. They vary widely in composition and nutritive +value; in some, starch predominates, while in others, sugar, cellulose, +and pectin bodies are most abundant. The general term "vegetable foods" +is used in this work to include roots, tubers, garden vegetables, +cereals, legumes, and all prepared foods of vegetable origin.</p> + + +<p><b>35. Potatoes</b> contain about 75 per cent of water and 25 per cent of dry +matter, the larger portion being starch. There is but little nitrogenous +material in the potato, only 2.25 per cent, of which about half is in +the form of proteids. There are ten parts of non-nitrogenous substance +to every one part of nitrogenous; or, in other words, the potato has a +wide nutritive ratio, and as an article of diet needs to be supplemented +with foods rich in protein. The mineral matter, cellu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>lar tissue, and +fat in potatoes are small in amount, as are also the organic acids. +Mechanically considered, the potato is composed of three parts,—outer +skin, inner skin, and flesh. The layer immediately beneath the outer +skin is slightly colored, and is designated the fibro-vascular layer. +The outer and inner skins combined make up about 10 per cent of the +weight of the potato.</p> + + +<p>A large portion of the protein of the potato is albumin, which is +soluble in water. When potatoes are peeled, cut in small pieces, and +soaked in water for several hours before boiling, 80 per cent of the +crude protein, or total nitrogenous material, is extracted, rendering +the product less valuable as food. When potatoes are placed directly in +boiling water, the losses of nitrogenous compounds are reduced to about +7 per cent, and, when the skins are not removed, to 1 per cent. +Digestion experiments show that 92 per cent of the starch and 72 per +cent of the protein are digested.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[12]</sup></small></b></a> Compared with other foods, +potatoes are often a cheap source of non-nitrogenous nutrients. If used +in excessive amounts, however, they have a tendency to make the ration +unbalanced and too bulky.<br /><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Mechanical Composition of the Potato</span></h4> + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="45%" cellspacing="0" summary="Mechanical Composition of the Potato"> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Unpeeled potatoes</td><td align='right'>100.0</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Outer, or true skin</td><td align='right'>2.5</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Inner skin, or fibro-vascular layer<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></td><td align='right'>8.5</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Flesh</td><td align='right'>89.0</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Chemical Composition of the Potato</span></h4> + + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="85%" cellspacing="0" summary="Chemical Composition of the Potato"> +<tr><td colspan="4"> </td><th colspan="3" align='center'>Carbohydrates</th></tr> +<tr valign="top"><td align='left'> </td><th align='right'>Water</th><th align='right'>Crude<br />Protein</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>Nitrogen-<br />free-<br />extract</th><th align='right'>Fiber</th><th align='right'>Ash</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Outer, or true skin</td><td align='right'>80.1</td><td align='right'>2.7</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td colspan="2" align='center'> 14.6</td><td align='right'>1.8</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Inner skin, or fibro-vascular layer</td><td align='right'>83.2</td><td align='right'>2.3</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>12.6</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1.1</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Flesh</td><td align='right'>81.1</td><td align='right'>2.0</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>15.7</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>0.8</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Average of 86 American analyses<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a></td><td align='right'>78.0</td><td align='right'>2.2</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td colspan="2" align='center'> 18.8</td><td align='right'>0.9</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Average of 118 European analyses<a name="FNanchor_C_3" id="FNanchor_C_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a></td><td align='right'>75.0</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>21.0</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1.1</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> Including a small amount of flesh.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> From an unpublished compilation of analyses of American +food products.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> König, "Chemie der Nahrungs-und Genussmittel," 3d ed., II, +p. 626.</p></div> + + + +<p><br /><b>36. Sweet Potatoes</b> contain more dry matter than white potatoes, the +difference being due mainly to the presence of about 6 per cent of +sugar. There is approximately the same starch content, but more fat, +protein,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> and fiber. As a food, they supply a large amount of +non-nitrogenous nutrients.</p> + +<p><b>37. Carrots</b> contain about half as much dry matter as potatoes, and +half of the dry matter is sugar, nearly equally divided between sucrose +and levulose, or fruit sugar. Like the potato, carrots have some organic +acids and a relatively small amount of proteids. In carrots and milk +there is practically the same per cent of water. The nutrients in each, +however, differ both as to kind and proportion. Experiments with the +cooking of carrots show that if a large amount of water is used, 30 per +cent or more of the nutrients, particularly of the more soluble sugar +and albumin, are extracted and lost in the drain waters.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[12]</sup></small></b></a> The color +of the carrot is due to the non-nitrogenous compound carrotin, +C<sub>26</sub>H<sub>38</sub>. Carrots are valuable in a ration not because of the +nutrients they supply, but for the palatability and the mechanical +action which the vegetable fiber exerts upon the process of digestion.</p> + +<p><b>38. Parsnips</b> contain more solid matter than beets or carrots, of which +3 to 4 per cent is starch. The starch grains are very small, being only +about one twentieth the size of the potato starch grains. There is 3 per +cent of sugar and an appreciable amount of fat, more than in any other +of the vegetables of this class, and seven times as much as in the +potato. The mineral matter is of somewhat different nature from that in +potatoes; in parsnips one half is potash and one quarter phosphoric<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> +acid, while in potatoes three quarters are potash and one fifth +phosphoric acid.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img057a.jpg" width="250" height="230" + alt="Fig. 10." /><br /> + <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>—<span class="smcap">Graphic<br />Composition of +Cabbage.</span></h4> + </div> + +<p><b>39. Cabbage</b> contains very little dry matter, usually less than 10 per +cent. It is proportionally richer in nitrogenous compounds than many +vegetables, as about two of the ten parts of dry matter are crude +protein, which makes the nutritive ratio one to five. During cooking 30 +to 40 per cent of the nutrients are extracted. Cabbage imparts to the +ration bulk but comparatively little nutritive material. It is a +valuable food adjunct, particularly used raw, as in a salad, when it is +easily digested and retains all of the nutrients.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[12]</sup></small></b></a></p> + + + + +<p><b>40. Cauliflower</b> has much the same general composition as cabbage, from +which it differs mainly in mechanical structure.</p> + +<p><b>41. Beets.</b>—The garden beet contains a little more protein than +carrots, but otherwise has about the same general composition, and the +statements made in regard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> to the losses of nutrients in the cooking of +carrots and to their use in the dietary apply also to beets.</p> + +<p><b>42. Cucumbers</b> contain about 4 per cent of dry matter. The amount of +nutrients is so small as to scarcely allow them to be considered a food. +They are, however, a valuable food adjunct, as they impart palatability.</p> + +<p><b>43. Lettuce</b> contains about 7 per cent of solids, of which 1.5 is +protein and 2.5 starch and sugar. While low in nutrients, it is high in +dietetic value, because of the chlorophyll which it contains. It has +been suggested that it is valuable, too, for supplying iron in an +organic form, as there is iron chemically combined with the chlorophyll.</p> + +<p><b>44. Onions</b> are aromatic bulbs, valuable for condimental rather than +nutritive purposes. They contain essential and volatile oils, which +impart characteristic odor and flavor. In the onion there are about 1.5 +per cent of protein and 9.5 per cent of non-nitrogenous material. Onions +are often useful in stimulating the digestive tract to action.</p> + +<p><b>45. Spinach</b> is a valuable food, not to be classed merely as a relish. +Its composition is interesting; for, although there is 90 per cent +water, and less than 10 per cent dry matter, it still possesses high +food value. Spinach contains 2.1 per cent crude protein, or about one +part to every four parts of carbohydrates. In potatoes,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> turnips, and +beets there are ten or more parts of carbohydrates to every one part of +protein.</p> + +<p><b>46. Asparagus</b> is composed largely of water, about 93 per cent. The dry +matter, however, is richer in protein than that of many vegetables. +Asparagus contains, too, an amid compound, asparagin, which gives some +of the characteristics to the vegetable.</p> + +<p><b>47. Melons.</b>—Melons contain from 8 to 10 per cent of dry matter, the +larger portion of which is sugar and allied carbohydrates. The flavor is +due to small amounts of essential oils and to organic acids associated +with the sugars. Melons possess condimental rather than nutritive value.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img059.jpg" width="250" height="142" + alt="Fig. 11." /><br /> + <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>—<span class="smcap">Graphic<br />Composition Of +Tomato.</span></h4> + </div> + + +<p><b>48. Tomatoes.</b>—The tomato belongs to the night-shade family, and for +this reason was long looked upon with suspicion. It was first used for +ornamental purposes and was called "love-apple." Gradually, as the idea +of its poisonous nature became dispelled, it grew more and more popular +as a food, until now in the United States it is one of the most common +garden vegetables. It contains 7 per cent of dry matter, 4 per cent of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> +which is sucrose, dextrose, and levulose. It also contains some malic +acid, and a small amount of proteids, amids, cellulose, and coloring +material. In the canning of tomatoes, if too much of the juice is +excluded, a large part of the nutritive material is lost, as the sugars +and albumins are all soluble and readily removed.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[16]</sup></small></b></a> If the seeds are +objectionable, they may be removed by straining and the juice added to +the fleshy portion. The product then has a higher nutritive value than +if the juice had been discarded with the seeds.</p> + +<p><b>49. Sweet Corn.</b>—Fresh, soft, green, sweet corn contains about 75 per +cent of water. The dry matter is half starch and one quarter sugar. The +protein content makes up nearly 5 per cent, a larger proportional amount +than is found in the ripened corn, due to the fact that the proteids are +deposited in the early stages of growth and the carbohydrates mainly in +the last stages. Sweet corn is a vegetable of high nutritive value and +palatability.</p> + +<p><b>50. Eggplant</b> contains a high per cent of water,—90 per cent. The +principal nutrients are starch and sugar, which make up about half the +weight of the dry matter. It does not itself supply a large amount of +nutrients, but the way in which it is prepared, by combination with +butter, bread crumbs, and eggs, makes it a nutritious and palatable +dish, the food value being derived mainly from the materials with which +it is combined, the eggplant giving the flavor and palatability.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>51. Squash and Pumpkin.</b>—Squash has much the same general composition +and food value as beets and carrots, although it belongs to a different +family. Pumpkins contain less dry matter than squash. The dry matter of +both is composed largely of starch and sugar and, like many other of the +vegetables, they are often combined with food materials containing a +large amount of nutrients, as in pumpkin and squash pies, where the food +value is derived mainly from the milk, sugar, eggs, flour, and butter or +other shortening used.</p> + +<p><b>52. Celery.</b>—The dry matter of celery is comparatively rich in +nitrogenous material, although the amount is small, and the larger +proportion is in non-proteid form. When grown on rich soil, celery may +contain an appreciable quantity of nitrates and nitrites, which have not +been converted into amids and proteids. The supposed medicinal value is +probably due to the nitrites which are generally present. Celery is +valuable from a dietetic rather than a nutritive point of view.</p> + +<p><b>53. Sanitary Condition of Vegetables.</b>—The conditions under which +vegetables are grown have much to do with their value, particularly from +a sanitary point of view. Uncooked vegetables often cause the spread of +diseases, particularly those, as cholera and typhoid, affecting the +digestive tract. Particles of dirt containing the disease-producing +organisms adhere to the uncooked vegetable and find their way into the +digestive tract, where the bacteria undergo incubation. When sewage has +been used<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> for fertilizing the land, as in sewage irrigation, the +vegetables are unsound from a sanitary point of view. Such vegetables +should be thoroughly cleaned and also well cooked, in order to render +them sterile. Vegetables to be eaten in the raw state should be dipped +momentarily into boiling water, to destroy the activity of the germs +present upon the surface. They may then be immediately immersed in +ice-cold water, to preserve the crispness.</p> + +<p><b>54. Miscellaneous Compounds in Vegetables.</b>—In addition to the general +nutrients which have been discussed, many of the vegetables contain some +tannin, glucosides, and essential oils; and occasionally those grown +upon rich soils have appreciable amounts of nitrogen compounds, as +nitrates and nitrites, which have not been built up into proteids. +Vegetables have a unique value in the dietary, and while as a class they +contain small amounts of nutrients, they are indispensable for promoting +health and securing normal digestion of the food.</p> + +<p><b>55. Canned Vegetables.</b>—When sound vegetables are thoroughly cooked to +destroy ferments, and then sealed in cans while hot, they can be kept +for a long time without any material impairment of nutritive value. +During the cooking process there is lost a part of the essential oils, +which gives a slightly different flavor to the canned or tinned +goods.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[17]</sup></small></b></a> In some canned vegetables preservatives are used, but the +enactment and enforcement of national and state laws have greatly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +reduced their use. When the cans are made of a poor quality of tin, or +the vegetables are of high acidity, some of the metal is dissolved in +sufficient quantity to be objectionable from a sanitary point of +view.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[18]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>56. Edible Portion and Refuse of Vegetables.</b>—Many vegetables have +appreciable amounts of refuse,<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[19]</sup></small></b></a> or non-edible parts, as skin, pods, +seeds, and pulp, and in determining the nutritive value, these must be +considered, as in some cases less than 50 per cent of the weight of the +material is edible portion, which proportionally increases the cost of +the nutrients. Ordinarily, the edible part is richer in protein than the +entire material as purchased. In some cases, however, the refuse is +richer in protein, but the protein is in a less available form. See +comparison of potatoes and potato skins.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3>FRUITS, FLAVORS, AND EXTRACTS</h3> + + +<p><b>57. General Composition.</b>—Fruits are characterized by containing a +large amount of water and only a small amount of dry matter, which is +composed mainly of sugar and non-nitrogenous compounds. Fruits contain +but little fatty material and protein. A large portion of the total +nitrogen is in the form of amid compounds. Organic acids, as citric, +tartaric, and malic, are found in all fruits, and the essential oils +form a characteristic feature. The taste of fruits is due mainly to the +blending of the various organic acids, essential oils, and sugars. +Although fruits contain a high per cent of water, they are nevertheless +valuable as food.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[20]</sup></small></b></a> The constituents present to the greatest extent +are sugars and acids. The sugar is not all like the common granulated +sugar, but in ripe fruits a part is in the form known as levulose or +fruit sugar, which is two and a half times sweeter than granulated +sugar. Sugars are valuable for heat-and fat-producing purposes, but not +for muscle repairing. Proteids are the muscle-forming nutrients. The +organic acids, as malic acid in apples, citric acid in lemons and +oranges, and tartaric acid in grapes, have characteristic medicinal +properties. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> sugar, proteid, and acid content of some of our more +common fruits is given in the following table:<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[21]</sup></small></b></a><br /><br /></p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Composition of Fruits</span></h4> + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="3" width="75%" cellspacing="0" summary="Composition of Fruits"> +<tr valign="top"><td align='left'> </td><th align='right'>Water</th><th align='right'>Proteids</th><th align='right'>Sugar</th><td align='right'><b>Acid<br />in Juice</b></td><td> </td><th align='left'>Kind<br />Of Acid</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Apples (Baldwin)</td><td align='right'>85.0</td><td align='right'>0.50</td><td align='right'>10.75</td><td align='right'>0.92</td><td> </td><td align='left'>Malic</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Apples, sweet</td><td align='right'>86.0</td><td align='right'>0.50</td><td align='right'>11.75</td><td align='right'>0.20</td><td> </td><td align='left'>Malic</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Blackberries</td><td align='right'>88.9</td><td align='right'>0.90</td><td align='right'>11.50</td><td align='right'>0.75</td><td> </td><td align='left'>Malic</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Currants</td><td align='right'>86.0</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>1.96</td><td align='right'>5.80</td><td> </td><td align='left'>Tartaric</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Grapes</td><td align='right'>83.0</td><td align='right'>1.50</td><td align='right'>10 to 16</td><td align='right'>1.2 to 5</td><td> </td><td align='left'>Tartaric</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Strawberries</td><td align='right'>90.8</td><td align='right'>0.95</td><td align='right'>5.36</td><td align='right'>1.40</td><td> </td><td align='left'>Malic</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Oranges</td><td align='right'>85.0</td><td align='right'>1.10</td><td align='right'>10.00</td><td align='right'>1.30</td><td> </td><td align='left'>Citric</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lemons</td><td align='right'>84.0</td><td align='right'>0.95</td><td align='right'>2.00</td><td align='right'>7.20</td><td> </td><td align='left'>Citric</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + + +<p><br />In addition to sugars, acids, and proteids, there are a great many other +compounds in fruits. Those which give the characteristic taste are +called essential or volatile oils.</p> + +<p><b>58. Food Value.</b>—When the nutrients alone are considered, fruits +appear to have a low food value, but they should not be judged entirely +on this basis, because they impart palatability and flavor to other +foods and exercise a favorable influence upon the digestive process. In +the human ration fruits are a necessary adjunct.</p> + +<p><b>59. Apples</b>.—Apples vary in composition with the variety and physical +characteristics of the fruit. In general they contain from 10 to 16 per +cent of dry matter, of which 75 per cent, or more, is sugar or allied<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +carbohydrates. Among the organic acids malic predominates, and the +acidity ranges from 0.1 to 0.8 per cent. Apples contain but little +protein, less than 1 per cent. There is some pectin, or jelly-like +substance closely related to the carbohydrates. The flavor of the apple +varies with the content of sugar, organic acids, and essential oils. +During storage some apples appear to undergo further ripening, resulting +in partial inversion of the sucrose, and there is a slight loss of +weight, due to the formation of carbon dioxide. The apple is an +important and valuable adjunct to the dietary.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[22]</sup></small></b></a></p> + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" width="100%" cellspacing="0" summary="Fig 148/149"> +<tr> +<td align='center'><img src="images/img006.jpg" width="273" height="300" + alt="Fig. 12." /><br /> + </td> + +<td align='center'><img src="images/img007.jpg" width="294" height="300" + alt="Fig. 13." /><br /> + </td> +</tr> +<tr><td align='center'><h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>—<span class="smcap">Graphic Composition of +Apple.</span></h4></td><td align='center'><h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>—<span class="smcap">Graphic Composition of +Orange.</span></h4></td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<p><b>60. Oranges</b> contain nearly the same proportion of dry matter as +apples, the larger part of which is sugar. Citric acid predomi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>nates and +ranges in different varieties from 1 to 2.5 per cent. The amounts of +protein, fat, and cellulose are small. In some varieties of oranges +there is more iron and sulphur than is usually found in fruits. All +fruits, however, contain small amounts, but not as much as is found in +green vegetables. The average composition of oranges is as follows:<br /><br /></p> + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="50%" cellspacing="0" summary="The average composition of oranges"> +<tr valign="top"><th colspan="2" align='right'>Physical Composition</th><td> </td><th colspan="2" align='right'>Chemical Composition<br />of Edible Portion</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td><td> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rind</td><td align='right'>20 to 30</td><td> </td><td align='left'>Solids</td><td align='right'>10 to 16</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pulp</td><td align='right'>25 to 35</td><td> </td><td align='left'>Sugars</td><td align='right'>8 to 12</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Juice</td><td align='right'>35 to 50</td><td> </td><td align='left'>Citric acid</td><td align='right'>1 to 2.5</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td align='left'>Ash</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td> </td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><br /><b>61. Lemons</b> differ from oranges in containing more citric acid and less +sucrose, levulose, and dextrose. The ash of the lemon is somewhat +similar in general composition to the ash of the orange, but is larger +in amount. The average composition of the lemon is as follows:<br /><br /></p> + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="50%" cellspacing="0" summary="The average composition of lemons"> +<tr valign="top"><th colspan="2" align='right'>Physical Composition</th><td> </td><th colspan="2" align='right'>Chemical Composition<br />of Edible Portion</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td><td> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rind</td><td align='right'>25 to 35</td><td> </td><td align='left'>Solids</td><td align='right'>10 to 12</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pulp</td><td align='right'>25 to 35</td><td> </td><td align='left'>Sugars</td><td align='right'>2 to 4</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Juice</td><td align='right'>40 to 55</td><td> </td><td align='left'>Citric acid</td><td align='right'>6 to 9</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<p><br /><b>62. Grape Fruit.</b>—The rind and seed of this fruit make up about 25 per +cent, leaving 75 per cent as edible portion. The juice contains 14 per +cent solids, of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> which nearly 10 per cent is sugar and 2.5 per cent is +citric acid. There is more acid in grape fruit than in oranges and +appreciably less than in lemons. The characteristic flavor is due to a +glucoside-like material. Otherwise the composition and food value are +about the same as of oranges.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img008.jpg" width="199" height="300" + alt="Fig. 14." /><br /> + <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>—<span class="smcap">Graphic<br />Composition of +Strawberry.</span></h4> + </div> + + + +<p><b>63. Strawberries</b> contain from 8 to 12 per cent of dry matter, mainly +sugar and malic acid. The protein, fat, and ash usually make up less +than 2 per cent. Essential oils and coloring substances are present in +small amounts. It has been estimated that it would require 75 pounds of +strawberries to supply the protein for a daily ration. Nevertheless they +are valuable in the dietary. It has been suggested that the malic and +other acids have antiseptic properties which, added to the appearance +and palatability, make them a desirable food adjunct. Strawberries have +high dietetic rather than high food value.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>64. Grapes</b> contain more dry matter than apples or oranges. There is no +appreciable amount of protein or fat, and while they add some nutrients, +as sugar, to the ration, they do not contribute any quantity. Their +value, as in the case of other fruits, is due to palatability and +indirect effect upon the digestibility of other foods. In the juice of +grapes there is from 10 to 15 per cent or more of sugar, as sucrose, +levulose, and dextrose. Grapes contain also from 1 to 1.5 per cent of +tartaric acid, which, during the process of manufacture into wine, is +rendered insoluble by the alcohol formed, and the product, known as +argole, is used in the preparation of cream of tartar. Differences in +flavor and taste of grapes are due to variations in the sugar, acid, and +essential oil content.</p> + +<p><b>65. Peaches</b> contain about 12 per cent of dry matter, of which over 10 +per cent is sugar and other carbohydrates. There is less than 1.5 per +cent of protein, fat, and mineral matter and about 0.5 per cent of acid. +The peach contains also a very small amount of hydrocyanic acid, which +is more liberally present in the kernel than in the fruit. Flavor is +imparted mainly by the sugar and essential oils. Peaches vary in +composition with variety and environment.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[23]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>66. Plums</b> contain the most dry matter of any of the fruits, about 22 +per cent, mainly sugar. About one per cent is acid and about 0.5 per +cent are protein and ash. There are a great many varieties of plums, +vary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>ing in composition. Dried plums (prunes) have mildly laxative +properties.</p> + +<p><b>67. Olives.</b>—The ripe olive contains about 15 per cent of oil, +exclusive of the pit, which makes up 20 per cent of the weight. In +green, preserved olives there is considerably less oil. Because of the +oil the olive has food value. Olive oil is slightly laxative and assists +mechanically in the digestion of foods.</p> + +<p><b>68. Figs.</b>—Dried figs contain about 50 per cent of sugar and 3.5 per +cent of protein. The fig has a mildly laxative action.</p> + +<p><b>69. Dried Fruits.</b>—Many fruits are prepared for market by drying. The +dried fruit has a slightly different composition from the fresh fruit +because of loss of the volatile and essential oils, and minor chemical +changes which take place during the drying process. When free from +preservatives, dried fruits are valuable adjuncts to the dietary and can +be advantageously used when fresh fruits are not obtainable.</p> + +<p><b>70. Canning and Preservation of Fruits.</b>—To obtain the best results in +canning, the fruit should not be overripe. After the ripened state has +been reached fermentation and bacterial changes occur, and it is more +difficult to preserve the fruit than when not so fully matured.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[24]</sup></small></b></a> When +a fruit has begun to ferment, it is hard to destroy the ferment bodies +and their spores so as to prevent further ferment action. The chemical +changes that oc<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>cur in the last stages of ripening are similar to those +which take place during the cooking process whereby the pectin or +jelly-like substances are rendered more soluble and digestible.</p> + +<p><b>71. Adulterated Canned Fruits.</b>—Analyses of a number of canned fruits, +made by various Boards of Health, show the presence of small amounts of +arsenic, tin, lead, and other poisonous metals. The quantity dissolved +depends upon the kind, age, and condition of the canned goods and the +state of the fruit when canned. The longer a can of fruit or vegetable +has been kept in stock, the larger is the amount of tin or metal that +has been dissolved. When fresh canned, there is usually very little +dissolved tin, but in old goods the amount may be comparatively large. +The tin used for the can is occasionally of poor quality and may contain +some arsenic, which also is dissolved. The occasional use of canned +goods preserved in tin is not objectionable, but they should not be used +continually if it can be avoided. Preservatives, as borax, salicylic +acid, benzoic acid, and sodium sulphate, are sometimes added to prevent +fermentation and to preserve the natural appearance of the fruit or +vegetable.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[18]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>72. Fruit Flavors and Extracts.</b>—Formerly all fruit extracts and +flavors were obtained from vegetable sources; at present many are made +in the chemical laboratory by synthetic methods; that is, by combining +simpler organic compounds and radicals to produce the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> material having +the desired flavor and odor. The various fruit flavors are definite +chemical compounds, and can be produced in the laboratory as well as in +the cells of plants. When properly made, there is no difference in +chemical composition between the two. As prepared in the laboratory, +however, traces of acids, alkalies, and other compounds, used in +bringing about the necessary chemical combination, are often present, +not having been perfectly removed. Hence it is that natural and +artificial flavors differ mainly in the impurities which the artificial +flavors may contain.</p> + +<p>Some of the flavoring materials have characteristic medicinal +properties, as the flavor of bitter almond, which contains hydrocyanic +acid, a poisonous substance. Flavors and extracts should not be +indiscriminately used. In small amounts they often exert a favorable +influence upon the digestion of foods, and the value of some fruits is +in a large measure due to the special flavors they contain. A study of +the separate compounds which impart flavor to fruits, as the various +aldehydes, ethers, and organic salts, belongs to organic chemistry +rather than to foods. Some of the simpler compounds of which flavors are +composed may exist in entirely different form or combination in food +products; as for example, pineapple flavoring is ethyl butrate. This can +be prepared by combination of butyric acid from stale butter with +alcohol which supplies the ethyl radical. The chemical union of the two +produces the new compound, ethyl butrate, the distinctive flavoring +substance of the pineapple.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> Banana flavor can be made from stale +butter, caustic soda, and chloroform. None of these materials, as such, +go into the flavor, but an essential radical is taken from each. These +manufactured products, when properly made, are in every essential +similar to the flavor made by the plant and stored up in the fruit. The +plant combines the material in the laboratory of the plant cell, and the +manufacturer of essences puts together these same constituents in a +chemical laboratory. In the fruit, however, the essential oil is +associated with a number of other compounds.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h3>SUGARS, MOLASSES, SYRUP, HONEY, AND CONFECTIONS</h3> + + +<p><b>73. Composition of Sugars.</b>—The term "sugar" is applied to a large +class of compounds composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and +oxygen. Sugars used for household purposes are derived mainly from the +sugar cane and the sugar beet.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[25]</sup></small></b></a> At the present time about two fifths +are obtained from the cane and about three fifths from the beet. When +subjected to the same degree of refining, there is no difference in the +chemical composition of the sugars from the two sources; they are alike +in every respect and the chemist is unable to determine their origin. +The production of sugar is an agricultural industry; the methods of +manufacture pertain more to industrial chemistry than to the chemistry +of foods, and therefore a discussion of them is omitted in this +work.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[26]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img009.jpg" width="300" height="217" + alt="Fig. 15." /><br /> + <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>—<span class="smcap">Sugar Crystals.</span></h4> + + </div> + +<p><b>74. Commercial Grades of Sugar.</b>—Sugars are graded according to the +size of the granule, the color and general appearance of the crystals, +and the per cent of sucrose or pure sugar. Common granulated sugar is +from 98.5 to 99.7 per cent pure sucrose. The impuri<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>ties consist mainly +of moisture and mineral matter. In the process of refining, sulphur +fumes are frequently used for bleaching and clarifying the solution.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[26]</sup></small></b></a> +The sulphurous acid formed is neutralized with lime, which is rendered +insoluble and practically all removed in subsequent filtrations. There +are, however, traces of sulphates and sulphites in ordinary sugar, but +these are in such small amounts as not to be injurious to health. When +sugar is burned, as in the bomb calorimeter, so as to permit collection +of all of the products of combustion, granulated sugar yields about 0.01 +of a per cent of sulphur dioxid.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[13]</sup></small></b></a> Occasionally coloring substances, +as a small amount of indigo, are added to yellow tinged sugars to impart +a white color, much on the same principle as the bluing of clothes. The +amount used is usually extremely small, and the effect on health has +never been determined. Occasionally, however, bluing is used to such an +extent that a blue scum appears when the sugar is boiled with water. +Sugar has high value for the production of heat and energy. Digestion +experiments show that when it is used in the dietary in not excessive +amounts, it is directly absorbed by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> the body and practically all +available. It can advantageously be combined with other foods to form a +part of the ration.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[27]</sup></small></b></a> When a ration contains the requisite amount of +protein, sugar is used to the best advantage. Alone it is incapable of +sustaining life, because it does not contain any nitrogen. When sugar +was substituted for an excess of protein in a ration, it was found to +produce heat and energy at much less expense. Many foods, as apples, +grapes, and small fruits, contain appreciable amounts of sugar and owe +their food value almost entirely to their sugar content. In the dietary, +sugar is too frequently regarded as a condiment instead of a nutrient, +to be used for imparting palatability rather than for purposes of +nutrition. While valuable for improving the taste of foods, the main +worth of sugar is as a nutritive substance; used in the preparation of +foods it adds to the total heat and energy of the ration. Sugar is +sometimes used in excessive amounts and, as is the case with any food or +nutrient, when that occurs, nutrition disturbances result, due to misuse +of the food. Statistics show that the average consumption of sugar in +the United States is nearly 70 pounds a year per capita. In the dietary +of the adult, sugar to the extent of four ounces per day can be consumed +advantageously. The exclusion of sugar from the diet of children is a +great mistake, as they need it for heat and energy and to conserve the +protein for growth.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Sugar is one of the most important forms in which carbohydrates +can be added to the diet of children. The great reduction<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> in the +price of sugar which has taken place in recent years is probably +one of the causes of the improved physique of the rising +generation. The fear that sugar may injure children's teeth is, +largely illusory. The negroes who live largely on sugar cane have +the finest teeth the world can show. If injudiciously taken, sugar +may, however, injure the child's appetite and digestion. The +craving for sweets which children show is no doubt the natural +expression of a physiological need, but they should be taken with, +and not between, meals."<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[28]</sup></small></b></a></p></div> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img077.jpg" width="550" height="145" + alt="Fig. 16." /><br /> + <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>—<span class="smcap">Nutrients of a Ration With +Sugar.</span><br />The hacket parts represent the proportion of nutrients not digested.</h4> + </div> + + +<p><b>75. Sugar in the Dietary.</b>—Sugar has an important place in the +dietary. It not only serves for the production of heat and energy in the +body, but is also valuable in enabling the proteids to be used more +economically. In reasonable amounts, it is particularly valuable in the +dietary of growing children, as the proteids of the food are then +utilized to better advantage for growth. The unique value of sugar +depends upon its intelligent use and its proper combination with other +foods, particularly with those rich in the nitrogenous compounds or +proteids. Sugar alone is incapable of sustaining life, but combined with +other foods is a valuable nutrient. The amount which can be +advantageously used depends<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> largely upon the individual. Ordinarily +three to five ounces per day is sufficient, although some persons cannot +safely consume as much as this. In the case of diabetes mellitus, the +amount of sugar in the ration must be materially reduced. Persons in +normal health and engaged in outdoor work can use sugar to +advantage.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[29]</sup></small></b></a> Many of the "harvest drinks," made largely from molasses +with a little ginger, and used extensively in some localities, are not +without merit, as they contain an appreciable amount of nutrients. Milk +contains more sugar as lactose or milk sugar than any other nutrient.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img078.jpg" width="550" height="191" + alt="Fig. 17." /><br /> + <h4><span class="smcap"> Fig. 17.</span>—<span class="smcap">Nutrients of a Ration Without +Sugar.</span><br />The hacket parts represent the proportion of nutrients not digested.</h4> + </div> + + +<p>The craving for sugar by growing children and athletes is natural. +Sugar, however, is often injudiciously used, and a perverted taste may +be established which can be satisfied only by excessive amounts. This +results in impaired digestion and malnutrition.</p> + +<p><b>76. Maple Sugar.</b>—Sugar obtained by evaporation from the sap of the +maple tree (<i>Acer saccharinum</i>) is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> identical, except for the foreign +substances which it contains, with that from the beet and sugar cane. +The mottled appearance and characteristic color and taste of maple sugar +are due to the various organic acids and other compounds present in the +maple sap and recovered in the sugar. Maple sugar, as ordinarily +prepared, has 0.4 of a per cent or more of ash or mineral matter, while +refined cane sugar contains less than one tenth as much.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[30]</sup></small></b></a> Hence, when +maple sugar is adulterated with cane and beet sugars, the ash content is +noticeably lowered, as is also the content of organic acids. It is +difficult, however, to determine with absolute certainty pure high grade +maple sugar from the impure low grade to which a small amount of +granulated sugar has been added.</p> + +<p><b>77. Adulteration of Sugar.</b>—Sugar at the present time is not +materially adulterated. Other than the substances mentioned which are +used for clarification and color, none are added during refining which +remain in the sugar in appreciable amounts. Sugar does not readily lend +itself to adulteration, as it has a definite crystalline structure, and +materials that would be suitable for its adulteration are of entirely +different physical character.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[31]</sup></small></b></a> Cane sugar is not easily blended with +glucose, or starch sugar, because of the physical differences between +the two. The question of the kind of sugar to use in the household, as +granulated, loaf, or pulverized, is largely one of personal choice, as +there is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> no appreciable difference in the nutritive value or purity of +the different kinds.</p> + +<p><b>78. Dextrose Sugars.</b>—Products known as glucose and dextrose sugars +are made from corn and other starches; they can also be prepared from +cane sugar by the use of heat, chemicals, or ferments for carrying on +the process known as inversion. The dextrose sugars differ from cane +sugar in containing a dissimilar number of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen +atoms in the molecule. The formula of the dextrose sugars is +C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>, while that of cane sugar is C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub>. By the +addition of one molecule of water, H<sub>2</sub>O, to a molecule of sucrose, two +molecules of invert sugar (dextrose and glucose) are produced:<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[1]</sup></small></b></a> +C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub> + H<sub>2</sub> = C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub> + C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>. In +bringing about this change, acids are employed, but the acid in no way +enters into the chemical composition of the final product; it is removed +as described during the process of sugar manufacture. The action of the +acid brings about a catalytic change, the acid being necessary only as a +presence reagent to start the chemical reaction. When properly prepared +and the acid product thoroughly removed, dextrose and glucose have +practically the same food value as sugar. When they are digested, heat +and energy are produced, and a given weight has about the same fuel +value as an equal weight of sugar. Some of the glucose-yielding products +can be made at less expense than sugar, and when they are sold under +their right names there is no reason why<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> they should not be used in the +dietary, as they serve the same nutritive purpose.</p> + +<p><b>79. Molasses</b> is a by-product obtained in the refining of sugar. It is +a mixture of cane sugar and invert sugars, as levulose and dextrose. +When in sugar making the sucrose is removed by crystallization, a point +is finally reached where the solution, or mother liquid, as it is +called, refuses to give up any further crystals;<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[31]</sup></small></b></a> then this product, +consisting of various sugars and small amounts of organic acids and ash, +is partially refined and clarified to form molasses. The term "New +Orleans" molasses was formerly applied to the product obtained by the +use of open kettles for the manufacture of sugar, but during recent +years the vacuum pan process has been introduced, and "New Orleans" +molasses is now an entirely different article. The terms first, second, +and third molasses are applied to the liquids obtained after the removal +of the first, second, and third crops of sugar crystals; first molasses +being richer in sucrose, while third molasses is richer in dextrose and +invert sugars. The ash in molasses ranges from 4 to 6.5 per cent. Some +of the low grades of molasses are used in the preparation of animal +foods.</p> + +<p>The taste and physical characteristics of molasses are due largely to +the organic acids and impurities that are present, as well as to the +proportion in which the various sugars occur. When used with soda in +cooking and baking operations, the organic acid of the molasses +lib<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>erates carbon dioxide gas, which acts as a leavening agent. Because +of the organic acids, molasses should not be stored in tin or metalware +dishes, as the solvent action results in producing poisonous tin and +other metallic salts.</p> + +<p>The food value of molasses is dependent entirely upon the amount of dry +matter and the per cent of sugar. A large amount of water is considered +an adulterant; ordinarily molasses contains from 20 to 33 per cent. If a +sample of molasses contains 75 per cent of dry matter, it has slightly +less than three fourths of the nutritive value of the same weight of +sugar.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img010.jpg" width="189" height="300" + alt="Fig. 18." /><br /> + <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>—<span class="smcap">Graphic<br />Composition of +Syrup.</span></h4> + </div> +<p><b>80. Syrups.</b>—The term "syrup" is applied to natural products obtained +by evaporation and purification of the saccharine juices of plants. +Sorghum syrup is from the sorghum plant, which is pressed by machinery +and the juice clarified and evaporated so as to contain about 25 per +cent of water. In sorghum syrups there are from 30 to 45 per cent of +cane sugar, and from 12 to 20 per cent of glucose and invert sugars. +Cane syrup is made from the clarified juice of the sugar cane, and has +about the same general composition as sorghum syrup. Maple syrup, +prepared from the juice of the sugar maple, is characteristically rich +in sucrose and contains but little glucose or reducing sugars. The +flavor of all the syrups is due mainly to organic acids, ethereal +products, and impurities. In some instances the essential flavor can be +produced synthetically, or derived from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> other and cheaper materials; +and by the use of these flavors, mixed syrups can be prepared closely +resembling many of the natural products. When properly made, they are +equal in nutritive value to natural syrups. When sold under assumed +names, they are to be considered and classified as adulterated, and not +as syrups from definite and specific products. Low-grade syrups and +molasses are often used for making fuel alcohol. They readily undergo +alcoholic fermentation and are valuable for this purpose, rendering it +possible for a good grade of fuel alcohol to be produced at low cost. +The manufacture of sugar, syrups, and molasses has been brought to a +high degree of perfection through the assistance rendered by industrial +chemistry. Losses in the process are reduced to a minimum, and the +various steps are all controlled by chemical analysis. Sugar has the +physical property of deflecting a ray of polarized light, the amount of +deflection depending upon the quantity of sugar in solution. This is +measured by the polariscope, an instrument by means of which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> the sugar +content of sugar plants is rapidly determined.</p> + + +<p><b>81. Honey</b> is composed largely of invert sugars gathered by the +honeybee from the nectar of flowers. It varies in composition and flavor +according to its source. The color depends upon the flower from which it +came, white clover giving a light-colored, pleasant-flavored honey, +while that from buckwheat and goldenrod is dark and has a slightly rank +taste. The comb is composed largely of wax, which has somewhat the same +general composition as fat, but contains ethereal instead of glycerol +bodies. On account of the predominance of invert sugars, pure honey has +a levulo or left-handed rotation when examined by the polariscope. Honey +contains from 60 to 75 per cent of invert sugars, and from 12 to 20 per +cent of water, while the ash content is small, less than one tenth of +one per cent. Strained honey is easily adulterated with glucose +products. Adulteration with cane sugar is readily detected, as pure +honey contains only a very small amount of sucrose. Honey can be made by +feeding bees on sugar; the sugar undergoes inversion, with the +production of dextrose. Such honey, although not adulterated, is +inferior in quality and lacking in natural flavor.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[18]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>82. Confections.</b>—By blending various saccharine products, confections +are made. Usually sucrose (cane and beet sugar) is used as the basis for +their prepa<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>ration. Sucrose has definite physical properties, as +crystalline structure, and forms chemical and mechanical combinations +with acid, alkaline, and other substances; it also unites with water, +and when heated undergoes changes in structural composition. The +presence of small amounts of acid substances, or variations in the +concentration of the sugar solution, materially affect the mechanical +relation of the sugar particles to each other, and their +crystallization. Usually crystallization takes place when there is less +than 25 per cent of water present. The form, size, and arrangement of +the crystals are influenced by agitation during cooling. To secure +desired results, often small quantities of various other substances are +employed for their mechanical action. Glucose is frequently used, and is +said to be necessary for the production of some kinds of candy.</p> + +<p>Candies are colored with various dyes and pigments, many of which are +harmless, although some are injurious. Coal tar dyes are frequently +employed for this purpose. Objection has generally been urged against +their use, as it is believed many of them are injurious to health. It +cannot be said, however, that all are poisonous, as some are known to be +harmless. The use of a few coal tar dyes is allowed by the United States +government. Mineral colors are now rarely, if ever, used.</p> + +<p>Impure candies result from objectionable ingredients, as starch, +paraffin, and large amounts of injurious color<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>ing substances. Coal tar +coloring materials are identified in the way described in Experiment No. +13. Confectionery, when properly prepared and unadulterated, has the +same nutritive value as sugar and the other ingredients, and is entitled +to a place in the dietary for the production of heat and energy. Much +larger amounts of candies are sold and consumed during the winter than +the summer months, suggesting that in cold weather candy is most needed +in the dietary.</p> + +<p><b>83. Saccharine</b> is an artificial sweetening, five hundred times sweeter +than cane sugar. It contains in its molecule, chemically united, +benzine, sulphuric acid, and ammonia radicals. It is employed for +sweetening purposes in cases of diabetes mellitus, where physicians +advise against the use of sugar. It has no food value. A small amount is +sometimes added to canned corn and tomatoes to impart a sweet taste. The +physiological properties of saccharine have not been extensively +investigated.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<h3>LEGUMES AND NUTS</h3> + + +<p><b>84. General Composition of Legumes.</b>—Peas, beans, lentils, and peanuts +are the legumes most generally used for human food. As a class, they are +characterized by high protein content and a comparatively low per cent +of starch and carbohydrates. They contain the largest amount of +nitrogenous compounds of any of the vegetable foods, and hence are +particularly valuable in the human ration as a substitute for meats.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[32]</sup></small></b></a> +For feeding animals the legumes are highly prized, particularly the +forage crops, clover and alfalfa. These secure their nitrogen, which is +the characteristic element of protein, from the free nitrogen of the +air, through the workings of bacterial organisms found in the nodules on +the roots of the plants. The legumes appear to be the only plants +capable of making use of the nitrogen of the air for food purposes.</p> + +<p><b>85. Beans</b> contain about 24 per cent of protein and but little fat, +less than is found in any of the grain or cereal products. The protein +of the bean differs from that of cereals in its general and structural +composition. It is a globulin known as legumin, and is acted upon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> +mainly by ferments working in alkaline solutions, as in the lower part +of the digestive tract. Beans have about the same amount of ash as the +cereals, but the ash is richer in potash and lime.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img011.jpg" width="211" height="300" + alt="Fig. 19." /><br /> + <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>—<span class="smcap">Graphic<br />Composition of Beans.</span><br /> +Hacked Part Indigestible.</h4> + + </div> + +<p><b>86. Digestibility of Beans.</b>—Beans are usually considered +indigestible, but experiments show they are quite completely digested, +although they require more work on the part of the digestive tract than +many other foods. The digestibility was found to vary with individuals, +86 per cent of the protein being digested in one case, and only 72 per +cent in another. The protein of beans is not as completely digested as +that of meats. When beans were combined with other foods, forming a part +of a ration, they were more completely digested than when used in large +amounts and with only a few other foods. The presence of the skin is in +part responsible for low digestibility. When in the preparation of beans +the skins, which contain a large amount of cellulose, are removed, the +beans are more completely digested. By cooking from twenty minutes to +half an hour in rapidly boiling water containing a small amount of soda, +the skins are softened and loosened and are then easily re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>moved by +rubbing in cold water. Some of the soda enters into combination with the +legumin. Along with the skins a portion of the germ is lost. The germ +readily ferments, which is probably the cause of beans producing +flatulence with some individuals during digestion. After the skins are +removed the nutrients are more susceptible to the action of the +digestive fluids. Experiments show that 42 per cent of the protein of +baked skinned beans is soluble in pepsin and pancreatin solutions, while +under similar conditions there is only 3.85 per cent of the protein +soluble from beans baked without removal of the skins.</p> + + +<p><b>87. Use of Beans in the Dietary.</b>—There is no vegetable food capable +of furnishing so much protein at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> such low cost as beans; from a pound +costing five cents about one fifth of a pound of protein and three +fifths of a pound of carbohydrates are obtained. Beans can, to a great +extent, take the place of meats in the dietary. There is more protein in +beans than in beef. Four ounces of uncooked beans or six ounces of baked +beans are as much as can conveniently be combined in the dietary, and +these will furnish a quarter of the protein of the ration. In the case +of active out-of-door laborers over a pound of baked beans per day is +often consumed with impunity.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img012.jpg" width="550" height="319" + alt="Fig. 20." /><br /> + <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>—<span class="smcap">Beans, Raw and Cooked. Skins, Wet +and Dry.</span></h4> + + </div> + +<p><b>88. String Beans.</b>—String beans—green beans with pod—contain a large +amount of water, 85 to 88 per cent. The dry matter is rich in protein, +nearly 20 per cent, although in the green beans as eaten, containing 85 +per cent water, there is less than 2½ per cent. Lima beans are richer +in protein than string beans, as the green pod is not included. String +beans are valuable both for the nutrients they contain and for the +favorable influence they exert upon the digestibility of other foods.</p> + +<p><b>89. Peas.</b>—In general composition and digestibility, peas are quite +similar to beans. They belong to the same family, Leguminosæ, and the +protein of each is similar in quantity and general properties. The +statements made in regard to the composition, digestibility, and use of +beans in the dietary apply with minor modifications to peas. When used +in the preparation of soups, they add appreciable amounts of nutrients.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img013.jpg" width="407" height="500" + alt="Fig. 21." /><br /> + <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>—<span class="smcap">Pea Starch Granules.</span></h4> + + </div> + +<p><b>90. Canned Peas.</b>—In order to impart a rich green color, copper +sulphate has been used in the canning of peas. Physiologists differ as +to its effect upon health. While a little may not be particularly +injurious, much interferes with normal digestion of the food and forms +insoluble copper proteids. In some countries a small<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> amount of copper +sulphate is tolerated, while in others it is prohibited.</p> + +<p><b>91. Peanuts.</b>—Peanuts differ from peas and beans in containing more +fat. They should be considered a food, for at ordinary prices they +furnish a large amount of protein and fat. Like the other members of the +legume family, the peanut is rather slow of digestion and requires +considerable intestinal work for completion of the process.</p> + + +<h4>NUTS</h4> + +<p><b>92. General Composition.</b>—Nuts should be regarded as food, for they +contribute to a ration appreciable amounts of nutrients. The edible +portion of nearly all is rich in fat; pecans, for example, contain as +high as 70 per cent. In protein content nuts range from 3 per cent in +cocoanuts to 30 per cent in peanuts. The carbohydrate content is usually +comparatively low, less than 5 per cent in hickory nuts, although there +is nearly 40 per cent in chestnuts. On account of high fat content, nuts +supply a large amount of heat and energy.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[33]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>93. Chestnuts</b> are characterized by containing less fat and protein and +much more carbohydrate material, especially starch, than is found in +other nuts. In southern Europe chestnuts are widely used as food; the +skins are removed, and the nuts are steamed, boiled, or roasted, and +sometimes they are dried and ground into flour. Chestnuts are less +concentrated in protein and fat, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> form a better balanced food used +alone than do other nuts.</p> + +<p><b>94. The Hickory Nut</b>, which is a characteristically American nut, +contains in the edible portion about 15 per cent protein, 65 per cent +fat, and 12 per cent carbohydrates.</p> + +<p><b>95. The Almonds</b> used in the United States come chiefly from southern +Europe, although they are successfully raised in California. They +contain about 55 per cent fat and 22 per cent protein. The flavor of +almonds is due to a small amount of hydrocyanic acid.</p> + +<p><b>96. Pistachio.</b>—Some nuts are used for imparting color and flavor to +food products, as the pistachio nut, the kernel of which is greenish in +color and imparts a flavor suggestive of almonds. The pistachio has high +food value, as it is rich in both fat and protein. It is employed in the +manufacture of confectionery and in ice cream for imparting flavor and +color.</p> + +<p><b>97. Cocoanuts</b> grow luxuriantly in many tropical countries, and have a +high food value. They are characteristically rich in fat, one half of +the edible portion being composed of this nutrient. For tropical +countries they supply the fat of a ration at less expense than any other +food. When used in large amounts they should be supplemented with foods +rich in carbohydrates, as rice, and in proteids, as beans. Cocoanut milk +is proportionally richer in carbohydrates and poorer in fat and protein<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> +than the meat of the cocoanut. In discussing the cocoanut, Woods +states:<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[34]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The small, green, and immature nuts are grated fine for medicinal +use, and when mixed with the oil of the ripe nut it becomes a +healing ointment. The jelly which lines the shell of the more +mature nut furnishes a delicate and nutritious food. The milk in +its center, when iced, is a most delicious luxury. Grated cocoanut +forms a part of the world-renowned East India condiment, curry. +Dried, shredded (desiccated) cocoanut is an important article of +commerce. From the oil a butter is made, of a clear, whitish color, +so rich in fat, that of water and foreign substances combined there +are but O.0068. It is better adapted for cooking than for table +use. At present it is chiefly used in hospitals, but it is rapidly +finding its way to the tables of the poor, particularly as a +substitute for oleomargarine."</p></div> + +<p><b>98. Use of Nuts in the Dietary.</b>—When nuts can be secured at a low +price per pound, ten cents or less, they compare favorably in nutritive +value with other staple foods. Digestion experiments with rations +composed largely of nuts show that they are quite thoroughly digested. +Professor Jaffa of the California Experiment Station, in discussing the +nutritive value of nuts and fruits, says:<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[35]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"It is certainly an error to consider nuts merely as an accessory +to an already heavy meal, and to regard fruit merely as something +of value for its pleasant flavor, or for its hygienic or medicinal +virtues. The agreement of one food or another with any person is +more or less a personal idiosyncrasy, but it seems fair to say that +those with whom nuts and fruits agree, can, if they desire, readily +secure a considerable part of their nutritive material from such +sources."</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Average Composition of Nuts</span></h4> + +<p class='center'>(From Fifteenth Annual Report, Maine Agricultural Experiment Station.)</p> + + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="80%" cellspacing="0" summary="Average Composition of Nuts"> +<tr valign="top"><td> </td><th>Refuse</th><th>Edible<br />Portion</th><th colspan="5" align="center">Edible Portion</th><th>Value<br />per lb.<a name="FNanchor_A_4" id="FNanchor_A_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_4" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></th></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td>Water</td><td>Prot.</td><td>Fat</td><td>Carb.</td><td>Ash</td><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>Calories</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Almonds</td><td align='right'>64.8</td><td align='right'>35.2</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>7.3</td><td align='right'>19.3</td><td align='right'>6.2</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1065</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Almonds, kernels</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>100.0</td><td align='right'>4.8</td><td align='right'>21.0</td><td align='right'>54.9</td><td align='right'>17.3</td><td align='right'>2.0</td><td align='right'>3030</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Brazil nuts</td><td align='right'>49.6</td><td align='right'>50.4</td><td align='right'>2.7</td><td align='right'>8.6</td><td align='right'>33.6</td><td align='right'>3.5</td><td align='right'>2.0</td><td align='right'>1545</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Filberts</td><td align='right'>52.1</td><td align='right'>47.9</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>7.5</td><td align='right'>31.3</td><td align='right'>6.2</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>1575</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Filberts, kernels</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>100.0</td><td align='right'>3.7</td><td align='right'>15.6</td><td align='right'>65.3</td><td align='right'>13.0</td><td align='right'>2.4</td><td align='right'>3290</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hickory nuts</td><td align='right'>62.2</td><td align='right'>37.8</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>5.8</td><td align='right'>25.5</td><td align='right'>4.3</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>1265</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pecans</td><td align='right'>49.7</td><td align='right'>50.3</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>5.2</td><td align='right'>35.6</td><td align='right'>7.2</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>1733</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pecans, kernels</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>100.0</td><td align='right'>2.9</td><td align='right'>10.3</td><td align='right'>70.8</td><td align='right'>14.3</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>3445</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Walnuts</td><td align='right'>58.0</td><td align='right'>42.0</td><td align='right'>1.2</td><td align='right'>7.0</td><td align='right'>27.0</td><td align='right'>6.1</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1385</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Walnuts, kernels</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>100.0</td><td align='right'>2.8</td><td align='right'>16.7</td><td align='right'>64.4</td><td align='right'>14.8</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>3305</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Chestnuts</td><td align='right'>16.1</td><td align='right'>83.9</td><td align='right'>31.0</td><td align='right'>5.7</td><td align='right'>6.7</td><td align='right'>39.0</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>1115</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Acorns</td><td align='right'>35.6</td><td align='right'>64.4</td><td align='right'>2.6</td><td align='right'>5.2</td><td align='right'>24.1</td><td align='right'>30.9</td><td align='right'>1.6</td><td align='right'>1690</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Beechnuts</td><td align='right'>40.8</td><td align='right'>59.2</td><td align='right'>2.3</td><td align='right'>13.0</td><td align='right'>34.0</td><td align='right'>7.8</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>1820</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Butternuts</td><td align='right'>86.4</td><td align='right'>13.6</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>3.8</td><td align='right'>8.3</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>430</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Litchi nuts</td><td align='right'>41.6</td><td align='right'>58.4</td><td align='right'>10.5</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>45.2</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>875</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Piñon, <i>P. edulis</i></td><td align='right'>40.6</td><td align='right'>59.4</td><td align='right'>2.0</td><td align='right'>8.7</td><td align='right'>36.8</td><td align='right'>10.2</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>1905</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Piñon, <i>P. monophylla</i></td><td align='right'>41.7</td><td align='right'>58.3</td><td align='right'>2.2</td><td align='right'>3.8</td><td align='right'>35.4</td><td align='right'>15.3</td><td align='right'>1.6</td><td align='right'>1850</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Piñon, <i>P. sabiniana</i></td><td align='right'>77.0</td><td align='right'>23.0</td><td align='right'>1.2</td><td align='right'>6.5</td><td align='right'>12.3</td><td align='right'>1.9</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>675</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pistachio, kernels</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>100.0</td><td align='right'>4.2</td><td align='right'>22.6</td><td align='right'>54.5</td><td align='right'>15.6</td><td align='right'>3.1</td><td align='right'>3010</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Peanuts, raw</td><td align='right'>26.4</td><td align='right'>73.6</td><td align='right'>6.9</td><td align='right'>20.6</td><td align='right'>30.7</td><td align='right'>13.8</td><td align='right'>1.6</td><td align='right'>1935</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Peanuts, kernels</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>100.0</td><td align='right'>9.3</td><td align='right'>27.9</td><td align='right'>42.0</td><td align='right'>18.7</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>2640</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Roasted peanuts</td><td align='right'>32.6</td><td align='right'>67.4</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>20.6</td><td align='right'>33.1</td><td align='right'>10.9</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>1985</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Shelled peanuts</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>100.0</td><td align='right'>1.6</td><td align='right'>30.5</td><td align='right'>49.2</td><td align='right'>16.2</td><td align='right'>2.5</td><td align='right'>2955</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Peanut butter</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>2.0</td><td align='right'>29.3</td><td align='right'>46.6</td><td align='right'>17.1</td><td align='right'><a name="FNanchor_B_5" id="FNanchor_B_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_5" class="fnanchor">[B]</a>5.0</td><td align='right'>2830</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cocoanuts</td><td align='right'>48.8</td><td align='right'>51.2</td><td align='right'>7.2</td><td align='right'>2.9</td><td align='right'>25.9</td><td align='right'>14.3</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>1415</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cocoanuts, shredded</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>3.5</td><td align='right'>6.3</td><td align='right'>57.3</td><td align='right'>31.6</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>3125</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cocoanut milk</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>92.7</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>4.6</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>97</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_4" id="Footnote_A_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_4"><span class="label">[A]</span></a>Calculated from analyses.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_5" id="Footnote_B_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_5"><span class="label">[B]</span></a>Including salt, 4.1.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<h3>MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCTS</h3> + + +<p><b>99. Importance in the Dietary.</b>—There is no article of food which +enters so extensively into the dietary as milk, and it is one of the few +foods which supply all the nutrients,—fats, carbohydrates, and +proteids.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[36]</sup></small></b></a> Milk alone is capable of sustaining life for comparatively +long periods, and it is the chief article of food during many diseases. +An exclusive milk diet for a healthy adult, however, would be +unsatisfactory; in the case of young children, milk is essential, +because the digestive tract has not become functionally developed for +the digestion of other foods.</p> + +<p>It is necessary to consider not only the composition and nutritive value +of milk, but also its purity or sanitary condition.</p> + +<p><b>100. General Composition.</b>—Average milk contains about 87 per cent +water and 13 per cent dry matter. The dry matter is composed +approximately of:<br /><br /></p> + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="30%" cellspacing="0" summary="The dry matter is composed +approximately of"> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fat</td><td align='right'>3.5</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Casein</td><td align='right'>3.25</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Albumin</td><td align='right'>0.50</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Milk sugar</td><td align='right'>5.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ash</td><td align='right'>0.75</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + + +<p>Fat is the most variable constituent of milk. Occasionally it is found +as low as 2 per cent and as high as 6 per cent or more. The poorest and +richest milks differ mainly in fat content, as the sugar, ash, casein, +and albumin, or "solids of the milk serum," are fairly constant in +amount and composition. Variations in the content of fat are due to +differences in feed and in the breed and individuality of the animal.</p> + +<p><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img014.jpg" width="433" height="450" + alt="Fig. 22." /><br /> + <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span>—<span class="smcap">Milk Fat Globules.</span></h4> + + </div> +<p><b>101. Digestibility.</b>—Milk is one of the most completely digested of +foods, about 95 per cent of the pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>tein and fat and 97 per cent of the +carbohydrates being absorbed and utilized by the body.</p> + +<p>In a mixed ration, the nutrients of milk are practically all absorbed. +Milk also exerts a favorable influence upon the digestibility of other +foods with which it is combined. This is doubtless due to the digestive +action of the special ferments or enzymes which milk contains. In milk +there is a soluble ferment material or enzyme which has the power of +peptonizing proteids. It is this ferment which carries on the ripening +process when cheese is cured in cold storage, and it is believed to be +this body which promotes digestion of other foods with which milk is +combined.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[27]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p>Milk is not easily digested by some persons. The tendency to costiveness +caused by a milk diet can be largely overcome by the use of salt with +the milk, or of some solid food, as toast or crackers, to prevent +coagulation and the formation of masses resistant to the digestive +fluids. Barley water and lime water in small amounts are also useful for +assisting mechanically in the digestion of milk. Milk at ordinary prices +is one of the cheapest foods that can be used.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img015.jpg" width="250" height="249" + alt="Fig. 23." /><br /> + <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>—<span class="smcap">Dirt in a Sample<br />of Unsanitary +Milk.</span></h4> + </div> + +<p><b>102. Sanitary Condition of Milk.</b>—Equally as important as composition +is the sanitary condition or wholesomeness of milk. Milk is a food +material which readily undergoes fermentation and is a medium for the +distribution of germ diseases. The conditions under which it is produced +and the way in which it is han<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>dled determine largely its sanitary +value, and are of so much importance in relation to public health that +during recent years city and state boards of health have introduced +sanitary inspection and examination of milk along with the chemical +tests for detecting its adulteration. Some of the more frequent causes +of contaminated and unsound milk are: unhealthy animals, poor food and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> +water, unsanitary surroundings of the animals, and lack of cleanliness +and care in the handling and transporting of the milk. Outbreaks of +typhoid and scarlet fevers and other germ diseases have frequently been +traced to a contaminated milk supply.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[37]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>103. Certified Milk.</b>—When milk is produced under the most sanitary +conditions, the number of bacterial bodies per cubic centimeter is +materially reduced. In order to supply high grade milk containing but +few bacteria, special precautions are taken in the care of the animals, +and in the feeding and milking, and all sources of contamination of the +milk are eliminated as far as possible. Such milk, when sold in +sterilized bottles, is commonly called "certified milk," indicating that +its purity is guaranteed by the producer and that the number of bacteria +per unit does not exceed a certain standard, as 8000 per cubic +centimeter. Ordinary market milk contains upwards of 50,000.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img101.jpg" width="273" height="300" + alt="Fig. 24." /><br /> + <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>—<span class="smcap">Pasteurizing Milk.</span></h4> + </div> + +<p><b>104. Pasteurized Milk.</b>—In order to destroy the activity of the +bacterial organisms, milk is subjected to a temperature of 157° F. for +ten minutes or longer, which process is known as pasteurization. When +milk is heated to a temperature above 180°, it is sterilized. Below +157°, the albumin is not coagulated. By pasteurizing, milk is much +improved from a sanitary point of view, and whenever the milk supply is +of unknown purity, it should be pasteurized.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[38]</sup></small></b></a> After the milk has been +thus treated, the same care should be exercised in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> keeping it protected +to prevent fresh inoculation or contamination, as though it were +unpasteurized milk. For family use milk can be pasteurized in small +amounts in the following way: Before receiving the milk, the receptacle +should be thoroughly cleaned and sterilized with boiling water or dry +heat, as in an oven. The milk is loosely covered and placed in a pan of +water, a false bottom being in the pan so as to prevent unequal heating. +The water surrounding the milk is gradually heated until a temperature +of 159° F. is registered, and the milk is kept at this temperature for +about ten minutes. It is then cooled and placed in the refrigerator.</p> + + +<p><b>105. Tyrotoxicon.</b>—Tyrotoxicon is a chemical compound produced by a +ferment body which finds its way into milk when kept in unsanitary +surroundings. It induces digestion disorders similar to cholera, and +when present in large amounts, may prove fatal. It sometimes develops in +cream, ice cream, or cheese, but only when they have been kept in +unclean places or produced from infected milk.</p> + +<p><b>601. Color of Milk</b> is often taken as a guide to its purity and +richness in fat. While a yellow tinge is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> usually characteristic of +milks rich in fat, it is not a hard and fast rule, for frequently +light-colored milks are richer in fat than yellow-tinged ones. The +coloring material is independent of the percentage of fat, and it is not +always safe to judge the richness of milk on the basis of color.</p> + +<p><b>107. Souring of Milk.</b>—Souring of milk is due to the action of the +lactic acid organism, which finds its way into the milk through +particles of dust carried in the air or from unclean receptacles which +contain the spores of the organism.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[39]</sup></small></b></a> When milk sours, a small amount +of sugar is changed to lactic acid which reacts upon the casein, +converting it from a soluble to an insoluble condition. When milk is +exposed to the air at a temperature of from 70° to 90° F., lactic acid +fermentation readily takes place. At a low temperature the process is +checked, and at a high temperature the organisms and spores are +destroyed. In addition to lactic acid ferments, there are large numbers +of others which develop in milk, changing the different compounds of +which milk is composed. In the processes of butter and cheese making, +these fermentation changes are controlled so as to develop the flavor +and secure the best grades of butter and cheese.</p> + +<p><b>108. Use of Preservatives in Milk.</b>—In order to check fermentation, +boric acid, formalin, and other preservatives have been proposed. +Physiologists object to their use because the quantity required to +prevent fer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>mentation is often sufficient to have a medicinal effect. +The tendency is to use excessive amounts, which may interfere with +normal digestion of the food. Milk that is cared for under the most +sanitary conditions has a higher dietetic value and is much to be +preferred to that which has been kept sweet by the use of preservatives.</p> + +<p><b>109. Condensed Milk</b> is prepared by evaporating milk in vacuum pans +until it is reduced about one fourth in bulk, when it is sealed in cans, +and it will then keep sweet for a long time. Occasionally some cane +sugar is added to the evaporated product. When diluted, evaporated milk +has much the same composition as whole milk. When a can of condensed +milk has been opened, the same care should be exercised to prevent +fermentation as if it were fresh milk.</p> + +<p><b>110. Skim Milk</b> differs in composition from whole milk in fat content. +When the fat is removed by the separator, there is often left less than +one tenth of a per cent. Skim milk has a much higher nutritive value +than is generally conceded, and wherever it can be procured at a +reasonable price it should be used in the dietary as a source of +protein.</p> + +<p><b>111. Cream</b> ranges in fat content from 15 to 35 per cent. It is +generally preferred to whole milk, although it is not as well balanced a +food, because it is deficient in protein. Cream should contain at least +25 per cent of fat.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>112. Buttermilk</b> is the product left after removal of the fat from +cream by churning. It has about the same amount of nutrients as skim +milk. The casein is in a slightly modified form due to the development +of lactic acid during the ripening of the cream, and on this account +buttermilk is more easily digested and assimilated by many individuals +than milk in other forms. The development of the acid generally reduces +the number of species of other than the lactic organisms, and these are +increased.</p> + +<p><b>113. Goat's Milk</b> is somewhat richer in solids than cow's milk, +containing about one per cent more proteids, a little more fat, and less +sugar. When used as a substitute for human or cow's milk, it generally +needs to be slightly diluted, depending, however, upon the composition +of the individual sample.</p> + +<p><b>114. Koumiss</b> is a fermented beverage made from milk by the use of +yeast to secure alcoholic fermentation. Koumiss contains about one per +cent each of lactic acid and alcohol, and the casein and other nutrients +are somewhat modified by the fermentation changes. Koumiss is generally +considered a non-alcoholic beverage possessing both food and dietetic +value.</p> + +<p><b>115. Prepared Milks.</b>—Various preparations are made to resemble milk +in general composition. These are mechanical mixtures of sugar, fats, +and proteids. Milk sugar, casein, or malted proteids are generally the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> +materials employed in their preparation. Often the dried and pulverized +solids of skim milk are used. Many of the prepared milks are deficient +in fat. While they are not equal to cow's milk, their use is often made +necessary from force of circumstances.</p> + +<p><b>116. Human Milk</b> is not as rich in solid matter as cow's milk. It +contains about the same amount of fat, one per cent more sugar, and one +per cent less proteids. In human milk nearly one half of the protein is +in the form of albumins, while in cow's milk there is about one fifth in +this form. The fat globules are much smaller than those of cow's milk. +In infant feeding it is often necessary to modify cow's milk by the +addition of water, cream, and milk sugar, so as to make it more nearly +resemble in composition human milk.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img106.jpg" width="327" height="550" + alt="Fig. 25." /><br /> + + </div> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>—<span class="smcap">Apparatus Used in Testing +Milk.</span></h4> + +<h4>1, pipette; 2, lactometer; 3, acid measure; 4, centrifuge; 5, test +bottle.</h4> + +<p><b>117. Adulteration of Milk.</b>—Milk is not as extensively adulterated as +it was before the passage and enforcement of the numerous state and +municipal laws regulating its inspection and sale. The most frequent +forms of adulteration are addition of water and removal of cream. These +are readily detected from the specific gravity and fat content of the +milk. The specific gravity of milk is determined by means of the +lactometer, an instrument which sinks to a definite point in pure milk. +In watered milk it sinks to greater depth, depending upon the amount of +water added. The fat content of milk is readily and accurately +determined by the Babcock test, in which the fat is separated by +cen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>trifugal action. For the detection of adulterated milk the student +is referred to Chapter VI, "Chemistry of Dairying," by Snyder.</p> + + +<h4>BUTTER</h4> + +<p><b>118. Composition.</b>—Butter is made by the churning or agitation of +cream and is composed mainly of milk fats and water, together with +smaller amounts of ash, salt, casein, milk sugar, and lactic acid. +Average butter has the following composition:<br /><br /></p> + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="30%" cellspacing="0" summary="Average butter has the following composition"> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Water</td><td align='right'>10.5</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ash and salt</td><td align='right'>2.5</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Casein and albumin</td><td align='right'>1.0</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fat</td><td align='right'>86.0</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<p><br />When butter contains an abnormal amount of water, it is considered +adulterated. According to act of Congress standard butter should not +contain over 16 per cent of water nor less than 82.5 per cent of fat.</p> + +<p><b>119. Digestibility of Butter.</b>—Digestion experiments show that +practically all of the fat, 98 per cent, is digestible and available for +use by the body. Butter is valuable only for the production of heat and +energy. Alone, it is incapable of sustaining life, because it contains +no proteid material. It is usually one of the more expensive items of +food, but it is generally considered quite necessary in a ration.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[5]</sup></small></b></a> It +has been suggested<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> that it takes an important part mechanically in the +digestion of food.</p> + +<p><b>120. Adulteration of Butter.</b>—In addition to containing an excess of +water, butter is adulterated in other ways. Old, stale butter is +occasionally melted, washed, salted, and reworked. This product is known +as renovated butter, and has poor keeping qualities. Frequently +preservatives are added to such butter to delay fermentation changes. +Oleomargarine and butterine are made by mixing vegetable and animal +fats.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[40]</sup></small></b></a> Highly colored stearin, cotton-seed oil, and lard are the +usual materials from which oleomargarine is made. It has practically the +same composition, digestibility, and food value as butter. When sold +under its true name and not as butter, there is no objection, as it is a +valuable food and supplies heat and energy at less cost than butter. The +main objection to oleomargarine and butterine is that they are sold as +butter.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[41]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p>The coloring of butter is not generally looked upon as adulteration, for +butter naturally has a more or less yellow tinge. According to an act of +Congress, butter colors of a non-injurious character are allowed to be +used.</p> + + +<h4>CHEESE</h4> + +<p><b>121. General Composition.</b>—Cheese, is made by the addition of rennet +to ripened milk, resulting in coagulation of the casein, which +mechanically combines with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> the fat. It differs from butter in +composition by containing, in addition to fat, casein and appreciable +amounts of mineral matter. The composition varies with the character of +the milk from which the cheese was made. Average milk produces cheese +containing a larger amount of fat than proteids, while cheese from +skimmed or partially skimmed milk is proportionally poorer in fat. +Ordinarily there is about 35 per cent of water, 33 per cent of fat, and +27 per cent of casein, and albumin or milk proteids, the remainder being +ash, salt, milk sugar, and lactic acid. Cheese is characterized by its +large percentage of both fat and protein, and has high food value. It +contains more fat and protein than any of the meats; in fact, there are +but few foods which have such liberal amounts of these nutrients as +cheese.</p> + +<p>The odor and flavor of cheese are due to workings of bacteria which +result in the production of aromatic compounds. The purity and condition +of the milk, as well as the method of manufacture and the kind of +ferment material used, determine largely the flavor and odor. Cheese is +generally allowed to undergo a ripening or curing process before it is +used as food. The changes resulting consist mainly in increased +solubility of the proteids, with the formation of a small amount of amid +and aromatic compounds.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[42]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>122. Digestibility.</b>—Cheese is popularly considered an indigestible +food, but extended experiments show that it is quite completely +digested, although in the case of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> some individuals not easily digested. +In general, about 95 per cent of the fat and 92 per cent and more of the +protein is digested, depending upon the general composition of the +cheese and the digestive capacity of the individual. As far as total +digestibility is concerned, there appears to be but little difference +between green and well-cured cheese. So far as ease of digestion is +concerned, it is probable that some difference exists. There is also but +little difference in digestibility resulting from the way in which milk +is made into cheese, the nutrients of Roquefort, Swiss, Camembert, and +Cheddar being about equally digestible.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[13]</sup></small></b></a> The differences in odor and +taste are due to variations in kind and amount of bacterial action. When +combined with other foods, cheese may exercise a beneficial influence +upon digestion in the same way as noted from the use of several foods in +a ration. No material differences were observed in digestibility when +cheese was used in small amounts, as for condimental purposes, or when +used in large amounts to furnish nutrients. Artificial digestion +experiments show that cheese is more readily acted upon by the +pancreatic than by the gastric fluids, suggesting that cheese undergoes +intestinal rather than gastric digestion. It is possible this is the +reason that cheese is slow of digestion in the case of some individuals.</p> + +<p><b>123. Use in the Dietary.</b>—Cheese should be used in the dietary +regularly and in reasonable amounts, rather than irregularly and then in +large amounts. Cheese is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> not a luxury, but ordinarily it is one of the +cheapest and most nutritious of human foods. A pound of cheese costing +15 cents contains about a quarter of a pound of protein and a third of a +pound of fat; at the same price, beef yields only about half as much fat +and less protein. Cheese at 18 cents per pound furnishes more available +nutrients and energy than beef at 12 cents per pound. In the dietary of +European armies, cheese to a great extent takes the place of beef. See +Chapter XVI.</p> + +<p><b>124. Cottage Cheese</b> is made by coagulating milk and preparing the curd +by mixing with it cream or melted butter and salt or sugar as desired. +When milk can be procured at little cost, cottage cheese is one of the +cheapest and most valuable foods.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[43]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>125. Different Kinds of Cheese.</b>—By the use of different kinds of +ferments and variations in the process of manufacture different types or +kinds of cheese are made, as Roquefort, Swiss, Edam, Stilton, Camembert, +etc. In the manufacture of Roquefort cheese, which is made from goats' +and ewes' milk, bread is added and the cheese is cured in caves, +resulting in the formation of a green mold which penetrates the cheese +mass, and produces characteristic odor and flavor. Stilton is an English +soft, rich cheese of mild flavor, made from milk to which cream is +usually added. It is allowed to undergo an extended process of ripening, +often resulting in the formation of bluish green threads of fungus. +Limburger owes its characteristic odor and flavor to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> action of +special ferment bodies which carry on the ripening process. Neufchatel +is a soft cheese made from sweet milk to which the rennet is added at a +high temperature. After pressing, it is kneaded and worked, and then put +into packages and covered with tin foil.</p> + +<p><b>126. Adulteration of Cheese.</b>—The most common forms of adulteration +are the manufacture of skim-milk cheese by the removal of the fat from +the milk, and substitution of cheaper and foreign fats, making a product +known as filled cheese. When not labeled whole milk cheese, or sold as +such, there is no objection to skim-milk cheese. It has a high food +value and is often a cheap source of protein. The manufacture of filled +cheese is now regulated by the national government, and all such cheese +must pay a special tax and be properly labeled. As a result, the amount +of filled cheese upon the market has very greatly decreased, and cheese +is now less adulterated than in former years. The national dairy law +allows the use of coloring matter of a harmless nature in the +manufacture of cheese.</p> + +<p><b>127. Dairy Products in the Dietary.</b>—The nutrients in milk are +produced at less expense for grain and forage than the nutrients in +beef, hence from a pecuniary point of view, dairy products, as milk and +cheese, have the advantage. In the case of butter, however, the cost +usually exceeds that of meat. In older agricultural regions, where the +cost of beef production reaches the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> maximum, dairying is generally +resorted to, as it yields larger financial returns, and as a result more +cheese and less beef are used in the dietary. As the cost of meats is +enhanced, dairy products, as cheese, naturally take their place.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<h3>MEATS AND ANIMAL FOOD PRODUCTS</h3> + + +<p><b>128. General Composition.</b>—Animal tissue is composed of the same +classes of compounds as plant tissue. In each, water makes up a large +portion of the weight, and the dry matter is composed of nitrogenous and +non-nitrogenous compounds, and ash or mineral matter. Plants and animals +differ in composition not so much as to the kinds of compounds, although +there are differences, but more in the percentage amounts of these +compounds. In plants, with the exception of the legumes, the protein +rarely exceeds 14 per cent, and in many vegetable foods, when prepared +for the table, there is less than 2 per cent. In meats the protein +ranges from 15 to 20 per cent. The non-nitrogenous compounds of plants +are present mainly in the form of starch, sugar, and cellulose, while in +animal bodies there are only traces of carbohydrates, but large amounts +of fat. Fat is the chief non-nitrogenous compound of meats; it ranges +between quite wide limits, depending upon kind, age, and general +condition of the animal. Meats contain the same general classes of +proteins as the vegetable foods; in each the proteins are made up of +albumins, glubulins, albu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>minates, peptone-like bodies, and insoluble +proteids. The larger portion of the protein of meats and cereals is in +insoluble forms. The meat juices, which contain the soluble portion of +the proteins, constitute less than 5 percent of the nitrogenous +compounds. Meats contain less amid substances than plants, in which the +amids are produced from ammonium compounds and are supposed to be +intermediate products in the formation of proteids, while in the animal +body they are derived from the proteids supplied in the food and, it is +generally believed, cannot form proteids. Albuminoids make up the +connective tissue, hair, and skin, and are more abundant in animal than +in plant tissue. One of the chief albuminoids is gelatine. Both plant +and animal foods<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> undergo bacterial changes resulting in the production +of alkaloidal bodies known as ptomaines, of which there are a large +number. These are poisonous and are what cause putrid and stale meat to +be unwholesome. The protein in meat differs little in general +composition from that of vegetable origin; differences in structure and +cleavage products between the two are, however, noticeable.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img016.jpg" width="500" height="297" + alt="Fig. 26." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>—<span class="smcap">Meat and Extractive +Substances.</span></h4> + +<p>While meats from different kinds of animals have somewhat the same +general composition, they differ in physical properties, and also in the +nature of the various nutrients. For example, pork contains less protein +than beef, but the protein of pork is materially different from that of +beef, as a larger portion is in the form of soluble proteids, while in +beef more is present in an insoluble form. Not only are differences in +the percentage of individual proteins noticeable, but there are equally +as great differences in the fats. As for example: some of the meats have +a larger proportion of the fat as stearin than do others. Hence meats +differ in texture and taste more than in nutritive value, due to the +variations in the percentage of the different proteins, fats, and +extractive material, rather than to differences in the total amounts of +these compounds. The taste and flavor of meat is to a large extent +influenced by the amount of extractive material.</p> + +<p>While the nutrients of meats are divided into classes, as proteins and +fats, there are a large number of separate compounds which make up each +of the individual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> classes, and there are also small amounts of +compounds which are not included in these groups.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img017.jpg" width="500" height="300" + alt="Fig. 27." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span>—<span class="smcap">Standard Cuts of Beef.</span></h4> + +<h5>(From Office of Experiment Station Bulletin.)</h5> + +<p><b>129. Beef.</b>—About one half of the weight of beef is water; the lean +meat contains a much larger amount than the fat. As a rule, the parts of +the animal that contain the most fat contain the least water. In some +meats there is considerable refuse, 25 to 30 per cent. In average meat +about 12 per cent of the butcher's weight is refuse and non-edible +parts.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[44]</sup></small></b></a> A pound of average butcher's meat is about one half water, +and over<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> 10 per cent waste and refuse, which leaves less than 40 per +cent fat and protein. Meat is generally considered to have a high +nutritive value, due to the comparatively large amounts of fat and +protein. Beef contains more protein than any vegetable food, except the +legumes, and from 1 to 1.5 per cent mineral matter, exclusive of bone. +Some of the mineral matter is chemically united with the protein and +other compounds. While figures are given for average composition of +beef, it is to be noted that wide variations are frequently to be met +with, some samples containing a much larger amount of waste and +trimmings than others, and this influences the percent of the nutritive +substances. In making calculations of nutrients consumed, as in dietary +studies, the figures for average composition of meat should be used only +in cases where the samples do not contain an excess either of fat or +trimmings.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[45]</sup></small></b></a> When very lean, there is often a large amount of refuse, +and the meat contains less dry matter and is of poorer flavor than from +animals in prime condition. In the case of very fat animals, a large +amount of waste results, and the flavor is sometimes impaired.</p> + +<p><b>130. Veal</b> differs from beef in containing a smaller amount of dry +matter, richer in protein, but poorer in fat. Animals differ in +composition at different stages of growth in much the same way as +plants. In the earlier stages protein predominates in the plant tissue, +while later the carbohydrates are added in larger amounts,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> reducing the +percentage content of protein. In animals the same is noticeable. Young +animals are, pound for pound, richer in protein than old animals. While +in the case of vegetables the increase in size, or rotundity, is due to +starch and carbohydrates, in animals it is due to the addition of fat. +But plants, like animals, observe the same general laws as to changes in +composition at different stages of growth.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img018.jpg" width="500" height="320" + alt="Fig. 28." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>—<span class="smcap">Standard Cuts of Mutton.</span></h4> + +<h5>(From Office of Experiment Station Bulletin.)</h5> + +<p>131. Mutton.—There is about the same amount of refuse matter in mutton +as in beef. In a side of mutton about 19 percent: are trimmings and +waste, and in a side of beef 18.5 per cent. Mutton, as a rule, contains +a little more fat and dry matter than beef, and somewhat less protein. A +side of beef, as purchased, con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>tains about 50 per cent of water, 14.5 +per cent protein, and 16.8 per cent of fat, while a side of mutton, as +purchased, contains 42.9 per cent water, 12.5 per cent protein, and 24.7 +per cent fat. A pound of beef yields a smaller number of calories by 25 +per cent than a pound of mutton. At the same price per pound more +nutrients can be purchased as mutton than as beef. The differences in +composition between lamb and mutton are similar to those between veal +and beef; viz. a larger amount of water and protein and a smaller amount +of fat in the same weight of the young animals. Differences in +composition between the various cuts of lamb are noticeable. The leg +contains the least fat and the most protein, while the chuck is richest +in fat and poorest in protein. As in the case of beef, many of the +cheaper cuts contain as much or more nutrients than the more expensive +cuts. They are not, however, as palatable and differ as to toughness and +other physical characteristics.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img019.jpg" width="500" height="307" + alt="Fig. 29." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>—<span class="smcap">Standard Cuts of Pork.</span></h4> + +<h5>(From Office of Experiment Station Bulletin.)</h5> + +<p><b>132. Pork</b> is characterized by a high per cent of fat and a +comparatively low per cent of protein. It is generally richest in fat of +any of the meats. The per cent of water varies with the fatness of the +animal; in very fat animals there is a smaller amount, while lean +animals contain more. In lean salt pork there is about 20 per cent +water, and in fat salt pork about 7 per cent. There is less refuse and +waste in pork than in either beef or mutton. Ham contains from 14 to 15 +per cent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> of refuse, and bacon about 7 per cent. Bacon has nearly twice +as much fat and a smaller amount of protein than ham. A pound of bacon, +as purchased, will yield nearly twice as much energy or fuel value as a +pound of ham. Digestion experiments show that bacon is quite readily and +completely digested and is often a cheaper source of fat and protein +than other meats. There is about three times as much fat in bacon as in +beef. When prepared for the table bacon contains, from 40 to 50 per cent +of fat. A pound of high grade, lean bacon furnishes from 0.1 to 0.3 of a +pound of digestible protein and from 0.4 to 0.6 of a pound of digestible +fat, which is about two thirds as much fat as is found in butter. Bacon +contains nearly as much digestible<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> protein as other meats and from two +to three times as much fat, making it, at the same price per pound, a +cheaper food than other meats. In salt pork there is from 60 to 85 per +cent of fat, and less protein than in bacon. The protein and fat of pork +differ from those in beef not only in percentage amounts, but also in +the nature of the individual proteins and fats. The composition of pork +varies with the nature of the food that is consumed by the animal. +Experiments show that it is possible by judicious feeding in the early +stages of growth to produce pork with the maximum of lean meat and the +minimum of fat. After the animal has passed a certain period, it is not +possible by feeding to materially influence the percentage of nutrients +in the meat. The flavor, too, of pork, as of other meats, is dependent +largely upon the nature of the food the animal consumes. When there is a +scant amount of available protein in the ration, the meat is dry, nearly +tasteless, and contains less of the soluble nitrogenous compounds which +impart flavor and individuality.</p> + +<p><b>133. Lard</b> is prepared from the fat of swine, and is separated from +associated tissue by the action of heat. A large amount of fat is found +lining the back of the abdominal cavity, and this is known as leaf lard. +Slight differences are noticeable in the composition and quality of lard +made from different parts of the hog. Leaf lard is usually considered +the best. Lard is composed of the three fats, olein, stearin, and +palmatin, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> has a number of characteristic physical properties, as +specific gravity, melting point, iodine absorption number, as well as +behavior with various reagents, and these enable the mixing of other +fats with lard to be readily detected. Lard is used in the preparation +of oleomargarine, and it is also combined with various vegetable oils, +as cotton-seed oil, in the making of imitation or compound lards.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[46]</sup></small></b></a> +Lard substitutes differ little in general composition from pure lard, +except in the structure of the crystals and the percentage of the +various individual fats.</p> + +<p><b>134. Texture and Toughness of Meats.</b>—In discussing the texture of +meats, Professor Woods states:<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[45]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Whether meats are tough or tender depends upon two things: the +character of the walls of the muscle tubes and the character of the +connective tissues which bind the tubes and muscles together. In +young and well-nourished animals the tube walls are thin and +delicate, and the connective tissue is small in amount. As the +animals grow older or are made to work (and this is particularly +true in the case of poorly nourished animals), the walls of the +muscle tubes and the connective tissues become thick and hard. This +is the reason why the flesh of young, well-fed animals is tender +and easily masticated, while the flesh of old, hard-worked, or +poorly fed animals is often so tough that prolonged boiling or +roasting seems to have but little effect on it.</p> + +<p>"After slaughtering, meats undergo marked changes in texture. These +changes can be grouped under three classes or stages. In the first +stage, when the meat is just slaughtered, the flesh is soft, juicy, +and quite tender. In the next stage the flesh stiffens and the meat +becomes hard and tough. This condition is known as <i>rigor mortis,</i> +and continues until the third stage, when the first changes of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> +decomposition set in. In hot climates the meat is commonly eaten in +either the first or second stage. In cold climates it is seldom +eaten before the second stage, and generally, in order to lessen +the toughness, it is allowed to enter the third stage, when it +becomes soft and tender, and acquires added flavor. The softening +is due in part to the formation of lactic acid, which acts upon the +connective tissue. The same effect may be produced, though more +rapidly, by macerating the meat with weak vinegar. Meat is +sometimes made tender by cutting the flesh into thin slices and +pounding it across the cut ends until the fibers are broken."</p></div> + +<p><b>135. Influence of Cooking upon the Composition of Meats.</b><a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[47]</sup></small></b></a>—It is +believed by many that losses are prevented and the nutritive value +conserved when, in the cooking of meat, it is placed directly into +boiling water rather than into cold water and then brought to the +boiling point and cooked. Extensive experiments have been made by Dr. +Grindley in regard to this and other points connected with the cooking +of meats, and in general it was found that the temperature of the water +in which the meat was placed made little difference in its nutritive +value or the amount of material extracted. It was found that by both +methods there was dissolved 2.3 percent of the protein matter, 1 percent +of the nitrogenous extractives, 1.6 per cent of non-nitrogenous +material, and 0.8 per cent of ash, of the raw meat, which was equivalent +to about 13 per cent of the total proteid material and 81 percent of the +ash. The cold water extract contained bodies coagulated by heat. Cold +water did not extract any of the fat, but during the process of cooking, +appreciable amounts were lost mechani<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>cally. Cooked meats were found to +be less soluble in cold water than raw meats. During the process of +boiling, meat shrinks in weight about 40 or 45 per cent, depending +mainly upon the size of the pieces and the content of fat. The loss in +weight is practically a loss of water, and the loss of nutrients, all +told, amounts to about 4 per cent, or more, depending upon the +mechanical loss.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[48]</sup></small></b></a> But slight differences were found in the +composition of the meats cooked three and five hour periods.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Careful study in this laboratory has shown that when meat is +cooked in water at 80° to 85° C., placing meat in hot or cold water +at the start has little effect on the amount of nutrients in the +meat which passes into the broth. The meat was in the form of +cubes, one to two inches, and in pieces weighing from one to two +pounds.</p> + +<p>"It is commonly supposed that when meat is plunged into boiling +water, the albumin coagulates and forms a crust, which prevents the +escape of nutritive materials into the broth. It is also believed +that if a rich broth is desired, to be used either as a soup or +with the meat as a stew, it is more desirable to place the meat in +cold water at the start. From the results of these experiments, +however, it is evident that, under these conditions, there can be +little advantage in using hot or cold water at the beginning. When +meats were cooked by dry heat, as in roasting, a larger amount of +nutrients was rendered soluble in water than during boiling. The +losses of nutrients were much smaller when meats were cooked by dry +heat than when cooked in water, being on the average, water 35 per +cent, nitrogenous extractives 9 per cent, non-nitrogenous +extractives 17 per cent, fat 7 per cent, ash 12 per cent, and a +small loss of protein."</p></div> + +<p>The nutrients in the broth of the meat started in hot water amounted to +about 1 per cent of protein,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> 1 per cent of fat, and O.5 per cent of +ash, the amount of nutrients being directly proportional to the length +of time and temperature of the cooking. In general, the larger the +pieces, the smaller the losses. Beef that has been used in the +preparation of beef tea loses its extractive materials, which impart +taste and flavor, but there is only a small loss of actual nutritive +value. Clear meat broth contains little nutriment—less than unfiltered +broth. Most of the nitrogenous material of the broth is in the form of +creatin, sarkin, and xanthin, nitrogenous extractives or amid substances +having a much lower food value than proteids. Experiments show that some +of these extractives have physiological properties slightly stimulating +in their action, and it is believed the stimulating effect of a meat +diet is in part due to these.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[49]</sup></small></b></a> They are valuable principally for +imparting taste and flavor, and cannot be regarded as nutrients. The +variations in taste and flavor of meats from different sources are due +largely to differences in extractive material.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"In general, the various methods of cooking materially modify the +appearance, texture, and flavor of meat, and hence its +palatability, but have little effect on total nutritive value. +Whether it be cooked in hot water, as in boiling or stewing, or by +dry heat, as in roasting, broiling, or frying, meat of all kinds +has a high food value, when judged by the kind and amount of +nutrient ingredients which are present." <a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[50]</sup></small></b></a></p></div> + +<p>Beef extracts of commerce contain about 50 per cent of extractive +matters, as amids, together with smaller amounts of soluble proteids; +ash, mainly added salt, is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> also present in liberal amounts (20 per +cent). Beef extracts have condimental value imparting taste and flavor, +which make them useful for soup stocks, but they furnish little in the +way of nutritive substance.</p> + +<p><b>136. Miscellaneous Meat Products.</b>—By combining different parts of the +same animal, or different meats, a large number of products known as +sausage are made. These vary in composition with the ingredients used. +In general, they are richer in fat than beef and contain about the same +amount of protein. Potato flour and flour from cereals are sometimes +used in their preparations, but the presence of any material amount, +unless so stated on the package, is considered an adulterant.</p> + +<p>Pickled meats are prepared by the use of condiments, as salt, sugar, +vinegar, and saltpeter. During the smoking and curing of meats, no +appreciable losses of nutrients occur.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[51]</sup></small></b></a> The smoke acts as a +preservative, and imparts condimental properties. Saltpeter (potassium +nitrate) has been used from earliest times in the preparation of meats; +it preserves color and delays fermentation changes. When used in +moderate amounts it cannot be regarded as a preservative or injurious to +health. Excessive amounts, however, are objectionable. Smoked meats, +prepared with or without saltpeter, give appreciable reactions for +nitrites, compounds formed during combustion of the wood by which the +meat was smoked. Many vegetables contain naturally much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> larger amounts +of nitrates, taken from the soil as food, than meat that has been +preserved with saltpeter.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[52]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>137. Poultry.</b>—The refuse and waste from chickens, as purchased on the +market, ranges from 15 to 30 per cent. The fat content is much lower +than in turkeys or ducks, the largest amount being found in geese. The +edible portion of all fowls is rich in protein, particularly the dark +meat, and the food value is about equal to that of meat in general. When +it is desired to secure a large amount of protein with but little fat, +chicken supplies this, perhaps, better than any other animal food. A +difference is observed in the composition of the meat of young and old +fowls similar to that between beef and veal. The physical composition +and, to a slight extent, the solubility of the proteids are altered by +prolonged cold storage, the difference being noticeable mainly in the +appearance of the connective tissue of the muscles. In discussing +poultry as food, Langworthy states:<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[53]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"A good, fresh bird shows a well-rounded form, with neat, compact +legs, and no sharp, bony angles on the breast, indicating a lack of +tender white meat. The skin should be a clear color (yellow being +preferred in the American market) and free from blotches and pin +feathers; if it looks tight and drawn, the bird has probably been +scalded before being plucked. The flesh should be neither flabby +nor stiff, but should give evenly and gently when pressed by the +finger."</p></div> + +<p><b>138. Fish.</b>—From 30 to 60 per cent of the weight of fresh fish is +refuse. The edible portion contains<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> from 35 to 50 per cent, and in some +cases more, of water. The dry matter is rich in protein; richer than +many meats. The nutrients in fish range between comparatively wide +limits, the protein in some cases being as low as 6 per cent, in +flounder, and in others as high as 30 per cent, in dried codfish. The +amount of fat, except in a few cases, as salmon and trout, is small. +Salmon is the richest in fat of any of the fishes. When salted and +preserved, the proportion of water is lessened and that of the nutrients +is increased. Fish can take the place of meat in the dietary, but it is +necessary to add a larger amount of fat to the ration because of the +deficiency of most fish in this ingredient. Fish has about the same +digestibility as meats. It is believed by many to be valuable because it +supplies a large amount of available phosphates. Analyses, however, show +that the flesh of fish contains no more phosphorus compounds than meats +in general, and its food value is due to protein rather than to +phosphates.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[54]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p>Fish appears to be as completely and easily digested as meats. +Differences in flavor, taste, and palatability are due to small amounts +of flavors and extractive materials, varying according to the food +consumed by the fish and the conditions under which they lived. The +flesh of fish decays more readily than that of other meats and produces +ptomaines, or toxic substances, which are the result of fermentation +changes usually associated with putrefaction. Cases of poisoning from +eating unsound fish are not infrequent.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[55]</sup></small></b></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p> + +<p>Shellfish have about the same general composition as fish. In clams +there is a larger amount of dry matter than in oysters, which contain +about 12 per cent, half of which is protein. When placed in fresh water, +the oyster increases in size and undergoes the process known as +"fattening." Oftentimes impure water is used for this purpose, which +makes the eating of raw oysters a questionable practice from a sanitary +point of view, as the water in which they are floated often contains +disease-producing germs, as typhoid. During the process of fattening, +although the oyster increases in size and weight, it decreases in +percentage of nutrients. In discussing the composition of oysters, +Atwater states:<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[7]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"They come nearer to milk than almost any other food material as +regards both the amounts and relative proportions of nutrients."</p></div> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img020.jpg" width="287" height="400" + alt="Fig. 30." /><br /> + <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>—<span class="smcap">Graphic Composition of an +Egg.</span></h4> + </div> +<p><b>139. Eggs, General Composition.</b>—Eggs are a type of concentrated +nitrogenous food. About 75 per cent (shell removed) is water, about one +third is yolk, and a little over 50 per cent is albumin or white. The +shell makes up from 10 to 12 per cent of the weight. The yolk and white +differ widely in composition. The yolk contains a much larger per cent +of solids than the white, and is rich in both fat and protein, from a +third to a half of the weight being fat. The white has about the same +amount of water, 88 per cent, as average milk, but, unlike milk, the dry +matter is mainly albumin. The entire egg (edible portion) contains +about<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> equal parts of fat and protein; 12 to 13 per cent of each and an +appreciably large amount of ash or mineral matter,—from 0.8 to 1 per +cent, consisting mainly of phosphates associated with the albumin. There +is no material difference in chemical composition between white and dark +shelled eggs, or between eggs with different colored yolks. It is simply +a question of coloring matter. The egg is influenced to an appreciable +extent by feed and general care of the fowls. The egg and the potato +contain about the same amount of water. They are, however, distinct +types of food, the potato being largely composed of carbohydrates and +the egg of protein and fat. Eggs resemble meat somewhat in general +composition, although they contain rather less of protein and fat. When +eggs are boiled there is a loss of weight due to elimination of water; +otherwise the composition is unaltered, the coagulation of the albumin, +as stated in Chapter I, consisting simply in a rearrangement of the +atoms of the molecule. The egg is particularly valuable in the dietary +of the convalescent, when it is desired to secure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> the maximum amount of +phosphorus in organic combination.</p> + + + + +<p>The flavor of eggs is in part due to the food supplied to the fowls, as +well as the age of the egg. Experiments show that onions and some other +vegetables, when fed to fowls, impart odors and taste to the eggs. The +keeping qualities of eggs are also dependent upon the food supplied. In +experiments at the Cornell Experiment Station, when hens were fed on a +narrow, nitrogenous ration, a large number of eggs were produced +containing the minimum amount of solid matter and of poor keeping +quality, while a larger sized egg of better keeping quality was obtained +when a variety of foods, nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous, was supplied.</p> + +<p><b>140. Digestibility of Eggs.</b>—Digestion experiments show that there is +but little difference in the digestibility of eggs cooked in different +ways. A noticeable difference, however, is observed in the rapidity with +which the albumin and proteids are dissolved in a pepsin solution. In +general, it was found that, when the albumin was coagulated at a +temperature of 180°, it was more rapidly and completely dissolved in the +pepsin than when coagulated at a temperature of 212°. When eggs were +cooked at a temperature of 212°, the hard-boiled eggs appeared to be +slightly more digestible than the soft-boiled eggs, but the digestion +was not as complete as when the cooking was done at a temperature of +180°; then no difference in digestibility was found between<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> eggs cooked +for a short or a long time. The egg is one of the most completely +digested of all foods, practically all the protein and fat being +absorbed and available to the body. Langworthy, in discussing +Jorissenne's investigations on the digestibility of eggs, states:<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[53]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The yolk of raw, soft-boiled, and hard-boiled eggs is equally +digestible. The white of soft-boiled eggs, being semi-liquid, +offers little more resistance to the digestive juices than raw +white. The white of a hard-boiled egg is not generally very +thoroughly masticated. Unless finely divided, it offers more +resistance to the digestive juices than the fluid or semi-fluid +white, and undigested particles may remain in the digestive tract +many days and decompose. From this deduction it is obvious that +thorough mastication is a matter of importance. Provided +mastication is thorough, marked differences in the completeness of +digestion of the three sorts of eggs, in the opinion of the writer +cited, will not be found."</p></div> + +<p><b>141. Use of Eggs in the Dietary.</b>—When eggs are at the same price per +dozen as meat is per pound, they furnish a larger amount of nutrients. +In general, a dozen eggs have a little higher food value than a pound of +meat. Eggs are usually a cheaper source of food because a smaller amount +is served than of meat. When eggs are 25 cents per dozen, the cost of +ten eggs for a family of five is less than that of a pound or a pound +and a quarter of beef at 22 cents per pound. The meat, however, would +furnish the larger amount of nutrients. Eggs are valuable, too, in the +dietary because they are frequently combined with flour, cereal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> +products, and vegetables, which contain a large amount of starch, and +some of which contain small amounts of protein. This combination +furnishes a balanced ration, as well as secures palatability and good +mechanical combination of the foods. Eggs in combination with flour, +sugar, butter, and other materials have equally as great a value as when +used alone and as a substitute for meat.</p> + +<p>Eggs vary in weight from 17.5 to 28 ounces, and more per dozen. They +should be purchased and sold by weight. When stored, eggs lose weight. +The egg cannot be considered as entirely germ proof, and care is +necessary in its handling and use, the same as with other food articles. +The cause of the spoiling of eggs is due largely to exterior bacterial +infection.</p> + + +<h4>CANNED MEATS</h4> + +<p><b>142. General Composition.</b>—Canned meats differ but little in +composition from fresh meats. Usually during the process of cooking and +canning there is a slight increase in the amount of dry matter, but the +relative proportion of protein and fat is about the same as in fresh +meat. It is frequently stated that the less salable parts are used in +the preparation of canned meats, as it is possible by cooking and the +addition of condiments to conceal the inferior physical properties. As +to the accuracy of these statements, the author is unable to say. The +shrinkage or loss in weight during canning<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> amounts to from 30 to 40 per +cent. The liquids in which the cooking and parboiling are done are +sometimes used in the preparation of beef extracts. Salt, saltpeter, and +condiments are generally added during the canning process. Saltpeter is +used, as it assists in retaining the natural color and prevents some +objectionable fermentation changes. In moderate amounts it is not +generally considered an adulterant. An extensive examination by Wiley +and Bigelow of packing-house products and preserved meats showed that of +the latter only a small amount contained objectionable preservatives. +The authors, after an extended investigation, reported favorably upon +their composition and sanitary value, saying they found "so little to +criticise and so much to commend in these necessary products." In this +bulletin they do not classify saltpeter as an adulterant.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[51]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p>Where fresh meats cannot be secured, canned meats are often +indispensable. Usually the nutrients of canned meats cost more than +those of fresh meats, and in their use as food much care should be +exercised to prevent contamination after opening the cans. Occasionally +the meat contains ferment materials that have not been entirely +destroyed during cooking, and these, when the cans are stored in warm +places, develop and cause deleterious changes to occur. Consequently +canned meats should be stored at a low temperature. By recent +congressional act, these preparations are now made under the +super<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>vision of government inspectors. All diseased animals are +rejected, and the sanitary conditions under which the meat is prepared +have been greatly improved. Formerly, the most frequent forms of +adulteration were substitution of one meat for another, as the mixing of +veal with chicken, and the use of preservatives, as borax and sulphites. +While the cost of the nutrients in canned meats is generally much higher +than in fresh meats, the latter are not always easily obtained, or +capable of being kept for any length of time, and hence canned meats are +often indispensable.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<h3>CEREALS</h3> + + +<p><b>143. Preparation and Cost of Cereals.</b>—The grains used in the +preparation of cereal foods are wheat, oats, corn, rice, and, to a less +extent, barley and rye. For some of these the entire cleaned grain is +ground or pulverized, while for others the bran and germ are first +removed. In order to improve their keeping qualities, they are often +sterilized before being put up in sealed packages. Special treatment, as +steaming or malting, is sometimes given to impart palatability and to +lessen the time required for cooking. As a class, the cereal foods are +clean, nutritious, and free from adulteration. Extravagant claims are +sometimes made as to their food value, and frequently excessive prices +are charged, out of proportion to the cost of the nutrients in the raw +material. Within recent years the number of cereal preparations has +greatly increased, due to improvements and variations in the methods of +manufacture.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[56]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p>Cereal foods are less expensive than meats and the various animal food +products. They contain no refuse, are easily prepared for the table, and +may be kept without appreciable deterioration. Some of the +ready<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>—to-eat brands are cooked, dried, and crushed, and sugar, +glucose, salt, and various condimental materials added to impart taste. +Others contain malt, or are subjected to a malting or germinating +process to develop the soluble carbohydrates, and such foods are +sometimes called predigested. It is believed that the cereals are being +more extensively used in the dietary, which is desirable both from an +economic and a nutritive point of view. Special care is necessary in the +cooking and preparation of cereals for the table, in order to develop +flavor and bring about hydration and rupturing of the tissues, as +explained in Chapter II.</p> + +<p><b>144. Corn Preparations.</b>—Corn or maize is characterized by a high +percent of fat and starch, and, compared with wheat and oats, a low +content of protein.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[57]</sup></small></b></a> Removal of the bran and germ lessens the per +cent of fat. The germ is removed principally because it imparts poor +keeping qualities. Many of the corn breakfast foods contain 1 per cent +or less of fat and from 8 to 9 per cent of protein. Coarsely ground corn +foods are not as completely digested and assimilated as those more +finely ground. As in the case of wheat products, the presence of the +bran and germ appears to prevent the more complete absorption of the +nutrients. Finely ground corn meal compares favorably in digestibility +with wheat flour. Corn flour is prepared by removal of the bran and germ +and granulation of the more starchy portions of the kernel, and has +better keeping<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> qualities than corn meal from which the bran and germ +have not been so completely removed. At times corn flour has been +sufficiently low in price to permit its use for the adulteration of +wheat flour. The mixing of corn and wheat flours, however, is prohibited +by law unless the product is so labeled. When combined with wheat flour, +corn bread and various other articles of food are prepared, but used +alone corn flour is not suitable for bread making, because its gluten +lacks the binding properties imparted to wheat flour by the gliadin. It +is essential that corn be used with foods of high protein content so as +to make a balanced ration; for when it forms a large part of the +dietary, the ration is apt to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> deficient in protein. In a mixed +dietary, corn is one of the cheapest and best cereals that can be used. +Too frequently, however, excessive prices are charged for corn +preparations that contain no more nutrients than ordinary corn meal. +There is no difference between yellow and white corn meal so far as +nutritive value is concerned.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img021.jpg" width="500" height="322" + alt="Fig. 31." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>—<span class="smcap">Corn Starch.</span></h4> + +<p><b>145. Oat Preparations</b> are characterized by large amounts of both +protein and fat. Because of the removal of the hulls, they contain more +protein than the original grain. The oat preparations differ little in +chemical composition. They all have about 16 per cent of protein, 7 per +cent of fat, and 65 per cent of starch, and are richer in ash or mineral +matter than other cereals. The main difference is in method of +preparation and mechanical composition. Some are partially cooked and +then dried. Those costing 7 cents or more per pound do not contain any +greater amount of nutritive substance than those purchased in bulk at +about half the price. At one time it was believed that oats contained a +special alkaloid having a stimulating effect when fed to animals. Recent +investigations, however, show that there is no alkaloidal material in +oats, and whatever stimulating effect they may have results from the +nutrients they contain. Occasionally there is an appreciable amount of +cellulose, or fiber, left in the oat preparations, due to imperfect +milling. This noticeably lowers the digestibility. Oatmeal requires much +longer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> and more thorough cooking than many other cereals, and it is +frequently used as food when not well prepared. Digestion experiments +show that when oatmeal is cooked for four hours or more, it is more +readily acted upon by the diastase ferment and digested in a shorter +time than oatmeal cooked only a half hour.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[5]</sup></small></b></a> Oatmeal is one of the +cheapest sources from which protein is obtained, and when well cooked it +can advantageously form an essential part of the ration. Unless +thoroughly cooked, the oat preparations do not appear to be quite so +completely or easily digested as some of the other cereals.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img022.jpg" width="500" height="406" + alt="Fig. 32." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>—<span class="smcap">Oat Starch Granules.</span></h4> + + +<p><b>146. Wheat Preparations</b> differ in chemical composition more than those +from oats or corn, because wheat is prepared in a greater variety of +ways. They are made either from the entire kernel, including the bran +and germ, or from special parts, as the granular middlings, as in the +case of some of the breakfast foods, and a few are made into a dough and +baked, then dried and toasted. Some special flours are advertised as +composed largely of gluten, but only those that have been prepared by +washing out the starch are entitled to be classed as gluten flours.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[58]</sup></small></b></a> +For the food of persons<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> suffering from diabetes mellitus physicians +advise the use of flour low in starch, and this can be made by washing +and thus removing a portion of the starch from wheat flour, as directed +in Experiment No. 30. The glutinous residue is then used for preparing +articles of food. Analyses of some of the so-called gluten flours show +that they contain no more gluten than ordinary flour, particularly the +low grades. A number of wheat breakfast foods are prepared by +sterilizing the flour middlings obtained after removal of the bran and +germ. These middlings are the same stock or material from which the +patent grades of flour are made, and they differ from wheat flour only +in mechanical structure and size of the particles. Where granular wheat +middlings can be secured in bulk at the same price as flour they furnish +a valuable and cheap cereal breakfast food.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img023.jpg" width="500" height="379" + alt="Fig. 33." /><br /> + + </div> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>—<span class="smcap">Wheat Starch Grains.</span></h4> + +<p>As to the digestibility and food value, the wheat breakfast foods have +practically the same as graham, entire wheat, or ordinary patent flour, +depending upon the stock which they contain. Those with large amounts of +bran and germ are not as completely digested as when these parts of the +kernel are not included. Wheat preparations, next to oats, have the most +protein of any of the cereal foods. Occasionally they are prepared from +wheats low in gluten and not suitable for bread-making purposes. When +purchased in bulk the wheat preparations are among the cheapest foods +that can be used in the dietary.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[56]</sup></small></b></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img024.jpg" width="500" height="365" + alt="Fig. 34." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>—<span class="smcap">Barley Starch.</span></h4> + +<p><b>147. Barley Preparations</b> are not so extensively used as wheat, oats, +and corn. Barley contains a little more protein than corn, but not quite +so much as wheat; otherwise it is quite similar to wheat in general +composition. Sometimes in the preparation of breakfast foods barley meal +is mixed with wheat or corn. Barley is supposed to be more readily +digested than some of the other cereals, because of the presence of +larger amounts of active ferment bodies, and it is frequently used for +making an extract known as "barley water," which, although it contains +very little nutritive value, as less<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> than one per cent of the weight of +the barley is rendered soluble, is useful in its soothing influence and +mechanical action upon the mucous membrane of the digestive tract.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img025.jpg" width="500" height="523" + alt="Fig. 35." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>—<span class="smcap">Rice Starch.</span></h4> + +<p><b>148. Rice Preparations.</b>—Rice varies somewhat in composition, but +usually contains a slightly lower percentage of protein than corn and +also a smaller amount of fat. It is particularly rich in starch, and has +the least<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> ash or mineral matter of any of the cereals. In order to make +a balanced ration, rice should be supplemented with legumes and other +foods rich in proteids. It is a valuable grain, but when used alone it +is deficient in protein. Rice is digested with moderate ease, but is not +as completely absorbed by the body as other cereals, particularly those +prepared by fine grinding or pulverization. Of late years rice culture +has been extensively introduced into some of the southern states, and +the domestic rice seems to have slightly higher protein content than the +imported. Rice contains less protein than other cereals, and the starch +grain is of different construction. Rice does not require such prolonged +cooking as oatmeal; it needs, however, to be thoroughly cooked.</p> + +<p><b>149. Predigested Foods.</b><a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[56]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"It is questionable whether it would be of advantage to a healthy +person to have his food artificially digested. The body under +normal conditions is well adapted to utilize such foods as the +ordinary mixed diet provides, among them the carbohydrates from the +cereals. Moreover, it is generally believed that for the digestive +organs, as for all others of the body, the amount of exercise they +are normally fitted to perform is an advantage rather than the +reverse. It has been said that 'a well man has no more need of +predigested food than a sound man has for crutches.' If the +digestive organs are out of order, it may be well to save them +work, but troubles of digestion are often very complicated affairs, +and the average person rarely has the knowledge needed to prescribe +for himself. In general, those who are well should do their own +work of digestion, and those who are ill should consult a competent +physician."—<span class="smcap">Woods and Snyder.</span></p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>150. The Value of Cereals in the Dietary.</b>—Cereals are valuable in the +dietary because of the starch and protein they supply, and the heat and +energy they yield. They are among the most inexpensive of foods and, +when properly prepared, have a high degree of palatability; then, too, +they are capable of being blended in various ways with other foods. Some +are valuable for their mechanical action in digestion, rather than for +any large amount of nutrients. They do not furnish the quantity of +mineral matter and valuable phosphates that is popularly supposed. They +all contain from 0.5 to 1.5 percent of mineral matter, of which about +one third is phosphoric anhydrid. In discussing the phosphate content of +food, Hammersten states:<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[59]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Very little is known in regard to the need of phosphates or +phosphoric acid.... The extent of this need is most difficult to +determine, as the body shows a strong tendency, when increased +amounts of phosphorus are introduced, to retain more than is +necessary. The need of phosphates is relatively smaller in adults +than in young developing animals."</p></div> + +<p>In the coarser cereals, which include the bran and germ, there is the +maximum amount of mineral matter, but, as in the case of graham bread, +it is not as completely digested and absorbed by the body as the more +finely granulated products which contain less. The kind of cereal to use +in the dietary is largely a matter of personal choice. As only a small +amount is usually eaten at a meal, there is little difference in the +quantity of nutrients supplied by the various breakfast cereals.<br /><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span></p> + + + <h4>Total and Digestible Nutrients and Fuel Value of Cereals</h4> +<div class='centered'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="100%" cellspacing="0" summary="Total and Digestible Nutrients and Fuel Value of Cereals"> + +<tr><th align="center" rowspan="3">KIND OF FOOD</th><th align="center" colspan="6">TOTAL NUTRIENTS</th><th align="center" colspan="5">DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS</th></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> </td><th align="center" colspan="2">C. H.</th><td colspan="6"> </td></tr> +<tr><th align='right'>Water</th><th align='right'>Pro.</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>N.F. Ext</th><th align='right'>Fiber</th><th align='right'>Ash</th><th align='right'>Pro.</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>C. H.</th><th align='right'>Ash</th><th align='right'>Value<br />per lb.</th></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>Cal.</td></tr> +<tr><th colspan="13" align='left'>Oat Preparations:</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Oats, whole grain</td><td align='right'>11.0</td><td align='right'>11.8</td><td align='right'>5.0</td><td align='right'>59.7</td><td align='right'>9.5</td><td align='right'>3.0</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Oatmeal, raw</td><td align='right'>7.3</td><td align='right'>16.1</td><td align='right'>7.2</td><td align='right'>66.6</td><td align='right'>9.9</td><td align='right'>1.9</td><td align='right'>12.5</td><td align='right'>6.5</td><td align='right'>65.5</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>1767</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rolled, steam-cooked</td><td align='right'>8.2</td><td align='right'>16.1</td><td align='right'>7.4</td><td align='right'>65.2</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>12.5</td><td align='right'>6.7</td><td align='right'>64.5</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>1759</td></tr> +<tr><th colspan="13" align='left'>Wheat:</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Whole grain</td><td align='right'>10.5</td><td align='right'>11.9</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>71.9</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cracked wheat</td><td align='right'>10.1</td><td align='right'>11.1</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>73.8</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>1.6</td><td align='right'>8.1</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>68.7</td><td align='right'>1.2</td><td align='right'>1501</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rolled, steam-cooked</td><td align='right'>10.6</td><td align='right'>10.2</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>74.4</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>8.5</td><td align='right'>1.6</td><td align='right'>70.7</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>1541</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Shredded wheat</td><td align='right'>8.1</td><td align='right'>10.6</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>76.6</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>7.7</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>71.1</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>1521</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Crumbed and malted</td><td align='right'>5.6</td><td align='right'>12.2</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>77.6</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>9.1</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>73.7</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>1623</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Farina</td><td align='right'>10.9</td><td align='right'>11.0</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>75.9</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>8.9</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>72.9</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>1609</td></tr> +<tr><th colspan="13" align='left'>Rye:</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Whole grain</td><td align='right'>11.6</td><td align='right'>10.6</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>72.5</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>1.9</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>Flaked, to be eaten raw</td><td align='right'>11.1</td><td align='right'>10.0</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td colspan="2" align='center'> 75.8</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>7.8</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>71.1</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>1516</td></tr> + + +<tr><th colspan="13" align='left'>Barley:</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Whole grain</td><td align='right'>10.9</td><td align='right'>12.4</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>69.8</td><td align='right'>2.7</td><td align='right'>2.4</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pearled barley</td><td align='right'>11.5</td><td align='right'>8.5</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>77.5</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>6.6</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>73.0</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>1514</td></tr> +<tr><th colspan="13" align='left'>Buckwheat:</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Flour</td><td align='right'>13.6</td><td align='right'>6.4</td><td align='right'>1.2</td><td align='right'>77.5</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>5.0</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>73.1</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1471</td></tr> +<tr><th colspan="13" align='left'>Corn:</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Whole grain</td><td align='right'>10.9</td><td align='right'>10.5</td><td align='right'>5.4</td><td align='right'>69.6</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td><td align='right'>--</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Corn meal, unbolted</td><td align='right'>11.6</td><td align='right'>8.4</td><td align='right'>4.7</td><td colspan="2" align='center'> 74.0</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>6.2</td><td align='right'>4.2</td><td align='right'>73.2</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>1728</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>Corn meal, bolted</td><td align='right'>12.5</td><td align='right'>9.2</td><td align='right'>1.9</td><td align='right'>74.4</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>6.8</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>74.6</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>1602</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hominy</td><td align='right'>10.9</td><td align='right'>8.6</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>79.2</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>6.4</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>78.7</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>1671</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pop corn, popped</td><td align='right'>4.3</td><td align='right'>10.7</td><td align='right'>5.0</td><td align='right'>77.3</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>7.9</td><td align='right'>4.5</td><td align='right'>77.8</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>1882</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hulled corn</td><td align='right'>74.1</td><td align='right'>2.3</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td colspan="2" align='center'> 22.2</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>21.8</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>492</td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="13" align='left'>Rice:</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Whole rice, polished</td><td align='right'>12.3</td><td align='right'>6.9</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td colspan="2" align='center'> 80.0</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>5.8</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>78.4</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>1546</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Puffed rice</td><td align='right'>7.1</td><td align='right'>6.2</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td colspan="2" align='center'> 85.7</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>5.1</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>84.0</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>1639</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Crackers</td><td align='right'>6.8</td><td align='right'>10.7</td><td align='right'>8.8</td><td align='right'>71.4</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>9.1</td><td align='right'>7.9</td><td align='right'>70.5</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>1905</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Macaroni</td><td align='right'>10.3</td><td align='right'>13.4</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td colspan="2" align='center'> 74.1</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>11.6</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>72.2</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>1660</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2> + +<h3>WHEAT FLOUR</h3> + + +<p><b>151. Use for Bread Making.</b>—Wheat is particularly adapted to +bread-making purposes because of the physical properties of the gliadin, +one of its proteids. It is the gliadin which, when wet, binds together +the flour particles, enabling the gas generated during bread making to +be retained, and the loaf to expand and become porous. Wheat varies in +chemical composition between wide limits; it may contain as high as 16 +per cent of protein, or as low as 8 per cent; average wheat has from 12 +to 14 per cent; and with these differences in composition, the +bread-making value varies.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img026.jpg" width="356" height="550" + alt="Fig. 36." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span>—<span class="smcap">Starchy (light-colored) and +Glutinous (dark-colored) Wheats.</span></h4> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img027.jpg" width="127" height="220" + alt="Fig. 37." /><br /> + <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span>—<span class="smcap">Longitudinal<br />Section of Wheat +Kernel</span>: <br /><i>a</i>, pericarp;<br /><i>b</i>, bran layers; <i>c</i>, aleurone cells;<br /><i>d</i>, +germ. (After <span class="smcap">König</span>.)</h4> + </div> +<p><b>152. Winter and Spring Wheat Flours.</b>—There are two general classes of +wheat: spring wheat and winter wheat. The winter varieties are seeded in +the fall, and the spring varieties, which are grown mainly in the +Northwestern states, Minnesota, and North and South Dakota, and the +Canadian Northwest, are seeded in the spring and mature in the late +summer. Winter wheat is confined to more southern latitudes and regions +of less severe winter, and matures in the early summer. There are many +varieties of both spring and winter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> wheat, although wheats are +popularly characterized only as hard or soft, depending upon the +physical properties. The winter wheats are, as a rule, more soft and +starchy than the spring wheats, which are usually corneous or flinty to +different degrees. There is a general tendency for wheats to become +either starchy or glutinous, owing to inherited individuality of the +seed and to environment. There are often found in the same field wheat +plants yielding hard glutinous kernels, and other plants producing +starchy kernels containing 5 per cent less proteids. Wheats of low +protein content do not make high-grade flour; neither do wheats of the +maximum protein content necessarily make the best flour. For a more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> +extended discussion of wheat proteids, the student is referred to +Chapter XI.</p> + + + + +<p><b>153. Composition of Wheat and Flour.</b>—In addition to 12 to 14 per cent +proteids, wheat contains 72 to 76<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> per cent of starch and small amounts +of other carbohydrates, as sucrose, dextrose, and invert sugar. The ash +or mineral matter ranges from 1.7 to 2.3 per cent. There is also about 2 +per cent fiber, 2.25 per cent ether extract or crude fat, and about 0.2 +per cent organic acids.<br /><br /></p> + +<h4><b>Summary:</b></h4> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Composition of Wheat Flour</span></h4> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="MORE COSTS OF AN HOSPITAL FOR INCURABLES"> + +<tr> +<td align="right">Water</td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right">Per Cent<br />12.0</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right" rowspan="9" valign="top" style="white-space: nowrap"> + </td> +<td> </td> + <td valign="top" class="tdleft" rowspan="9" style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 110pt"> + {</td> +</tr> + + +<tr> +<td align="right">Ash</td> +<td align="left">Potash<br />Soda<br />Lime<br />Magnesia<br />Phosphoric anhydrid<br /> +Sulphuric anhydrid<br />Other Substances</td> +<td align="right">Per Cent<br />2.25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="right" rowspan="6" valign="top" style="white-space: nowrap"> + </td> +<td> </td> + <td valign="top" class="tdleft" rowspan="6" style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 100pt"> + {</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td valign="middle" align="right" rowspan="5">Protein</td> +<td align="left">Albumin</td> +<td align="right">0.4</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Globulin</td> +<td align="right">0.9</td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Gliadin</td> +<td align="right">6.0</td> +<td> </td> +<td align="right">Per Cent<br />13.0</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Glutenin</td> +<td align="right">5.3</td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Other proteids</td> +<td align="right">0.4</td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="MORE COSTS OF AN HOSPITAL FOR INCURABLES"> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td align="left"> </td> +<td align="right">Per Cent</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Other nitrogenous bodies, as amids, lecethin</td> +<td align="right">0.25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Crude fat, ether extract</td> +<td align="right">2.25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Cellulose</td> +<td align="right">2.25</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Starch</td> +<td align="right">66.00</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Sucrose, dextrose, soluble carbohydrates, etc.</td> +<td align="right">2.00</td> +</tr> + +</table></div> + + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img028.jpg" width="250" height="248" + alt="Fig. 38." /><br /> + <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span>—<span class="smcap">Granular<br />Wheat Flour +Particles.</span></h4> + </div> +<p><br /><b>154. Roller Process of Flour Milling.</b>—Flours vary in composition, +food value, and bread-making qualities with the character of the wheat +and the process of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> milling employed. Prior to 1870 practically all +wheat flour was prepared by grinding the wheat between millstones; but +with the introduction of the roller process, steel rolls were +substituted for millstones.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[60]</sup></small></b></a> By the former process a smaller amount +of flour was secured from the wheat, but with the present improved +systems about<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> 75 per cent of the weight of the grain is recovered as +merchantable flour and 25 per cent as wheat offals, bran, and +shorts<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[61]</sup></small></b></a>.</p> + + +<p>The wheat is first screened and cleaned, then passed on to the +corrugated rolls, or the first break, where it is partially flattened +and slightly crushed and a small amount of flour, known as the break +flour, is separated by means of sieves, while the main portion is +conveyed through elevators to the second break, where the kernels are +more completely flattened and the granular flour particles are partially +separated from the bran. The material passes over several pairs of rolls +or breaks, each succeeding pair being set a little nearer together. This +is called the gradual reduction process, because the wheat is not made +into flour in one operation. More complete removal of the bran and other +impurities from the middlings is effected by means of sieves, +aspirators, and other devices, and the purified middlings are then +passed on to smooth rolls, where the granulation is completed. The flour +finally passes through silk bolting cloths, containing upwards of 12,000 +meshes per square inch. The dust and fine débris particles are removed +at various points in the process. The granulation of the middlings is +done after the impurities are removed, the object being first to +separate as perfectly as possible the middlings from the branny portions +of the kernel. If the wheat were first ground into a fine meal, it would +be impossible to secure complete sepa<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>ration of the flour from the +offal portions of the kernel.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img029.jpg" width="550" height="346" + alt="Fig. 39." /><br /> + <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>—<span class="smcap">Exterior of Flour Mill and Wheat +Elevator.</span></h4> + </div> + + +<p>Flour milling is entirely a mechanical process; the flour stock<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> passes +from roll to roll by means of elevators. According to the number of +reductions which the middlings and stock undergo, the milling is +designated as a long or a short reduction system; the term 4, 6, 8, or +10 break process means that the stock has been subjected to that number +of reductions. With an 8-break system of milling, the process is more +gradual than with a 4-break, and greater opportunity is afforded for +complete removal of the bran. In some large flour mills, the wheat is +separated into forty or more different products, or streams, as they are +called, so as to secure a better granulation and more complete removal +of the offals, after which many of these streams are brought together to +form the finished flour. What is known as patent flour is derived from +the reduction of the middlings, while the break flours are recovered +before the offals are completely removed; hence they are not of so high +a grade. No absolute definition can be given, however, of the term +"patent flour," as usage varies the meaning in different parts of the +country.</p> + +<p><b>155. Grades of Flour.</b>—Flour is the purified, refined, and bolted +product obtained by reduction and granulation of wheat during and after +the removal of the branny portions of the wheat kernel. It is defined by +proclamation of the Secretary of Agriculture, under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> authority of an +act of Congress, as: "Flour is the fine, sound product made by bolting +wheat meal, and contains not more than thirteen and one half (13.5) per +cent of moisture, not less than one and twenty-five hundredths (1.25) +per cent of nitrogen, not more than one (1) per cent of ash, and not +more than fifty hundredths (0.50) per cent of fiber."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img030.jpg" width="550" height="330" + alt="Fig. 40." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span>—<span class="smcap">Grinding Floor of Flour Mill, +Russell-Miller Milling Co., Minneapolis, Minn.</span></h4> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img031.jpg" width="250" height="241" + alt="Fig. 41." /><br /> + <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span>—<span class="smcap">Silk Bolting<br />Cloth Used in +Manufacture<br />of Flour, Magnified.</span></h4> + + </div> +<p>Generally speaking, flour may be divided into two classes, high grade +and low grade. To the first class belong the first and second patents +and, according to some authorities, a portion of the straight grade, or +standard patent flour, and to the second class belong the second clear +and "red dog." About 72 per cent of the cleaned wheat as milled is +recovered in the higher grades of flour, and about 2 or 3 per cent as +low grades, a large portion of which is sold as animal food. The high +grades are characterized by a lighter color, more elastic gluten, better +granulation, and a smaller number of débris particles. Although the +lower grade flours contain a somewhat higher percentage of protein, they +are not as valuable for bread-making purposes because the gluten is not +as elastic, and consequently they do not make as good bread. If the +impurities from the low grades could be further eliminated, it is +believed that less difference would exist between high and low grade +flours.</p> + + +<p>Various trade names are used to designate flours, as a 95 per cent +patent, meaning that 95 per cent of the total flour is included in the +patent; or an 85 per cent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> patent, when 85 per cent of all the flour is +included in that particular patent. If all the flour streams were +purified and blended, and only one grade of flour made, it would be +called a 100 per cent patent. An 85 per cent patent is a higher grade +flour than a 95 per cent patent.</p> + + + +<p><b>156. Composition of Flour.</b>—The composition of the different grades of +flour made from the same wheat is given in the following table:<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[62]</sup></small></b></a><br /><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Composition, Acidity, and Heats of Combustion of Flours And Other +Milled Products of Wheat</span></h4> + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="2" width="95%" cellspacing="0" summary="Composition of Flour"> + +<tr><th align='left'>Milled Product</th><th align='right'>Water</th><th align='center'>Protein<br />(N × 5.7)</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>Carbohydrates</th><th align='right'>Ash</th><th align='right'>Acidity<br />calcualted as<br />Lactic Acid</th><th align='right'>Heat of<br />Combustion<br />Per Gram<br />Determined</th></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>Calories</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>First patent flour</td><td align='right'>10.55</td><td align='right'>11.08</td><td align='right'>1.15</td><td align='right'>76.85</td><td align='right'>0.37</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>4032</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Second patent flour</td><td align='right'>10.49</td><td align='right'>11.14</td><td align='right'>1.20</td><td align='right'>76.75</td><td align='right'>0.42</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>4006</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Straight<a name="FNanchor_A_6" id="FNanchor_A_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_6" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> or standard patent flour</td><td align='right'>10.54</td><td align='right'>11.99</td><td align='right'>1.61</td><td align='right'>75.36</td><td align='right'>0.50</td><td align='right'>0.09</td><td align='right'>4050</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>First clear grade flour</td><td align='right'>10.13</td><td align='right'>13.74</td><td align='right'>2.20</td><td align='right'>73.13</td><td align='right'>0.80</td><td align='right'>0.12</td><td align='right'>4097</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Second clear grade flour</td><td align='right'>10.08</td><td align='right'>15.03</td><td align='right'>3.77</td><td align='right'>69.37</td><td align='right'>1.75</td><td align='right'>0.56</td><td align='right'>4267</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>"Red dog" flour</td><td align='right'>9.17</td><td align='right'>18.98</td><td align='right'>7.00</td><td align='right'>61.37</td><td align='right'>3.48</td><td align='right'>0.59</td><td align='right'>4485</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Shorts</td><td align='right'>8.73</td><td align='right'>14.87</td><td align='right'>6.37</td><td align='right'>65.47</td><td align='right'>4.56</td><td align='right'>0.14</td><td align='right'>4414</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bran</td><td align='right'>9.99</td><td align='right'>14.02</td><td align='right'>4.39</td><td align='right'>65.54</td><td align='right'>6.06</td><td align='right'>0.23</td><td align='right'>4198</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Entire-wheat flour</td><td align='right'>10.81</td><td align='right'>12.26</td><td align='right'>2.24</td><td align='right'>73.67</td><td align='right'>1.02</td><td align='right'>0.32</td><td align='right'>4032</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Graham flour</td><td align='right'>8.61</td><td align='right'>12.65</td><td align='right'>2.44</td><td align='right'>74.58</td><td align='right'>1.72</td><td align='right'>0.18</td><td align='right'>4148</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wheat</td><td align='right'>8.50</td><td align='right'>12.65</td><td align='right'>2.36</td><td align='right'>74.69</td><td align='right'>1.80</td><td align='right'>0.18</td><td align='right'>4140</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_6" id="Footnote_A_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_6"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> Straight flour includes the first and second patents and +first clear grade.</p></div> + +<p><br />In the table it will be noted that there is a gradual increase in +protein content from first patent to "red dog," the largest amount being +in the "red dog" flour. Although "red dog" contains the most protein, it +is by far the poorest flour in bread-making qualities, and in the +milling of wheat often it is not separated from the offals, but is sold +as an animal food. It will also be seen that there is a gradual increase +in the ash content from the highest to the lowest grades of flour, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> +increase being practically proportional to the grade,—the most ash +being in the lowest grade. The grade to which a flour belongs can be +determined more accurately from the ash content than from any other +constituent. Patent grades of flour rarely contain more than 0.55 per +cent of ash,—the better grades less than 0.5 per cent. The more +completely the bran and offals are removed during the process of +milling, the lower the per cent of ash. The ash content, however, cannot +be taken as an absolute guide in all cases, as noticeable variations +occur in the amount of mineral matter or ash in different wheats; +starchy wheats that have reached full maturity often contain less than +hard wheats grown upon rich soil where the growing season has been +short, and from such wheats a soft, straight flour may have as low a per +cent of ash as a hard first patent flour. When only straight or standard +patent flour is manufactured by a mill, all of the flour is included +which would otherwise be designated first and second patents and first +clear.</p> + +<p><b>157. Graham and Entire Wheat Flours.</b>—When the germ and a portion of +the bran are retained in the flour, and the particles are not completely +reduced, the product is called "entire wheat flour." The name does not +accurately describe the product, as it includes all of the flour and +only a portion of the bran, and not the entire wheat kernel. Graham +flour is coarsely granulated wheat meal. No sieves or bolting cloths +are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> employed in its manufacture, and many coarse, unpulverized +particles are present in the product<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[62]</sup></small></b></a>.</p> + +<p><b>158. Composition of Wheat Offals.</b>—Bran and shorts are characterized +by a high percentage of fiber, or cellulose. The ash, fat, and protein +content of bran are all larger than of flour. The protein, however, is +not in the form of gluten, but is largely albumin and globulins,<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[16]</sup></small></b></a> +which are mainly in the aleurone layer of the wheat kernel, and are +inclosed in branny capsules, and consequently are in a form not readily +digested by man.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img032.jpg" width="550" height="181" + alt="Fig. 42." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span>—<span class="smcap">Flour and Gluten.</span></h4> + +<h4>1, flour; 2, dough; 3, moist gluten; 4, dry gluten.</h4> + +<p>The germ is generally included in the shorts, although occasionally it +is removed for special commercial purposes. It is sometimes sterilized +and used in breakfast food products. The germ is rich in oil and is +excluded from the flour mainly because it has a tendency to become +rancid and to impart to the flour poor keeping<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> qualities. Wheat oil has +cathartic properties, and it is believed the physiological action of +whole wheat and graham bread is in part due to the oil. The germ is also +rich in protein, mainly in the form of globulins and proteoses. A dough +cannot be made of pure germ, because it contains so little of the +gliadin and glutenin.</p> + +<p><b>159. Aging and Curing of Flour.</b>—Flours well milled and made from +high-grade, cleaned wheat generally improve in bread-making value when +stored in clean, ventilated warehouses for periods of three to six +months<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[9]</sup></small></b></a>. High-grade flour becomes drier and whiter and produces bread +of slightly better quality when properly cured by storage. If the flour +is in any way unsound, it deteriorates during storage, due to the action +of ferment bodies. Wheat also, when properly cleaned and stored, +improves in milling and bread-making value. Certain enzymic changes +appear to take place which are beneficial. Wheats differ materially from +year to year in bread-making value, and those produced in seasons when +all the conditions for crop growth are normal do not seem to be so much +improved by storing and aging, either of the wheat or the flour, as when +the growing season has been unfavorable. When wheat is stored, specific +changes occur in both the germ and the cells of the kernel; these +changes are akin to the ripening process, and appear to be greater if, +for any reason, the wheat has failed to fully mature or is abnormal in +composition.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p> + +<p>The flour yield of wheat is in general proportional to the weight per +bushel of the grain, well-filled, heavy grain producing more flour than +light grain.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[61]</sup></small></b></a> The quality of the flour, however, is not necessarily +proportional to the weight of the grain. It is often necessary to blend +different grades and types of wheat in order to secure good flour.</p> + +<p><b>160. Macaroni Flour</b> is made from durum wheat, according to Saunders a +variety of hard, spring wheat. It is best grown in regions of restricted +rainfall. Durum and other varieties of hard spring wheat grown under +similar conditions, differ but little in general chemical composition, +except that the gluten of durum appears to have a different percentage +of gliadin and glutenin, and the flour has a more decided yellow color. +Durum wheats are not generally considered as valuable for bread making +as other hard wheat. They differ widely in bread-making value, some +being very poor, while others produce bread of fair quality.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[68]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>161. Color.</b>—The highest grades of flour are white in color, or of a +slight creamy tinge. Dark-colored, slaty, and gray flours are of +inferior quality, indicating a poor grade of wheat, poor milling, or a +poor quality of gluten. Flours, after being on the market for a time, +bleach a little and improve to a slight degree in color. Color is one of +the characteristics by which the commercial value of flour is +determined; the whiter the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> flour, the better the grade, provided other +properties are equal<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[9]</sup></small></b></a>. The color, however, should be a pure or cream +white. Some flours have what is called a dead white color, and, while +not objectionable as far as color is concerned, they are not as valuable +for bread-making and general commercial purposes. One of the principal +trade requirements of a flour is that it possess a certain degree of +whiteness and none of the objectionable shades mentioned.</p> + +<p>To determine the color of a flour, it is compared with a standard. If it +is a winter wheat flour, one of the best high-grade winter patents to be +found on the market is selected, and the sample in question is compared +with this; if it is a spring wheat patent flour, one of the best spring +wheat patent grades is taken as the standard. In making the comparison, +the flours should be placed side by side on a glass plate and smoothed +with the flour trier, the comparison being made preferably by a north +window. Much experience and practice are necessary in order to determine +with accuracy the color value of a flour.</p> + +<p><b>162. Granulation.</b>—The best patent grades of flour contain an +appreciable amount of granular middlings, which have a characteristic +"feel" similar to fine, sharp sand. A flour which has no granular +feeling is not usually considered of the highest grade, but is generally +a soft wheat flour of poor gluten. However, a flour should not be too +coarsely granulated. The percentage<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> amounts of the different grades of +stock in a flour can be approximately determined by means of sieves and +different sized bolting cloths. To test a flour, ten grams are placed in +a sieve containing a No. 10 bolting cloth; with a camel's-hair brush and +proper manipulation, the flour is sieved, and that which passes through +is weighed. The percentage amount remaining on the No. 10 cloth is +coarser middlings. Nearly all high-grade flours leave no residue on the +No. 10 cloth. The sifted flour from the No. 10 cloth is also passed +through Nos. 11, 12, 13, and 14 cloths<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[63]</sup></small></b></a>. In this way the approximate +granulation of any grade of flour may be determined, and the granulation +of an unknown sample be compared with that of a standard flour. In +determining the granulation of a flour, if there are any coarse or +discolored particles of bran or dust, they should be noted, as it is an +indication of poor milling. When the flour is smoothed with a trier, +there should be no channels formed on the surface of the flour, due to +fibrous impurities caught under the edge of the trier. A hand magnifying +glass is useful for detecting the presence of abnormal amounts of dirt +or fibrous matter in the flour.</p> + +<p><b>163. Capacity of Flour to absorb Water.</b>—The capacity of a flour to +absorb water is determined by adding water from a burette to a weighed +amount of flour until a dough of standard consistency is obtained. Low +absorption is due to low gluten content. A good flour should absorb from +60 to 65 per cent of its weight of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> water. In making the test, it is +advisable to determine the absorption of a flour of known baking value +at the same time that an unknown flour is being tested. Flours of low +absorption do not make breads of the best quality; also there are a +smaller number of loaves per barrel, and the bread dries out more +readily.</p> + +<p><b>164. Physical Properties of Gluten.</b>—The percentages of wet and dry +gluten in a flour are determined as outlined in Experiment No. 27. +Flours of good character should show at least 30 per cent moist gluten +and from 10 to 12 per cent dry gluten. The quality of a flour is not +necessarily proportional to its gluten content, although a flour with +less than 10½ per cent of dry gluten will not make the best quality +of bread, and flours with excessive amounts are sometimes poor bread +makers. The color of the gluten is also important; it should be white or +creamy. The statements made in regard to color of flour apply also to +color of the gluten. A dark, stringy, or putty-like gluten is of little +value for bread-making purposes.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[64]</sup></small></b></a> In making the gluten test, it is +advisable to compare the gluten with that from a flour of known +bread-making value. Soft wheat flours have a gluten of different +character from hard wheat flours.</p> + +<p><b>165. Gluten as a Factor in Bread Making.</b>—The bread-making value of a +flour is dependent upon the character of the wheat and the method of +milling. It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> is not necessarily dependent upon the amount of gluten, as +the largest volume and best quality of bread are often made from flour +of average rather than maximum gluten content. But flours with low +gluten do not produce high-grade breads. When a flour contains more than +12 or 13 per cent of proteids, any increase does not necessarily mean +added bread-making value. The quality of the gluten, equally with the +amount, determines the value for bread-making purposes.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img033.jpg" width="250" height="242" + alt="Fig. 43." /><br /> + <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span>—<span class="smcap">Fungous Growth<br />in Unsound +Flour.</span></h4> + </div> + +<p><b>166. Unsoundness.</b>—A flour with more than 14 per cent of moisture is +liable to become unsound. High acidity also is an indication of +unsoundness or of poor keeping qualities. The odor of a sample of flour +should always be carefully noted, for any suggestion of fermentation +sufficient to affect the odor renders the flour unsuited for making the +best bread. Any abnormal odor in flour is objectionable, as it is due to +contamination of some sort, and most frequently to fermentation changes. +A musty odor is always an indication of unsoundness. Some flours which +have but a slight suggestion of mustiness will, when baked into bread, +have it more pronounced; on the other hand, some odors are removed +during bread making. Flours may absorb odors because of being stored in +contaminated places or being shipped in cars in which oil or other +ill-smelling products with strong odors have previously been shipped. +Unsoundness is often<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> due to faulty methods in handling, as well as to +poor wheat, or to lack of proper cleaning of the wheat or flour.</p> + + + + +<p><b>167. Comparative Baking Tests.</b>—To determine the bread-making value of +a flour, comparative baking tests, as outlined in Experiment No. 29, are +made; the flour in question is thus compared as to bread-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>making value +with a flour of known baking quality. In making the baking tests, the +absorption of the flour, the way in which it responds in the doughing +process, and the general properties of the dough, are noted. The details +should be carried out with care, the comparison always being made with a +similar flour of known baking value, and the bread should be baked at +the same time and under the same conditions as the standard. The color +of the bread, the size and weight of the loaf, and its texture and odor, +are the principal characteristics to be noted.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img034.jpg" width="550" height="390" + alt="Fig. 44." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span>—<span class="smcap">Comparative Baking Tests.</span></h4> + +<p>The quality of flour for bread-making purposes is not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> strictly +dependent upon any one factor, but appears to be the aggregate of a +number of desirable characteristics. The commercial grade of a flour can +be accurately determined from the color, granulation, absorption, gluten +and ash content, and the quality of the bread. Technical flour testing +requires much experience and a high degree of skill.</p> + +<p><b>168. Bleaching.</b>—In the process of manufacture, flours are often +subjected to air containing traces of nitrogen peroxide gas, generated +by electrical action and resulting in the union of the oxygen and +nitrogen of the air. This whitens and improves the color of the flour. +Bleached flours differ neither in chemical composition nor in nutritive +value from unbleached flours, except that bleached flours contain a +small amount (about one part to one million parts of flour) of nitrite +reacting material, which is removed during the process of bread making. +The amount of nitrites produced in flour during bleaching is less than +is normally present in the saliva, or is found naturally in many +vegetable foods, or in smoked or cured meats, or in bread made from +unbleached flour and baked in a gas oven where nitrites are produced +from combustion of the gas. The bleaching of flour cannot be regarded as +in any way injurious to health or as adulteration, and a bleached flour +which has good gluten and bread-making qualities is entirely +satisfactory. It is not possible to successfully bleach low-grade flours +so they will re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>semble the high grades, because the bran impurities of +the low grades blacken during bleaching and become more prominent. +Alway, of the Nebraska Experiment Station, has shown that there is no +danger to apprehend from over-bleaching, for when excess of the +bleaching reagent is used, flours become yellow in color<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[65]</sup></small></b></a>. Similar +results have been obtained at the Minnesota Experiment Station. As +bleaching is not injurious to health, and as it is not possible through +bleaching to change low grades so as to resemble the patent grades, +bleaching resolves itself entirely into the question of what color of +flour the consumer desires. Pending the settlement of the status of +bleaching the practice has been largely discontinued.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img035.jpg" width="241" height="250" + alt="Fig. 45." /><br /> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span>—<span class="smcap">Wheat<br />Hairs and Débris in<br />Low +Grade Flours.</span></h4> + </div> + + +<p><b>169. Adulteration of Flour.</b>—Flour is not easily adulterated, as the +addition of any foreign material interferes with the expansion and +bread-making qualities and hence is readily detected. The mixing of +other cereals, as corn flour, with wheat flour has been attempted at +various times when wheat commanded a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> high price, but this also is +readily detected, by microscopic examination, as the corn starch and +wheat starch grains are quite different in mechanical structure. Such +flours are required to be labeled, in accord with the congressional act +of 1898, when Congress passed, in advance of the general pure food bill, +an act regulating the labeling and sale of mixed and adulterated flours. +Various statements have been made in regard to the adulteration of flour +with minerals, as chalk and barytes, but such adulteration does not +appear to be at all general.</p> + +<p><b>170. Nutritive Value of Flour.</b>—From a nutritive point of view, wheat +flour and wheat bread have a high value.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[66]</sup></small></b></a> A larger amount of +nutrients can be secured for a given sum of money in the form of flour +than of any other food material except corn meal. According to +statistics, the average per capita consumption of wheat in the United +States is about 4½ bushels, or, approximately, one barrel per year, +and from recent investigations it would appear that the amount of flour +used in the dietary is on the increase. According to the Bureau of +Labor, flour costs the average laborer about one tenth as much as all +other foods combined, although he secures from it a proportionally +larger amount of nutritive material than from any other food.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<h3>BREAD AND BREAD MAKING</h3> + + +<p><b>171. Leavened and Unleavened Bread.</b>—To make unleavened bread the +flour is moistened and worked into a stiff dough, which is then rolled +thin, cut into various shapes, and baked, forming a brittle biscuit or +cracker.</p> + +<p>The process of making raised or leavened bread consists, in brief, of +mixing the flour and water in proper proportions for a stiff dough, +together with some salt for seasoning, and yeast (or other agent) for +leavening. The moistened gluten of the flour forms a viscid, elastic, +tenacious mass, which is thoroughly kneaded to distribute the yeast. The +dough is then set in a warm place and the yeast begins to grow, or +"work," causing alcoholic fermentation, with the production of carbon +dioxid gas, which expands the dough, or causes it to "rise," thus +rendering it porous. After the yeast has grown sufficiently, the dough +is baked in a hot oven, where further fermentation is stopped because of +destruction of the yeast by the heat, which also causes the gas to +expand the loaf and, in addition, generates steam. The gas and steam +inflate the tenacious dough and finally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> escape into the oven. At the +same time the gluten of the dough is hardened by the heat, and the mass +remains porous and light, while the outer surface is darkened and formed +into a crust.</p> + +<p>When the flour is of good quality, the dough well prepared, and the +bread properly baked, the loaf has certain definite characteristics. It +should be well raised and have a thin, flinty crust, which is not too +dark in color nor too tough, but which cracks when broken; the crumb, as +the interior of the loaf is called, should be porous, elastic, and of +uniform texture, without large holes, and should have good flavor, odor, +and color.</p> + +<p>Meal or flour from any of the cereals may be used for unleavened bread, +but leavened bread can be made only from those that contain gluten, a +mixture of vegetable proteids which when moistened with water becomes +viscid, and is tenacious enough to confine the gas produced in the +dough. Most cereals, as barley, rice, oats, and corn, some of which are +very frequently made into forms of unleavened bread, are deficient or +wholly lacking in gluten, and hence cannot be used alone for making +leavened bread. For the leavened bread, wheat and rye, which contain an +abundance of gluten, are best fitted, wheat being in this country by far +the more commonly used.</p> + +<p><b>172. Changes during Bread Making.</b>—In bread making complex physical, +chemical, and biological changes occur. Each chemical compound of the +flour undergoes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> some change during the process. The most important +changes are as follows<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[64]</sup></small></b></a>:</p> + +<p>1. Production of carbon dioxid gas, alcohol, and soluble carbohydrates +as the result of ferment action.</p> + +<p>2. Partial rupturing of the starch grains and formation of a small +amount of soluble carbohydrates due to the action of heat.</p> + +<p>3. Production of lactic and other organic acids.</p> + +<p>4. Formation of volatile carbon compounds, other than alcohol and carbon +dioxid.</p> + +<p>5. Change in the solubility of the gluten proteins, due to the action of +the organic acids and fermentation.</p> + +<p>6. Changes in the solubility of the proteids due to the action of heat, +as coagulation of the albumin and globulin.</p> + +<p>7. Formation and liberation of a small amount of volatile, nitrogenous +compounds, as ammonia and amids.</p> + +<p>8. Partial oxidation of the fat.</p> + +<p><b>173. Loss of Dry Matter during Bread Making.</b>—As many of the compounds +formed during bread making are gases resulting from fermentation action, +and as these are volatile at the temperature of baking, appreciable +losses necessarily take place. Experiments show about 2 per cent of loss +of dry matter under ordinary conditions. These losses are not confined +to the carbohydrates alone, but also extend to the proteids and other +compounds. When 100 pounds of flour containing 10 per cent of water and +90 per cent of dry matter are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> made into bread, the bread contains about +88 pounds of dry matter. In exceptional cases, where there has been +prolonged fermentation, the losses exceed 2 per cent<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[64]</sup></small></b></a>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img036.jpg" width="500" height="475" + alt="Fig. 46." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span>—<span class="smcap">Brewers' Yeast.</span></h4> + +<p><b>174. Action of Yeast.</b>—Yeast is a monocellular plant requiring sugar +and other food materials for its nourishment. Under favorable conditions +it rapidly increases by budding, and as a result produces the well-known +alcoholic fermentation. It requires mineral food, as do plants of a +higher order, and oftentimes the fermentation process is checked for +want of sufficient soluble<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> mineral food. The yeast plant causes a +number of chemical changes to take place, as conversion of starch to a +soluble form and alcoholic fermentation.</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>5</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O = C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub> = 2 C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH + 2 CO<sub>2</sub>.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>Alcoholic fermentation cannot occur until the starch has been converted +into dextrose sugar. The yeast plant is destroyed at a temperature of +131° F. It is most active from 70° to 90° F. At a low temperature it is +less active, and when it freezes the cells are ruptured. A number of +different kinds of fermentation are associated with the growth of the +yeast plant, and there are many varieties of yeast, some of which are +more active than others. For bread making an active yeast is desirable +to prevent the formation of acid bodies. If the work proceeds quickly, +the rising process is completed before the acid fermentation is far +advanced. If fermentation is too prolonged, some of the products of the +yeast plant impart an undesirable taste and odor to the bread, and +hinder the development of the gluten and expansion of the loaf.</p> + +<p><b>175. Compressed Yeast.</b>—The yeast most commonly used in bread making +is compressed yeast, a product of distilleries. The yeast floating on +the surface of the wort is skimmed off and that remaining is allowed to +settle to the bottom, and is obtained by running the wort into shallow +tanks or settling trays. It is then washed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> with cold water, and the +impurities are removed either by sieving through silk or wire sieves, +or, during the washing, by fractional precipitation. The yeast is then +pressed, cut into cakes, and wrapped in tinfoil. When fresh, it is of +uniform creamy color, moist, and of a firm, even texture<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[18]</sup></small></b></a>. It should +be kept cold, as it readily decomposes.</p> + +<p><b>176. Dry Yeast</b> is made by mixing starch or meal with fresh yeast until +a stiff dough is formed. This is then dried, either in the sun or at a +moderate temperature, and cut into cakes. By drying, many of the yeast +cells are rendered temporarily inactive, and so it is a slower acting +leaven than the compressed yeast. A dry yeast will keep indefinitely.</p> + +<p><b>177. Production of Carbon Dioxid Gas and Alcohol.</b>—Carbon dioxid and +alcohol are produced in the largest amounts of any of the compounds +formed during bread making. When the alcoholic ferments secreted by the +yeast plant act upon the invert sugars and produce alcoholic +fermentation, carbon dioxid is one of the products formed. Ordinarily +about 1 per cent of carbon dioxid gas is generated and lost during bread +making. About equal weights of carbon dioxid and alcohol are produced +during the fermentation. In baking, the alcohol is vaporized and aids +the carbon dioxid in expanding the dough and making the bread porous. If +all of the moisture given off during bread making be collected it will +be found that from a pound loaf of bread there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> are about 40 cubic +centimeters of liquid; when this is submitted to chemical analysis, +small amounts of alcohol are obtained. Alcoholic fermentation sometimes +fails to take place readily, because there are not sufficient soluble +carbohydrates to undergo inversion, or other food for the yeast plant. +Starch cannot be converted directly into alcohol and carbon dioxid gas; +it must first be changed into dextrose sugars, and these undergo +alcoholic fermentation. Bread gives no appreciable reaction for alcohol +even when fresh.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[64]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img037.jpg" width="500" height="278" + alt="Fig. 47." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span>—<span class="smcap">Wheat Starch Granules after +Fermentation with Yeast, as in Bread Making.</span></h4> + +<p>If the gluten is of poor quality, or deficient in either gliadin or +glutenin, the dough mass fails to properly expand because the gas is not +all retained. The amount of gas formed is dependent upon temperature, +rapidity of the ferment action, and quality of the yeast and flour. If +the yeast is inactive, other forms of fermentation than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> the alcoholic +may take place and, as a result, the dough does not expand. Poor yeast +is a frequent cause of poor bread.</p> + +<p>The temperature reached in bread making is not sufficient to destroy all +the ferment bodies associated with the yeast, as, for example, bread +sometimes becomes soft and stringy, due to fermentation changes after +the bread has been baked and stored. Both bread and flour are subject to +many bacterial diseases, and one of the objects of thorough cleaning of +the wheat and removal of the bran and débris particles during the +process of flour manufacture is to completely eliminate all ferment +bodies mechanically associated with the exterior of the wheat kernel, +which, if retained in the flour, would cause it readily to become +unsound.</p> + +<p><b>178. Production of Soluble Carbohydrates.</b>—Flour contains naturally a +small amount of soluble carbohydrates, which are readily acted upon by +the alcoholic ferments. The yeast plant secretes soluble ferments, which +act upon the starch, forming soluble carbohydrates, and the heat during +baking brings about similar changes. In fact, soluble carbohydrates are +both consumed and produced by ferment action during the bread-making +process. Flour contains, on an average, 65 per cent of starch, and +during bread making about 10 per cent is changed to soluble forms. +Bread, on a dry matter basis, contains approximately 6 per cent of +soluble carbohydrates, including dextrine, dextrose, and sucrose +sugars.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[64]</sup></small></b></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></p> + +<p>The physical changes which the starch grains undergo are also +noticeable. Wheat starch has the structure shown in illustration No. 33. +The starch grains are circular bodies, concave, with slight markings in +the form of concentric rings. When the proteid matter of bread is +extracted with alcohol and the starch grains are examined, it will, be +seen that some of them are partially ruptured, like those in popped +corn, while others have been slightly acted upon or eaten away by the +organized ferments, the surface of the starch grains being pitted, as +shown in the illustration. The joint action of heat and ferments on the +starch grains changes them physically so they may more readily undergo +digestion. The brown coating or crust formed upon the surface of bread +is mainly dextrine, produced by the action of heat on the starch. +Dextrine is a soluble carbohydrate, having the same general composition +as starch, but differing from it in physical properties and ease of +digestion.</p> + +<p><b>179. Production of Acids in Bread Making.</b>—Wheat bread made with yeast +gives an acid reaction. The acid is produced from the carbohydrates by +ferment action. Flour contains about one tenth of 1 per cent of acid; +the dough contains from 0.3 to 0.5 per cent, while the baked bread +contains from 0.14 to 0.3 per cent, but after two or three days slightly +more acid is developed.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[64]</sup></small></b></a> During the process of bread making, a small +portion of the acid is volatilized, but the larger part<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> enters into +chemical combination with the gliadin, forming an acid proteid. When the +alcoholic fermentation of bread making becomes less active, acid +fermentations begin, and sour dough results. It is not definitely known +what specific organic acids are developed in bread making. Lactic and +butyric acids are known to be formed, and for purposes of calculation, +the total acidity is expressed in terms of lactic acid.</p> + +<p>The acidity is determined by weighing 20 grams of flour into a flask, +adding 200 cubic centimeters of distilled water, shaking vigorously, and +leaving the flour in contact with the water for an hour; 50 cubic +centimeters of the filtered solution are then titrated with a tenth +normal solution of potassium hydroxid. Phenolphthalein is used as the +indicator. It cannot be said that all of the alkali is used for +neutralizing the acid, as a portion enters into chemical combination +with the proteids. If the method for determining the acid be varied, +constant results are not secured. Unsound or musty flours usually show a +high per cent of acidity.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img038.jpg" width="550" height="315" + alt="Fig. 48." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span>—<span class="smcap">Apparatus Used in Study of Losses +in Bread Making.</span></h4> + +<p><b>180. Volatile Compounds produced during Bread Making.</b>—In addition to +carbon dioxid and alcohol, there is lost during bread making a small +amount of carbon in other forms, as volatile acids and hydrocarbon +products equivalent to about one tenth of one per cent of carbon dioxid. +The aroma of freshly baked bread is due to these compounds. Both the +odor and flavor of bread are caused in part by the volatile acids<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> and +hydrocarbons. The amount and kind of volatile products formed can be +somewhat regulated through the fermentation process by the use of +special flours and the addition of materials that produce specific +fermentation changes and desirable aromatic compounds. Some of the +ferment bodies left in flour from the imperfect removal of the dirt +adhering to the exterior of the wheat kernels impart characteristic +flavors to the bread. The so-called nutty flavor of some bread is due to +the action of these ferment bodies and, when intensified, it becomes +objectionable. Fungous growths in unsound flour and bread result in the +liberation of volatile products, which impart a musty odor. Good odor +and flavor are very desirable in both flour and bread.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>181. Behavior of Wheat Proteids in Bread Making.</b>—Gluten is an +ingredient of the flour on which its bread-making properties largely +depend. The important thing, however, is not entirely the quantity of +gluten, but more particularly its character. Two flours containing the +same amounts of carbohydrates and proteid compounds, when converted into +bread by exactly the same process, may produce bread of entirely +different physical characteristics because of differences in the nature +of the gluten of the two samples. Gluten is composed of two bodies +called gliadin and glutenin. The gliadin, a sort of plant gelatin, is +the material which binds the flour particles together to form the dough, +thus giving it tenacity and adhesiveness; and the glutenin is the +material to which the gliadin adheres. If there is an excess of gliadin, +the dough is soft and sticky, while if there is a deficiency, it lacks +expansive power. Many flours containing a large amount of gluten and +total proteid material and possessing a high nutritive value, do not +yield bread of the best quality, because of an imperfect blending of the +gliadin and glutenin. This question is of much importance in the milling +of wheats, especially in the blending of the different types of wheat. +An abnormally large amount of gluten does not yield a correspondingly +large loaf.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img039.jpg" width="500" height="335" + alt="Fig. 49." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span>—<span class="smcap">Bread from Normal Flour (1); +Gliadin Extracted Flour (2);<br />and from Flour after Extraction of Sugar +and Soluble Proteids (3).</span></h4> + +<p>Experiments were made at the Minnesota Experiment Station to determine +the relation between the nature of the gluten and the character of the +bread. This was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> done by comparing bread from normal flour with that +from other flour of the same lot, but having part or all of its gliadin +extracted.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[64]</sup></small></b></a> Dough made from the latter was not sticky, but felt like +putty, and broke in the same way. The yeast caused the mass to expand a +little when first placed in the oven; then the loaf broke apart at the +top and decreased in size. When baked it was less than half the size of +that from the same weight of normal flour, and decidedly inferior in +other respects. The removal of part of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> the gliadin produced nearly the +same effect as the extraction of the whole of it, and even when an equal +quantity of normal flour was mixed with that from which part of the +gliadin had been extracted, the bread was only slightly improved. In +flour of the highest bread-making properties the two constituents, +gliadin and glutenin, are present in such proportions as to form a +well-balanced gluten.</p> + +<p>The proteids of wheat flour are mainly in an insoluble form, although +there are small amounts of albumins and globulins; these are coagulated +by the action of heat during the bread-making process, and rendered +insoluble. A portion of the acid that is developed unites with the +gliadin and glutenin, forming acid proteids, which change the physical +properties of the dough. Both gliadin and glutenin take important parts +in bread making. The removal of gliadin from flour causes complete loss +of bread-making properties. Ordinarily from 45 to 65 per cent of the +total nitrogen of the flour is present in alcohol soluble or gliadin +form. Proteids also undergo hydration during mixing, some water being +chemically united with them, changing their physical properties. This +hydration change is necessary for the full development of the physical +properties of the gluten. The water and salt soluble proteids appear to +take no important part in the bread-making process, as their removal in +no way affects the size of the loaf or general character of the bread. +Because of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> action of the acids upon the gliadin, bread contains a +larger amount of alcohol soluble nitrogen or gliadin than the flour from +which the bread was made. It is believed that this action changes the +molecular structure of the protein so that it is more readily separated +into its component parts when it undergoes digestion and assimilation.</p> + +<p><b>182. Production of Volatile Nitrogenous Compounds.</b>—When fermentation +is unnecessarily prolonged, an appreciable amount of nitrogen is +volatilized in the form of ammonia and allied bodies, as amids. During +the process of bread making, the yeast appears to act upon the protein, +as well as upon the carbohydrates, and, as previously stated, losses of +dry matter fall alike upon these two classes of compounds, nitrogenous +and non-nitrogenous. Analyses of the flours and materials used in bread +making, and of the bread, show that ordinarily about 1.5 per cent of the +total nitrogen is liberated in the form of gas during the bread-making +process, and analyses of the gases dispelled in baking show +approximately the same per cent of nitrogen. When bread is dried, as in +a drying oven, a small amount of volatile nitrogen appears to be given +off,—probably as ammonium compounds formed during fermentation. The +nitrogen lost in bread making under ordinary conditions is not +sufficient to affect the nutritive value of the product. The losses of +both nitrogen and carbon are more than offset by the in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>creased +solubility of the proteids and carbohydrates, the preliminary changes +they have undergone making them more digestible and valuable for food +purposes. The nitrogen volatilized in bread making appears to be mainly +that present in the flour in amid forms or liberated as the result of +fermentation processes. The more stable proteids undergo only limited +changes in solubility and are not volatilized.</p> + +<p><b>183. Oxidation of Fat.</b>—Flour contains about 1.25 per cent of fat +mechanically mixed with a small amount of yellow coloring matter. During +the process of bread making the fat undergoes slight oxidation, +accompanied by changes in both physical and chemical properties. The fat +from bread, when no lard or shortening has been added, is darker in +color, more viscous, less soluble in ether, and has a lower iodine +number, than fat from flour. The change in solubility of the fat is not, +however, such as to affect food value, because the fat is not +volatilized, and is only changed by the addition of a small amount of +oxygen from the air. When wheat fat and other vegetable and animal fats +are exposed to the air, they undergo changes known as aging, similar to +the slight oxidation changes in bread making.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[64]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>184. Influence of the Addition of Wheat Starch and Gluten to +Flour.</b>—Ten per cent or more of starch may be added to normal flour +containing a well-balanced gluten, without decreasing the size of the +loaf. When moist gluten was added to flour, thus increasing the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> total +amount of gluten, the size of the loaf was not increased<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[67]</sup></small></b></a>.<br /><br /></p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Influence of Addition of Starch and Gluten to Flour</span></h4> + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="Influence of Addition of Starch and Gluten to Flour"> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><th align='left'>Size of Loaf</th><th align='right'>Weight</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wheat flour, 14 ounces</td><td align='left'>22½ × 17½</td><td align='right'>18.75</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wheat flour, 10% wheat starch</td><td align='left'>23½ × 17</td><td align='right'>18.25</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wheat flour, 12.2% wheat starch</td><td align='left'>21½ × 17</td><td align='right'>18.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wheat flour, 210 grams, about 8 ounces</td><td align='left'>12¾ × 9</td><td align='right'>12.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wheat flour, 10% gluten added, 210 grams</td><td align='left'>12½ × 9</td><td align='right'>12.75</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wheat flour, 20% gluten added</td><td align='left'>12 × 8¾</td><td align='right'>13.00</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<p><br />So long as the quality of the gluten is not destroyed, the addition of a +small amount of either starch or gluten to flour does not affect the +size of the loaf, but removal of the gluten affects the moisture content +and physical properties of the bread. The addition of starch to flour +has the same effect upon the bread as the use of low gluten +flour,—lessening the capacity of the flour to absorb water and +producing a dryer bread of poorer quality.</p> + +<p><b>185. Composition of Bread.</b>—The composition of bread depends primarily +upon that of the flour from which it was made. If milk and butter (or +lard) are used in making the dough, as is commonly the case, their +nutrients are, of course, added to those of the flour; but when only +water and flour are used, the nutrients of the bread<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> are simply those +of the flour. In either case the amount of nutrients in the bread is +smaller than in the same weight of flour, because a considerable part of +the water or milk used in making the dough is present in the bread after +baking; that is, a pound of bread contains less of any of the nutrients +than a pound of the flour from which the bread was made, because the +proportion of water in the bread is greater. The following table shows +how the composition of flour compares with that of bread, the different +kinds of bread all having been made from the flour with which they are +compared:<br /><br /></p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Composition of Flour, and Bread Made from it in Different Ways</span></h4> + + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="Composition of Flour, and Bread Made from it in Different Ways"> +<tr><th align='left'>Material</th><th align='right'>Water</th><th align='right'>Protein</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>C.H.</th><th align='right'>Ash</th></tr> +<tr> <td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Flour</td><td align='right'>10.11</td><td align='right'>12.47</td><td align='right'>0.86</td><td align='right'>76.09</td><td align='right'>0.47</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bread from flour and water</td><td align='right'>36.12</td><td align='right'>9.46</td><td align='right'>0.40</td><td align='right'>53.70</td><td align='right'>0.32</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bread from flour, water, and lard</td><td align='right'>37.70</td><td align='right'>9.27</td><td align='right'>1.02</td><td align='right'>51.70</td><td align='right'>0.31</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bread from flour and skim milk</td><td align='right'>36.02</td><td align='right'>10.57</td><td align='right'>0.48</td><td align='right'>52.63</td><td align='right'>0.30</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><br />Thus it may be seen that the proportion of water is larger and of each +nutrient smaller in bread than in flour, and that the nutrients of the +flour are increased by those in the materials added in making the bread.</p> + +<p>It is apparent that two breads of the same lot of flour may differ, +according to the method used in making,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> and also that two loaves of +bread made by exactly the same process but from different lots of flour, +even when of the same grade or brand, do not necessarily have the same +composition, because of possible variation in the flours. In bread made +from flour of low gluten content, the per cent of protein is +correspondingly low.</p> + +<p><b>186. Use of Skim Milk and Lard in Bread Making.</b>—When flours low in +gluten are used, skim milk may be employed advantageously in making the +bread, to increase the protein content. Tests show that such bread +contains about 1 per cent more protein than that made with water. +Ordinarily there is no gain from a nutritive point of view in adding an +excessive amount of lard or other shortening, as it tends to widen the +nutritive ratio.</p> + +<p><b>187. Influence of Warm and Cold Flours on Bread Making.</b>—When flour is +stored in a cold closet or storeroom, it is not in condition to produce +a good quality of bread until it has been warmed to a temperature of +about 70° F. Cold flour checks the fermentation process, and is +occasionally the cause of poor bread. On the other hand, when flour is +too warm (98° F.) the influence upon fermentation is unfavorable. +Heating of flour does not affect the bread-making value, provided the +flour is not heated above 158° F. and is subsequently cooled to a +temperature of 70° F. Wheat flour contains naturally a number of +ferment substances, some of which are de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>stroyed by the action of heat. +The natural ferments, or enzymes, of flour appear to take a part in +bread making, imparting characteristic odors and flavors to the product.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img040.jpg" width="500" height="268" + alt="Fig. 50." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.</span>-<span class="smcap">Bread from (1) Graham, (2) Entire +Wheat, and (3) White Flour.</span></h4> + +<h4>The same amounts of flour were used in making all of the breads.</h4> + +<p><b>188. Variations in the Process of Bread Making.</b>—Since flours differ +so in chemical composition, and the yeast plant acts upon all the +compounds of flour, it naturally follows that bread making is not a +simple but a complex operation, resulting in a number of intricate +chemical reactions, which it is necessary to control and many of which +are only imperfectly understood. Bread<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> of the best physical quality and +commercial value is made of flour from fully matured, hard wheats, +containing a low per cent of acid, no foreign ferment materials or their +products, and at least 12½ per cent of proteids, of which the larger +portion is in the form of gliadin. It is believed that a better quality +of bread could be produced from many flours by slight changes or +modifications in the process of bread making. It cannot be expected that +the same process will give the best results alike with all types and +kinds of flour. The kind of fermentation process that will produce the +best bread from a given type of flour can be determined only by +experimentation. Poor bread making is due as often to lack of skill on +the part of the bread maker, and to poor yeast, as it is to poor quality +of flour. Frequently the flour is blamed when the poor bread is due to +other factors. Lack of control of the fermentation process, and the +consequent development of acid and other organisms which check the +activity of the alcoholic ferments, is a frequent cause of poor bread.</p> + +<p><b>189. Digestibility of Bread.</b>—Extensive experiments have been made by +the Office of Experiment Stations of the United States Department of +Agriculture, at the Minnesota and Maine Experiment Stations, to +determine the digestibility and nutritive value of bread. Different +kinds and types of wheat were milled so as to secure from each three +flours: graham, entire wheat, and standard patent. The flours were made +into bread, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> bread fed to workingmen, and its digestibility +determined. The experiments taken as a whole show that bread is an +exceedingly digestible food, nearly 98 per cent of the starch or +carbohydrate nutrients and about 88 per cent of the gluten or proteid +constituents being assimilated by the body. In the case of the graham +and entire wheat flours, although they contained a larger total amount +of protein, the nutrients were not as completely digested and absorbed +by the body as were those of the white flour. The body secured a larger +amount of nutrients from the white than from the other grades of flour, +the digestibility of the three types being as follows: standard patent +flour, protein 88.6 per cent and carbohydrates 97.7 per cent; entire +wheat flour, protein 82 percent and carbohydrates 93.5 per cent; graham +flour, protein 74.9 per cent and carbohydrates 89.2 per cent. The low +digestibility of the protein of the graham and entire wheat flours is +supposed to be due to the coarser granulation; the proteins, being +embedded and surrounded with cellular tissue, escape the action of the +digestive fluids. Microscopic examination of the feces showed that often +entire starch grains were still inclosed in the woody coverings and +consequently had failed to undergo digestion.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[62]</sup></small></b></a>, <a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[64]</sup></small></b></a>, <a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[67]</sup></small></b></a>, <a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[86]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>190. Use of Graham and Entire Wheat in the Dietary.</b>—Entire wheat and +graham flours should be included in the dietary of some persons, as they +are often valuable because of their physiological action, the branny<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> +particles stimulating the process of digestion and encouraging +peristaltic action. In the diet of the overfed, they are valuable for +the smaller rather than the larger amount of nutrients they contain. +Also they supply bulk and give the digestive tract needed exercise. For +the laboring man, where it is necessary to obtain the largest amount of +available nutrients, bread from white flour should be supplied; in the +dietary of the sedentary, graham and entire wheat flours can, if found +beneficial, be made to form an essential part. The kind of bread that it +is best to use is largely a matter of personal choice founded upon +experience.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"When we pass on to consider the relative nutritive values of white +and whole-meal bread, we are on ground that has been the scene of +many a controversy. It is often contended that whole-meal is +preferable to white bread, because it is richer in proteid and +mineral matter, and so makes a better balanced diet. But our +examination of the chemical composition of whole-meal bread has +shown that as regards proteid at least, this is not always true, +and even were it the case, the lesser absorption of whole-meal +bread, which we have seen to occur, would tend to annul the +advantage.... On the whole, we may fairly regard the vexed question +of whole-meal <i>versus</i> white bread as finally settled and settled +in favor of the latter."<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[28]</sup></small></b></a></p></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The higher percentage of nitrogen in bran than in fine flour has +frequently led to the recommendation of the coarser breads as more +nutritious than the finer. We have already seen that the more +branny portions of the grain also contain a much larger percentage +of mineral matter. And, further, it is in the bran that the largest +proportion of fatty matter—the non-nitrogenous substance of higher +respiratory capacity which the wheat contains—is found. It is, +however, we think, very questionable whether upon such data alone<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> +a valid opinion can be formed of the comparative values of bread +made from the finer or courser flours ground from one and the same +grain. Again, it is an indisputable fact that branny particles when +admitted into the flour in the degree of imperfect division in +which our ordinary milling processes leave them very considerably +increase the peristaltic action, and hence the alimentary canal is +cleared much more rapidly of its contents. It is also well known +that the poorer classes almost invariably prefer the whiter bread, +and among some of those who work the hardest and who consequently +soonest appreciate a difference in nutritive quality (navvies, for +example) it is distinctly stated that their preference for the +whiter bread is founded on the fact that the browner passes through +them too rapidly; consequently, before their systems have extracted +from it as much nutritious matter as it ought to yield them.... In +fact, all experience tends to show that the state as well as the +chemical composition of our food must be considered; in other +words, that the digestibility and aptitude for assimilation are not +less important qualities than its ultimate composition.</p> + +<p>"But to suppose that whole-wheat meal as ordinarily prepared is, as +has generally been assumed, weight for weight more nutritious than +ordinary bread flour is an utter fallacy founded on theoretical +text-book dicta, not only entirely unsupported by experience, but +inconsistent with it. In fact, it is just the poorer fed and the +harder working that should have the ordinary flour bread rather +than the whole-meal bread as hitherto prepared, and it is the +overfed and the sedentary that should have such whole-meal bread. +Lastly, if the whole grain were finely ground, it is by no means +certain that the percentage of really nutritive nitrogenous matters +would be higher than in ordinary bread flour, and it is quite a +question whether the excess of earthy phosphates would not then be +injurious."—<span class="smcap">Lawes and Gilbert.</span><a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[68]</sup></small></b></a></p></div> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"According to the chemical analysis of graham, entire wheat, and +standard patent flours milled from the same lot of hard Scotch Fife +spring wheat, the graham flour contained the highest and the +patent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> flour the lowest percentage of total protein. But according +to the results of digestion experiments with these flours the +proportions of digestible or available protein and available energy +in the patent flour were larger than in either the entire wheat or +the graham flour. The lower digestibility of the protein of the +latter is due to the fact that in both these flours a considerable +portion of this constituent is contained in the coarser particles +(bran), and so resists the action of the digestive juices and +escapes digestion. Thus while there actually may be more protein in +a given amount of graham or entire wheat flour than in the same +weight of patent flour from the same wheat, the body obtains less +of the protein and energy from the coarse flour than it does from +the fine, because, although the including of the bran and germ +increases the percentage of protein, it decreases its +digestibility. By digestibility is meant the difference between the +amounts of the several nutrients consumed and the amount excreted +in the feces.</p> + +<p>"The digestibility of first and second patent flours was not +appreciably different from that of standard patent flour. The +degree of digestibility of all these flours is high, due largely to +their mechanical condition; that is, to the fact that they are +finely ground."—<span class="smcap">Snyder.</span><a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[62]</sup></small></b></a></p></div> + +<p>For a more extended discussion of the subject, the student is referred +to Bulletins 67, 101, and 126, Office of Experiment Stations, United +States Department of Agriculture.</p> + +<p><b>191. Mineral Content of White Bread.</b>—Average flour contains from 0.4 +to 0.5 of 1 per cent of ash or mineral matter, the larger portion being +lime and magnesia and phosphate of potassium. It is argued by some that +graham and entire wheat flours should be used liberally because of their +larger mineral content and their greater<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> richness in phosphates. In a +mixed dietary, however, in which bread forms an essential part, there is +always an excess of phosphates, and there is nothing to be gained by +increasing the amount, as it only requires additional work of the +kidneys for its removal. Few experiments have been made to determine the +phosphorus requirements of the human body, but these indicate that it is +unnecessary to increase the phosphate content of a mixed diet. It is +estimated that less than two grams per day of phosphates are required to +meet all of the needs of the body, and in an average mixed ration there +are present from three to five grams and more. A large portion of the +phosphate compounds of white bread is present in organic combinations, +as lecithin and nucleated proteids, which are the most available forms, +and more valuable for purposes of nutrition than the mineral phosphates. +In the case of graham and entire wheat flours, a proportionally smaller +amount of the phosphates are digested and assimilated than from the +finer grades of flour.</p> + +<p><b>192. Comparative Digestibility of New and Old Bread.</b>—With healthy +persons there is no difference whatever in the completeness of +digestibility of old and new bread; one appears to be as thoroughly +absorbed as the other. In the case of some individuals with impaired +digestion there may be a difference in the ease and comfort with which +the two kinds of bread are digested, but this is due mainly to +individuality and does not apply<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> generally. The change which bread +undergoes when it is kept for several days is largely a loss of moisture +and development of a small amount of acid and other substances from the +continued ferment action.</p> + +<p><b>193. Different Kinds of Bread.</b>—According to variations in method of +preparation, there are different types and varieties of bread, as the +"flat bread" of Scandinavian countries, unleavened bread, Vienna bread, +salt rising bread, etc. Bread made with baking powder differs in no +essential way from that made with yeast, except in the presence of the +residue from the baking powder, discussed in Chapter XII. Biscuits, +wheat cakes, crackers, and other food materials made principally from +flour, have practically the same food value as bread. It makes but +little difference in what way flour is prepared as food, for in its +various forms it has practically the same digestibility and nutritive +value.</p> + +<p><b>194. Toast.</b>—When bread is toasted there is no change in the +percentage of total nutrients on a dry matter basis. The change is in +solubility and form, and not in amount of nutrients available. Some of +the starch becomes dextrine, which is more soluble and digestible.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[5]</sup></small></b></a> +Proteids, on the other hand, are rendered less soluble, which appears to +slightly lower the digestion coefficient. They are somewhat more readily +but not quite so completely digested as those of bread. Digestion +experiments show that toast more readily yields to the diastase and +other ferments than does wheat bread. Toasting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> brings about ease of +digestion rather than increased completeness of the process. Toast is a +sterile food, while bread often contains various ferments which have not +been destroyed by baking. These undergo incubation during the process of +digestion, particularly in the case of individuals with diseases of the +digestive tract. With normal digestion, however, these ferment bodies do +not develop to any appreciable extent, as the digestive tract disinfects +itself. When the flour is prepared from well cleaned wheat and the +ferment substances which are present mainly in the bran particles have +been removed, a flour of higher sanitary value is secured.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2> + +<h4>BAKING POWDERS</h4> + + +<p><b>195. General Composition.</b>—All baking powders contain at least two +materials; one of these has combined carbon dioxid in its composition, +the other some acid constituent which serves to liberate the gas. The +material from which the gas is obtained is almost invariably sodium +bicarbonate, NaHCO<sub>3</sub>, commonly known as "soda" or "saleratus." +Ammonium carbonate has been used to some extent, but is very seldom used +at the present time. The acid constituent may be one of several +materials, the most common being cream of tartar, tartaric acid, calcium +phosphate, or alum. These may be used separately or in combination. The +various baking powders are designated according to the acid constituent, +as "cream of tartar," "phosphate," and "alum" powders. All of them +liberate carbon dioxid gas, but the products left in the food differ +widely in nature and amount<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[69]</sup></small></b></a>.</p> + +<p>Baking powder is a chemical preparation which, when brought in contact +with water, liberates carbon dioxid gas. The baking powder is mixed dry +with flour, and when this is moistened the carbon dioxid that is +liberated expands the dough. The action is simi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>lar to that of yeast +except that in the case of yeast the gas is given off much more slowly +and no residue is left in the bread. When baking powder is used, there +is a residue left in the food which varies with the material in the +powder. It is the nature and amount of this residue that is important +and makes one baking powder more desirable than another.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img041.jpg" width="550" height="309" + alt="Fig. 51." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span>—<span class="smcap">Ingredients of a Baking +Powder.</span></h4> + +<h4>1, baking powder; 2, cream of tartar; 3, baking soda; 4, starch.</h4> + +<p><b>196. Cream of Tartar Powders.</b>—The acid ingredient of the cream of +tartar powders is tartaric acid, H<sub>2</sub>C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub>. Cream of tartar +is potassium acid tartrate, KHC<sub>4</sub>H<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub>; it contains one atom of +replaceable hydrogen, which imparts the acid properties, and it is +prepared from crude<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> argol, a deposit of grape juice when wine is made. +The residue from this powder is sodium potassium tartrate, +NaKC<sub>4</sub>H<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub>, commonly known as Rochelle salt. This is the active +ingredient of Seidlitz powders and has a purgative effect when taken +into the body. The dose as a purgative is from one half to one ounce. A +loaf of bread as ordinarily made with cream of tartar powder contains +about 160 grains of Rochelle salt, which is 45 grains more than is found +in a Seidlitz powder, but the amount actually eaten at any one time is +small and its physiological effect can probably be disregarded. When a +cream of tartar baking powder is used, the reaction takes place +according to the following equation:</p> + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="the reaction takes place +according to the following equation"> +<tr><td align='center'>188</td><td align='center'> 84</td><td align='center'> 210</td><td align='center'>44</td><td align='center'>18</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="5" align='left'>HKH<sub>4</sub>C<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub> + NaHCO<sub>3</sub> = KNaC<sub>4</sub>H<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub> + CO<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O.</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>The crystallized Rochelle salt contains four molecules of water, so +that, even allowing for some starch filler, there is very nearly as much +weight of material (Rochelle salt) left in the food as there was of the +original powder. If free tartaric acid were used instead of potassium +acid tartrate, the reaction would be as follows:</p> + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="the reaction would be as follows"> +<tr><td align='center'>150</td><td align='left'> 168</td><td align='left'>230</td><td align='center'>88</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4" align='left'>H2C4H4O<sub>6</sub> + <small>2</small> NaHCO<sub>3</sub> = Na<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub>.<small>2</small> H<sub>2</sub>O + <small>2</small> CO<sub>2</sub>.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>But the residue, sodium tartrate, is less in proportion. It has +physiological properties very similar to Rochelle salt. Tartaric acid is +seldom used alone, but very often in combination with cream of tartar. +It is more expensive than cream of tartar; but not so much is required, +and it is more rapid in action.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>197. Phosphate Baking Powders.</b>—Here the acid ingredient is phosphoric +acid and the compound usually employed is mono-calcium phosphate, +CaH<sub>4</sub>(PO-{4})<sub>2</sub>. This is made by the action of sulphuric acid on +ground bone (Ca<sub>3</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + 2 H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> = CaH<sub>4</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + +2 CaSO<sub>4</sub>), and it is difficult to free it from the calcium phosphate +formed at the same time; hence such powders contain more or less of this +inert material. The reaction which occurs with a phosphate powder is as +follows:</p> + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="The reaction which occurs with a phosphate powder is as +follows"> +<tr><td align='center'>234</td><td align='center'>168</td><td align='center'>136</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align='left'>CaH<sub>4</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + 2 NaHCO<sub>3</sub> = CaHPO<sub>4</sub></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'> 88</td><td align='left'> 36</td><td align='left'>142</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align='center'>+ 2 CO<sub>2</sub> + 2 H<sub>2</sub>O + Na<sub>2</sub>HPO<sub>4</sub>.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Sodium phosphate, according to the United States Dispensatory, is +"mildly purgative in doses of from 1 to 2 ounces." The claim is made by +the makers of phosphate baking powders that the phosphates of sodium and +calcium, products left after the baking, restore the phosphates which +have been lost from the flour in the bran. This baking powder residue +does not restore the phosphates in the same form in which they are +present in grains and it does furnish them in larger amounts—nearly +tenfold. However, the residue from these powders is probably less +objectionable than that from alum powders. The chief drawback to the +phosphate powders is their poor keeping qualities.</p> + +<p><b>198. Alum Baking Powders.</b>—Sulphuric acid is the acid constituent of +these powders. The alums are double<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> sulphates of aluminium and an +alkali metal, and have the general formula <i>x</i>Al(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> in which +<i>x</i> may be K, Na, or NH<sub>4</sub>, producing respectively a potash, soda, or +ammonia alum. Potash alum is most commonly used, soda and ammonia alums +to a less extent. The reaction takes place as follows:</p> + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="The reaction takes place as follows"> +<tr><td align='center'>475</td><td align='center'> 504</td><td align='center'>157</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align='left'>2 NH<sub>4</sub>Al(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + 6 NaHCO<sub>3</sub> = Al<sub>2</sub>(OH)<sub>6</sub></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'> 426</td><td align='center'>132</td><td align='center'>264</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">+ 3 Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> + (NH<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> + 6 CO<sub>2</sub></span>.</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>If it is a potash or soda alum, simply substitute K or Na for NH<sub>4</sub> +throughout the equation. The best authorities regard alum baking powders +as the most objectionable. Ammonia alum is without doubt the worst form, +since all of the ammonium compounds have an extremely irritating effect +on animal tissue. Sulphates of sodium and potassium are also +objectionable. Aluminium hydroxide is soluble in the slightly acid +gastric juice and has an astringent action on animal tissue, hindering +digestion in a way similar to the alum itself. Many of the alum powders +contain also mono-calcium phosphate; the reaction is as follows:</p> + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="Many of the alum powders +contain also mono-calcium phosphate; the reaction is as follows"> +<tr><td align='center'>475</td><td align='center'>234</td><td align='center'>336</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align='left'>2 NH<sub>4</sub>Al(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + CaH<sub>4</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + 4 NaHCO<sub>3</sub></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'>245</td><td align='left'>136</td><td align='left'>132</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align='left'>= Al<sub>2</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + CaSO<sub>4</sub> + (NH<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>284</td><td align='center'>176</td><td align='left'>72</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">+ 2 Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> + 4 CO<sub>2</sub> + 4 H<sub>2</sub>O.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>These are probably less injurious than the straight<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> alum powders, +although the residues are, in general, open to the same objection.</p> + +<p><b>199. Inspection of Baking Powders.</b>—Many of the states have enacted +laws seeking to regulate the sale of alum baking powders. Some of these +laws simply require the packages to bear a label setting forth the fact +that alum is one of the ingredients; others require the baking powder +packages to bear a label naming all the ingredients of the powder.</p> + +<p><b>200. Fillers.</b>—All baking powders contain a filler of starch. This is +necessary to keep the materials from acting before the powder is used. +The amount of filler varies from 15 to 50 per cent; the least is found +in the tartrate powders and the most in the phosphate powders. The +amount of gas which a powder gives off regulates its value; it should +give off at least ⅛ of its weight.</p> + +<p><b>201. Home-made Baking Powders.</b>—Baking powders can be made at home for +about one half what they usually cost and they will give equal +satisfaction. The following will make a long-keeping powder: cream of +tartar, 8 ounces; baking soda, 4 ounces; corn starch, 3 ounces. For a +quick-acting powder use but one ounce of starch. The materials should be +thoroughly dry. Mix the soda and starch first by shaking well in a glass +or tin can. Add the cream of tartar last and shake again. Thorough +mixing is essential to good results. Cream<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> of tartar is often +adulterated, but it can be obtained pure from a reliable druggist. To +insure baking powders remaining perfectly dry, they should always be +kept in glass or tin cans, never in paper.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2> + +<h3>VINEGAR, SPICES, AND CONDIMENTS</h3> + + +<p><b>202. Vinegar.</b>—Vinegar is a dilute solution of acetic acid produced by +fermentation, and contains, in addition to acetic acid, small amounts of +other materials in solution, as mineral matter and malic acid, according +to the material from which the vinegar was made. Unless otherwise +designated, vinegar in this country is generally considered to be made +from apples. Other substances, however, are used, as vinegar can be +manufactured from a variety of fermentable materials, as molasses, +glucose, malt, wine, and alcoholic beverages in general. The chemical +changes which take place in the production of vinegars are: (1) +inversion of the sugar, (2) conversion of the invert sugars into +alcohol, and (3) change of alcohol into acetic acid. All these chemical +changes are the result of ferment action. The various invert ferments +change the sugar into dextrose and glucose sugars; then the alcoholic +ferment produces alcohol and carbon dioxid from the invert sugars, and +finally the acetic acid ferment completes the work by converting the +alcohol into acetic acid. The chemical changes which take place in these +different steps are:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="The chemical changes which take place in these +different steps are"> +<tr><td align='center'>sucrose</td><td align='center'>dextrose</td><td align='center'>levulose</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3" align='left'>(1) C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O = C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub> + C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>;</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="The chemical changes which take place in these +different steps are"> +<tr><td align='center'>dextrose</td><td align='left'>alcohol</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" align='left'>(2) C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub> = 2 C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH + 2 CO<sub>2</sub>;</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'>alcohol</td><td align='left'> acid</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" align='left'>(3) C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH + 2 O = HC<sub>2</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O.</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<p>The acetic acid organism, <i>Mycoderma aceti</i>, can work only in the +presence of oxygen. It is one of the aerobic ferments, and is present in +what is known as the "mother" of vinegar and is secreted by it. When +vinegar is made in quantity, the process is hastened by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> allowing the +alcoholic solution to pass through a narrow tank rilled with shavings +containing some of the ferment material, and at the same time air is +admitted so as to secure a good supply of oxygen. When vinegar is made +by allowing cider or wine to stand in a warm place until the +fermentation process is completed, a long time is required—the length +of time depending upon the supply of air and other conditions affecting +fermentation.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img042.jpg" width="250" height="237" + alt="Fig. 52." /><br /> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span>—<span class="smcap">Acetic Acid<br />Ferments.</span><br />(After +<span class="smcap">König</span>.)</h4> + </div> + +<p>In some countries malt vinegar is common. This is produced by allowing a +wort made from malt and barley to undergo acetic acid fermentation, +without first distilling the alcohol as is done in the preparation of +spirit vinegar. In various European countries wine vinegar is in general +use and is made by acetification of the juice of grapes. Sometimes +spirit vinegar is made from corn or barley malt. Alcoholic fermentation +takes place, the alcohol is distilled so that a weak solution remains, +which is acetified in the ordinary way. Such a vinegar can be produced +very cheaply and is much inferior in flavor to genuine wine or cider +vinegar.</p> + +<p>Vinegar, when properly made, should remain clear, and should not form a +heavy deposit or produce any large amount of the fungous growth, +commonly called the "mother" of vinegar. In order to prevent the vinegar +from becoming cloudy and forming deposits, it should be strained and +stored in clean jugs and protected from the air. So long as air is +excluded further acetic acid fermentation and production of "mother" of +vinegar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> cannot take place. When the vinegar is properly made and the +fermentation process has been completed, the acid already produced +prevents all further development of acetic acid ferments. When vinegar +becomes cloudy and produces deposits, it is an indication that the +acetic fermentation has not been completed.</p> + +<p>The national standard for pure apple cider vinegar calls for not less +than 4 grams acetic acid, 1.6 grams of apple solids, and 0.25 grams of +apple ash per 100 cubic centimeters, along with other characteristics, +as acidity, sugar, and phosphoric acid content. Many states have special +laws regarding the sale of vinegar.</p> + +<p><b>203. Adulteration of Vinegar.</b>—Vinegar is frequently adulterated by +the addition of water, or by coloring spirit vinegar, thus causing it to +resemble cider vinegar. Formerly vinegar was occasionally adulterated by +the use of mineral acids, as hydrochloric or sulphuric, but since acetic +acid can be produced so cheaply, this form of adulteration has almost +entirely disappeared. Colored spirit vinegar contains merely a trace of +solid matter and can be readily distinguished from cider vinegar by +evaporating a small weighed quantity to dryness and determining the +weight of the solids. Occasionally, however, glucose and other materials +are added so as to give some solids to the spirit vinegar, but such a +vinegar contains only a trace of ash<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[18]</sup></small></b></a>. Attempts have also been made +to carry the adulteration still further by adding lime and soda to give +the colored spirit vin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>egar the necessary amount of ash. Malt, white +wine, glucose, and molasses vinegars when properly manufactured and +unadulterated are not objectionable, but too frequently they are made to +resemble and sell as cider vinegar. This is a fraud which affects the +pocketbook rather than the health. For home use apple cider vinegar is +highly desirable. There is no food material or food adjunct, unless +possibly ground coffee and spices, so extensively adulterated as +vinegar.</p> + +<p>Vinegar has no food value whatever, and is valuable only for giving +flavor and palatability to other foods, and to some extent for the +preservation of foods. It is useful in the household in other ways, as +it furnishes a dilute acid solution of aid in some cooking and baking +operations for liberating gas from soda, and also when a dilute acid +solution is required for various cleaning purposes.</p> + +<p>Vinegar should never be kept in tin pails, or any metallic vessel, +because the acetic acid readily dissolves copper, tin, iron, and the +ordinary metals, producing poisonous solutions. Earthenware jugs, +porcelain dishes, glassware, or wooden casks are all serviceable for +storing vinegar.</p> + +<p><b>204. Characteristics of Spices.</b><a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[70]</sup></small></b></a>—Spices are aromatic vegetable +substances characterized as a class by containing some essential or +volatile oil which gives taste and individuality to the material. They +are used for the flavoring of food and are composed of mineral matter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> +and the various nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous compounds found in all +plant bodies. Since only a comparatively small amount of a spice is used +for flavoring purposes, no appreciable nutrients are added to the food. +Some of the spices have characteristic medicinal properties. +Occasionally they are used to such an extent as to mask the natural +flavors of foods, and to conceal poor cooking and preparation or poor +quality. For the microscopic study of spices the student is referred to +Winton, "Microscopy of Vegetable Foods," and Leach, "Food Inspection and +Analysis."</p> + +<p><b>205. Pepper.</b>—Black and white pepper are the fruit of the pepper plant +(<i>Piper nigrum</i>), a climbing perennial shrub which grows in the East and +West Indies, the greatest production being in Sumatra. For the black +pepper, the berry is picked before thoroughly ripe; for the white +pepper, it is allowed to mature. White pepper has the black pericarp or +hull removed. Pepper owes its properties to an alkaloid, piperine, and +to a volatile oil. In the black pepper berries there is present ash to +the extent of about 4.5 per cent, it ought not to be above 6.5 per cent; +ether extract, including piperine and resin, not less than 6.5 per cent; +crude fiber not more than 16 per cent; also some starch and nitrogenous +material. The white pepper contains less ash and cellulose than the +black pepper. Ground pepper is frequently grossly adulterated; common +adulterants being: cracker crumbs, roasted nut shells and fruit stones,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> +charcoal, corn meal, pepper hulls, mustard hulls, and buckwheat +middlings. The pepper berries wrinkle in drying, and this makes it +difficult to remove the sand which may have adhered to them. An +excessive amount of sand in the ash should be classed as adulteration. +Adulterants in pepper are detected mainly by the use of the microscope. +The United States standard for pepper is: not more than 7 per cent total +ash, 15 per cent fiber, and not less than 25 per cent starch and 6 per +cent non-volatile ether extract.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[71]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>206. Cayenne.</b>—Cayenne or red pepper is the fruit pod of a plant, +<i>capsicum</i>, of which there are several varieties,—the small-fruited +kind, used to make cayenne or red pepper; and the tabasco sort, forming +the basis of tabasco sauce. It is grown mainly in the tropics, and was +used there as a condiment before the landing of Columbus, who took +specimens back to Europe. Cayenne pepper contains 25 per cent of oil, +about 7 per cent of ash, and a liberal amount of starch. The adulterants +are usually of a starchy nature, as rice or corn meal, and the product +is often colored with some red dye.</p> + +<p><b>207. Mustard.</b>—Mustard is the seed of the mustard plant, and is most +often found in commerce in the ground form. The black or brown mustard +has a very small seed and the most aroma. White mustard is much larger +and is frequently used unground. For the ground mustard, only the +interior of the seed is used, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> husk being removed in the bolting. +Mustard contains a large amount of oil, part of which is usually +expressed before grinding, and this is the form in which spice grinders +buy it. In mustard flour there is: ash from 4 to 6 per cent, volatile +oil from 0.5 to 2 per cent, fixed oil from 15 to 25 per cent, crude +fiber from 2 to 5 per cent, albuminoids from 35 to 45 per cent, and a +little starch. The principal adulterants are wheat, corn, and rice +flour. When these are used, the product is frequently colored with +turmeric, a harmless vegetable coloring material.</p> + +<p><b>208. Ginger.</b>—Ginger is the rhizome or root of a reed-like plant +(<i>Zingiber officinale</i>), native in tropical Asia, chiefly India. It is +cultivated in nearly all tropical countries. When unground it usually +occurs in two forms: dried with the epidermis, or with the epidermis +removed, when it is called scraped ginger. Very frequently a coating of +chalk is given, as a protection against the drug store beetle. Jamaica +ginger is the best and most expensive. Cochin, scraped, African, and +Calcutta ginger range in price in the order given. Ginger contains from +3.6 to 7.5 per cent of ash, from 1.5 to 3 per cent of volatile oil, and +from 3 to 5.5 per cent of fixed oil. There is a large amount of starch. +The chief adulterants are rice, wheat, and potato starch, mustard hulls, +exhausted ginger from ginger-ale and extract factories, sawdust and +ground peanut-shells, and turmeric is frequently used for coloring the +product. The United States standard for ginger is not more than 42<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> per +cent starch, 8 per cent fiber, and 6 per cent total ash.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[71]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>209. Cinnamon and Cassia.</b>—The bark of several species of plants +growing in tropical countries furnishes these spices. True cinnamon is a +native of Ceylon, while the cassias are from Bengal and China. In this +country there is more cassia used than cinnamon—cinnamon being rarely +found except in drug stores. Cassia bark is much thicker than cinnamon +bark. The ground spice contains about 1.5 per cent volatile oil and the +same amount of fixed oil, 4 per cent of ash, and some fiber, nitrogenous +matter, and starch. Cereals, cedar sawdust, ground nutshells, oil meal, +and cracker crumbs are the chief adulterants.</p> + +<p><b>210. Cloves.</b>—Cloves are the flower buds of an evergreen tree that +grows in the tropics. These are picked by hand and dried in the sun. In +the order of value, Penang, Sumatra, Amboyna, and Zanzibar furnish the +chief varieties. Cloves rarely contain more than 8 per cent ash, or less +than 10 per cent volatile oil and 4 per cent fixed oil, and 16 to 20 per +cent of tannin-yielding bodies. No starch is present. The chief +adulterants of ground cloves are spent cloves, allspice, and ground +nutshells. Clove stems are also sometimes used and may be detected by a +microscopical examination, since they contain many thick-walled cells +and much fibrous tissue.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>211. Allspice.</b>—Allspice, or pimento, is the fruit of an evergreen +tree common in the West Indies. It is a small, dry, globular berry, +two-celled, each cell having a single seed. Allspice contains about 2.5 +per cent volatile oil, 4 per cent fixed oil, and 4.5 per cent ash. +Because of its cheapness, it is not generally adulterated, cereal +starches being the most common adulterants.</p> + +<p><b>212. Nutmeg.</b>—Nutmeg is the interior kernel of the fruit of a tree +growing in the East Indies. The fruit resembles a small pear. A fleshy +mantle of crimson color, which is mace, envelopes the seed. Nutmeg +contains about 2.2 per cent ash, 2.5 to 5 per cent volatile oil, and 25 +to 35 per cent fixed oil. Mace has practically the same composition. +Extensive adulteration is seldom practiced. The white coating on the +surface of the nutmeg is lime, used to prevent sprouting of the germ.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2> + +<h3>TEA, COFFEE, CHOCOLATE, AND COCOA</h3> + + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img043.jpg" width="148" height="300" + alt="Fig. 53." /><br /> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span>—<span class="smcap">Tea Leaf.</span><br />(After +<span class="smcap">Winton</span>.)</h4> + </div> + + +<p><b>213. Tea</b> is the prepared leaf of an evergreen shrub or small tree +cultivated chiefly in China and Japan. There are two varieties of +plants. The Assamese, which requires a very moist, hot climate, yields +in India and Ceylon about 400 pounds per acre, and may produce as high +as 1000 pounds. From this plant a number of flushes or pickings are +secured in a year. The Chinese plant grows in cooler climates and has a +smaller, tougher, and darker leaf, which is more delicate than that of +the Assamese and is usually made into green tea. The Chinese tea plant +yields only four or five flushes a year. About 40 per cent of the tea +used in this country comes from Japan and 50 per cent from China. The +tea industry of India and Ceylon has developed rapidly in late years, +and is now second only to that of China. Tea has been raised upon a +small scale in the United States. The quality or grade of the tea +depends upon the leaves used and the method of curing.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>214. Composition of Tea.</b>—Black and green teas are produced from the +same species of plant, but owe their difference in color as well as +flavor and odor to methods of preparation. The same plant may yield +several grades of both green and black tea. To produce black tea, the +leaves are bruised to liberate the juices, allowed to ferment a short +time, which develops the color, and then dried.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[73]</sup></small></b></a> For green tea the +fresh leaves are roasted or steamed, then rolled and dried as quickly as +possible to prevent fermentation. The smaller leaves and the first +picking produce the finest quality of tea. The characteristic flavor and +odor of tea are imparted by a volatile oil, although the odor is +sometimes altered by the tea being brought in contact with orange +flowers, jessamine, or the fragrant olive. There are also present in tea +an alkaloid, theine, which gives the peculiar physiological properties, +and tannin, upon which depends largely the strength of the tea infusion. +The composition of tea is as follows:</p> + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="50%" cellspacing="0" summary="The composition of tea is as follows"> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><th align='right'>Original<br />Tea</th><th align='right'>Green<br />Tea</th><th align='right'>Black<br />Tea</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tannin, per cent</td><td align='right'>12.91</td><td align='right'>10.64</td><td align='right'>4.89</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Theine, per cent</td><td align='right'>3.30</td><td align='right'>3.20</td><td align='right'>3.30</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ash, per cent</td><td align='right'>4.97</td><td align='right'>4.92</td><td align='right'>4.93</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fiber, per cent</td><td align='right'>10.44</td><td align='right'>10.06</td><td align='right'>10.07</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Protein, per cent (all insoluble)</td><td align='right'>37.33</td><td align='right'>37.43</td><td align='right'>38.90</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<p>It will be noticed that green tea contains twice as much tannin as black +tea; during the fermentation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> which the black tea undergoes, some of the +tannin is decomposed. There is a large amount of protein in tea, but it +is of no food value, because of its insolubility. About half of the ash +is soluble. The tannin is readily soluble, and for this reason green tea +especially should be infused for a very short time and never boiled. +Tannin in foods in large amounts may interfere with the normal digestion +of the protein compounds, because it coagulates the albumin and peptones +after they have become soluble, and thus makes additional work for the +digestive organs.</p> + +<p><b>215. Judging Teas.</b>—Teas are judged according to: (1) the tea as it +appears prepared for market, (2) the infusion, and (3) the out-turn +after infusion. The color should be uniform; if a black tea, it should +be grayish black, not a dead black. The leaves should be uniform in size +or grade. The quality and grade are dependent upon flavor, and, with the +strength of the infusion, are determined by tasting. This work is +rapidly done by the trained tea taster. The out-turn should be of one +color; no bright green leaves should be present; evenness of make is +judged by the out-turn. The flavor of a tea is largely a matter of +personal judgment, but from a physiological point of view black teas are +given the preference.</p> + +<p><b>216. Adulteration of Tea.</b>—A few years ago tea was quite extensively +adulterated, but the strict regulation of the government regarding +imported tea has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> greatly lessened adulteration. The most common form +was the use of spent leaves, <i>i.e.</i> leaves which had been infused. +Leaves of the willow and other plants which resemble tea were also used, +as well as large quantities of tea stems. Facing or coloring is also an +adulteration, since it is done to give poor or damaged tea a brighter +appearance. "Facing consists in treating leaves damaged in manufacture +or which from age are inferior, with a mixture containing Prussian blue, +turmeric, indigo, or plumbago to impart color or gloss, and with a +fraudulent intent. There is no evidence that the facing agents are +deleterious to health in the small quantities used, but as they are used +for purposes of deception, they should be discouraged."<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[73]</sup></small></b></a> Facing and +the addition of stems are the chief adulterations practiced at present.</p> + +<p><b>217. Food Value and Physiological Properties of Tea.</b>—Tea infusion +does not contain sufficient nutrients to entitle it to be classed as a +food. It is with some persons a stimulant. The caffein or theine in tea +is an alkaloid that has characteristic physiological properties. In +doses of from three to five grains, according to the United States +Dispensatory, "it produces peculiar wakefulness." Larger doses produce +intense physical restlessness, mental anxiety, and obstinate +sleeplessness. "It has no effect upon the motor nerves, but is believed +to have a visible effect upon the sensatory nerves." (United States +Dispensatory.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> Experiments with animals show that it causes elevation +of the arterial pressure. It is used as a cardiac stimulant. The +quantity of theine consumed in a cup of tea is about 4/5 of a grain, or +¼ of a medicinal dose.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img044.jpg" width="500" height="440" + alt="Fig. 54." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span>—<span class="smcap">Coffee Berries.</span></h4> + +<h4>1, Mocha; 2, Java; 3, Rio.</h4> + +<p><b>218. Composition of Coffee.</b>—The coffee tree is an evergreen +cultivated in the tropics. It grows to a height of 30 feet, but when +cultivated is kept pruned to from 6 to 10 feet. The fruit, which +resembles a small cherry, with two seeds or coffee grains embedded in +the pulp, is dried and the seeds removed, cleaned, and graded. Coffee +has an entirely different composition from tea;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> it is characterized by +a high per cent of fat and soluble carbohydrates, and also contains an +essential oil and caffein, an alkaloid identical with theine. Tannic +acid, not as free acid, is combined with caffein as a tannate.</p> + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="50%" cellspacing="0" summary="Tannic +acid, not as free acid, is combined with caffein as a tannate"> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><th align='right'>Raw<br />Coffee</th><th align='right'>Roasted<br />Coffee</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Water</td><td align='right'>11.23</td><td align='right'>1.15</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ash</td><td align='right'>3.92</td><td align='right'>4.75</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fat</td><td align='right'>12.27</td><td align='right'>14.48</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sugar, etc.</td><td align='right'>0.66</td><td align='right'>8.55</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Protein</td><td align='right'>12.07</td><td align='right'>13.98</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Caffein</td><td align='right'>1.21</td><td align='right'>1.24</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>The high per cent of sugar and other soluble carbohydrates in roasted +coffee is caused by the action of heat upon the non-nitrogenous +compounds. Coffee cannot be considered a food, because only a +comparatively small amount of the nutrients are soluble and available. +It is a mildly stimulating beverage. With some individuals it appears to +promote the digestive process, while with others its effect is not +beneficial. Coffee is more extensively used in this country than tea, +and is subject to greater adulteration. It is adulterated by facing and +glazing; <i>i.e.</i> coloring the berries to resemble different grades and +coating them with caramel and dextrine. Spent coffee grains and coffee +that has been extracted without grinding are also used as adulterants. +Imitation berries made of rye, corn, or wheat paste, molded, colored +with caramel, and baked have been found mixed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> with genuine coffee +berries. Roasted cereals and chicory are used extensively to adulterate +ground coffee. Chicory is prepared from the root of the chicory plant, +which belongs to the same family as the dandelion. It is claimed by some +that a small amount of chicory improves the flavor of coffee. However, +when chicory is added to coffee, it should be so stated on the label and +the amount used given. The dextrine and sugar used in glazing are +browned or caramelized during roasting and impart a darker color to the +infusion, making it appear better than it really is. The glazing also +makes the coffee retain moisture which would otherwise be driven off +during roasting. Coffee contains such a large per cent of oil that the +berries generally float when thrown on water, while the imitation +berries sink. Chicory also sinks rapidly and colors the water brown, +while the coffee remains floating for some time.</p> + +<p>There are three kinds of coffee in general use: Java, Mocha, and Rio or +Brazil. The Brazil coffee has the largest berry and is usually styled by +dealers as "low" or "low middlings." The Java coffee berries are smaller +and paler in color, the better grades being brown. Mocha usually +commands the highest price in commerce. The seeds are small and dark +yellow before roasting.</p> + +<p><b>219. Cereal Coffee Substitutes.</b></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"A few of these preparations contain a little true coffee, but for +the most part they appear to be made of parched grains of barley, +wheat, etc., or of grain mixed with pea hulls, ground corncobs, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> +wheat middlings. It is said that barley or wheat parched, with a +little molasses, in an ordinary oven, makes something +indistinguishable in flavor from some of the cereal coffees on the +market. If no coffee is used in the cereal preparations, the claim +that they are not stimulating is probably true. As for the +nutritive value, parching the cereals undoubtedly renders some of +the carbohydrates soluble, and a part of this soluble matter passes +into the decoction, but the nutritive value of the infusion is +hardly worth considering in the dietary."<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[56]</sup></small></b></a></p></div> + +<p><b>220. Cocoa and Chocolate Preparations.</b>—Cocoa and chocolate are +manufactured from the "cocoa bean," the seed of a tree native to +tropical America. The beans are inclosed in a lemon-yellow, fleshy pod. +They are removed from the pulp, allowed to undergo fermentation, and +dried by exposure to the air and light, which hardens them and gives +them a red color. This method produces what is known as the "fermented +cocoa." For the "unfermented cocoa," the beans are dried without +undergoing fermentation. Fermentation removes much of the acidity and +bitterness characteristic to the unfermented bean, and when properly +regulated develops flavor. The original bean contains about 50 per cent +fat, part of which is removed in preparing the cocoa. This fat is sold +as cocoa butter. In the preparation of some brands of cocoa, alkalies, +such as soda and potash, are used to form a combination with the fat to +prevent its separating in oily globules. This treatment improves the +appearance of the cocoa, but experiments show the albumin to be somewhat +less digestible and the soap-like product resulting not as valuable a +food as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> fat. Such preparations have a high per cent of ash. There +is no objection from a nutritive point of view to a cocoa in which the +fat separates in oily globules.</p> + +<p><b>221. Composition of Cocoa.</b>—The cocoa bean, when dried or roasted and +freed from its husk and ground, is sold as cracked cocoa, or cocoa nibs. +From cocoa nibs the various cocoa and chocolate preparations are made. +Cocoas vary in composition according to the extent to which the fat is +removed during the process of manufacture and the nature and extent to +which other ingredients are added. An average cocoa contains about 20 +per cent of proteids, and 30 per cent fat, also starch, sugar, gums, +fiber, and ash, as well as theobromine, a material very similar to +theine and caffein in tea and coffee, but not such an active stimulant. +Cocoa is not easily soluble, but it may be ground so fine that a long +time is required for its sedimentation; or sugar or other soluble +material may be added during the process of manufacture to increase the +specific gravity of the liquid to such an extent that the same object is +attained without such fine grinding. The first method is to be +preferred. Cocoa and its preparations are richer in nutritive substances +than tea and coffee and have this added advantage that both the soluble +and insoluble portions become a part of the beverage. Owing to the small +amount used for a cup of cocoa, independent of the milk it does not add +much in the way of nutrients to the ration.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>222. Chocolate.</b>—Plain chocolate is prepared from cocoa nibs without +"removal of the fat or other constituents except the germ." It differs +in chemical composition from cocoa by containing more fat and less +protein; it has nearly the same chemical composition as the cocoa nibs. +It is officially defined as containing "not more than 3 per cent of ash +insoluble in water, 3½ per cent of crude fiber and 9 per cent of +starch, and less than 45 per cent cocoa fat."<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[71]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p>By the addition of sugar, sweet chocolates are made. They vary widely in +composition according to the flavors and amounts of sugar added during +their preparation. The average composition of cocoa nibs, standard +cocoa, and plain chocolate is as follows:</p> + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="70%" cellspacing="0" summary="The average composition of cocoa nibs, standard +cocoa, and plain chocolate is as follows"> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><th align='right'>Cocoa Nibs</th><th align='right'>Composition of<br />Standard Cocoa</th><th align='right'>Composition of<br />Plain Chocolate</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td><td align='right'>Per Cent</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Water</td><td align='right'>3.00</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>3.09</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ash</td><td align='right'>3.50</td><td align='right'>4.20</td><td align='right'>3.08</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Theobromine</td><td align='right'>1.00</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Caffein</td><td align='right'>0.50</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Crude Protein</td><td align='right'>12.00</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Crude fiber</td><td align='right'>2.50</td><td align='right'>5.02</td><td align='right'>2.63</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fat</td><td align='right'>50.00</td><td align='right'>32.52</td><td align='right'>49.81</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Starch and other non-nitrogenous matter</td><td align='right'>27.50</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><b>223. Adulteration of Chocolate and Cocoa.</b>—The various chocolate and +cocoa preparations offer an enticing field for sophistication; they are +not, however, so exten<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>sively adulterated as before the enforcement of +national and state pure food laws. The most common adulterants are +starch, cocoa shells, and occasionally iron dioxid and other pigments to +give color, also foreign fats to replace the fat removed and to give the +required plasticity for molding.</p> + +<p><b>224. Comparative Composition of Beverages.</b>—Tea and coffee as +beverages contain but little in the way of nutrients other than the +cream and sugar used in them. The solid matter in tea and coffee +infusions amounts to less than 1.2 per cent. When cocoa is made with +milk, it is a beverage of high nutritive value due mainly to the milk.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Composition of Beverages</span><a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[56]</sup></small></b></a></p> + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="95%" cellspacing="0" summary="Composition of Beverages"> +<tr valign="top"><th align='left'>Kind of Beverage</th><th align='right'>Water</th><th align='right'>Protein</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>Carbohydrates</th><th align='right'>Fuel<br />Value<br />per Lb.</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>Cal.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Commercial cereal coffee (0.5 ounce to 1 pint water)</td><td align='right'>98.2</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>30</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Parched corn coffee (1.6 ounces to 1 pint water)</td><td align='right'>99.5</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>13</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Oatmeal water (1 ounce to 1 pint water)</td><td align='right'>99.7</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>11</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Coffee (1 ounce 1 pint water)</td><td align='right'>98.9</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>16</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tea (0.5 ounce to 1 pint water)</td><td align='right'>99.5</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>15</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cocoa (0.5 ounce to 1 pint milk)</td><td align='right'>84.5</td><td align='right'>3.8</td><td align='right'>4.7</td><td align='right'>6.0</td><td align='right'>365</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cocoa (0.5 ounce to 1 pint water)</td><td align='right'>97.1</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>65</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Skimmed milk</td><td align='right'>90.5</td><td align='right'>3.4</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>5.1</td><td align='right'>170</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2> + +<h3>THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FOODS</h3> + + +<p><b>225. Digestibility, How Determined.</b>—The term "digestibility," as +applied to foods, is used in two ways: (1) meaning the thoroughness of +the process, or the completeness with which the nutrients of the food +are absorbed and used by the body, and (2) meaning the ease or comfort +with which digestion is accomplished. Cheese is popularly termed +indigestible, and rice digestible, when in reality the nutrients of +cheese are more completely although more slowly digested than those of +rice. In this work, unless otherwise stated, digestibility is applied to +the completeness of the digestion process.</p> + +<p>The digestibility of a food is ascertained by means of digestion +experiments, in which all of the food consumed for a certain period, +usually two to four days, is weighed and analyzed, and from the weight +and composition is determined the amount, in pounds or grams, of each +nutrient consumed.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[72]</sup></small></b></a> In like manner the nutrients in the indigestible +portion, or feces, are determined from the weight and composition of the +feces. The indigestible<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> nutrients in the feces are deducted from the +total nutrients of the food, the difference being the amount digested, +or oxidized in the body. When the food is digested, the various +nutrients undergo complete or partial oxidation, with the formation of +carbon dioxid gas, water, urea (CH<sub>4</sub>N<sub>2</sub>O), and other compounds. The +feces consist mainly of the compounds which have escaped digestion. The +various groups of compounds of foods do not all have the same +digestibility; for example, the starch of potatoes is 92 per cent +digestible, while the protein is only 72 per cent. The percentage amount +of a nutrient that is digested is called the digestion coefficient.</p> + +<p>In the following way the digestibility of a two-days ration of bread and +milk was determined: 773.5 grams of bread and 2000 grams of milk were +consumed by the subject. The dried feces weighed 38.2 grams. The foods +and feces when analyzed were found to have the following +composition:<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[62]</sup></small></b></a><br /><br /></p> + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="55%" cellspacing="0" summary="The foods +and feces when analyzed were found to have the following +composition"> +<tr><th align='left'>Composition</th><th align='right'>Bread</th><th align='right'>Milk</th><td align='right'><a name="FNanchor_A_7" id="FNanchor_A_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_7" class="fnanchor">[A]</a><b>Feces</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Water</td><td align='right'>44.13</td><td align='right'>86.52</td><td align='right'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Crude protein</td><td align='right'>7.75</td><td align='right'>3.15</td><td align='right'>25.88</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ether extract</td><td align='right'>0.90</td><td align='right'>4.63</td><td align='right'>18.23</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ash</td><td align='right'>0.32</td><td align='right'>0.70</td><td align='right'>26.35</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Carbohydrates</td><td align='right'>46.90</td><td align='right'>5.00</td><td align='right'>29.54</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Calories per gram</td><td align='right'>2.450</td><td align='right'>0.79</td><td align='right'>5.083</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_7" id="Footnote_A_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_7"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> Results on dry-matter basis.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></p></div> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Statement of Results of a Digestion Experiment</span></h4> + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="90%" cellspacing="0" summary="Statement of Results of a Digestion Experiment"> +<tr><th align='left'>Food Consumed</th><th align='left'>Weight of<br />Material</th><th align='right'>Protein<br />N × 6.25</th><th align='right'>Ether<br />Extract</th><th align='right'>Carbo-<br />hydrates</th><th align='right'>Ash</th><th align='right'>Heat of<br />Combustion</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>Grams</td><td align='right'>Grams</td><td align='right'>Grams</td><td align='right'>Grams</td><td align='right'>Grams</td><td align='right'>Calories</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bread</td><td align='right'>773.5</td><td align='right'>60.0</td><td align='right'>6.9</td><td align='right'>362.8</td><td align='right'>2.5</td><td align='right'>1895</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Milk</td><td align='right'>2000.0</td><td align='right'>63.0</td><td align='right'>92.6</td><td align='right'>100.0</td><td align='right'>14.0</td><td align='right'>1585</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'> </td><td align='right'>——</td><td align='right'>——</td><td align='right'>——</td><td align='right'>——</td><td align='right'>——</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Total</span></td><td align='right'>38.2</td><td align='right'>123.0</td><td align='right'>99.5</td><td align='right'>462.8</td><td align='right'>16.5</td><td align='right'>3480</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Feces</td><td align='right'> </td><td align='right'>9.9</td><td align='right'>7.0</td><td align='right'>11.3</td><td align='right'>10.1</td><td align='right'>194</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'> </td><td align='right'>——</td><td align='right'>——</td><td align='right'>——</td><td align='right'>——</td><td align='right'>——</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Total amount digested</td><td align='right'>113.1</td><td align='right'>92.5</td><td align='right'>451.5</td><td align='right'>6.4</td><td align='right'>3286</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Per cent digested or coefficients of digestibility</td><td align='right'>92.0</td><td align='right'>93.0</td><td align='right'>97.5</td><td align='right'>38.8</td><td align='right'>94.4</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Available energy</td><td align='right'> </td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>90.0</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>In this experiment 92 per cent of the crude protein, 93 per cent of the +ether extract, and 97.5 per cent of the carbohydrates of the bread and +milk ration were digested and absorbed by the body. In calculating the +available energy, correction is made for the unoxidized residue, as urea +and allied forms. It is estimated that for each gram of protein in the +ration there was an indigestible residue yielding 1.25 calories.</p> + +<p><b>226. Available Nutrients.</b>—A food may contain a comparatively large +amount of a compound, and yet, on account of its low digestibility, fail +to supply much of it to the body in an available form. Hence it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> that +the value of a food is dependent not alone on its composition, but also +on its digestibility. The digestible or available nutrients of a food +are determined by multiplying the per cent of each nutrient which the +food contains by its digestion coefficient. For example, a sample of +wheat flour contains 12 per cent protein, 88 per cent of which is +digestible, making 10.56 per cent of available or digestible protein (12 +× 0.88-10.56). Graham flour made from similar wheat contains 13 per cent +total protein, and only 75 per cent of the protein is digestible, making +9.75 per cent available (13 × 0.75 = 9.75). Thus one food may contain a +larger total but a smaller available amount of a nutrient than another.</p> + +<p><b>227. Available Energy.</b>—The available energy of a food or a ration is +expressed in calories. A ration for a laborer at active out-of-door work +should yield about 3200 calories. The calory is the unit of heat, and +represents the heat required to raise the temperature of a kilogram of +water 1° C., or four pounds of water 1° F. The caloric value of foods is +determined by the calorimeter, an apparatus which measures heat with +great accuracy. A pound of starch, or allied carbohydrates, yields 1860 +calories, and a pound of fat 4225 (see Section 13). While a gram of +protein completely burned produces 7.8 calories, digested it yields only +about 4.2 calories, because, as explained in the preceding section, not +all of the carbon and oxygen are oxidized.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[59]</sup></small></b></a> The caloric value or +available energy of a ration can be calculated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> from the digestible +nutrients by multiplying the pounds of digestible protein and +carbohydrates by 1860, the digestible fat by 4225, and adding the +results. For determination of the available energy of foods under +different experimental conditions, and where great accuracy is desired, +a specially constructed respiration calorimeter has been devised, which +is built upon the same principle as an ordinary calorimeter, except it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> +is large enough to admit a person, and is provided with appliances for +measuring and analyzing the intake and outlet of air.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[74]</sup></small></b></a> The heat +produced by the combustion of the food in the body warms the water +surrounding the calorimeter chamber, and this increase in temperature is +determined by thermometers reading to 0.005 of a degree or less.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img234.jpg" width="270" height="500" + alt="Fig. 55." /><br /> + <h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span>—<span class="smcap">Calorimeter.</span></h4> + + </div> + + +<p><b>228. Normal Digestion and Health.</b>—While the process of digestion has +been extensively studied, it is not perfectly understood. Between the +initial compounds of foods and their final oxidation products a large +number of intermediate substances are formed, and when digestion fails +to take place in a normal way, toxic or poisonous compounds are produced +and various diseases result. It is probable that more diseases are due +to imperfect or malnutrition than to any other cause. There is a very +close relationship between health and normal digestion of the food.</p> + +<p>The cells in the different parts of the digestive tract secrete fluids +containing substances known as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> soluble ferments, or enzymes, which act +upon the various compounds of foods, changing them chemically and +physically so that they can be absorbed and utilized by the body. (See +Section 31.) Some of the more important ferments are: ptyolin of the +saliva, pepsin of the stomach, and pancreatin and diastase of the +intestines. In order that these ferments may carry on their work in a +normal way, the acidity and alkalinity of the different parts of the +digestive tract must be maintained. The gastric juice contains from 0.1 +to 0.25 per cent of hydrochloric acid, imparting mildly antiseptic +properties; and while the peptic ferment works in a slightly acid +solution, the tryptic ferment requires an alkaline solution. To secrete +the necessary amount and quality of digestive fluids, the organs must be +in a healthy condition. Many erroneous ideas regarding the digestion of +foods are based upon misinterpretation of facts by persons suffering +from impaired digestion, and attempts are frequently made to apply to +normal digestion generalizations applicable only to diseased conditions.</p> + +<p><b>229. Digestibility of Animal Foods.</b>—The proteids and fats in animal +foods, as meats, are more completely digested than the same class of +nutrients in vegetables. In general, about 95 per cent of the proteids +of meats is digestible, while those in vegetables are often less than 85 +percent digestible. The amount of indigestible residue from animal foods +is small; while from vegetables it is large, for the cellulose prevents +complete<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> absorption of the nutrients and, as a result, there is much +indigestible residue. Animal foods are concentrated, in that they +furnish large amounts of nutrients in digestible forms. There is less +difference in the completeness with which various meats are digested +than in their ease of digestion; the proteins all have about the same +digestion coefficients, but vary with individuals as to ease of +digestion and time required. It is generally considered that the +digestible proteins, whether of animal or vegetable origin, are equally +valuable for food purposes. This is an assumption, however, that has not +been well established by experimental evidence. In a mixed ration, the +proteins from different sources appear to have the same nutritive value, +but as each is composed of different radicals and separated into +dissimilar elementary compounds during the process of digestion, they +would not necessarily all have the same food value.</p> + +<p>There is but little difference between the fats and proteins of meats as +to completeness of digestion,—the slight difference being in favor of +the proteins. Some physiologists claim that the fat, which in some meats +surrounds the bundles of fiber (protein), forming a protecting coat, +prevents the complete solvent action of the digestive fluid. Very fat +meats are not as completely digested as those moderately fat. It is also +claimed that the digestibility of the meat is influenced by the +mechanical character, as toughness of the fiber.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>230. Digestibility of Vegetable Foods.</b>—Vegetable foods vary in +digestibility with their mechanical condition and the amount of +cellulose or fiber. In some the nutrients are so embedded in cellular +tissue as to be protected from the solvent action of the digestive +fluids, and in such cases the digestibility and availability are low. +The starches and sugars are more completely digested than any other of +the nutrients of vegetables; in some instances they are from 95 to 98 +per cent digestible. Some cellular tissue, but not an excess, is +desirable in a ration, as it exerts a favorable mechanical action upon +the organs of digestion, encourages peristalsis, and is an absorbent and +dilutant of the waste products formed during digestion. For example, in +the feeding of swine, it has been found that corn and cob meal often +gives better results than corn fed alone. The cob contains but little in +the way of nutrients, but it exerts a favorable mechanical action upon +digestion. Occasionally too many bulky foods are combined, containing +scant amounts of nutrients, so that the body receives insufficient +protein. This is liable to be the case in the dietary of the strict +vegetarian. Many of the vegetables possess special dietetic value, due +to the organic acids and essential oils, as cited in the chapter on +fruits and vegetables. The value of such foods cannot always be +determined from their content of digestible protein, fat, and +carbohydrates. This is particularly evident when they are omitted from +the ration, as in the case of a restricted diet consisting mainly of +animal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> foods. Many vegetables have low nutritive value on account of +their bulky nature and the large amount of water and cellulose which +they contain, which tends to decrease digestibility and lower the amount +of available nutrients. Because of their bulk and fermentable nature, +resulting in the formation of gases, a diet of coarse vegetables has a +tendency to cause distention and enlargement of the intestinal organs. +The carbohydrates, which are the chief constituents of vegetables, are +digested mainly in the intestines, and require special mechanical +preparation in the stomach, hence the nutrients of vegetables are not, +as a rule, as easily digested as those of animal foods.</p> + +<p><b>231. Factors influencing Digestion.</b>—There are a number of factors +which influence completeness as well as ease of digestion, as: (1) +combination of foods; (2) amount of food; (3) method of preparation; (4) +mechanical condition of the food; (5) palatability; (6) physiological +properties; (7) individuality of the consumer; and (8) psychological +influences.</p> + +<p><b>232. Combination of Foods.</b>—In a mixed ration the nutrients are +generally more completely digested than when only one food is used. For +example, milk is practically all digested when it forms a part of a +ration, and it also promotes digestibility of the foods with which it is +combined, but when used alone it is less digestible.<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[27]</sup></small></b></a> Bread alone and +milk alone are not as completely digested as bread and milk combined. +The same in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> general way has been observed in the feeding of farm +animals,—better results are secured from combining two or more foods +than from the use of one alone. The extent to which one food influences +the digestibility of another has not been extensively studied.</p> + +<p>In a mixed ration, consisting of several articles of food of different +mechanical structure, the work of digestion is more evenly distributed +among the various organs. A food often requires special preparation on +the part of the stomach before it can be digested in the intestines, and +if this food is consumed in small amounts and combined with others of +different structure, the work of gastric digestion is lessened so that +the foods are properly prepared and normal digestion takes place. The +effect which one food exerts upon the digestibility of another is +largely mechanical.</p> + +<p><b>233. Amount of Food.</b>—Completeness as well as ease of digestion is +influenced by the amount of food consumed. In general, excessive amounts +are not as completely digested as moderate amounts. In digestion +experiments with oatmeal and milk, it was found that when these foods +were consumed in large quantities the fat and protein were not as +completely absorbed by the body as when less was used, the protein being +7 per cent and the fat 6 per cent more digestible in the medium ration. +Experiments with animals show that economical results are not secured +from an excess of food.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[5]</sup></small></b></a> Some individuals consume too much food, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> +with them a restricted diet would be beneficial, while others err in not +consuming enough to meet the requirements of the body. Quite frequently +it is those who need more food who practice dieting. When there is +trouble with digestion, it is not always the amount or kind of food +which is at fault, but other habits may be such as to affect digestion. +The active out-of-door laborer can with impunity consume more food, +because there is greater demand for nutrients, and the food is more +completely oxidized in the body and without the formation of poisonous +waste products. The amount of food consumed should be sufficient to meet +all the demands of the body and maintain a normal weight.</p> + +<p><b>234. Method of Preparation of Food.</b>—The extent to which methods of +cooking and preparation influence completeness of digestion has not been +extensively investigated. As is well known, they have great influence +upon ease and comfort of digestion. During cooking, as discussed in +Chapter II, extensive physical and chemical changes occur, and these in +turn affect digestibility. When the cooking has not been sufficient to +mechanically disintegrate vegetable tissue, the digestive fluids fail to +act favorably upon the food. Cooking is also beneficial because it +renders the food sterile and destroys all objectionable microörganisms +which, if they remain in food, readily undergo incubation in the +digestive tract, interfering with normal digestion. Prolonged heat +causes some foods to become less digestible, as milk,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> which digestion +experiments show to be more completely digested when fresh than when +sterilized. Pasteurized milk, which is not subjected to so high a +temperature as sterilized milk, is more completely digested. See Chapter +VII for discussion of sterilizing and pasteurizing milk.<a href='#Page_352'><b><small><sup>[38]</sup></small></b></a> The +benefits derived from the destruction of the objectionable bacteria in +foods are, however, greater than the losses attendant on lessened +digestibility due to the action of heat. The method of preparation of a +food affects its digestibility mainly through change in mechanical +structure, and modification of the forms in which the nutrients are +present.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[5]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>235. Mechanical Condition of Foods.</b>—The mechanical condition of foods +as to density and structure of the particles and the extent to which +they are disintegrated in their preparation for the table influences +digestibility to a great extent. The mechanics of digestion is a subject +that has not been extensively investigated, and it is one of great +importance, as biological and chemical changes cannot take place if the +food is not in proper mechanical condition. In general, the finer the +food particles, the more completely the nutrients are acted upon by the +digestive fluids and absorbed by the body. Nevertheless, the diet should +not consist entirely of finely granulated foods. Some foods are valuable +mainly because of the favorable action they exert mechanically upon +digestion, rather than for the nutrients they contain.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[62]</sup></small></b></a> Coarsely +granulated breakfast foods, whole<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> wheat flour, and many vegetables +contain sufficient cellular tissue to give special value from a +mechanical rather than a chemical point of view. The extent to which +coarsely and finely granulated foods should enter into the ration is a +question largely for the individual to determine. Experiments with pigs +show that if large amounts of coarse, granular foods are consumed, the +tendency is for the digestive tract to become inflamed and less able to +exercise its normal functions. Coarsely granulated foods have a tendency +to pass through the digestive tract in less time than those that are +finely granulated, due largely to increased peristaltic action, and the +result is the food is not retained a sufficient length of time to allow +normal absorption to take place. In the feeding of farm animals, it has +been found that the mechanical condition of the food has a great +influence upon its economic use. Rations that are either too bulky or +too concentrated fail to give the best results. In the human ration, the +mechanical condition of the food is equally as important as its chemical +composition.</p> + +<p><b>236. Mastication</b> is an important part of digestion, and when foods are +not thoroughly masticated, additional work is required of the stomach, +which is usually an overworked organ because of doing the work of the +mouth as well. Although much of the mechanical preparation and mixing of +foods is of necessity done in the stomach, some of it may advantageously +be done in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> the mouth. The stomach should not be required to perform the +function of the gizzard of a fowl.</p> + +<p><b>237. Palatability of Foods.</b>—Many foods naturally contain essential +oils and other substances which impart palatability. These have but +little in the way of nutritive value, but they assist in rendering the +nutrients with which they are associated more digestible. Palatability +of a food favorably influences the secretion of the gastric and other +digestive fluids, and in this way the natural flavors of well-prepared +foods aid in digestion. In the feeding of farm animals it has been found +that when foods are consumed with a relish better returns are secured +than when unpalatable foods are fed. To secure palatability the +excessive use of condiments is unnecessary. It is possible to a great +extent during preparation to develop and conserve the natural flavors. +Some foods contain bitter principles which are removed during the +cooking, while in others pleasant flavors are developed. Palatability is +an important factor in the digestibility of foods.</p> + +<p><b>238. Physiological Properties of Food.</b>—Some food materials, +particularly fruits and vegetables, contain compounds which have +definite physiological properties, as tannin which is an astringent, +special oils which exert a cathartic action, and the alkaloids which +serve as irritants to nerve centers. Wheat germ oil is laxative, and it +is probable that the physiological properties of graham and whole wheat +breads are due in some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> degree to the oil which they contain.<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[67]</sup></small></b></a> The +use of fruits, herbs, and vegetables for medicinal purposes is based +upon the presence of compounds possessing well-defined medicinal +properties. As a rule food plants do not contain appreciable amounts of +such substances, and the use of food for medicinal effect should be by +the advice of a physician. The physiological properties of some foods +are due to bacterial products. See Chapter XX.</p> + +<p><b>239. Individuality.</b>—Material difference in digestive power is +noticeable among individuals. Digestion experiments show that one person +may digest 5 per cent more of a nutrient than another. This difference +appears to be due to a number of factors, as activity of the organs, as +affected by exercise and kind of labor performed; abnormal composition +of the digestive fluids; or failure of the different parts of the +digestive tract to act in harmony. Individuality is one of the most +important factors in digestion. Persons become accustomed to certain +foods through long usage, and the digestive tract adapts itself to those +foods, rendering sudden and extreme changes in the dietary hazardous. +Common food articles may fail to properly digest in the case of some +individuals, while with others they are consumed with benefit. What is +food to one may prove to be a poison to another, and while general +statements can be made in regard to the digestibility of foods, +individual differences must be recognized.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>240. Psychological Factors.</b>—Previously conceived ideas concerning +foods influence digestibility. Foods must be consumed with a relish in +order to secure the best results, as flow of the digestive fluids and +activity of the organs are to a certain extent dependent upon the nerve +centers. If it is believed that a food is poisonous or injurious, even +when the food is wholesome, normal digestion fails to take place. In +experiments by the author, in which the comparative digestibility of +butter and oleomargarine was being studied, it was found that when the +subjects were told they were eating oleomargarine, its digestibility was +depressed 5 per cent, and when they were not told the nature of the +material, but assumed that butter was oleomargarine, the digestibility +of the butter was lowered about 6 per cent.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[13]</sup></small></b></a> Preconceived notions in +regard to foods, not founded upon well-established facts, but due to +prejudice resulting from ignorance, cause many valuable foods to be +excluded from the dietary. Many persons, like the foreign lady who, +visiting this country, said she ate only acquaintances, prefer foods +that have a familiar taste and appearance, and any unusual taste or +appearance detracts from the value because of the psychological +influence upon digestion.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h2> + +<h3>COMPARATIVE COST AND VALUE OF FOODS</h3> + + +<p><b>241. Cost and Nutrient Content of Foods.</b>—The market price and the +nutritive value of foods are often at variance, as those which cost the +most frequently contain the least nutrients.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[75]</sup></small></b></a> It is difficult to make +absolute comparisons as to the nutritive value of foods at different +prices, because they differ not only in the amounts, but also in the +kinds of nutrients. While it is not possible to express definitely the +value of one food in terms of another, approximate comparisons may be +made as to the amounts of nutrients that can be secured for a given sum +of money when foods are at different prices, and tables have been +prepared making such comparisons.</p> + +<div class="trans-note"> + Transcriber's Note: Fig. 56. is not of good quality,<br />but has been placed for information. + </div> +<div class="figcenter"><a href="images/img045a.jpg"><img src="images/img045a-tb.jpg" alt="Fig. 56" title="" /></a></div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.—Composition of Foods.</span></h4> + +<h5>(From Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin.)</h5> + +<p><b>242. Nutrients Procurable for a Given Sum.</b><a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[7]</sup></small></b></a>—To ascertain the +nutrients procurable for a given sum first determine the amount in +pounds that can be obtained, say, for ten cents, and then multiply by +the percentages of fat, protein, carbohydrates, and calories in the +food. The results are the amounts, in pounds, of nutrients procurable +for that sum of money. For example: if<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> milk is 5 cents per quart, two +quarts or approximately four pounds, can be procured for 10 cents. If +the milk contains fat, 4 per cent, protein, 3.3 per cent, carbohydrates, +5 per cent, and fuel value, 310 calories per pound, multiplying each of +these by 4 gives the nutrients and fuel value in four pounds, or 10<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> +cents worth of milk, as follows:<br /><br /></p> + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="30%" cellspacing="0" summary="gives the nutrients and fuel value in four pounds, or 10 +cents worth of milk, as follows"> +<tr><td align='left'>Protein</td><td align='right'>0.13 lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fat</td><td align='right'>0.16 lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Carbohydrates</td><td align='right'>0.2 lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Calories</td><td align='right'>1240</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><br />If it is desired to compare milk at 5 cents per quart with round steak +at 15 cents per pound, 10 cents will procure 0.66, or two thirds of a +pound of round steak containing on an average (edible portion) 19 per +cent protein, 12.8 per cent fat, and yielding 890 calories per pound. If +10 per cent is refuse, there is edible about 0.6 of a pound. The amounts +of nutrients in the 0.6 of a pound of steak, edible portion, or 0.66 lb. +as purchased would be:<br /><br /></p> + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="30%" cellspacing="0" summary="amounts +of nutrients in the 0.6 of a pound of steak"> +<tr><td align='left'>Protein</td><td align='right'>0.11 lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fat</td><td align='right'>0.08 lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Calories</td><td align='right'>534</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><br />It is to be observed that from the 10 cents' worth of milk a little more +protein, 0.08 of a pound more fat, and nearly two and one half times as +many calories can be secured as from the 10 cents' worth of meat. This +is due to the carbohydrates and the larger amount of fat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> which the milk +contains. At these prices, milk should be used liberally in the dietary, +as it furnishes more of all the nutrients than does meat. It would not +be advisable to exclude meat entirely from the ration, but milk at 5 +cents per quart is cheaper food than meat at 15 cents per pound. In +making comparisons, preference cannot always be given to one food +because of its containing more of any particular nutrient, for often +there are other factors that influence the value.</p> + +<p><b>243. Comparing Foods as to Nutritive Value.</b>—In general, preference +should be given to foods which supply the most protein, provided the +differences between the carbohydrates and fats are not large. When the +protein content of two foods is nearly the same, but the fats and +carbohydrates differ materially, the preference may safely be given to +the food which supplies the larger amount of total nutrients. A pound of +protein in a ration is more valuable than a pound of either fat or +carbohydrates, although it is not possible to establish an absolute +scale as to the comparative value of these nutrients, because they serve +different functional purposes in the body. It is sometimes necessary to +use small amounts of foods rich in protein in order to secure a balanced +ration; excessive use of protein, however, is not economical, as that +which is not needed for functional purposes is converted into heat and +energy which could be supplied as well by the carbohydrates, and they +are less expensive nutrients.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span></p> + +<div class="trans-note"> + Transcriber's Note: Fig. 57. is not of good quality,<br />but has been placed for information. + </div> +<div class="figcenter"><a href="images/img046a.jpg"><img src="images/img046a-tb.jpg" alt="Fig. 57" title="Fig. 57" /></a></div> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span>—<span class="smcap">Pecuniary Economy of Food.</span></h4> + +<h5>(From Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin.)</h5><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span></p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Ten Cents will Purchase:</span></h4> +<p class='center'>(From Farmer's Bulletin No. 142, U. S. Dept. of Agr.)</p> + + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="1" width="85%" cellspacing="0" summary="Ten Cents will Purchase"> +<tr valign="top"><th align='left'>KIND OF FOOD MATERIAL</th><th align='right'>Price per<br />Pound</th><th align='right'>Total Weight<br />of Food<br />Material</th><th align='right'>Protein</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>Carbohy-<br />drates</th><th align='right'>Energy</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align='right'>Cents</td><td align='right'>Pounds</td><td align='right'>Pound</td><td align='right'>Pound</td><td align='right'>Pounds</td><td align='right'>Calories</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Beef, sirloin</td><td align='right'>25</td><td align='right'>0.40</td><td align='right'>0.06</td><td align='right'>0.06</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>410</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Do.</span></td><td align='right'>20</td><td align='right'>0.50</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>515</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Do.</span></td><td align='right'>15</td><td align='right'>0.67</td><td align='right'>0.10</td><td align='right'>0.11</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>685</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Beef, round</td><td align='right'>16</td><td align='right'>0.63</td><td align='right'>0.11</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>560</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Do.</span></td><td align='right'>14</td><td align='right'>0.71</td><td align='right'>0.13</td><td align='right'>0.09</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>630</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Do.</span></td><td align='right'>12</td><td align='right'>0.83</td><td align='right'>0.15</td><td align='right'>0.10</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>740</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Beef, shoulder clod</td><td align='right'>12</td><td align='right'>0.83</td><td align='right'>0.13</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>595</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Do.</td><td align='right'>9</td><td align='right'>1.11</td><td align='right'>0.18</td><td align='right'>0.10</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>795</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Beef, stew meat</td><td align='right'>5</td><td align='right'>2.00</td><td align='right'>0.29</td><td align='right'>0.23</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>1530</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Beef, dried, chipped</td><td align='right'>25</td><td align='right'>0.40</td><td align='right'>0.10</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>315</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mutton chops, loin</td><td align='right'>16</td><td align='right'>0.63</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>0.17</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>890</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mutton, leg</td><td align='right'>20</td><td align='right'>0.50</td><td align='right'>0.07</td><td align='right'>0.07</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>445</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Do.</span></td><td align='right'>16</td><td align='right'>0.63</td><td align='right'>0.09</td><td align='right'>0.09</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>560</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Roast pork, loin</td><td align='right'>12</td><td align='right'>0.83</td><td align='right'>0.11</td><td align='right'>0.19</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>1035</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pork, smoked ham</td><td align='right'>22</td><td align='right'>0.45</td><td align='right'>0.06</td><td align='right'>0.14</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>735</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Do.</span></td><td align='right'>18</td><td align='right'>0.56</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>0.18</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>915</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pork, fat salt</td><td align='right'>12</td><td align='right'>0.83</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>0.68</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>2950</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Codfish, dressed, fresh</td><td align='right'>10</td><td align='right'>1.00</td><td align='right'>0.11</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>220</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Halibut, fresh</td><td align='right'>18</td><td align='right'>0.56</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>265</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cod, salt</td><td align='right'>7</td><td align='right'>1.43</td><td align='right'>0.22</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>465</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mackerel, salt, dressed</td><td align='right'>10</td><td align='right'>1.00</td><td align='right'>0.13</td><td align='right'>0.20</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>1135</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Salmon, canned</td><td align='right'>12</td><td align='right'>0.83</td><td align='right'>0.18</td><td align='right'>0.10</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>760</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Oysters, solids, 50 cents per quart</td><td align='right'>25</td><td align='right'>0.40</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>90</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Oysters, solids, 35 cents per quart</td><td align='right'>18</td><td align='right'>0.56</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>125</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lobster, canned</td><td align='right'>18</td><td align='right'>0.56</td><td align='right'>0.10</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>225</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Butter</td><td align='right'>20</td><td align='right'>0.50</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.40</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>1705</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Do.</span></td><td align='right'>25</td><td align='right'>0.40</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.32</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>1365</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Do.</span></td><td align='right'>30</td><td align='right'>0.33</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.27</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>1125</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Eggs, 36 cents per dozen</td><td align='right'>24</td><td align='right'>0.42</td><td align='right'>0.05</td><td align='right'>0.04</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>260</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Eggs, 24 cents per dozen</td><td align='right'>16</td><td align='right'>0.63</td><td align='right'>0.07</td><td align='right'>0.06</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>385</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Eggs, 12 cents per dozen</td><td align='right'>8</td><td align='right'>1.25</td><td align='right'>0.14</td><td align='right'>0.11</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>770</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cheese</td><td align='right'>16</td><td align='right'>0.63</td><td align='right'>0.16</td><td align='right'>0.20</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>1185</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Milk, 7 cents per quart</td><td align='right'>3½</td><td align='right'>2.85</td><td align='right'>0.09</td><td align='right'>0.11</td><td align='right'>0.14</td><td align='right'>885</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Milk, 6 cents per quart</td><td align='right'>3</td><td align='right'>3.33</td><td align='right'>0.11</td><td align='right'>0.13</td><td align='right'>0.17</td><td align='right'>1030</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wheat flour</td><td align='right'>3</td><td align='right'>3.33</td><td align='right'>0.32</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>2.45</td><td align='right'>5440</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Do.</span></td><td align='right'>2½</td><td align='right'>4.00</td><td align='right'>0.39</td><td align='right'>0.04</td><td align='right'>2.94</td><td align='right'>6540</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Corn meal, granular</td><td align='right'>2½</td><td align='right'>4.00</td><td align='right'>0.31</td><td align='right'>0.07</td><td align='right'>2.96</td><td align='right'>6540</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wheat breakfast food</td><td align='right'>7½</td><td align='right'>1.33</td><td align='right'>0.13</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>0.98</td><td align='right'>2235</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Oat breakfast food</td><td align='right'>7½</td><td align='right'>1.33</td><td align='right'>0.19</td><td align='right'>0.09</td><td align='right'>0.86</td><td align='right'>2395</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Oatmeal</td><td align='right'>4</td><td align='right'>2.50</td><td align='right'>0.34</td><td align='right'>0.16</td><td align='right'>1.66</td><td align='right'>4500</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rice</td><td align='right'>8</td><td align='right'>1.25</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.97</td><td align='right'>2025</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wheat bread</td><td align='right'>6</td><td align='right'>1.67</td><td align='right'>0.13</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>0.87</td><td align='right'>2000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Do.</span></td><td align='right'>5</td><td align='right'>2.00</td><td align='right'>0.16</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>1.04</td><td align='right'>2400</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Do.</span></td><td align='right'>4</td><td align='right'>2.50</td><td align='right'>0.20</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>1.30</td><td align='right'>3000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rye bread</td><td align='right'>5</td><td align='right'>2.00</td><td align='right'>0.15</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>1.04</td><td align='right'>2340</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Beans, white, dried</td><td align='right'>5</td><td align='right'>2.00</td><td align='right'>0.35</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>1.16</td><td align='right'>3040</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><br /><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span></p> + + + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="85%" cellspacing="0" summary="Ten Cents will Purchase"> +<tr valign="top"><th align='left'> KIND OF FOOD MATERIAL</th><th align='right'>Price per<br />Pound</th><th align='right'>Total Weight<br />of Food<br />Material</th><th align='right'>Protein</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>Carbohy-<br />drates</th><th align='right'>Energy</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cabbage</td><td align='right'>2½</td><td align='right'>4.00</td><td align='right'>0.05</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.18</td><td align='right'>460</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Celery</td><td align='right'>5</td><td align='right'>2.00</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.05</td><td align='right'>130</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Corn, canned</td><td align='right'>10</td><td align='right'>1.00</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.18</td><td align='right'>430</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Potatoes, 90 cents per bushel</td><td align='right'>1½</td><td align='right'>6.67</td><td align='right'>0.10</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.93</td><td align='right'>1970</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Potatoes, 60 cents per bushel</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='right'>10.00</td><td align='right'>0.15</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>1.40</td><td align='right'>2950</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Potatoes, 45 cents per bushel</td><td align='right'>¾</td><td align='right'>13.33</td><td align='right'>0.20</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>1.87</td><td align='right'>3935</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Turnips</td><td align='right'>1</td><td align='right'>10.00</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.54</td><td align='right'>1200</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Apples</td><td align='right'>1½</td><td align='right'>6.67</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>0.65</td><td align='right'>1270</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bananas</td><td align='right'>7</td><td align='right'>1.43</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.18</td><td align='right'>370</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Oranges</td><td align='right'>6</td><td align='right'>1.67</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.13</td><td align='right'>250</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Strawberries</td><td align='right'>7</td><td align='right'>1.43</td><td align='right'>.01</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.09</td><td align='right'>215</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sugar</td><td align='right'>6</td><td align='right'>1.67</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>1.67</td><td align='right'>2920</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><br />It is to be noted in the table that, ordinarily, for the same amount of +money the most nutrients can be obtained in the form of milk, cheese, +sugar, and beans, corn meal, wheat flour, oatmeal, and cereals in bulk. +While meats supply protein liberally, they fail to furnish carbohydrates +as the vegetables. As discussed in the chapter on Dietary Studies of +Families, unnecessarily expensive foods are often used, resulting either +in lack of nutrients or unbalanced rations.</p> + + +<h3>EXAMPLES</h3> + +<p>1. Compute the calories and the amounts of protein, fat, and +carbohydrates that can be procured for 25 cents in cheese selling for 18 +cents per pound; how do these compare with the nutrients in eggs at 20 +cents per dozen?</p> + +<p>2. Which food furnishes the larger amount of nutrients, potatoes at 50 +cents per bushel or flour at $6 per barrel?</p> + +<p>3. How do beans at 10 cents per quart compare in nutritive value with +beef at 15 Cents per pound?</p> + +<p>4. How does salt codfish at 10 cents per pound compare in nutritive +value with lamb chops at 15 cents per pound?</p> + +<p>5. Compare in nutritive value cream at 25 cents per quart with butter at +30 cents per pound.</p> + +<p>6. Calculate the composition and nutritive value of a cake made of +sugar, 8 oz.; butter, 4 oz.; eggs, 8 oz.; flour, 8 oz.; and milk, 4 oz.; +the baked cake weighs one and three fourths pounds.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span></p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Average Composition of Common American Food Products</span></h4> + +<p class='center'>(From Farmer's Bulletin, No. 142, U. S. Dept. of Agr.)</p> + + + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="95%" cellspacing="0" summary="Average Composition of Common American Food Products"> +<tr valign="top"><th align='left'>FOOD MATERIAL (as purchased)</th><th align='left'>Refuse</th><th align='left'>Water</th><th align='left'>Protein</th><th align='left'>Fat</th><th align='left'>Carbohy-<br />drates</th><th align='left'>Ash</th><th align='left'>Fuel Value<br />per Pound</th></tr> +<tr><th align='left'>ANIMAL FOOD</th><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>%</td><td align='right'>Calories</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Beef, fresh:</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chuck ribs</span></td><td align='right'>16.3</td><td align='right'>52.6</td><td align='right'>15.5</td><td align='right'>15.0</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>910</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Flank</span></td><td align='right'>10.2</td><td align='right'>54.0</td><td align='right'>17.0</td><td align='right'>19.0</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1105</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Loin</span></td><td align='right'>13.3</td><td align='right'>52.5</td><td align='right'>16.1</td><td align='right'>17.5</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>1025</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Porterhouse steak</span></td><td align='right'>12.7</td><td align='right'>52.4</td><td align='right'>19.1</td><td align='right'>17.9</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>1100</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Sirloin steak</td><td align='right'>12.8</td><td align='right'>54.0</td><td align='right'>16.5</td><td align='right'>16.1</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>975</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Neck</span></td><td align='right'>27.6</td><td align='right'>45.9</td><td align='right'>14.5</td><td align='right'>11.9</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1165</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ribs</span></td><td align='right'>20.8</td><td align='right'>43.8</td><td align='right'>13.9</td><td align='right'>21.2</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1135</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rib rolls</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>63.9</td><td align='right'>19.3</td><td align='right'>16.7</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>1055</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Round</span></td><td align='right'>7.2</td><td align='right'>60.7</td><td align='right'>19.0</td><td align='right'>12.8</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>890</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rump</span></td><td align='right'>20.7</td><td align='right'>45.0</td><td align='right'>13.8</td><td align='right'>20.2</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1090</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Shank, fore</span></td><td align='right'>36.9</td><td align='right'>42.9</td><td align='right'>12.8</td><td align='right'>7.3</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>545</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Shoulder and clod</span></td><td align='right'>16.4</td><td align='right'>56.8</td><td align='right'>16.4</td><td align='right'>9.8</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>715</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fore quarter</span></td><td align='right'>18.7</td><td align='right'>49.1</td><td align='right'>14.5</td><td align='right'>17.5</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>995</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hind quarter</span></td><td align='right'>15.7</td><td align='right'>50.4</td><td align='right'>15.4</td><td align='right'>18.3</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1045</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Beef, corned, canned,</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">pickled, dried:</span></td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Corned beef</span></td><td align='right'>8.4</td><td align='right'>49.2</td><td align='right'>14.3</td><td align='right'>23.8</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>4.6</td><td align='right'>1245</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tongue, pickled</span></td><td align='right'>6.0</td><td align='right'>58.9</td><td align='right'>11.9</td><td align='right'>19.2</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>4.3</td><td align='right'>1010</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dried, salted, and smoked</span></td><td align='right'>4.7</td><td align='right'>53.7</td><td align='right'>26.4</td><td align='right'>6.9</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>8.9</td><td align='right'>790</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Canned boiled beef</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>51.8</td><td align='right'>25.5</td><td align='right'>22.5</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>1410</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Canned corned beef</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>51.8</td><td align='right'>26.3</td><td align='right'>18.7</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>4.0</td><td align='right'>1270</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Veal:</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Breast</span></td><td align='right'>21.3</td><td align='right'>52.0</td><td align='right'>15.4</td><td align='right'>11.0</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>745</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Leg</span></td><td align='right'>14.2</td><td align='right'>60.1</td><td align='right'>15.5</td><td align='right'>7.9</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>625</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Leg cutlets</span></td><td align='right'>3.4</td><td align='right'>68.3</td><td align='right'>20.1</td><td align='right'>7.5</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>695</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fore quarter</span></td><td align='right'>24.5</td><td align='right'>54.2</td><td align='right'>15.1</td><td align='right'>6.0</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>535</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hind quarter</span></td><td align='right'>20.7</td><td align='right'>56.2</td><td align='right'>16.2</td><td align='right'>6.6</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>580</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mutton:</span></td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Flank</span></td><td align='right'>9.9</td><td align='right'>39.0</td><td align='right'>13.8</td><td align='right'>36.9</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>1770</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Leg, hind</span></td><td align='right'>18.4</td><td align='right'>51.2</td><td align='right'>15.1</td><td align='right'>14.7</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>890</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Loin chops</span></td><td align='right'>16.0</td><td align='right'>42.0</td><td align='right'>13.5</td><td align='right'>28.3</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1415</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fore quarter</span></td><td align='right'>21.2</td><td align='right'>41.6</td><td align='right'>12.3</td><td align='right'>24.5</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1235</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hind quarter, without tallow</span></td><td align='right'>17.2</td><td align='right'>45.4</td><td align='right'>13.8</td><td align='right'>23.2</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1210</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Lamb:</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Breast</span></td><td align='right'>10.1</td><td align='right'>45.5</td><td align='right'>15.4</td><td align='right'>19.1</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>1075</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Leg, hind</span></td><td align='right'>17.4</td><td align='right'>52.9</td><td align='right'>15.9</td><td align='right'>13.6</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>860</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Pork, fresh:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ham</span></td><td align='right'>10.7</td><td align='right'>48.0</td><td align='right'>13.5</td><td align='right'>25.9</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>1320</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Loin chops</span></td><td align='right'>19.7</td><td align='right'>41.8</td><td align='right'>13.4</td><td align='right'>24.2</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>1245</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Shoulder</span></td><td align='right'>12.4</td><td align='right'>44.9</td><td align='right'>12.0</td><td align='right'>29.8</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1450</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tenderloin</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>66.5</td><td align='right'>18.9</td><td align='right'>13.0</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>895</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Pork, salted, cured, pickled:</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ham, smoked</span></td><td align='right'>13.6</td><td align='right'>34.8</td><td align='right'>14.2</td><td align='right'>33.4</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>4.2</td><td align='right'>1635</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Shoulder, smoked</span></td><td align='right'>18.2</td><td align='right'>36.8</td><td align='right'>13.0</td><td align='right'>26.6</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>5.5</td><td align='right'>1335</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Salt pork</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>7.9</td><td align='right'>1.9</td><td align='right'>86.2</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>3.9</td><td align='right'>3555</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bacon, smoked</span></td><td align='right'>7.7</td><td align='right'>17.4</td><td align='right'>9.1</td><td align='right'>62.2</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>4.1</td><td align='right'>2715</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Sausage:</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bologna</span></td><td align='right'>3.3</td><td align='right'>55.2</td><td align='right'>18.2</td><td align='right'>19.7</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>3.8</td><td align='right'>1155</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pork</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>39.8</td><td align='right'>13.0</td><td align='right'>44.2</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>2.2</td><td align='right'>2075</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Frankfort</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>57.2</td><td align='right'>19.6</td><td align='right'>18.6</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>3.4</td><td align='right'>1155</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Soups:</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Celery, cream of</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>88.6</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>2.8</td><td align='right'>5.0</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>235</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Beef</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>92.9</td><td align='right'>4.4</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>1.2</td><td align='right'>120</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Meat stew</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>84.5</td><td align='right'>4.6</td><td align='right'>4.3</td><td align='right'>5.5</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>365</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tomato</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>90.0</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>5.6</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>185</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Poultry:</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chicken, broilers</span></td><td align='right'>41.6</td><td align='right'>43.7</td><td align='right'>12.8</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>305</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fowls</span></td><td align='right'>25.9</td><td align='right'>47.1</td><td align='right'>13.7</td><td align='right'>12.3</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>765</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Goose</span></td><td align='right'>17.6</td><td align='right'>38.5</td><td align='right'>13.4</td><td align='right'>29.8</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1475</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Turkey</span></td><td align='right'>22.7</td><td align='right'>42.4</td><td align='right'>16.1</td><td align='right'>18.4</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>1060</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Fish:</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cod, dressed</span></td><td align='right'>29.9</td><td align='right'>58.5</td><td align='right'>11.1</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>220</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Halibut, steaks or sections</span></td><td align='right'>17.7</td><td align='right'>61.9</td><td align='right'>15.3</td><td align='right'>4.4</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>475</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mackerel, whole</span></td><td align='right'>44.7</td><td align='right'>40.4</td><td align='right'>10.2</td><td align='right'>4.2</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>370</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Perch, yellow dressed</span></td><td align='right'>35.1</td><td align='right'>50.7</td><td align='right'>12.8</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>275</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Shad, whole</span></td><td align='right'>50.1</td><td align='right'>35.2</td><td align='right'>9.4</td><td align='right'>4.8</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>380</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Shad, roe</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>71.2</td><td align='right'>20.9</td><td align='right'>3.8</td><td align='right'>2.6</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>600</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Fish, preserved:</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cod, salt</span></td><td align='right'>24.9</td><td align='right'>40.2</td><td align='right'>16.0</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>18.5</td><td align='right'>325</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Herring, smoked</span></td><td align='right'>44.4</td><td align='right'>19.2</td><td align='right'>20.5</td><td align='right'>8.8</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>7.4</td><td align='right'>755</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Fish, canned</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Salmon</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>63.5</td><td align='right'>21.8</td><td align='right'>12.1</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>2.6</td><td align='right'>915</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sardines</span><a name="FNanchor_A_8" id="FNanchor_A_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_8" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></td><td align='right'>[A]5.0</td><td align='right'>53.6</td><td align='right'>23.7</td><td align='right'>12.1</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>5.3</td><td align='right'>950</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Shellfish:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Clams</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>80.8</td><td align='right'>10.6</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>5.2</td><td align='right'>2.3</td><td align='right'>340</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Crabs</span></td><td align='right'>52.4</td><td align='right'>36.7</td><td align='right'>7.9</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>200</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lobsters</span></td><td align='right'>61.7</td><td align='right'>30.7</td><td align='right'>5.9</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>145</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Eggs: Hen's eggs</td><td align='right'><a name="FNanchor_B_9" id="FNanchor_B_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_9" class="fnanchor">[B]</a>11.2</td><td align='right'>65.5</td><td align='right'>13.1</td><td align='right'>9.3</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>635</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Dairy products, etc.:</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Butter</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>11.0</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>85.0</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>3.0</td><td align='right'>3410</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Whole milk</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>87.0</td><td align='right'>3.3</td><td align='right'>4.0</td><td align='right'>5.0</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>310</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Skim milk</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>90.5</td><td align='right'>3.4</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>5.1</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>165</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Buttermilk</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>91.0</td><td align='right'>3.0</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>4.8</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>160</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Condensed milk</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>26.9</td><td align='right'>8.8</td><td align='right'>8.3</td><td align='right'>54.1</td><td align='right'>1.9</td><td align='right'>1430</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cream</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>74.0</td><td align='right'>2.5</td><td align='right'>18.5</td><td align='right'>4.5</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>865</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cheese, Cheddar</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>27.4</td><td align='right'>27.7</td><td align='right'>36.8</td><td align='right'>4.1</td><td align='right'>4.0</td><td align='right'>2075</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cheese, full cream</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>34.2</td><td align='right'>25.9</td><td align='right'>33.7</td><td align='right'>2.4</td><td align='right'>3.8</td><td align='right'>1885</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="8"> </td></tr> +<tr> <th align='left'>VEGETABLE FOOD</th></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Flour, meal, etc.:</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Entire wheat flour</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>11.4</td><td align='right'>13.8</td><td align='right'>1.9</td><td align='right'>71.9</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>1650</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Graham flour</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>11.3</td><td align='right'>13.3</td><td align='right'>2.2</td><td align='right'>71.4</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>1645</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Wheat flour, patent roller process</span></td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">High-grade and medium</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>12.0</td><td align='right'>11.4</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>75.1</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>1635</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Low grade</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>12.0</td><td align='right'>14.0</td><td align='right'>1.9</td><td align='right'>71.2</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>1640</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Macaroni, vermicelli, etc</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>10.3</td><td align='right'>13.4</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>74.1</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>1645</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Wheat breakfast food</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>9.6</td><td align='right'>12.1</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>75.2</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>1680</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Buckwheat flour</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>13.6</td><td align='right'>6.4</td><td align='right'>1.2</td><td align='right'>77.9</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>1605</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rye flour</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>12.9</td><td align='right'>6.8</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>78.7</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1620</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Corn meal</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>12.5</td><td align='right'>9.2</td><td align='right'>1.9</td><td align='right'>75.4</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>1635</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Oat breakfast food</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>7.7</td><td align='right'>16.7</td><td align='right'>7.3</td><td align='right'>66.2</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>1800</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rice</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>12.3</td><td align='right'>8.0</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>79.0</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>1620</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tapioca</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>11.4</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>88.0</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>1650</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Starch</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>90.0</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>1675</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Bread, pastry, etc.:</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">White bread</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>35.3</td><td align='right'>9.2</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>53.1</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>1200</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Brown bread</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>43.6</td><td align='right'>5.4</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>47.1</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>1040</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Bread, pastry, etc.:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Graham bread</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>35.7</td><td align='right'>8.9</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>52.1</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>1195</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Whole wheat bread</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>38.4</td><td align='right'>9.7.</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>49.7</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>1130</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rye bread</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>35.7</td><td align='right'>9.0.</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>53.2</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>1170</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cake</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>19.9</td><td align='right'>6.3.</td><td align='right'>9.0</td><td align='right'>63.3</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>1630</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cream crackers</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>6.8</td><td align='right'>9.7.</td><td align='right'>12.1</td><td align='right'>69.7</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>1925</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Oyster crackers</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>4.8</td><td align='right'>11.3.</td><td align='right'>10.5</td><td align='right'>70.5</td><td align='right'>2.9</td><td align='right'>1910</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Soda crackers</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>5.9</td><td align='right'>9.8.</td><td align='right'>9.1</td><td align='right'>73.1</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>1875</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Sugars, etc.:</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Molasses</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>70.0</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>1225</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Candy</span><a name="FNanchor_C_10" id="FNanchor_C_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_10" class="fnanchor">[C]</a></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>96.0</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>1680</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Honey</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>81.0</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>1420</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sugar, granulated</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>100.0</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>1750</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Maple sirup</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>71.4</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>1250</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Vegetables:<a name="FNanchor_D_11" id="FNanchor_D_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_D_11" class="fnanchor">[D]</a></td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Beans, dried</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>12.6</td><td align='right'>22.5.</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>59.6</td><td align='right'>3.5</td><td align='right'>1520</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Beans, Lima, shelled</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>68.5</td><td align='right'>7.1.</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>22.0</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>540</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Beans, string</span></td><td align='right'>7.0</td><td align='right'>83.0</td><td align='right'>2.1.</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>6.9</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>170</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Beets</span></td><td align='right'>20.0</td><td align='right'>70.0</td><td align='right'>1.3.</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>7.7</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>160</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cabbage</span></td><td align='right'>15.0</td><td align='right'>77.7</td><td align='right'>1.4.</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>4.8</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>115</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Celery</span></td><td align='right'>20.0</td><td align='right'>75.6</td><td align='right'>0.9.</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>2.6</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>65</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Corn, green (sweet), edible portion</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>75.4</td><td align='right'>3.1</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>19.7</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>440</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cucumbers</span></td><td align='right'>15.0</td><td align='right'>81.1</td><td align='right'>0.7.</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>2.6</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>65</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lettuce</span></td><td align='right'>15.0</td><td align='right'>80.5</td><td align='right'>1.0.</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>2.5</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>65</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mushrooms</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>88.1</td><td align='right'>3.5</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>6.8</td><td align='right'>1.2</td><td align='right'>185</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Onions</span></td><td align='right'>10.0</td><td align='right'>78.9</td><td align='right'>1.4.</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>8.9</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>190</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Parsnips</span></td><td align='right'>20.0</td><td align='right'>66.4</td><td align='right'>1.3.</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>10.8</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>230</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Peas (<i>Pisum sativum</i>), dried.</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>9.5</td><td align='right'>24.6</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>62.0</td><td align='right'>2.9</td><td align='right'>1565</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Peas (<i>Pisum sativum</i>), shelled</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>74.6</td><td align='right'>7.0</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>16.9</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>440</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cowpeas, dried</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>13.0</td><td align='right'>21.4.</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>60.8</td><td align='right'>3.4</td><td align='right'>1505</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Potatoes</span></td><td align='right'>20.0</td><td align='right'>62.6</td><td align='right'>1.8.</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>14.7</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>295</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rhubarb</span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span></td><td align='right'>40.0</td><td align='right'>56.6</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>2.2</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>60</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sweet potatoes</span></td><td align='right'>20.0</td><td align='right'>55.2</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>21.9</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>440</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Spinach</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>92.3</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>3.2</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>95</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Squash</span></td><td align='right'>50.0</td><td align='right'>44.2</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>4.5</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>100</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tomatoes</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>94.3</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>3.9</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>100</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Turnips</span></td><td align='right'>30.0</td><td align='right'>62.7</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>5.7</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>120</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Vegetables, canned:</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Baked beans</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>68.9</td><td align='right'>6.9</td><td align='right'>2.5</td><td align='right'>19.6</td><td align='right'>2.1</td><td align='right'>555</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Peas <i>(Pisum sativum), </i>green</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>85.3</td><td align='right'>3.6</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>9.8</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>235</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Corn, green</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>76.1</td><td align='right'>2.8</td><td align='right'>1.2</td><td align='right'>19.0</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>430</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Succotash</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>75.9</td><td align='right'>3.6</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>18.6</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>425</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tomatoes</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>94.0</td><td align='right'>1.2</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>4.0</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>95</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Fruits, berries, etc., fresh:<a name="FNanchor_E_12" id="FNanchor_E_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_E_12" class="fnanchor">[E]</a></td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Apples</span></td><td align='right'>25.0</td><td align='right'>63.3</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>10.8</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>190</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bananas</span></td><td align='right'>35.0</td><td align='right'>48.9</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>14.3</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>260</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Grapes</span></td><td align='right'>25.0</td><td align='right'>58.0</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>1.2</td><td align='right'>14.4</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>295</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lemons</span></td><td align='right'>30.0</td><td align='right'>62.5</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>5.9</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>125</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Muskmelons</span></td><td align='right'>50.0</td><td align='right'>44.8</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>4.6</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>80</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Oranges</span></td><td align='right'>27.0</td><td align='right'>63.4</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>8.5</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>150</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pears</span></td><td align='right'>10.0</td><td align='right'>76.0</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>12.7</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>230</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Persimmons, edible portion</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>66.1</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>31.5</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>550</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Raspberries</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>85.8</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>12.6</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>220</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Strawberries</span></td><td align='right'>5.0</td><td align='right'>85.9</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>7.0</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>150</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Watermelons</span></td><td align='right'>59.4</td><td align='right'>37.5</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>2.7</td><td align='right'>0.1</td><td align='right'>50</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Fruits, dried:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Apples</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>28.1</td><td align='right'>1.6</td><td align='right'>2.2</td><td align='right'>66.1</td><td align='right'>2.0</td><td align='right'>1185</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Apricots</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>29.4</td><td align='right'>4.7</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>62.5</td><td align='right'>2.4</td><td align='right'>1125</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dates</span></td><td align='right'>10.0</td><td align='right'>13.8</td><td align='right'>1.9</td><td align='right'>2.5</td><td align='right'>70.6</td><td align='right'>1.2</td><td align='right'>1275</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rhubarb</span></td><td align='right'>40.0</td><td align='right'>56.6</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>2.2</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>60</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Figs</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>18.8</td><td align='right'>4.3</td><td align='right'>0.3</td><td align='right'>74.2</td><td align='right'>2.4</td><td align='right'>1280</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Raisins</span></td><td align='right'>10.0</td><td align='right'>13.1</td><td align='right'>2.3</td><td align='right'>3.0</td><td align='right'>68.5</td><td align='right'>3.1</td><td align='right'>1265</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Nuts:</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Almonds</span></td><td align='right'>45.0</td><td align='right'>2.7</td><td align='right'>11.5</td><td align='right'>30.2</td><td align='right'>9.5</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>1515</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Brazil nuts</span></td><td align='right'>49.6</td><td align='right'>2.6</td><td align='right'>8.6</td><td align='right'>33.7</td><td align='right'>3.5</td><td align='right'>2.0</td><td align='right'>1485</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Butternuts</span></td><td align='right'>86.4</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>3.8</td><td align='right'>8.3</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>0.4</td><td align='right'>385</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chestnuts, fresh</span></td><td align='right'>16.0</td><td align='right'>37.8</td><td align='right'>5.2</td><td align='right'>4.5</td><td align='right'>35.4</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>915</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chestnuts, dried</span></td><td align='right'>24.0</td><td align='right'>4.5</td><td align='right'>8.1</td><td align='right'>5.3</td><td align='right'>56.4</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>1385</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cocoanuts</span></td><td align='right'><a name="FNanchor_F_13" id="FNanchor_F_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_F_13" class="fnanchor">[F]</a>48.8</td><td align='right'>7.2</td><td align='right'>2.9</td><td align='right'>25.9</td><td align='right'>14.3</td><td align='right'>0.9</td><td align='right'>1295</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cocoanut, prepared</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>3.5</td><td align='right'>6.3</td><td align='right'>57.4</td><td align='right'>31.5</td><td align='right'>1.3</td><td align='right'>2865</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Filberts</span></td><td align='right'>52.1</td><td align='right'>1.8</td><td align='right'>7.5</td><td align='right'>31.3</td><td align='right'>6.2</td><td align='right'>1.1</td><td align='right'>1430</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hickory nuts</span></td><td align='right'>62.2</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>5.8</td><td align='right'>25.5</td><td align='right'>4.3</td><td align='right'>0.8</td><td align='right'>1145</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pecans, polished</span></td><td align='right'>53.2</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>5.2</td><td align='right'>33.3</td><td align='right'>6.2</td><td align='right'>0.7</td><td align='right'>1465</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Peanuts</span></td><td align='right'>24.5</td><td align='right'>6.9</td><td align='right'>19.5</td><td align='right'>29.1</td><td align='right'>18.5</td><td align='right'>1.5</td><td align='right'>1775</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Piñon <i>(Pinus edulis)</i></span></td><td align='right'>40.6</td><td align='right'>2.0</td><td align='right'>8.7</td><td align='right'>36.8</td><td align='right'>10.2</td><td align='right'>1.7</td><td align='right'>1730</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Walnuts, black</span></td><td align='right'>74.1</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>7.2</td><td align='right'>14.6</td><td align='right'>3.0</td><td align='right'>0.5</td><td align='right'>730</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Walnuts, English</span></td><td align='right'>58.1</td><td align='right'>1.0</td><td align='right'>6.9</td><td align='right'>26.6</td><td align='right'>6.8</td><td align='right'>0.6</td><td align='right'>1250</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'>Miscellaneous:</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chocolate</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>5.9</td><td align='right'>12.9</td><td align='right'>48.7</td><td align='right'>30.3</td><td align='right'>2.2</td><td align='right'>5625</td></tr> +<tr> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cocoa, powdered</span></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>4.6</td><td align='right'>21.6</td><td align='right'>28.9</td><td align='right'>37.7</td><td align='right'>7.2</td><td align='right'>2160</td></tr> +<tr valign="top"> <td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cereal coffee, infusion</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 2em;">(1 part boiled in 20 parts water)</span><a name="FNanchor_G_14" id="FNanchor_G_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_G_14" class="fnanchor">[G]</a></td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>98.2</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>1.4</td><td align='right'>0.2</td><td align='right'>30</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_8" id="Footnote_A_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_8"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> Refuse, oil.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_9" id="Footnote_B_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_9"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> Refuse, shell.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_C_10" id="Footnote_C_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_10"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> Plain confectionery not containing nuts, fruit, or +chocolate.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_D_11" id="Footnote_D_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_D_11"><span class="label">[D]</span></a> Such vegetables as potatoes, squash, beets, etc., have a +certain amount of inedible material, skin, seeds, etc The amount varies +with the method of preparing the vegetables, and cannot be accurately +estimated The figures given for refuse of vegetables, fruits, etc., are +assumed to represent approximately the amount of refuse in these foods +as ordinarily prepared.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_E_12" id="Footnote_E_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_E_12"><span class="label">[E]</span></a> Fruits contain a certain proportion of inedible materials, +as skin, seeds, etc., which are properly classed as refuse. In some +fruits, as oranges and prunes, the amount rejected in eating is +practically the same as refuse. In others, as apples and pears, more or +less of the edible material is ordinarily rejected with the skin and +seeds and other inedible portions. The edible material which is thus +thrown away, and should properly be classed with the waste, is here +classed with the refuse. The figures for refuse here given represent, as +nearly as can be ascertained, the quantities ordinarily rejected.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_F_13" id="Footnote_F_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_F_13"><span class="label">[F]</span></a> Milk and shell.</p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_G_14" id="Footnote_G_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_G_14"><span class="label">[G]</span></a> The average of five analyses of cereal coffee grain is: +Water 6.2, protein 13.3, fat 3.4, carbohydrates 72.6, and ash 4.5 per +cent. Only a portion of the nutrients, however, enter into the infusion. +The average in the table represents the available nutrients in the +beverage. Infusions of genuine coffee and of tea like the above contain +practically no nutrients.</p></div> + + + + + + + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII</h2> + +<h3>DIETARY STUDIES</h3> + + +<p><b>244. Object of Dietary Studies.</b>—The quantity of food which different +families purchase varies between wide limits; a portion being lost +mechanically in preparation and a still larger and more variable amount +in the refuse and non-edible parts. If a record is made of all foods +purchased and the waste and non-edible portions are deducted, the +nutrients consumed by a family may be calculated by multiplying the +weight of each food by the average composition. If such calculations be +made, it will be found that in some families nearly a half pound per day +of both protein and fat is consumed by adults, while in other families +less than half of this amount is used. The object of dietary studies is +to determine the source, cost, composition, and nutritive value of the +foods consumed by different families; they also enable comparisons to be +made of the amounts of nutrients purchased. Extensive dietary studies +have been made by the United States Department of Agriculture, and the +results have been published in various bulletins.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[76]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>245. Wide and Narrow Rations.</b>—When the amount of carbohydrates in a +ration is small in comparison with the protein, it is called a narrow +ration, while a wide ration is one in which the carbohydrates are much +in ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>cess of the protein. When a ration contains 0.40 of a pound of +protein, 0.40 of a pound of fat, and 1 pound of carbohydrates, it has a +nutritive ratio of 1 to 4.8 and is a narrow ration. To calculate the +nutritive ratio, the fat is multiplied by 2¼, the product added to +the carbohydrates, and this sum divided by the protein. It is not +possible to designate accurately the amount of protein and other +nutrients that should be in the daily ration of all persons, because the +needs of the body vary so with different individuals. Hard and fast +rules governing the amounts of nutrients to be consumed cannot as yet be +formulated, as our knowledge of the subject is too limited. It is known +that both excessive and scant amounts are alike injurious. While the +appetite may indicate either hunger or satiety, it alone cannot always +be relied upon as a safe guide for determining the amount and kind of +food to consume, although the demands of appetite should not be +disregarded until it has been demonstrated beyond a doubt that it is not +voicing the needs of nature. There has been a tendency which perhaps was +a survival of the Puritanical ideas of the early days to stamp as +hurtful whatever seemed desirable and pleasant; as examples might be +cited the craving for water by fever patients, and for sugar by growing +children, which have now been proven to be normal demands of nature.</p> + +<p><b>246. Dietary Standards.</b>—As a result of a large number of dietary +studies and digestion experiments, dietary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> standards have been +prepared. Atwater in this country and Voit in Germany have proposed such +standards for men employed at different kinds of labor, as follows:<br /><br /></p> + + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="75%" cellspacing="0" summary="standards for men employed at different kinds of labor, as follows"> +<tr valign="top"><td align='left'> </td><th align='right'>Protein</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>Carbohy-<br />drates</th><th align='right'>Fuel<br />Value</th><th align='right'>Nutritive</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align='right'>lb.</td><td align='right'>lb.</td><td align='right'>lb.</td><td align='right'>Calories</td><td align='right'>Ratio</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Man with little physical exercise</td><td align='right'>0.20</td><td align='right'>0.20</td><td align='right'>0.66</td><td align='right'>2450</td><td align='right'>5.5</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Man with light muscular work</td><td align='right'>0.22</td><td align='right'>0.22</td><td align='right'>0.77</td><td align='right'>2800</td><td align='right'>5.7</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Man with moderate muscular work</td><td align='right'>0.28</td><td align='right'>0.28</td><td align='right'>0.99</td><td align='right'>3520</td><td align='right'>5.8</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Man with active muscular work</td><td align='right'>0.33</td><td align='right'>0.33</td><td align='right'>1.10</td><td align='right'>4060</td><td align='right'>5.6</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Man with hard muscular work</td><td align='right'>0.39</td><td align='right'>0.55</td><td align='right'>1.43</td><td align='right'>5700</td><td align='right'>6.9</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><br />In the table it will be seen that the quantity of nutrients increases +with the labor to be performed. In order to secure the necessary heat +and energy, rations for men at heavy labor contain proportionally more +fat and carbohydrates than are required for light work. All dietary +standards, however, should be regarded as tentative only. Opinions +differ greatly on different points; for example, as to the amount of +protein a ration should contain. This is a matter that can be determined +only from extended investigations under a variety of conditions, and as +yet results are too meager to formulate other than tentative standards. +Chittenden has found that the body can be sustained on very much less +protein than is called for in the standard ration.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[77]</sup></small></b></a> The amount of +protein in the ration should be ample to sustain the body weight and +maintain a nitrogen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> equilibrium; that is, the income and outgo of +nitrogen from the body should be practically equal.</p> + +<div class="trans-note"> + Transcriber's Note: Fig. 58. is not of good quality,<br />but has been placed for information. + </div> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/img047a.jpg"><img + src="images/img047a-tb.jpg" width="374" height="500" + alt="Fig. 58." /></a><br /> + </div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span></p> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 58.—<span class="smcap">Dietaries and Dietary +Standards</span>.</h4> + +<h5>(From Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin.)</h5> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"While one freely admits that health and a large measure of +muscular strength may be maintained upon a minimum supply of +protein, yet I think that a dispassionate survey of mankind will +show that races which adopt such a diet are lacking in what, for +want of a better word, one can only describe as energy." <a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[28]</sup></small></b></a></p></div> + +<p>On the other hand, excessive and unnecessarily large amounts of protein +are sometimes consumed, adding greatly to the cost of the ration and +necessitating additional labor on the part of the body for its +elimination.</p> + +<p><b>247. Number of Meals per Day.</b>—Some persons advocate two meals per day +rather than three, but dietary studies show that the best results are +secured when the food is divided among three rather than two meals, and +with a two-meal system the tendency is to consume a larger total amount +of food than when three meals are eaten. It is not essential that the +food be equally divided among the three meals. Any one of them may be +lighter or more substantial as the habits and inclinations of the +individual dictate. If it is found necessary to reduce the total +quantity of food consumed, this may be done by a proportional reduction +of each of the meals, or of any one of them instead of decreasing the +number of meals per day. The occasional missing of a meal is sometimes +beneficial, in cases of digestion disorders, but the ordinary +requirements of persons in normal health who have either mental or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> +physical labor to perform are best met when three meals per day are +consumed, as this insures an even supply of nutrients. For persons of +sedentary habits, the kind and quantity of food at each meal must be +regulated largely by the individual from knowledge based on personal +experience.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"In the matter of diet every man must, in the last resort, be a law +unto himself; but he should draw up his dietetic code intelligently +and apply it honestly, giving due heed to the warnings which nature +is sure to address to him should he at any time transgress."<a href='#Page_351'><b><small><sup>[28]</sup></small></b></a></p></div> + +<p>If there is trouble in digesting the food, it is well to study the other +habits of life along with the food question, for it may be the +difficulty arises from some other cause, and would be remedied by more +exercise and fresh air, avoiding rush immediately after meals, more +thorough mastication, or less worry. It is a serious matter to shut off +the supply of food from a person not suffering from some disease and who +is working; as well cut off the supply of fuel from a furnace and then +expect a full amount of energy and heat. But unlike the furnace, when +the human body is deprived of needed nutrients it preys upon itself and +uses up its reserve that should be drawn upon only in cases of illness +or extreme nervous strain. Some persons live in such a way as to never +have any reserve of strength and energy to call upon but use up each day +all the body can produce and so become physical bankrupts when they +should be in their prime. Food is required for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> production of nerve +energy as well as physical energy.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[78]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>248. Mixed Dietary Desirable.</b>—Experiments in the feeding of farm +animals show that the best results come from the combination of a number +of foods to form a mixed ration, rather than from the use of one food +alone,<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[79]</sup></small></b></a> for in this way the work of digestion is more evenly +distributed, and a higher degree of efficiency is secured from the foods +consumed. The same is true in human feeding; the best results are +secured from a mixed diet. Ordinarily, about two fifths of the nutrients +of a ration are derived from animal and three fifths from vegetable +sources.</p> + +<p><b>249. Animal and Vegetable Foods; Economy of Production.</b>—Animal foods +can never compete in cheapness of the nutrients with cereals and +vegetables, as it takes six to eight pounds or more of a cereal, +together with forage crops, to make a pound of meat. Hence the returns +in food value are very much larger from the direct use of the cereals as +human food, than from the feeding of cereals to cattle and the use of +the meat. As the population of a country increases, and foods +necessarily become more expensive, cereals are destined to replace +animal foods to a great extent, solely as a matter of economy.</p> + +<p><b>250. Food Habits.</b>—Long-established dietary habits and customs are not +easily changed, and when the body becomes accustomed to certain foods, +substitution<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> of others, although equally valuable, may fail to give +satisfactory results. For example, immigrants from southern Europe +demand foods with which they are familiar, as macaroni, olive oil, and +certain kinds of cheese, foods which are generally imported and more +expensive than the staples produced in this country,<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[80]</sup></small></b></a> and when they +are compelled to live on other foods, even though they have as many +nutrients, they complain of being underfed. Previously acquired food +habits appear to affect materially the process of digestion and +assimilation. Sudden and pronounced change in the feeding of farm +animals is attended with unsatisfactory results, and whenever changes +are made in the food of either humans or animals they should be gradual +rather than radical.</p> + +<p><b>251. Underfed Families.</b>—As the purchasing of food is often done by +inexperienced persons, palatability rather than nutritive value is made +the basis of choice. Dietary studies show that because of lack of +knowledge of the nutritive value of foods, whole families are often +underfed. Particularly is this true where the means for purchasing foods +are limited. In dietary studies among poor families in New York +City,<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[81]</sup></small></b></a> the United States Department of Agriculture notes: "It is +quite evident that what is needed among these families more than +anything else is instruction in the way to make the little they have go +the farthest." Some classes of the rich too are equally liable to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> +underfed, as they are more prone to food notions and are able to indulge +them. Among the children of the rich are found some as poorly nourished +as among the poor.</p> + +<p><b>252. Cheap and Expensive Foods.</b>—Among the more expensive items of a +ration are meats, butter, and canned fruits. The difference in +composition and nutritive value between various cuts of meat is small, +being largely physical, and affecting taste and flavor rather than +nutritive value. Expensive cuts of meat, high-priced breakfast cereals, +tropical fruits and foods which impart special flavors, add little in +the way of nutritive value to the ration, but greatly enhance the cost +of living. Ordinarily the cheapest foods are corn meal, wheat flour and +bread, milk, beans, cheese, sugar, and potatoes.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[7]</sup></small></b></a> The amount of animal +and vegetable foods to combine with these to form a balanced ration may +be governed largely by personal preference or cost, as there is little +difference in nutritive value. The selection of foods on the basis of +cost and nutritive value is discussed in Chapter XVI.</p> + +<p><b>253. Food Notions.</b>—Many erroneous ideas exist as to the nutritive +value of foods, and often wholesome and valuable foods are discriminated +against because of prejudice. Skim milk is usually regarded as +containing little if any nourishing material, when in reality it has a +high protein content, and can be added to other foods to increase their +nutritive value. The less expensive cuts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> of meat contain more total +nutrients than many of the more expensive ones. Beef extracts have been +erroneously said to contain more nutrients than beef,<a href='#Page_353'><b><small><sup>[51]</sup></small></b></a> and mushrooms +to be equal in value of beefsteak; chemical analyses fail to confirm +either statement. The banana also has been overestimated as to food +value, and while it contains more nutrients than many fruits, it is not +the equal of cereals, as has been claimed.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[82]</sup></small></b></a> Cocoa, although a +valuable beverage, adds but little in the way of nutrients to a ration +unless it is made with milk. The value of a food should be based upon +its composition as determined by chemical analysis, its digestibility as +founded upon digestion experiments, and its palatability and mechanical +structure. Food notions have, in many instances, been the cause of +banishing from the dietary wholesome and nutritious foods, of greatly +increasing the cost of living, as well as of promulgating incorrect +ideas in regard to foods, so that individuals and in some cases entire +families have suffered from improper or insufficient food.</p> + +<p><b>254. Dietary of Two Families Compared.</b>—A dietary study often reveals +ways in which it is possible to improve the ration in kinds and amounts +of food, and sometimes at less expense. The following dietaries of two +families for the same period show that one family expends over twice as +much in the purchase of foods as the other family, and yet the one whose +food costs the less actually secures the larger amount of nutritive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> +material and is better fed than the family where more money is expended +for food.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[13]</sup></small></b></a><br /><br /></p> + +<h4> +<span class="smcap">Food Consumed, One Week</span></h4> + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Food Consumed, One Week"> +<tr><th colspan="2" align='center'><span class="smcap">Family</span> No. 1</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>20 loaves of bread</td><td align='right'>$1.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>10 to 12 lb. loin steak, or meat of similar cost</td><td align='right'>2.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>20 to 25 lb. rib roast, or similar meat</td><td align='right'>4.40</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>4 lb. high-priced cereal breakfast food, 20 ct.</td><td align='right'>0.80</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cake and pastry purchased</td><td align='right'>3.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>8 lb. butter, 30 ct.</td><td align='right'>2.40</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tea, coffee, spices, etc</td><td align='right'>0.75</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mushrooms</td><td align='right'>0.75</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Celery</td><td align='right'>1.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Oranges</td><td align='right'>2.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Potatoes</td><td align='right'>0.25</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Miscellaneous canned goods</td><td align='right'>2.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Milk</td><td align='right'>0.50</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Miscellaneous foods</td><td align='right'>2.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3 doz. eggs</td><td align='right'>0.60</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align='right'>——</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align='left'>$23.45</td></tr> +<tr><th colspan="2" align='center'><span class="smcap">Family</span> No. 2</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>15 lb. flour, bread home-made (skim milk used)</td><td align='right'>$0.45</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Yeast, shortening and skim milk</td><td align='right'>0.10</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>10 lb. steak (round. Hamburger and some loin)</td><td align='right'>1.50</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>10 lb. other meats, boiling pieces, rump roast, etc.</td><td align='right'>1.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>5 lb. cheese, 16 cents</td><td align='right'>0.80</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>5 lb. oatmeal (bulk)</td><td align='right'>0.15</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>5 lb. beans</td><td align='right'>0.25</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Home-made cake and pastry</td><td align='right'>1.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>6 lb. butter, 30 ct.</td><td align='right'>1.80</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3 lb. home-made shortening</td><td align='right'>0.25</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tea, coffee, and spices</td><td align='right'>0.40</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Apples</td><td align='right'>0.50</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Prunes</td><td align='right'>0.25</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Potatoes</td><td align='right'>0.25</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Milk</td><td align='right'>1.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Miscellaneous foods</td><td align='right'>1.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3 doz. eggs</td><td align='right'>0.60</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align='right'>——</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align='right'>$11.30</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <a href="images/img271.jpg"><img + src="images/img271-tb.jpg" width="457" height="500" + alt="Fig. 59." /></a><br /> + + </div> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 59.—<span class="smcap">Cost and Nutritive Value of +Rations</span>.</h4> + +<p>In comparing the foods used by the two families, it will be observed +that family No. 1 purchased their bread at the bakery at a cost of $ +1.00, while the bread of family No. 2 was home-made, skim milk being +used in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> its preparation, the flour, milk, yeast, and shortening costing +about 55 cents. Family No. 1 consumed 10 pounds of expensive steaks, +family No. 2 consumed the same number of pounds, a portion being cheaper +cuts. Instead of the 20 pounds of roast or similar beef used by family +No. 1, only one half as much and cheaper cuts as boiling pieces, stew, +rump roast, etc., were used by family No. 2; 5 pounds of beans and 5 +pounds of cheese taking the place of some of the meat. Family No. 1 +consumed 4 pounds of high-priced cereal breakfast foods, supposing they +contained a larger amount of nutrients than were actually present. In +place of the 4 pounds of high-priced cereal breakfast foods of family +No. 1, family No. 2 used 5 pounds of oatmeal purchased in bulk. Family +No. 1 bought their cake and pastry for $3.00, while those of family No. +2 were home made and cost $1.00. Family No. 2 used 2 pounds less butter +per week because of the preparation and use of home-made shortening from +beef suet and milk. They also purchased a smaller amount of tea, coffee, +and spices than family No. 1. Family No. 2 consumed a larger quantity of +less expensive fruits and vegetables than family No. 1, who ate 75 +cents' worth of mushrooms with the idea that they contained as much +protein as meat, but analyses show that mushrooms contain no more +nutrients than potatoes and similar vegetables. In place of the celery +and oranges, apples and prunes were used by family No. 2. The same +amount of potatoes was used by each. Fifty cents was spent for milk by +family No. 1 and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> $1.00 by family No. 2. The total amount expended for +food by family No. 1 was $23.45, while family No. 2 purchased a greater +variety of foods for $11.30, as well as foods containing more nutrients. +The approximate amounts of nutrients in the foods purchased by the two +families are given in the following table, from which it will be +observed that family No. 2 obtained a much larger amount of total +nutrients and was better fed at considerably less expense than family +No. 1.<br /><br /></p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Nutrients in Foods Consumed</span>.—<span class="smcap">Family No.</span> 1</h4> + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="Nutrients in Foods Consumed"> +<tr valign="top"><td align='left'> </td><th align='right'>Protein</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>Carbohy-<br />drates</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align='right'>Lb.</td><td align='right'>Lb.</td><td align='right'>Lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>20 lb. bread</td><td align='right'>1.98</td><td align='right'>0.28</td><td align='right'>11.42</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>10 lb. loin steak</td><td align='right'>1.59</td><td align='right'>1.76</td><td align='right'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>20 lb. rib roast</td><td align='right'>2.68</td><td align='right'>4.26</td><td align='right'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>4 lb. cereals</td><td align='right'>0.42</td><td align='right'>0.06</td><td align='right'>2.75</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>8 lb. butter</td><td align='right'>0.04</td><td align='right'>6.80</td><td align='right'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>25 lb. potatoes</td><td align='right'>0.45</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>3.83</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>20 lb. milk</td><td align='right'>0.70</td><td align='right'>0.80</td><td align='right'>1.00</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align='right'>——</td><td align='right'>——</td><td align='right'>——</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td align='right'>7.86</td><td align='right'>13.99</td><td align='right'>19.00</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><br /><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span></p> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Family No.</span> 2</h4> + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="Family No. 2"> +<tr valign="top"><td align='left'> </td><th align='right'>Protein</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>Carbohy-<br />drates</th></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align='right'>Lb.</td><td align='right'>Lb.</td><td align='right'>Lb.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'>15 lb. flour</td><td align='right'>1.89</td><td align='right'>0.12</td><td align='right'>11.15</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>5 lb. skim milk</td><td align='right'>0.16</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.26</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>10 lb. round steak</td><td align='right'>1.81</td><td align='right'>1.26</td><td align='right'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>10 lb. beef</td><td align='right'>1.32</td><td align='right'>2.02</td><td align='right'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>5 lb. cheese</td><td align='right'>1.40</td><td align='right'>1.75</td><td align='right'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>5 lb. oatmeal</td><td align='right'>0.78</td><td align='right'>0.36</td><td align='right'>3.40</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>6 lb. butter</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>5.10</td><td align='right'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3 lb. shortening</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>2.55</td><td align='right'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>3 lb. prunes</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.60</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>25 lb. apples</td><td align='right'>0.12</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>2.50</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>25 lb. potatoes</td><td align='right'>0.45</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>3.83</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>40 lb. milk</td><td align='right'>1.44</td><td align='right'>1.60</td><td align='right'>1.90</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>5 lb. beans</td><td align='right'>1.12</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>3.00</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align='right'>——</td><td align='right'>——</td><td align='right'>——</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td align='right'>10.55</td><td align='right'>14.80</td><td align='right'>26.64</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr valign="middle"><td align='left'>Difference in nutrients in favor<br />of family No. 2, consuming the<br />cheaper combination of foods</td><td align='right'>2.69</td><td align='right'>0.81</td><td align='right'>7.64</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><br /><b>255. Food in its Relation to Mental and Physical Vigor</b>.—When the body +is not properly supplied with food, the best results in the form of +productive work cannot be secured. There is a close relationship between +the nature of the food consumed and mental activity, also ability to +satisfactorily perform physical labor. "The productive power of the +individual as well as of the nation depends doubtless upon many factors +other than food, such as race, climate, habit, etc.,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> but there is no +gainsaying the fact that diet has also a profound and direct influence +upon it."<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[83]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p>If the body is diseased, it cannot make the right uses of the food, and +often the food is blamed when the trouble is due primarily to other +causes. The fact that a diseased digestive tract is unable to utilize +some foods is no valid reason why these foods should be discarded in the +dietary of persons in normal health, particularly when the food is in no +way responsible for the disease.</p> + +<p>Some diseases are most prevalent in the case of a restricted diet. A +change in the dietary of the Japanese navy greatly improved the health +of the sailors.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The prevalence of kakke or beriberi in the navy turned the +attention of many medical specialists toward the problem of +nutrition.... It was generally believed that there was some very +close connection between the disease and the rice diet.... One +outcome of these investigations was the passage of the food supply +act of the navy in 1884. The ration provided in accordance with +this act was sufficient to furnish an abundance of protein and +energy.... Following the change of ration in 1884, the prevalence +of the disease was very materially diminished, and at the end of +three years cases of kakke were practically unknown among the +marines."<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[83]</sup></small></b></a></p></div> + +<p><b>256. Dietary Studies in Public Institutions.</b>—Dietary studies in +public institutions, as prisons, and asylums for the insane, show that +it is possible to secure greater variety of food containing a larger +amount of nutrients, and even at a reduction in cost.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[84]</sup></small></b></a> In such +institutions it is important that the food should be not only ample<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> in +amount, but wholesome and nutritious, as many of the inmates respond +both physically and mentally to an improved diet. For humanitarian as +well as economic reasons institutional dietetics should more generally +be placed under the supervision of skilled dietists.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII</h2> + +<h3>RATIONAL FEEDING OF MAN</h3> + + +<p><b>257. Object.</b>—Rational feeding of man has for its object the +regulation of the food supply in accord with the demands of the body. It +is based upon the same principles as the rational feeding of animals; in +each, the best results in the way of health, amount of labor performed, +and economy are secured when the body receives nutrients sufficient for +the production of heat and energy and for the repair of worn-out +tissues. Rational feeding is simply regulation of the food, both as to +kind and amount, to meet the needs of the body.<a href='#Page_354'><b><small><sup>[72]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>258. Standard Rations.</b>—In human feeding, as in animal feeding, it is +not possible to lay down hard and fast rules as to the quantity of +nutrients required for a standard ration.<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[85]</sup></small></b></a> As stated in the chapter +on Dietary Studies, such standards have been proposed, but they are to +be considered as tentative rather than absolute, for the amount of food +required by different persons must necessarily vary with the +individuality. While it is impossible to establish absolute standards, +any large variation from the provisional standards usually<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> results in +lessened ability to accomplish work, ill health, or increased expense.</p> + +<p><b>259. Amounts of Food Consumed.</b>—The approximate amounts of some food +articles consumed per day are as follows:<br /><br /></p> + + + + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="The approximate amounts of some food +articles consumed per day are as follows"> +<tr valign="top"><td align='left'> </td><th align='right'>Range</th><th align='right'>Approximate<br />Amount in Lbs.</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bread</td><td align='right'>6 to 14 oz.</td><td align='right'>0.50</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Butter</td><td align='right'>2 to 5 oz.</td><td align='right'>0.12</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Potatoes</td><td align='right'>8 to 16 oz.</td><td align='right'>0.75</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cheese</td><td align='right'>1 to 4 oz.</td><td align='right'>0.12</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Beans</td><td align='right'>1 to 4 oz.</td><td align='right'>0.12</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Milk</td><td align='right'>8 to 32 oz.</td><td align='right'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sugar</td><td align='right'>2 to 5 oz.</td><td align='right'>0.20</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Meats</td><td align='right'>4 to 12 oz.</td><td align='right'>0.25</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Oatmeal</td><td align='right'>1 to 4 oz.</td><td align='right'>0.12</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + + +<p><br />In the calculation of rations it is desirable that the amount of any +food article should not exceed that designated, unless for some special +reason it has been found the food can consistently be increased. The +amount of nutrients given in dietary standards is for one day, and the +nutrients may be divided among the three meals as desired. It is to be +noted that, ordinarily, the foods which supply carbohydrates are flour, +corn meal, cereal products, potatoes, beans, sugar, and milk; those +which supply fat are milk, butter, lard, and meats; and those which +supply protein in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> liberal amounts are beans, cheese, meats, oatmeal, +cereals, bread, and milk.</p> + +<p><b>260. Average Composition of Foods.</b>—The amounts of nutrients in foods +are determined from the average composition of the foods. These figures +for average composition are based upon analyses of a large number of +samples of food materials.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[7]</sup></small></b></a> In individual cases it will be found that +foods may vary from the standards given; as for example, milk may +contain from 2.5 to 5 per cent of fat, while the protein and fat of +meats vary appreciably from the figures given for average composition. +With the cereals and vegetable foods, variations from the standards are +small. In the table, the composition of the food as purchased represents +all of the nutrients in the food, including those in the refuse, +trimmings, or waste, while the figures for the edible portion represent +the nutrients in the food after deducting what is lost as refuse. In +making calculations, the student should use the figures given for the +foods as purchased, unless the weights are of the edible portion only. +The figures in the table are on the basis of percentage amounts, or +nutrients in 100 pounds of food. By moving the decimal point two places +to the left, the figures will represent the nutrients in one pound, and +if this is multiplied by the number of pounds or fraction of a pound +used, the quantity of nutrients is secured. For example, suppose bread +contains 9.5 per cent of protein and 56 per cent of carbohydrates, 1 +pound<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> would contain 0.095 pound of protein, 0.56 pound of +carbohydrates; and 0.5 of a pound would contain approximately 0.05 pound +of protein and 0.28 pound of carbohydrates. In calculating rations, it +is not necessary to carry the figures to the third decimal place.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/img048.jpg" width="550" height="400" alt="Fig. 60" title="Fig. 60" /></div> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 60.—<span class="smcap">Food Articles for a Human +Ration</span>.</h4> + +<p><b>261. Example of a Ration.</b>—Suppose it is desired to calculate a ration +for a man at light muscular work. First, note the requirements in the +way of nutrients in the table "Dietary Standards," Section 246. Such a +ration should supply approximately 0.22 pound each of protein and fat, +and 0.77 pound of carbohydrates, and should yield 2800 calories. A trial +ration is made by combining the following:<br /><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span></p> + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="40%" cellspacing="0" summary="A trial +ration is made by combining the following"> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>Pound</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bread</td><td align='right'>0.50</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Butter</td><td align='right'>0.12</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Potatoes</td><td align='right'>0.75</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Milk</td><td align='right'>1.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sugar</td><td align='right'>0.12</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Beef</td><td align='right'>0.25</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ham</td><td align='right'>0.20</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Oatmeal</td><td align='right'>0.12</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Eggs</td><td align='right'>0.25</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><br />The quantities of nutrients in these food materials are approximately as +follows:<br /><br /></p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Ration for Man at Moderate Work</span></h4> + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="Ration for Man at Moderate Work"> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><th align='right'>Protein</th><th align='right'>Fat</th><th align='right'>C.H.</th><th align='right'>Calories</th></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>Lb.</td><td align='right'>Lb.</td><td align='right'>Lb.</td><td align='right'>Lb.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bread</td><td align='right'>0.50</td><td align='right'>0.05</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.29</td><td align='right'>653</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Butter</td><td align='right'>0.12</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.10</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>432</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Potato</td><td align='right'>0.75</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.12</td><td align='right'>244</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Milk</td><td align='right'>1.00</td><td align='right'>0.04</td><td align='right'>0.04</td><td align='right'>0.05</td><td align='right'>323</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sugar</td><td align='right'>0.12</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.12</td><td align='right'>192</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Beef (round)</td><td align='right'>0.25</td><td align='right'>0.05</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>218</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ham</td><td align='right'>0.20</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>0.07</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>331</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Oatmeal</td><td align='right'>0.12</td><td align='right'>0.02</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>0.08</td><td align='right'>223</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Eggs</td><td align='right'>0.25</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>0.03</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>164</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Squash</td><td align='right'>0.20</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>—</td><td align='right'>0.01</td><td align='right'>25</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>——</td><td align='right'>——</td><td align='right'>——</td><td align='right'>——</td><td align='right'>——</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'> </td><td align='right'>0.23</td><td align='right'>0.29</td><td align='right'>0.67</td><td align='right'>2805</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><br />It is to be noted that this ration contains approximately the amount of +protein called for in the standard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> ration, while the fat is slightly +more and the carbohydrates are less. The food value of the ration is +practically that called for in the standard. This ration is sufficiently +near the standard to supply the nutrient requirements of a man at light +muscular work. To supply palatability, some fruit and vegetables should +be added to the ration. These will contribute but little to the nutrient +content, but are necessary in order to secure health and the best +returns from the other foods, and as previously stated, they are not to +be estimated entirely upon the basis of nutrient content. A number of +food articles could be substituted in this ration, if desired, either in +the interests of economy, palatability, or personal preference.</p> + +<p><b>262. Requisites of a Balanced Ration.</b>—Reasonable combinations of +foods should be made to form balanced rations.<a href='#Page_350'><b><small><sup>[2]</sup></small></b></a> A number of foods slow +of digestion, or which require a large amount of intestinal work, should +not be combined; neither should foods which are easily digested and +which leave but little indigestible residue. After a ration has been +calculated and found to contain the requisite amount of nutrients, it +should be critically examined to see whether or not it fulfills the +following requirements:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Economy and adaptability to the work required.</p> + +<p>2. Necessary bulk or volume.</p> + +<p>3. Desired physiological influence of the foods upon the digestive +tract, whether constipating or laxative in character.</p> + +<p>4. Ease of digestion.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span></p> + +<p>5. Effect upon health. It is recognized that there are foods +wholesome and nutritious, that cannot be used by some persons, +while with others the same foods can be consumed with impunity.</p></div> + +<p>As explained in the chapter on Dietary Studies, the nutrients should be +supplied from a number of foods rather than from a few, because it is +believed the various nutrients, particularly the proteins, are not +absolutely identical from all sources, or equal in nutritive value.</p> + + +<h3>EXAMPLES</h3> + +<p>1. Calculate a ration for a man with little physical exercise.</p> + +<p>2. Calculate a ration for a man at hard muscular labor, and give the +approximate cost of the ration.</p> + +<p>3. Calculate the amounts of food and the nutrient requirements for a +family of seven for 10 days; five of the family to consume 0.8 as much +as an adult. Calculate the cost of the food; then calculate on the same +basis the probable cost of food for one year, adding 20 per cent for +fluctuation in market price and additional foods not included in the +list.</p> + +<p>4. Weigh out the food articles used in problem No. 2, and apportion them +among three meals.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX</h2> + +<h3>WATER</h3> + + +<p><b>263. Importance.</b>—Water is one of the most essential food materials. +It enters into the composition of the body, and without it the nutrients +of foods would be unavailable, and life could not be sustained. Water +unites chemically with various elements to form plant tissue and +supplies hydrogen and oxygen for the production of organic compounds +within the leaves of plants. In the animal economy it is not definitely +known whether or not water furnishes any of the elements of which the +tissues are composed, as the food contains liberal amounts of hydrogen +and oxygen; it is necessary mainly as the vehicle for distributing +nutrients in suspension and solution, and as a medium in which chemical, +physical, and physiological changes essential to life processes take +place. From a sanitary point of view, the condition of the water supply +is of great importance, as impure water seriously affects the health of +the consumer.<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[87]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>264. Impurities in Water.</b>—Waters are impure because of: (1) excessive +amounts of alkaline salts and other mineral compounds; (2) decaying +animal and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> vegetable matters which act chemically as poisons and +irritants, and which may serve as food for the development of +objectionable bacterial bodies; and (3) injurious bacteria. The most +common forms of impurities are excess of organic matter and bacterial +contamination. The sanitary condition of water is greatly influenced by +the character of the soil through which it flows and the extent to which +it has been polluted by surface drainage.<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[88]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img049.jpg" width="500" height="416" + alt="Fig. 61." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span>—<span class="smcap">Dirt and Impurities in a Surface +Well Water.</span></h4> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>265. Mineral Impurities.</b>—- The mineral impurities of water are mainly +soluble alkaline and similar compounds dissolved by the water in passing +through various layers of soil and rock. When water contains a large +amount of sodium chloride, sodium sulphate or carbonate, or other +alkaline salts, it is termed an "alkali water." Where water passes +through soil that has been largely formed from the decay of rocks +containing alkaline minerals, the water dissolves some of these minerals +and becomes alkaline. The kind of alkali determines the character of the +water; in some cases it is sodium carbonate, which is particularly +objectionable. The continued use of strong alkali water causes digestion +disorders, because of the irritating action upon the digestive tract. +Hard waters are due to the presence of lime compounds. In regions where +limestone predominates, the carbon dioxid in water acts as a solvent, +producing hard waters. Waters that are hard on account of the presence +of calcium carbonate give a deposit when boiled, due to liberation of +the carbon dioxid which is the material that renders the lime soluble. +Calcium sulphate, or gypsum, on the other hand, imparts permanent +hardness. There is no deposit when such waters are boiled. A large +number of minerals are found in various waters, often sufficient in +amount to impart physiological properties. Water that is highly charged +with mineral matter is difficult to improve sufficiently for household +purposes. About the only way is by distillation.<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[89]</sup></small></b></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>266. Organic Impurities.</b>—Water that flows over the surface of the +ground comes in contact with animal and vegetable material in various +stages of decay, and as a result some is dissolved and some is +mechanically carried along by the water. After becoming soluble, the +organic matter undergoes further chemical changes, as oxidation and +nitrification caused by bacteria. If the organic matter contain a large +amount of nitrogenous material, particularly of proteid origin, a series +of chemical changes induced by bacterial action takes place, resulting +in the production of nitrites. The nitrifying organisms first produce +nitrous acid products (nitrites), and in the further development of the +nitrifying process these are changed to nitrates. The ammonia formed as +the result of the decomposition of nitrogenous organic matter readily +undergoes nitrification changes. Nitrates and nitrites alone are not +injurious in water, but they are usually associated with objectionable +bacteria and generally indicate previous contamination.<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[90]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>267. Interpretation of a Water Analysis.</b>—"Total solid matter" +represents all the mineral, vegetable, and animal matter which a water +contains. It is the residue obtained by evaporating the water to dryness +at a temperature of 212° F. Average drinking water contains from 20 to +90 grains per gallon of solid matter. "Free ammonia" is that formed as a +result of the decomposition of animal or vegetable matter containing +nitrogen. Water of high purity usually contains less than 0.07<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> parts +per million of free ammonia. "Albuminoid ammonia" is derived from the +partially decomposed animal or vegetable material in water. The greater +the amount of nitrogenous organic impurities, the higher the albuminoid +ammonia. A good drinking water ought not to contain more than 0.10 part +per million of albuminoid ammonia. An abnormal quantity of chlorine +indicates surface drainage or sewage contamination, or an excess of +alkaline matter, as common salt. Nitrites should not be present, as they +are generally associated with matter not completely oxidized. Nitrites +are usually considered more objectionable than nitrates; both are +innocuous unless associated with disease-producing nitroörganisms.</p> + +<p><b>268. Natural Purification of Water.</b>—River waters are sometimes dark +colored because of large amounts of dissolved organic matter, but in +contact with the sun and air they gradually undergo natural purification +and the organic matter is oxidized. However, absolute reliance cannot be +placed upon natural purification of a bad water, as the objectionable +organisms often have great resistive power. There is no perfectly pure +water except that prepared in the chemical laboratory by distillation. +All natural waters come in contact with the soil and air, and +necessarily contain impurities proportional to the extent of their +contamination.</p> + +<p><b>269. Water in Relation to Health.</b>—There are many diseases, of which +typhoid fever is a type, that are dis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span>tinctly water-born. The typhoid +bacilli, present in countless numbers in the feces of persons suffering +or convalescent from typhoid fever, find their way into streams, lakes, +and wells.<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[91]</sup></small></b></a> They retain their vitality, and when they enter the +digestive tract of an individual, rapidly increase in numbers. Numerous +disastrous outbreaks of typhoid fever have been traced to contamination +of water. Coupled with the sanitary improvement of a city's water +supply, there is diminution of typhoid fever cases, and a noticeable +lowering of the death rate. Many cities and villages are dependent for +their water upon rivers and lakes into which surface drainage finds its +way, with all contaminating substances. Mechanical sedimentation and +filtration greatly improve waters of this class, but do not necessarily +render them entirely pure. Compounds of iron and aluminium are sometimes +added in small amounts, under chemical supervision, to such waters to +precipitate the organic impurities. Spring waters are not entirely above +suspicion, as oftentimes the soil through which they flow is highly +polluted. All water of doubtful purity should be boiled, and there are +but few natural waters of undoubted purity. There is no such thing as +absolutely pure water in a state of nature. The mountain streams perhaps +approach nearest to it where there are no humans to pollute the banks; +but then there are always the beasts and birds, and they, too, are +subject to disease. There are very few waters that at some time of the +year and under some conditions are not contaminated with +disease-producing organisms.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> No matter how carefully guarded are the +banks of lakes furnishing the water supply of cities, more or less +objectionable matter will get in. In seasons of heavy rains, large +amounts of surface water enter the lakes, carrying along the filth +gathered from many acres of land drained by the streams entering the +lakes. Some of the most serious outbreaks of typhoid fever have come +from temporary contamination of ordinarily fairly good drinking water. +In general, too little attention is given to the purity of drinking +water. It is just as important that water should be boiled as that food +should be cooked. One of the objects of cooking is to destroy the +injurious bacteria, and they are frequently more numerous in the +drinking water than in the food.</p> + +<p>The argument is sometimes advanced that the mineral matter present in +water is needed for the construction of the bone and other tissues of +the body, and that distilled water fails to supply the necessary mineral +matter. This is an erroneous assumption, as the mineral matter in the +food is more than sufficient for this purpose. When water is highly +charged with mineral salts, additional work for their elimination is +called for on the part of the organs of excretion, particularly the +kidneys; and furthermore, water nearly saturated with minerals cannot +exert its full solvent action.</p> + +<p>In discussing the immediate benefits resulting from improvement of +water, Fuertes says:<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[92]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Immediately after the change to the 'four mile intake' at Chicago +in 1893, there was a great reduction in typhoid. Lawrence,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> Mass., +showed a great improvement with the setting of the filters in +operation in September, 1893; fully half of the deaths in 1894 were +among persons known to have used the unfiltered canal water. The +conclusion is warranted that for the efficient control of the death +rate from typhoid fever it is necessary to have efficient sewerage +and drainage, proper methods of living, and pure water. The reason +why our large cities, which are all provided with sewerage, have +such high death rates is therefore without doubt their continuance +of the filthy practice of supplying drinking water which carries in +solution and suspension the washings from farms, from the streets, +from privies, from pigpens, and the sewage of cities.... And also +we should recognize the importance of flies and other winged +insects and birds which feed on offal as carriers of bacteria of +specific diseases from points of infection to the watersheds, and +the consequent washing of newly infected matter into our drinking +water by rains."</p></div> + +<p>There is a very close relationship between the surface water and that of +shallow wells. A shallow well is simply a reservoir for surface water +accumulations. It is stated that, when an improved system of drainage +was introduced into a part of London, many of the shallow wells became +dry, indicating the source from which they received their supply. Direct +subterranean connection between cesspools and wells is often traced in +the following way: A small amount of lithium, which gives a distinct +flame reaction, and a minute trace of which can be detected with the +spectroscope, is placed in the cesspool, and after a short time a +lithium reaction is secured from the well water.</p> + +<p>Rain water is relied upon in some localities for drinking purposes. That +collected in cities and in the vicin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span>ity of barns and dwellings contains +appreciable amounts of organic impurities. The brown color is due to the +impurities, ammonium carbonate being one of these. There are also traces +of nitrates and nitrites obtained from the air. When used for drinking, +rain water should be boiled.</p> + +<p><b>270. Improvement of Waters.</b>—Waters are improved by: (1) boiling, +which destroys the disease-producing organisms; (2) filtration, which +removes the materials mechanically suspended in the water; and (3) +distillation, which eliminates the impurities in suspension and +solution, as well as destroys all germ life.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img293.jpg" width="173" height="300" + alt="Fig. 62." /><br /> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span>—<span class="smcap">Pasteur<br />Water Filters.</span></h4> + + </div> + +<p><b>271. Boiling Water.</b>—In order to destroy the bacteria that may be in +drinking water, it is not sufficient to heat the water or merely let it +come to a boil. It has been found that if water is only partially +sterilized and then cooled in the open air, the bacteria develop more +rapidly than if the water had not been heated at all. It should boil +vigorously five to ten minutes; cholera and typhoid bacteria succumb in +five minutes or less. Care should be taken in cooling that the water is +not exposed to dust particles from the air nor placed in open vessels in +a dirty refrigerator. It should be kept in perfectly clean, +tight-stoppered bottles. These bottles should be frequently scalded. +Great reliance may be placed upon this method of water purification when +properly carried out.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span></p> + + + +<p><b>272. Filtration.</b>—Among the most efficient forms of water filters are +the Berkefeld and Pasteur. The Pasteur filter is made of unglazed +porcelain, and the Berkefeld of fine infusorial earth (finely divided +SiO<sub>2</sub>). Both are porous and allow a moderately rapid flow of water. +The flow from the Berkefeld filter is more rapid than from the Pasteur. +The mechanical impurities of the water are deposited upon the filtering +surface, due to the attraction which the material has for particles in +suspension. These particles usually are the sources of contamination and +carry bacteria. When first used, filters are satisfactory, but unless +carefully looked after they soon lose their ability to remove germs from +the water and may increase the impurity by accumulation. Small faucet +filters are made of porous stone, asbestos, charcoal, etc. Many of them +are of no value whatever or are even worse than valueless. Filters +should be frequently cleansed in boiling water or in steam under +pressure. Unless this is done, the filters may become incubators for +bacteria.</p> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>273. Distillation.</b>—When an unquestionably pure water supply is +desired, distillation should be resorted to. There are many forms of +stills for domestic use which are easily manipulated and produce +distilled water economically.<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[93]</sup></small></b></a> The mineral matter of water is in no +way essential for any functional purpose, and hence its removal through +distillation is not detrimental.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img50.jpg" width="550" height="380" + alt="Fig. 63." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span>—<span class="smcap">Water Still.</span></h4> + +<p><b>274. Chemical Purification.</b>—Purification of water by the use of +chemicals should not be attempted in the household or by inexperienced +persons. When done under supervision of a chemist or bacteriologist, it +may be of great value to a community. Turneaure and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> Russell,<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[94]</sup></small></b></a> in +discussing the purification of water by addition of chemicals, state:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"There are a considerable number of chemical substances that may be +added to water in order to purify it by carrying down the suspended +matter as well as bacteria, by sedimentation. Such a process of +purification is to be seen in the addition of alum, sulphate of +iron, and calcium hydrate to water. Methods of this character are +directly dependent upon the flocculating action of the chemical +added, and the removal of the bacteria is accomplished by +subsidence."</p></div> + +<p><b>275. Ice.</b>—The purity of the ice supply is also of much importance. +While freezing reduces the number of organisms and lessens their +vitality, it does not make an impure water absolutely wholesome. The +way, too, in which ice is often handled and stored subjects it to +contamination, and foods which are placed in direct contact with it +mechanically absorb the impurities which it contains. For cooling water, +ice should be placed around rather than in it. Diseases have frequently +been traced to impure ice. The only absolutely pure ice is that made +from distilled water.</p> + +<p><b>276. Mineral Waters.</b>—When water is charged with carbonic acid gas +under pressure, carbonated water results, and when minerals, as salts of +sodium, potassium, or lithium, are added, artificial mineral waters are +produced. Natural mineral waters are placed on the market to some +extent, but most mineral waters are artificial products and they are +sometimes prepared from water of low sanitary character. Mineral waters<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> +should not be used extensively except under medical direction, as many +have pronounced medicinal properties. Some of the constituents are +bicarbonates of sodium, potassium, and lithium; sulphates of magnesium +(Epsom salts) and calcium; and chloride of sodium. The sweetened mineral +waters, as lemonade, orangeade, ginger ale, and beer, contain sugar and +organic acids, as citric and tartaric, and are flavored with natural or +artificial products. Most of them are prepared without either fruit or +ginger. Natural mineral waters used under the direction of a physician +are often beneficial in cases of chronic digestion disorders or other +diseases.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img298.jpg" width="250" height="246" + alt="Fig. 64." /><br /> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span>—<span class="smcap">Typhoid<br />Bacilli.</span></h4> + </div> + +<p><b>277. Materials for Softening Water.</b>—The materials most commonly used +for softening water are sodium carbonate (washing soda), borax, ammonia, +ammonium carbonate, potash, and soda lye. Waters that are very hard with +limestone should have a small amount of washing soda added to them. Two +ounces for a large tub of water is the most that should be used, and it +should first be dissolved in a little water. If too much soda is used, +it is injurious, as only a certain amount can be utilized for softening +the water, and the excess simply injures the hands and fabric. When hard +limewater is boiled and a very little soda lye added, a precipitate of +carbonate of lime is formed, and then if the water is strained, it is +greatly improved for washing purposes. Borax is valuable for making some +hard waters soft. It is not as strong in its action as is sodium +carbonate.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> For the hardest water ¼ pound of borax to a large tubful +may be used; most waters, however, do not need so much. Ammonia is one +of the most useful reagents for softening water. It is better than +washing soda and borax, because the ammonia is volatile and does not +leave any residue to act on the clothes, thus causing injury. For +bathing purposes, the water should be softened with ammonia, in +preference to any other material. Ammonia should not be poured directly +into hot water; it should be added to the water while cold, or to a +small quantity of cold water, and then to the warm water, as this +prevents the ammonia from vaporizing too readily. Ammonia produces the +same effect as potash or soda lye, without leaving a residue in the +garments washed. It is especially valuable in washing woolen goods or +materials liable to shrink. Waters which are hard with alum salts are +greatly benefited by the addition of ammonia. A little in such a water +will cause a precipitate to form, and when the water is strained it is +in good condition for cleaning purposes. Ammonium carbonate is used to +some extent as a softening and cleaning agent, and is valuable, as there +is no injurious effect upon clothing, because it readily volatilizes. +Caustic potash and caustic soda are sometimes employed for softening +water, but they are very active and are not adapted to washing colored +or delicate fabrics. They may be used for very heavy and coarse articles +that are greasy,—not more than a gram in a gallon of water. Bleaching +powder is not generally a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> safe material for cleansing purposes, as it +weakens the texture of clothing. After a contagious disease, articles +may be soaked in water containing a little bleaching powder and a few +drops of carbolic acid, followed by thorough rinsing and bleaching in +the sun. But as a rule formaline is preferable for disinfecting +clothing. It can be used at the rate of about one pound to 100 gallons +of water. Bleaching powder, caustic potash or soda, and strong soap are +not suitable for cleaning woodwork, because of the action of the alkali +on paint and wood; they roughen the surface and discolor the paint. +Waters vary so in composition, that a material suitable for softening +one may not prove to be the best for softening another. The special kind +must be determined largely by trial, and it should be the aim to use as +little as possible. When carbolic acid, formaline, bleaching powder, and +caustic soda are used, the hands should be protected and the clothes +should be well rinsed.</p> + + + + +<p><b>278. Economic Value of a Pure Water Supply.</b>—From a financial point of +view, the money spent in securing pure water is one of the best +investments a community can make. Statisticians estimate the death of an +adult results in a loss to the state of from $1000 to $5000; and to the +losses sustained by death must be added those incurred by sickness and +by less<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span>ened quality and quantity of work through impaired +vitality,—all caused by using poor drinking water. Wherever plants have +been installed for improving the sanitary condition of the water supply, +the death rate has been lowered and the returns to the community have +been far greater than the cost of the plant. Impure water is the most +expensive food that can be consumed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX</h2> + +<h3>FOOD AS AFFECTED BY HOUSEHOLD SANITATION AND STORAGE</h3> + + +<p><b>279. Injurious Compounds in Foods.</b>—An ordinary chemical analysis of a +food determines only the nutrients, as protein, carbohydrates, and fats; +and unless there is reason to believe the food contains injurious +substances no special tests for these are made. There are a number of +poisonous compounds that foods may contain, and many of them can but +imperfectly be determined by chemical analysis. Numerous organic +compounds are produced in foods as the result of the workings of +microörganisms; some of these are poisonous, while others impart only +special characteristics, as taste and odor. The poisonous bacteria +finding their way into food produce organic compounds of a toxic +character; and hence it is that the sanitary condition of a food, as +influenced by preparation and storage, is often of more vital importance +than the nutrient content.<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[95]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img051.jpg" width="250" height="239" + alt="Fig. 65." /><br /> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.</span>—<span class="smcap">Tuberculosis Bacilli.</span> (After +<span class="smcap">Conn</span>.)</h4> + +<h4>Often present in dust particles and contaminated foods.</h4></div> + +<p><b>280. Sources of Contamination of Food.</b>—As a rule, too little +attention is given to the sanitary handling and preparation of foods. +They are often exposed to impure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> air and to the dust and filth from +unclean streets and surroundings, and as a result they become inoculated +with bacteria, which are often the disease-producing kind. Gelatine +plates exposed by bacteriologists under the same conditions as foods +develop large numbers of injurious microörganisms. In order to avoid +contamination in the handling of food, there must be: (1) protection +from impure air and dust; (2) storage in clean, sanitary, and ventilated +storerooms and warehouses; (3) storage of perishable foods at a low +temperature so as to retard fermentation changes; and (4) workmen free +from contagious diseases in all occupations pertaining<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> to the +preparation of foods. Ordinarily, foods should not be stored in the +paper wrappers in which they are purchased, as unclean paper is often a +source of contamination.</p> + +<p><b>281. Sanitary Inspection of Food.</b>—During recent years some state and +city boards of health have introduced sanitary inspection of foods, with +a view of preventing contamination during manufacture and +transportation, and this has done much to improve the quality and +wholesomeness. Putrid meats, fish, and vegetables are not allowed to be +sold, and foods are required to be handled and stored in a sanitary way. +Next to a pure water supply, there is no factor that so greatly +influences for good the health of a community as the sanitary condition +of the food. While the cooking of foods destroys many organisms, it +often fails to render innocuous the poisons which they produce, and +furthermore the unsound foods when cooked are not entirely wholesome, +and they have poor keeping qualities.</p> + +<p>Often meats, vegetables, and other foods eaten uncooked, as well as the +numerous cooked foods, are exposed in dirty market places, and +accumulate large amounts of filth, and are inoculated with disease germs +by flies. Protection of food from flies is a matter of vital importance, +as they are carriers of many diseases. In the case of typhoid fever, +next to impure drinking water flies are credited with being the greatest +distributors of the disease germs.<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[96]</sup></small></b></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img052.jpg" width="250" height="242" + alt="Fig. 66." /><br /> + +</div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.</span>—<span class="smcap">Diphtheria Bacilli.</span> (After +<span class="smcap">Conn</span>.)</h4> + +<h4>Often present in dust particles and in food unprotected from dust.</h4> + +<p><b>282. Infection from Impure Air.</b>—The dust particles of the air contain +decayed animal and vegetable matter in which bacteria are present; these +find their way into the food when it is not carefully protected, into +the water supply, and also into the lungs and other organs of the body. +When foods are protected from the mechanical impurities which gain +access through the air, and fermentation is delayed by storage at a low +temperature, digestion disorders are greatly lessened. From a sanitary +point of view, the air of food storerooms and of living rooms should be +of equally high purity. When foods are kept in unventilated living +rooms, they become<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> contaminated with the impurities thrown off from the +lungs in respiration, which include not only carbon dioxid, but the more +objectionable toxic organic materials.</p> + +<p>Vegetable foods need to be stored in well-ventilated places, as the +plant cells are still alive and carrying on life functions, as the +giving off of carbon dioxid, which is akin to animal respiration; in +fact, it is plant-cell respiration. Provision should be made for the +removal of the carbon dioxid and other products, as they contaminate the +air. When vegetable tissue ceases to produce carbon dioxid, death and +decay set in, accompanied by fermentation changes.</p> + +<p><b>283. Storage of Food in Cellars.</b>—Cellars are often in a very +unsanitary condition, damp, poorly lighted, unventilated, and the air +filled with floating particles from decaying vegetables. The walls and +shelves absorb the dust and germs from the foul air and are bacterially +contaminated, and whenever a sound food is stored in such a cellar, it +readily becomes inoculated with bacteria. There is a much closer +relationship existing between the atmosphere of the cellar and that of +the house than is generally realized. An unclean cellar means +contaminated air throughout the house. When careful attention is given +to the sanitary condition of the cellar, many of the more common +diseases are greatly reduced. Cases of rheumatism have often been traced +to a damp cellar. In some localities where the cellars are unusually +unsanitary, there is in the season of spring rains, when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> they are +especially damp and contain the maximum of decayed vegetation, a +prevalence of what might be called "cellaritis." The symptoms differ and +the trouble is variously attributed, but the real cause is the same, +although overlooked, for, unfortunately, doctors do not visit the +cellar.</p> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img53a.jpg" width="193" height="300" + alt="Fig. 67." /><br /> +<h4>Fig. 67.—<span class="smcap">Dung Fungus.</span><br /> +(After <span class="smcap">Butters</span>.)</h4> + +<h4>Often present on surface<br />of unclean vegetables.</h4> +</div> + + +<p>Cellars should be frequently cleaned and disinfected, using for the +purpose some of the well-known disinfectants, as formaline, bleaching +powder, or a dilute solution of carbolic acid. It has been found in +large cities, when the spread of such diseases as yellow fever was +imminent, that a general and thorough cleaning up of streets and cellars +with the improved sanitary conditions resulting greatly lowered the +usual death rate.</p> + + + +<p><b>284. Sunlight, Pure Water, and Pure Air as Disinfectants.</b>—The most +effectual and valuable disinfectants<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> are sunlight, pure water, and pure +air. Many kinds of microörganisms, particularly those that are +disease-producing, are destroyed when exposed for a time to sunlight. +The chemical action of the sun's rays is destructive to the organic +material which makes up the composition of many of these organisms, +while higher forms of organic life are stirred into activity by it. The +disinfecting power of sunlight should be made use of to the fullest +extent, not only in the house, but plenty of sunlight should also be +planned for in constructing barns and other buildings where milk-and +meat-producing animals are kept. Pure water is also a disinfectant, but +when water becomes polluted it loses this power. Many disease-producing +organisms are rendered inactive when placed in pure water. Water +contains more dissolved oxygen than air, and apparently a portion of the +oxygen in water is in a more active condition than that in air. Pure +air, too, is a disinfectant; the ozone and hydrogen peroxide and oxides +of nitrogen, which are present in traces, exert a beneficial influence +in oxidizing organic matter. Fresh air and sunlight, acting jointly, are +nature's most effectual disinfectants. Sunshine, fresh air, and pure +water are a health-producing trinity. In discussing the importance of +pure air, water, and sunlight, Ellen H. Richards<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[97]</sup></small></b></a> says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The country dweller surrounds his house with evergreens or shade +trees, the city dweller is surrounded with high brick walls. +Blinds, shades, or thick draperies shut out still more, and prevent +the beneficial sunlight from acting its role of germ prevention and +germ<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> destruction. Bright-colored carpets and pale-faced children +are the opposite results which follow. Sunlight, pure air, and pure +water are our common birthright which we often bargain away for +so-called comforts."</p></div> + +<p>And Dr. Woods Hutchinson says of sunlight:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"It is a splendid and matchless servant in the promoting of +healthfulness of the house, for which no substitute has yet been +discovered. It is the foe alike of bacilli and the blues; the best +tonic ever yet invented for the liver and for the scalp, and for +everything between, the only real complexion restorer, and the +deadliest foe of dirt and disease."</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img053.jpg" width="250" height="240" + alt="Fig. 68." /><br /> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span>—<span class="smcap">Dirt and Manure<br />Embedded In +Surface of Celery.</span></h4> +</div> + + +<p><b>285. Utensils for Storage of Food.</b>—In order that dishes and household +utensils may be kept in the best sanitary condition, they should be free +from seams, cracks, and crevices where dust and dirt particles can find +lodgment. From the seams of a milk pail that has not been well washed, +decaying milk solids can be removed with the aid of a pin or a +toothpick. This material acts as a "starter" or culture when pure, fresh +milk is placed in the pail, contaminating it and causing it to become +sour. Not only is this true of milk, but also of other foods. Wooden +utensils are not satisfactory for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> handling, storage, or preparation +of foods, as it is difficult to keep wood in a sanitary condition. +Uncleanliness of dishes in which foods are placed is too often caused by +the use of foul dishcloths and failure to thoroughly wash and rinse the +dishes. It is always well to rinse dishes with scalding water, as colds +and skin diseases may be communicated from the edges of drinking +glasses, and from forks and spoons, and, unless the dish towels are kept +scrupulously clean, it is more sanitary to drain the dishes than to wipe +them.</p> + +<p><b>286. Contamination from Unclean Dishcloths.</b>—When the dishcloth is +foul, the fat absorbed by the fibers becomes rancid, the proteids +undergo putrefaction changes with formation of ill-smelling gases +containing nitrogen, the carbohydrates ferment and are particularly +attractive to flies, and all the various disease germs collected on the +surface of the dishcloth are, along with the rancid fat and other +putrifying materials, distributed over the surface of the dishes with +which the cloth comes in contact.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img309.jpg" width="500" height="440" + alt="Fig. 69." /><br /> + +</div> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.</span>—<span class="smcap">Contamination of Well Water From +Surface Drainage.</span></h4> + +<h5>(After Farmers' Bulletin, U. S. Dept. Agr.)</h5> + +<p><b>287. Refrigeration.</b>—At a low temperature the insoluble or unorganized +ferments become inactive, but the chemical ferments or enzymes are still +capable of carrying on fermentation. Thus it is that a food, when placed +in a refrigerator or in cold storage, continues to undergo chemical +change. An example of such enzymic action is the curing of beef and +cheese in cold storage. A small amount of ventilation is required when +foods are refrigerated, just sufficient to keep up a slight circulation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> +of air. It seems not to be generally understood that all fermentation +changes do not cease when food is placed in refrigerators, and this +often leads to neglect in their care. Cleanliness is equally as +essential, or more so, in the refrigeration of food as in its handling +in other ways. Too often the refrigerator is neglected, milk and other +food is spilt, filling the cracks, and slow decomposition sets in. A +well-cared-for refrigerator is an important factor in the preservation +of food, but when it is neglected, it becomes a source of contamination. +Unclean vegetables and food receptacles, impure ice and foul air, are +the most common forms of contamination. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> chemical changes which +foods undergo during refrigeration are such as result in softening of +the tissues.</p> + +<p><b>288. Soil.</b>—The soil about dwellings and places where foods are stored +frequently becomes polluted with decaying animal and vegetable matter, +and in such soils disease-producing organisms readily find lodgment. +Poorly drained soils containing an excess of vegetable matter furnish a +medium in which the tapeworm and the germs of typhoid fever, lockjaw, +and various diseases affecting the digestive tract, may propagate. The +wind carries the dust particles from these contaminated places into +unprotected food, where they cause fermentation changes and the disease +germs multiply. In considering the sanitary condition of a locality, the +character of the soil is an important factor. Whenever there is reason +to suspect that a soil is unsanitary, it should be disinfected with lime +or formaldehyde. Soils about dwellings need care and frequent +disinfecting to keep them in a sanitary condition, equally as much as do +the rooms in the dwellings.<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[99]</sup></small></b></a> In the growing of garden vegetables, +frequently large quantities of fertilizers of unsanitary character are +used, and vegetables often retain mechanically on their surfaces +particles of these. To this dirt clinging to the vegetables have been +traced diseases, as typhoid fever and various digestion disorders.</p> + +<p><b>289. Disposal of Kitchen Refuse.</b>—Refuse, as vegetable parings, bones, +and meat scraps, unless they are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> used for food for animals or collected +as garbage, should preferably be burned; then there is no danger of +their furnishing propagating media for disease germs. Garbage cans +should be kept clean, and well covered to protect the contents from +flies. Where the refuse cannot be burned, it should be composted. For +this, a well-drained place should be selected, and the refuse should be +kept covered with earth to keep off the flies and absorb the odors that +arise from the fermenting material, and to prevent its being carried +away by the wind. Lime should be sprinkled about the compost heap, and +from time to time it should be drawn away and the place covered with +clean earth. It is very unsanitary to throw all of the kitchen refuse in +the same place year after year without resorting to any means for +keeping the soil in a sanitary condition. Although composting refuse is +not as sanitary as burning, it is far more sanitary than neglecting to +care for it at all, as is too frequently the case.</p> + +<p>Ground polluted with kitchen refuse containing large amounts of fatty +material and soap becomes diseased, so that the natural fermentation +changes fail to take place, and the soil becomes "sewage sick" and gets +in such a condition that vegetation will not grow. Failure to properly +dispose of kitchen refuse is frequently the cause of the spread of germ +diseases, through the dust and flies that are attracted by the material +and carry the germs from the refuse pile to food.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img054.jpg" width="500" height="375" + alt="Fig. 70." /><br /> + +</div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span>—<span class="smcap">Plumbing of Sink.</span></h4> + +<h4>1, 1, house side of trap, filled with water; 2, vent pipe; 3, drain pipe +connecting with sewer.</h4> + +<p>Where there is no drainage system, disposal of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> liquid refuse is a +serious problem. Drain basins and cesspools are often resorted to, and +these may become additional sources of contamination. As stated in the +chapter on well water, direct communication is frequently established +between such places and shallow wells. Where the only place for the +disposal of waste water is the surface of the ground, it should be +thrown some distance from the house and where it will drain from and not +toward the well. The land should be well drained and open to the +sunlight. Coarse sand and lime should be sprinkled over it frequently, +and occasionally the soil should be removed and replaced with fresh. +Sunlight, aëration, and disinfection of the soil and good drainage<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> are +necessary, in order to keep in a sanitary condition the place where the +dish water is thrown.</p> + +<p>Poor plumbing is often the cause of contaminated food. The gases which +escape from unclean traps may carry with them solid particles of organic +matter in various stages of decay. The "house side" of traps always +ventilates into the rooms, and hence it is important that they be kept +scrupulously clean. Where the drip pipe from the refrigerator drains +directly into the sewerage system, there is always danger. Special +attention should be given to the care of plumbing near places where +foods are stored. Frequently there are leaky joints due to settling of +the dwellings or to extreme changes in temperature, and the plumbing +should be occasionally inspected by one familiar with the subject.<a href='#Page_355'><b><small><sup>[100]</sup></small></b></a></p> + +<p><b>290. General Considerations.</b>—In order to keep food in the most +wholesome condition, special care should be taken that all of its +surroundings are sanitary. The air, the dishes in which the food is +placed, the refrigerator, cellar or closet where stored, and the other +food with which it comes in contact, all influence the wholesomeness or +cause contamination. A food may contain sufficient nutrients to give it +high value, and yet, on account of products formed during fermentation, +be poisonous. Foods are particularly susceptible to putrefaction +changes, and chemicals and preservatives added as preventives, with a +view of retarding these changes,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> are objectionable, besides failing to +prevent all fermentation from taking place. Intelligent thought should +be exercised in the care of food, for the health of the consumer is +largely dependent upon the purity and wholesomeness of the food supply.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img055.jpg" width="400" height="366" + alt="Fig. 71." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span>—<span class="smcap">A Petri Dish, Showing Colonies of +Bacteria<br />Produced By Allowing a House Fly To Crawl Over Surface.</span></h4> + +<h5>(From Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 93.)</h5><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI"></a>CHAPTER XXI</h2> + +<h3>LABORATORY PRACTICE</h3> + + +<p><b>Object of Laboratory Practice, Laboratory Note-book, and Suggestions +for Laboratory Practice.</b>—The aim of the laboratory practice is to give +the students an idea of the composition, uses, and values of food +materials, and the part which chemistry takes in sanitation and +household affairs; also to enable them by simple tests to detect some of +the more common adulterants in foods.</p> + +<p>Before performing an experiment, the student is advised to review those +topics presented in the text which have a bearing upon the experiment, +so that a clear conception may be gained of the relationship between the +laboratory work and that of the class room. The student should endeavor +to cultivate the power of observation and to grasp the principle +involved in the work, rather than do it in a merely mechanical and +perfunctory way. Neatness is one of the essentials for success in +laboratory practice, and too much emphasis cannot be laid upon this +requisite to good work. The student should learn to use his time in the +laboratory profitably and economically. He should obtain a clear idea of +what he is to do, and then do it to the best of his ability. If the +experiment is not a success, repeat it. While the work is in progress it +should be given undivided attention. Care should be exercised to prevent +anything getting into the sinks that will clog the plumbing; soil, +matches, broken glass, and paper should be deposited in the waste jars.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img056.jpg" width="550" height="472" + alt="Fig. 72." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span>—<span class="smcap">Apparatus used in Laboratory +Work.</span><br />See page <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a> for names.</h4> + +<p>A careful record of the experiments should be kept by each student in a +suitable note-book. It is suggested that those students desiring more +time in writing out the experiments than the laboratory period affords, +take notes as they make the various tests, and then amplify and +rearrange them in the evening study time. The final writing up of the +notes should, however, be done before the next laboratory<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> period. +Careful attention should be given to the spelling, language, and +punctuation, and the note-book should represent the student's individual +work. He who attempts to cheat by copying the results of others, only +cheats himself. In recording the results of an experiment, the student +should state briefly and clearly the following:</p> + + + +<ul><li>1. Number and title of experiment.</li> +<li>2. How the experiment is performed.</li> +<li>3. What was observed.</li> +<li>4. What the experiment proves.</li></ul> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img057.jpg" width="550" height="455" + alt="Fig. 73." /><br /> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span>—<span class="smcap">Balance and Weights.</span></h4> + + </div> + + + +<h4><span class="smcap">List of Apparatus used in Experiments</span></h4> + + +<ul><li> 1 Crucible Tongs</li> +<li> 2 Evaporating Dishes</li> +<li> 1 Casserole</li> +<li> 6 Beakers</li> +<li> 12 Test Tubes</li> +<li> 1 Wooden Stand</li> +<li> 1 Test Tube Stand</li> +<li> 1 Sand Bath</li> +<li> 2 Funnels</li> +<li> 1 Tripod</li> +<li> 1 Stoddart Test Tube Clamp</li> +<li> 1 Test Tube Brush</li> +<li> 1 Burner and Tubing</li> +<li> 2 Stirring Rods</li> +<li> 6 Watch Glasses</li> +<li> 2 Erlenmeyer Flasks</li> +<li> 1 Package Filter Paper</li> +<li> 1 Box Matches</li> +<li> 1 Wire Gauze</li> +<li> 2 Burettes</li> +<li> 1 Porcelain Crucible</li> +<li> 1 Aluminum Dish</li></ul> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>Directions for Weighing.</b>—Place the dish or material to be weighed in +the left-hand pan of the balance. With the forceps lay a weight from the +weight box on the right-hand pan. Do not touch the weights with the +hands. If the weight selected is too heavy, replace it with a lighter +weight. Add weights until the pans are counterpoised; this will be +indicated by the needle swinging nearly as many divisions on one side of +the scale as on the other. The brass weights are the gram weights. The +other weights are fractions of a gm. The 500, 200, 100 mg. (milligram) +weights are recorded as 0.5, 0.2, and 0.1 gm. The 50, 20, and 10 mg. +weights as 0.05, 0.02, and 0.01 gm. If the 10, and 2 gm., and the 200, +the 100, and the 50 mg. weights are used, the resulting weight is 12.35 +gms. No moist substances should ever come in contact with the scale +pans. The weights and forceps should always be replaced in the weight +box. Too much care and neatness cannot be exercised in weighing.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> + <img src="images/img318a.jpg" width="65" height="200" + alt="Fig. 74." /><br /> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span></h4> + </div> + +<div class="figright"> + <img src="images/img318b.jpg" width="197" height="200" + alt="Fig. 75." /><br /> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.—Pouring<br />Reagent from Bottle.</span></h4> + + </div> + +<p><b>Directions for Measuring.</b>—Reagents are measured in graduated +cylinders (see Fig. 74). When the directions call for the addition of 5 +or 10 cc. of a reagent, unless so directed it is not absolutely +necessary to measure the reagent in a measuring cylinder. A large test +tube holds about 30 cc. of water. Measure out 5 cc. of water and +transfer it to a large test tube. Note its volume. Add approximately 5 +cc. of water directly to the test tube. Measure it. Repeat this +operation until you can judge with a fair degree of accuracy the part of +a test tube filled by 5 cc. In the experiments where a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> burette is used +for measuring reagents, the burette is first filled with the reagent by +means of a funnel. The tip of the burette is allowed to fill before the +readings are made, which are from the lowest point or meniscus. When +reagents are removed from bottles, the stopper should be held between +the first and second fingers of the right hand (see Fig. 75). Hold the +test tube or receptacle that is to receive the reagent in the left hand. +Pour the liquid slowly until the desired amount is secured. Before +inserting the stopper, touch it to the neck of the bottle to catch the +few drops on the edge, thus preventing their streaking down the sides of +the bottle on to the shelf.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> Replace the bottle in its proper place. +Every precaution should be taken to prevent contamination of reagents.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/img058.jpg" width="399" height="450" + alt="Fig. 76." /><br /> + + </div> +<h4><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span>—<span class="smcap">Microscope and Accessories.</span></h4> + +<h4>1, eye-piece or ocular; 2, objective; 3, stage; 4, cover glass; 5, +slide; 6, mirror.</h4> + +<p><b>Use of the Microscope.</b>—Special directions in the use of the +microscope will be given by the instructor. The object or material to be +examined is placed on a microscopical slide. Care should be exercised to +secure a representative sample, and to properly distribute the substance +on the slide. If a pulverized material is to be examined, use but little +and spread it in as thin a layer as possible. If a liquid, one or two +drops placed on the slide will suffice. The material on the slide is +covered with a cover glass, before it is placed on the stage of the +microscope. In focusing, do not allow the object glass of the microscope +to come in contact with the cover glass. Focus upward, not downward. +Special care should be exercised in focusing and in handling the +eye-piece and objective. A camel's-hair brush, clean dry chamois skin, +or clean silk only should be used in polishing the lenses. Always put +the microscope back in its case after using.</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 1</h3> + +<h4>Water in Flour</h4> + +<p>Carefully weigh a porcelain or aluminum dish. (Porcelain must be used if +the ash is to be determined on the same sample.) Place in it about 2 gm. +of flour; record the weight; then place the dish in the water oven for +at least 6 hours. After drying, weigh again, and from the loss of weight +calculate the per cent of water in the flour. (Weight of flour and dish +before drying minus weight of flour and dish after drying equals weight +of water lost. Weight of water divided by weight of flour taken, +multiplied by 100, equals the per cent of water in the flour.)</p> + +<p>How does the amount of water you obtained compare with the amount given +in the tables of analysis?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 2</h3> + +<h4>Water in Butter</h4> + +<p>Carefully weigh a clean, dry aluminum dish, place in it about 2 gms. of +butter, and weigh again. Record the weights. Place the dish containing +butter in the water oven for 5 or 6 hours and then weigh. The loss in +weight represents the water in the butter. Calculate the per cent of +water. Care must be taken to get a representative sample of the butter +to be tested; preferably small amounts should be taken with the butter +trier from various parts of the package.</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 3</h3> + +<h4>Ash in Flour</h4> + +<p>Place the porcelain dish containing flour from the preceding experiment +in a muffle furnace and let it remain until the organic matter is +completely volatilized. Cool, weigh, and determine the per cent of ash. +The flour should be burned at the lowest temperature necessary for +complete combustion.</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 4</h3> + +<h4>Nitric Acid Test for Nitrogenous Organic Matter</h4> + +<p>To 3 cc. of egg albumin in a test tube add 2 cc. of HNO<sub>3</sub> (conc.) and +heat. When cool add NH<sub>4</sub>OH. The nitric acid chemically reacts upon the +albumin, forming yellow xanthoprotein. What change occurs in the +appearance of the egg albumin when the HNO<sub>3</sub> is added? Is this a +physical or chemical change? What is the name of the compound formed? +What change occurs on adding NH<sub>4</sub>OH?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 5</h3> + +<h4>Acidity of Lemons</h4> + +<p>With a pipette measure into a small beaker 2 cc. of lemon juice. Add 25 +cc. of water and a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span>. From the +burette run in N/10 KOH solution until a faint pink tinge remains +permanently. Note the number of cubic centimeters of KOH solution +required to neutralize the citric acid in the lemon juice. Calculate the +per cent of citric acid.</p> + +<p>(1 cc. of N/10 KOH solution equals 0.00642 gm. citric acid. 1 cc. of +H<sub>2</sub>O weighs 1 gm. Because of sugar and other matter in solution 1 cc. +of lemon juice weighs approximately 1.03 gm.)</p> + +<p>1. What is the characteristic acid of lemons? 2. What is the salt formed +when the lemon juice is neutralized by the KOH solution? 3. Describe +briefly the process for determining the acidity of lemon juice. 4. What +per cent of acidity did you obtain? 5. How does this compare with the +acidity of vinegar?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 6</h3> + +<h4>Influence of Heat on Potato Starch Grains</h4> + +<p>With the point of a knife scrape slightly the surface of a raw potato +and place a drop of the starchy juice upon the microscopical slide. +Cover with cover glass and examine under the microscope.</p> + +<p>In the evaporating dish cook a small piece of potato, then place a very +small portion upon the slide, and examine with the microscope.</p> + +<p>Make drawings of the starch grains in raw and in cooked potatoes.</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 7</h3> + +<h4>Influence of Yeast on Starch Grains</h4> + +<p>Moisten a small portion of the dough prepared with yeast and with the +stirring rod place a drop of the starchy water upon the slide. Cover +with cover glass and examine under the microscope.</p> + +<p>Repeat, examining a drop of starchy water washed from flour.</p> + +<p>Make drawing of wheat starch grain in flour and in dough prepared with +yeast.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 8</h3> + +<h4>Mechanical Composition of Potatoes</h4> + +<p>Wash one potato. Weigh, then peel, making the peeling as thin as +possible. Weigh the peeled potato and weigh the peeling or refuse. +Calculate the per cent of potato that is edible and the per cent that is +refuse.</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 9</h3> + +<h4>Pectose from Apples</h4> + +<p>Reduce a small peeled apple to a pulp. Squeeze the pulp through a clean +cloth into a beaker. Add 10 cc. H<sub>2</sub>O and heat on a sand bath to +coagulate the albumin. Filter, adding a little hot water if necessary. +To the filtrate add 5 cc. alcohol. The precipitate is the pectose +material.</p> + +<p>1. Is the pectose from the apple soluble? 2. Is it coagulated by heat? +3. Is it soluble in alcohol?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 10</h3> + +<h4>Lemon Extract</h4> + +<p>To 5 cc. of the extract in a test tube add an equal volume of water. A +cloudy appearance indicates the presence of lemon oil. If the solution +remains clear after adding the water, the extract does not contain lemon +oil.</p> + +<p>Why does the extract containing lemon oil become cloudy on adding water?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 11</h3> + +<h4>Vanilla Extract</h4> + +<p>Pour into a test tube 5 cc. of the extract to be tested. Evaporate to +one third. Then add sufficient water to restore the original volume. If +a brown, flocculent precipitate is formed, the sample contains pure +vanilla extract. Resin is present in vanilla beans and is extracted in +the essence. The resin is readily soluble in 50 per cent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> alcohol. If +the alcohol is removed from the extract, the excess of resin is +precipitated, or if free from alkali, it may be precipitated by diluting +the original solution with twice its volume of water. Test the two +samples and compare.</p> + +<p class='author'> +(Adapted from Leach, "Food Inspection and Analysis.") +</p> + +<p>1. Describe the appearance of each sample after evaporating and adding +water. 2. Which sample contains pure vanilla extract? 3. State the +principle underlying this test.</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 12</h3> + +<h4>Testing Olive Oil for Cotton Seed Oil</h4> + +<p>Pour into a test tube 5 cc. of the oil to be tested and 5 cc. of +Halphen's Reagent. Mix thoroughly. Plug the test tube loosely with +cotton, and heat in a bath of boiling saturated brine for 15 minutes. If +cotton seed oil is present, a deep red or orange color is produced. Test +two samples and compare.</p> + +<p><b>Halphen's Reagent.</b>—Mix equal volumes of amyl alcohol and carbon +disulphid containing about one per cent of sulphur in solution.</p> + +<p class='author'> +(Adapted from Leach, "Food Inspection and Analysis.") +</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 13</h3> + +<h4>Testing for Coal Tar Dyes</h4> + +<p>Dilute 20 to 30 cc. of the material to 100 cc.; boil for 10 minutes with +10 cc. of a 10 per cent solution of potassium bisulphate and a piece of +white woolen cloth which has previously been boiled in a 0.1 per cent +solution of NaOH and thoroughly washed in water. Remove the cloth from +the solution, wash in boiling water, and dry between pieces of filter +paper. A bright red indicates coal tar dye. If the coloring matter is +entirely from fruit, the woolen cloth will be either uncolored or will +have a faint pink or brown color which is changed to green or yellow by +ammonia and is not restored by washing. This is the Arata test.</p> + +<p class='author'> +(Adapted, Winston, Conn. Experiment Station Report.) +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span></p> + +<p>1. Describe Arata's wool test for coal tar dyes. 2. What is the +appearance of the woolen cloth when the coloring matter is entirely from +fruit? 3. What effect has NH<sub>4</sub>OH upon the color? 4. Why is NaOH used? +5. Why may not cotton cloth be used instead of woolen? 6. What can you +say of the use of coal tar dyes in foods?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 14</h3> + +<h4>Determining the Per Cent of Skin in Beans</h4> + +<p>Place in an evaporating dish 10 gm. of beans, 50 cc. of water, and ½ +gm. of baking soda. Boil 10 minutes or until the skins are loosened, +then drain off the water. Add cold water and rub the beans together till +the skins slip off. Collect the skins, place on a watch glass and dry in +the water oven for ½ hour. Weigh the dried skins and calculate the per +cent of "skin."</p> + +<p>1. What does the soda do? 2. What effect would hard limewater have upon +the skins? 3. How does removal of skins affect food value of beans and +digestibility?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 15</h3> + +<h4>Extraction of Fat from Peanuts</h4> + +<p>Shell three or four peanuts and with the mortar and pestle break them +into small pieces. Place in a test tube and pour over them about 10 cc. +of ether. Cork the test tube and allow it to stand 30 minutes, shaking +occasionally. Filter on to a watch glass and let stand until the ether +evaporates, and then observe the fat.</p> + +<p>1. What is the appearance of the peanut fat? 2. What is the solvent of +the fat? 3. What becomes of the ether? 4. Why should the peanuts be +broken into small pieces?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 16</h3> + +<h4>Microscopic Examination of Milk</h4> + +<p>Place a drop of milk on a microscopical slide and cover with cover +glass. Examine the milk to detect impurities, as dust, hair, refuse, +etc. Make drawings of any foreign matter present.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 17</h3> + +<h4>Formaldehyde in Cream or Milk</h4> + +<p>To 10 cc. of milk in a casserole add 10 cc. of the acid reagent. Heat +slowly over the flame nearly to boiling, holding the casserole in the +hand and giving it a slight rotary movement while heating. The presence +of formaldehyde is indicated by a violet coloration varying in depth +with the amount present. In the absence of formaldehyde the solution +slowly turns brown.</p> + +<p><b>Acid Reagent.</b>—Commercial hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.2) containing 2 +cc. per liter of 10 per cent ferric chlorid.</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Adapted from Leach, "Food Inspection and Analysis.")</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>1. How may the presence of formaldehyde in milk be detected? 2. Why in +this test is it necessary to use acid containing ferric chlorid? 3. +Describe the appearance of the two samples of milk after adding the acid +reagent and heating. 4. Which sample showed the presence of +formaldehyde?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 18</h3> + +<h4>Gelatine in Cream or Milk</h4> + +<p>To 20 cc. of milk or cream in a beaker add 20 cc. of acid mercuric +nitrate and about 40 cc. of H<sub>2</sub>O. Let stand for a few minutes and +filter. Filtrate will be cloudy if gelatine is present.</p> + +<p>Add ½ cc. of a dilute solution of picric acid—a heavy yellow +precipitate indicates gelatine.</p> + +<p><b>Acid Mercuric Nitrate.</b>—1 part by weight of Hg, 2 parts HNO<sub>3</sub> (sp. +gr. 1.42). Dilute 25 times with water.</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 19</h3> + +<h4>Testing for Oleomargarine</h4> + +<p>Apply the following tests to two samples of the material:</p> + +<p><b>Boiling or Spoon Test.</b>—Melt the sample to be tested—a piece about +the size of a chestnut—in a large spoon, hastening the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> process by +stirring with a splinter. Then, increasing the heat, bring to as brisk a +boil as possible and stir thoroughly, not neglecting the outer edges. +Oleomargarine and renovated butter boil noisily, sputtering like a +mixture of grease and water, and produce no foam, or but very little. +Genuine butter boils with less noise and produces an abundance of foam.</p> + +<p><b>Waterhouse Test.</b>—Into a small beaker pour 50 cc. of sweet milk. Heat +nearly to boiling and add from 5 to 10 gms. of butter or oleomargarine. +Stir with a glass rod until fat is melted. Then place the beaker in cold +water and stir the milk until the temperature falls sufficiently for the +fat to congeal. At this point the fat, if oleomargarine, can easily be +collected into one lump by means of the rod; while if butter, it will +granulate and cannot be collected.</p> + +<p class='author'> +(From Farmers' Bul. 131, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.)</p> + +<p>1. Name two simple tests for distinguishing butter and oleomargarine. 2. +Describe these tests. 3. Why do butter and oleomargarine respond +differently to these tests? 4. Are these tests based upon chemical or +physical properties of the fats?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 20</h3> + +<h4>Testing for Watering or Skimming of Milk</h4> + +<p><i>a.</i> <b>Fat Content of Milk by Means of Babcock Test.</b>—Measure with +pipette into test bottle 17.6 cc. of milk. Sample should be carefully +taken and well mixed. Measure with cylinder 17.5 cc. commercial +H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> and add to milk in test bottle. (See Fig. 25.) Mix acid and +milk by rotating the bottle. Then place test bottles in centrifugal +machine and whirl 5 minutes. Add sufficient hot water to test bottles to +bring contents up to about the 8th mark on stem. Then whirl bottles 2 +minutes longer and read fat. Read from extreme lowest to highest point. +Each large division as 1 to 2 represents a whole per cent, each small +division 0.2 of a per cent.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> <b>Determining Specific Gravity by Means of Lactometer.</b>—Pour 150 +cc. of milk into 200 cc. cylinder. Place lactometer in milk and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> note +depth to which it sinks as indicated on stem. Note also temperature of +milk. For each 10° above 60° F. add 1 to the lactometer number, in order +to make the necessary correction for temperature. For example, if milk +has sp. gr. of 1.032 at temperature of 70°, it will be equivalent to sp. +gr. of 1.033 at 60°. Ordinarily milk has a sp. gr. of 1.029 to 1.034. If +milk has sp. gr. less than 1.029, or contains less than 3 per cent fat, +it may be considered watered milk. If the milk has a high sp. gr. (above +1.035) and a low content of fat, some of the fat has been removed.</p> + +<p class='author'> +(For extended direction for milk testing see Snyder's "Dairy Chemistry.") +</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 21</h3> + +<h4>Boric Acid in Meat</h4> + +<p>Cut into very small pieces 5 gms, of meat, removing all the fat +possible. Place in an evaporating dish with 20 to 25 cc. of water to +which a few drops of HCl have been added and warm slightly. Dip a piece +of turmeric paper in the meat extract and dry. A rose-red color of the +turmeric paper after drying (turned olive by a weak ammonia solution) is +indicative of boric acid.</p> + +<p>1. How may meat be tested for boric acid? 2. Why is HCl added to the +water? 3. Why is the water containing the meat warmed slightly? 4. What +is the appearance of the turmeric paper after being dipped in the meat +extract and dried? 5. What change takes place when it is moistened with +ammonia, and why?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 22</h3> + +<h4>Microscopic Examination of Cereal Starch Grains</h4> + +<p>Make a microscopic examination and drawings of wheat, corn, rice, and +oat starch grains, comparing them with the drawings of the different +starch grains on the chart. If the material is coarse, pulverize in a +mortar and filter through cloth. Place a drop or two of the starchy +water on the slide, cover with a cover glass, and examine.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 23</h3> + +<h4>Identification of Commercial Cereals</h4> + +<p>Examine under the microscope two samples of cereal breakfast foods, and +by comparison with the wheat, corn, and oat starch grains previously +examined tell of what grains the breakfast foods are made and their +approximate food value.</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 24</h3> + +<h4>Granulation and Color of Flour</h4> + +<p>Arrange on glass plate, in order of color, samples of all the different +grades of flour. Note the differences in color. How do these differences +correspond with the grades of the flour? Examine the flour with a +microscope, noting any coarse or dark-colored particles of bran or dust. +Rub some of the flour between the thumb and forefinger. Note if any +granular particles can be detected.</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 25</h3> + +<h4>Capacity of Flour to absorb Water</h4> + +<p>Weigh out 15 gms. of soft wheat flour into an evaporating dish; then add +from burette a measured quantity of water sufficient to make a stiff +dough. Note the amount of water required for this purpose. Repeat the +operation, using hard wheat flour.</p> + +<p>1. How may the absorptive power of a flour be determined? 2. To what is +it due? 3. Why do some flours absorb more water than others?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 26</h3> + +<h4>Acidity of Flour</h4> + +<p>Weigh into a flask 20 gms. of flour and add 200 cc. distilled water. +Shake vigorously. After letting stand 30 minutes, filter and then +titrate 50 cc. of the filtrate against standard KOH solution, using +phenolphthalein as indicator, 1 cc. of the alkali equals 0.009 gms. +lactic acid. Calculate the per cent of acid present.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span></p> + +<p>1. How may the acidity of a flour be determined? 2. The acidity is +expressed in percentage amounts of what acid? 3. What per cent of +acidity is found in normal flours? 4. What does a high acidity of a +flour indicate?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 27</h3> + +<h4>Moist and Dry Gluten</h4> + +<p>Weigh 30 gms. of flour into a porcelain dish. Make the flour into a +stiff dough. After 30 minutes obtain the gluten by washing, being +careful to remove all the starch and prevent any losses. Squeeze the +water from the gluten as thoroughly as possible. Weigh the moist gluten +and calculate the per cent. Dry the gluten in the water oven and +calculate the per cent of dry gluten.</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 28</h3> + +<h4>Gliadin from Flour</h4> + +<p>Place in a flask 10 gms. of flour, 30 cc. of alcohol, and 20 cc. of +water. Cork the flask and shake, and after a few minutes shake again. +Allow the alcohol to act on the flour for an hour, or until the next +day. Then filter off the alcohol solution and evaporate the filtrate to +dryness over the water bath. Examine the residue; to a portion add a +little water; burn a small portion and observe odor.</p> + +<p>1. Describe the appearance of the gliadin. 2. What was the result when +water was added? 3. When burned, what was the odor of the gliadin, and +what does this indicate? 4. What is gliadin?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 29</h3> + +<h4>Bread-making Test</h4> + +<p>Make a "sponge" by mixing together:</p> + + +<ul><li> 12 gm. sugar,</li> +<li> 12 gm. yeast (compressed),</li> +<li> 4 gm. salt,</li> +<li> 175 cc. water (temp. 32° C.).</li></ul> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span></p> + +<p>Let stand ½ hour at a temperature of 30° C. In a large bowl, mix with +a knife or spatula 7.7 gms. of lard with 248.6 gms. of flour. Then add +160 cc. of the "sponge," or as much as is needed to make a good stiff +dough, and mix thoroughly, using the spatula. With some flours as small +a quantity as 150 cc. of sponge may be used. If more moisture is +necessary, add H<sub>2</sub>O. Keep at temperature of 30° C. Allow the dough to +stand 50 minutes to first pulling, 40 minutes to second pulling, and 30 +to 50 minutes to the pan. Let it rise to top of pan and then bake for +½ hour in an oven at a temperature of 180° C. One loaf of bread is +made of patent flour of known quality as a standard for comparison, and +other loaves of the flours to be tested. Compare the loaves as to size +(cubic contents), color, porosity, odor, taste, nature of crust, and +form of loaf.</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 30</h3> + +<h4>Microscopic Examination of Yeast</h4> + +<p>On a watch glass mix thoroughly a very small piece of yeast with about 5 +cc. of water and then with the stirring rod place a drop of this +solution on the microscopical slide, adding a drop of very dilute methyl +violet solution. Cover with the cover glass and examine under the +microscope. The living active cells appear colorless while the decayed +and lifeless ones are stained. Yeast cells are circular or oval in +shape. (See Fig. 46.)</p> + +<p class='author'> +(Adapted from Leach, "Food Inspection and Analysis.") +</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 31</h3> + +<h4>Testing Baking Powders for Alum</h4> + +<p>Place about 2 gms. of flour in a dish with ½ gm. baking powder. Add +enough water to make a dough and then 2 or 3 drops of tincture of +logwood and 2 or 3 drops of ammonium carbonate solution. Mix well and +observe; a blue color indicates alum. Try the same test, using flour +only for comparison.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span></p> + +<p>1. How do you test a baking powder for alum? 2. What difference in color +did you observe in the test with the baking powder containing alum and +in that with the flour only? 3. Why is the (NH<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> solution +used?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 32</h3> + +<h4>Testing Baking Powders for Phosphoric Acid</h4> + +<p>Dissolve ½ gm. of baking powder in 5 cc. of H<sub>2</sub>O and 3 cc. HNO<sub>3</sub>. +Filter and add 3 cc. ammonium molybdate. Heat gently. A yellow +precipitate indicates phosphoric acid.</p> + +<p>1. How do you test a baking powder for phosphoric acid? 2. What is the +yellow precipitate obtained in this test?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 33</h3> + +<h4>Testing Baking Powders for Ammonia</h4> + +<p>Dissolve ½ gm. of material in 10 cc. water; filter off any insoluble +residue and to the filtrate add 2 or 3 cc. NaOH and apply heat. Test the +gas given off with moistened turmeric paper. If NH<sub>3</sub> is present, the +paper will be colored brown. Do not allow the paper to come in contact +with the liquid or sides of the test tube. (Perform the tests on two +samples of baking powder.)</p> + +<p>1. How do you test a baking powder for ammonia? 2. Why do you add NaOH? +3. Why must you be careful not to let the turmeric paper touch the sides +of the test tube or the liquid?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 34</h3> + +<h4>Vinegar Solids</h4> + +<p>Into a weighed aluminum or porcelain dish pour 10 cc. of vinegar. Weigh +and then evaporate over boiling water. To drive off the last traces of +moisture dry in the water oven for an hour. Cool and weigh. Calculate +the per cent of solids. Observe the appearance of the solids. Test both +samples and compare.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span></p> + +<p>1. How may the per cent of solids in vinegar be determined? 2. Describe +the appearance of the solids from the good and from the poor sample of +vinegar. 3. What is the legal standard for vinegar solids in your state?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 35</h3> + +<h4>Specific Gravity of Vinegar</h4> + +<p>Pour 170 cc. vinegar into 200 cc. cylinder. Place a hydrometer for heavy +liquids (sp. gr. 1 to 1.1) in the cylinder. Note the depth to which it +sinks and the point registered on the scale on the stem. Note +temperature of vinegar. Record specific gravity of vinegar.</p> + +<p>1. What effect would addition of water to vinegar have upon its specific +gravity? 2. What effect would addition of such material as sugar have +upon specific gravity? 3. Why should the specific gravity of vinegar be +fairly constant? 4. What would be the weight of 1000 cc. of vinegar +calculated from the specific gravity?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 36</h3> + +<h4>Acidity of Vinegar</h4> + +<p>Into a small beaker pour 6 cc. of vinegar and 10 cc. of water and a few +drops of phenolphthalein indicator. Run in standard KOH solution from a +burette until a faint pink tinge remains permanently. Note the number of +cubic centimeters of KOH solution required to neutralize the acid. +Divide this number by 10, which will give approximately the per cent of +acetic acid.</p> + +<p>1. How may the per cent of acidity of vinegar be determined? 2. Why was +phenolphthalein used? 3. Why was KOH used? 4. What acids does vinegar +contain? 5. What is the legal requirement in this state for acetic acid +in vinegar? 6. How did the acidity you obtained compare with this legal +requirement?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 37</h3> + +<h4>Deportment of Vinegar with Reagents</h4> + +<p>To 10 cc. of vinegar in a test tube add 8 or 10 drops of lead +sub-acetate and shake. Observe the precipitate. Lead sub-acetate +precipitates mainly the malic acid which is always present in cider +vinegar.</p> + +<p>1. How may the presence of malic acid in a vinegar be detected? 2. +Describe the precipitate. 3. What does malic acid in a vinegar indicate?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 38</h3> + +<h4>Testing Mustard for Turmeric</h4> + +<p>Place 1 gm. of ground mustard on a small watch glass and moisten +slightly with water. Add 2 or 3 drops of NH<sub>4</sub>OH, stirring well with a +glass rod. A brown color indicates turmeric present in considerable +quantity.</p> + +<p>Test a sample of good mustard and one adulterated with turmeric and +compare the results.</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 39</h3> + +<h4>Examination of Tea Leaves</h4> + +<p>Soak a small amount of tea and unroll 8 or 10 of the leaves. Make a +drawing of a tea leaf. Observe the proportion of stems in each of three +samples of tea; also the relative proportion of large and small leaves. +Observe if the leaves are even as to size and of a uniform color.</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 40</h3> + +<h4>Action of Iron Compounds upon Tannic Acid</h4> + +<p>Make an infusion of tea by placing 3 gms. of tea in 100 cc. of hot water +and stirring well. Filter off some of the infusion and test 5 cc. with +ferrous sulphate solution made by dissolving 1 gm. FeSO<sub>4</sub> in 10 cc. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span>H<sub>2</sub>O and filtering. Note the result.</p> + +<p>1. What change in color did you observe when the ferrous sulphate +solution was added to the tea infusion? 2. What effect would waters +containing iron have upon the tea infusion?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 41</h3> + +<h4>Identification of Coffee Berries</h4> + +<p>Examine Rio, Java, and Mocha coffee berries. Describe each. Note the +characteristics of each kind of coffee berry.</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 42</h3> + +<h4>Detecting Chicory in Coffee</h4> + +<p>Fill a beaker with water and place about a teaspoonful of ground coffee +on the surface. If much of the ground material sinks and it imparts a +dark brown color to the lower portion of the liquid, it is an indication +of the presence of chicory. Pure coffee floats on water. Chicory has a +higher specific gravity than coffee.</p> + +<p>1. How may the presence of chicory in ground coffee be detected? 2. Why +does coffee float on the water while chicory sinks? 3. What effect does +chicory have upon the color of water?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 43</h3> + +<h4>Testing Hard and Soft Waters</h4> + +<p>Partially fill a large cylinder with very hard water. This may be +prepared by dissolving 0.1 to 0.2 gm. calcium chloride in 500 cc. of +ordinary water. Add to this a measured quantity of soap solution. Mix +well and notice how many cubic centimeters of soap solution must be used +before a permanent lather is formed, also notice the precipitate of +"lime soap." Repeat this experiment, using either rain or distilled +water, and compare the cubic centimeters of soap solution used with that +in former test. Repeat the test, using tap water.</p> + +<p><b>Soap Solution.</b>—Scrape 10 gms. of castile soap into fine shavings<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> and +dissolve in a liter of alcohol, dilute with 1/3 water. Filter if not +clear and keep in a tightly stoppered bottle.</p> + +<p>1. Why is more soap required to form a lather with hard water than with +soft water? 2. What is meant by "lime soap"? Describe its appearance. 3. +How may hard waters be softened for household purposes?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 44</h3> + +<h4>Solvent Action of Water on Lead</h4> + +<p>Put 1 gm. of clean bright lead shavings into a test tube containing 10 +cc. of distilled water. After 24 hours decant the clear liquid into a +second test tube, acidify slightly with HCL, and add a little hydrogen +sulphid water. A black or brownish coloration indicates lead in +solution.</p> + +<p class='author'> +(Adapted from Caldwell and Breneman, "Introductory Chemical Practice.") +</p> + +<p>Under what conditions may lead pipes be objectionable?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 45</h3> + +<h4>Suspended Matter in Water</h4> + +<p>Place a drop of water on the microscopical slide, cover with cover +glass, and examine with the microscope. Note the occurrence and +appearance of any suspended matter in the water.</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 46</h3> + +<h4>Organic Matter in Water</h4> + +<p>Pour into the evaporating dish 100 cc. H<sub>2</sub>O and evaporate to dryness +over the sand bath. Ignite the solids. If the solids blacken when +ignited, the water contains organic matter.</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 47</h3> + +<h4>Deposition of Lime by Boiling Water</h4> + +<p>Boil for a few minutes about 200 cc. of water in a flask. After the +water is cool, note any sediment of lime or turbidity of the water due +to expelling the carbon dioxid.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span></p> + +<p>1. What is meant by a "hard" water? 2. What do the terms "temporary" and +"permanent" hardness of water mean? 3. What acts as a solvent of the +lime in water? 4. Why does boiling cause the lime to be deposited?</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 48</h3> + +<h4>Qualitative Tests for Minerals in Water</h4> + +<p><b>Test for Chlorids.</b>—To 10 cc. of H<sub>2</sub>O add a few drops of HNO<sub>3</sub> and +2 cc. of AgNO<sub>3</sub>. A white precipitate indicates the presence of +chlorids, usually in the form of sodium chlorid.</p> + +<p><b>Test for Sulphates.</b>—To 10 cc. of water add 2 cc. of dilute HCl and 2 +cc. of BaCl<sub>2</sub>. A cloudiness or the formation of a white precipitate +indicates the presence of sulphates.</p> + +<p><b>Test for Iron.</b>—If a brown sediment is formed in water exposed to the +air for some time, it is probably iron hydroxid. To 10 cc. of the water +add a few drops of HNO<sub>3</sub>, heat, and then add ½ cc. of NH<sub>4</sub>CNS. A +red color indicates the presence of iron.</p> + +<p><b>Test for CaO and MgO.</b>—To 10 cc. of H<sub>2</sub>O add 5 cc. NH<sub>4</sub>OH. If a +precipitate forms, filter it off, and to the filtrate add 3 cc. NH<sub>4</sub>Cl +and 5 cc. (NH<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>. The precipitate is CaC{2}O<sub>4</sub>, and +the filtrate contains the magnesia. Filter and add 5 cc. Na<sub>3</sub>PO<sub>4</sub> to +precipitate MgNH<sub>4</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>.</p> + +<p>1. How would you test a water to detect the presence of organic matter? +2. Name some mineral impurities often found in water. 3. Describe the +test for chlorids; for sulphates; for iron; for lime; for magnesium. 4. +Of the two classes of impurities found in water, which is the more +harmful? 5. Name three ways of purifying waters known to be impure, and +tell which is the most effectual.</p> + + +<h3>Experiment No. 49</h3> + +<h4>Testing for Nitrites in Water</h4> + +<p>To 50 cc. of water in a small beaker add with a pipette 2 cc. of +naphthylamine hydrochloride and then 2 cc. of sulphanilic acid.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> Stir +well and wait 20 minutes for color to develop. A pink color indicates +nitrites.</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Reagents Used</span></h4> + +<p><b>Sulphanilic Acid.</b>—Dissolve 5 gm. in 150 cc. of dilute acetic acid; +sp. gr. 1.04.</p> + +<p><b>Naphthylamine Hydrochloride.</b>—Boil 0.1 gm. of solid α-amidonaphthaline (naphthylamine) in 20 cc. of water, filter the +solution through a plug of absorbent cotton, and mix the nitrate with +180 cc. of dilute acetic acid. All water used must be free from +nitrites, and all vessels must be rinsed out with such water before +tests are applied.</p> + +<p>1. Would a water showing the presence of nitrites be a safe drinking +water? Why? 2. What are nitrites? 3. What does the presence of nitrites +indicate? 4. Are small amounts of nitrites, when not associated with +bacteria, injurious?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="REVIEW_QUESTIONS" id="REVIEW_QUESTIONS"></a>REVIEW QUESTIONS</h2> + + +<h3>CHAPTER I</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">General Composition of Foods</span></h4> + +<p>1. To what extent is water present in foods? 2. What foods contain the +most, and what foods the least water? 3. How does the water content of +some foods vary with the hydroscopicity of the air? 4. How may changes +in water content of foods affect their weight? 5. Why is it necessary to +consider the water content of foods in assigning nutritive values? 6. +How is the dry matter of a food determined? 7. Why is the determination +of the water in a food often a difficult process? 8. What is the ash or +mineral matter of a food? 9. How is it obtained? 10. What is its source? +11. Of what is the ash of plants composed? 12. What part in plant life +do these ash elements take? 13. Name the ash elements essential for +plant growth. 14. Which of the mineral elements take the most essential +part in animal nutrition? 15. In what form are these elements usually +considered most valuable? 16. Why is sodium chloride or common salt +necessary for animal life? 17. How do food materials differ in ash +content? 18. Define organic matter of foods. 19. How is it obtained? 20. +Of what is it composed? 21. Into what is the organic matter converted +when it is burned? 22. Give the two large classes of organic compounds +found in food materials. 23. Name the various subdivisions of the +non-nitrogenous compounds. 24. What are the carbohydrates? 25. Give +their general composition. 26. What is cellulose? 27. Where is it found? +28. What is its function in plants? 29. What is its food value? 30. In +what way may cellulose be of value in a ration? 31. In what way may it +impart a negative value to a ration? 32. What is starch?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> 33. Where is +it mainly found in plants? 34. Give the mechanical structure of the +starch grain. 35. Why is starch insoluble in cold water? 36. How do +starch grains from different sources differ in structure? 37. What +effect does heat have upon starch? 38. Define hydration of starch. 39. +Under what conditions does this change take place? 40. What value as a +nutrient does starch possess? 41. What is sugar? 42. How does it +resemble and how differ in composition from starch? 43. What are the +pectose substances? 44. How are they affected by heat? 45. What food +value do they possess? 46. What is nitrogen-free-extract? 47. How is it +obtained? 48. How may the nitrogen-free-extract of one food differ from +that of another? 49. What are the fats? 50. How do they differ in +composition from the starches? 51. Why does fat when burned or digested +produce more heat than starch or sugar? 52. Name the separate fats of +which animal and vegetable foods are composed. 53. Give some of the +physical characteristics of fat. 54. What is the iodine absorption +number of a fat? 55. How does the specific gravity of fat compare with +that of water? 56. Into what two constituents may all fats be separated? +57. What is ether extract? 58. How does the ether extract in fats vary +in composition and nutritive value? 59. What are the organic acids? 60. +Name those most commonly met with in foods. 61. What nutritive value do +they possess? 62. What dietetic value? 63. What value are they to the +growing plant? 64. What organic acids are found in animal foods? 65. +What are the essential oils? 66. How do they differ from the fixed oils, +or fats? 67. What property do the essential oils impart to foods? 68. +What food value do they possess? 69. What dietetic value? 70. What are +the mixed compounds? 71. How may a compound impart a negative value to a +food? 72. What is the nutritive value of the non-nitrogenous compounds, +taken as a class? 73. Why is it necessary that nitrogenous and +non-nitrogenous compounds be blended in a ration? 74. What are the +nitrogenous compounds? 75. How do they differ from the non-nitrogenous +compounds? 76. Name the four subdivisions of the nitrogenous compounds. +77. What is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span> protein? 78. What is characteristic as to its nitrogen +content? 79. What are some of the derivative products that can be +obtained from the protein molecule? 80. How does the protein content of +animal bodies compare with that of plants? 81. Name the various +subdivisions of the proteins. 82. What is albumin, and how may it be +obtained from a food? 83. What is globulin, and how is it obtained from +a food? 84. Give some examples of globulins. 85. What are the +albuminates, and how are they affected by the action of acids and +alkalies? 86. What are the peptones, and how do they differ from the +albumins? 87. How are the peptones produced from other proteids? 88. +What are the insoluble proteids? 89. Give an example. 90. Which of the +proteids are found to the greatest extent in foods? 91. Why may proteids +from different sources vary in their nutritive value? 92. What general +change do the proteids undergo during digestion? 93. What is crude +protein? 94. How is the crude protein content of a food calculated? 95. +Why is the nitrogen content of a food more absolute than the crude +protein content? 96. What food value do the proteins possess? 97. Why +may proteins serve so many functions in the body? 98. Why is protein +necessary as a nutrient? 99. What is the effect of an excess of protein +in the ration? 100. What is the effect of a scant amount of protein in a +ration? 101. What are the albuminoids? 102. Name borne materials that +contain large amounts of albuminoids. 103. What food value do the +albuminoids possess? 104. What are the amids? 105. How are they formed +in plants? 106. What is their source in animals? 107. What general +changes does the element nitrogen undergo in plant and animal bodies? +108. What is the food value of the amids? 109. What are the alkaloids? +110. What is their food value? 111. What effect do some alkaloids exert +upon the animal body? 112. How may they be produced in animal foods? +113. What general relationship exists between the various nitrogenous +compounds? 114. Why is it essential that the animal body be supplied +with nitrogenous food in the form of proteids? 115. Name the cycle of +changes through which the element nitrogen passes in plant and animal +bodies.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER II</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Changes in Composition of Foods During Cooking and Preparation</span></h4> + +<p>116. How do raw and cooked foods compare in general composition? 117. In +what ways are foods acted upon during cooking? 118. What causes chemical +changes to take place during cooking? 119. What are the principal +compounds that are changed during the process of cooking? 120. How does +cooking affect the cellulose of foods? 121. What change does starch +undergo during cooking? 122. When foods containing starch are baked, +what change occurs? 123. How are the sugars acted upon when foods are +cooked? 124. What effect does dry heat have upon sugar? 125. What change +occurs to the fats during cooking? 126. How does this affect nutritive +value? 127. What changes do the proteids undergo during cooking? 128. +Why does the action of heat affect various proteids in different ways? +129. Why are chemical changes, as hydration, often desirable in the +cooking and preparation of foods? 130. What physical changes do +vegetable and animal tissues undergo when cooked? 131. How do foods +change in weight during cooking? 132. Why is a prolonged high +temperature unnecessary to secure the best results in cooking? 133. To +what extent is the energy of fuels utilized for producing mechanical and +chemical changes in foods during cooking? 134. What effect does cooking +have upon the bacterial flora of foods? 135. In what ways do bacteria +exert a favorable influence in the preparation of foods? 136. How may +certain classes of bacteria exert unfavorable changes in the preparation +of foods? 137. What are the insoluble ferments? 138. What are the +soluble ferments? 139. What part do they take in animal and plant +nutrition? 140. Define aerobic ferments. 141. Define anaërobic ferments. +142. What general relationship exists between the chemical, physical, +and bacteriological changes that take place in foods? 143. Why should +foods also possess an esthetic value? 144. What kinds of colors should +be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span> used in the preparation of foods? 145. What processes should be used +for removal of coloring materials from foods?</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER III</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Vegetable Foods</span></h4> + +<p>146. Give the general composition of vegetable foods as a class. 147. +How do vegetable foods differ from animal foods? 148. Name some +vegetables which contain the maximum, and some which contain the minimum +percentage of protein. 149. Give the general composition of potatoes. +150. Of what is the dry matter mainly composed? 151. How much of the +crude protein of potatoes is true protein? 152. What ratio exists +between the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous compounds in the potato? +153. Give the chemical composition of the potato. 154. What influence do +different methods of boiling have upon the crude protein content of +potatoes? 155. To what extent are the nutrients of potatoes digested and +absorbed by the body? 156. What value do potatoes impart to the ration? +157. How do sweet potatoes differ in chemical composition and food value +from white potatoes? 158. How do carrots differ in composition from +potatoes? 159. What is characteristic of the dry matter of the carrot? +160. How do carrots and milk differ in composition? 161. To what is the +color of the carrot due? 162. To what extent are the nutrients removed +in the cooking of carrots? 163. What is the value of carrots in a +ration? 164. Give the characteristics of the composition of parsnips. +165. How does the starch of parsnips differ from that of potatoes? 166. +How does the mineral matter of parsnips differ from that of potatoes? +167. How does the cabbage differ in general composition from many +vegetables? 168. To what extent are nutrients extracted in the boiling +of cabbage? 169. Give the nutritive value of cabbage. 170. How does the +cauliflower differ from cabbage? 171. Give the general composition of +beets. 172. Give the general composition of cucumbers. 173. What +nutritive value has lettuce?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> 174. Give the composition and dietetic +value of onions. 175. How does the ratio of nitrogenous and +non-nitrogenous compounds in spinach differ from that in many other +vegetables? 176. Give the general composition and nutritive value of +asparagus. 177. How much nutritive material do melons contain? 178. What +are the principal compounds of tomatoes? 179. What nutrients do they +supply to the ration? 180. In the canning of tomatoes, why is it +desirable to conserve the juices? 181. How does sweet corn differ in +composition from fully matured corn? 182. What nutritive value does the +egg plant possess? 183. What are the principal nutrients of squash? 184. +What nutritive material does celery contain? 185. To what does celery +owe its dietetic value? 186. Why are vegetables necessary in a ration? +187. Why is it not possible to value many vegetable foods simply on the +basis of percentage of nutrients present? 188. Name the miscellaneous +compounds which many vegetables contain, and the characteristics which +these may impart. 189. Why is it necessary to consider the sanitary +conditions of vegetables? 190. How do canned vegetables differ in +composition and food value from fresh vegetables? 191. What proportion +of vegetables is refuse and non-edible parts? 192. Why is it necessary +to consider the refuse of a food in determining its nutritive value?</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER IV</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Fruits</span></h4> + +<p>193. To what extent do fruits contain water and dry matter? 194. Give +the general composition of fruits. 195. What compounds impart taste and +flavor? 196. How much nutrients do fruits add to a ration? 197. Why is +it not right to determine the value of fruits entirely on the basis of +nutrients? 198. Give the general composition of apples? 199. What +compound is present to the greatest extent in the dry matter of apples? +200. How do apples differ in composition? 201. Give the general physical +composition of oranges.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> 202. What nutrients are present to the greatest +extent in oranges? 203. How do lemons differ in composition from +oranges? 204. How does grape fruit resemble and how differ in chemical +composition from oranges and lemons? 205. What are the main compounds in +strawberries? 206. In what ways are strawberries valuable in a ration? +207. Of what is grape juice mainly composed? 208. What acid is in +grapes, and what is its commercial value? 209. To what are the +differences in flavor and taste due? 210. How do ripe olives differ in +composition from green olives? 211. What is the food value of the olive? +212. What physiological property does olive oil have? 213. What is the +principal nutrient in peaches? 214. What compounds give flavor to +peaches? 215. Of what does the dry matter of plums mainly consist? 216. +How do plums differ in composition from many other fruits? 217. What are +prunes? What is their food value? 218. How do dried fruits differ in +composition from fresh fruits? 219. What should be the stage of ripeness +of fruit in order to secure the best results in canning? 220. How do +canned fruits differ in composition and nutritive value from fresh +fruits? 221. To what extent are metals dissolved by fruit juices? 222. +Why should tin in which canned goods are preserved be of good quality? +223. What preservatives are sometimes used in the preparation of canned +fruits? 224. What is the objection to their use? 225. Why are fruits +necessary in the ration? 226. What change does heat bring about in the +pectose substances of fruits?</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER V</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Sugar, Molasses, Sirups, Honey, and Confections</span></h4> + +<p>227. What is sugar? 228. From what sources are sugars obtained? 229. +Name the two divisions into which sugars are divided. 230. How are +sugars graded commercially? 231. What per cent of purity has granulated +sugar? 232. How is the coloring material of sugar removed? 233. How is +sugar treated to make it whiter? 234. What value as a nutrient does +sugar possess? 235. Why<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> should sugar be combined with other nutrients? +236. What foods contain appreciable amounts of sugar? 237. Why is an +excessive amount of sugar in a ration undesirable? 238. Does sugar +possess more than condimental value? 239. What is the average quantity +of sugar consumed in this country? 240. What is maple sugar? 241. How +does it differ in composition from other sugar? 242. How is adulterated +maple sugar detected? 243. To what extent is granulated sugar +adulterated? 244. Why is it not easily adulterated? 245. What are the +dextrose sugars? 246. How do they differ chemically from sucrose? 247. +What is the inversion of sugar? 248. In what way does acid act upon +sugar? 249. How are the acid products removed? 250. What is the food +value of glucose? 251. What is molasses? 252. How is it obtained? 253. +Of what is it composed? 254. What gives taste and flavor to molasses? +255. How may molasses act upon metalware? 256. What is the food value of +molasses? 257. What is sirup? 258. Name three kinds of sirup, and +mention materials from which they are prepared. 259. What is the +polariscope, and how is it employed in sugar work? 260. What is honey? +261. How does it differ in composition from sugar? 262. How is strained +honey adulterated? 263. What materials are used in the preparation of +confections? 264. What changes take place in their manufacture? 265. +What materials are used for imparting color? 266. What can you say in +regard to the coal tar colors? 267. What should be the position of candy +in the dietary? 268. What can you say of the comparative value of cane +and beet sugar? 269. How do the commercial grades of sugar compare as to +nutritive value? 270. What are some of the impurities in candy? 271. +What is saccharine? 272. What are its properties?</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER VI</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Legumes and Nuts</span></h4> + +<p>273. What nutrients do the legumes contain in comparatively large +amounts? 274. How does the amount of this nutrient com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span>pare with that +found in meats? 275. Why are legumes valuable crops in general farming +and for the feeding of farm animals? 276. Give the general composition +of beans. 277. How do beans compare in protein content with cereals? +278. How does the protein of beans differ from that of many other food +materials? 279. To what extent are the nutrients of beans digested? 280. +What influence does the combination of beans with other foods have upon +digestibility? 281. What influence does removal of skins have upon +digestibility? 282. In what part of the digestive tract are beans mainly +digested? 283. How does the cost of the nutrients in beans compare with +that of the nutrients in other foods? 284. How do string beans differ +from green beans? 285. Give the general composition, digestibility, and +nutritive value of peas. 286. What can you say of the use of copper +sulphate in the preparation of canned peas? 287. What nutrients do +peanuts contain in large amounts? 288. Give the general composition of +nuts. 289. What are the characteristics of pistachio? 290. Give the +general composition of the cocoanut. 291. What is cocoanut butter? 292. +To what extent may nuts contribute to the nutritive value of a ration?</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER VII</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Milk and Dairy Products</span></h4> + +<p>293. What can you say as to the importance of dairy products in the +dietary? 294. Give the general composition of milk. 295. What compound +in milk is most variable? 296. To what extent are the nutrients in milk +digestible? 297. What influence does milk have upon the digestibility of +other foods? 298. Why is cheese cured in cold storage? 299. How can the +tendency of a milk diet to produce costiveness be overcome? 300. Why is +it necessary to consider the sanitary condition of milk? 301. What +factors influence the sanitary condition of milk? 302. What is certified +milk? 303. What is pasteurized milk? 304. How can milk be pasteurized<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> +for family use? 305. What is tyrotoxicon? 306. What is its source in +milk? 307. To what is the color of milk due? 308. To what extent is +color associated with fat content? 309. What causes souring of milk? +310. What change occurs in the milk sugar? 311. What are the most +favorable conditions for the souring of milk? 312. What are some of the +preservatives used in milk. 313. What objection is urged against their +use? 314. What is condensed milk? 315. What is buttermilk, and what +dietetic value has it? 316. How does goats' milk differ from cows' milk? +317. What is koumiss, and how is it prepared? 318. What are the prepared +milks? 319. How does human milk differ in composition from cows' milk? +320. Give the nutritive value of skim milk. 321. What content of fat +should cream contain? 322. In what ways is milk adulterated? 323. How +are these adulterations detected? 324. Give the general composition of +butter. 325. What is the maximum amount of water that a butter may +contain without being considered adulterated? 326. What can you say in +regard to the digestibility of butter? 327. How is butter adulterated? +328. How does oleomargarine compare in digestibility and food value with +butter? 329. What is the food value of butter? 330. How does cheese +differ in composition from butter? 331. Give the general composition of +cheese. 332. To what are the flavor and odor of cheese due? 333. Why is +cheese ripened? 334. What chemical changes take place during ripening? +335. To what extent are the nutrients of cheese digested? 336. Why is +cheese sometimes considered indigestible? 337. To what extent do the +nutrients of different kinds of cheese vary in digestibility? 338. How +does cheese compare in nutritive value and cost with meats? 339. What is +cottage cheese? 340. What is Roquefort cheese? 341. Name four kinds of +cheese, and say to what each owes its individuality. 342. How is cheese +adulterated? 343. Why are dairy products in older agricultural regions +generally cheaper than meats?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER VIII</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Meats and Animal Food Products</span></h4> + +<p>344. Give the general composition of meats. 345. How do meats differ in +chemical composition from vegetable foods? 346. What is the principal +non-nitrogenous compound of meats, and what of vegetables? 347. Name the +different classes of proteins in meats. 348. Which class is present in +largest amounts? 349. To what extent are amid compounds present in +meats? 350. What characteristics do amids impart to meats? 351. How are +alkaloids produced in meats? 352. In what ways does the lean meat of +different kinds of animals vary chemically and physically? 353. Give the +general composition of beef. 354. What relationship exists between the +fat and water content of beef? 355. How much refuse have meats? 356. In +what forms are the ash elements (mineral matter) present in meats? 357. +How does veal differ in composition from beef? 358. What general changes +in composition occur as animals mature? 359. How do these compare with +the changes that take place when plants ripen and seeds are produced? +360. How does mutton vary in composition from beef? 361. How does it +compare in food value with beef? 362. How do lamb and mutton differ in +composition? 363. To what extent do the various cuts differ in +composition? 364. How do the more expensive cuts of lamb compare in +nutritive value with the less expensive cuts? 365. How does pork differ +in composition from other meats? 366. Give the general composition of +ham. 367. Give the composition and nutritive value of bacon. 368. How +does bacon compare in food value with other meats? 369. How does the +character of the fat influence the composition and taste of the meat? +370. What influences the texture or toughness of meats? 371. How do +cooked meats compare in composition with raw meats? 372. To what extent +are nutrients lost in the boiling of meats? 373. What influence does the +temperature of the water<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> in which the meat is placed for cooking have +upon the amount of nutrients extracted? 374. To what is the shrinking of +meats in cooking due? 375. Of what does meat extract mainly consist? +376. To what do beef extracts owe their flavor? 377. What is their food +value? 378. What is their dietetic value? 379. What is lard? 380. How +does it differ in composition from other fats? 381. What is imparted to +meats during the smoking process? 382. Why is saltpeter used in the +preservation of meats? 383. Do vegetable foods contain nitrates and +nitrites? 384. How does poultry resemble and how differ in composition +from other meat? 385. Give the characteristics of sound poultry. 386. +Give the general composition of fish. 387. How does the flesh of +different kinds of fish vary in composition? 388. What influence does +salting and preservation have upon composition? 389. How do fish and +meat compare in digestibility? 390. How does the mineral matter and +phosphate content of fish compare with that of other foods? 391. What +are the main nutrients in oysters? 392. Give the general food value of +oysters. 393. What is meant by the fattening of oysters? 394. What +effect does the character of the water used in fattening have upon the +sanitary value? 395. Give the general composition of the egg. 396. How +do different parts of the egg differ in composition? 397. How does the +egg differ in composition from the potato? 398. Is color an index to the +composition of the egg? 399. What effect does cooking have upon the +composition of the egg? 400. What factors influence the flavor of eggs? +401. How do different ways of cooking affect the digestibility? 402. +Under what conditions can eggs be used economically in the dietary? 403. +Why should eggs be purchased and sold by weight? 404. How do canned +meats differ in composition from fresh meats? 405. How do the nutrients +of canned meats compare in cost with those of fresh meat? 406. What are +the advantages of canned meats over fresh meats? 407. What are some of +the materials used in the preservation of meats?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER IX</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Cereals</span></h4> + +<p>408. How are the cereals milled? 409. What are the cereals most commonly +used for food purposes? 410. Give the general composition of cereals as +a class. 411. What are the main nutrients in corn preparations? 412. +What influence does the more complete removal of the bran and germ of +corn have upon its digestibility? 413. How does the cost of nutrients in +corn compare with other foods? 414. Why is corn alone not suitable for +bread-making purposes? 415. Why should corn be combined in a ration with +foods mediumly rich in protein? 416. What change takes place in corn +meal from long storage? 417. Give the characteristics and composition of +oat preparations. 418. How does removal of the oat hull affect the +composition of the product? 419. To what extent do the various oat +preparations on the market differ in composition and food value? 420. Do +oats contain any special alkaloidal or stimulating principle? 421. Why +should oatmeal receive longer and more-thorough cooking than many other +foods? 422. To what extent are the nutrients in oatmeal digested? 423. +How do wheat preparations differ in general composition from corn and +oat preparations? 424. What influence upon the composition of the wheat +breakfast foods has partial or complete removal of the bran? 425. What +is the effect upon their digestibility and nutritive value? 426. What +are the special diabetic flours, and how are they prepared? 427. What +are the wheat middlings breakfast foods, and how do they compare in +digestibility and food value with bread? 428. How do they differ +mechanically? 429. How does barley differ from wheat in general +composition? 430. What is barley water, and what nutritive material does +it contain? 431. What cereal does rice resemble in composition? 432. +With what food materials should rice be combined to make a balanced +ration? 433. What can you say as to comparative ease<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span> and completeness +of digestibility of rice? 434. Why are cereals valuable in the ration? +435. In what way do they take a mechanical part in digestion? 436. What +are predigested breakfast foods? 437. How would you determine the +general nutritive value of a breakfast food, knowing the kind of cereal +from which it was prepared? 438. To what extent are cereals modified or +changed in composition by cooking? 439. To what extent are the nutrients +of cereal foods digested and absorbed by the body? 440. To what extent +do the cereals supply the body with mineral matter? 441. How does the +phosphate content of cereals compare with that of meats and milk?</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER X</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Wheat Flour</span></h4> + +<p>442. Why is wheat flour especially adapted to bread-making purposes? +443. To what extent may wheat vary in protein content? 444. What are +spring wheats? 445. What are winter wheats? 446. Give the general +characteristics of each. 447. What are glutinous wheats? 448. What are +starchy wheats? 449. Name the different proteids in wheat flour. 450. +About how much starch does wheat flour contain? 451. What other +carbohydrates are also present? 452. What is the roller process of flour +milling? 453. What is meant by the first break? 454. How are the +different products of the wheat kernel separated? 455. What is meant by +middlings flour? 456. What is break flour? 457. What is patent flour? +458. Name the high grade flours. 459. Name the low grade flours. 460. +How are the impurities removed from wheat flour? 461. What per cent of +the wheat kernel is returned as flour? As offals? 462. What becomes of +the wheat germ during milling? 463. What sized bolting cloths are used +in milling? 464. What is graham flour? 465. How does it differ in +mechanical and chemical composition from white flour? 466. What is +entire wheat flour? 467. How does it differ in physical and chemical +composition from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span> white flour? 468. What effect has the refining of +flour upon the ash content? 469. How do low and high grade flours differ +in chemical composition? 470. How do the wheat offals differ in +composition from the flour? 471. What are the factors which influence +the composition of flours? 472. What effect does storage have upon the +bread-making value of flour? 473. What change takes place when new wheat +is stored in an elevator? 474. What is durum wheat flour, and how does +it differ from other flour? 475. What gives flour its color? 476. Why is +color an index of grade? 477. How is the color of a flour determined? +478. How do flours differ in granulation? 479. How does the granulation +affect the physical properties of flour? 480. How is the granulation of +flour approximately determined? 481. How is the absorptive capacity of a +flour determined? 482. What factors cause a variation in the capacity of +flours to absorb water? 483. Give the characteristics of a good gluten. +484. What causes unsound flours? 485. How is the bread-making value of a +flour determined? 486. How are flours bleached? 487. How does bleaching +affect the chemical composition of flour? 488. What influence does +bleaching have upon bread-making value? 489. Traces of what compounds +are formed during bleaching? 490. Are these compounds injurious to +health? 491. What effect does bleaching have upon the color of fiber and +débris particles in flour? 492. Is it possible to bleach low grade +flours and cause them to resemble high grade flours? 493. Are flours +usually adulterated? 494. Why? 495. How would mineral adulterants be +detected? 496. How would the presence of other cereals be detected? 497. +How does flour compare in nutritive value with other foods? 498. How +does the cost of flour compare with that of other foods? 499. What +causes flours to vary so in bread-making value? 500. Why may flours +produced from the same type of wheat vary slightly in character from +year to year? 501. What relationship exists between the nutritive and +bread-making value of a flour?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XI</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Bread and Bread Making</span></h4> + +<p>502. Define leavened and unleavened bread. 503. Why is yeast used in +bread making? 504. Give the characteristics of a good loaf of bread. +505. Why is flour used for bread making purposes? 506. Name the eight +chemical changes that take place during bread making. 507. To what +extent do losses in dry matter occur during bread making? 508. What +compounds suffer losses during bread making? 509. What is yeast? 510. +What chemical changes does it produce? 511. What becomes of these +products during bread making? 512. How is compressed yeast made? 513. +What part does the alcohol take in bread making? 514. What temperature +is reached in the interior of the loaf during bread making? 515. Through +what chemical changes does starch pass during bread making? 516. To what +extent are soluble carbohydrates formed? 517. In what way is starch +acted upon mechanically? 518. Explain the structure of the starch grains +in flour and in dough after they have been acted upon by the yeast +ferments. 519. To what extent are acids produced in bread making? 520. +What becomes of the acids formed? 521. How may the acids thus developed +affect the properties of other chemical compounds? 522. To what extent +are volatile carbon compounds, other than carbon dioxid and alcohol, +liberated during bread making? 523. What changes occur to the various +proteids during the process of bread making? 524. Why do flours vary in +quality of gluten? 525. To what extent do losses of nitrogen occur +during bread making? 526. How much of the total nitrogen of flour is +present as proteids? 527. How is the fat of flour affected during the +process of bread making? 528. What effect does the addition of 10 per +cent of wheat starch to flour have upon the size of the loaf? 529. What +effect does the addition of 10 per cent of wheat gluten to flour have +upon the size of the loaf? 530. What relationship exists between gluten +content and capacity of a flour to absorb water? 531. Give the general<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span> +composition of bread. 532. What factors influence its composition? 533. +What effect does the use of skim milk and lard in bread making have upon +composition? 534. How does the temperature of the flour influence the +bread-making process? 535. Why is it necessary to vary the process of +bread making in order to get the best results with different kinds of +flour? 536. To what extent are the nutrients of bread digested? 537. How +does graham bread compare in digestibility with white bread? 538. How do +graham and entire wheat breads compare in nutritive value with white +bread? 539. What value do graham and entire wheat breads have in the +dietary? 540. Why is white bread generally preferable in the dietary of +the laboring man? 541. How do graham and entire wheat flours compare in +chemical composition with white flour? 542. How do they compare in +mechanical composition? 543. To what is the difference in digestibility +supposed to be due? 544. Are graham and entire wheat breads necessary in +a ration as a source of mineral elements? 545. What is the main +difference in composition between old and new bread? 546. How do +different kinds of bread made from the same flour compare in composition +and nutritive value? 447. How does toast differ in composition from +bread? 548. What influence does toasting have upon digestibility? 549. +What is gained by toasting bread? 550. How does bread compare in +nutritive value with other cereal foods? 551. How does bread compare in +nutritive value with animal foods?</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XII</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Baking Powders</span></h4> + +<p>552. What is a baking powder? 553. What are the two kinds of materials +which baking powders contain? 554. Name the different types of baking +powders. 555. How does baking powder differ in its action from yeast? +556. What are the cream of tartar baking powders? 557. What is the +nature of the residue which they leave? 558. What are the phosphate +baking powders? 559. What is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span> nature of the residue which they +leave? 560. Why is the mineral phosphate not considered equally valuable +with that naturally present in foods? 561. What are the alum baking +powders? 562. What residue is left from the alum powders? 563. Which of +the three classes of baking powders is considered the least +objectionable? 564. Why is a new baking powder preferable to one that +has been kept a long time? 565. Why should baking powders be kept in tin +cans, and not in paper? 566. Why are fillers used in the manufacture of +baking powders? 567. How may a baking powder be prepared at home? 568. +How does such a baking powder compare in cost and efficiency with those +purchased in the market?</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XIII</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Vinegars, Spices, and Condiments</span></h4> + +<p>569. What is vinegar? 570. How is it made? 571. Give the three chemical +changes that take place in its preparation. 572. Why is air necessary in +the last stage of the process? 573. What ferments take part in the +production of vinegar? 574. What is malt vinegar? 575. What materials +other than apples can be used in the preparation of vinegar? 576. Give +the characteristics of a good vinegar. 577. In what ways are vinegars +adulterated? 578. What food value has vinegar? 579. Why should vinegars +not be stored in metalware? 580. What dietetic value has vinegar? 581. +To what materials do the spices owe their value? 582. What is pepper? +583. What is the difference between white and black pepper? 584. What +compounds give pepper its characteristics? 585. How are peppers +adulterated? 586. What is mustard? 587. Give its general composition. +588. How is it adulterated? 589. What is ginger? 590. How is it prepared +for the market? 591. Give its general composition. 592. What is +cinnamon? 593. What is cassia? 594. What gives these their taste and +flavor? 595. What are cloves? 596. How are they prepared? 597. What is +mace? 598. What is nutmeg?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span> 599. Do the spices have any food value? 600. +What is their dietetic value? 601. Why is excessive use of some of the +spices objectionable?</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XIV</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Tea, Coffee, Chocolate, and Cocoa</span></h4> + +<p>602. What is tea? Name the two plants from which it is obtained, the +countries where each grows best, and the number of flushes each yields. +603. Upon what does the quality and grade of tea depend? 604. Give +differences in the preparation and composition of green and black teas. +605. The characteristic flavor of tea is imparted by what compound? 606. +To what compound are its peculiar physiological properties due? 607. +What can you say of the protein in tea as to amount and food value? 608. +Why should tea—especially green tea—be infused for a very short time, +never boiled? 609. What effect has tannin upon the digestion of +proteids? 610. What three points are considered in judging a tea? 611. +What is the most common form of tea adulteration? 612. Describe the +coffee plant and fruit, and its method of preparation for market. 613. +What is the difference in the chemical composition of tea and coffee? +614. Name the characteristic alkaloid of coffee. How does it compare +with theme? 615. Why may coffee not be considered a food? 616. Tell +different ways in which coffee may be adulterated. 617. Which is more +commonly practiced, tea or coffee adulteration? Why? 618. How may real +coffee be distinguished from chicory? Why? 619. Name the three kinds of +coffee in general use. Give distinguishing features of each. Which is +usually considered best? 620. From what are cocoa and chocolate +obtained? 621. Give the two methods of preparing cocoa. 622. What +alkaloid similar to the theme and caffeine of tea and coffee is present +in cocoa and chocolate? 623. What is the difference in preparation of +cocoa and chocolate? 624. What are cereal coffee-substitutes? 625. What +nutritive value have they? 626. How do<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span> they differ in composition from +coffee? 627. To what extent does cocoa add to the nutritive value of a +ration? 628. What is plain chocolate? 629. Why do chocolate preparations +vary so widely in composition? 630. What treatment is given to the cocoa +bean in its preparation for commerce? 631. What treatment is sometimes +given to prevent separation of the cocoa fat? 632. In what ways may +cocoa and chocolate preparations be adulterated?</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XV</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Digestibility of Foods</span></h4> + +<p>633. Define the term nutrient. 634. Do all the nutrients of food have +the same degree of digestibility? 635. What is a digestion coefficient? +636. How is the digestibility of a food determined? 637. What volatile +products are formed during the digestion of food? 638. Define digestible +protein; digestible carbohydrates, digestible fat. 639. What is the +available energy of a ration? 640. How is it determined? 641. How do the +nutrients, protein, fat, and carbohydrates, compare as to available +energy? 642. Why is it necessary to consider the caloric value of a +ration? 643. Is the protein molecule as completely oxidized in the body +as starch or fat? 644. What residue is left from the digestion of +protein? 645. What part do the soluble ferments take in digestion? 646. +To what extent are the nutrients of animal foods digested? 647. Which +nutrient, protein or fat, is the most completely digested? 648. How do +vegetable foods compare in digestibility with animal foods? 649. What +effect does cellulose have upon digestibility? 650. Which of the +nutrients of vegetables, protein or carbohydrates, is more completely +digested? 651. What mechanical value may cellulose have in a ration? +652. Why must bulk be considered in a ration, as well as nutrient +content? 653. Name the eight most important factors influencing the +digestibility of foods. 654. To what extent does the combination of +foods affect<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span> the digestibility of the nutrients? 655. Why does a mixed +ration give better results than when only a single food is used? 656. +How does the amount consumed affect the completeness of the digestive +process? 657. To what extent does the method of preparing food affect +digestibility? 658. What is gained, so far as digestibility is +concerned, by the cooking of foods? 659. To what extent does the +mechanical condition of food affect its digestibility? 660. Why is it +desirable to have some coarsely granulated foods in a ration? 661. Why +should the ration not be composed exclusively of finely granulated +foods? 662. Why is some coarsely granulated food more essential in the +dietary of the sedentary than in the dietary of the laborer? 663. How +does palatability affect the digestive process? 664. Do psychological +processes in any way affect digestion? 665. What physiological +properties do some foods possess? 666. To what are these physiological +properties due? 667. To what extent is individuality a factor in +digestion? 668. To what extent does digestibility differ with +individuals? 669. Why do some foods affect individuals in different +ways? 670. Why is it necessary that the quantity, quality, and character +of the food should vary with different individuals? 671. In what +different ways is the expression "digestibility of a food" used? 672. +Why is it necessary to consider the digestibility of food, as well as +its composition? 673. Does the digestibility of a food necessarily +indicate the economic uses that will be made of it by the body? 674. How +is it possible for one food containing 10 per cent of digestible +protein, and other nutrients in like amounts, to be more valuable than +another food with the same per cent of digestible protein and other +nutrients? 675. How is it possible for one food to contain less total +protein than another food and yet be more valuable from a nutritive +point of view? 676. Why is it necessary to consider the mechanical +condition of a food and its combination with other foods, as well as its +chemical composition? 677. What effect does lack of a good supply of air +have upon the completeness of the digestion process? 678. In what ways +does the digestion of food resemble the combustion of fuel? 679. What is +gained by a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span> study of the digestibility of foods? 680. Why may two foods +of the same general character give different results when used for +nutritive purposes?</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XVI</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Comparative Cost and Value of Foods</span></h4> + +<p>681. To what extent do the nutritive value and the market price of foods +vary? 682. How is the value of one food expressed in terms of another +food? 683. How determine the amount of nutrients that can be procured in +a food for a given sum of money? 684. How compare the amounts of +nutrients that can be procured in two foods for a given sum of money? +685. How is it possible to determine approximately which of two foods is +cheaper, when the price and composition of the foods are known? 686. To +what nutrient is preference usually given in assigning a value to a +food? 687. When the difference in this nutrient between two foods is +small, then the preference is given to what nutrients? 688. At ordinary +prices, what are the cheapest vegetable foods? 689. What are among the +cheapest animal foods? 690. Why is it not possible to determine the +value of a food absolutely from its composition and digestibility? 691. +Why is it necessary to consider the physical as well as the chemical +composition of foods? 692. What proportion of the income of the laboring +man is usually expended for food? 693. What are the most expensive +foods? 694. What foods furnish the largest amount of nutrients at the +least cost?</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XVII</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Dietary Studies</span></h4> + +<p>695. What is a dietary study? 696. How is a dietary study made? 697. +What is the value of the dietary study of a family? 698. To what extent +does the protein in the dietary range?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span> 699. Why is a scant amount of +protein in a ration undesirable? 700. Why is an excess of protein in the +ration undesirable? 701. What are dietary standards? 702. How are such +standards obtained? 703. Why is it desirable in a ration to secure the +protein and other nutrients from a variety rather than from a few foods? +704. Why is it necessary to consider the caloric value of a ration? 705. +How is this determined? 706. What is a wide nutritive ratio? 707. What +is a narrow nutritive ratio? 708. Why should the amount of nutrients +consumed vary with the work performed? 709. How should the nutrients be +apportioned among the meals? 710. What are some of the most common +dietary errors? 711. What analogy exists between human and animal +feeding? 712. What is gained by the rational feeding of both humans and +animals? 713. What use can be made of the results of dietary studies for +improvement of the dietary? 714. Why is it not possible for animal foods +to compete in economy with cereal and vegetable foods? 715. Is a +well-balanced ration and one containing an ample supply of nutrients +necessarily an expensive ration? 716. Show how it is possible for one +family to spend less money for food than another family, and yet secure +more digestible nutrients and energy. 717. What are some of the most +erroneous ideas as to food values? 718. Why is it necessary to consider +previously acquired food habits in the selection of foods? 719. In +general, what portion of the nutrients of a ration should be derived +from vegetable foods, and what portion from meats? 720. To what extent +may a ration vary from the dietary standards? 721. Why are some +inexpensive foods often expensive when prepared for the table? 722. What +are some of the ways in which the cost of a ration can be decreased +without sacrificing nutritive value? 723. Why do different nationalities +acquire distinct food habits? 724. Why is it not possible to make sudden +and radical changes in the dietary? 725. Why is it not possible for a +dietary which gives ample satisfaction for one class of people to be +applied to another class with equal satisfaction? 726. What relationship +exists between the dietary of a nation and its physical development? +727. What rela<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span>tionship exists between dietary habits and mental +development and vigor? 728. Why is it unnecessary and undesirable to +regulate absolutely the amount of nutrients consumed in the daily +ration? 729. What is the general tendency as to quantity of food and +amount of nutrients consumed? 730. Why do people of sedentary habits +require a different dietary from those pursuing active, out-of-door +occupations?</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XVIII</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Rational Feeding of Man</span></h4> + +<p>731. What is the object of the rational feeding of man? 732. On what is +it based? 733. How does it compare with the rational feeding of animals? +734. What is a standard ration? 735. How is it determined? 736. To what +extent may the nutrients of a ration vary from the standard? 737. How do +you combine foods to form a balanced ration? 738. What foods are +valuable for supplying protein? 739. What foods supply fats? 740. What +foods are rich in carbohydrates? 741. What other requisites should a +ration have in addition to supplying the necessary nutrients? 742. Why +is it necessary to consider the calorie value of a ration? 743. If a +ration contained an excess of carbohydrates and a scant amount of +protein, how could it be improved? 744. How do you calculate the +nutrients in a fraction of a pound of food? 745. Give the amounts of the +common food materials, as potatoes, bread, butter, milk, and cheese, +ordinarily combined to form a ration. 746. To what extent may foods +differ in composition from the average analysis given? 747. What foods +are subject to the greatest and what foods to the least variation?</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XIX</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Water</span></h4> + +<p>748. Why is water regarded as a food? 749. Does it enter chemically into +the composition of plants? Of animals? 750. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span> addition to serving as a +food, why is water necessary for life processes? 751. In what ways may +water be improved? 752. What are the most common forms of impurities? +753. What are the mineral impurities of water? 754. What is their +source? 755. What effect do some of these minerals have upon the value +of the water? 756. What causes some waters to dissolve limestone? 757. +What are permanently hard waters? 758. To what is temporary hardness in +water due? 759. What is the best way to remove mineral matter from +water? 760. What are the organic impurities of water? 761. What are the +sources of the organic impurities? 762. What change does the organic +matter of water undergo? 763. What becomes of the nitrogen of the +organic matter? 764. What does the presence of nitrates in water +indicate? Nitrites? 765. What is the total solid matter of a water, and +how is it obtained? 766. Define the terms free ammonia; albuminoid +ammonia. 767. What does the presence of chlorine in a surface well water +indicate? 768. Explain natural purification of water. 769. Can natural +purification always be relied upon? 770. Why does the character of the +drinking water affect health? 771. What diseases are mainly caused by +impure drinking water? 772. With what materials in water are the +disease-producing organisms associated? 773. Why should a water of +questionable purity be boiled? 774. State how the boiling should be +done, to be effective. 775. Why should boiled water receive further care +in its storage? 776. What effect does improvement of the water supply of +a city have upon the death rate? 777. How may connections between +cesspools and surface well waters be traced? 778. What impurities do +rain waters contain? 779. Explain the workings of the Pasteur and +Berkefeld water filters. 780. Why must special attention be given to +cleaning the water filter? 781. Explain the processes employed for the +removal of mechanical impurities of water by sedimentation and the use +of chemicals. 782. Why should such purification be under the supervision +of a chemist or bacteriologist? 783. What effect does freezing have upon +the purity of water? 784. Why are precautions necessary in the use of +ice for refrigeration? 785. What are mineral waters?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span> 786. How are +artificial mineral waters prepared? 787. What are the more common +materials used in their preparation? 788. Why should mineral waters be +extensively used only by the advice of a physician? 789. What are some +of the materials used for softening water? 790. Which are the least +objectionable of these materials? 791. Which are the most objectionable? +792. What can you say of the use of ammonia and ammonium carbonate for +softening waters? 793. In washing clothing after contagious diseases, +what materials may be used for disinfecting? 794. Why, in softening +waters for household purposes, must caustic soda, potash, and bleaching +powder be used with caution? 795. Why is it necessary to determine by +trial the material most suitable for softening water? 796. What +advantage, from a pecuniary point of view, results from the improvement +of the water supply of a community?</p> + + +<h3>CHAPTER XX</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">Food in its Relation to Household Sanitation and Storage</span></h4> + +<p>797. What are the compounds usually determined in a food analysis? 798. +Does such an analysis necessarily indicate the presence of injurious +compounds? 799. What are the sources of the injurious organic compounds +in foods? 800. Why is it necessary to consider sanitary condition as +well as chemical composition? 801. What are the sources of contamination +of foods? 802. What is the object of the sanitary inspection of food? +803. How may flies carry germ diseases? 804. Why should food be +protected from impure air and dust particles? 805. Why should places +where vegetables are stored be well ventilated? 806. How may the dirt +adhering to vegetables be the carrier of germ diseases? 807. Why should +the cellar in which food is stored be in a sanitary condition? 808. What +effect does the cleaning of streets and improvement of the sanitation of +cities have upon the death rate? 809. Name the three natural +disinfectants, and explain the action of each.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span> 810. Why must dishes and +utensils in which foods are placed be thoroughly cleaned? 811. Explain +the principle of refrigeration. 812. What kind of ferment action may +take place at a low temperature? 813. Why is some ventilation necessary +in refrigeration? 814. What effect does refrigeration have upon the +composition of food? 815. What relationship exists between unsanitary +condition of soils about dwellings and contamination of the food? 816. +Why should special attention be given to the sanitary disposal of +kitchen refuse? 817. Name the ways in which this can be accomplished. +818. How may foods become contaminated through imperfect plumbing? 819. +Mention the conditions necessary in order to keep foods sanitary.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="REFERENCES" id="REFERENCES"></a>REFERENCES</h2> + + +<p>The following list of references is given for the use of the student in +case additional information is desired upon some of the subjects +discussed in this work. The list is not intended as a complete +bibliography of the subject of foods. The advanced student will find +extended references in the Experiment Station Record and the various +chemical, physiological, and bacteriological journals.</p> + +<p>1. <span class="smcap">Snyder</span>: The Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life.</p> + +<p>2. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 54: Human Food +Investigations.</p> + +<p>3. <span class="smcap">Cross and Bevans</span>: Cellulose.</p> + +<p>4. <span class="smcap">Wiley</span>: Principles and Practice of Agricultural Analysis, +Vol. III.</p> + +<p>5. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 74: Human Food +Investigations.</p> + +<p>6. <span class="smcap">Parry</span>: The Chemistry of Essential Oils, etc.</p> + +<p>7. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 142: +Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food.</p> + +<p>8. <span class="smcap">Mann</span>: Chemistry of the Proteids.</p> + +<p>9. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 85: Wheat and Flour +Investigations.</p> + +<p>10. <span class="smcap">Armsby</span>: Principles of Animal Nutrition.</p> + +<p>11. <span class="smcap">Sherman</span>: Organic Analysis.</p> + +<p>12. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations +Bulletin No. 43: Digestion Experiments with Potatoes and Eggs.</p> + +<p>13. Unpublished results of author.</p> + +<p>14. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin +No. 49: Cold Curing of Cheese.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span></p> + +<p>15. <span class="smcap">Wiley</span>: Foods and Their Adulteration.</p> + +<p>16. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 63: Miscellaneous +Analyses.</p> + +<p>17. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. +13, Part 8: Canned Vegetables.</p> + +<p>18. <span class="smcap">Leach</span>: Food Inspection and Analysis.</p> + +<p>19. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 256: +Preparation of Vegetables for the Table.</p> + +<p>20. U. S. Department of Agriculture Year Book, 1905: Fruit and its Uses +as Food.</p> + +<p>21. Handbook of Experiment Station Work, 1893.</p> + +<p>22. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Chemistry Bulletin No. +94: Studies on Apples.</p> + +<p>23. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. +69: Fruits and Fruit Products.</p> + +<p>24. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 203: Canned +Fruits, Preserves, and Jellies.</p> + +<p>25. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. +27: Sugar Beet Industry.</p> + +<p>26. <span class="smcap">Sadtler</span>: A Handbook of Industrial Organic Chemistry.</p> + +<p>27. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 86: The Food Value of +Sugar. The Digestive Action of Milk.</p> + +<p>28. <span class="smcap">Hutchison</span>: Food and Principles of Dietetics.</p> + +<p>29. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No 93: Sugar as +Food.</p> + +<p>30. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations +Bulletin No. 252: Maple Sugar and Sirup.</p> + +<p>31. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. +13, Part 6: Sugar, Molasses, Sirup, and Confections.</p> + +<p>32. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 121: Peas and +Beans as Food.</p> + +<p>33. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 122: Nuts as +Food.</p> + +<p>34. Maine Experiment Station Bulletin No. 54: Nuts as Food.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span></p> + +<p>35. California Experiment Station Bulletins Nos. 107 and 132: +Investigations among Fruitarians.</p> + +<p>36. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 74: Milk as +Food.</p> + +<p>37. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 63: Care of +Milk on the Farm.</p> + +<p>38. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 149: +Digestibility of Milk.</p> + +<p>39. <span class="smcap">Russell</span>: Dairy Bacteriology.</p> + +<p>40. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. +13. Part 1: Dairy Products.</p> + +<p>41. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 131: +Household Tests for Detection of Oleomargarine and Renovated Butter.</p> + +<p>42. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin +No 61: Relation of Bacteria to Flavor of Cheddar Cheese.</p> + +<p>43. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 92: The Digestibility and +Nutritive Value of Cottage Cheese, etc.</p> + +<p>44. <span class="smcap">Lawes and Gilbert</span>: Experiments with Animals.</p> + +<p>45. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 34: Meats, +Composition and Cooking.</p> + +<p>46. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. +13, Part 7: Lard and Lard Adulterants.</p> + +<p>47. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations +Bulletin No. 193: Cooking of Meats as Affecting Digestibility.</p> + +<p>48. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations +Bulletin No. 141: Experiments on Losses in Cooking Meats. See also +Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin No. 102: Losses in Cooking Meats.</p> + +<p>49. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations +Bulletin No. 66: Physiological Effect of Creatin and Creatinin.</p> + +<p>50. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations +Bulletin No. 162: The Influence of Cooking upon the Nutritive Value of +Meats.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span></p> + +<p>51. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. +13, Part 10: Preserved Meats.</p> + +<p>52. <span class="smcap">Richardson, W. D.</span>, Journal of the American Chemical +Society, December, 1907: The Occurrence of Nitrates in Vegetable Foods, +in Cured Meats, and Elsewhere.</p> + +<p>53. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations +Bulletin No. 182: Poultry as Food.</p> + +<p>54. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 85: Fish as +Food.</p> + +<p>55. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin, Experiment +Station Work: Digestibility of Fish and Poultry.</p> + +<p>56. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 249: Cereal +Breakfast Foods.</p> + +<p>57. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. +50: Composition of Maize.</p> + +<p>58. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations +Bulletin No. 305: Gluten Flour and Similar Foods.</p> + +<p>59. <span class="smcap">Hammerston</span>: Physiological Chemistry.</p> + +<p>60. <span class="smcap">Edgar</span>: The Wheat Berry.</p> + +<p>61. Minnesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 90: Composition and Value +of Grains.</p> + +<p>62. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations +Bulletin No. 101: Bread and Bread Making.</p> + +<p>63. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations +Bulletin No. 156: Digestibility and Nutritive Value of Bread and +Macaroni Flour.</p> + +<p>64. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations +Bulletin No. 67: Bread and Bread Making.</p> + +<p>65. University of Nebraska Bulletin No. 102: The Effect of Bleaching +upon the Quality of Wheat Flour.</p> + +<p>66. <span class="smcap">Snyder</span>: Wheat Flour and Bread.</p> + +<p>67. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations +Bulletin No. 126: Bread and Bread Making.</p> + +<p>68. <span class="smcap">Lawes and Gilbert</span>: Experiments on Some Points in the +Composition of the Wheat Grain, of the Product in the Mill and Bread.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span></p> + +<p>69. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. +13, Part 5: Baking Powders.</p> + +<p>70. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. +13, Part 2: Spices and Condiments.</p> + +<p>71. Food Standards: U. S. Department of Agriculture. See Annual Reports +of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists.</p> + +<p>72. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations +Bulletin No. 21: Methods and Results of Investigations on the Chemistry +and Economy of Foods.</p> + +<p>73. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin No. +13, Part 7: Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa Preparations.</p> + +<p>74. The Respiration Calorimeter: Year-book U. S. Department of +Agriculture, 1904.</p> + +<p>75. Year Book U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1902: Cost of Food as +Related to its Nutritive Value.</p> + +<p>76. See U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations +Bulletins Nos. 82, 71, 129, 116, 37, 55, 150. See also other bulletins +of the Office of Experiment Stations.</p> + +<p>77. <span class="smcap">Chittenden</span>: Physiological Economy in Nutrition.</p> + +<p>78. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations +Bulletin No. 98: Effect of Severe and Prolonged Muscular Work on Food +Consumption.</p> + +<p>79. <span class="smcap">Henry</span>: Feeds and Feeding.</p> + +<p>80. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations: +Dietary Studies in Chicago Bulletin No. 55.</p> + +<p>81. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations +Bulletin No. 116: Dietary Studies in New York City.</p> + +<p>82. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 119: Banana +Flour.</p> + +<p>83. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations +Bulletin No. 159: Digest of Japanese Investigations on the Nutrition of +Man.</p> + +<p>84. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations +Bulletin No. 150: Dietary Studies at the Government Hospital for the +Insane, Washington, D.C.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span></p> + +<p>85. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations +Bulletin No. 149: Studies on the Food of Maine Lumbermen.</p> + +<p>86. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations +Bulletin No. 143: Studies on the Digestibility and Nutritive Value of +Bread at the Maine Experiment Station.</p> + +<p>87. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, +Experiment Station Work, Vol. III: Wells and Pure Water.</p> + +<p>88. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 88: Pure +Water on the Farm.</p> + +<p>89 Mineral Impurities in Water. See various bulletins of the California +and New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Stations.</p> + +<p>90. <span class="smcap">Mason</span>: Examination of Water.</p> + +<p>91. Department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey: The Quality of +Surface Waters in Minnesota.</p> + +<p>92. <span class="smcap">Fuertes</span>: Water and Public Health.</p> + +<p>93. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 124: +Distilled Drinking Water.</p> + +<p>94. <span class="smcap">Turneaure and Russell</span>: Public Water Supplies.</p> + +<p>95. <span class="smcap">Vaughan and Novy</span>: Ptomains and Lencomains.</p> + +<p>96. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology, Circular No. +71: House Flies.</p> + +<p>97. <span class="smcap">Ellen H. Richards and S. Maria Elliott</span>: The Chemistry of +Cooking and Cleaning.</p> + +<p>98. Dr. <span class="smcap">Woods Hutchinson</span>, <i>Saturday Evening Post</i>, 1908: The +Real Angels of the House.</p> + +<p>99. <span class="smcap">Harrington</span>: Practical Hygiene.</p> + +<p>100. <span class="smcap">Price</span>: Handbook of Sanitation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2> + + + + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Air, infection from impure, <a href='#Page_287'><b>287</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">pure, disinfectant, <a href='#Page_290'><b>290</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Albuminoids, <a href='#Page_23'><b>23</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alkaloids, <a href='#Page_24'><b>24</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Allspice, <a href='#Page_202'><b>202</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Almonds, <a href='#Page_77'><b>77</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Alum baking powder, <a href='#Page_188'><b>188</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Amids and Amines, <a href='#Page_23'><b>23</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Animal and vegetable foods, economy of, <a href='#Page_250'><b>250</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Animal foods, digestibility of, <a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Apparatus used in experiments, <a href='#Page_301'><b>301</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Apples, <a href='#Page_49'><b>49</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">pectose from, <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ash, of foods, <a href='#Page_4'><b>4</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">elements of plants, <a href='#Page_5'><b>5</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Asparagus, <a href='#Page_43'><b>43</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Available energy, <a href='#Page_217'><b>217</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">nutrients, <a href='#Page_216'><b>216</b></a>.</span><br /> + + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bacteria in food, <a href='#Page_32'><b>32</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Baking powder, composition of, <a href='#Page_186'><b>186</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">cream of tartar, <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">phosphates, <a href='#Page_189'><b>189</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">alum, <a href='#Page_189'><b>189</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">inspection of, <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">fillers, <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">home-made, <a href='#Page_191'><b>191</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">testing for alum, <a href='#Page_315'><b>315</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">testing for ammonia, <a href='#Page_316'><b>316</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">testing for phosphoric acid, <a href='#Page_316'><b>316</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Baking tests, <a href='#Page_153'><b>153-314</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Barley preparations, <a href='#Page_128'><b>128</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beans, composition, <a href='#Page_71'><b>71</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">digestibility, <a href='#Page_72'><b>72</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">removal of skins, <a href='#Page_72'><b>72</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">string, <a href='#Page_73'><b>73</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">use of, in dietary, <a href='#Page_74'><b>74</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beef, <a href='#Page_101'><b>101</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">extracts, <a href='#Page_110'><b>110</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beets, <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beverages, composition, <a href='#Page_213'><b>213</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bleaching of flour, <a href='#Page_155'><b>155</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolting cloth, <a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bread and bread making, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158-185</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">leavened and unleavened bread, <a href='#Page_158'><b>158</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">chemical changes during making, <a href='#Page_159'><b>159</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">losses during bread making, <a href='#Page_160'><b>160</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">production of carbon dioxide, <a href='#Page_163'><b>163</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">production of alcohol, <a href='#Page_163'><b>163</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">production of soluble carbohydrates, <a href='#Page_165'><b>165</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">production of acids, <a href='#Page_166'><b>166</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">production of volatile compounds, <a href='#Page_167'><b>167</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">production of volatile nitrogenous compounds, <a href='#Page_172'><b>172</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">wheat proteids, part taken by, <a href='#Page_169'><b>169</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">oxidation of fat, <a href='#Page_173'><b>173</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">starch, influence of, addition of, <a href='#Page_173'><b>173</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">composition of bread, <a href='#Page_174'><b>174</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">temperature of flour, <a href='#Page_176'><b>176</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">use of skim milk, <a href='#Page_176'><b>176</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">process of bread making, <a href='#Page_177'><b>177</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">digestibility of bread, <a href='#Page_178'><b>178</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">graham bread, use in the dietary, <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">white and graham bread compared, <a href='#Page_180'><b>180</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">mineral content of, <a href='#Page_182'><b>182</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">new and old, <a href='#Page_183'><b>183</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">action of heat on, <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">different kinds of, <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Breakfast foods, <a href='#Page_121'><b>121-132</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Broth, <a href='#Page_109'><b>109</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Butter, composition, <a href='#Page_91'><b>91</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">digestibility, <a href='#Page_91'><b>91</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">adulteration, <a href='#Page_92'><b>92</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">coloring, <a href='#Page_92'><b>92</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">renovated, <a href='#Page_92'><b>92</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">water in, <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Buttermilk, <a href='#Page_88'><b>88</b></a>.</span><br /> + + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cabbage, <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Candies, <a href='#Page_69'><b>69</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Canned meats, <a href='#Page_118'><b>118</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">vegetables, <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">peas, <a href='#Page_75'><b>75</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carbohydrates defined, <a href='#Page_8'><b>8</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carrots, <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cauliflower, <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cellars, storage of food in, <a href='#Page_283'><b>283</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cellulose and properties, <a href='#Page_8'><b>8</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cereals, <a href='#Page_121'><b>121-132</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">preparation of, <a href='#Page_121'><b>121</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">cost of, <a href='#Page_121'><b>121</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">value of, <a href='#Page_131'><b>131</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">use of, in dietary, <a href='#Page_131'><b>131</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">corn preparations, <a href='#Page_122'><b>122</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">oat preparations, <a href='#Page_124'><b>124</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">wheat preparations, <a href='#Page_126'><b>126</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">barley preparations, <a href='#Page_128'><b>128</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">rice preparations, <a href='#Page_129'><b>129</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">predigested, <a href='#Page_130'><b>130</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">phosphates in, <a href='#Page_131'><b>131</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">mineral matters of, <a href='#Page_131'><b>131</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">coffees, <a href='#Page_210'><b>210</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cesspools, <a href='#Page_289'><b>289</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cheese, <a href='#Page_92'><b>92-96</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">general composition, <a href='#Page_92'><b>92</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">digestibility, <a href='#Page_93'><b>93</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">use of, in dietary, <a href='#Page_94'><b>94</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">cottage, <a href='#Page_95'><b>95</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">different kinds of, <a href='#Page_95'><b>95</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">adulteration, <a href='#Page_96'><b>96</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chemical changes during cooking, <a href='#Page_27'><b>27-30</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chemicals, use of, in preparation of foods permitted, <a href='#Page_36'><b>36</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chestnuts, <a href='#Page_76'><b>76</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chicory, detection in coffee, <a href='#Page_319'><b>319</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chocolate, <a href='#Page_212'><b>212</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">adulteration of, <a href='#Page_213'><b>213</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cinnamon and cassia, <a href='#Page_201'><b>201</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cloves, <a href='#Page_201'><b>201</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coal tar dyes, testing for, <a href='#Page_308'><b>308</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cocoa, <a href='#Page_210'><b>210</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cocoanuts, <a href='#Page_77'><b>77</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coffee, composition of, <a href='#Page_207'><b>207</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">detection of chicory in, <a href='#Page_319'><b>319</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">glazing of, <a href='#Page_208'><b>208</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">substitutes, cereal, <a href='#Page_210'><b>210</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">types of, <a href='#Page_209'><b>209</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Combustion of foods, <a href='#Page_6'><b>6</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cooking, changes during, <a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">chemical, <a href='#Page_27'><b>27-30</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">physical, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30-32</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">bacteriological, <a href='#Page_32'><b>32</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Corn, sweet, <a href='#Page_41'><b>41</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">preparations, <a href='#Page_122'><b>122</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cream, <a href='#Page_87'><b>87</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cream of tartar, <a href='#Page_187'><b>187</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Crude fiber of foods, <a href='#Page_9'><b>9</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Crude protein, <a href='#Page_21'><b>21</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cucumbers, <a href='#Page_42'><b>42</b></a>.</span><br /> + + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dairy products, <a href='#Page_80'><b>80-97</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">use of, in dietary, <a href='#Page_96'><b>96</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dextrose, <a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dietary standards, <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dietary studies, <a href='#Page_244'><b>244-260</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">object of, <a href='#Page_244'><b>244</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">mixed, desirable, <a href='#Page_250'><b>250</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of families compared, <a href='#Page_253'><b>253</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">in public institutions, <a href='#Page_259'><b>259</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Digestibility of foods, <a href='#Page_214'><b>214</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of animal foods, <a href='#Page_220'><b>220</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">of vegetable foods, <a href='#Page_222'><b>222</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Digestion, combination of foods, <a href='#Page_223'><b>223</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">factors influencing, <a href='#Page_223'><b>223</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">amount of food, <a href='#Page_224'><b>224</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">method of preparation of food, <a href='#Page_225'><b>225</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">mechanical condition of foods, <a href='#Page_226'><b>226</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">psychological factors, <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">individuality, <a href='#Page_229'><b>229</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Digestion and health, <a href='#Page_219'><b>219</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dishcloth, unclean, <a href='#Page_292'><b>292</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Disinfectants, <a href='#Page_281'><b>281</b></a>, <a href='#Page_289'><b>289</b></a>, <a href='#Page_295'><b>295</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Drying of foods, <a href='#Page_2'><b>2</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dry matter, <a href='#Page_2'><b>2</b></a>.</span><br /> + + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Egg plant, <a href='#Page_44'><b>44</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Eggs, <a href='#Page_114'><b>114-118</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">composition, <a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">digestibility, <a href='#Page_116'><b>116</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">cooking of, <a href='#Page_116'><b>116</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">use of, in dietary, <a href='#Page_117'><b>117</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Elements in foods, <a href='#Page_7'><b>7</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Energy, available, <a href='#Page_217'><b>217</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Energy value of rations, <a href='#Page_246'><b>246</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Entire wheat, <a href='#Page_145'><b>145</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Essential oils, <a href='#Page_15'><b>15</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">occurrence, <a href='#Page_15'><b>15</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">composition of, <a href='#Page_16'><b>16</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">food value, <a href='#Page_16'><b>16</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Esthetic value of foods, <a href='#Page_36'><b>36</b></a>.</span><br /> + + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fat, occurrence in food, <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">composition, <a href='#Page_13'><b>13</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">physical properties, <a href='#Page_14'><b>14</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">food value, <a href='#Page_14'><b>14</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">individual fats, <a href='#Page_14'><b>14</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">oxidation of, during bread making, <a href='#Page_173'><b>173</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ferments, soluble, <a href='#Page_34'><b>34</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">insoluble, <a href='#Page_34'><b>34</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Figs, <a href='#Page_54'><b>54</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fish, <a href='#Page_113'><b>113</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Flavoring extracts, <a href='#Page_56'><b>56</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Flavors, composition of, <a href='#Page_48'><b>48</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">occurrence of, <a href='#Page_49'><b>49</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">food value, <a href='#Page_49'><b>49</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Flies, contamination of food by, <a href='#Page_286'><b>286</b></a>, <a href='#Page_295'><b>295</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Foods, <a href='#Page_215'><b>215</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">digestibility of, <a href='#Page_215'><b>215</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">mechanical condition of, <a href='#Page_226'><b>226</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">palatability of, <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">physiological properties of, <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ash of, <a href='#Page_4'><b>4</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">predigested, <a href='#Page_130'><b>130</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sodium chloride in, <a href='#Page_4'><b>4</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">cost of, <a href='#Page_231'><b>231</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">market price and nutritive value, <a href='#Page_231'><b>231-234</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">composition of, <a href='#Page_234'><b>234-263</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">comparative nutritive value, <a href='#Page_231'><b>231</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">economy of production, <a href='#Page_250'><b>250</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">habits, <a href='#Page_250'><b>250</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">notions, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">relation to mental and physical vigor, <a href='#Page_258'><b>258</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">amount consumed, <a href='#Page_262'><b>262</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">injurious compounds in, <a href='#Page_284'><b>284</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">contamination of, <a href='#Page_284'><b>284</b></a>, <a href='#Page_292'><b>292</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sanitary inspection of, <a href='#Page_286'><b>286</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">storage in cellars, <a href='#Page_288'><b>288</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">infection from impure air, <a href='#Page_287'><b>287</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">utensils for storage, <a href='#Page_291'><b>291</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">raw, <a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">cheap and expensive, <a href='#Page_252'><b>252</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fruits, composition of, <a href='#Page_48'><b>48</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">canned, <a href='#Page_54'><b>54</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">dried, <a href='#Page_54'><b>54</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">canned and adulterated, <a href='#Page_55'><b>55</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fruit extracts, <a href='#Page_56'><b>56</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fruit flavors, <a href='#Page_55'><b>55</b></a>.</span><br /> + + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ginger, <a href='#Page_200'><b>200</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gliadin, <a href='#Page_314'><b>314</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gluten, addition of, to flour, <a href='#Page_173'><b>173</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">moist and dry, <a href='#Page_314'><b>314</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gluten properties of flour, <a href='#Page_151'><b>151</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Graham bread, <a href='#Page_179'><b>179</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">use in dietary, <a href='#Page_180'><b>180</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Graham flour, <a href='#Page_144'><b>144</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grape fruit, <a href='#Page_51'><b>51</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grapes, <a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a>.</span><br /> + + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Heat, action on foods, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hickory nuts, <a href='#Page_77'><b>77</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Honey, <a href='#Page_68'><b>68</b></a>.</span><br /> + + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ice, <a href='#Page_279'><b>279</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inspection of food, <a href='#Page_286'><b>286</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inversion of sugar, <a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a>.</span><br /> + + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kitchen refuse, <a href='#Page_294'><b>294</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Koumiss, <a href='#Page_88'><b>88</b></a>.</span><br /> + + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Laboratory practice, <a href='#Page_299'><b>299</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lard, <a href='#Page_106'><b>106</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">substitutes, <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Legumes, <a href='#Page_71'><b>71-76</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lemon extract, testing, <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lemons, <a href='#Page_51'><b>51</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">acidity of, <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lettuce, <a href='#Page_42'><b>42</b></a>.</span><br /> + + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Macaroni flour, <a href='#Page_148'><b>148</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mace, <a href='#Page_202'><b>202</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Malted foods, <a href='#Page_121'><b>121</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Maple sugar, <a href='#Page_62'><b>62</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Meals, number of, per day, <a href='#Page_248'><b>248</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Measuring, directions for, <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Meat broth, <a href='#Page_109'><b>109</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Meats, <a href='#Page_98'><b>98-120</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">general composition, <a href='#Page_98'><b>98</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">proteids of, <a href='#Page_99'><b>99</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">fat of, <a href='#Page_100'><b>100</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">water of, <a href='#Page_98'><b>98</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">texture of, <a href='#Page_107'><b>107</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">cooking of, influence of, on composition, <a href='#Page_108'><b>108</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">extractive materials, <a href='#Page_110'><b>110</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">smoked, <a href='#Page_111'><b>111</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">boric acid in, <a href='#Page_312'><b>312</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">saltpeter in, <a href='#Page_111'><b>111</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">canned, <a href='#Page_118'><b>118</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Melons, <a href='#Page_43'><b>43</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Microscope, use of, <a href='#Page_304'><b>304</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Milk, importance in dietary, <a href='#Page_80'><b>80</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">general composition, <a href='#Page_80'><b>80</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">souring of, <a href='#Page_86'><b>86</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">condensed, <a href='#Page_87'><b>87</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">digestibility, <a href='#Page_81'><b>81</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sanitary condition, <a href='#Page_82'><b>82</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">certified milk, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">pasteurized, <a href='#Page_84'><b>84</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">color of, <a href='#Page_85'><b>85</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">preservatives in, <a href='#Page_86'><b>86</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">goat's, <a href='#Page_88'><b>88</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">human, <a href='#Page_89'><b>89</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">adulteration of, <a href='#Page_89'><b>89</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">prepared, <a href='#Page_88'><b>88</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">formaldehyde in, <a href='#Page_310'><b>310</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mineral matter, <a href='#Page_4'><b>4</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">in ration, <a href='#Page_5'><b>5</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mineral waters, <a href='#Page_279'><b>279</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Miscellaneous compounds, <a href='#Page_16'><b>16</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mixed nitrogenous compounds, <a href='#Page_25'><b>25</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mixed non-nitrogenous compounds, <a href='#Page_16'><b>16</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Moisture content of foods, variations in, <a href='#Page_1'><b>1</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Moisture in foods, how determined, <a href='#Page_2'><b>2</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Molasses, <a href='#Page_65'><b>65</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mustard, <a href='#Page_199'><b>199</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">testing for turmeric, <a href='#Page_318'><b>318</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mutton, <a href='#Page_103'><b>103</b></a>.</span><br /> + + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nitrates in foods, <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nitrites in foods, <a href='#Page_111'><b>111</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nitrogen free extract, <a href='#Page_11'><b>11</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">defined, <a href='#Page_11'><b>11</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">composition, <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">how determined, <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">variable character of, <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nitrogenous compounds, <a href='#Page_17'><b>17</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">general composition, <a href='#Page_17'><b>17</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Non-nitrogenous compounds, classification of, <a href='#Page_7'><b>7</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nutmeg, <a href='#Page_202'><b>202</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nutrients, available, <a href='#Page_216'><b>216</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nutritive value of nitrogenous compounds, <a href='#Page_16'><b>16</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">starch, <a href='#Page_9'><b>9</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sugar, <a href='#Page_11'><b>11</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">nitrogen free extract, <a href='#Page_11'><b>11</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">fat, <a href='#Page_12'><b>12</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">protein, <a href='#Page_19'><b>19</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">amids, <a href='#Page_23'><b>23</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nuts, <a href='#Page_76'><b>76-79</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">use of, in dietary, <a href='#Page_78'><b>78</b></a>.</span><br /> + + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oat preparations, <a href='#Page_124'><b>124</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oleomargarine, <a href='#Page_92'><b>92</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">detecting, <a href='#Page_310'><b>310</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Olive oil, testing, <a href='#Page_308'><b>308</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Olives, <a href='#Page_54'><b>54</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Onions, <a href='#Page_42'><b>42</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oranges, <a href='#Page_50'><b>50</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Organic acids, <a href='#Page_15'><b>15</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">occurrence in foods, <a href='#Page_15'><b>15</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">influence on digestion, <a href='#Page_15'><b>15</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">use in plant economy, <a href='#Page_15'><b>15</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">production during germination, <a href='#Page_15'><b>15</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Organic compounds, classification of, <a href='#Page_7'><b>7</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Organic matter, <a href='#Page_6'><b>6</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oysters, <a href='#Page_114'><b>114</b></a>.</span><br /> + + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Palatability of food, <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Parsnips, <a href='#Page_40'><b>40</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peaches, <a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peanuts, <a href='#Page_76'><b>76</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">fat from, <a href='#Page_309'><b>309</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peas, <a href='#Page_74'><b>74</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">canned, <a href='#Page_75'><b>75</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pectose substances, <a href='#Page_11'><b>11</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pepper, <a href='#Page_198'><b>198</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Phosphate baking powders, <a href='#Page_189'><b>189</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Physical changes during cooking, <a href='#Page_30'><b>30</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Physiological properties of foods, <a href='#Page_228'><b>228</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pistachio, <a href='#Page_77'><b>77</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Plumbing, sanitary, <a href='#Page_297'><b>297</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Plums, <a href='#Page_53'><b>53</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pork, <a href='#Page_104'><b>104</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Potatoes, <a href='#Page_37'><b>37</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">composition, <a href='#Page_39'><b>39</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">digestibility, <a href='#Page_38'><b>38</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">nutritive value, <a href='#Page_38'><b>38</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sweet, <a href='#Page_39'><b>39</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Poultry, <a href='#Page_112'><b>112</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Predigested foods, <a href='#Page_130'><b>130</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Protein, composition of, <a href='#Page_19'><b>19</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">properties of, <a href='#Page_19'><b>19</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">combinations of, <a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">types of, <a href='#Page_20'><b>20</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">crude, <a href='#Page_21'><b>21</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">food value of, <a href='#Page_22'><b>22</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">amount of, in ration, <a href='#Page_246'><b>246</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Psychological factors in digestion, <a href='#Page_230'><b>230</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pumpkins, <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>.</span><br /> + + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rational feeding of man, <a href='#Page_261'><b>261-267</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rations, wide and narrow, <a href='#Page_245'><b>245</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">standard, <a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">object of, <a href='#Page_261'><b>261</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">examples of, <a href='#Page_264'><b>264</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">requisites of, <a href='#Page_266'><b>266</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">protein requirements of, <a href='#Page_246'><b>246</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">energy value of, <a href='#Page_246'><b>246</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">References, <a href='#Page_350'><b>350</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Refrigeration, <a href='#Page_292'><b>292</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Refuse, disposal of, <a href='#Page_294'><b>294</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Renovated butter, <a href='#Page_92'><b>92</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Review questions, <a href='#Page_323'><b>323</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rice preparations, <a href='#Page_129'><b>129</b></a>.</span><br /> + + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saccharine, <a href='#Page_70'><b>70</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saltpeter in meats, <a href='#Page_111'><b>111</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sanitary condition of vegetables, <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sanitary inspection of food, <a href='#Page_286'><b>286</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sausage, <a href='#Page_111'><b>111</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sodium chloride in foods, <a href='#Page_5'><b>5</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Soil, sanitary condition of, <a href='#Page_294'><b>294</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spices, <a href='#Page_212'><b>212</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spinach, <a href='#Page_42'><b>42</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Squash, <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Starch, <a href='#Page_9'><b>9</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">occurrence, <a href='#Page_9'><b>9</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">composition, <a href='#Page_9'><b>9</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">properties, <a href='#Page_10'><b>10</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">food value, <a href='#Page_10'><b>10</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">influence of heat on, <a href='#Page_10'><b>10</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Strawberries, <a href='#Page_52'><b>52</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sugar, defined, <a href='#Page_11'><b>11</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">beet, <a href='#Page_58'><b>58</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">cane, <a href='#Page_58'><b>58</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">commercial grades, <a href='#Page_58'><b>58</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">manufacture of, <a href='#Page_59'><b>59</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sulphur in, <a href='#Page_59'><b>59</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">digestibility of, <a href='#Page_59'><b>59</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">value of, in dietary, <a href='#Page_61'><b>61</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">adulteration of, <a href='#Page_63'><b>63</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">maple, <a href='#Page_62'><b>62</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">dextrose, <a href='#Page_64'><b>64</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sunlight as a disinfectant, <a href='#Page_290'><b>290</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sweet potatoes, <a href='#Page_39'><b>39</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Syrups, <a href='#Page_66'><b>66</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sorghum, <a href='#Page_66'><b>66</b></a>.</span><br /> + + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tea, <a href='#Page_203'><b>203-206</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">black, <a href='#Page_203'><b>203</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">green, <a href='#Page_204'><b>204</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">composition of, <a href='#Page_214'><b>214</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">judging of, <a href='#Page_205'><b>205</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">adulteration of, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">physiological properties of, <a href='#Page_206'><b>206</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">examination of leaves, <a href='#Page_318'><b>318</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Toast, <a href='#Page_184'><b>184</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tomatoes, <a href='#Page_43'><b>43</b></a>.</span><br /> + + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Underfed families, <a href='#Page_251'><b>251</b></a>.</span><br /> + + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vanilla extract, testing, <a href='#Page_307'><b>307</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Veal, <a href='#Page_102'><b>102</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vegetable foods, <a href='#Page_222'><b>222</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vegetables, <a href='#Page_37'><b>37-47</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">edible portion, <a href='#Page_47'><b>47</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">canned, <a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sanitary condition of, <a href='#Page_45'><b>45</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">digestibility of, <a href='#Page_222'><b>222</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vinegar, <a href='#Page_193'><b>193-197</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">preparation of, <a href='#Page_193'><b>193</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">different kinds of, <a href='#Page_195'><b>195</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">adulteration of, <a href='#Page_196'><b>196</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">solids, <a href='#Page_316'><b>316</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">specific gravity, <a href='#Page_317'><b>317</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">acidity, <a href='#Page_317'><b>317</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Volatile matter, <a href='#Page_6'><b>6</b></a>.</span><br /> + + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Water, drinking, <a href='#Page_268'><b>268-283</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">importance, <a href='#Page_268'><b>268</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">impurities in, <a href='#Page_269'><b>269</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">mineral impurities, <a href='#Page_270'><b>270</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">organic impurities, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">purification of, <a href='#Page_272'><b>272-278</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">analysis, <a href='#Page_271'><b>271</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">and typhoid fever, <a href='#Page_273'><b>273</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">improvement of, <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">boiling of, <a href='#Page_276'><b>276</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">filtration of, <a href='#Page_277'><b>277</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">distillation of, <a href='#Page_278'><b>278</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">materials for softening water, <a href='#Page_280'><b>280</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">testing purity of, <a href='#Page_320'><b>320</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Water in foods, <a href='#Page_1'><b>1</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">how determined, <a href='#Page_1'><b>1</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Water supply, economic value, <a href='#Page_282'><b>282</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Waters, mineral, <a href='#Page_279'><b>279</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Weighing, directions for, <a href='#Page_302'><b>302</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wheat cereal preparations, <a href='#Page_126'><b>126</b></a>.</span><br /> + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wheat flour, <a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">spring and winter wheat flour, <a href='#Page_133'><b>133</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">starchy and glutenous, <a href='#Page_135'><b>135</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">composition of, <a href='#Page_136'><b>136</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">process of milling, <a href='#Page_136'><b>136-140</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">patent, <a href='#Page_142'><b>142</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">grades of, <a href='#Page_142'><b>142</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">composition of, <a href='#Page_143'><b>143</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ash content, <a href='#Page_145'><b>145</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">graham, <a href='#Page_145'><b>145</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">entire wheat, <a href='#Page_145'><b>145</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">by-products, <a href='#Page_146'><b>146</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">aging and curing, <a href='#Page_147'><b>147</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">macaroni, <a href='#Page_148'><b>148</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">color, <a href='#Page_148'><b>148</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">granulation, <a href='#Page_149'><b>149</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">capacity to absorb water, <a href='#Page_150'><b>150</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">gluten, properties of, <a href='#Page_151'><b>151</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">unsoundness of, <a href='#Page_152'><b>152</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">baking tests, <a href='#Page_153'><b>153</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">bleaching of, <a href='#Page_155'><b>155</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">adulteration of, <a href='#Page_156'><b>156</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">nutritive value of, <a href='#Page_157'><b>157</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">water in, <a href='#Page_304'><b>304</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ash in, <a href='#Page_305'><b>305</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">acidity of, <a href='#Page_313'><b>313</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">moist and dry gluten, <a href='#Page_314'><b>314</b></a>.</span><br /> + + +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yeast, action of, <a href='#Page_161'><b>161</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">compressed, <a href='#Page_162'><b>162</b></a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">dry, <a href='#Page_163'><b>163</b></a>.</span><br /> +</p> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="By_HARRY_SNYDER_BS" id="By_HARRY_SNYDER_BS"></a><span class="smcap">By</span> HARRY SNYDER, B.S.</h2> + +<blockquote><h4>Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, University of Minnesota, and +Chemist of the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station</h4></blockquote> + +<h3><b>The Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life</b></h3> + +<p class='center'><i>Illustrated. Cloth. 12mo. 406 pages. $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35</i></p> + +<p>"The language is, as it should be, plain and simple, free from all +needless technicality, and the story thus told is of absorbing interest +to every one, man or woman, boy or girl, who takes an intelligent +interest in farm life."—<i>The New England Farmer.</i></p> + +<p>"Although the book is highly technical, it is put in popular form and +made comprehensible from the standpoint of the farmer; it deals largely +with those questions which arise in his experience, and will prove an +invaluable aid in countless directions."—<i>The Farmer's Voice.</i></p> + + +<h3><b>Dairy Chemistry</b></h3> + +<p class='center'><i>Illustrated, 190 pages, $1.00 net; by mail, $1.10</i></p> + +<p>"The book is a valuable one which any dairy farmer, or, indeed, any one +handling stock, may read with profit."—<i>Rural New Yorker.</i></p> + + +<h3><b>Soils and Fertilizers</b></h3> + +<p class='center'><i>Third Edition. Illustrated. $1.25 net; by mail, $1.38</i></p> + +<p>A book which presents in a concise form the principles of soil fertility +and discusses all of the topics relating to soils as outlined by the +Committee on Methods of Teaching Agriculture. It contains 350 pages, +with illustrations, and treats of a great variety of subjects, such as +Physical Properties of Soils; Geological Formation, etc.; Nitrogen of +the Soil and Air; Farm Manures; Commercial Fertilizers, several +chapters; Rotation of Crops; Preparation of Soil for Crops, etc.</p> + + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><b>BOOKS ON AGRICULTURE</b></h2> + + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left'><b>ON SELECTION OF LAND, Etc.</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Thomas F. Hunt's How to Choose a Farm</td><td align='right'>$1 75 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>E. W. Hilgard's Soils: Their Formation and Relations to Climate and Plant Growth</td><td align='right'>4 00 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Isaac P. Roberts's The Farmstead</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><b>ON TILLAGE, Etc.</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>F. H. King's The Soil</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Isaac P. Roberts's The Fertility of the Land</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Elwood Mead's Irrigation Institutions</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>F. H. King's Irrigation and Drainage</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>William E. Smythe's The Conquest of Arid America</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Edward B. Voorhees's Fertilizers</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Edward B. Voorhees's Forage Crops</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>H. Snyder's Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>H. Snyder's Soil and Fertilizers. Third edition</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's Principles of Agriculture</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>W. C. Welborn's Elements of Agriculture, Southern and Western</td><td align='right'>75 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>J. F. Duggar's Agriculture for Southern Schools</td><td align='right'>75 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>G. F. Warren's Elements of Agriculture</td><td align='right'>1 10 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>T. L. Lyon and E. O. Fippin's The Principles of Soil Management</td><td align='right'>1 75 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hilgard & Osterhout's Agriculture for Schools on the Pacific Slope</td><td align='right'>1 00 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>J. A. Widtsoe's Dry Farming</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><b>ON GARDEN-MAKING</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's Manual of Gardening</td><td align='right'>2 00 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's Vegetable-Gardening</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's Horticulturist's Rule Book</td><td align='right'>75 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's Forcing Book</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>A. French's How to Grow Vegetables</td><td align='right'>1 75 net</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><b>ON FRUIT-GROWING, Etc.</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's Nursery Book</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's Fruit-Growing</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's The Pruning Book</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>F. W. Card's Bush Fruits</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>J. T. Bealby's Fruit Ranching in British Columbia</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><b>ON THE CARE OF LIVE STOCK</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>D. E. Lyon's How to Keep Bees for Profit</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Nelson S. Mayo's The Diseases of Animals</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>W. H. Jordan's The Feeding of Animals</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I. P. Roberts's The Horse</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>George C. Watson's Farm Poultry</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>C. S. Valentine's How to Keep Hens for Profit</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>O. Kellner's The Scientific Feeding of Animals (trans.)</td><td align='right'>1 90 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>M. H. Reynolds's Veterinary Studies for Agricultural Students</td><td align='right'>1 75 net<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><b>ON DAIRY WORK</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Henry H. Wing's Milk and its Products</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>C. M. Aikman's Milk</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Harry Snyder's Dairy Chemistry</td><td align='right'>1 00 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>W. D. Frost's Laboratory Guide in Elementary Bacteriology</td><td align='right'>1 60 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I. P. Sheldon's The Farm and the Dairy</td><td align='right'>1 00 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Chr. Barthel's Methods Used in the Examination of Milk and Dairy Products</td><td align='right'>1 90 net</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><b>ON PLANT DISEASES, Etc.</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>George Massee's Diseases of Cultivated Plants and Trees</td><td align='right'>2 25 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>J. G. Lipman's Bacteria in Relation to Country Life</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>E. C. Lodeman's The Spraying of Plants</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>H. M. Ward's Disease in Plants (English)</td><td align='right'>1 60 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>A. S. Packard's A Text-book on Entomology</td><td align='right'>4 50 net</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><b>ON PRODUCTION OF NEW PLANTS</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's Plant-Breeding</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's The Survival of the Unlike</td><td align='right'>2 00 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's The Evolution of Our Native Fruits</td><td align='right'>2 00 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>W. S. Harwood's New Creations in Plant Life</td><td align='right'>1 75 net</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><b>ON ECONOMICS AND ORGANIZATION</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>J. B. Green's Law for the American Farmer</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>J. McLennan's Manual of Practical Farming</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's The State and the Farmer</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Henry C. Taylor's Agricultural Economics</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>I. P. Roberts's The Farmer's Business Handbook</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>George T. Fairchild's Rural Wealth and Welfare</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>S. E. Sparling's Business Organization</td><td align='right'>1 25 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>In the Citizen's Library. Includes a chapter on Farming</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Kate V. St. Maur's A Self-supporting Home</td><td align='right'>1 75 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Kate V. St. Maur's The Earth's Bounty.</td><td align='right'>1 75 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>G. F. Warren and K. C. Livermore's Exercises in Farm Management</td><td align='right'>80 net</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>H. N. Ogden's Rural Hygiene</td><td align='right'>1 50 net</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<div class='centered'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><b>ON EVERYTHING AGRICULTURAL</b></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>L. H. Bailey's Cyclopedia of American Agriculture:</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vol. I. Farms, Climates, and Soils.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vol. II. Farm Crops.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vol. III. Farm Animals.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vol. IV. The Farm and the Community.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p class='center'>Complete in four royal 8vo volumes, with over 2000 illustrations.<br /> +Price of sets: cloth, $20 net; half morocco, $32 net.</p> + + +<p class='center'><i>For further information as to any of the above, address the +publishers.</i></p> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>Cyclopedia of American Agriculture</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Edited by</span> L. H. BAILEY</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class='center'>Of Cornell University, Editor of "Cyclopedia of American +Horticulture," Author of "Plant Breeding," "Principles of +Agriculture," etc.</p></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><h4>WITH 100 FULL-PAGE PLATES AND MORE THAN 2000 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE +TEXT—FOUR VOLUMES—THE SET: CLOTH, $20 NET—HALF MOROCCO, $32 +NET—CARRIAGE EXTRA</h4></div> + + +<p>Volume I—<span class="smcap">Farms</span></p> + +<blockquote><p>The Agricultural Regions—The Projecting of a Farm—The Soil +Environment—The Atmosphere Environment.</p></blockquote> + +<p>Volume II—<span class="smcap">Crops</span></p> + +<blockquote><p>The Plant and Its Relations—The Manufacture of Crop Products—North +American Field Crops.</p></blockquote> + +<p>Volume III—<span class="smcap">Animals</span></p> + +<blockquote><p>The Animal and Its Relations—The Manufacture of Animal Products—North +American Farm Animals.</p></blockquote> + +<p>Volume IV—<span class="smcap">The Farm and the Community</span></p> + +<blockquote><p>Economics—Social Questions—Organizations—History—Literature, etc.</p> + +<p>"Indispensable to public and reference libraries ... readily +comprehensible to any person of average education."—<i>The Nation.</i></p> + +<p>"The completest existing thesaurus of up-to-date facts and opinions on +modern agricultural methods. 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